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Mars Hill Church was a Christian megachurch, founded by Mark Driscoll, Lief Moi, and Mike Gunn. It was a multi-site church based in Seattle, Washington and grew from a home Bible study to 15 locations in 4 U.S. states. Services were offered at its 15 locations; the church also podcast content of weekend services, and of conferences, on the Internet with more than 260,000 sermon views online every week. In 2013, Mars Hill had a membership of 6,489 and average weekly attendance of 12,329. Following controversy in 2014 involving founding pastor Mark Driscoll, attendance dropped to 8,0009,000 people per week. At the end of September, 2014, an investigation by the church elders found "bullying" and "patterns of persistent sinful behavior" by Driscoll. The church elders crafted a "restoration" plan to help Driscoll and save the church. Instead, Driscoll declined the restoration plan and resigned. On October 31, 2014, lead pastor Dave Bruskas announced plans to dissolve the church's 13 remaining campuses into autonomous entities, with the option of continuing, merging with other congregations, or disbanding, effective January 1, 2015. The Mars Hill network dissolved on January 1, 2015. History Early years Mars Hill Church was founded in spring 1996 by Mark Driscoll, Lief Moi and Mike Gunn. The church started at the rental house of Driscoll and his wife Grace with the blessing of Antioch Bible Church and the exodus of about 30 of its students. They outgrew the apartment and started meeting in the youth rooms of another church. The church had its first official service October 1996, with 160 people attending; attendance quickly fell to around 60 because of discussions about the visions and mission of the church. In the spring of 1997, the church expanded to two evening services. The transition to two different congregations resulted in some anxiety and stir by members who didn't want the church to grow bigger, but it resulted in growing attendance. Later that same year Mark Driscoll was invited to speak at a pastors' conference in California. Driscoll's speech influenced the emerging church movement, and changed the focus from reaching Generation X to reaching the postmodern world. The speech resulted in media coverage of Mars Hill Church and Mark Driscoll, and put Driscoll in connection with Leadership Network. The church continued growing. Inspired by Alan Roxburgh, Driscoll settled on an emerging and missional ecclesiology, and a complementarian view on women in ministry. The church installed the first team of elders and they took over much of the work teaching classes, counseling and training new leaders. Furthermore, the church started a course for new members, called the Gospel Class, to ensure that members were focused on the mission of the church and that they agreed with the central doctrinal statements of the church. The class had been running every quarter since. In the fall of 1999 the church had grown to 350 in attendance every week and was able to pay Driscoll full-time. Prior to 1999, Driscoll operated as an unpaid pastor for three years. Multisite church In 2003, Mars Hill Church moved into a renovated hardware store in the Ballard neighborhood of Seattle. In 2006, in an effort to reduce the overcrowding at its services, Mars Hill opened its first satellite campus in Shoreline. This change also marked their transition to a multi-site church, using video sermons and other multimedia improvements to the church's web site to connect the campuses. Later in 2006 Mars Hill acquired two new properties in West Seattle and Wedgwood, which became their West Seattle and Lake City campuses. Since then, new Mars Hill locations were added using a multi-campus "meta-church" structure, connecting Driscoll's sermons via high-definition video to the remote campuses during weekly worship services. This format allowed each location to retain local leadership and ministries while under the leadership of the main campus. A fourth and fifth Mars Hill location opened in 2007, and in 2008 a sixth location was added in downtown Seattle. A seventh campus, in Olympia, Washington, opened in Fall 2008 and an eighth campus, the first outside of Washington state, opened in Albuquerque, New Mexico in Fall 2009. The church launched four new churches on January 15 in Portland (Oregon), Rainier Valley (Seattle), Sammamish (near Seattle), and Orange County (California), the same day as the first sermon in the "Real Marriage" sermon series, based on Mark and Grace Driscoll's book, Real Marriage. On October 16, "black-clad demonstrators" gathered in front of the Mars Hill Church in Southeast Portland to "protest the church's stance on homosexuality." Approximately 20 protesters, "some of whom wore kerchiefs to cover their faces, shouted profanities at adults and children," and briefly blocked the entrance of the church. Mars Hill Church Portland lead pastor Tim Smith expressed disagreement with the conduct of the protesters, but expressed defense of their right to free speech. In 2008, the church launched an online community-building network, called The City, to improve communication on all levels in the church. The City was purchased by the Christian publishing brand, Zondervan, before Christmas 2008. Growth and influence In 2013, The Church Guide released a list of the "Top Churches to Watch in America". The link ranked churches according to how much churches could learn from the ranked churches on particular topics. They ranked Mars Hill Church as #3 to learn from about church growth, #3 for innovation, #2 for church planting, and #4 overall. The list considered data from Outreach magazine's annual lists from 2004–2012 and other sources. In 2006, Mars Hill Church claimed $31,110,000 in assets. Acts 29 Church Planting Network Acts 29 Church Planting Network is a separate 501(c)(3) from Mars Hill Church but was founded by Mars Hill in 2001. It is an interdenominational network of pastors and churches from around the world whose focus is to assess and equip qualified leaders, plant new churches, and rejuvenate declining churches. The current president of Acts 29 is Matt Chandler. The offices and leadership of Acts 29 moved from Mars Hill Church in Seattle to The Village Church in Texas in March 2012. In August 2014, Acts 29 removed Mark Driscoll and Mars Hill Church from the network. Church leadership controversies Dealing with dissent As a result of the large growth of the church, its bylaws were rewritten more than once. The outcome of this process led to changes in leadership organization in November 2007. The new bylaws installed lead pastor Jamie Munson, preaching pastor Mark Driscoll, and pastors Scott Thomas and Tim Beltz as "executive pastors" who led the objectives of the church "under the authority of the Board of Directors," on which the executive pastors also served as directors. This change precipitated the firing of two pastors. Mars Hill leaders said in forum postings that one fired pastor was removed, in part, for "displaying an unhealthy distrust in the senior leadership." They said the other was removed for "disregarding the accepted elder protocol for the bylaw deliberation period" and "verbally attacking the lead pastor" — charges the fired pastor denied, the leaders added. Church leadership instructed members of the congregation to shun the two former elders as unrepentant. Former Mars Hill Church elders and members have criticized the church for its harshness in dealing with dissent within its leadership. Additionally, members who have openly questioned or dissented with Mars Hill leaders have been asked to leave the church. This policy of church discipline was discussed during a lecture given on April 20, 2009 by Mark Driscoll for The Gospel Coalition. In early 2012, the church once again became a source of controversy over shunning and disciplinary proceedings when a young man under discipline released documents from his disciplinary contract to blogger and author Mathew Paul Turner. The documents included a discipline contract and an email from church leaders to the congregation directing them to shun him. ResultSource contract for the Real Marriage Book On March 5, 2014, evangelical magazine World published an article claiming that Mars Hill Church paid a $25,000 fee to marketing firm ResultSource, to manipulate sales numbers of Mark Driscoll's book Real Marriage and thereby attain a place on the New York Times bestseller list. ResultSource accomplished this objective—the book briefly reached #1 in the "Advice How-to" category—by buying 11,000 copies of the book, using $210,000 of Mars Hill Church's money, from a variety of online sources and payment methods. The Evangelical Council for Financial Accountability stated that buying a place on bestseller lists violates its ethical standards, but that because this happened before Mars Hill Church joined they were unable to take action. Christianity Today described the arrangement as "ethically questionable", and Carl Trueman of religion journal First Things decried the revelation, writing, "the overall picture is one of disaster" and "[it] has raised questions not simply about personal integrity but also the very culture of American Evangelicalism." Driscoll had used the apparent success of Real Marriage to negotiate a multi-book deal with Christian publisher Tyndale House. The first book under Driscoll's "Resurgence" imprint was A Call to Resurgence, with plans to publish five to seven books per year. Tyndale House defended Driscoll's alleged plagiarism in A Call to Resurgence, and affirmed their continuing relationship with Driscoll. Mars Hill Church responded with a statement, writing, "while not uncommon or illegal, this unwise strategy is not one we had used before or since, and not one we will use again." Mars Hill also claimed that the "true cost" of the effort was less than "what has been reported." On March 17, 2014, Driscoll posted an open letter of apology in response to this controversy and others, writing that he will no longer claim to be a New York Times bestselling author, and that he now sees the ResultSource marketing campaign as "manipulating a book sales reporting system, which is wrong." He wrote that he was giving up his status as a "celebrity pastor", that he considered his "angry young prophet" days to be over, and that he was reducing his public presence in speaking engagements and on social media. On March 28, 2015, Sutton Turner, a former elder of the church who signed the Result Source contract, explained that he disapproved of the marketing plan to use Result Source, but the decision to use it had already been made before he began work at Mars Hill, so he signed the contract anyway. Turner revealed that Driscoll had not been involved in initiating nor signing the contract with Result Source. Turner stated that the business relationship with the marketing firm was initiated by a pastor who resigned shortly thereafter, and remaining church leaders disagreed over the completion of the contract, stating that it would reflect badly on the church and Mark Driscoll. Plagiarism allegations On November 21, 2013, radio host Janet Mefferd accused Driscoll of plagiarism. Mefferd claimed that 14 pages of Driscoll's book A Call to Resurgence quoted "extensively and without citation" from Peter Jones' 1999 book, Gospel Truth/Pagan Lies: Can You Tell the Difference? and Jones' 2010 book One or Two: Seeing a World of Difference. Driscoll's publisher Tyndale House stated that they performed a "thorough in-house review" and disagreed that this was a case of plagiarism. Neil Holdway, a plagiarism expert with the American Copy Editors Society, concluded that "Driscoll had not adequately indicated the extent to which he had borrowed Jones' work." More allegations of plagiarism in other Driscoll works soon surfaced, including passages from a sermon series companion text, Trial: 8 Witnesses From 1&2 Peter, which were copied verbatim from passages written by David Wheaton in the New Bible Commentary. InterVarsity Press, publisher of the New Bible Commentary, stated that Driscoll failed to properly provide quotation or attribution for the material. The relevant passages were posted online. The allegations soon expanded to include claims that Driscoll used ghostwriters and researchers without giving them proper attribution. As of December 2013, neither Peter Jones, D.A. Carson, nor Janet Mefferd had made any further statements pertaining the case. Syndicator Salem Radio subsequently removed both the broadcast interview with Driscoll and associated materials from Mefferd's program website and apologized for raising the matter in a broadcast interview. This attempt to shut down the story provoked the resignation of Mefferd's producer, Ingrid Schlueter. In explaining her resignation, Schlueter wrote the following regarding herself and Mefferd: Driscoll apologized for "mistakes" related to the allegations in a statement released to The Christian Post on December 18, 2013. Mefferd eventually left Salem Radio in April 2015. Mars Hill Global Fund In June 2014 an online petition asked Sutton Turner of Mars Hill Church and Dan Busby of the Evangelical Council for Financial Accountability where the money raised through Mars Hill Global Fund actually went. The church reported that "Mars Hill Church began to use the term 'Global Fund' to solicit gifts restricted for 'capital development and expansion'. As communicated in the Global Newsletter on July 7, 2009, the Global Fund was used to raise resources for the following purposes: 'start new Mars Hill campuses, plant new Acts 29 churches, and equip leaders at the Resurgence Training Center'. In the 2009-2011 time frame, over 80% of the funds given to the "Global Fund" went to Acts 29 church planting, with additional funds used for the Resurgence Training Center and church planting in India." Additionally, "subsequent to June 1, 2012, in early July 2014, Mars Hill Church sent approximately 6,000 letters and 3,765 emails to individuals who had made gifts as a global donor subsequent to June 1, 2012. In these communications, Mars Hill Church offered to redirect the donor's gifts, made as a global donor during this time period, specifically for planting churches in Ethiopia or India." Former leaders and members protest Mark Driscoll (2014) Michael Paulson, writing for The New York Times, wrote that while Driscoll had endured criticism from the American political left and liberal Christianity for many years, recent years leading up to and including 2014 saw the rise of criticism from conservative Christians, including Driscoll's former "allies and supporters." According to the Seattle Times, plagiarism accusations against Driscoll made by Janet Mefferd were a "crucial turning point" that drew outside interest into Mars Hill's internal affairs, and prompted inquiries from new critics about the church and how it handled its finances. After hearing of Mefferd's plagiarism accusations, evangelical Christian and Grove City College psychology professor Warren Throckmorton took interest and became a prominent critic of Driscoll and Mars Hill, documenting other examples of perceived plagiarism, abuse reported by former Mars Hill members, and questionable uses of church finances. "Repentant Pastors" On March 29, 2014, four former Mars Hill elders (Kyle Firstenberg, Dave Kraft, Scott Mitchell, and co-founder Lief Moi) created a blog titled "Repentant Pastor" and posted online "confessions and apologies" related to their leadership roles in Mars Hill. In a joint statement, they wrote, "we recognize and confess that Mars Hill has hurt many people within the Mars Hill community, as well as those outside the community." Salon summarized the statements, writing that the former leaders emphasized their failures to "rein Driscoll in" and their complicity with Driscoll's "autocratic" management style. Firstenberg wrote that while the church appeared to flourish, employees lived in constant stress, and "success was to be attained regardless of human and moral cost." Megachurch pastors come to Driscoll's defense Several prominent pastors publicly defended Driscoll from allegations made against him. Those pastors included mega-church pastor Rick Warren, author of The Purpose Driven Life, and Gateway Church's founding pastor Robert Morris. At the 2014 Gateway Conference, Morris told the audience that he counseled Mark Driscoll directly, and that media reports were largely untrue. Morris cited recent media reports of lead pastor Steven Furtick of Elevation Church as experiencing similar coverage. At the conference, Mark Driscoll was invited up to the stage where he told the audience that he received death threats and that his children allegedly had rocks thrown at them. Driscoll stated that "I'm just trying to figure out how to be a good pastor to my family first." Driscoll addresses former members' complaints In a recorded message shown to church members on July 27, 2014, Driscoll discussed the various controversies of 2014. He said that he could "not address some members' discontent ... because the complaints were anonymous." According to Rob Smith, former program director at the church, the anonymity assertion "really touched a nerve" with former members. In response, dissenters organized a Facebook group called "Dear Pastor Mark & Mars Hill: We Are Not Anonymous." The following Sunday, "dozens of demonstrators" organized and picketed the Mars Hill Church Bellevue campus (where Driscoll preached live), calling for Driscoll's resignation. Demonstrators carried placards reading "We Are Not Anonymous" and "Question Mark", and accused Driscoll of bullying, misogyny, inadequate transparency in church finances, and harsh discipline of members. Driscoll was away for his annual summer vacation. A church elder, Anthony Iannicielo, responded that the criticism of Driscoll and Mars Hill "goes with the territory" of running a large church with a long history. In a pre-recorded message, Driscoll said that he had been deliberately "rather silent" during the criticism, that he found it "a little overwhelming and a bit confusing", and that he had no intention of resigning. Removal from Acts 29 Network On August 8, 2014, the board of Acts 29 Network removed both Driscoll and Mars Hill Church from membership. Chairman Matt Chandler wrote, "it is our conviction that the nature of the accusations against Mark, most of which have been confirmed by him, make it untenable and unhelpful to keep Mark [Driscoll] and Mars Hill [Church] in our network." The board of directors of Acts 29 expressed gratitude for Driscoll's work with the Network as co-founder and former President, but declared his recent actions "ungodly and disqualifying behavior." To Driscoll, they wrote, "our board and network have been the recipients of ... dozens of fires directly linked to you ... we are naturally associated with you and feel that this association discredits the network and is a major distraction." They further advised him to "step down from ministry for an extended time and seek help." Acts 29 had attempted to "lean on" the Mars Hill's Board of Advisors and Accountability (BOAA) to discipline Driscoll, but lost confidence in the board. The BOAA had been set up by Driscoll as his accountability board, rather than the elders of the church. (Members of the BOAA were for the most part professional clergy and businessmen who were not members of the church and hand picked by Driscoll.) The previous month, evangelical leaders and Acts 29 associates Paul Tripp and James MacDonald resigned from the BOAA. Religion correspondent Sarah Pulliam Bailey described Acts 29's decision as "unusual" since "ministries usually leave matters of church discipline up to local churches." BOAA Chairman Michael Van Skaik responded, "Men, I told the lead pastors ... that we are making real progress in addressing the serious reconciliation and unhealthy culture issues that have been part of Mars Hill Church for way too long. And we are. ... " He further added that Acts 29 leaders did not contact Mars Hill before acting, and that Driscoll had "changed his ways", and described Acts 29's actions as "divisive." Van Skaik also addressed the formal charges brought against Driscoll under the Mars Hill bylaws, writing "the formal charges that were filed were serious, were taken seriously, and were not dismissed by the board lightly." Driscoll's hiatus from ministry On August 24, 2014, Driscoll announced he would take a six-week "extended focus break" from his pastorship while charges against him were investigated. Later that week, a letter signed by nine current Mars Hill pastors which severely criticized Driscoll was leaked to the public. The letter, written days before Driscoll stepped down, urged him to step down from all aspects of ministry. It included a quote from "internationally recognized" author, pastor and former BOAA member Paul Tripp saying, "This is without a doubt, the most abusive, coercive ministry culture I've ever been involved with." One of the pastors who signed the letter was fired five days later for "rebellion against the church." By September 9, eight of the nine pastors who signed the letter had resigned or been terminated, including worship director Dustin Kensrue. The last of the nine pastors was demoted from pastor to lay elder. Staff layoffs and closure of church branches On September 7, 2014 (the second week of Driscoll's hiatus), Mars Hill officials, citing "financial pressures in the wake of recent negative media attention", announced layoffs and closures of a few church branches. Weekly attendance at the start of the year for all branches was 12,000–13,000, but had dropped to 8,000–9,000. Donations also had a "steep decline." In response, the church planned to lay off "30 to 40 percent" of their 100 paid staff members, and close their downtown Seattle branch and University District branch, consolidating both congregations into the Ballard location. Two other branches outside Washington state were marked for possible closure if their finances did not improve. Mars Hill also announced the resignation of Sutton Turner, executive elder since 2011, effective at the end of September 2014. Driscoll's resignation In the fall of 2014, a group of elders released a report on an investigation into accusations of bullying and intimidating behavior by Driscoll made by 21 former church elders. The investigation involved "some 1,000 hours of research, interviewing more than 50 people and preparing 200 pages of information." The report concluded that Driscoll had never been charged with "immorality, illegality or heresy," and considered "some of the accusations against Pastor Mark to be altogether unfair or untrue." Additionally, the report found that many of the "other charges had previously been addressed by Pastor Mark, privately and publicly. Indeed, he had publicly confessed and apologized for a number of the charges against him, some of which occurred as long as 14 years ago." However, elders did find "bullying" and "patterns of persistent sinful behavior" by Driscoll. The Board also concluded that Driscoll had "been guilty of arrogance, responding to conflict with a quick temper and harsh speech, and leading the staff and elders in a domineering manner", but was not charged with anything immoral or illegal. Driscoll maintained that he had not disqualified himself from ministry. Church leadership crafted a "restoration" plan to help Driscoll and save the church. Instead, Driscoll declined the restoration plan and resigned on October 14, 2014, citing concerns for his health and safety. His resignation came as a "surprise" to the church's Board of Overseers, who said in a statement that they had not asked Driscoll for his resignation. In 2015, after the disbanding of Mars Hill, an executive elder of the church stated that "There has been much talk about the abusive and coercive culture at Mars Hill. What many people do not realize is that some of the very people who were calling for an end to this type of abuse were using abusive tactics." The executive elder stated that he was blackmailed by a staff who asked for more severance pay. He also stated that "former Mars Hill elders were working to file formal charges against me also. I was told that a former lead pastor was approached to lead a group of people who hoped to force my resignation so that I 'could not help Pastor Mark Driscoll'." Pastor and theologian John Piper referred to the controversies and subsequent church closure as a "Satanic victory." It was a defeat for the gospel, it was a defeat for Mark [Driscoll], it was a defeat for evangelicalism, for Reformed Theology, for complementarianism ... It was a colossal Satanic victory.Driscoll's resignation is thoroughly investigated in the podcast The Rise and Fall of Mars Hill. Closing On October 31, 2014, lead pastor Dave Bruskas announced plans to dissolve the church's 13 remaining campuses into autonomous entities, with the option of continuing, merging with other congregations, or disbanding, effective January 1, 2015. On December 28, 2014, Rick Warren gave the final Sunday sermon at Mars Hill, encouraging its remaining members to "give grace" to its leaders, "You need to be grateful for all the ways that God used Mars Hill Church. Be grateful for all the ways God used Mark Driscoll." Driscoll had previously delivered a sermon at Saddleback Church the weekend Rick Warren grieved the loss of his son. The Mars Hill Church network officially disbanded Thursday, January 1, 2015. Eleven of the Mars Hill Churches became independent churches and the remaining churches were dissolved. Prior to the churches disbanding, Mars Hill transferred the majority of its content from its website to where the church's sermons remain. The Mars Hill website now contains a history of the church and a church directory of the previous Mars Hill churches locations with their new names and websites. Prior to disbanding on January 1, 2015, Mars Hill Church met at twelve locations, mostly in Seattle and Washington state, with three out of state locations in New Mexico, California, and Oregon. A few locations were closed or consolidated on October 12, 2014. After January 1, 2015, each church location dissolved into an independent congregation. The remaining members of Mars Hill Ballard reorganized as Cross and Crown Church Seattle, led by former Mars Hill Downtown pastor Matthias Haeusel at Mars Hill's former Ballard location. In February 2016, a federal racketeering lawsuit was filed by former Mars Hill members against both Mars Hill and Driscoll. That lawsuit was dismissed in November 2016 after the plaintiffs said they did not have the money to continue the suit. The plaintiffs' online fundraising campaign on GoFundMe had raised $34,660, which was approximately half of its goal. References Further reading Pastor Dude's Mega-Church Draws Crowds - ABC Nightline story about Mars Hill Church Tempers Flare at Debate on the Devil - ABC Nightline debate at Mars Hill Church on the Devil External links Emerging church movement Evangelical churches in Washington (state) Former megachurches Churches in Seattle Christian organizations established in 1996 Religious organizations disestablished in 2015

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Joel Chandler Harris (December 9, 1848 – July 3, 1908) was an American journalist, fiction writer, and folklorist best known for his collection of Uncle Remus stories. Born in Eatonton, Georgia, where he served as an apprentice on a plantation during his teenage years, Harris spent most of his adult life in Atlanta working as an associate editor at The Atlanta Constitution. Harris led two professional lives: as the editor and journalist known as Joe Harris, he supported a vision of the New South with the editor Henry W. Grady (1880–1889), which stressed regional and racial reconciliation after the Reconstruction era. As Joel Chandler Harris, fiction writer and folklorist, he wrote many 'Brer Rabbit' stories from the African-American oral tradition. Life Education: 1848–1862 Joel Chandler Harris was born in Eatonton, Georgia in 1848 to Mary Ann Harris, an Irish immigrant. His father, whose identity remains unknown, abandoned Mary Ann and the infant shortly after his birth. The parents had never married; the boy was named Joel after his mother's attending physician, Dr. Joel Branham. Chandler was the name of his mother's uncle. Harris remained self-conscious of his illegitimate birth throughout his life. A prominent physician, Dr. Andrew Reid, gave the Harris family a small cottage to use behind his mansion. Mary Harris worked as a seamstress and helped neighbors with their gardening to support herself and her son. She was an avid reader and instilled in her son a love of language: "My desire to write—to give expression to my thoughts—grew out of hearing my mother read The Vicar of Wakefield." Dr. Reid also paid for Harris' school tuition for several years. In 1856, Joe Harris briefly attended Kate Davidson's School for Boys and Girls, but transferred to Eatonton School for Boys later that year. He had an undistinguished academic record and a habit of truancy. Harris excelled in reading and writing, but was mostly known for his pranks, mischief, and sense of humor. Practical jokes helped Harris cloak his shyness and insecurities about his red hair, Irish ancestry, and illegitimacy, leading to both trouble and a reputation as a leader among the older boys. Turnwold Plantation: 1862–1866 At the age of 14, Harris quit school to work. In March 1862, Joseph Addison Turner, owner of Turnwold Plantation nine miles east of Eatonton, hired Harris to work as a printer's devil for his newspaper The Countryman. Harris worked for clothing, room, and board. The newspaper reached subscribers throughout the Confederacy during the American Civil War; it was considered one of the larger newspapers in the South, with a circulation of about 2,000. Harris learned to set type for the paper, and Turner allowed him to publish his own poems, book reviews, and humorous paragraphs. Turner's instruction and technical expertise exerted a profound influence on Harris. During his four-year tenure at Turnwold Plantation, Joel Harris consumed the literature in Turner's library. He had access to Chaucer, Dickens, Sir Thomas Browne, Arabian Nights, Shakespeare, Milton, Swift, Thackeray, and Edgar Allan Poe. Turner, a fiercely independent Southern loyalist and eccentric intellectual, emphasized the work of southern writers, yet stressed that Harris read widely. In The Countryman Turner insisted that Harris not shy away from including humor in his journalism. While at Turnwold Plantation, Harris spent hundreds of hours in the slave quarters during time off. He was less self-conscious there and felt his humble background as an illegitimate, red-headed son of an Irish immigrant helped foster an intimate connection with the slaves. He absorbed the stories, language, and inflections of people like Uncle George Terrell, Old Harbert, and Aunt Crissy. The African-American animal tales they shared later became the foundation and inspiration for Harris's Uncle Remus tales. George Terrell and Old Harbert in particular became models for Uncle Remus, as well as role models for Harris. Savannah and the South: 1866–1876 Joseph Addison Turner shut down The Countryman in May 1866. Joel Harris left the plantation with worthless Confederate money and very few possessions. He lived for a period at The Marshall House. The Macon Telegraph hired Harris as a typesetter later that year. Harris found the work unsatisfactory and himself the butt of jokes around the office, in no small part due to his red hair. Within five months, he accepted a job working for the New Orleans Crescent Monthly, a literary journal. Just six months after that, homesick, he returned to Georgia, but with another opportunity at the Monroe Advertiser, a weekly paper published in Forsyth, Georgia. At the Advertiser Harris found a regional audience with his column "Affairs of Georgia." Newspapers across the state reprinted his humorous paragraphs and political barbs. Harris' reputation earned him the position of associate editor at the Savannah Morning News, the largest circulation newspaper in Georgia. Though he relished his position in Forsyth, Joe Harris accepted the $40-a-week job, a significant pay increase, and quickly established himself as Georgia's leading humor columnist while at the Morning News. In 1872 Harris met Mary Esther LaRose, a seventeen-year-old French-Canadian from Quebec. After a year of courtship, Harris and LaRose married in April 1873. LaRose was 18, and Harris 27 (though publicly admitting to 24). Over the next three years, the couple had two children. Their life in Savannah came to an abrupt halt, however, when they fled to Atlanta to avoid a yellow fever epidemic. Atlanta: 1876–1908 In 1876 Harris was hired by Henry W. Grady at The Atlanta Constitution, where he would remain for the next 24 years. He worked with other journalists including Frank Lebby Stanton, who was in turn an associate of James Whitcomb Riley. Chandler supported the racial reconciliation envisioned by Grady. He often took the mule-drawn trolley to work, picked up his assignments, and brought them home to complete. He wrote for the Constitution until 1900. In addition, he published local-color stories in magazines such as Scribner's, Harper's, and The Century. Uncle Remus stories and later years Not long after taking the newspaper appointment, Harris began writing the Uncle Remus stories as a serial to "preserve in permanent shape those curious mementoes of a period that will no doubt be sadly misrepresented by historians of the future." The tales were reprinted across the United States, and Harris was approached by publisher D. Appleton and Company to compile them for a book. Uncle Remus: His Songs and His Sayings was published near the end of 1880. Hundreds of newspapers reviewed the best-seller, and Harris received national attention. Of the press and attention Walter Hines Page noted, "Joe Harris does not appreciate Joel Chandler Harris." Royalties from the book were modest, but allowed Harris to rent a six-room house in West End, an unincorporated village on the outskirts of Atlanta, to accommodate his growing family. Two years later Harris bought the house and hired the architect George Humphries to transform the farmhouse into a Queen Anne Victorian in the Eastlake style. The home, soon thereafter called The Wren's Nest, was where Harris spent most of his time. Harris preferred to write at the Wren's Nest. He published prodigiously throughout the 1880s and 1890s, trying his hand at novels, children's literature, and a translation of French folklore. Yet he rarely strayed from home and work during this time. He chose to stay close to his family and his gardening. Harris and his wife Essie had seven more children in Atlanta, with a total of six (out of nine) surviving past childhood. By the late 1890s, Harris was tired of the newspaper grind and suffered from health problems, likely stemming from alcoholism. At the same time, he grew more comfortable with his creative persona. Harris retired from the Constitution in 1900. He continued experimenting with novels and wrote articles for outlets such as The Saturday Evening Post. Still, he remained close to home, refusing to travel to accept honorary degrees from the University of Pennsylvania and Emory College (now Emory University). In 1905 Harris was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Letters. Harris traveled to accept an invitation to the White House by President Theodore Roosevelt. Two years earlier, Roosevelt had said, "Presidents may come and presidents may go, but Uncle Remus stays put. Georgia has done a great many things for the Union, but she has never done more than when she gave Mr. Joel Chandler Harris to American literature." On July 3, 1908, Joel Chandler Harris died of acute nephritis and complications from cirrhosis of the liver. In his obituary, The New York Times Book Review echoed Roosevelt's sentiment, stating: "Uncle Remus cannot die. Joel Chandler Harris has departed this life at the age of 60 ... but his best creation, [Uncle Remus] with his fund of folk-lore, will live in literature." Writing Folklore Harris created the first version of the Uncle Remus character for The Atlanta Constitution in 1876 after inheriting a column formerly written by Samuel W. Small, who had taken leave from the paper. In these character sketches, Remus would visit the newspaper office to discuss the social and racial issues of the day. By 1877, Small had returned to the Constitution and resumed his column. Harris did not intend to continue the Remus character. But when Small left the paper again, Harris reprised Remus. He realized the literary value of the stories he had heard from the slaves of Turnwold Plantation. Harris set out to record the stories and insisted that they be verified by two independent sources before he would publish them. He found the research more difficult given his professional duties, urban location, race and, eventually, fame. On July 20, 1879, Harris published "The Story of Mr. Rabbit and Mr. Fox as Told by Uncle Remus" in The Atlanta Constitution. It was the first of 34 plantation fables that would be compiled in Uncle Remus: His Songs and His Sayings (1880). The stories, mostly collected directly from the African-American oral storytelling tradition, were revolutionary in their use of dialect, animal personages, and serialized landscapes. Remus' stories featured a trickster hero called Br'er Rabbit (Brother Rabbit), who used his wits against adversity, though his efforts did not always succeed. Br'er Rabbit is a direct interpretation of Yoruba tales of Hare, though some others posit Native American influences as well. The scholar Stella Brewer Brookes asserts, "Never has the trickster been better exemplified than in the Br'er Rabbit of Harris." Br'er Rabbit was accompanied by friends and enemies, such as Br'er Fox, Br'er Bear, Br'er Terrapin, and Br'er Wolf. The stories represented a significant break from the fairy tales of the Western tradition: instead of a singular event in a singular story, the critters on the plantation existed in an ongoing community saga, time immemorial. Harris described Harriet Beecher Stowe's novel, Uncle Tom's Cabin, as a major influence on the characters of Uncle Remus and the Little Boy. When he read Stowe's novel in 1862, he said that it "made a more vivid impression upon my mind than anything I have ever read since." Interpreting Uncle Tom's Cabin as a "wonderful defense of slavery," Harris argued that Stowe's "genius took possession of her and compelled her, in spite of her avowed purpose, to give a very fair picture of the institution she had intended to condemn". In Harris's view, the "real moral that Mrs. Stowe's book teaches is that the ... realities [of slavery], under the best and happiest conditions, possess a romantic beauty and tenderness all their own." The Uncle Remus stories garnered critical acclaim and achieved popular success well into the 20th century. Harris published at least twenty-nine books, of which nine books were compiled of his published Uncle Remus stories, including Uncle Remus: His Songs and His Sayings (1880), Nights with Uncle Remus (1883), Uncle Remus and His Friends (1892), The Tar Baby and Other Rhymes of Uncle Remus (1904), Told by Uncle Remus: New Stories of the Old Plantation (1905), Uncle Remus and Brer Rabbit (1907). The last three books written by Joel Chandler Harris were published after his death which included Uncle Remus and the Little Boy (1910), Uncle Remus Returns (1918), and Seven Tales of Uncle Remus (1948). The tales, 185 in sum, became immensely popular among both black and white readers in the North and South. Few people outside of the South had heard accents like those spoken in the tales, and the dialect had never been legitimately and faithfully recorded in print. To Northern and international readers, the stories were a "revelation of the unknown." Mark Twain noted in 1883, "in the matter of writing [the African-American dialect], he is the only master the country has produced." The stories introduced international readers to the American South. Rudyard Kipling wrote in a letter to Harris that the tales "ran like wild fire through an English Public school. ... [We] found ourselves quoting whole pages of Uncle Remus that had got mixed in with the fabric of the old school life." The Uncle Remus tales have since been translated into more than forty languages. James Weldon Johnson called the collection "the greatest body of folklore America has produced". Journalism Early in his career at the Atlanta Constitution, Joe Harris laid out his editorial ideology and set the tone for an agenda that aimed to help reconcile issues of race, class, and region: "An editor must have a purpose. ... What a legacy for one's conscience to know that one has been instrumental in mowing down the old prejudices that rattle in the wind like weeds." Harris served as assistant editor and lead editorial writer at The Atlanta Constitution primarily between 1876 and 1900. He published articles intermittently until his death in 1908. While at the Constitution, Harris, "in thousands of signed and unsigned editorials over a twenty-four-year period, ... set a national tone for reconciliation between North and South after the Civil War". Throughout his career, Harris actively promoted racial reconciliation as well as African-American education, suffrage, and equality. He regularly denounced racism among southern whites, condemned lynching, and highlighted the importance of higher education for African Americans, frequently citing the work of W.E.B. Du Bois in his editorials. In 1883, for example, the New York Sun had an editorial: "educating the negro will merely increase his capacity for evil." The Atlanta Constitution editorial countered with: if "education of the negro is not the chief solution of the problem that confronts the white people of the South then there is no other conceivable solution and there is nothing ahead but political chaos and demoralization." Harris's editorials were often progressive in content and paternalistic in tone. He was committed to the "dissipation of sectional jealousy and misunderstanding, as well as religious and racial intolerance", yet "never entirely freed himself of the idea that the [southern whites] would have to patronize the [southern blacks]." Harris also oversaw some of The Atlanta Constitutions most sensationalized coverage of racial issues, including the 1899 torture and lynching of Sam Hose, an African-American farm worker. Harris resigned from the paper the following year, having lost patience for publishing both "his iconoclastic views on race" and "what was expected of him" at a major southern newspaper during a particularly vitriolic period. In 1904 Harris wrote four important articles for The Saturday Evening Post discussing the problem of race relations in the South; these highlighted his progressive yet paternalistic views. Of these, Booker T. Washington wrote to him: It has been a long time since I have read anything from the pen of any man which has given me such encouragement as your article has. ... In a speech on Lincoln's Birthday which I am to deliver in New York, I am going to take the liberty to quote liberally from what you have said. Two years later, Harris and his son Julian founded what would become Uncle Remus's Home Magazine. Harris wrote to Andrew Carnegie that its purpose would be to further "the obliteration of prejudice against the blacks, the demand for a square deal, and the uplifting of both races so that they can look justice in the face without blushing." Circulation reached 240,000 within one year, making it one of the largest magazines in the country. Other works Harris wrote novels, narrative histories, translations of French folklore, children's literature, and collections of stories depicting rural life in Georgia. The short stories "Free Joe and the Rest of the World", "Mingo", and "At Teague Poteets" are the most influential of his non-Uncle Remus creative work. Many of his short stories delved into the changing social and economic values in the South during Reconstruction. Harris's turn as a local colorist gave voice to poor white characters and demonstrated his fluency with different African-American dialects and characters. Legacy Harris's legacy has largely been ignored by academia, in part due to the Uncle Remus character, use of dialect, and plantation setting. Harris's books exerted a profound influence on storytellers at home and abroad, yet the Uncle Remus tales effectively have no critical standing. His legacy is, at the same time, not without considerable controversy: Harris's critical reputation in the 20th and 21st centuries has been wildly mixed, as he was accused of appropriating African-American culture. Criticism Critic H. L. Mencken held a less than favorable view of Harris: Once upon a time a Georgian printed a couple of books that attracted notice, but immediately it turned out that he was little more than an amanuensis for the local blacks—that his works were really the products, not of white Georgia, but of black Georgia. Writing afterward as a white man, he swiftly subsided into the fifth rank. Keith Cartwright, however, asserts, "Harris might arguably be called the greatest single authorial force behind the literary development of African American folk matter and manner." In 1981 the writer Alice Walker accused Harris of "stealing a good part of my heritage" in a searing essay called "Uncle Remus, No Friend of Mine". Toni Morrison wrote a novel called Tar Baby. Such a character appears in a folktale recorded by Harris. In interviews, Morrison said she learned the story from her family and owed no debt to him. Scholars have questioned his collection of stories, citing the difficulty that many white folklorists had in persuading African Americans to divulge their folklore. But, others note the similarity of African folk stories in several sources that are similar to the Brer Rabbit tales as published, which represent a folk genre. Examples include the Ila language Sulwe mbwakatizha Muzovu ("Hare makes the elephant afraid") in Smith & Dale The Ila-Speaking Peoples of Northern Rhodesia volume 2, page 309. In the totally unrelated Kanuri or Bornuese culture in Northern Nigeria, such tales as a Fable of Jackal and a Hyena display similar themes quite in the Brer Rabbit manner. The difficulties in obtaining printed sources on the African languages may have inhibited these aspects of critical treatment. Some critical scholars cite Uncle Remus as a problematic and contradictory figure: sometimes a mouthpiece for white paternalism, sometimes a stereotype of the black entertainer, and sometimes poetically subversive. Julius Lester, a black folklorist and university professor, sees the Uncle Remus stories as important records of black folklore. He has rewritten many of the Harris stories in an effort to elevate the subversive elements over the purportedly racist ones. Regarding the nature of the Uncle Remus character, Lester said, There are no inaccuracies in Harris's characterization of Uncle Remus. Even the most cursory reading of the slave narratives collected by the Federal Writer's Project of the 1930s reveals that there were many slaves who fit the Uncle Remus mold. The author Ralph Ellison was positive about Harris' work: Aesop and Uncle Remus had taught us that comedy is a disguised form of philosophical instruction; and especially when it allows us to glimpse the animal instincts lying beneath the surface of our civilized affectations. Some 21st-century scholars have argued that the Uncle Remus tales satirized the very "plantation school" that some readers believed his work supported. Critic Robert Cochran noted: "Harris went to the world as the trickster Brer Rabbit, and in the trickster Uncle Remus he projected both his sharpest critique of things as they were and the deepest image of his heart's desire." Harris omitted the Southern plantation house, disparaged the white Southern gentleman, and presented miscegenation in positive terms. He violated social codes and presented an ethos that would have otherwise shocked his reading audience. These recent acknowledgements echo early observations from Walter Hines Page, who wrote in 1884 that Harris "hardly conceals his scorn for the old aristocracy" and makes "a sly thrust at the pompous life of the Old South." More recently, the scholars Henry Louis Gates Jr. and Maria Tatar debated whether to include Uncle Remus stories in their 2017 volume, The Annotated African American Folktales. Ultimately they decided on inclusion, along with a detailed preface on the critical issues surrounding Harris, race, and cultural appropriation. Influence Children's literature analyst John Goldthwaite argues that the Uncle Remus tales are "irrefutably the central event in the making of modern children's story." Harris's influence on British children's writers such as Kipling, Milne, Potter, Burgess and Blyton is substantial. His influence on modernism is less overt, but also evident in the works of Pound, Eliot, Joyce, and Faulkner. Beatrix Potter illustrated eight scenes from the Uncle Remus stories between 1893 and 1896, coinciding with her first drawings of Peter Rabbit. Potter's family had favored the Uncle Remus stories during her youth, and she was particularly impressed by the way Harris turned "the ordinary into the extraordinary." Potter borrowed some of the language from the Uncle Remus stories, adopting the words: "cottontail," "puddle-duck," and "lippity-(c)lippity" into her own work. Mark Twain incorporated several of the Uncle Remus stories into readings during his book tour. He wrote to William Dean Howells in the early 1880s, reporting that the "Tar Baby" had been received "best of all" at a reading in Hartford. Twain admired Harris' use of dialect. He appropriated exchanges and turns of phrase in many of his works, most notably in Adventures of Huckleberry Finn and The Mysterious Stranger. A.A. Milne borrowed diction, plot, and narrative structure from several Brer Rabbit stories. "Pooh Goes Visiting" and "Heyo, House!" are particularly similar. As a boy, Milne recalled listening to his father read one Uncle Remus story per night, and referred to it as "the sacred book." Charles Chesnutt's most famous work, The Conjure Woman, is strongly influenced by the Uncle Remus tales; he features Uncle Julius as the main character and storyteller. Chesnutt read the Uncle Remus stories to his own children. Many scholars cite Harris' influence on William Faulkner, most importantly in terms of dialect usage, depictions of African Americans, lower-class whites, and fictionalized landscape. Poets Ezra Pound and T. S. Eliot corresponded in Uncle Remus-inspired dialect, referring to themselves as "Brer Rabbit" and "Old Possum," respectively. Eventually the dialect and the personae became a sign of their collaboration against the London literary establishment. Eliot titled one of his books Old Possum's Book of Practical Cats. Ralph Bakshi wrote and directed a 1975 American live action/animated crime film titled Coonskin based on Harris' Brothers rabbit, fox, and bear who rise to the top of the organized crime racket in Harlem, encountering corrupt law enforcement, con artists, and the Mafia. Song of the South In 1946, the Walt Disney Company produced a film based on the Uncle Remus tales called Song of the South. While commercially successful during its original release and re-releases, the film has never been released for home consumption in the United States as, since its release, the film was criticized for the way it portrays its characters and the Southern U. S. in regard to slavery, even though the film's events take place in the postbellum South, when slavery had ended. Song of the South has been released on video in a number of overseas markets, and on LaserDisc in Japan. The film earned mixed critical reviews and two Academy Awards. James Baskett won an honorary Academy Award for his portrayal of Uncle Remus, and "Zip-A-Dee-Doo-Dah" was presented with the award for Best Original Song. Walter White of the NAACP acknowledged "the remarkable artistic merit" of the film in his telegraphed press release on November 27, 1946, but decried the "impression it gives of an idyllic master-slave relationship." Since its debut, the public perception of Harris and the Uncle Remus stories has largely been tied to the reception of Song of the South. Legacy and honors The Wren's Nest, Harris's home in the historic West End neighborhood of Atlanta, Georgia, has been designated a National Historic Landmark. It has been operated as a museum home since 1913. Uncle Remus Museum in Eatonton, GA commemorates the life of Harris. A state historic landmark plaque was erected in Savannah, GA on Bay Street across from the now demolished Savannah Morning News building where Harris worked in that city. The U.S. Post Office issued a 3-cent stamp commemorating Joel Chandler Harris on the 1948 100th anniversary of his birth. A state historic landmark plaque was erected in Forsyth, GA on Main Street at N 33° 2.057', W 83° 56.354'. The plaque reads: One block east stood the old office of The Monroe Advertiser, where Joel Chandler Harris, creator of "Uncle Remus," came in 1867, as a boy of nineteen, to work until 1870. Here he advanced from printer's devil to accomplished journalist. Of his duties, Harris said: "I set all the type, pulled the press, kept the books, swept the floor and wrapped the papers for mailing." His typestand is still in use at the present office of The Monroe Advertiser. Selected list of works Uncle Remus: His Songs and His Sayings (1880) Nights with Uncle Remus (1883) Mingo and Other Sketches in Black and White (1884) Free Joe and Other Georgian Sketches (1887) Daddy Jake, The Runaway: And Short Stories Told After Dark (1889) Joel Chandler Harris' Life of Henry W. Grady (1890) Balaam and His Master and Other Sketches and Stories (1891) On the Plantation: A Story of a Georgia Boy's Adventures During the War (1892) Uncle Remus and His Friends (1892) Little Mr. Thimblefinger and his Queer Country: What the Children Saw and Heard There (Houghton Mifflin, 1894), illustrated by Oliver Herford, Mr. Rabbit at Home (1895), illus. Herford – sequel to Mr. Thimblefinger, Sister Jane: Her Friends and Acquaintances (1896) The Story of Aaron (so named): The Son of Ben Ali (1896), illus. Herford, Aaron in the Wildwoods (1897), illus. Herford – sequel, Tales of the Home Folks in Peace and War (1898) The Chronicles of Aunt Minervy Ann (1899) Plantation Pageants (1899) On the Wing of Occasions (1900) Gabriel Tolliver (1902) The Making of a Statesman and Other Stories (1902) Wally Wanderoon and His Story-Telling Machine (1903) A Little Union Scout (1904) The Tar-Baby and Other Rhymes of Uncle Remus (1904) Told By Uncle Remus: New Stories of the Old Plantation (1905) Uncle Remus and Brer Rabbit (1907) Shadow Between His Shoulder Blades (1909) Uncle Remus and the Little Boy (1910) Uncle Remus Returns (1918) Seven Tales of Uncle Remus (1948) See also Literature of Georgia (U.S. state) References Bibliography External links Joel Chandler Harris, New Georgia Encyclopedia The Wren's Nest, Harris's historic home in Atlanta, GA Robert Roosevelt's Brer Rabbit Stories Theodore Roosevelt on Brer Rabbit and his Uncle Works by Joel Chandler Harris openly available with full text and large zoomable images in the University of Florida Digital Collections Uncle Remus His Songs and Sayings from American Studies at the University of Virginia "Death Calls 'Uncle Remus' and Whole World Mourns", Atlanta Georgian, July 4, 1908. From the Atlanta Historic Newspaper Archive Remembering Remus – Frank Stephenson, Florida State University 1848 births 1908 deaths People from Eatonton, Georgia American children's writers American male journalists The Atlanta Journal-Constitution people Writers from Atlanta Writers of American Southern literature Fabulists American folklorists Folklore writers Deaths from nephritis Deaths from cirrhosis American people of Irish descent Alcohol-related deaths in Georgia (U.S. state)

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Surabaya Dock of 14,000 tons was a floating dry dock which served in the Dutch East Indies and Indonesia from 1916 till at least the late 1950s. Context A large floating dry dock for the Dutch East Indies In 1900, there were three floating dry docks in the Dutch East Indies. The biggest was Onrust Dock of 5,000 tons, stationed at Surabaya. A relatively new dry dock was Tanjung Priok Dock of 4,000 tons at Tanjung Priok, Batavia. The old Onrust Dock of 3,000 tons was stationed at Sabang at the western extremity of the archipelago. The two dry docks on Java could service most ships that visited the island. They were capable of lifting all ships that the Dutch navy had, and it was thought that they would also be able to lift those which the navy would acquire in the foreseeable future. Onrust Dock of 5,000 tons had been commissioned, and stationed at Onrust Island in 1880. In 1883, she lifted Koning der Nederlanden of 5,400 ton displacement. In September 1884 Koning der Nederlanden was again reported in the dock. Soon after, the dock lifted the Russian armored cruisers Vladimir Monomakh of 5,683t, and (after unloading) Minin of 6,234t. It had been proven that Onrust Dock of 5,000 tons could handle all Dutch warships and even some bigger ships. In 1886 the dry dock was rebased to Surabaya. In 1903, the Dutch Navy in Surabaya then got a nasty surprise when the new HNLMS Koningin Regentes of 5,002t displacement arrived. Onrust Dock of 5,000 tons proved unable to lift her! It was known that the official capacity of the dry dock had gone back from 4,800 tons to 4,500 tons, but in view of the above this was still surprising. Meanwhile, there were plans for a new dry dock of 7,000 tons. After consultations between the ministries for the navy and the colonies, a commission for dry dock facilities in the Indies was appointed in January 1904. Members where: the retired VA N. Mac Leod, the retired chief engineer Siebers of the Marine establishment in Surabaya, Mr. W. Fenenga of the Amsterdamsche Droogdok Maatschappij, Navy shipbuilding engineer Van Veen, and as secretary Lieutenant Schoonhoven. This commission made a report in late 1904. In December 1904, a Dutch M.P. asked the minister for the navy about a new dry dock for Surabaya. He stated the cost of docking in Singapore, and the need for independence in this respect, but nothing much happened. In 1903, the Droogdok Maatschappij Tandjong Priok in Batavia was very busy. Its commercial Tanjung Priok Dock of 4,000 tons had so much work, that some of the maintenance had to be postponed. In 1905 the company got permission to erect a patent slip that could serve vessels of up to 2,000 tons displacement, which was big enough for most vessels which regularly docked at Batavia. The port of Port of Tanjung Perak in Surabaya Surabaya was the commercial center of Java, with good connections to the interior. In the nineteenth century, this had led to the establishment of the main Dutch navy base of the Dutch East Indies at Surabaya. Meanwhile, the harbor of Surabaya was nothing more than a place to safely anchor offshore. This meant that goods had to be transloaded to ships via boats, considerably raising the cost of calling at Surabaya. In about 1909, the Dutch government therefore started the construction of a modern port known as the Port of Tanjung Perak (Dutch: Tandjong Perak). On 22 September 1910. the Droogdok Maatschappij Soerabaja (DMS) was established to manage a dry dock facility at Surabaya. It ordered Surabaya Dock of 3,500 tons, which would arrive in 1912. A large dual use dry dock On 1 January 1910, Onrust Dock of 5,000 tons was still the largest dry dock in the Dutch East Indies. Under normal circumstances, it would not be large enough to lift the armored cruiser De Zeven Provinciën, which had been launched on 15 March 1909. However, as De Zeven Provinciën displaced 6,530 tons, being too large for Onrust Dock of 5,000 tons, did not mean that she required a dry dock of 14,000 tons, i.e. more than twice the size required to lift her. There had been ideas to acquire ships that were slightly larger, but these did not even make it to the design phase. Later plans for battleships would have led to ships which would have been too wide and high for the 14,000 tons dry dock. In effect the explanation for the size of the dry dock is straightforward. In June 1910, the 139 m long ocean liner SS Prinses Juliana of 8,300 tons, and 12,190 ton displacement was launched. She was the biggest ship built in the Netherlands up to then. She was also a ship of the Nederland Line, the main shipping line between the Netherlands and the Dutch East Indies. She was soon followed by a sister ship. The Dutch government could not ignore the appearance of these large ships. If these ships could not rely on a suitable repair facility in the Dutch East Indies, their owners might prefer to use the excellent harbor of Singapore. In summary: Surabaya Dock of 14,000 tons was a dry dock meant for use by the navy and merchant shipping. In the end the size of commercial ships was decisive for the size of the new Surabaya dry dock. That it became so large was caused by the plans becoming mixed up with those for the port of Surabaya. In 1903, the new dry dock would become a 7,000 tons dry dock. In 1907 there was talk about dredging the approaches to Surabaya, and the capacity of the dry dock having to become larger than was previously thought. In November 1910, the Minister for the Colonies Jan Hendrik de Waal Malefijt presented a design for a dry dock of 120 m long and 12,000 tons lift capacity, but by then M.P.'s wanted a larger dock, because the ships of the Nederland Line and others were larger (see Prinses Juliana above). In December 1910, Minister de Waal Malefijt then appointed a commission that was to decide on the type and size of the dry dock. The East Indies would meanwhile have to make plans for the mooring place (Navy base or new port of Surabaya) and the management of the dry dock. If the commission would advice something much more expensive than was envisioned up to then, the minister would get back to the House of Representatives. The commission consisted of: Mr. de Jongh, ex-director of the Public works of Rotterdam (chair); jhr Op ten Noort, member of the board of the Nederland Line; D. Goekoop, chairman of the society of the Dutch shipbuilding industry; Mr. Kloos, chief engineer of Nederlandsche Fabriek van Werktuigen en Spoorwegmaterieel; Fenenga, manager of Amsterdamsche Droogdok Maatschappij; Mr. C. Nobel, manager of Rotterdam Public Works, and future manager of Tanjung Perak; Lt-Captain Umbgrove; and Mr. van Beek, chief-engineer and director of navy ship construction. Meanwhile 500,000 guilders for the dry dock were put on the 1911 budget for the Dutch East Indies. Construction and characteristics Ordering and Construction The overall design and construction of Surabaya Dock of 14,000 tons was led by W. Fenenga. In May 1911, construction was tendered on behalf of the Ministry of the Colonies. It was to be a self-docking dry dock of the 'bolted sectional' type. The three sections of almost equal length were to be joined on the whole profile of the dock. Length was to be 140 m, width on the inside 25 m, width on the outside 35 m. The sides above the water were to be 116 m long. These were high 10 m above the pontoon deck, 4.5 m wide on the pontoon deck, and 2.8 m wide at the top. The pontoons had a depth of hold of 4.6 m in the center. The dry dock would be powered by electricity. It should be able to lift a ship of 14,000 ton displacement and 7.5 m draft in four hours. It would be delivered and tried where built, and be towed to Surabaya. Delivery date would be in June 1912. The tender was won by the Nederlandsche Scheepsbouw Maatschappij in Amsterdam. The NSM had recently proven her capabilities with regard to dry dock construction by building Juliana Dock of 12,000 tons. Juliana Dock had been built at a special construction site on the northern shore of the IJ. With her dimensions, she would not have been able to reach the IJ from NSM's shipyard, because the Oosterdok Lock was too narrow. As she was made for the Amsterdamsche Droogdok Maatschappij, her dimensions did not matter with regard to reaching open sea. She would be used in the direct vicinity. Using the same construction site for Surabaya Dock of 14,000 tons was not possible. In order to reach open sea, she would then have to pass either the Oranje Locks of 17.5 m width, or the 25 m wide Middle Lock of the IJmuiden Locks. The only alternative to transport such a wide dry dock from Amsterdam to the North Sea, was to tow it over the Zuiderzee. A special construction site was therefore built near Schellingwoude on the , east of the Oranje Locks. Before construction could begin, 1,200 piles were driven into the ground as a foundation to support the huge weight of the dry dock, and that of the cranes and machines needed for construction. A steam engine with dynamo was set up to provide power to the site for lighting and driving tools. A high-pressure steam compressor was brought in for pneumatic drilling and riveting, a low pressure steam compressor was brought in for abrasive blasting. Two big gantry cranes were erected, as well as temporary buildings for storage, lunchroom etc. Characteristics Surabaya Dock of 14,000 tons was of the 'bolted sectional' type, and made of Siemens Martin steel. Its three sections could be taken apart, so one section could be lifted by the other two for maintenance. The sections were solidly connected with bolts, rivets and rubber linings. This was done at extra reinforced connection compartments. It made self docking a tedious procedure, which made the dry dock unavailable for quite some time. The bolted sectional type was an improvement over the previous pontoon dock, e.g. Tanjung Priok Dock of 4,000 tons, which had sides in one piece. The pontoon dock was self-docking, because pontoons could be taken out from under it for maintenance, while they were replaced by others. This gave practically no down time for the dock. The bolted sectional type had more rigidity, with the advantage of lifting ships more evenly. Another maintenance aspect was the use of bituminous enamel coating, which had also been applied to Surabaya Dock of 3,500 tons. It was used up till the waterline on the outside, and overall on the inside, and protected the dry dock against corrosion. The coating was supplied by William Briggs & Sons Ltd. from Dundee, Scotland. During the first self docking in 1921 the coating was proven to be very effective. There was little biofouling on the hull. Most of it was seaweed that was easily removed. In between the seaweed, many mussels had attached themselves to the hull. In places where the coating had been damaged, by sunlight or concussion, these mussels had caused rather deep pits in the hull. There were about 400-500 pits on each section. These were closed by welding. There was no need to replace plates. The dry dock was long. Beam was The sides were wide on the pontoon level, and wide on top. The depth of hold of the pontoon ranged from on the sides to in the center. The total height on the sides was . Maximum draft was At the time. Dutch shipbuilders often used English feet for measurements. Each of the three pontoons was divided by three lateral bulkheads. The total connected pontoon also had eight traverse bulkheads in addition to the two sectional endings. This way the pontoon was divided in 4 times 11 (44 total) watertight compartments. The main frames were positioned apart. In between, there were lighter frames placed apart. The pontoon had extra reinforcements below the blocks, and where the other sections of the dock would be during self-docking. The pumps had to be able to lift the loaded dry dock in four hours. There was one main centrifugal pump of diameter in each section, placed as low as possible. Each was driven by a 140 hp electric motor with vertical shaft. These motors were placed in teak houses on top of the dry dock's sides. Each section also had a small centrifugal pump, which served as a bilge pump, and was driven the same way. Electricity would be provided from shore. The dry dock was controlled from a central operating room, from whence the pumps, valves, and gate valves could be operated. One table had the controls for electric-pneumatic operation of the gate valves of the 44 water tight compartments. A second table had 48 pneumatically driven sight glasses, which showed the water level in each of these compartments, and the water level outside the four sides of the dry dock. The operating room had a telephone connection to the motor houses. For construction of specialist parts NSM had subcontracted with other manufacturers: With Louis Smulders & Co. from Utrecht for the pumps; With Electrotechnische Industrie v/h Willem Smit & Co. in Slikkerveer for the electric motors; With Firma Groeneveld, van der Poll & Co. from Amsterdam for the electrical installation; With Haarlemsche Machinefabriek v/h Gebroeders Figee for the (electrically powered) capstans; and with Firma H. Olland from Utrecht for the control tables and sight glasses. Launch and Voyage to Surabaya Launch Surabaya Dock of 14,000 tons was launched on 7 June 1913. The time was set at 2 PM in order to launch at high tide. The launch was a momentous occasion. At 11 AM the saloon motor boat Alkmaar left the De Ruijter Quay (southern bank of the IJ near Centraal Station) with a number of high-ranking guests. These were: The Minister for the Colonies J.H. de Waal Malefijt; the Minister for Waterstaat L.R.H. Regout; J.G. Staal and L.A. Salverda de Grave, the secretary generals of both departments; De Jongh and Kloos of the advisory commission; J.T. Cremer, president, and L.P.D. op ten Noord, and J.C. Jansen all three members of the supervisory board of NSM; D. Goedkoop, CEO of NSM, and H. Goekoop, vice president of NSM. The guests were shown around, and climbed the stairs on one of the sides. After the visit the guests returned to Alkmaar to lunch on board. After arriving back on the southern shore, they found some other people wanting to see the launch, and so Alkmaar then turned back to the launch site. At 14:30 the dry dock was actually launched by turning on some hydraulic presses. On the sides she carried the text: 'Gouvernements Droogdok Soerabaja'. After the launch J.T. Cremer and the ministers made a speech on board Alkmaar. Voyage to Surabaya On Saturday 21 June at 4 PM tugboats started to tow Surabaya Dock of 14,000 tons over the Zuiderzee towards Nieuwediep. On Monday at 2:30 AM, she arrived in the Texel Roadstead. The transport of the dry dock to Surabaya had been confided to the tow service Zur Muhlen en De Graaf, which had prepared its strongest tugs. The Ocean going tug Atlas measured 519 ton and had 1,500 ihp. She was commanded by Captain J. Bakker and had 18 crew. The ocean-going tug Titan measured 352 ton and had 1,000 ihp. She was commanded by Captain C. Spanjer and had 16 crew. The dock itself was commanded by Captain K. Lieuwen and had 17 crew. The tug Simson would accompany the convoy till the end of the English Channel. The 'Manilla hawsers' on board the tugs were thick. The tugs also had pumps, diving equipment, and electrical search lights. Atlas had wireless telegraphy. On the dry dock itself, many parts had been temporarily reinforced. There were also anchors, anchor windlasses, life boats etc. For the dry dock crew there was a temporary deck house. There was also a temporary steam engine on board for generating electricity, made by Louis Smulders & Co. from Utrecht. This way the dry dock could be operated during the voyage, which would at least be handy for the bilge pumps. At 11 AM on 23 June, the tugs were put before the dry dock. The armored cruiser Heemskerck and some smaller navy vessels came out to wish the dry dock a good voyage. At 12 AM the tugs started to tow with a speed of 4 knots. Once at sea, the hawsers were lengthened to 300 meters, and Simson joined the effort. The tug Hercules with some officials joined the convoy till it reached Callantsoog at 2:40 PM. The plan was to make 80 miles a day. Bunkering had been planned at Algiers, Malta, Port Said, Aden, Colombo and Sabang. In Aden, the convoy would also wait for the end of the monsoon. On 25 June. at noon the convoy passed Dover. At 26 June at noon it was south of the Isle of Wight. On the afternoon of the 27th, it was 20 miles south east of Start Point, Devon. On the morning of the 28th, it was ten miles south of Lizard Point, Cornwall. Simson then turned about, and Surabaya Dock of 14,000 tons was henceforward only pulled by Atlas and Titan. On 10 July, the convoy was at (near Cadiz). On 11 July, the convoy passed Gibraltar. On 16 July, Titan entered Algiers to load coal. On 22 July, the convoy was at , north of Tunis. On 31 July, the convoy was at , south of Crete. On 5 August, the convoy arrived at Port Said. Passing through the Suez Canal proved relatively easy, but it was still 13 August when the convoy left from Suez. A sand storm that hit the convoy in the Red Sea was probably the most dangerous event of the trip. On the 27st, the convoy passed Perim in the Strait of Mandeb, and entered the Gulf of Aden. On 29 August, it reached Aden. Here it had to wait at open sea for two days, because the weather made the trip into the harbor too dangerous. In Aden, the convoy waited for the monsoon to pass, diminishing the chances for bad weather in the Indian Ocean. The Times of India summarized the progress so far. Average speed had been 3.5 knots. The largest distance covered in one day was 110 miles. Near Cape St. Vincent progress had been slow, covering only 36 miles in 24 hours. Passing the Suez Canal had been easier than expected, even though engine trouble made that the dry dock hit one of the shores of the canal. The convoy left Aden on 18 September. Near Socotra coal was transferred from the dry dock to Titan. On 9 October, Atlas sent a telegram via the steamers Teheran and Colombo, stating the convoy to be at . On 17 October, the dry dock, towed by Atlas alone arrived at Colombo. Titan had steamed ahead, to bunker before their arrival. This allowed the convoy to leave at 18 October. On 1 November, the convoy reached Sabang, the first port in the Dutch East Indies. Here Atlas arrived alone in order to bunker ahead of the others. After bunkering the convoy continued its trip on the same day. On 10 November, the convoy passed the Straits of Durian. On Friday 21 November, the convoy reached Surabaya. At 6 AM, the convoy approached the basin. Atlas was towing the dry dock, and Titan was behind her to keep her on course. At 8 AM it had been bought into the new Torpedo Boat Harbor. Service Delayed commissioning The original plan was that the new harbor of Surabaya would be ready in 1913, but that did not happen. For the Droogdok Maatschappij Soerabaja (DMS), the delays meant that in November 1913 one expected the port, and specifically the location for the DSM, to be completed two years later than planned. Therefore, the dry dock company did not send the equipment for the planned repair shipyard with about 60 machines to Surabaya. DMS already had the smaller Surabaya Dock of 3,500 tons, which it owned. This was anchored offshore, instead of in the unfinished harbor. DMS had negotiated with the state to lease Surabaya Dock of 14,000 tons, but there was no effective contract when the dock arrived in Surabaya. Without assurance of a suitable location, DMS was probably also not that eager to come to a final contract. Therefore, the navy would take the dry dock into conservation for the time being. On the other hand, this was not good for DMS, because there was a fear that the navy would not let go of the dock if it was successful in commercial operation. After World War I started in July 1914, there was a strong demand for dry dock capacity in the Dutch East Indies. By November 1914, the East Indies government had proposed that the minister for the colonies make a second attempt to come to an agreement with DMS. It also proposed that in case of failure to come to an agreement, the navy should operate the dock. The government then ordered the navy to take the 14,000 tons dock into use. Therefore Onrust Dock of 5,000 tons was moved to a different location. Her old location was then deepened to 15 m. The Hollandsche Aannemnings Maatschappij, which also built the new port, accepted the job. In little over a week, a big dredging vessel removed 40–45,000 3 of ground. In early January 1915, Surabaya Dock of 14,000 tons was towed and fixed into position, and a test was done to submerge it's deck. However, it seems that the navy did not use the dock, which was not in a suitable location for merchant shipping. Whatever the motives, the move might have put pressure on DMS. By October 1915 there was news about new negotiations between the East Indies government and DMS in order to lease the dry dock and to move it to the new port. In late November 1915, the Minister for the Colonies and DMS came to a final agreement to lease Surabaya Dock of 14,000 tons Regular service On 13 March 1916, the workplaces of the drydock company DMS became operational. On 29 March 1916, Surabaya Dock of 14,000 tons was towed into the new port. March 1916 was also the month that the 3,500 tons dock was brought into the new port. By 15 April 1916 the 14,000 tons dry dock had lifted SS Arakan of 5,106 GRT. Other ships followed, but even in 1917 the dock was not yet in its designated place, because the government had not yet placed the required dolphins. In 1917, the dry dock was nevertheless quite busy with 96 ships using the dock in 89 dockings (i.e. multiple ships in one go) for 283 days. In 1916–1917, DMS got a remarkable assignment. For the Van Meel shipping line, it was to revise three old sailings ships, which were to sail to Europe around the cape with tobacco. These were: Albertina Beatrice, John Davie, and Nest. There is a picture of the barque Nest on board the smaller dry dock, see Surabaya Dock of 3,500 tons. Another picture has a ship of this shipping line with a male figurehead and visible bow on the deck of Surabaya Dock of 14,000 tons. From a picture, the ship on the dock is shown to be the John Davie. In 1918, Surabaya Dock of 14,000 tons lifted Surabaya Dock of 3,500 tons for 22 days, so she could be repaired. That year Surabaya Dock of 14,000 tons serviced 82 ships in docking operations which lasted 344 days. In 1919, the dock was busy for 97 ships in 83 dockings for 295 days. In 1920, this was 121 ships in 95 dockings which lasted for 329 days. In 1920, the terrain where DMS would finally establish its 99.5 by 39.5 m hall was created. In 1921, the two dry docks were joined by Surabaya Dock of 1,400 tons, a smaller dry dock which had been bought in Germany. The years 1921-1925 were rather bad for DMS, and so the docks had little to do. The years 1926-1929 saw a vast expansion of the company. It succeeded in attracting most of the maintenance work for Dutch local shipping companies, which previously preferred to have their maintenance done abroad. Some foreign ships even visited Surabaya just for docking, something unimaginable before WW I. First self docking The original plan was that the first self docking of Surabaya Dock of 14,000 tons would take place after 5 years in the Dutch East Indies. Due to several circumstances, including the war, this was delayed till May 1921. More than 10 days passed before the three sections were disconnected on 1 June. The challenge was to level these section as exactly as possible in order to prevent them breaking apart forcibly, with risk of severe damage. The three sections were then connected with steel cables, while the outer sections got below the middle section. On 22 June, the docking of the first section started. On 13 July, this docking was finished. On 19 July, the third section was lifted. This was finished on 4 August. On 10 August, the middle section was lifted. This section was finished on 30 August. While lifting the first section, an eastern wind of 6 Bft made that the section that was to be lifted acted as a gigantic sail. In the end, it proved complex to get, and keep the sections in the required positions before lifting a section. The worst margin of the three lifts was 20 cm in length and 10 cm in width. Another challenge was that the lifting sections of course sank deeper under the lifted section. The lifting sections were kept level by pumping out more water from the compartments directly under the lifted section. In summary, the total procedure of lifting a section took between five and nine hours. From 3 to 17 September the sections were bolted together again. On 23 September, the dry dock was towed back to its original location. On 24 September, it was operational again. The great depression The Great Depression led to some very depressed years for DMS. In the early years, it especially hit the 3,500 and small 1,400 tons docks of the company. From 1931 to 1935 there was no dividend. Over 1936 only a small dividend of 2.5%. Over 1937 a more normal divided of 5% was paid to the shareholders. Increased lift capacity of 15.500 tons In 1937, Surabaya Dock of 14,000 tons was lengthened from . As a side effect, lift capacity increased from 14,000 tons to 15,500 tons. The lengthening was done by DMS building two small extra dock sections on its own shipyard in Surabaya. The lengthening had everything to do with the Dutch navy commissioning the light cruiser De Ruyter in October 1936. This cruiser was long, and displaced 7,669 t. This was substantially longer than the Java-class cruisers of length. World War II World War II was an extremely busy time for all shipyards in allied territory. This was also true for the dry dock company Surabaya, which built a lot of ships, and was engaged in the desperate attempts to build up the defense of the Dutch East Indies. In March 1942, the Dutch attempted to destroy the naval facilities in Surabaya. The late 1940s In March 1947 Surabaya Dock of 14,000 tons was again taken into use. In 1956 usage of the dry dock was again insufficient. By 1958 the Indonesian military had taken control of DMS in Indonesia. In September 1959, the dry dock company in Indonesia was officially nationalized by the Indonesian government, with start date 3 December 1957. The end After nationalization DMS became PT. Dok & Perkapalan Surabaya (DPS) (In English: PT. Dock and Shipping Surabaya (Persero)). Surabaya Dock of 14,000 tons might have continued in use for decades. Notes References Dry docks in Indonesia

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doc-en-4033

This is a list of the cicadas found in Australia including its outlying islands and territories. The outlying islands covered include: Christmas, Cocos (Keeling), Ashmore, Torres Strait, Coral Sea, Lord Howe, Norfolk, Macquarie, and Heard/McDonald. The taxonomy followed is from Moulds 2012, Marshall 2018, and Popple 2018. Family Cicadidae Latreille, 1802 Subfamily Cicadinae Latreille, 1802 Tribe Burbungini Moulds, 2005 Genus Burbunga Distant, 1905 Burbunga albofasciata Distant, 1907 (Pale Bark Cicada) Burbunga aterrima (Distant, 1914) (Western Bark Cicada) Burbunga gilmorei (Distant, 1882) (Desert Screamer) Burbunga hillieri (Distant, 1907) (Small Western Bark Cicada) Burbunga inornata Distant, 1905 (Mareeba Bark Cicada) Burbunga mouldsi Olive, 2012 (Charcoal Screamer) Burbunga nanda (Burns, 1964) (Black-spot Screamer) Burbunga nigrosignata (Distant 1904) (South-western Whiner) Burbunga occidentalis (Distant, 1912) (Small Northern Bark Cicada) Burbunga parva Moulds, 1994 (Queensland Bark Cicada) Burbunga queenslandica Moulds, 1994 Tribe Cicadini Latreille Genus Diceropyga Stål, 1870 Dyceropyga subapicalis (Walker, 1868) (Australian Dicer) Tribe Cryptotympanini Handlirsch, 1925 Genus Anapsaltoda Ashton, 1921 Anapsaltoda pulchra Ashton, 1921 (Golden Emperor) Genus Arenopsaltria Ashton, 1921 (Sandgrinders) Arenopsaltria fullo (Walker, 1850) (Sandgrinder) Arenopsaltria nubivena (Walker, 1858) (Eastern Sandgrinder) Arenopsaltria pygmaea (Distant, 1904) (Pygmy Sandgrinder) Genus Henicopsaltria Stål, 1866 Henicopsaltria danielsi Moulds, 1993 (McIvor River Grinder) Henicopsaltria eydouxii (Guérin-Méneville, 1838) (Razor Grinder) Henicopsaltria kelsalli Distant, 1910 (Cape York Grinder) Henicopsaltria rufivelum Moulds, 1978 (Jungle Grinder) Genus Illyria Moulds, 1985 Illyria australensis (Kirkaldy, 1909) (Semi-arid Rattler) Illyria burkei (Goding and Froggatt, 1904) Illyria hilli (Ashton, 1921) (Northern Rattler) Illyria major Moulds, 1985 (Desert Rattler) Genus Macrotristria Stål, 1870 Macrotristria angularis (Germar, 1834) (Cherrynose) Macrotristria bindalia Burns, 1964 (Corroboree Cicada) Macrotristria doddi Ashton, 1912 (Darwin Whiner) Macrotristria dorsalis Ashton, 1912 (Little Whiner) Macrotristria douglasi Burns, 1964 (Kimberley Whiner) Macrotristria extrema (Distant, 1892) (Western Whiner) Macrotristria frenchi (Distant, 1892) (Northern Steamer) Macrotristria godingi Distant, 1907 (Tiger Cherrynose) Macrotristria hieroglyphicalis (Kirkaldy, 1909) (Derby Whiner) Macrotristria intersecta (Walker, 1850) (Corroboree Cicada) Macrotristria kabikabia Burns, 1964 (Black Cherrynose) Macrotristria kulungura Burns, 1964 (Coastal Whiner) Macrotristria lachlani Moulds, 1992 (Far Northern Cherrynose) Macrotristria maculicollis Ashton, 1914 (False Cherrynose) Macrotristria stevewilsoni Popple, 2016 (Shoalwater Cherrynose) Macrotristria sylvara (Distant, 1901) (Green Cherrynose) Macrotristria thophoides Ashton, 1914 (False Drummer) Macrotristria vittata Moulds, 1992 (Cape York Cherrynose) Macrotristria worora Burns, 1964 (Kimberley Whiner) Genus Neopsaltoda Distant, 1910 Neopsaltoda crassa Distant, 1910 (Dark Knight) Genus Psaltoda Stål, 1861 Psaltoda adonis Ashton, 1914 (Forest Demon) Psaltoda antennetta Moulds, 2002 (Clubbed Sage) Psaltoda aurora Distant, 1881 (Red Roarer) Psaltoda brachypennis Moss and Moulds, 2000 (Phantom Knight) Psaltoda claripennis Ashton, 1921 (Clanger) Psaltoda flavescens Distant, 1892 (Golden Knight) Psaltoda fumipennis Ashton, 1912 (Smoky Sage) Psaltoda harrisii (Leach, 1814) (Yellowbelly) Psaltoda insularis Ashton, 1914 (Lord Howe Island Cicada) Psaltoda maccallumi Moulds, 2002 (Dark Sage) Psaltoda magnifica Moulds, 1984 (Green Baron) Psaltoda moerens (Germar, 1834) (Redeye) Psaltoda mossi Moulds, 2002 (Little Baron) Psaltoda pictibasis (Walker, 1858) (Black Friday) Psaltoda plaga (Walker, 1850) (Silver Knight) Tribe Cyclochilini Distant, 1904 Genus Cyclochila * Amyot and Serville, 1843 Cyclochila australasiae (Donovan, 1805) (Greengrocer/Masked Devil/Yellow Monday) Cyclochila virens Distant, 1906 (Northern Greengrocer) Tribe Jassopsaltriini Moulds, 2005 Genus Jassopsaltria Ashton, 1914 Jassopsaltria rufifacies Ashton, 1914 (Green Fizzer) Tribe Platypleurini Schmidt, 1918 Genus Oxypleura * Amyot and Serville, 1843 Oxypleura calypso (Kirby, 1889) (Christmas Island Cicada) Tribe Talcopsaltriini Moulds, 2008 Genus Talcopsaltria Moulds, 2008 Talcopsaltria olivei Moulds, 2008 (Tetradonta Cicada) Tribe Tamasini Moulds, 2005 Genus Parnkalla Distant, 1905 Parnkalla muelleri (Distant, 1882) (Grass Faerie) Genus Parnquila Moulds, 2012 Parnquila hillieri (Distant, 1906) (Cane Grass Buzzer) Parnquila magna (Distant, 1913) (Goldfields Buzzer) Parnquila venosa (Distant, 1907) (Spinifex Buzzer) Parnquila unicolor (Ashton, 1921) (Perth Buzzer) Genus Tamasa Distant, 1905 Tamasa burgessi (Distant, 1905) (Two-toned Bunyip) Tamasa caverna Moulds and Olive, 2014 (Boulder Bunyip) Tamasa doddi (Goding and Froggatt, 1904) (Dodd's Bunyip) Tamasa rainbowi Ashton, 1912 (Green Bunyip) Tamasa tristigma (Germar, 1834) (Eastern Bunyip) Tribe Thophini Distant, 1904 Genus Arunta Distant, 1904 Arunta interclusa (Walker, 1858) (Mangrove Drummer) Arunta perulata (Guérin-Méneville, 1831) (White Drummer) Genus Thopha * Amyot and Serville, 1843 Thopha colorata Distant, 1907 (Orange Drummer) Thopha emmotti Moulds, 2001 (Desert Double Drummer) Thopha hutchinsoni Moulds, 2008 (North-western Double Drummer) Thopha saccata (Fabricius, 1803) (Eastern Double Drummer) Thopha sessiliba Distant, 1892 (Northern Double Drummer) Subfamily Cicadettinae Buckton, 1889 Tribe Cicadettini Buckton, 1889 Genus Adelia Moulds, 2012 Adelia borealis (Goding and Froggatt, 1904)Broad-winged Tiger Genus Atrapsalta * Owen and Moulds, 2016 Atrapsalta collina (Ewart, 1989) (Sandstone Squeaker) Atrapsalta corticina (Ewart, 1989) (Bark Squeaker) Atrapsalta dolens (Walker, 1850) (South-western Bark Squeaker) Atrapsalta emmotti (Owen and Moulds, 2016) (Channel Country Squeaker) Atrapsalta encaustica (Germar, 1834) (Black Squeaker) Atrapsalta furcilla Owen and Moulds, 2016 (Southern Mountain Squeaker) Atrapsalta fuscata (Ewart, 1989) (Small Bark Squeaker) Atrapsalta siccana (Ewart, 1989) (Bulloak Squeaker) Atrapsalta vinea Owen and Moulds, 2016 (Clare Valley Squeaker) Pauropsalta rubra Goding and Froggatt, 1904 (Sale Squeaker) Genus Auscala Moulds, 2012 Auscala spinosa (Goding and Froggatt, 1904) (Creaking Branch Cicada) Genus Birrima Distant, 1906 Birrima castanea (Goding and Froggatt, 1904) (Red Tree-ticker) Birrima varians (Germar, 1834) (Black Tree-ticker) Genus Caliginopsalta Ewart, 2005 Caliginopsalta percola Ewart, 2005 (Royal Casuarina Ticker) Genus Chelapsalta Moulds, 2012 Chelapsalta puer (Walker, 1850) (Cassinia Cicada) Chelapsalta myoporae Ewart, Popple and Marshall, 2015 (Copper Shrub-buzzer) Genus Clinata Moulds, 2012 Clinata nodicosta (Goding and Froggatt, 1904) (Western Bent-winged Clicker) Genus Clinopsalta Moulds, 2012 Clinopsalta adelaida (Ashton, 1914) (Murray Acacia Cicada) Clinopsalta autumna Popple and Emery, 2017 (Ferny Acacia Cicada) Clinopsalta tigris (Ashton, 1914) (Small Acacia Cicada) Clinopsalta semilunata Popple and Emery, 2017 (Semilunata Cicada) Genus Crotopsalta Ewart, 2005 Crotopsalta fronsecetes Ewart, 2005 (Eastern Ticker) Crotopsalta plexis Ewart, 2005 (Wilga Ticker) Crotopsalta strenulum Ewart, 2005 (Rapid Ticker) Crotopsalta poaecetes Ewart, 2005 (Cloncurry Ticker) Crotopsalta leptotigris Ewart, 2009 (Cravens Peak Ticker) Genus Diemeniana Distant, 1905 Diemeniana cincta (Fabricius, 1803) (Tasman Twanger) Diemeniana euronotiana (Kirkaldy, 1909) (Golden Twanger) Diemeniana frenchi (Distant, 1907) (Crop Duster) Diemeniana hirsuta (Goding and Froggatt, 1904) (Black Twanger) Diemeniana neboissi Burns, 1958 (Auburn Crop Duster) Genus Dipsopsalta Moulds, 2012 Dipsopsalta signata (Distant, 1914) (Desert Grass-buzzer) Genus Drymopsalta Ewart, 2005 Drymopsalta acrotela Ewart and Popple, 2013 (Top End Heath-buzzer) Drymopsalta crepitum Ewart, 2005 (Cape York Heath-buzzer) Drymopsalta daemeli (Distant, 1905) (Brown Heath-buzzer) Drymopsalta hobsoni Ewart and Popple, 2013 (Inglewood Heath-buzzer) Drymopsalta wallumi Ewart and Popple, 2013 (Wallum Heath-buzzer) Genus Erempsalta Moulds, 2012 Erempsalta hermannsbergensis (Distant, 1907) (Turkey Bush Cicada) Genus Ewartia Moulds, 2012 Ewartia brevis (Ashton, 1912) (Varnished Cicada) Ewartia carina Popple, 2017 (Cape York Wattle Cicada) Ewartia cuensis (Distant, 1913) (Western Wattle Cicada) Ewartia etesia Popple, 2017 (Northern Wattle Cicada) Ewartia lapidosa Popple, 2017 (Inland Wattle Cicada) Ewartia oldfieldi (Distant, 1883) (Wattle Cicada) Ewartia roberti Popple, 2017 (Thin-striped Wattle Cicada) Ewartia thamna Popple, 2017 (Shrub Wattle Cicada) Genus Falcatpsalta * Owen and Moulds, 2016 Falcatpsalta aquilus (Ewart, 1989) (Sooty Squeaker) Genus Froggattoides Distant, 1910 Froggattoides pallidus (Ashton, 1912) (Western Bent-wing) Froggattodies typicus Distant, 1910 (Eastern Bent-wing) Genus Gagatopsalta Ewart, 2005 Gagatopsalta obscura Ewart, 2005 (Clip-clop Cicada) Gagatopsalta auranti Ewart, 2005 (Painted Brigalow Ticker) Genus Galanga Moulds, 2012 Galanga labeculata (Distant 1882) (Double-spotted Cicada) Genus Gelidea Moulds, 2012 Gelidea torrida (Erichson, 1842) (Southern Spotted Cicada) Genus Graminitigrina * Ewart and Marques, 2008 Graminitigrina aurora Ewart, Popple and Hill, 2017 (Emerald Grass-ticker) Graminitigrina bolloni Ewart and Marques, 2008 (Southern Grass-clicker ) Graminitigrina bowensis Ewart and Marques, 2008 (Northern Grass-clicker) Graminitigrina carnarvonensis Ewart and Marques, 2008 (Maranoa Grass-clicker) Graminitigrina einasleighi Ewart, Popple and Hill, 2017 (Ornamental Grass-clicker) Graminitigrina flindensis Ewart, Popple and Hill, 2017 (Hughenden Grass-clicker) Graminitigrina karumbae Ewart and Marques, 2008 (Far Northern Grass-clicker) Graminitigrina selwynensis Ewart, Popple and Hill, 2017 (Selwyn Range Grass-clicker) Graminitigrina triodiae Ewart and Marques, 2008 (Central Grass-clicker) Graminitigrina uluruensis Ewart, Popple and Hill, 2017 (Uluru Grass-clicker) Genus Gudanga Distant, 1905 Gudanga adamsi Moulds, 1996 (Northern Brigalow Blackwing) Gudanga aurea Moulds, 1996 (Golden Blackwing) Gudanga boulayi Distant, 1905 (Red Blackwing) Gudanga browni (Distant, 1913) (Orange Blackwing) Gudanga emmotti Ewart and Popple, 2013 (Noonbah Blackwing) Gudanga kalgoorliensis Moulds, 1996 (Kalgoorlie Blackwing) Gudanga lithgowae Ewart and Popple, 2013 (Southern Brigalow Blackwing) Gudanga nowlandi Ewart and Popple, 2013 (Mulga Blackwing) Gudanga pterolongata Olive, 2007 (Croydon Blackwing) Gudanga solata Moulds, 1996 (Dark Red Blackwing) Genus Haemopsalta * Owen and Moulds, 2016 Haemopsalta aktites (Ewart, 1989) (Beach Squeaker) Haemopsalta flammeata Owen and Moulds, 2016 (Sunray Squeaker) Haemopsalta georgina Owen and Moulds, 2016 (Tasmanian Squeaker) Haemopsalta rubea (Goding and Froggatt, 1904) (Red Squeaker) Genus Heliopsalta Moulds, 2012 Heliopsalta polita (Popple, 2003) (Enamel Cicada) Genus Heremusina Ewart, 2018 Heremusina pipatio Ewart, 2018 (Cloncurry Watch-winder) Heremusina udeoecetes Ewart, 2018 (Alice Springs Watch-winder) Genus Kikihia Dugdale, 1972 Kikihia convicta (Distant, 1892) (Norfolk Island Cicada) Genus Kobonga Distant, 1906 Kobonga apicans Moulds and Kopestonsky, 2001 (Northern Robust Clicker) Kobonga apicata (Ashton, 1914) (Western Clicker) Kobonga froggatti Distant, 1913 (Maroon Clicker ) Kobonga fuscomarginata (Distant, 1914) (Slow Dinger) Kobonga godingi (Distant, 1905) (Southern Robust Clicker) Kobonga oxleyi (Distant, 1882) (Moree Dinger) Kobonga umbrimargo (Walker, 1858) (Orange Clicker) Genus Limnopsalta Moulds, 2012 Limnopsalta stradbrokensis (Distant, 1915) (Wallum Sedge-clicker) Genus Marteena Moulds, 1986 Mallee Chirper * Marteena rubricincta (Goding and Froggatt, 1904) Genus Mugadina Moulds, 2012 Mugadina emma (Goding and Froggatt) (Amber Grass-ticker) Mugadina marshalli (Distant, 1911) (Yellow Grass-ticker) Genus Myopsalta Moulds, 2012 Myopsalta albiventris Popple, 2017 (Pale-bellied Grass Buzzer) Myopsalta atrata (Goding and Froggatt, 1904) (Orange-bellied Buzzer) Myopsalta bassiana Popple, 2017 (Bassian Buzzer) Myopsalta binotata (Goding and Froggatt, 1904) (Robust Smoky Buzzer) Myopsalta chrysopedia Popple, 2017 (Black Sandplain Buzzer) Myopsalta coolahensis Emery, Emery and Popple, 2015 (Coolah Grass Buzzer) Myopsalta crucifera (Ashton, 1914) (Brown Buzzer) Myopsalta gordoni Popple, 2017 (Black Acacia Buzzer) Myopsalta leona Popple, 2017 (Black Brigalow Buzzer) Myopsalta longicauda Popple, 2017 (Wavering Buzzer) Myopsalta riverina Popple, 2017 (Eastern Mallee Buzzer) Myopsalta septa Popple, 2017 (Warwick Grass Buzzer) Myopsalta lactea (Distant, 1905) (Dark Smoky Buzzer) Myopsalta libritor Emery, Emery and Popple, 2015 (Coolah Repeater) Myopsalta mackinlayi (Distant, 1882) (Fence Buzzer) Myopsalta majurae Popple, 2017 (Mt Ainslie Buzzer) Myopsalta melanobasis Popple, 2017 (Broad-winged Buzzer) Myopsalta parvula Popple, 2017 (Black Mountain Tinkler) Myopsalta platyptera Popple, 2017 (Theodore Chirper) Myopsalta umbra Popple, 2017 (Olive Vine Buzzer) Myopsalta waterhousei (Distant, 1905) (Smoky Buzzer) Myopsalta wollomombii (Coombs, 1995) (New England Grass Buzzer) Myopsalta xerograsidia Popple, 2017 (Fishing Reel Buzzer) Genus Nanopsalta Moulds, 2012 Nanopsalta basalis (Goding and Froggatt, 1904) (Paperbark Tree-buzzer) Genus Neopunia Moulds, 2012 Neopunia graminis (Goding and Froggatt, 1904) (Fluoro Grass Pixie) Genus Noongara Moulds, 2012 Noongara issoides (Distant, 1905) (Perth Stubby-wing) Genus Palapsalta Moulds, 2012 Palapsalta belli Emery, Emery and Hutchinson, 2018 (Pilbara Tree-buzzer) Palapsalta circumdata (Walker, 1852) (Bronze Tree-buzzer) Palapsalta eyrei (Distant, 1882) (Yellow Tree-buzzer) Palapsalta ligneocauda Emery, Emery and Hutchinson, 2018 (Lime Tree-buzzer) Palapsalta palaga Owen and Moulds, 2016 (Northern River Tree-buzzer) Palapsalta serpens Owen and Moulds, 2016 (Pale-sided Tree-buzzer) Palapsalta virgulata (Ewart, 1989) (Striped Tree-buzzer) Palapsalta vitellina (Ewart, 1989) (Eastern River Tree-buzzer) Genus Paradina Moulds, 2012 Paradina leichardti (Distant, 1882) (Black Grass-ticker) Genus Pauropsalta * Goding and Froggatt, 1904 Pauropsalta accola Owen and Moulds, 2016 (Subcoastal Squawker) Pauropsalta adelphe Owen and Moulds, 2016 (Top End Frog Squawker) Pauropsalta agasta Owen and Moulds, 2016 (Kimberley Frog Squawker) Pauropsalta borealis Goding and Froggatt, 1904 (Little Orange Squawker) Pauropsalta castanea Goding and Froggatt, 1904 (Flinders Squawker) Pauropsalta confinis Owen and Moulds, 2016 (Seismic Squawker) Pauropsalta conflua Owen and Moulds, 2016 (Small Mallee Squawker) Pauropsalta contigua Owen and Moulds, 2016 (Oven Squawker) Pauropsalta elgneri (Ashton, 1912) (Cape York Galloper) Pauropsalta ewarti Owen and Moulds, 2016 (Herberton Squawker) Pauropsalta extensa Goding and Froggatt, 1904 (Slender Squawker) Pauropsalta extrema (Distant, 1892) (Typewriter) Pauropsalta herveyensis Owen and Moulds, 2016 (Herveys Range Squawker) Pauropsalta infrasila Moulds, 1987 (Tropical Orange Squawker) Large Mallee Squawker * Pauropsalta infuscata (Goding and Froggatt, 1904) Pauropsalta juncta Owen and Moulds, 2016 (Stirling Squawker) Pauropsalta katherina Owen and Moulds, 2016 (Kathy's Squawker) Pauropsalta kriki Owen and Moulds, 2016 (River Galloper) Pauropsalta melanopygia Germar, 1834) (Strident Sqawker) Pauropsalta mneme (Walker, 1850) (Alarm Clock Squawker) Pauropsalta opaca Ewart, 1989 (Fairy Dust Squawker) Pauropsalta prolongata Goding and Froggatt, 1904 (Slender Squawker) Pauropsalta similis Owen and Moulds, 2016 (Kimberley Squawker) Pauropsalta sinavilla Owen and Moulds, 2016 (Pilbara Squawker) Pauropsalta walkeri Moulds and Owen, 2011 (Normanton Squawker) Genus Physeema Moulds, 2012 Physeema bellatrix (Ashton, 1914) (Esperance Ticker) Physeema convergens (Walker, 1850) (Duke) Physeema labyrinthica (Walker, 1850) (Southern Coastal Ticker) Physeema latorea (Walker, 1850) (Northern Sandplain Ticker) Physeema quadricincta (Walker, 1850) (Tick-tock) Genus Pipilopsalta Ewart, 2005 Pipilopsalta ceuthoviridis Ewart, 2005 (Green Desert Ticker) Genus Platypsalta Moulds, 2012 Platypsalta dubia (Goding and Froggatt, 1904) (Black Scrub-buzzer) Platypsalta mixta (Distant, 1914) (Black Scrub-buzzer) Genus Plerapsalta Moulds, 2012 Plerapsalta incipiens (Walker, 1850) (Tiny Ambertail) Plerapsalta multifascia (Walker, 1850) (Neon Ambertail) Genus Popplepsalta * Owen and Moulds, 2016 Popplepsalta aeroides Owen and Moulds, 2016 (Blue-banded Scratcher) Popplepsalta annulata (Goding and Froggatt, 1904) (Sprinkler Squeaker) Popplepsalta ayrensis (Ewart, 1989) (Ephemeral Squeaker) Popplepsalta blackdownensis (Popple, 2013) (Blackdown Squeaker) Popplepsalta corymbiae (Popple, 2013) (Western Red-eyed Squeaker) Popplepsalta decora (Popple, 2013) (Static Squeaker) Popplepsalta granitica (Popple, 2013) (Northern Red-eyed Squeaker) Popplepsalta inversa (Popple, 2013) (Retro Squeaker) Popplepsalta kobongoides (Popple, 2013) (Mimic Squeaker) Popplepsalta notialis incitata (Popple, 2013) (Inland Sprinkler Squeaker) Popplepsalta notialis notialis (Popple, 2013) (Southern Red-eyed Squeaker) Popplepsalta rubristrigata (Goding and Froggatt, 1904) (Red Scratcher) Popplepsalta simplex (Popple, 2013) (Atherton Squeaker) Popplepsalta subtropica (Popple, 2013) (Subtropical Red-eyed Squeaker) Popplepsalta torrensis (Popple, 2013) (Hughenden Red-eyed Squeaker) Popplepsalta tremula (Popple, 2013) (Maraca Squeaker) Pauropsalta stigmatica Distant, 1905 (Small Adelaide Squeaker) Genus Punia Moulds, 2012 Punia minima (Goding and Froggatt, 1904) (Grass Pygmy) Genus Pyropsalta Moulds, 2012 Pyropsalta melete (Walker, 1850) (Red Bandit) Genus Relictapsalta * Owen and Moulds, 2016 Relictapsalta nigristriga (Goding and Froggatt, 1904) (Dusty Squawker) Genus Samaecicada* Popple and Emery, 2010 Samaecicada subolivacea (Ashton, 1912) (Red-eyed Fairy) Genus Simona Moulds, 2012 Simona erema Ewart, Popple and Marshall, 2015 (Roaring Senna Cicada) Simona retracta Ewart, Popple and Marshall, 2015 (Charleville Eremophila Cicada) Simona sancta (Distant, 1913) (Western Eremophila Cicada) Genus Sylphoides Moulds, 2012 Sylphoides arenaria (Distant, 1907) (Sand Fairy) Genus Taurella Moulds, 2012 Taurella forresti (Distant, 1882) (Hibiscus Cicada) Taurella froggatti (Distant, 1907) (Red Fairy) Taurella viridis (Ashton, 1912) (Emerald Fairy) Genus Telmapsalta Moulds, 2012 Telmapsalta hackeri (Distant, 1915) (Paperbark Cicada) Genus Terepsalta Moulds, 2012 Terepsalta infans (Walker, 1850) (Southern Stubby Grass-ticker) Terepsalta leichhardti Ewart, 2013 (Northern Stubby Grass-ticker) Genus Toxala Moulds, 2012 Toxala verna (Distant, 1912) (Bent-winged Grass-buzzer) Toxala mckinnonae Popple, 2015 (Herberton Grass-buzzer) Genus Urabunana Distant, 1905 Urabunana sericeivitta (Walker, 1862) (Eastern Grass-buzzer) Genus Uradolichos Moulds, 2012 Uradolichos longipennis (Ashton, 1914) (Candy Tiger-squawker) Uradolichos rotunda Owen and Moulds, 2016 (Dark Tiger-squawker) Genus Xeropsalta Ewart, 2018 Xeropsalta aridula Ewart, 2018 (Simpson Desert Grass-shaker) Mugadina festiva (Distant, 1907) (Bee Gleeper) Xeropsalta rattrayi Ewart, 2018 (Green Grass-shaker) Xeropsalta thomsoni Ewart, 2018 (Birdsville Grass-ticker) Genus Yoyetta Moulds, 2012 Yoyetta aaede (Walker, 1850) (Red-eyed Firetail) Yoyetta abdominalis (Distant, 1892) (Golden-haired Firetail) Yoyetta celis (Moulds, 1988) (Silver Princess) Yoyetta cumberlandi Emery, Emery and Popple, 2015 (Cumberland Ambertail) Yoyetta denisoni (Distant, 1893) (Black Firetail) Yoyetta fluviatilis Emery, Emery and Popple, 2015 (River Ambertail) Yoyetta humphreyae Moulds and Popple, 2018 (Varied Ambertail) Yoyetta hunterorum (Moulds, 1988) (Sydney Treetop Ticker) Yoyetta incepta (Walker, 1850) (False Ambertail) Yoyetta landsboroughi (Distant, 1882) (Small Bassian Ambertail) Yoyetta nigrimontana Emery, Emery and Popple, 2015 (Small Southern Ambertail) Yoyetta repetens Emery, Emery and Popple, 2015 (Zipping Ambertail) Yoyetta toowoombae (Distant, 1915) (Small Bassian Ambertail) Yoyetta tristrigata (Goding and Froggatt, 1904) (Tropical Ambertail) Tribe Chlorocystini Distant, 1905 Genus Chlorocysta Westwood, 1851 Chlorocysta congrua (Walker, 1862) (Small Bottle Cicada) Chlorocysta fumea (Ashton, 1914) (McIllwraith Range Bottle Cicada) Chlorocysta suffusa (Distant, 1907) (Marbled Bottle Cicada) Chlorocysta vitripennis (Westwood, 1851) (Lesser Bottle Cicada) Genus Cystopsaltria * Goding and Froggatt, 1904 Cystopsaltria immaculata Goding and Froggatt, 1904 (Rare Bladder Cicada) Genus Cystosoma Westwood, 1842 Cystosoma saundersii Westwood, 1842 (Bladder Cicada) Cystosoma schmeltzi Distant, 1882 (Small Bladder Cicada) Genus Euthemopsaltria Moulds, 2014 Euthemopsaltria laeta Moulds, 2014 (Reticulate Bottle Cicada) Genus Glaucopsaltria * Goding and Froggatt, 1904 Glaucopsaltria viridis Goding and Froggatt, 1904 (Bottle Cicada) Genus Guineapsaltria de Boer, 1993 Guineapsaltria flava (Goding and Froggatt), 1904 (Green Fairy) Genus Gymnotympana Stål, 1861 Gymnotympana rufa (Ashton, 1914) (Crimson Fairy) Gymnotympana varicolor (Distant, 1907) (Red Belly) Genus Owra Ashton, 1912 Owra insignis Ashton, 1912 (Green Ghost) Genus Thaumastopsaltria Kirkaldy, 1900 Thaumastopsaltria globosa (Distant, 1897) (Slender Green Growler) Thaumastopsaltria smithersi Moulds, 2012 (Robust Green Growler) Genus Venustria * Goding and Froggatt, 1904 Venustria superba Goding and Froggatt, 1904 (Frog Cicada) Tribe Prasiini Matsumura, 1917 Genus Lembeja Distant, 1883 Lembeja paradoxa (Karsch, 1890) (Bagpipe Cicada) Lembeja vitticollis (Ashton, 1912) (Brown Leaf Cicada) Tribe Taphurini Distant, 1905 Genus Aleeta Moulds, 2003 Aleeta curvicosta (Germar, 1834) (Floury Baker) Genus Tryella Moulds, 2003 Tryella adela Moulds, 2003 (Small Maroon Bullet) Tryella burnsi Moulds, 2003 (Brown Bullet) Tryella castanea (Distant, 1905) (Small Rusty Bullet) Tryella crassa Moulds, 2003 (Dusky Bullet) Tryella graminea Moulds, 2003 (Grass Bullet) Tryella infuscata Moulds, 2003 (Large Maroon Bullet) Tryella kauma Moulds, 2003 (Silver-striped Bullet) Tryella lachlani Moulds, 2003 (Golden Black Bullet) Tryella noctua (Distant, 1913) (Chocolate Bullet) Tryella occidens Moulds, 2003 (Dusty Brown Bullet) Tryella ochra Moulds, 2003 (Golden Brown Bullet) Tryella rubra (Goding and Froggatt, 1904) (Large Rusty Bullet) Tryella stalkeri (Distant, 1907) (Honey Bullet) Tryella willsi (Distant, 1882) (Black Bullet) Genus Chrysocicada Boulard, 1989 Chrysocicada franceaustralae Boulard, 1989 (Western Gold Cicada) Genus Pictila Moulds, 2012 Pictila occidentalis (Goding and Froggatt, 1904) (Green Mallee Cicada) Family Tettigarctidae Distant, 1905 Subfamily Tettigarctinae Distant, 1905 Tribe Tettigarctini Distant, 1905 Genus Tettigarcta White, 1845 Tettigarcta crinita Distant, 1883 (Alpine Hairy Cicada) Tettigarcta tomentosa White, 1845 (Tasmanian Hairy Cicada) See also An article in the Sydney Morning Herald describing Australian cicadas. References Hemiptera of Australia Cicadas Cicadas

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John Aaron Rawlins (February 13, 1831 September 6, 1869) was a general officer in the Union Army during the American Civil War and a cabinet officer in the Grant administration. A longtime confidant of Ulysses S. Grant, Rawlins served on Grant's staff throughout the war, rising to the rank of brevet major general, and was Grant's chief defender against allegations of insobriety. He was appointed Secretary of War when Grant was elected President of the United States. Rawlins was a self-made man who overcame an impoverished family background, scanty education, and an absentee father who was prone to drink. After studying law, Rawlins passed the bar in 1854 and started a practice in Galena, Illinois. He was a Douglas Democrat at the outbreak of the Civil War; a noted public speaker, he gave a notable pro-Union speech at the start of hostilities, and he soon became close friends with Ulysses S. Grant, a Galena resident, United States Military Academy graduate, and Mexican–American War veteran who had served in the Army for 11 years. Rawlins persuaded Grant to drill and muster a local volunteer militia company and send them to the state capital in Springfield so they could be inducted into federal service. After brief service in the Illinois militia as a mustering officer, Grant was soon recommissioned in the Army to serve under Union General John C. Frémont, commander of Union Army forces in the western United States. Rawlins also joined the Union Army and served primarily as an officer on Grant's staff; his promotions were linked to Grant's success on the battlefields and Grant's advancement in the Union Army under President Abraham Lincoln. Rawlins contracted tuberculosis in 1863, but continued to serve on Grant's staff during Reconstruction. After Grant won the 1868 election and assumed the presidency in March 1869, he named Rawlins as his Secretary of War. With the exception of his approving the height of the Brooklyn Bridge, before construction, Rawlins' brief tenure was mostly controversial. Rawlins supported insurrection against Spanish rule in Cuba, established an anti-Mormon policy for the Utah Territory, and reduced the authority of General William Tecumseh Sherman, Grant's successor as commander of the Army. Rawlins' tuberculosis continued to worsen, and he died in September 1869, five months into his term. Except for a 1916 biography, The Life of John A. Rawlins, by James Harrison Wilson, Rawlins' short life is not well known, while Grant, perhaps protecting his own reputation, rarely mentioned him in his popular Memoirs, published in 1885. With Rawlins' death, strong cabinet-level support for an independent Cuba ended, and did not become a priority until the Spanish–American War in 1898. Early years John Aaron Rawlins was born on February 13, 1831 in East Galena, Illinois, the second of ten children born to James Dawson and Lovisa Collier Rawlins, both of Scotch-Irish descent, whose ancestors originally settled in Culpeper County, Virginia. James Rawlins was a descendant of Robert Rawlins, who originally settled in Maryland, and he became a farmer and charcoal maker in Missouri and Illinois. In 1849, James Rawlins migrated to California during the Gold Rush, and he stayed for three years. While his father was absent, Rawlins became the primary caretaker of his mother, sister, and six brothers. James did not strike gold, and upon returning home he halfheartedly devoted his time to his family farm and timber lands, while John Rawlins took on increasing responsibility as the head of the family. Rawlins blamed his father James' carefree lifestyle and lack of attention to his family on strong drink. His father's behavior affected Rawlins' own attitudes and fears concerning alcohol, and he became a teetotaler. According to historian Bruce Catton, Rawlins' abstention was caused by his belief that if he took even one drink, he would not be able to stop. Rawlins' early education was scanty; he attended local schools in Illinois and spent a year and a half at Rock River Seminary in Mount Morris, Illinois. Rawlins attracted notice locally as a "self-made man" by going through a period of self-directed study to make up for his lack of formal education. He then studied law in the office of Isaac P. Stevens of Galena, and attained admission to the bar in 1854. Rawlins practiced in partnership with Stevens, and later with David Sheean, who had studied under Rawlins. Politically Rawlins aligned himself with the Democratic Party and supported the presidential campaigns of Stephen A. Douglas. Marriages, family, health On June 5, 1856, Rawlins married Emily Smith, daughter of Hiram Smith of Goshen, New York. Their marriage produced three children including son James, and daughters Jennie and Emily. Mrs. Rawlins died of tuberculosis in August, 1861, shortly after Rawlins began his service with the Union Army. According to historian Bruce Catton, her death left Rawlins with the fear he would one day die of the same disease. On December 23, 1863 Rawlins married Mary Emma Hurlburt, the daughter of S. A. Hurlburt of Danbury, Connecticut. During the Winter of 1863 Rawlins developed a persistent cough that was later diagnosed as tuberculosis. American Civil War Galena Union loyalty speech After Fort Sumter fell, at the outbreak of the American Civil War, Galena's residents held a town meeting; the featured speakers were U.S. Congressman Elihu B. Washburne and Rawlins. Rawlins made his pro-Union sentiments clear when he stated: "I have been a Democrat all my life; but this is no longer a question of politics; It is simply country or no country; I have favored every honorable compromise; but the day for compromise is passed; only one course is left us. We will stand by the flag of our country, and appeal to the god of battles." Union Army military promotions In 1861, Rawlins took an active role in the organization of the 45th Illinois Infantry, in response to President Abraham Lincoln's call for 75,000 volunteers, and Grant volunteered to help train the regiment. He was soon appointed commander of the 21st Illinois Volunteer Infantry Regiment, and requested that Rawlins become his aide-de-camp. Rawlins accepted and on August 30 he was appointed a captain in the regular Army and Assistant Adjutant-General of Volunteers. On September 14, Rawlins reported to Grant's headquarters in Cairo. From this time forward, Rawlins remained by Grant's side and became Grant's most influential staff officer, advisor, and closest friend. Like most men at the beginning of the Civil War, Rawlins was not formally military trained, however, he was naturally suited for his position. As Grant rose in rank and responsibility, Rawlins was likewise promoted in roles of increasing responsibility and rank, including Chief of Staff of the Army of the Tennessee and Chief of Staff of the Military Division of the Mississippi. He was known for his great attention to detail, as well as being a stickler for proper protocol. On May 14, 1862 Rawlins was promoted to major, and on November 1 he was promoted to lieutenant colonel. Just before joining his staff, he exacted a pledge from Grant, who had a history of alcohol problems, not to drink during the war. He forbade the use of alcohol at headquarters and a year after joining the staff signed a pledge himself not to consume alcohol. During the war, Rawlins frequently scolded Grant for perceived derelictions with an impunity that often surprised onlookers. Rawlins was promoted to brigadier general of Volunteers on August 11, 1863. When Grant was promoted to general in chief of all the Union armies, Rawlins became Chief of Staff of the General Headquarters of the United States Army. He was promoted to brevet major general on February 24, 1865, to brigadier general in the regular army on March 3, and brevet major general in the regular army on April 9. Petitioned for Sheean release (1862) In the fall of 1862, Rawlins' law partner David Sheean, an outspoken critic of Lincoln's war policy, was arrested; he was an outspoken Democrat, and because habeas corpus had been suspended by President Abraham Lincoln in 1861, Sheean's Republican political enemies worked to have him detained without charges at Fort Lafayette, New York. Rawlins took a leave of absence to aid Sheean, and petitioned in person to both Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton and Congressman Elihu B. Washburne. Sheean was finally released in December, 1862. Objected to General Order No. 11 (1862) During the Vicksburg Campaign, on December 17, 1862, Grant issued General Order No. 11 expelling Jews, as a class, from Grant's military district. Grant was upset over an illegal cotton trade that he believed funded the Confederate Army. Grant blamed Jewish traders for breaking Treasury Department regulations. Jewish persons who did not obey the order were to be arrested and forcibly removed as prisoners. Rawlins, Grant's attorney and Asst. Adjt. Gen., strongly warned Grant not to issue the order. Grant refused to take Rawlin's advise concerning the order and told him: "Well, they can countermand this from Washington if they like, but we will issue it anyhow." The controversial order was revoked by President Abraham Lincoln. Grant's Washington D.C. emissary (1863) During the Summer of 1863, Grant sent Rawlins east to Washington D.C. as his emissary. At this time Grant was relatively unknown in political circles, having fought far from Washington D.C. in the Western Theater. Rawlins arrived in Washington D.C. on July 30 and talked with General-In-Chief Henry W. Halleck at the War Department and the Army's assistant adjutant general, Colonel J.C. Kelton. Halleck cordially received Rawlins and told Rawlins he was pleased with Grant's victory and endorsed Grant's Vicksburg surrender terms, including releasing 31,000 Confederate prisoners on parole. Rawlins then went to the White House and met President Abraham Lincoln and his Cabinet. He handed Lincoln a letter from Grant that asked for Rawlins to be given an interview with Lincoln so Rawlins could brief him on the successful results of the Vicksburg Campaign and explain why the Confederate soldiers were paroled. Special observer Charles A. Dana and Secretary of Navy Gideon Welles gave Rawlins high praise for his industrious nature and his intelligence. Dana stated that Rawlins was a "very industrious, conscientious man." Welles stated that he was pleased by Rawlins' "frank, intelligent, and interesting description of men and of army operations." Chattanooga letter to Grant (1863) During the Chattanooga Campaign in November 1863, Grant was alleged to have been drinking excessively among other generals and subordinates who had access to bottles of whiskey and a bottle of wine received from Grant's mother Hannah. Rawlins heard of this, and considering himself to be Grant's protector when it came to alcohol, wrote him a letter on November 15 or 16, which was never sent; it demanded that Grant "immediately desist from further tasting of liquors of any kind". Rawlins' concerns were unfounded; According to General David Hunter, who had the opportunity to observe Grant closely during this period, Grant had only two drinks in three weeks during the month of November. On November 14, Grant had actually broken up a drinking party between his subordinate Colonel Clark Lagow and Lagow's friends at four in the morning. Rawlins kept this unsent letter in his records, where it was later found by historians. This unsent letter was one of several items which created the impression that Grant routinely drank to excess. Dodge expedition and attempted health recovery (1867) In 1867, during Reconstruction, Rawlins accompanied the military escort that traveled with Grenville M. Dodge's expedition to explore the proposed route of the Union Pacific Railroad. Dodge was chief engineer for the Union Pacific, which was responsible for building the railroad from east to west, while the Central Pacific Railroad built from west to east. Rawlins had accompanied Dodge as far as Salt Lake City, Utah in hopes that the dry air of the plains would help cure his tuberculosis. Dodge later named one of the expedition's Wyoming campsites Rawlins; this site was later incorporated as a town. After four months of travel with Dodge, Rawlins returned to Washington D.C., but his health had not substantially improved. Secretary of War (1869) Overview When Grant became President, Rawlins' doctors recommended that he go to Arizona, where they believed the dry desert climate would allow him to live longer. To accommodate their medical advice, Grant wanted to appoint Rawlins military commander of the Southwest; Rawlins refused, wishing to stay at Grant's side. Grant acquiesced and appointed Rawlins as Secretary of War. During his five months in office, Rawlins was at odds with Secretary of State Hamilton Fish over whether to recognize and support a revolution against the Spanish government in Cuba; Rawlins favored providing military aid and other assistance; Fish was opposed. Both competed for Grant's support and that of the other cabinet secretaries. Grant finally sided with Fish and the U.S did not intervene. On the question of dealing with the Mormons located primarily in Utah Territory, Rawlins convinced Grant to adopt a confrontational approach to ending their practice of polygamy, including the use of the military if necessary. Rawlins' health continued to deteriorate; he was bedridden before he died in office on September 6, 1869. One of his last acts as Secretary of War was his approval of the construction of the Brooklyn Bridge. Sherman controversy When Grant became President he promoted William T. Sherman his friend and fellow general during the Civil War the top command of General of the Armies in March 1869. During this time General John M. Schofield was Grant's interim Secretary of War, a carry-over from the Andrew Johnson administration. Initially, Grant had given Sherman broad powers over the U.S. Military, including having authority over bureau chiefs, causing Sherman to believe his relationship to Grant during Grant's presidency would be the same as his close relationship to Grant during the Civil War. When Rawlins became Secretary of War his first actions were to significantly reduce General Sherman's authority in the U.S. military. Rawlins had requested to Grant to give him authority over bureau chiefs and Grant complied, knowing Rawlins was in ill health. Sherman hurried to the White House and asked that Grant rescind his orders that reduced Sherman's authority. Knowing that Rawlins was gravely ill Grant told Sherman that he would not rescind his orders. This upset Sherman, and after a disagreement over military and presidential protocol, Sherman stood up and walked out of the meeting saying "Good day Mister President!". Grant and Sherman had formerly been on first name familiarity. After this incident, Grant and Sherman were not on the same friendly manner they had been during the Civil War. Rawlins' successor, William W. Belknap, also continued this trend and reduced Sherman's authority in the U.S. military, taking away Sherman's authority to appoint post-trader commissions. Anti-Mormon policy In 1869, Grant sent Rawlins to Utah Territory in hopes he would recover from his declining health and in part to observe the condition of Mormons there. This was Rawlins second time in Utah, having traveled with Dodge to Salt Lake City, in 1867. Rawlins was very cool to his reception of Mormons in Utah including Mormon leader Brigham Young, whom he met twice, who was surrounded by a Mormon military escort. Inwardly, Rawlins was hostile to Young and the Mormon polygamists. When Rawlins returned to Washington he convinced Grant to develop a harsh policy against the religious sect. Rawlins also convinced Grant to appoint J. Wilson Shaffer Governor of Utah Territory. Shaffer implemented a strict policy that was designed to keep the Mormons from rebelling from the United States. The Mormons, according to Grant, were in a militant state of rebellion over the issue of polygamy. Grant went on to arrest many Mormons, including Young, in a crackdown by federal marshals Grant believed would keep the Mormons from separating from the United States and to disrupt their practice of polygamy. Cuban insurrection In 1868, the Cuban Revolution began when rebels on Cuba tried to overthrow Spanish rule. Many Americans rallied behind the rebellion and began to sell war bonds in support of the recognition of Cuban belligerency. In 1869, President Grant's Secretary of State Hamilton Fish was unwilling to support the Cuban rebels since the United States had recently gone through the Civil War. Also at stake was negotiations for settlement of the Alabama Claims, that included the claim the British had recognized Confederate belligerency during the Civil War. The recognition of Cuban belligerency would have jeopardized negotiations between Britain and the United States. Secretary Rawlins, however, was strongly in favor of the recognition of Cuban belligerency and even advocated war with Spain, if necessary. Rawlins went to the press and stated the reasons why the United States needed to aid the Cuban rebels. Rawlins himself had accepted $28,000 in Cuban War bonds that would have been given face value if the Cuban rebels were recognized by the United States. Political infighting over recognizing Cuban belligerency took place in Grant's Cabinet. Secretary Fish, however, was able to convince Grant over Rawlins' impassioned arguments not to intervene in the Cuban insurrection. At this time Rawlins was becoming increasingly ill and was confined to his bed. Approval of Brooklyn Bridge construction One of Rawlins' last and most complicated acts as Secretary of War was the approval of the construction of the Brooklyn Bridge, a steel suspension bridge to connect the borough of Manhattan and the then independent city of Brooklyn over the East River. Controversy ensued when shipping interests demanded a high grade of the bridge to allow large ships to pass under, while the bridge construction company demanded a lower bridge span. Although Rawlins was severely ill, he took several days minutely and carefully going over the construction plans to settle the matter. The bridge company desired a maximum 130 feet height while the shipping interests wanted a minimal 140 feet height. In front of both shipping and bridge representatives, Rawlins fixed the maximum height of the Brooklyn Bridge at 135 feet above the East's high water mark. The bridge company was prohibited from giving a different order of approval of the bridge's construction. Construction of the Brooklyn Bridge followed several months later, but Rawlins condition was terminal and he did not have long to live. The Brooklyn Bridge was finally completed in 1883 under much celebration and is one of the oldest working bridges in the United States. Last cabinet meeting and death By late August 1869, Rawlins' "consumption" had progressed, and while he was staying at his home in Danbury, Connecticut with his wife and children, he hemorrhaged. Called to the capital for a cabinet meeting, his wife and children stayed behind, while Rawlins set off for Washington. In New York, Rawlins hemorrhaged again, but he continued his journey to see the President. Making it to the capital he hemorrhaged again, but he made it to the cabinet meeting and sat at his regular chair. Grant and Secretary Fish were surprised to see him there. The next day Rawlins had a long meeting with Grant at the White House, whereupon Grant said goodbye to his friend, who left Washington for Saratoga to join his wife Julia. Rawlins was left alone without wife or family in Washington, but another close wartime friend and Native American, Ely Parker, cared for him. The following day, Sunday, September 5, Grant was informed of Rawlins' declining health, and he set back to Washington determined to see his friend before he died, but his trip was delayed. Sherman and Grant's Secretary of Interior Jacob D. Cox stayed with Rawlins at his bedside waiting for Grant to arrive. When Rawlins asked when Grant was going to arrive Sherman gently lied to him and said "about 10 minutes". Rawlins, however, persisted on asking his doctor, D. Willard Bliss, when Grant was coming to see him. The following day on Monday, September 6, 1869, Secretary of War Rawlins died in office at 4:12 PM. Grant arrived at Rawlins' at 5:15 PM, too late to see his friend. Historian William McFeely said concerning Grant missing Rawlins' death that no one "could replace John Rawlins. Now in the first year of the frightening business of the presidency, Rawlins was stolen from Grant, and he had not even been on hand to protest the theft." Rawlins was initially buried in a friend's vault at Congressional Cemetery; his remains were later relocated to Arlington National Cemetery. Rawlins was survived by his second wife Mary Hurlburt and two children. Rawlins was succeeded as Secretary of War by Sherman on an interim basis, and permanently by William W. Belknap. Honors and historical evaluations A statue, General John A. Rawlins was erected in Washington, D.C. in 1874. Rawlins Township, Jo Daviess County, Illinois, the town of Rawlins, county seat of Carbon County, Wyoming, as well as Rawlins County, Kansas are all named after him. Rawlins devoted his efforts to maintaining Grant's public image during the war. Grant was known before the war for trouble with alcoholism, but it was revealed, in a letter from Rawlins to Grant (which Grant never saw), that Grant maintained his sobriety during his command of the Army. In this letter, made public in 1891—several years after Grant's death—Rawlins wrote, "I find you where the wine bottle has been emptied, in company with those who drink, and urge you not to do likewise." Rawlins noted that this advice was "heeded, and all went well", thus proving that Grant was not impaired by drink when his decision-making was critical. There was speculation that by the time Rawlins died, he and Grant had grown distant and that Grant no longer needed Rawlins's constant fussing over his image. When Rawlins died, only his temporary successor as Secretary of War, General William Tecumseh Sherman, was at his bedside. In his memoirs, written shortly before his death, Grant only mentioned Rawlins a few times, and essentially ignored their professional and personal relationship. Surviving members of Grant's former staff were outraged at the fact that Grant would snub someone who had been so useful and as loyal to him—literally to the death—as Rawlins had been. The most likely explanation for this is given by historian E.B. Long, who wrote, "It might be that Grant did not wish to praise Rawlins too profusely because of the current reports picturing Rawlins as the protector of Grant from his own bad habits." Rawlins's anti-Mormon policy was part of a general latter half of the 19th-century hysteria campaign against Mormons. In 1862, President Abraham Lincoln signed into law the Morrill Anti-Bigamy Act that outlawed polygamy. This law was not enforced until Secretary of War Rawlins, appointed by President Ulysses S. Grant in 1869, had convinced Grant to set up an anti-Mormon policy in the Utah Territory. To further prosecution of Mormon polygamy, including the arrest of Mormons, President Grant signed into law the Poland Act (1874) that allowed the federal government to choose juries that could prosecute polygamists. The law put all Mormons in the Utah Territory under control of the U.S. Marshal and U.S. Attorney. Two more anti-Mormon bills were passed including the Edmunds Act (1882), signed into law by President Chester A. Arthur, and the Edmunds–Tucker Act (1887), signed into law by President Grover Cleveland. An Endicott Era coast artillery battery at Fort Flagler was named after Rawlins in 1906. Military appointments Captain Assistant Military Adjutant General of Volunteers August 30, 1861 Major and Assistant Adjutant General of Volunteers May 14, 1862 Brigadier General of Volunteers August 11, 1863 Brigadier General United States Army and Chief of Staff to the Major General Commanding March 3, 1865 Major General United States Army April 9, 1865 Resigned March 12, 1869 Total military service time starting from first appointment date up to and including resignation date 2752 days or 7 years, 6 months, 13 days See also List of American Civil War generals (Union) Bibliography of the American Civil War Bibliography of Ulysses S. Grant William S. Hillyer – Another member of General Grant's original staff Notes References Sources Books Eicher, John H., and Eicher, David J., Civil War High Commands, Stanford University Press, 2001, . Newspapers External links 1831 births 1869 deaths Union Army generals Illinois lawyers American people of Scotch-Irish descent Burials at Arlington National Cemetery People from Galena, Illinois United States Secretaries of War People of Illinois in the American Civil War 19th-century deaths from tuberculosis Tuberculosis deaths in Washington, D.C. Grant administration cabinet members 19th-century American politicians Illinois Republicans Utah Republicans Critics of Mormonism Illinois Democrats

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The ocean (also the sea or the world ocean) is the body of salt water that covers approximately 70.8% of the surface of Earth and contains 97% of Earth's water. Another definition is "any of the large bodies of water into which the great ocean is divided". Separate names are used to identify five different areas of the ocean: Pacific (the largest), Atlantic, Indian, Southern (Antarctic), and Arctic (the smallest). Seawater covers approximately of the planet. The ocean is the principal component of Earth's hydrosphere, and therefore integral to life on Earth. Acting as a huge heat reservoir, the ocean influences climate and weather patterns, the carbon cycle, and the water cycle. Oceanographers divide the ocean into different vertical and horizontal zones based on physical and biological conditions. The pelagic zone consists of the water column from surface to ocean floor throughout the open ocean. The water column is further categorized in other zones depending on depth and on how much light is present. The photic zone includes water from the surface to a depth of 1% of the surface light (about 200 m in the open ocean), where photosynthesis can occur. This makes the photic zone the most biodiverse. Photosynthesis by plants and microscopic algae (free floating phytoplankton) creates organic matter using light, water, carbon dioxide, and nutrients. Ocean photosynthesis creates 50% of the oxygen in earth's atmosphere. This upper sunlit zone is the origin of the food supply which sustains most of the ocean ecosystem. Light only penetrates to a depth of a few hundred meters; the remaining ocean below is cold and dark. The continental shelf where the ocean approaches dry land is more shallow, with a depth of a few hundred meters or less. Human activity has a greater impact on the continental shelf.   Ocean temperatures depend on the amount of solar radiation reaching the ocean surface. In the tropics, surface temperatures can rise to over . Near the poles where sea ice forms, the temperature in equilibrium is about . Deep seawater temperature is between and in all parts of the ocean. Water continuously circulates in the oceans creating ocean currents. These directed movements of seawater are generated by forces acting upon the water, including temperature differences, atmospheric circulation (wind), the Coriolis effect and differences in salinity. Tidal currents originate from tides, while surface currents are caused by wind and waves. Major ocean currents include the Gulf Stream, Kuroshio current, Agulhas current and Antarctic Circumpolar Current. Collectively, currents move enormous amounts of water and heat around the globe. This circulation significantly impacts global climate and the uptake and redistribution of pollutants such as carbon dioxide by moving these contaminants from the surface into the deep ocean. Ocean water contains large quantities of dissolved gases, including oxygen, carbon dioxide and nitrogen. This gas exchange takes place at the ocean surface and solubility depends on the temperature and salinity of the water. The increasing concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere due to fossil fuel combustion leads to higher concentrations in ocean water, resulting in ocean acidification. The ocean provides society with important environmental services, including climate regulation. It also offers a means of trade and transport and access to food and other resources. Known to be the habitat of over 230,000 species, it may contain far more – perhaps over two million species. However, the ocean is subject to numerous environmental threats, including marine pollution, overfishing, ocean acidification and other effects of climate change. The continental shelf and coastal waters that are most influenced by human activity are especially vulnerable. Terminology Ocean and sea The terms "the ocean" or "the sea" used without specification refer to the interconnected body of salt water covering the majority of the Earth's surface. It includes the Atlantic, Pacific, Indian, Southern and Arctic Oceans. As a general term, "the ocean" is mostly interchangeable with "the sea" in American English, but not in British English. Strictly speaking, a "sea" is a body of water (generally a division of the world ocean) partly or fully enclosed by land. The word "sea" can also be used for many specific, much smaller bodies of seawater, such as the North Sea or the Red Sea. There is no sharp distinction between seas and oceans, though generally seas are smaller, and are often partly (as marginal seas) or wholly (as inland seas) bordered by land. World ocean The contemporary concept of the World Ocean was coined in the early 20th century by the Russian oceanographer Yuly Shokalsky to refer to the continuous ocean that covers and encircles most of Earth. The global, interconnected body of salt water is sometimes referred to as the world ocean or global ocean. The concept of a continuous body of water with relatively free interchange among its parts is of fundamental importance to oceanography. Etymology The word ocean comes from the figure in classical antiquity, Oceanus (; Ōkeanós, ), the elder of the Titans in classical Greek mythology. Oceanus was believed by the ancient Greeks and Romans to be the divine personification of an enormous river encircling the world. The concept of Ōkeanós has an Indo-European connection. Greek Ōkeanós has been compared to the Vedic epithet ā-śáyāna-, predicated of the dragon Vṛtra-, who captured the cows/rivers. Related to this notion, the Okeanos is represented with a dragon-tail on some early Greek vases. Geography Oceanic divisions The major oceanic divisions – listed below in descending order of area and volume – are so named based on nearest continents, various archipelagos, and other criteria. Oceans are fringed with coastlines that run for 360,000 kilometres in total distance. They are also connected to smaller, adjoining bodies of water such as, seas, gulfs, bays, bights, and straits. Seawater covers approximately and is customarily divided into five principal oceans, as below: {| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:right;" |+Oceans by size |- !scope="col" class="unsortable"| # !scope="col"| Ocean !scope="col" class="unsortable"| Location !scope="col"| Area(km2) !scope="col"| Volume(km3) !scope="col"| Avg. depth(m) !scope="col"| Coastline(km) |- !scope="row"| 1 | style="text-align:left;"| Pacific Ocean || align=left | Between Asia and Australasia and the Americas || (46.6%) || (50.1%) || || (35.9%) |- !scope="row"| 2 | align=left | Atlantic Ocean || align=left | Between the Americas and Europe and Africa || (23.5%) || (23.3%) || || (29.6%) |- !scope="row"| 3 | align=left | Indian Ocean || align=left | Between southern Asia, Africa and Australia || (19.5%) || (19.8%) || || (17.6%) |- !scope="row"| 4 | align=left | Southern Ocean || align=left | Between Antarctica and the Pacific, Atlantic and Indian oceans Sometimes considered an extension of those three oceans.|| (6.1%) || (5.4%) || || (4.8%) |- !scope="row"| 5 | align=left | Arctic Ocean || align=left | Between northern North America and Eurasia in the Arctic Sometimes considered a marginal sea of the Atlantic. || (4.3%) || (1.4%) || || (12.0%)|- class="sortbottom" ! colspan="3" | Total ! (100%)! (100%)! ! (100%)|} Ocean ridges and ocean basins Every ocean basin has a mid-ocean ridge, which creates a long mountain range beneath the ocean. Together they form the global mid-oceanic ridge system that features the longest mountain range in the world. The longest continuous mountain range is . This underwater mountain range is several times longer than the longest continental mountain range—the Andes. Oceanographers state that less than 20% of the oceans have been mapped. Formation The origin of Earth's oceans is unknown. Oceans are thought to have formed in the Hadean eon and may have been the cause for the emergence of life. Scientists believe that a sizable quantity of water would have been in the material that formed the Earth. Water molecules would have escaped Earth's gravity more easily when it was less massive during its formation. This is called atmospheric escape. Plate tectonics, post-glacial rebound, and sea level rise continually change the coastline and structure of the world ocean. A global ocean has existed in one form or another on Earth for eons. Physical properties Volumes The volume of water in all the oceans together is approximately 1.335 billion cubic kilometers (320.3 million cubic miles). Depth The average depth of the oceans is about 4 km. More precisely the average depth is . Nearly half of the world's marine waters are over deep. "Deep ocean," which is anything below 200 meters (660 ft.), covers about 66% of Earth's surface. This figure does not include seas not connected to the World Ocean, such as the Caspian Sea. The deepest point in the ocean is the Mariana Trench, located in the Pacific Ocean near the Northern Mariana Islands. Its maximum depth has been estimated to be . The British naval vessel Challenger II surveyed the trench in 1951 and named the deepest part of the trench the "Challenger Deep". In 1960, the Trieste successfully reached the bottom of the trench, manned by a crew of two men. Color Oceanic zones Oceanographers divide the ocean into different vertical and horizontal zones defined by physical and biological conditions. The pelagic zone consists of the water column of the open ocean, and can be divided into further regions categorized by light abundance and by depth. Grouped by light penetration The photic zone includes the oceans from the surface to a depth of 200 m; it is the region where photosynthesis can occur and is, therefore, the most biodiverse. Photosynthesis by plants and microscopic algae (free floating phytoplankton) allows the creation of organic matter from chemical precursors including water and carbon dioxide. This organic matter can then be consumed by other creatures. Much of the organic matter created in the photic zone is consumed there but some sinks into deeper waters. Below the photic zone is the mesopelagic or twilight zone where there is a very small amount of light. Below that is the aphotic deep ocean to which no surface sunlight at all penetrates. Life that exists deeper than the photic zone must either rely on material sinking from above (see marine snow) or find another energy source. Hydrothermal vents are a source of energy in what is known as the aphotic zone (depths exceeding 200 m). The pelagic part of the photic zone is known as the epipelagic. Grouped by depth and temperature The pelagic part of the aphotic zone can be further divided into vertical regions according to depth and temperature: The mesopelagic is the uppermost region. Its lowermost boundary is at a thermocline of which generally lies at in the tropics. Next is the bathypelagic lying between , typically between and . Lying along the top of the abyssal plain is the abyssopelagic, whose lower boundary lies at about . The last and deepest zone is the hadalpelagic which includes the oceanic trench and lies between . The benthic zones are aphotic and correspond to the three deepest zones of the deep-sea. The bathyal zone covers the continental slope down to about . The abyssal zone covers the abyssal plains between 4,000 and 6,000 m. Lastly, the hadal zone corresponds to the hadalpelagic zone, which is found in oceanic trenches. Distinct boundaries between ocean surface waters and deep waters can be drawn based on the properties of the water. These boundaries are called thermoclines (temperature), haloclines (salinity), chemoclines (chemistry), and pycnoclines (density). If a zone undergoes dramatic changes in temperature with depth, it contains a thermocline, a distinct boundary between warmer surface water and colder deep water. The tropical thermocline is typically deeper than the thermocline at higher latitudes. Polar waters, which receive relatively little solar energy, are not stratified by temperature and generally lack a thermocline because surface water at polar latitudes are nearly as cold as water at greater depths. Below the thermocline, water everywhere in the ocean is very cold, ranging from −1°C to 3°C. Because this deep and cold layer contains the bulk of ocean water, the average temperature of the world ocean is 3.9°C. If a zone undergoes dramatic changes in salinity with depth, it contains a halocline. If a zone undergoes a strong, vertical chemistry gradient with depth, it contains a chemocline. Temperature and salinity control the density of ocean water, with colder and saltier water being more dense, and this density in turn regulates the global water circulation within the ocean. The halocline often coincides with the thermocline, and the combination produces a pronounced pycnocline, a boundary between less dense surface water and dense deep water. Grouped by distance from land The pelagic zone can be further subdivided into two sub regions based on distance from land: the neritic zone and the oceanic zone. The neritic zone encompasses the water mass directly above the continental shelves and hence includes coastal waters, whereas the oceanic zone includes all the completely open water. The littoral zone covers the region between low and high tide and represents the transitional area between marine and terrestrial conditions. It is also known as the intertidal zone because it is the area where tide level affects the conditions of the region. Temperature Ocean temperatures depends on the amount of solar radiation falling on its surface. In the tropics, with the Sun nearly overhead, the temperature of the surface layers can rise to over while near the poles the temperature in equilibrium with the sea ice is about . There is a continuous circulation of water in the oceans. Warm surface currents cool as they move away from the tropics, and the water becomes denser and sinks. The cold water moves back towards the equator as a deep sea current, driven by changes in the temperature and density of the water, before eventually welling up again towards the surface. Deep seawater has a temperature between and in all parts of the globe. Seawater with a typical salinity of 35‰ has a freezing point of about −1.8°C (28.8°F). When its temperature becomes low enough, ice crystals form on the surface. These break into small pieces and coalesce into flat discs that form a thick suspension known as frazil. In calm conditions this freezes into a thin flat sheet known as nilas, which thickens as new ice forms on its underside. In more turbulent seas, frazil crystals join into flat discs known as pancakes. These slide under each other and coalesce to form floes. In the process of freezing, salt water and air are trapped between the ice crystals. Nilas may have a salinity of 12–15‰, but by the time the sea ice is one year old, this falls to 4–6‰. Ocean warming accounts for over 90% of Earth's energy accumulation from global warming between 1971 and 2020. About one third of that extra heat has been estimated to propagate to depths below 700 meters. Ocean currents and global climate Types of ocean currents An ocean current is a continuous, directed movement of seawater generated by a number of forces acting upon the water, including wind, the Coriolis effect, temperature and salinity differences. Ocean currents are primarily horizontal water movements. They have different origins, such as tides for tidal currents, or wind and waves for surface currents. Tidal currents are in phase with the tide, hence are quasiperiodic; associated with the influence of the moon and sun pull on the ocean water. Tidal currents may form various complex patterns in certain places, most notably around headlands. Non-periodic or non-tidal currents are created by the action of winds and changes in density of water. In littoral zones, breaking waves are so intense and the depth measurement so low, that maritime currents reach often 1 to 2 knots. The wind and waves create surface currents (designated as "drift currents"). These currents can decompose in one quasi-permanent current (which varies within the hourly scale) and one movement of Stokes drift under the effect of rapid waves movement (which vary on timescales of a couple of seconds). The quasi-permanent current is accelerated by the breaking of waves, and in a lesser governing effect, by the friction of the wind on the surface. This acceleration of the current takes place in the direction of waves and dominant wind. Accordingly, when the ocean depth increases, the rotation of the earth changes the direction of currents in proportion with the increase of depth, while friction lowers their speed. At a certain ocean depth, the current changes direction and is seen inverted in the opposite direction with current speed becoming null: known as the Ekman spiral. The influence of these currents is mainly experienced at the mixed layer of the ocean surface, often from 400 to 800 meters of maximum depth. These currents can considerably change and are dependent on the yearly seasons. If the mixed layer is less thick (10 to 20 meters), the quasi-permanent current at the surface can adopt quite a different direction in relation to the direction of the wind. In this case, the water column becomes virtually homogeneous above the thermocline. The wind blowing on the ocean surface will set the water in motion. The global pattern of winds (also called atmospheric circulation) creates a global pattern of ocean currents. These are not only driven by the wind but also by the effect of the circulation of the earth (coriolis force). Theses major ocean currents include the Gulf Stream, Kuroshio current, Agulhas current and Antarctic Circumpolar Current. The Antarctic Circumpolar Current encircles Antarctica and influences the area's climate as well as connecting currents in several oceans. Relationship of currents and climate Collectively, currents move enormous amounts of water and heat around the globe influencing climate. These wind driven currents are largely confined to the top hundreds of meters of the ocean. At greater depth the drivers of water motion are the thermohaline circulation. This is driven by the cooling of surface waters at northern and southern polar latitudes creating dense water which sinks to the bottom of the ocean. This cold and dense water moves slowly away from the poles which is why the waters in the deepest layers of the world ocean are so cold. This deep ocean water circulation is relatively slow and water at the bottom of the ocean can be isolated from the ocean surface and atmosphere for hundreds or even a few thousand years. This circulation has important impacts on global climate and the uptake and redistribution of pollutants such as carbon dioxide by moving these contaminants from the surface into the deep ocean.       Ocean currents greatly affect Earth's climate by transferring heat from the tropics to the polar regions and thereby also affecting air temperature and precipitation in coastal regions and further inland. Surface heat and freshwater fluxes create global density gradients that drive the thermohaline circulation part of large-scale ocean circulation. It plays an important role in supplying heat to the polar regions, and thus in sea ice regulation. Oceans moderate the climate of locations where prevailing winds blow in from the ocean. At similar latitudes, a place on Earth with more influence from the ocean will have a more moderate climate than a place with more influence from land. For example, the cities San Francisco (37.8 N) and New York (40.7 N) have different climates because San Francisco has more influence from the ocean. San Francisco, on the west coast of North America, gets winds from the west over the Pacific Ocean, and the influence of the ocean water yields a more moderate climate with a warmer winter and a longer, cooler summer, with the warmest temperatures happening later in the year. New York, on the east coast of North America gets winds from the west over land, so New York has colder winters and hotter, earlier summers than San Francisco. Warmer ocean currents yield warmer climates in the long term, even at high latitudes. At similar latitudes, a place influenced by warm ocean currents will have a warmer climate overall than a place influenced by cold ocean currents. French Riviera (43.5 N) and Rockland, Maine (44.1 N) have same latitude, but the French Riviera is influenced by warm waters transported by the Gulf Stream into the Mediterranean Sea and has a warmer climate overall. Maine is influenced by cold waters transported south by the Labrador Current giving it a colder climate overall. Changes in the thermohaline circulation are thought to have significant impacts on Earth's energy budget. Since the thermohaline circulation governs the rate at which deep waters reach the surface, it may also significantly influence atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations. However, climate change might result in the shutdown of thermohaline circulation in the future. This would in turn trigger cooling in the North Atlantic, Europe, and North America. Waves and swell The motions of the ocean surface, known as undulations or wind waves, are the partial and alternate rising and falling of the ocean surface. The series of mechanical waves that propagate along the interface between water and air is called swell – a term used in sailing, surfing and navigation. These motions profoundly affect ships on the surface of the ocean and the well-being of people on those ships who might suffer from sea sickness. Wind blowing over the surface of a body of water forms waves that are perpendicular to the direction of the wind. The friction between air and water caused by a gentle breeze on a pond causes ripples to form. A strong blow over the ocean causes larger waves as the moving air pushes against the raised ridges of water. The waves reach their maximum height when the rate at which they are travelling nearly matches the speed of the wind. In open water, when the wind blows continuously as happens in the Southern Hemisphere in the Roaring Forties, long, organized masses of water called swell roll across the ocean. If the wind dies down, the wave formation is reduced, but already-formed waves continue to travel in their original direction until they meet land. The size of the waves depends on the fetch, the distance that the wind has blown over the water and the strength and duration of that wind. When waves meet others coming from different directions, interference between the two can produce broken, irregular seas. Constructive interference can cause individual (unexpected) rogue waves much higher than normal. Most waves are less than high and it is not unusual for strong storms to double or triple that height. Rogue waves, however, have been documented at heights above .Laird, Anne (2006). "Observed Statistics of Extreme Waves". Naval Postgraduate School (Monterey). The top of a wave is known as the crest, the lowest point between waves is the trough and the distance between the crests is the wavelength. The wave is pushed across the surface of the ocean by the wind, but this represents a transfer of energy and not a horizontal movement of water. As waves approach land and move into shallow water, they change their behavior. If approaching at an angle, waves may bend (refraction) or wrap around rocks and headlands (diffraction). When the wave reaches a point where its deepest oscillations of the water contact the ocean floor, they begin to slow down. This pulls the crests closer together and increases the waves' height, which is called wave shoaling. When the ratio of the wave's height to the water depth increases above a certain limit, it "breaks", toppling over in a mass of foaming water. This rushes in a sheet up the beach before retreating into the ocean under the influence of gravity. Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions or other major geological disturbances can set off waves that can lead to tsunamis in coastal areas which can be very dangerous. Tides Tides are the regular rise and fall in water level experienced by oceans in response to the gravitational influences of the moon and the sun, and the effects of the Earth's rotation. During each tidal cycle, at any given place the water rises to a maximum height known as "high tide" before ebbing away again to the minimum "low tide" level. As the water recedes, it uncovers more and more of the foreshore, also known as the intertidal zone. The difference in height between the high tide and low tide is known as the tidal range or tidal amplitude. In the open ocean tidal ranges are less than 1 meter, but in coastal areas these tidal ranges increase to more than 10 meters in some areas. Some of the largest tidal ranges in the world occur in the Bay of Fundy and Ungava Bay in Canada, reaching up to 16 meters. Other locations with record high tidal ranges include the Bristol Channel between England and Wales, Cook Inlet in Alaska, and the Río Gallegos in Argentina. Most places experience two high tides each day, occurring at intervals of about 12 hours and 25 minutes. This is half the 24 hours and 50 minute period that it takes for the Earth to make a complete revolution and return the moon to its previous position relative to an observer. Tidal force or tide-raising force decreases rapidly with distance, so the moon has more than twice as great an effect on tides as the Sun. When the sun, moon and Earth are all aligned (full moon and new moon), the combined effect results in the high "spring tides". A storm surge can occur when high winds pile water up against the coast in a shallow area and this, coupled with a low pressure system, can raise the surface of the ocean at high tide dramatically. Water cycle, weather and rainfall Ocean water represents the largest body of water within the global water cycle (oceans contain 97% of Earth's water). Evaporation from the ocean moves water into the atmosphere to later rain back down onto land and the ocean. Oceans have a significant effect on the biosphere. The ocean as a whole is thought to cover approximately 90% of the Earth's biosphere. Oceanic evaporation, as a phase of the water cycle, is the source of most rainfall (about 90%). Ocean temperatures affect climate and wind patterns that affect life on land. One of the most dramatic forms of weather occurs over the oceans: tropical cyclones (also called "typhoons" and "hurricanes" depending upon where the system forms). As the world's ocean is the principal component of Earth's hydrosphere, it is integral to life on Earth, forms part of the carbon cycle and water cycle, and – as a huge heat reservoir – influences climate and weather patterns. Chemical composition of seawater Salinity Salinity is a measure of the total amounts of dissolved salts in seawater. It was originally measured via measurement of the amount of chloride in seawater and hence termed chlorinity. It is now routinely measured by measuring electrical conductivity of the water sample. Salinity can be calculated using the chlorinity, which is a measure of the total mass of halogen ions (includes fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine) in seawater. By international agreement, the following formula is used to determine salinity: Salinity (in ‰) = 1.80655 × Chlorinity (in ‰) The average ocean water chlorinity is about 19.2‰, and, thus, the average salinity is around 34.7‰. Salinity has a major influence on the density of seawater. A zone of rapid salinity increase with depth is called a halocline. The temperature of maximum density of seawater decreases as its salt content increases. Freezing temperature of water decreases with salinity, and boiling temperature of water increases with salinity. Typical seawater freezes at around −2 °C at atmospheric pressure. Salinity is higher in Earth's oceans where there is more evaporation and lower where there is more precipitation. If precipitation exceeds evaporation, as is the case in polar and some temperate regions, salinity will be lower. If evaporation exceeds precipitation, as is sometimes the case in tropical regions, salinity will be higher. For example, evaporation is greater than precipitation in the Mediterranean Sea, which has an average salinity of 38‰, more saline than the global average of 34.7‰. Thus, oceanic waters in polar regions have lower salinity content than oceanic waters tropical regions. However, when sea ice forms at high latitudes, salt is excluded from the ice as it forms, which can increase the salinity in the residual seawater in polar regions such as the Arctic Ocean. General characteristics of ocean surface waters The waters in different regions of the ocean have quite different temperature and salinity characteristics. This is due to differences in the local water balance (precipitation vs. evaporation) and the "sea to air" temperature gradients. These characteristics can vary widely among ocean regions. The table below provides an illustration of the sort of values usually encountered. Dissolved gases Ocean water contains large quantities of dissolved gases, including oxygen, carbon dioxide and nitrogen. These dissolve into ocean water via gas exchange at the ocean surface, with the solubility of these gases depending on the temperature and salinity of the water. The four most abundant gases in earth’s atmosphere and oceans are nitrogen, oxygen, argon, and carbon dioxide. In the ocean by volume, the most abundant gases dissolved in seawater are carbon dioxide (including bicarbonate and carbonate ions, 14 mL/L on average), nitrogen (9 mL/L), and oxygen (5 mL/L) at equilibrium at All gases are more soluble – more easily dissolved – in colder water than in warmer water. For example, when salinity and pressure are held constant, oxygen concentration in water almost doubles when the temperature drops from that of a warm summer day to freezing . Similarly, carbon dioxide and nitrogen gases are more soluble at colder temperatures, and their solubility changes with temperature at different rates. Oxygen and carbon cycling The process of photosynthesis in the surface ocean releases oxygen and consumes carbon dioxide. This photosynthesis in the ocean is dominated by phytoplankton, microscopic free floating algae. After the plants grow, bacterial decomposition of the organic matter formed by photosynthesis in the ocean consumes oxygen and releases carbon dioxide. The sinking and bacterial decomposition of some organic matter in deep ocean water, at depths where the waters are out of contact with the atmosphere, leads to a reduction in oxygen concentrations and increase in carbon dioxide, carbonate and bicarbonate. This cycling of carbon dioxide in oceans is an important part of the global carbon cycle. The increasing carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere due to fossil fuel combustion lead to higher concentrations in the ocean waters and ocean acidification. Dissolving atmospheric carbon dioxide reacts with bicarbonate and carbonate ions in seawater to shift the chemical balance of the water, making it more acidic. The oceans represent a major sink for carbon dioxide taken up from the atmosphere by photosynthesis and by dissolution. There is also increasing attention focused on carbon dioxide uptake in coastal marine habitats such as mangroves and saltmarshes, a process sometimes referred to as “Blue carbon”. Attention is focused on these ecosystems because they are strong carbon sinks as well as ecologically important habitats under considerable threat from human activities and environmental degradation. As deep ocean water circulates throughout the globe, it contains gradually less oxygen and gradually more carbon dioxide with more time away from the air at the surface. This gradual decrease in oxygen concentration happens as sinking organic matter continuously gets decomposed during the time the water is out of contact with the atmosphere. Most of the deep waters of the ocean still contain relatively high concentrations of oxygen sufficient for most animals to survive. However, some ocean areas have very low oxygen due to long periods of isolation of the water from the atmosphere. These oxygen deficient areas, called oxygen minimum zones or hypoxic waters, could be made worse by climate change. Residence times of chemical elements and ions The ocean waters contain many chemical elements as dissolved ions. Elements dissolved in ocean waters have a wide range of concentrations. Some elements have very high concentrations of several grams per liter, such as sodium and chloride, together making up the majority of ocean salts. Other elements, such as iron, are present at tiny concentrations of just a few nanograms (10−9 grams) per liter. The concentration of any element depends on its rate of supply to the ocean and its rate of removal. Elements enter the ocean from rivers, the atmosphere and hydrothermal vents. Elements are removed from ocean water by sinking and becoming buried in sediments or evaporating to the atmosphere in the case of water and some gases. Oceanographers consider the balance of input and removal by estimating the residence time of an element. Residence time is the average time the element would spend dissolved in the ocean before it is removed. Very abundant elements in ocean water like sodium have high rates of input, reflecting high abundance in rocks and relatively rapid rock weathering, coupled to very slow removal from the ocean because sodium ions are rather unreactive and very soluble. In contrast, other elements such as iron and aluminium are abundant in rocks but very insoluble, meaning that inputs to the ocean are low and removal is rapid. These cycles represent part of the major global cycle of elements that has gone on since the Earth first formed. The residence times of the very abundant elements in the ocean are estimated to be millions of years, while for highly reactive and insoluble elements, residence times are only hundreds of years. Nutrients A few elements such as nitrogen, phosphorus, iron, and potassium are essential for life, are major components of biological material, and are commonly called “nutrients”. Nitrate and phosphate have ocean residence times of 10,000 and 69,000 years, respectively, while potassium is a much more abundant ion in the ocean with a residence time of 12 million years. The biological cycling of these elements means that this represents a continuous removal process from the ocean's water column as degrading organic material sinks to the ocean floor as sediment. Phosphate from intensive agriculture and untreated sewage is transported via runoff to rivers and coastal zones to the ocean where it is metabolized. Eventually, it sinks to the ocean floor and is no longer available to humans as a commercial resource. Production of rock phosphate, an essential ingredient in inorganic fertilizer is a slow geological process occurring in some of the world's ocean sediments thus making minable sedimentary apatite (phosphate) in effect a non-renewable resource (see peak phosphorus). This continuous net deposition loss of non-renewable phosphate from human activities may become a resource problem in the future for fertilizer production and food security. Marine life Life within the ocean evolved 3 billion years prior to life on land. Both the depth and the distance from shore strongly influence the biodiversity of the plants and animals present in each region. The diversity of life in the ocean is immense, including: Animals: most animal phyla have species that inhabit the ocean, including many that are only found in marine environments such as sponges, Cnidaria (such as corals and jellyfish), comb jellies, Brachiopods, and Echinoderms (such as sea urchins and sea stars). Many other familiar animal groups primarily live in the ocean, including cephalopods (includes octopus and squid), crustaceans (includes lobsters, crabs, and shrimp), fish, sharks, cetaceans (includes whales, dolphins, and porpoises). In addition, many land animals have adapted to living a major part of their life on the oceans. For instance, seabirds are a diverse group of birds that have adapted to a life mainly on the oceans. They feed on marine animals and spend most of their lifetime on water, many only going on land for breeding. Other birds that have adapted to oceans as their living space are penguins, seagulls and pelicans. Seven species of turtles, the sea turtles, also spend most of their time in the oceans. Plants: including sea grasses, or mangroves Algae: algae is a "catch-all" term to include many photosynthetic, single-celled eukaryotes, such as green algae, diatoms, and dinoflagellates, but also multicellular algae, such as some red algae (including organisms like Pyropia, which is the source of the edible nori seaweed), and brown algae (including organisms like kelp). Bacteria: ubiquitous single-celled prokaryotes found throughout the world Archaea: prokaryotes distinct from bacteria, that inhabit many environments of the ocean, as well as many extreme environments Fungi: many marine fungi with diverse roles are found in oceanic environments Human uses of the oceans The ocean has been linked to human activity throughout history. These activities serve a wide variety of purposes, including navigation and exploration, naval warfare, travel, shipping and trade, food production (e.g. fishing, whaling, seaweed farming, aquaculture), leisure (cruising, sailing, recreational boat fishing, scuba diving), power generation (see marine energy and offshore wind power), extractive industries (offshore drilling and deep sea mining), freshwater production via desalination. Many of the world's goods are moved by ship between the world's seaports. Large quantities of goods are transported across the ocean, especially across the Atlantic and around the Pacific Rim. A lot of cargo, such as manufactured goods, is usually transported within standard sized, lockable containers, loaded on purpose-built container ships at dedicated terminals. Containerization greatly increased the efficiency and decreased the cost of moving goods by sea, and was a major factor leading to the rise of globalization and exponential increases in international trade in the mid-to-late 20th century. Oceans are also the major supply source for the fishing industry. Some of the major harvests are shrimp, fish, crabs, and lobster. The biggest commercial fishery globally is for anchovies, Alaska pollock and tuna. A report by FAO in 2020 stated that "in 2017, 34 percent of the fish stocks of the world’s marine fisheries were classified as overfished". Fish and other fishery products from both wild fisheries and aquaculture are among the most widely consumed sources of protein and other essential nutrients. Data in 2017 showed that "fish consumption accounted for 17 percent of the global population’s intake of animal proteins". In order to fulfill this need, coastal countries have exploited marine resources in their exclusive economic zone, although fishing vessels are increasingly venturing further afield to exploit stocks in international waters. The ocean offers a very large supply of energy carried by ocean waves, tides, salinity differences, and ocean temperature differences which can be harnessed to generate electricity. Forms of sustainable marine energy include tidal power, ocean thermal energy and wave power. Offshore wind power is captured by wind turbines placed out on the ocean; it has the advantage that wind speeds are higher than on land, though wind farms are more costly to construct offshore. There are large deposits of petroleum, as oil and natural gas, in rocks beneath the ocean floor. Offshore platforms and drilling rigs extract the oil or gas and store it for transport to land. "Freedom of the seas" is a principle in international law dating from the seventeenth century. It stresses freedom to navigate the oceans and disapproves of war fought in international waters. Today, this concept is enshrined in the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). There are two major international legal organizations that are involved in ocean governance on a global scale, namely the International Maritime Organization and the United Nations. The International Maritime Organization (IMO), which was ratified in 1958 is responsible mainly for maritime safety, liability and compensation and they have held some conventions on marine pollution related to shipping incidents. Ocean governance is the conduct of the policy, actions and affairs regarding the world's oceans. Threats Human activities affect marine life and marine habitats through many negative influences, such as marine pollution (including marine debris and microplastics) overfishing, ocean acidification and other effects of climate change on oceans. Marine pollution Plastic pollution Overfishing Climate change Ocean acidification Protection Protecting Earth's oceans ecosystem/s against its recognized threats is a major component of environmental protection and is closely related to sustainable development. One of its main techniques is the creation and enforcement of marine protected areas (MPAs). Other techniques may include standardized product certifications, supply chain transparency requirements policies, policies to prevent marine pollution, eco-tariffs, research and development, ecosystem-assistance (e.g. for coral reefs), support for sustainable seafood (e.g. sustainable fishing practices and types of aquaculture), banning and systematically obstructing (e.g. via higher costs policies) unsustainable ocean use and associated industries (e.g. cruise ship travel, certain shipping practices), monitoring, revising waste management of plastics and fashion industry pollutants, protection of marine resources and components whose extraction or disturbance would cause substantial harm, engagement of broader publics and impacted communities, novel decision-making mechanisms, and the development of ocean clean-up projects. Ocean protection serves to i.a. protect human health and to safeguard stable conditions of this natural ecosystem upon which humans depend. It may be necessary to consider marine protection within a national, regional and international context. Marine protection could also have synergistic effects – for instance, according to a study, a global network of MPAs designed to improve fisheries productivity could substantially increase future catch. In 2021, 43 expert scientists published the first scientific framework version that – via integration, review, clarifications and standardization – enables the evaluation of levels of protection of marine protected areas and can serve as a guide for any subsequent efforts to improve, plan and monitor marine protection-quality and -extents such as in efforts towards the 30%-protection-goal of the "Global Deal For Nature" and the UN's SDG 14. Extraterrestrial oceans Extraterrestrial oceans may be composed of water or other elements and compounds. The only confirmed large stable bodies of extraterrestrial surface liquids are the lakes of Titan, which are made of hydrocarbons instead of water. However, there is strong evidence for subsurface water oceans' existence elsewhere in the Solar System. The best-established candidates for subsurface water oceans in the Solar System are Jupiter's moons Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto; and Saturn's moons Enceladus and Titan. Although Earth is the only known planet with large stable bodies of liquid water on its surface and the only one in the Solar System, other celestial bodies are thought to have large oceans. In June 2020, NASA scientists reported that it is likely that exoplanets with oceans may be common'' in the Milky Way galaxy, based on mathematical modeling studies. Supercritical fluid on gas giants The inner structure of gas giants remain poorly understood. Scientists suspect that under extreme pressure, hydrogen would act as a supercritical fluid. Hence the likelihood of "oceans" of liquid hydrogen deep in the interior of gas giants like Jupiter. The possibility of oceans of liquid carbon have been hypothesized to occur on ice giants, notably Neptune and Uranus. See also European Atlas of the Seas Land and water hemispheres List of seas Marine heatwave World Ocean Atlas World Oceans Day References External links FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations) Fisheries Division NOAA – National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (United States) United Nations Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development (2021–2030) Oceans Coastal and oceanic landforms Bodies of water Articles containing video clips

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The 21st United States Congress was a meeting of the legislative branch of the United States federal government, consisting of the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives. It met in Washington, D.C. from March 4, 1829, to March 4, 1831, during the first two years of Andrew Jackson's presidency. The apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives was based on the Fourth Census of the United States in 1820. Both chambers had a Jacksonian majority. Major events March 4, 1829: Andrew Jackson became 7th President of the United States May 10–14, 1830: Confrontational meetings between the French Chargé d'affaires in Washington DC and a group of leaders consisting of Mark Alexander, William S. Archer, Robert H. Adams, Thomas Hinds, Dixon H. Lewis, Clement Comer Clay, Powhatan Ellis and John McKinley grew incredibly contentious and hostile. Arguments began when the aforementioned representatives and senators charged that France owed the United States reparations from damages incurred during the Quasi-War. At one point Thomas Hinds threatened the French Chargé d'affaires with a pistol. Eventually, only intervention by John Forsyth prevented a major diplomatic incident. Shortly after this the governor of Virginia John Floyd formally asked France's economic attaché to leave Virginia. This foreshadowed conflict with France over the same issue that would dominate American politics in 1835, at that point the main instigator on the American side would be President Andrew Jackson. May 28 – US congress passes the Indian Removal Act. September 27 – Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek with Choctaw nation. (First removal treaty signed after the Removal Act.) Major legislation May 28, 1830: Indian Removal Act, ch. 148, Not enacted May 27, 1830: Maysville Road Bill vetoed Treaties September 27, 1830: The Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek, the first removal treaty after the passage of the Indian Removal Act, is signed with the Choctaw. February 24, 1831: Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek proclaimed. Party summary The count below identifies party affiliations at the beginning of the first session of this congress. Changes resulting from subsequent replacements are shown below in the "Changes in membership" section. Senate House of Representatives Leadership Senate President: John C. Calhoun (J) President pro tempore: Samuel Smith (J) House of Representatives Speaker: Andrew Stevenson (J) Members This list is arranged by chamber, then by state. Senators are listed by class, and representatives are listed by district. Skip to House of Representatives, below Senate Senators were elected by the state legislatures every two years, with one-third beginning new six-year terms with each Congress. Preceding the names in the list below are Senate class numbers, which indicate the cycle of their election. In this Congress, Class 1 meant their term began in the last Congress, facing re-election in 1832; Class 2 meant their term began with this Congress, facing re-election in 1834; and Class 3 meant their term ended with this Congress, facing re-election in 1830. Alabama 2. William R. King (J) 3. John McKinley (J) Connecticut 1. Samuel A. Foot (NR) 3. Calvin Willey (NR) Delaware 1. Louis McLane (J), until April 16, 1829 Arnold Naudain (NR), from January 7, 1830 2. John M. Clayton (NR) Georgia 2. George Troup (J) 3. John M. Berrien (J), until March 9, 1829 John Forsyth (J), from November 9, 1829 Illinois 2. John McLean (J), until October 14, 1830 David J. Baker (J), November 12, 1830 – December 11, 1830 John M. Robinson (J), from December 11, 1830 3. Elias Kane (J) Indiana 1. James Noble (NR), until February 26, 1831, vacant for remainder of term 3. William Hendricks (NR) Kentucky 2. George M. Bibb (J) 3. John Rowan (J) Louisiana 2. Edward Livingston (J) 3. Josiah S. Johnston (NR) Maine 1. John Holmes (NR) 2. Peleg Sprague (NR) Maryland 1. Samuel Smith (J) 3. Ezekiel F. Chambers (NR) Massachusetts 1. Daniel Webster (NR) 2. Nathaniel Silsbee (NR) Mississippi 1. Powhatan Ellis (J) 2. Thomas B. Reed (J), until November 26, 1829 Robert H. Adams (J), January 6, 1830 – July 2, 1830 George Poindexter (J), from October 15, 1830 Missouri 1. Thomas H. Benton (J) 3. David Barton (NR) New Hampshire 2. Samuel Bell (NR) 3. Levi Woodbury (J) New Jersey 1. Mahlon Dickerson (J) 2. Theodore Frelinghuysen (NR) New York 1. Charles E. Dudley (J) 3. Nathan Sanford (NR) North Carolina 2. John Branch (J), until March 9, 1829 Bedford Brown (J), from December 9, 1829 3. James Iredell Jr. (J) Ohio 1. Benjamin Ruggles (NR) 3. Jacob Burnet (NR) Pennsylvania 1. Isaac D. Barnard (J) 3. William Marks (NR) Rhode Island 1. Asher Robbins (NR) 2. Nehemiah R. Knight (NR) South Carolina 2. Robert Y. Hayne (J) 3. William Smith (J) Tennessee 1. John Eaton (J), until March 9, 1829 Felix Grundy (J), from October 19, 1829 2. Hugh Lawson White (J) Vermont 1. Horatio Seymour (NR) 3. Dudley Chase (NR) Virginia 1. John Tyler (J) 2. Littleton W. Tazewell (J) House of Representatives Members are listed by their districts. Alabama . Clement C. Clay (J) . Robert E. B. Baylor (J) . Dixon H. Lewis (J) Connecticut All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket. . Noyes Barber (NR) . William W. Ellsworth (NR) . Jabez W. Huntington (NR) . Ralph I. Ingersoll (NR) . William L. Storrs (NR) . Ebenezer Young (NR) Delaware . Kensey Johns Jr. (NR) Georgia All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket. . Thomas F. Foster (J) . Charles E. Haynes (J) . Henry G. Lamar (J), from December 7, 1829 . Wilson Lumpkin (J) . Wiley Thompson (J) . James M. Wayne (J) . Richard Henry Wilde (J) Illinois . Joseph Duncan (J) Indiana . Ratliff Boon (J) . Jonathan Jennings (NR) . John Test (NR) Kentucky . Henry Daniel (J) . Nicholas D. Coleman (J) . James Clark (NR) . Robert P. Letcher (NR) . Richard M. Johnson (J) . Joseph Lecompte (J) . John Kincaid (J) . Nathan Gaither (J) . Charles A. Wickliffe (J) . Joel Yancey (J) . Thomas Chilton (J) . Chittenden Lyon (J) Louisiana . Edward D. White (NR) . Henry H. Gurley (NR) . Walter H. Overton (J) Maine . Rufus McIntire (J) . John Anderson (J) . Joseph F. Wingate (NR) . George Evans (NR), from July 20, 1829 . James W. Ripley (J), until March 12, 1830 Cornelius Holland (J), from December 6, 1830 . Leonard Jarvis (J) . Samuel Butman (NR) Maryland The 5th district was a plural district with two representatives. . Clement Dorsey (NR) . Benedict J. Semmes (NR) . George C. Washington (NR) . Michael C. Sprigg (J) . Elias Brown (J) . Benjamin C. Howard (J) . George E. Mitchell (J), from December 7, 1829 . Richard Spencer (J) . Ephraim K. Wilson (J) Massachusetts . Benjamin Gorham (NR) . Benjamin W. Crowninshield (NR) . John Varnum (NR) . Edward Everett (NR) . John Davis (NR) . Joseph G. Kendall (NR) . George J. Grennell Jr. (NR) . Isaac C. Bates (NR) . Henry W. Dwight (NR) . John Bailey (NR) . Joseph Richardson (NR) . James L. Hodges (NR) . John Reed Jr. (NR) Mississippi . Thomas Hinds (J) Missouri . Spencer D. Pettis (J) New Hampshire All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket. . John Brodhead (J) . Thomas Chandler (J) . Joseph Hammons (J) . Jonathan Harvey (J) . Henry Hubbard (J) . John W. Weeks (J) New Jersey All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket. . Lewis Condict (NR) . Richard M. Cooper (NR) . Thomas H. Hughes (NR) . Isaac Pierson (NR) . James F. Randolph (NR) . Samuel Swan (NR) New York There were three plural districts, the 20th & 26th had two representatives each, the 3rd had three representatives. . James Lent (J) . Jacob Crocheron (J) . Churchill C. Cambreleng (J) . Gulian C. Verplanck (J) . Campbell P. White (J) . Henry B. Cowles (NR) . Abraham Bockee (J) . Hector Craig (J), until July 12, 1830 Samuel W. Eager (NR), from November 2, 1830 . Charles G. DeWitt (J) . James Strong (NR) . John D. Dickinson (NR) . Ambrose Spencer (NR) . Perkins King (J) . Peter I. Borst (J) . William G. Angel (J) . Henry R. Storrs (NR) . Michael Hoffman (J) . Benedict Arnold (NR) . John W. Taylor (NR) . Henry C. Martindale (NR) . Isaac Finch (NR) . Joseph Hawkins (NR) . George Fisher (NR), until February 5, 1830 Jonah Sanford (J), from November 3, 1830 . Robert Monell (J), until February 21, 1831, vacant thereafter . Thomas Beekman (NR) . Jonas Earll Jr. (J) . Gershom Powers (J) . Thomas Maxwell (J) . Jehiel H. Halsey (J) . Robert S. Rose (Anti-M) . Timothy Childs (Anti-M) . John Magee (J) . Phineas L. Tracy (Anti-M) . Ebenezer F. Norton (J) North Carolina . William B. Shepard (NR) . Willis Alston (J) . Thomas H. Hall (J) . Jesse Speight (J) . Gabriel Holmes (J), until September 26, 1829 Edward B. Dudley (J), from November 10, 1829 . Robert Potter (J) . Edmund Deberry (NR) . Daniel L. Barringer (J) . Augustine H. Shepperd (J) . Abraham Rencher (J) . Henry W. Connor (J) . Samuel P. Carson (J) . Lewis Williams (NR) Ohio . James Findlay (J) . James Shields (J) . Joseph H. Crane (NR) . Joseph Vance (NR) . William Russell (J) . William Creighton Jr. (NR) . Samuel F. Vinton (NR) . William Stanbery (J) . William W. Irvin (J) . William Kennon Sr. (J) . John M. Goodenow (J), until April 9, 1830 Humphrey H. Leavitt (J), from December 6, 1830 . John Thomson (J) . Elisha Whittlesey (NR) . Mordecai Bartley (NR) Pennsylvania There were six plural districts, the 7th, 8th, 11th & 16th had two representatives each, the 4th & 9th had three representatives each. . Joel B. Sutherland (J) . Joseph Hemphill (J) . Daniel H. Miller (J) . James Buchanan (J) . Joshua Evans Jr. (J) . George G. Leiper (J) . John B. Sterigere (J) . Innis Green (J) . Joseph Fry Jr. (J) . Henry A. P. Muhlenberg (J) . Samuel D. Ingham (J), until March 1829 Peter Ihrie Jr. (J), from October 13, 1829 . George Wolf (J), until March 1829 Samuel A. Smith (J), from October 13, 1829 . James Ford (J) . Alem Marr (J) . Philander Stephens (J) . Adam King (J) . Thomas H. Crawford (J) . William Ramsey (J) . John Scott (J) . Chauncey Forward (J) . Thomas Irwin (J) . William McCreery (J) . Harmar Denny (Anti-M), from December 15, 1829, after William Wilkins resigned before qualifying . John Gilmore (J) . Richard Coulter (J) . Thomas H. Sill (NR) Rhode Island Both representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket. . Tristam Burges (NR) . Dutee J. Pearce (NR) South Carolina . William Drayton (J) . Robert W. Barnwell (J) . John Campbell (J) . William D. Martin (J) . George McDuffie (J) . Warren R. Davis (J) . William T. Nuckolls (J) . James Blair (J) . Starling Tucker (J) Tennessee . John Blair (J) . Pryor Lea (J) . James I. Standifer (J) . Jacob C. Isacks (J) . Robert Desha (J) . James K. Polk (J) . John Bell (J) . Cave Johnson (J) . David Crockett (NR) Vermont . Jonathan Hunt (NR) . Rollin C. Mallary (NR) . Horace Everett (NR) . Benjamin Swift (NR) . William Cahoon (Anti-M) Virginia . Thomas Newton Jr. (NR), until March 9, 1830 George Loyall (J), from March 9, 1830 . James Trezvant (J) . William S. Archer (J) . Mark Alexander (J) . Thomas T. Bouldin (J) . Thomas Davenport (J) . Nathaniel H. Claiborne (J) . Richard Coke Jr. (J) . Andrew Stevenson (J) . William C. Rives (J), until April 17, 1829 William F. Gordon (J), from January 25, 1830 . Philip P. Barbour (J), until October 15, 1830 John M. Patton (J), from November 25, 1830 . John Roane (J) . John Taliaferro (NR) . Charles F. Mercer (NR) . John S. Barbour (J) . William Armstrong (NR) . Robert Allen (J) . Philip Doddridge (NR) . William McCoy (J) . Robert Craig (J) . Lewis Maxwell (NR) . Alexander Smyth (J), until April 17, 1830 Joseph Draper (J), from December 6, 1830 Non-voting members . Ambrose H. Sevier . Joseph M. White . John Biddle, until February 21, 1831, vacant thereafter Changes in membership The count below reflects changes from the beginning of the first session of this Congress. Senate Replacements: 4 Jacksonians (J): no net change National Republicans (NR): no net change Deaths: 4 Resignations: 4 Interim appointments: 1 Total seats with changes: 7 |- | Georgia(3) | | John M. Berrien (J) | style="font-size:80%" | Resigned March 9, 1829, to become U.S. Attorney General.Successor elected November 9, 1829. | | John Forsyth (J) | Installed November 9, 1829 |- | North Carolina(2) | | John Branch (J) | style="font-size:80%" | Resigned March 9, 1829, after being appointed U.S. Secretary of the Navy.Successor elected December 9, 1829. | | Bedford Brown (J) | Installed December 9, 1829 |- | Tennessee(1) | | John Eaton (J) | style="font-size:80%" | Resigned March 9, 1829, after being appointed U.S. Secretary of War.Successor elected October 19, 1829. | | Felix Grundy (J) | Installed October 19, 1829 |- | Delaware(1) | | Louis McLane (J) | style="font-size:80%" | Resigned April 29, 1829, to become U.S. Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary to the United Kingdom.Successor elected January 7, 1830. | | Arnold Naudain (NR) | Installed January 7, 1830 |- | Mississippi(2) | | Thomas B. Reed (J) | style="font-size:80%" | Died November 26, 1829.Successor elected January 6, 1830. | | Robert H. Adams (J) | Installed January 6, 1830 |- | Mississippi(2) | | Robert H. Adams (J) | style="font-size:80%" | Died July 2, 1830.Successor appointed October 15, 1830, to continue the term, and subsequently elected. | | George Poindexter (J) | Installed October 15, 1830 |- | Illinois(2) | | John McLean (J) | style="font-size:80%" | Died October 14, 1830.Successor appointed November 12, 1830, to continue the term. | | David J. Baker (J) | Installed November 12, 1830 |- | Illinois(2) | | David J. Baker (J) | style="font-size:80%" | Appointee retired with elected successor qualified.Successor elected December 11, 1830. | | John M. Robinson (J) | Installed December 11, 1830 |- | Indiana(1) | | James Noble (NR) | style="font-size:80%" | Died February 26, 1831.Seat filled next Congress. | Vacant | Not filled this Congress |} House of Representatives Replacements: 5 Jacksonians (J): 1 seat net loss National Republicans (NR): 1 seat net gain Deaths: 2 Resignations: 10 Contested election: 2 Total seats with changes: 15 |- | | Vacant | style="font-size:80%" | Maryland elected its members October 5, 1829 after the term began but before Congress convened. Rep-elect sworn in December after convening. | | George Edward Mitchell (J) | Seated December 7, 1829 |- | | Vacant | style="font-size:80%" | George Gilmer (Jacksonian) was redistricted from the 1st district and re-elected but failed to accept the position within the legal time frame. Governor ordered a new election. | | Henry G. Lamar (J) | Seated December 7, 1829 |- | | Vacant | style="font-size:80%" | Peleg Sprague resigned in previous Congress | | George Evans (NR) | Seated July 20, 1829 |- | | Vacant | style="font-size:80%" | William Wilkins resigned before qualifying | | Harmar Denny (AM) | Seated December 15, 1829 |- | | | George Wolf (J) | style="font-size:80%" | Resigned in 1829 before the convening of Congress | | Samuel A. Smith (J) | Seated October 13, 1829 |- | | | William C. Rives (J) | style="font-size:80%" | Resigned some time in 1829 | | William F. Gordon (J) | Seated January 25, 1830 |- | | | Samuel D. Ingham (J) | style="font-size:80%" | Resigned in March 1829 after being appointed Secretary of the Treasury | | Peter Ihrie Jr. (J) | Seated October 13, 1829 |- | | | Gabriel Holmes (J) | style="font-size:80%" | Died September 26, 1829 | | Edward B. Dudley (J) | Seated November 10, 1829 |- | | | George Fisher (NR) | style="font-size:80%" | Lost contested election February 5, 1830, to Silas Wright who in turn failed to qualify | | Jonah Sanford (J) | Seated November 3, 1830 |- | | | Thomas Newton Jr. (NR) | style="font-size:80%" | Lost contested election March 9, 1830 | | George Loyall (J) | Seated March 9, 1830 |- | | | James W. Ripley (J) | style="font-size:80%" | Resigned March 12, 1830 | | Cornelius Holland (J) | Seated December 6, 1830 |- | | | John M. Goodenow (J) | style="font-size:80%" | Resigned April 9, 1830, after being appointed judge of the Supreme Court of Ohio | | Humphrey H. Leavitt (J) | Seated December 6, 1830 |- | | | Alexander Smyth (J) | style="font-size:80%" | Died April 17, 1830 | | Joseph Draper (J) | Seated December 6, 1830 |- | | | Hector Craig (J) | style="font-size:80%" | Resigned July 12, 1830 | | Samuel W. Eager (NR) | Seated November 2, 1830 |- | | | Philip P. Barbour (J) | style="font-size:80%" | Resigned October 15, 1830, after being appointed judge of US Circuit Court of the Eastern District of Virginia | | John M. Patton (J) | Seated November 25, 1830 |- | | | Robert Monell (J) | style="font-size:80%" |Resigned February 21, 1831 | Vacant | Not filled this term |- | | John Biddle | style="font-size:80%" | Resigned February 21, 1831 | Vacant | Not filled this term |} Committees Lists of committees and their party leaders. Senate Accounts of James Monroe (Select) Agriculture (Chairman: William Marks) Amending the Constitution on the Election of the President and Vice President (Select) Audit and Control the Contingent Expenses of the Senate (Chairman: Elias Kane then James Iredell) Claims (Chairman: Benjamin Ruggles) Commerce (Chairman: Levi Woodbury) Distributing Public Revenue Among the States (Select) District of Columbia (Chairman: Ezekiel F. Chambers) Dueling (Select) Engrossed Bills (Chairman: William Marks) Finance (Chairman: Samuel Smith) Foreign Relations (Chairman: Littleton Tazewell) French Spoilations (Select) Impeachment of James H. Peck (Select) Indian Affairs (Chairman: Hugh Lawson White) Judiciary (Chairman: John Rowan) Manufactures (Chairman: Mahlon Dickerson) Memorial of the Manufacturers Iron (Select) Mileage of Members of Congress (Select) Military Affairs (Chairman: Thomas Hart Benton) Militia (Chairman: Isaac D. Barnard) Naval Affairs (Chairman: Robert Y. Hayne) Nomination of Amos Kendall (Select) Pensions (Chairman: John Holmes) Post Office Department (Select) Post Office and Post Roads (Chairman: George M. Bibb) Private Land Claims (Chairman: Jacob Burnet) Public Lands (Chairman: David Barton) Roads and Canals (Select) (Chairman: William Hendricks) Tariff Regulation (Select) Whole House of Representatives Accounts (Chairman: Jehiel H. Halsey) Agriculture (Chairman: Ambrose Spencer) American Colonization Society (Select) Claims (Chairman: Elisha Whittlesey) Commerce (Chairman: Churchill C. Cambreleng) District of Columbia (Chairman: Gershom Powers) Elections (Chairman: Willis Alston) Establishing an Assay Office in the Gold Region (Select) Expenditures in the Navy Department (Chairman: Augustine H. Shepperd) Expenditures in the Post Office Department (Chairman: Joel Yancey) Expenditures in the State Department (Chairman: Jonas Earll) Expenditures in the Treasury Department (Chairman: George G. Leiper) Expenditures in the War Department (Chairman: Lewis Maxwell) Expenditures on Public Buildings (Chairman: Michael C. Sprigg) Foreign Affairs (Chairman: William S. Archer) Indian Affairs (Chairman: John Bell) Judiciary (Chairman: James Buchanan) Manufactures (Chairman: Rollin C. Mallary) Military Affairs (Chairman: William Drayton) Military Pensions (Chairman: Isaac C. Bates) Naval Affairs (Chairman: Michael Hoffman) Post Office and Post Roads (Chairman: Richard M. Johnson) Private Land Claims (Chairman: Ralph R. Gurley) Public Expenditures (Chairman: Thomas H. Hall) Public Lands (Chairman: Jacob C. Isacks then Charles A. Wickliffe) Revisal and Unfinished Business (Chairman: Dutee J. Pearce) Revolutionary Claims (Chairman: Tristam Burges) Revolutionary Pensions (Chairman: N/A) Rules (Select) Standards of Official Conduct Territories (Chairman: James Clark) Ways and Means (Chairman: George McDuffie) Whole Joint committees Enrolled Bills The Library Employees Legislative branch agency directors Architect of the Capitol: Charles Bulfinch, until June 25, 1829 (office abolished) Librarian of Congress: John Silva Meehan Senate Chaplain: William Ryland (Methodist), until December 14, 1829 Henry V. Johns (Episcopalian), elected December 14, 1829 Secretary: Walter Lowrie Sergeant at Arms: Mountjoy Bayly House of Representatives Chaplain: Reuben Post (Presbyterian), until December 13, 1830 Ralph R. Gurley (Presbyterian), elected December 13, 1830 Clerk: Matthew St. Clair Clarke Doorkeeper: Benjamin Birch Reading Clerks: Sergeant at Arms: John O. Dunn See also 1828 United States elections (elections leading to this Congress) 1828 United States presidential election 1828 and 1829 United States Senate elections 1828 and 1829 United States House of Representatives elections 1830 United States elections (elections during this Congress, leading to the next Congress) 1830 and 1831 United States Senate elections 1830 and 1831 United States House of Representatives elections Notes References External links From American Memory at the Library of Congress: Statutes at Large, 1789-1875 Senate Journal, First Forty-three Sessions of Congress House Journal, First Forty-three Sessions of Congress Other U.S. government websites: House Document No. 108-222 from the Biographical Directory of the United States Congress (1774–2005) House History from the U.S. House of Representatives Statistics and Lists from the U.S. Senate

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WMCA (570 AM) is a radio station licensed to serve the New York metropolitan area. Owned by Salem Media Group, the station programs a Christian radio format consisting of teaching and talk programs. The station's studios are in lower Manhattan and are shared with co-owned WNYM (970 AM). WMCA's transmitter is located along Belleville Turnpike in Kearny, New Jersey. WMCA's programming is simulcast on a 250 watt translator, W272DX (102.3 MHz), from a tower in Clifton, New Jersey. Prior to switching to its current programming in 1989, WMCA was a talk radio station during the 1970s and 1980s, and earlier a Top 40 outlet featuring a lineup of disc jockeys known as the "Good Guys". WMCA is credited with having been the first New York radio station to broadcast a recording by The Beatles. History Early years After first testing as station 2XH, WMCA began regular transmission on February 1, 1925, broadcasting on 428.6 meters wavelength (700 kHz) with a power of 500 watts. It was the 13th radio station to begin operations in New York City and was owned by broadcasting pioneer Donald Flamm. The station's original studios and antenna were located at the Hotel McAlpin, located on Herald Square and from which the WMCA call sign derives. In 1928 it moved to the 570 kHz frequency, sharing time for the next three years with municipally-owned WNYC. On April 19, 1932, the Federal Radio Commission approved WMCA's application to broadcast full-time on 570 kHz. In December 1940, Flamm had to surrender the station to industrialist Edward J. Noble, who had just resigned as Undersecretary of Commerce, in a transaction involving prominent political figures including Thomas Corcoran. Flamm's subsequent legal battle against Noble resulted in a congressional investigation and eventually ended in a financial settlement, though not the return of the station. Through its early decades, WMCA had a varied programming history, playing music, hosting dramas, and broadcasting New York Giants baseball games. Beginning in the 1930s, WMCA carried the daily Morning Cheer religious program of George A. Palmer, originating in Philadelphia. In 1943, the station was acquired by the Straus family when Edward J. Noble acquired the Blue Network and its owned-and-operated stations from NBC, including WJZ in New York; the Blue Network would later be renamed the American Broadcasting Company (ABC). In 1945, host Barry Gray began dropping music and adding talk with celebrities and later call-ins from listeners. Gray is sometimes considered "The Father of Talk Radio", and his show on WMCA lasted through several decades and format changes. WMCA began playing hit music in the late 1950s with a Top 40 format. Among its disc jockey staff were Scott Muni, Frankie Crocker, Harry Harrison, and Murray the K. Good Guys era In 1960, WMCA began promoting itself by stressing its on-air personalities, who were collectively known as the Good Guys. The station was led by program director Ruth Meyer, the first woman to hold the position in New York City radio. This was the era of the high-profile, fast-talking Top 40 disc jockey with an exuberant personality aimed at a youthful audience. With the advent of the Good Guys format, WMCA saw its ratings increase and become known for "playing the hits". In the early 1960s, the top 40 format was still young, and the field was crowded in New York City. Two major 50,000-watt stations, WMGM and WINS, had battled each other, playing the top hits for several years. Then in 1960, WABC joined the fray and started featuring top 40 music. Ultimately, the competition between WMCA and WABC forced WMGM (in early 1962) and then WINS (in spring 1965) to abandon the top-40 format and find new niches. The classic Good Guys era lineup included: Joe O'Brien, an industry veteran whose humor appealed to multiple generations. (6am–10am) Harry Harrison, whose show was aimed at housewives of that era. (10am–1pm) Jack Spector, whose closing line was "Look out street, here I come!" (1pm–4pm) Dandy Dan Daniel a lanky, smooth-talking Texan, and his daily countdown. (4pm–7pm) Gary Stevens and his "Wooleyburger" bear, aimed at teenagers listening on small transistor radios in their rooms. (7pm–11pm - First show was in April, 1965) B. Mitchel Reed, "BMR, Your Leader" Reed was the evening personality on WMCA from 1963–1965. He was part of the team that took WMCA to the top in 1963. He left the station in the spring of 1965, to return to L.A.'s troubled KFWB, where he had worked before WMCA. His on-air hours were the same as Gary Stevens. Barry Gray, a talk show host who had been on WMCA before the Top 40 era and continued after it. (11pm–1am) Dean Anthony, "Dino on your radio" with his "Actors and Actresses" game (1am–6am). Weekends and fill-in, Ed Baer, Frank Stickle, and Bill Beamish. Owner R. Peter Straus was one of the first station owners to frequently read editorials on air, commenting on current events. Straus was an active owner. In an on-air editorial, he endorsed John F. Kennedy for President in 1960. He also wrote and read the first broadcast editorial calling for the impeachment of Pres. Richard Nixon. In 1961, Straus and WMCA filed a lawsuit charging that the state legislature was violating the Constitution by giving rural areas disproportionate representation. That suit, combined with others, led to the Supreme Court of the United States 1964 "one man, one vote" decision. During the later talk era, Straus would sometimes go on the air to take listener questions and comments about the radio station. On Friday nights, Gary Stevens ended at 10:30 and WMCA's locally produced, half-hour news show The World Tonite aired. (This was a local recap of the week's news, and should not be confused with Garner Ted Armstrong's The World Tomorrow religious program, which was heard on WMCA after the Good Guys era ended.) Dan Daniel's countdown changed each week and consisted of the station's top 25 records. It also included a "Sure Shot" and "Long Shot" of records not yet on the chart. He also gave away his "Hit Kit" every day to a listener who had been chosen from postcards sent to the station. The "Hit Kit" consisted of a copy of each of the Top 25 records of the week. To claim this prize, listeners had to call in when they heard their name read on the air. The Beatles On December 26, 1963, WMCA, with Jack Spector as the DJ, earned the distinction of being the first New York City radio station to play the Beatles' Capitol Records' single, "I Want to Hold Your Hand". (Outside New York, the song's broadcast debut in America is widely accepted to have occurred earlier at WWDC in Washington, D.C.) There is no evidence that any New York City radio station played the Beatles before December 1963 despite the fact that the band's first singles had been released earlier, without fanfare, by smaller, resource-challenged labels (Vee-Jay Records and Swan Records). However, according to one account, rival Top 40 outlet WINS "reportedly" played the band's Swan Records single "She Loves You" on September 28, 1963, as part of a listener's poll. After the song finished last (third place), it was quickly dropped from the station's playlist. WMCA was keen on playing new product and breaking new hits and, consequently, it became the radio station most credited for introducing Beatlemania, and the subsequent "British Invasion" musical movement to New Yorkers. While network-owned WABC was busy broadcasting New York Mets baseball games in the summer of 1963, family-owned WMCA was the music-intensive station that one would hear coming out of transistor radios at pools and beaches. Starting in 1963, the WMCA's Good Guys soared to the top of New York City's Arbitron ratings. WMCA also was known for its on-air production and promotions. Each hour, WMCA presented its music, jingles, promotions, contests, stagers, and commercials in a tight, upbeat fast-paced style. Some radio industry veterans attribute WABC's "stodgy sound" to standards applied by its corporate ownership and to its staff of longtime (and older) studio engineers. This fueled speculation that independently-owned WMCA had younger, more "hip" board-operators with a better understanding of the top 40 format aimed at younger adults. Whatever the reason, the "sparkling sound" presented on-air by WMCA also contributed to its ratings success in New York City, the largest radio market in the United States. WMCA's most famous promotions and contests involved the Beatles. Shortly after the band's arrival in the United States on February 7, 1964, WMCA secured the Beatles' cooperation, recording several commercials promoting the station's "Good Guys". Many believe this cooperation was directly linked to the band's awareness of WMCA being the first radio station in New York City to play "I Want to Hold Your Hand" weeks earlier. According to industry observers, WMCA's success getting John Lennon and Ringo Starr to record several spots on behalf of WMCA convinced listeners that the station (along with WINS personality Murray the K, who called himself "The Fifth Beatle") had direct access to the group. This was despite the fact that during their first New York visit the band's movements were restricted to the Plaza Hotel, Central Park, CBS Studio 50 (where they appeared on The Ed Sullivan Show), the 21 Club, the Peppermint Lounge, and Carnegie Hall. In February 1964, WMCA held a contest for a chance to win a lock of hair belonging to Ringo Starr. It received nearly 90,000 entries. The lock of hair, and a runner-up prize of a photograph on a fan club card signed by all four the Beatles, were obtained directly from the group during marathon "one-on-one" meetings and a reception held with print and broadcast personnel at Plaza Hotel on February 10. Other runner-up prizes distributed by WMCA that were not directly handled by the Beatles included 1,000 specially made WMCA paper record sleeves picturing the Good Guys, containing the band's single, "I Want to Hold Your Hand", as well as $57.00 in cash, reminding listeners of WMCA's spot on the radio dial. Contrary to some accounts, the enormous number of entries received by WMCA, an estimated 86,000 cards, letters, and packages, were from Beatle fans seeking only to obtain the lock of Starr's hair. For this "Good Guy-Ringo Starr Contest" (better known today as the "Beatles' Wig Contest") WMCA's listeners were encouraged to send in a drawing or picture of a person wearing a Beatles' wig. The winning entry from Roberta Corrigan (who won the lock of hair) featured a huge image of Queen Elizabeth II with a Beatles wig on her head, along with several other images including one of former British Prime Minister Winston Churchill wearing the same, all submitted in a book with captions for each. Runner-up winner Stella Scuotto of Brooklyn won the photograph of the Beatles on a fan club card signed by all four members of the band at the Plaza Hotel. According to Beatles' historian Bruce Spizer, Kay Smith was also a runner-up winner, winning $57 and the rare record sleeve for "I Want to Hold Your Hand", featuring a picture of WMCA's Good Guys. WMCA continued to beat other radio stations on many Beatles' promotions, scoring firsts, causing headaches in particular for rival WABC, most notably when Capitol Records printed a photograph of the "Good Guys" line-up on the back of a limited edition record sleeve for the single, "I Want to Hold Your Hand" (Side 2: "I Saw Her Standing There"). WMCA's Good Guys were also featured at both of the Beatles' concerts at Shea Stadium on August 15, 1965 and August 23, 1966. WABC responded in different ways, scoring a major success during the Beatles' second New York visit in August 1964 when the band stayed at the Delmonico Hotel, rousing thousands of teenage fans into a frenzy while broadcasting from one floor above the Beatles' rooms. WABC later went against its own music policies, promising promoter Sid Bernstein that it would play a new group he was handling before any other New York City radio station if it could get exclusive access to the Beatles. WABC never added records "out of the box", but it did for Bernstein when it played The Young Rascals' "I Ain't Gonna Eat Out My Heart Anymore" before other radio stations. WABC also had a source in London able to provide the station with many British releases that were not yet available in the United States or to the other New York radio stations and thus were played exclusively on WABC for at least a few days to a couple of weeks. Since WABC knew WMCA already had a relationship with the Beatles, WABC devised clever ways to one-up its competitor. In August 1965, WABC came up with its own special promotion, issuing "medals" called "The Order of the All-Americans" which was the name given to WABC's DJ line up. It intended to present the medals to each of the Beatles when the group next returned to New York. The goal was to get each Beatle to comment on the "medal" and then to get each to say the station's call letters, "W-A-B-C", which could then be used in station identification and on-air promos. The station got its interviews, but none of the band's members would utter WABC's call letters. According to Beatles' historian Bruce Spizer, manager Brian Epstein ordered the Beatles to stop "giving away valuable promotional spots to radio stations for free.". Ultimately, the WMCA-WABC (and to an extent WINS) competition for Beatles releases and promotions is considered to be one of the greatest radio "battles" in medium's history. Apart from its link to the Beatles, WMCA saturated its programming with many other promotions and on-air games. They included "Name It and Claim It", with the most desired prize being one of the station's yellow "Good Guys" sweatshirts, which were designed by WMCA program director Ruth Meyer. The sweatshirts could be won if a listener's name was read over the air and that listener called PLaza 2-9944 within a certain time period. Another distinctive feature of WMCA was its "Call For Action" help line (PLaza 9-1717), which listeners could call if they had any problems requiring WMCA's help resolving, usually consumer or public works service-related issues. Competition with WABC In the 1960s, WMCA's great competition was with rival WABC. Radio historians have tended to treat WMCA as a radio stepchild, the proverbial David going up against the Goliath that was corporate-owned, stronger-signaled WABC. For four consecutive years (1963 through 1966) WMCA had the highest ratings share of all radio stations in New York City, according to Arbitron, in spite of its directional, 5,000-watt signal which could not cover the same geographic region as non-directional, 50,000-watt WABC. However, WMCA's directional signal is aimed at Manhattan from just over the river in New Jersey, and its low frequency (570 kHz) results in strong Midtown Manhattan coverage. At the time, Arbitron was the newer and lesser quoted ratings source compared to the more established Pulse and Hooper Ratings. During this time frame, Pulse and Hooper usually placed adult full-service WOR as the overall number-one station, with WMCA generally but not always leading WABC and WINS as the Top 40 leader. WMCA's ratings strength was concentrated within New York City itself. However, WABC proved more popular in suburban areas where WMCA's signal didn't come in as well on standard 1960s-era AM radio receivers. The areas where WMCA did not have a strong signal were southwest, west, and northwest of its transmitter. By 1967 and 1968, WMCA ratings had started to decline significantly but still demonstrated a strong showing in the five boroughs (although not the suburbs), and as late as February 1969, Pulse ratings surveys indicated that WMCA beat WABC in New York City itself, although not in the full market. From 1967 forward, WABC had become the leading top 40 station in the total market. In addition to its ratings strength, between 1964 and 1968, Billboard magazine rated WMCA as New York's most influential station for new records. Although every market had one station with record-buying influence, WMCA was in the top market, making it responsible for some songs becoming hits nationwide. Not every record added to the WMCA playlist became a hit, but as soon as sales stirred, WABC, with a shorter playlist of hits, would be forced to add the same record. With its longer playlist, WMCA played new records faster than rival WABC. WMCA's weekly countdown list was 25 records, compared with WABC's 20 song list. WMCA's included the "Sure Shot" and "Long Shot" speculations. WMCA's countdown was also "faster" than WABC's, in the sense that records climbed to the top more quickly, while WABC's rankings tended to lag behind. A comparison of both stations showed WABC to be up to two, sometimes three weeks behind WMCA. The WMCA-WABC rivalry was never more intense than when it came to fighting over the Beatles. WABC was frustrated with its efforts to gain ratings dominance in New York City's ratings and with its efforts to forge a stronger relationship with one of the world's most popular musical acts. WMCA program director Ruth Meyer would later speculate in interviews that WABC's creativity during the 1960s could have been hampered by being owned by an ABC network rife with nationwide broadcast policies, commitments, and standards. Conversely, WMCA could run free with "goofy" ideas, promotions, and gimmicks as an independently run, family-owned station, without network interference. According to WABC historians, "another success for WMCA was the fault of WABC itself." In 1969, WABC overnight host Roby Yonge, upon learning his contract with the station was not going to be renewed, used his shift to spread rumors about the "death" of Paul McCartney. This episode proved to be an embarrassment for WABC, leading to Yonge's firing, and WABC's status as a network-owned, clear-channel station mistakenly launched the "Paul is dead" story across America and ultimately around the world. WMCA's ratings decline was due to several factors: the January 1968 split of the ABC Radio Network into four distinct components allowed WABC to drop Don McNeill's Breakfast Club and become fully music-intensive during the day. Around the same time Ruth Meyer exited WMCA, the station temporarily dropped the "Good Guy" branding and it also lost key personalities, including Harry Harrison, who moved to WABC. Additionally, the ascendance of R&B station WWRL in 1967 and of two FM rock stations – WOR-FM in 1967 and WNEW-FM in 1968 – all took ratings away from WMCA. Transition In 1968, a chaotic period began in which Gary Stevens relocated to Switzerland and Harry Harrison moved to WABC, where he replaced Herb Oscar Anderson as its morning host. WMCA then started experimenting with some talk programming as part of "Power Radio", with hosts ranging from Domenic Quinn to countercultural Alex Bennett. The station also began playing album cuts in addition to singles, with the slogan "The hits and the Heavies". As disc jockeys left, new DJs appeared with vague names (e.g., Lee Gray was originally "Lee Your Leader") and various stunts were performed. In one case, Frankie Crocker, who was lured away from WWRL as the station's first African-American personality, played two very short songs over and over again for an hour. The "Good Guys" were partly reassembled, then dropped again. Even reliable Dean Anthony, who was concurrently working at a country music station, sometimes got the slogans mixed up on air. Talk era The station finally adopted a full-time talk radio format in 1970, calling itself as "Dial-Log Radio". The "Good Guys" music era was over, although the "Good Guy" theme eventually did make a comeback in a promotional marketing effort. When WMCA acquired New York Yankees baseball broadcast rights in 1971, DJ Jack Spector stayed on to host a sports talk show, while Bob Grant debuted in New York radio as the house conservative. "Long John" Nebel came over from WNBC in 1973 and became a fixture on overnights, accompanied by his co-host and spouse Candy Jones. Malachy McCourt hosted a Sunday night call-in show that was mostly personal reminiscences of the type that later became the subject of the best-selling autobiography Angela's Ashes, by his brother Frank McCourt. In 1972, John Sterling succeeded Spector as sports talk host, transforming the program into one of the first confrontational sports talks shows, as well as doing play-by-play for New York Islanders hockey and New York Nets basketball games that were carried on WMCA. It was there that his knowledgeable and over-the-top broadcasting style would first be heard in the New York area. WMCA carried Yankees games until 1977. The station then held the broadcast rights for the New York Mets from 1978 through 1983. WMCA introduced a new morning news-talk program, hosted by Ralph Howard, Bill Ryan and a team of reporters who were all referred to as the "Good Guys", as seen in this ad for the Ralph & Ryan show. During the 1970s, ratings were healthy for WMCA as a talk station. Jonathan King, who had been at the top of the Good Guys chart in 1965 with his single "Everyone's Gone To The Moon", hosted the weekday midday show for a year in 1981. Most surveys showed the station in the top 10. This was before WOR became exclusively talk, and also before WABC changed to talk in the early 1980s. The Straus family sold WMCA around 1987. It was the last family-owned radio station in New York. New owner Federal Broadcasting kept the talk format, but switched to a financial news format on weekdays between 5:00 am and 7:00 pm, just prior to selling the station in April 1989 to Salem Communications, which subsequently sold its original New York station, the original WNYM (1330 AM, now WWRV) in order to comply with FCC rules of the time. Salem immediately implemented a format that focused on religion and leased-time programming. At that time, all WMCA staffers were invited to apply for positions with the "new" WMCA. Federal Broadcasting eventually sold off all its stations and left the broadcasting business. Christian era Since September 16, 1989, WMCA has been airing a Christian talk and teaching format, as Salem Communications does in dozens of large and medium-sized cities across the U.S. Initially WMCA had the slogan "New York's Christian Radio." That later changed to "New York's Inspiring Talk." In the early 1990s, the moniker was "Together, we're sharing the moments of your day on WMCA... New York!". Salem retained just one of the on-air hosts from the talk years, financial advisor Sonny Bloch, who later ran into legal and tax problems. WMCA was Salem's primary religious station in New York, while the company also ran extra Christian programming on WWDJ (970 AM), which was bought by Salem in 1993. This second station was later publicly billed as "WMCA II" or "WMCA 970" until its call letters were changed to WNYM and it adopted a conservative talk radio format in 2008. During the mid-2000s, WMCA attempted to establish a connection back to its "Good Guys" era. The website had a tribute to the 1960s DJs, while the current air personalities—"a whole new team of 'Good Guys' filling the airwaves with the Good News"—made appearances and gave out an updated version of the Good Guys sweatshirt. On air, the station used its 1960s-era "Good Guys" jingles for station identification, program promos, and transitions between songs when music was scheduled. This ended in January 2015 when WMCA was redubbed as The Mission, a new corporate branding effort also used on other Salem Christian stations. WMCA carries St. John's University basketball, sharing flagship responsibilities with WNYM. In September 2016, WMCA began airing United States Military Academy football. Additionally, WMCA airs Seton Hall University basketball contests which cannot air on WNYM due to scheduling conflicts; the Army, St. John's, and Seton Hall broadcasts are all provided by Learfield / IMG College. The station carried a limited schedule of University at Buffalo football games in 2014 and 2015. WMCA airs What's Right What's Left, "the Scripture & Liberty program", hosted by radio pastor Ernie Sanders, "the voice of Christian resistance", weeknights 10:00pm – midnight. It presents anti-evolution, anti-abortion, pro-Republican, pro-Trump, pro-Big Lie (2016 and 2020), anti-Democratic, anti-Biden points of view, and COVID-19 misinformation. (Also on WHKW and KPRZ (weeknights 7:00pm – midnight).) Studio locations and translator After leaving the Hotel McAlpin in 1938, WMCA moved its studios to various locations in Midtown Manhattan, first to 1657 Broadway, in November 1955 to 415 Madison Avenue, then 888 Seventh Avenue where it remained until it was sold. Not long after taking control of WMCA in 1990, new owner Salem Communications relocated the station to New Jersey. The facilities were based in Teaneck, Rutherford, and Hasbrouck Heights at different times. In December 2013, WMCA returned to New York City. Salem moved WMCA and WNYM from Hasbrouck Heights into the former studios of WOR at 111 Broadway in lower Manhattan. In July 18, 2019, WMCA's programming began airing on the FM dial in Northern New Jersey, using 250-watt translator station W272DX (102.3 MHz). While it is licensed to New York City, the translator's signal emanates from the towers of Multicultural Broadcasting-owned WPAT in Clifton, New Jersey, off the Garden State Parkway. See also Radio broadcasting References External links FCC History Cards for WMCA Tribute site in remembrance of WMCA's Good Guys era NYC AM Radio History - WMCA WMCA News Department Profile & Interviews - 1978 Mr. Pop History, home of 1960s Week by Week Site visit to WMCA Kearny facility MCA MCA Salem Media Group properties 1925 establishments in New York City Radio stations established in 1925

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The Canada jay (Perisoreus canadensis), also known as the gray jay, grey jay, camp robber, or whisky jack, is a passerine bird of the family Corvidae. It is found in boreal forests of North America north to the tree line, and in the Rocky Mountains subalpine zone south to New Mexico and Arizona. A fairly large songbird, the Canada jay has pale grey underparts, darker grey upperparts, and a grey-white head with a darker grey nape. It is one of three members of the genus Perisoreus, a genus more closely related to the magpie genus Cyanopica than to other birds known as jays. The Canada jay itself has nine recognized subspecies. Canada jays live year-round on permanent territories in coniferous forests, surviving in winter months on food cached throughout their territory in warmer periods. The birds form monogamous mating pairs, with pairs accompanied on their territories by a third juvenile from the previous season. Canada jays adapt to human activity in their territories and are known to approach humans for food, inspiring a list of colloquial names including "lumberjack", "camp robber", and "venison-hawk". The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) considers the Canada jay a least-concern species, however, populations in southern ranges may be affected adversely by global warming. The species is associated with mythological figures of several First Nations cultures, including Wisakedjak, a benevolent figure whose name was anglicized to Whiskyjack. In 2016, an online poll and expert panel conducted by Canadian Geographic magazine selected the Canada jay as the national bird of Canada, although the designation is not formally recognized. Taxonomy In 1760 the French zoologist Mathurin Jacques Brisson included a description of the Canada jay in his Ornithologie based on a specimen collected in Canada. He used the French name Le geay brun de Canada and the Latin Garralus canadensis fuscus. Although Brisson coined Latin names, these do not conform to the binomial system and are not recognised by the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature. When in 1766 the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus updated his Systema Naturae for the twelfth edition, he added 240 species that had been previously described by Brisson. One of these was the Canada jay. Linnaeus included a brief description, coined the binomial name Corvus canadensis and cited Brisson's work. William John Swainson named it Dysornithia brachyrhyncha in 1831. French ornithologist Charles Lucien Bonaparte assigned the Canada jay to the genus Perisoreus in 1838 in A geographical and comparative list of the birds of Europe and North America, along with the Siberian jay, P. infaustus. The Canada jay belongs to the crow and jay family Corvidae. However, it and the other members of its genus are not closely related to other birds known as jays; they are instead close to the genus Cyanopica, which contains the azure-winged magpie. Its relatives are native to Eurasia, and ancestors of the Canada jay are thought to have diverged from their Old World relatives and crossed Beringia into North America. A 2012 genetic study revealed four clades across its range: a widespread "boreal" or "taiga" clade ranging from Alaska to Newfoundland and ranging south to the Black Hills of South Dakota, Wyoming and Utah in the west and New England in the east, a "transcascade" clade in eastern Washington and Oregon and ranging into Alberta and Montana, a "Rocky Mountains (Colorado)" clade from the southern Rocky Mountains, and a "Pacific" clade from coastal British Columbia, Washington, and southwestern Oregon. There was also a population of the boreal clade in the central Rocky Mountains between the Colorado and transcascade clades. Genetic dating suggests the Pacific clade diverged from the common ancestor of the other clades around three million years ago in the Late Pliocene. The boreal clade is genetically diverse, suggesting that Canada jays retreated to multiple areas of milder climate during previous ice ages and recolonized the region in warmer times. In 2018 the common name was changed from grey jay to Canada jay by the American Ornithological Society in a supplement to their Check-list of North American Birds. This change was also made in the online list of world birds maintained on behalf of the International Ornithologists' Union by Frank Gill and David Donsker. Nine subspecies are recognized: Perisoreus canadensis albescens, also known as the Alberta jay, was described by American ornithologist James L. Peters in 1920. It ranges from northeastern British Columbia and northwestern Alberta southeastward, east of the Rocky Mountains to the Black Hills of South Dakota. It is an occasional visitor to northwestern Nebraska. P. c. bicolor, described by American zoologist Alden H. Miller in 1933, is found in southeastern British Columbia, southwestern Alberta, eastern Washington, northeastern Oregon, northern and central Idaho, and western Montana. Miller noted that the subspecies appeared to be a stable intermediate form between canadensis and capitalis. It was a similar size to subspecies canadensis, and had a wholly white head with a black nape. Its body markings resembled those of capitalis but its coloration resembled canadensis. P. c. canadensis, the nominate subspecies, breeds from northern British Columbia east to Prince Edward Island, and south to the northern reaches of Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan, Vermont, and New Hampshire, as well as northeastern New York and Maine. It winters at lower altitudes within the breeding range and south to southern Ontario and Massachusetts, and is an occasional visitor to central Minnesota, southeastern Wisconsin, northwestern Pennsylvania, and central New York. P. c. canadensis is a vagrant to northeastern Pennsylvania (Philadelphia). P. c. capitalis is found in the southern Rocky Mountains from eastern Idaho, south-central Montana, and western and southern Wyoming south through eastern Utah, and western and central Colorado, to east-central Arizona and north-central New Mexico. American naturalist Spencer Fullerton Baird described this subspecies in 1873. It has a wholly whitish head with a pale band on the back of the neck, and overall more ashy grey plumage. It is also generally larger than the nominate subspecies canadensis. P. c. griseus occurs from southwestern British Columbia and Vancouver Island south through central Washington and central Oregon to the mountains of north-central and northeastern California. It was described by Robert Ridgway in 1899. P. c. nigricapillus, also known as the Labrador jay, is found in northern Quebec (Kuujjuaq, Whale River, and George River), throughout Labrador and Nova Scotia, and in southeastern Quebec (Mingan and Blanc-Sablon). It was described by Ridgway in 1882. P. c. obscurus, described by Ridgway in 1874, is native to the coastal strip from Washington (Crescent Lake, Seattle, and Columbia River) through western Oregon to northwestern California (Humboldt County). Also known as the Oregon jay, this subspecies has more dark brown than grey upperparts. P. c. pacificus ranges from central Alaska to northwestern Canada, including the Yukon and along the Mackenzie River. It was described by Johann Friedrich Gmelin in 1788. P. c. sanfordi is found in Newfoundland. Harry C. Oberholser described it in 1914 from a specimen collected by a Dr. Sanford, whom he named it after. Oberholser reported that it was smaller and darker than the nominate race P. c. canadensis and more closely resembled P. c. nigricapillus. Two additional subspecies were formerly recognized: P. c. arcus was the name given to populations that are found in the Rainbow Mountains area and headwaters of the Dean and Bella Coola Rivers of the central Coast Ranges, British Columbia. Described by Miller in 1950, it is often recognized as P. c. obscurus. P. c. barbouri was described by Allan Brooks in 1920. Abundant on Anticosti Island in eastern Quebec, this subspecies is significantly heavier but not larger than other Canada jay subspecies in Quebec, and does not appear to be genetically distinct from P. c. nigricapillus or other populations in Quebec. Description The Canada jay is a relatively large songbird, though smaller than other jays. A typical adult Canada jay is between long. Its wingspan is around . It weighs about . Adults have medium grey back feathers with a lighter grey underside. Its head is mostly white with a dark grey or black nape and hood, with a short black beak and dark eyes. The long tail is medium grey with lighter tips. The legs and feet are black. The plumage is thick, providing insulation in the bird's cold native habitat. Like most corvids, Canada jays are not sexually dimorphic, but males are slightly larger than females. Juveniles are initially coloured very dark grey all over, gaining adult plumage after a first moult in July or August. The average lifespan of territory-owning Canada jays is eight years; the oldest known Canada jay banded and recaptured in the wild was at least 17 years old. A variety of vocalizations are used and, like other corvids, Canada jays may mimic other bird species, especially predators. Calls include a whistled quee-oo, and various clicks and chuckles. When predators are spotted, the bird announces a series of harsh clicks to signal a threat on the ground, or a series of repeated whistles to indicate a predator in the air. Distribution and habitat The Canada jay's range spans across northern North America, from northern Alaska east to Newfoundland and Labrador, and south to northern California, Idaho, Utah, east-central Arizona, north-central New Mexico, central Colorado, and southwestern South Dakota. It is also found in the northern reaches of the states of Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan, the Adirondacks in New York, and New England. The Canada jay may wander north of the breeding range. In winter it travels irregularly to northwestern Nebraska, central Minnesota, southeastern Wisconsin, central Michigan, southern Pennsylvania, central New York, Connecticut, and Massachusetts. Fossil evidence indicates the Canada jay was found as far south as Tennessee during the last ice age. The vast majority of Canada jays live where there is a strong presence of black spruce (Picea mariana), white spruce (P. glauca), Engelmann spruce (P. engelmanni), jack pine (Pinus banksiana), or lodgepole pine (P. contorta). Canada jays do not inhabit the snowy, coniferous, and therefore seemingly appropriate Sierra Nevada of California where no spruce occur. Nor do Canada jays live in lower elevations of coastal Alaska or British Columbia dominated by Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis). The key habitat requirements may be sufficiently cold temperatures to ensure successful storage of perishable food and tree bark with sufficiently pliable scales arranged in a shingle-like configuration that allows Canada jays to wedge food items easily up into dry, concealed storage locations. Storage may also be assisted by the antibacterial properties of the bark and foliage of boreal tree species. An exception to this general picture may be the well-marked subspecies P. c. obscurus. It lives right down to the coast from Washington to northern California in the absence of cold temperatures or the putatively necessary tree species. Behaviour Mating The Canada jay typically breeds at two years of age. Monogamous, pairs remain together for life, though a bird will pair up with a new partner if it is widowed. Breeding takes place during March and April, depending on latitude, in permanent, all-purpose territories. Second broods are not attempted, perhaps allowing greater time for food storage. Breeding is cooperative. During the nest-building phase of the breeding season, Canada jay breeding pairs are accompanied by a third, juvenile bird. A 1991 field study in Quebec and Ontario found that approximately 65% of Canada jay trios included a dominant juvenile from the pair's previous breeding season, and approximately 30% of trios included non-dominant juveniles who had left their parents' territory. Occasionally, two nonbreeding juveniles accompany a pair of adults. The role of juveniles is in allofeeding (food sharing) by retrieving caches and bringing food to younger siblings; however, this is only allowed by the parents during the post-fledgling period. Until then, parents will drive the other birds away from the nest. This may reduce the frequency of predator-attracting visits to the nest when young are most vulnerable. The benefits of juveniles participating in subsequent brood care may include "lightening the load" for the breeding pair, which may possibly increase longevity, reducing the probability of starvation of nestlings, and detecting and mobbing predators near the nest. Dominant juveniles may eventually inherit the natal territory and breed, while unrelated juveniles may eventually fill a vacancy nearby or form a new breeding pair on previously unoccupied ground. Nesting Breeding Canada jays build nests and lay eggs in March or even February, when snow is deep in the boreal forest. Male Canada jays choose a nest site in a mature conifer tree; the nests are found most commonly in black spruce, with white spruce and balsam fir (Abies balsamea) also used, in Ontario and Quebec. With the male taking a lead role in construction, nests are constructed with brittle dead twigs pulled off of trees, as well as bark strips and lichens. The cup is just large enough to contain the female and her eggs, measuring about wide and deep. Insulation is provided by cocoons of the forest tent caterpillar (Malacosoma disstria) filling the interstitial spaces of the nest, and feathers used to line the cup. Nests are usually built on the southwestern side of a tree for solar warming and are usually less than one nest diameter from the trunk. Nest height is typically above the ground. The average height of 264 nests surveyed in Algonquin Provincial Park was above ground. A clutch consists of 2 to 5 light green-grey eggs with darker spots. The mean clutch sizes of Canada jays in Algonquin Provincial Park and La Verendrye Provincial Park were 3.03 and 3.18 eggs, respectively. Incubation is performed only by the female and lasts an average of 18.5 days. The female is fed on the nest by her partner, rarely moving from the nest during incubation and for several days after hatching. Fledging Canada jay young are altricial. For the first three to four days after hatching, the female remains on the nest; when the male arrives with food, both parents help in feeding the nestlings. Nestling growth is most rapid from the fourth through the tenth day following hatching, during which time the female begins to participate in foraging. The parents carry food to the nest in their throats. The accompanying nonbreeding third bird does not help with feeding during this period but is driven away by the parents if it approaches the nest. Food is a dark brown, viscous paste containing primarily arthropods. Young Canada jays leave the nest between 22 and 24 days after hatching, after which the third bird begins to participate in foraging and feeding. Natal dispersal distance for the Canada jay is a median of 0.0 km for males, for females, and a maximum distance of for males and females. After 55 to 65 days, juveniles reach full adult measurements and battle among themselves until a dominant juvenile forces its siblings to leave the natal area. The dominant bird remains with its parents until the following season, while its siblings leave the natal territory to join an unrelated pair who failed to breed. In a study by Dan Strickland, two-thirds of dominant juveniles were male. Survival In studies conducted in Ontario and Quebec, the mortality rate for dominant juveniles was 52%, and mortality was 85% for juveniles who left the parents' territory between fledging in June to approximately mid-October. From fall to the following breeding season in March, further juvenile mortality was 50%. Territory-holding adult Canada jays experienced low mortality rates (15.1 and 18.2% for males and females, respectively). The oldest known Canada jay recaptured in the wild was at least 17 years old. Feeding Canada jays are omnivorous. They hunt such prey as arthropods, small mammals including rodents, and nestling birds, and have even been recorded taking a magnolia warbler (Dendroica magnolia) in flight. They have been reported to opportunistically hunt young amphibians such as the western chorus frog (Pseudacris triseriata) in Chambers Lake, Colorado, and the long-toed salamander (Ambystoma macrodactylum) in Whitehorse Bluff in Crater Lake National Park, Oregon. Canada jays have been seen landing on moose (Alces alces) to remove and eat engorged winter ticks (Dermacentor albipictus) during April and May in Algonquin Provincial Park. Researchers also found a Canada jay nest containing a brooding female, three hatchlings, and three warm, engorged winter deer ticks. Because the ticks were too large for the hatchlings to eat, it was hypothesized that the ticks may have served as "hot water bottles", keeping hatchlings warm when parents were away from the nest. Nestling birds are common prey, being taken more often from nests in trees rather than on the ground. Canada jays find them by moving from perch to perch and scanning surroundings. Avian nest predation by Canada jays is not necessarily higher in fragmented versus unfragmented forest. Evidence from studies in the Pacific Northwest suggest a moderate increase in nest predation in logged plots adjacent to mature conifer forest, which is the Canada jay's preferred habitat. Studies of nest predation by Canada jays in Quebec have shown that the birds prefer preying on nests in open forest with high prominence of jack pine, and greater rates of predation in riparian forest strips and green-tree retention stands versus clearcuts. This may be due to increased availability of perch sites for avian predators such as the Canada jay. Canada jays are suspected but not proven to prey on nests of the threatened marbled murrelet (Brachyramphus marmoratus) in coastal areas of the Pacific Northwest. Carrion, fungi, fruits such as chokecherry (Prunus virginiana), and seeds are also eaten. Two Canada jays were seen eating slime mold (Fuligo septica) near Kennedy Hot Springs in the Glacier Peak Wilderness, Washington. This was the first report of any bird consuming slime mold in the field. Risk and energy expenditure are factors in food selection for the Canada jay, which selects food on the basis of profitability to maximize caloric intake. Increased handling, searching, or recognition times for a preferred food item lowers its profitability. Canada jays wrench, twist, and tug food apart, unlike other birds known as jays (such as the blue jay, Cyanocitta cristata), which grasp and hammer their food. Canada jays commonly carry large food items to nearby trees to eat or process for storage, possibly as defense against large scavengers. Caching The Canada jay is a "scatterhoarder", caching thousands of food items during the summer for use the following winter, and enabling the species to remain in boreal and subalpine forests year round. Any food intended for storage is manipulated in the mouth and formed into a bolus that is coated with sticky saliva, adhering to anything it touches. The bolus is stored in bark crevices, under tufts of lichen, or among conifer needles. Cached items can be anything from carrion to bread crumbs. A single Canada jay may hide thousands of pieces of food per year, to later recover them by memory, sometimes months after hiding them. Cached food is sometimes used to feed nestlings and fledglings. When exploiting distant food sources found in clearings, Canada jays were observed temporarily concentrating their caches in an arboreal site along the edge of a black spruce forest in interior Alaska. This allowed a high rate of caching in the short term and reduced the jay's risk of predation. A subsequent recaching stage occurred, and food items were transferred to widely scattered sites to reduce theft. Caching is inhibited by the presence of Steller's jays (Cyanocitta stelleri) and Canada jays from adjacent territories, which follow resident Canada jays to steal cached food. Canada jays carry large food items to distant cache sites for storage more often than small food items. To prevent theft, they also tend to carry valuable food items further from the source when caching in the company of one or more Canada jays. Scatterhoarding discourages pilferage by competitors, while increased cache density leads to increased thievery. In southern portions of the Canada jay's range, food is not cached during summer because of the chance of spoilage and the reduced need for winter stores. Predators Several bird species prey on Canada jays, including great grey owls (Strix nebulosa), northern hawk-owls (Surnia ulula), and Mexican spotted owls (Strix occidentalis lucida). Canada jay remains have been recovered from the lairs of fisher (Pekania pennanti) and American marten (Martes americana). Red squirrels (Tamiasciurus hudsonicus) eat Canada jay eggs. Canada jays alert each other to threats by whistling alarm notes, screaming, chattering, or imitating and/or mobbing predators. Relationship with humans Cultural significance Found throughout Canada, the bird is popularly known by several colloquial names. One is "whisky jack", a variation on the name of Wisakedjak, a benevolent trickster and cultural hero in Cree, Algonquin, and Menominee mythologies. Alternate spellings for this name include wesakechak, wiskedjak, whiskachon, and wisakadjak. The Tlingit people of northwestern North America know it as kooyéix or taatl'eeshdéi, "camp robber". According to the Mi'kmaq of Nova Scotia, each of the seven stars of the Big Dipper depicted a different bird; the star Eta Ursae Majoris in the night sky was a Canada jay, Mikjaqoqwej. In anishinaabemowin, or the Ojibwe language, the bird is known as gwiingwiishi. "... the whisky jack is revered by indigenous peoples as an omen of good fortune and a warning of danger. Niigaanwewidam Sinclair, an associate professor and acting head of the department of native studies at the University of Manitoba, explained why the mischievous yet wise grey jay is important to the Anishinaabe people. "To my people, the Anishinaabe, she is Gwiingwiishi", Sinclair said in a post published by Canadian Geographic magazine. "Gwiingwiishi is a great, wise teacher, and there is an old story that tells of her abilities to give gifts... Her lesson? That it is only in our bravery, resilience and commitments to one another that we can find growth", Sinclair said. The Canada jay readily capitalizes on novel food sources, including taking advantage of man-made sources of food. To the frustration of trappers using baits to catch fur-bearing animals or early travelers trying to protect their winter food supplies, and to the delight of campers, bold Canada jays are known to approach humans for treats and to steal from unattended food stores. Canada jays do not change their feeding behaviour if watched by people; if they are able to link humans with food, they will not forget. A nesting female that had become accustomed to being fed by humans was reportedly able to be enticed to leave the nest during incubation and brooding. This behaviour has inspired a number of nicknames for the Canada jay, including "lumberjack", "meat-bird", "venison-hawk", "moose-bird", and "gorby", the last two popular in the northeastern United States. Superstition in Maine and New Brunswick relates how woodsmen would not harm gorbeys, believing that whatever they inflicted on the bird would be done to them. A folk tale circulated about a man who plucked a gorbey of its feathers and woke up the next morning having lost all his hair. Although the story was widespread in the early to mid-20th century, it does not appear to have been extant in 1902. The origin of "gorby", also spelt "gorbey", is unclear but possibly derived from gorb, which in Scottish Gaelic or Irish means "glutton" or "greedy (animal)" or in Scots or northern English "fledgling bird". In January 2015, The Royal Canadian Geographical Society's magazine, Canadian Geographic, announced a project to select a national bird for Canada, a designation which the country has never formally recognized. Dubbed the National Bird Project, the organization conducted an online poll inviting Canadians to vote for their favourite bird. The poll closed on 31 August 2016, and a panel of experts convened the following month to review the top five selections: the Canada jay, common loon (Gavia immer), snowy owl (Bubo scandiacus), Canada goose (Branta canadensis) and black-capped chickadee (Poecile atricapillus). The project announced on 16 November 2016 that the Canada jay was selected as the winner of the contest. Organizers hoped for the Canadian government to formally recognize the result as part of Canada's sesquicentennial celebrations in 2017, however the Department of Canadian Heritage responded that no new official symbol proposals were being considered at the time. Conservation Canada jays are classified as least concern (LC) according to the IUCN Red List, having stable populations over a very large area of boreal and subalpine habitats only lightly occupied by humans. Significant human impacts may nevertheless occur through anthropogenic climate warming. Canada jays at the northern edges of their range may benefit from the extension of spruce stands out onto formerly treeless tundra. A study of a declining population at the southern end of the Canada jay's range linked the decline in reproductive success to warmer temperatures in preceding autumns. Such warm temperatures may trigger spoilage of the perishable food items stored by Canada jays upon which success of late winter nesting partly depends. References Further reading Madge, S. and H. Burn (1994). Crows and Jays: A Guide to the Crows, Jays and Magpies of the World. Boston, Houghton Mifflin. External links Gray Jay Research in Algonquin Park – The Science Behind Algonquin's Animals Canada jay Birds of Canada Native birds of Alaska Native birds of the Northwestern United States Birds of the Great Basin Canada jay Canada jay

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The comic book stories published by Marvel Comics since the 1940s have featured several fictional teams and organizations and this page lists them. 0–9 198 A A-Force A-Next A.I. Army Because of his revelation that he is now a simulated A.I., Tony Stark became Mark One and started to establish the A.I. Army which also consists of Albert, Awesome Android, Egghead II, H.E.R.B.I.E., M-11, Machine Man, Machinesmith, Quasimodo, Super-Adaptoid, Walking Stiletto, the Dreadnoughts, a Sentinel, several Constructo-Bots, several Nick Fury LMDs, and an unnamed bomb disposal robot. This group wants to obtain equal rights with organic beings through whatever way possible. Acolytes Action Pack Action Pack is Kentucky's sanctioned superhero team that's part of the Fifty-State Initiative. Its known members are Vox, Prima Donna, and Frog-Man (who was briefly replaced by a Skrull). Advanced Idea Mechanics Advocates Squad Agents of Atlas Agents of Fortune Aladdin Aladdin Assault Squad All-New Invaders All-New X-Factor All-New X-Men All-Winners Squad Alliance of Evil Alpha Flight Alpha Flight is Canada's sanctioned superhero team. Alpha Squadron America Redeemers See Squadron Supreme. Americops The Keane Industry obtained the equipment of Americop where they copied it and used it to create their own private security force called the Americops. Anachronauts The Anachronauts are a group of fictional warriors appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. The characters serve Kang the Conqueror as his personal guard. The Anachronauts were brought together by Kang, after having bested each of them in personal combat and extracting their allegiance to him. They are from various eras and alternate realities that Kang has visited in his journeys. They first appeared in Fantastic Four Annual #25 (1992). Its members are Apocryphus, Deathunt 9000, Raa, Sir Raston, Ssith, Tyndar, and Wildrun. Ani-Men Annihilators A.R.M.O.R. Army of Evil Asgardians See Asgard. Asgardians of the Galaxy Askani See Rachel Summers#Askani Assassin's Guild Assembly of Evil The Assembly of Evil is a supervillain team consisting of Jester, Fenris, Hydro-Man, Rock (who the Leader sent in his place), and the reactivated Hulk Robot. This team was first seen during the "Acts of Vengeance" storyline, where Jester formed this team at Doctor Doom's suggestion to create a group to fight the Avengers. Jester also tried to get Cloak and Dagger to join the team, but failed to. Astonishing X-Men Atlanteans Autobots Avengers Avengers A.I. Avenging Host B Bacchae The Bacchae are a fictional group of woman warrior characters appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. In ancient times Hippolyta and her sisters set about war mongering various lands. In each attack she would steal female children, raising them to be her faithful warriors. This gave rise to the origin of the mythological Amazons. Hippolyta served as their queen and she called them her Bacchae. This arrangement served for many years until the arrival of Hercules. Sometime later with her being immortal, Hippolyta decided to restart her Bacchae cult in order to advance her standing in modern day. She did this by initiating female street people and runaways, providing them with weapons and fighting skills. This modern day Bacchae also became former associates of the Golden Horde and once sought vengeance on the Invisible Woman for interfering with their affairs. They then formed a private New York club called Tartarus as a front based in the heart of Wall Street. Outsiders see it as a private pleasure palace for those of the international business elite who consider the Hellfire Club too passé. It was here during a kidnap attempt that they were foiled by the X-Men. BAD Girls, Inc. BAD Girls, Inc. is a group that consists of Black Mamba, the Asp, and Diamondback who were close friends as well as founding members of Sidewinder's super-villain team the Serpent Society. When Diamondback began dating Steve Rogers, the team acted behind the scenes to make sure that her first real date was uneventful. After learning of Diamondback and Cap's relationship, the Society's new leader, King Cobra, had Diamondback kidnapped and placed on trial, fearing that she would reveal the groups secrets to the Captain. Diamondback was found guilty by her fellow serpents and sentenced to execution. Black Mamba and Asp objected but were overruled by King Cobra. To save Diamondback, Black Mamba and Asp called in a favor from their former leader, Sidewinder, also Black Mamba's ex-boyfriend and they rescued Diamondback, however in retaliation, King Cobra captured the Asp and Black Mamba. Diamondback then hired Paladin to help her free the pair. Together, with Captain America, and Paladin, the five combined to defeat the Serpent Society. Band of the Bland The Band of the Bland is a group of mediocre super villains that came together to assassinate Howard the Duck. It consists of Black Hole, Doctor Angst, Spanker, and Tillie the Hun. Bastards of Evil The Bastards of Evil is a group of supervillains that fought the Young Allies. They consist of supervillains who claim to be the disavowed children of other supervillains and are led by Superior who claims to be the son of Leader. Battalion The Battalion is Arkansas' sanctioned superhero team that's part of the Fifty-State Initiative. Tigra is a known member of this group. Razorback was revealed to be a Skrull infiltrator. Batroc's Brigade Batroc's Brigade is a supervillain team assembled by Batroc the Leaper. Beta Flight Beyond Corporation Beyonders Big Hero 6 Big Hero 6 is Japan's sanctioned superhero team. Black Air Black Panthers Black Brigade unit Black Spectre Blood Bogatyri The Bogatyri is a group of Russian superhumans that wanted to avenge Russia's defeat during the Cold War. They were named after the Valiant Champions of Elder Days in Russian folklore and consist of Svyatogor, Mikula Golubev, Doctor Vladimir Volkh, and Zvezda Dennista. Bozanian Beast Fighter (Ragnarok) Britannia Project The Britannia Project is a superhero organization lead by Steven Darwin. The Britannia Project was first introduced in The Union #1. Brotherhood of Badoon See Badoon Brotherhood of Mutants Brute Force Brute Force is a team consisted of eco-sensitive animals who were imbued with the ability to speak and powered armor that gave them special powers by their benefactor Dr. Randall Pierce as part of Weapon II. They consist of a bald eagle named Soar who can transform in a fighter jet, a grizzly bear named Wreckles who can transform into a tank, a lion named Lionheart who can transform into a motorcycle, a kangaroo named Hip-Hop who can transform into an ATV, and a dolphin named Surfstreak who can transform into a race car. Together they fought injustices that were mostly eco-terrorist related such as protecting the rain forests. Buckies The Buckies are a group of urban commandos. C Cabal Cadre K Called The Called is Utah's sanctioned superhero team that's part of the Fifty-State Initiative. It consists of some unnamed Mormon superheroes. Captain Britain Corps Carnage Family Cat People The Cat People are a race of humanoid felines that are associated with Tigra. The first Cat People were created from ordinary house cats by a medieval sorcerer named Ebrok. Though the Cat People were initially welcomed into Ebrok's community as warriors and domestic servants, their fierce nature as well as their rapid breeding rate soon started to become uncontrollable and the Cat People were banished to another dimension by Ebrok's fellow sorcerers. The sorcerers also installed a magick ensuring that Ebrok's original cats-into-cat people spell would never work again. Cavalry The Cavalry is Georgia's sanctioned superhero team that's part of the Fifty-State Initiative. Known members are Stunt-Master, Crime-Buster, Red Nine, Thor Girl (revealed to be a Skrull imposter), and Ultra Girl. Celestials Cerebro's X-Men Champions There are two versions of the Champions: Champions (1975 team) Champions (2016 team) Champions of Xandar The Champions of Xandar banded together to safeguard the four-sectioned world of Xandar in the Andromeda Galaxy from all threats to its security. The Champions coordinated Xandar's space militia, the Nova Corps, a standing army of 500 soldiers, and its special Syfon Warrior regiment. Most of the Champions were killed fighting the forces of Nebula and the team disbanded. Charter Chaste Cherubim Children of the Vault China Force Church of Humanity Circle Circuits Maximus Circus of Crime Clan Akkaba Clan Boudreaux ClanDestine Code: Blue Cognoscenti Comedy Kids The Comedy Kids are three kids (Gabby, Muscles, and Junior) who appear in Comedy Comics #9. Command The Command is Florida's sanctioned superhero team that's part of the Fifty-State Initiative. Its known members are Jennifer Kale, Wundarr the Aquarian, Siege, and Conquistador (who was briefly replaced by a Skrull infiltrator). Commission on Superhuman Activities Committee Conspiracy Contingency Corporation Council of the Chosen Counter Force C.R.A.D.L.E. Short for Child-Hero Reconnaissance and Disruption Law Enforcement, C.R.A.D.L.E. has been established to stop the teenage superheroes from violating the Underage Superhuman Warfare Act (AKA Kamala's Law). Known members are Dum Dum Dugice, Speedball, and Timeslip. Craptacular B-Sides Crazy Eight Creators The Creators were a league of sorcerers from various time periods, some from at least as far back as the Pre-Cataclysmic era. Backed by the power of the In-Betweener, the Creators temporarily took control of the universe by transforming themselves into stars in an attempt to control the entire universe, and forcing the real stars into human forms. All was set right again by Doctor Strange and the Ancient One. Crew Chronok The villain Chronok stole Reed Richards' time machine, comes to the present and kills almost all of Marvel's heroes. Cross Technological Enterprises Crusaders D Dark Advanced Tech Daily Bugle Daily Globe Damage Control Dark Avengers Norman Osborn formed his own version of the Avengers during the "Dark Reign" storyline called the Dark Avengers. Dark Guard Dark Lords Dark Riders Dark X-Men Norman Osborn formed his own version of the X-Men during the "Dark Reign" storyline called the Dark X-Men. Darkhold Redeemers Daughters of Liberty The Daughters of Liberty are a group of females that are determined to protect the freedom of everyone at all costs. Harriet Tubman was the leader of one incarnation under the name of Dryad. In the present, Dryad is a revived Peggy Carter and the present day Daughters of Liberty consist of Agatha Harkness, Black Widow, Invisible Woman, Mockingbird, Sharon Carter, Spider-Woman, Shuri, and White Tiger. Daughters of the Dragon Dawn of the White Light The Dawn of the White Light is a Japan-based mutant death-cult led by the Gorgon. The cult forms an alliance with the Hand and HYDRA and together they turn superhumans to brainwashed assassins. The brainwashed X-Man Northstar then becomes the leader of the Dawn of the White Light and they go on a killing spree in America. Wolverine and some Sentinels then destroy the cult. Deadpool Corps Death Commandos Death Squad The Death Squad are hired by a mysterious employer who wants Tony Stark, the armored Avenger known as Iron Man, dead. They manage to track Iron Man down at his main office, and a battle began. Though they gave Stark a good run for his money, they were not able to defeat the super-hero. Stark is about to defeat the entire group, but they manage an escape. Stark is unable to give pursuit, as the Death Squad had damaged his armor's boot jets. Later, the Death Squad decide to give the murder attempt another try. They assist their employer (Justin Hammer) in the murder of several ionically-powered beings and in the graverobbing of several of Stark's old acquaintances. S.H.I.E.L.D. leader Nick Fury informs Stark about this and he investigates the matter, with the trail eventually leading toward the Death Squad, who were hiding out at the old castle of the ionically-powered long-time Avengers foe Count Nefaria. Nefaria is revealed to be their employer. Iron Man manages to defeat Nefaria and his other minion, Nitro. In the heat of battle, the Death Squad again manages to escape. Death-Throws Death Web The members of Death Web were granted super powers by the Commission on Superhuman Activities with the intent that they use their powers to serve the government. The team's individual members each obtained their unique powers through the scientific manipulation of chemicals extracted from exotic plants from the Amazon jungle. Decepticons Deep Six There were two different incarnations of the Deep Six: Namor's Deep Six When Namor the Sub-Mariner was missing and framed for crimes in the surface world, several of his Atlantean allies set out to find him together as the first Deep Six. The impromptu group consisted of Stingray, Andromeda, Tiger Shark, Tamara Rahn, and Triton. They battled against the Avengers and then broke up shortly thereafter. Attuma's Deep Six Alternatively, Attuma's incarnation of the Deep Six appeared in The Defenders vol. 2 #7 (Sept. 2001). Membership of the group included Attuma, Nagala, Orka, Piranha, Sea Urchin, and Tiger Shark (now a villain again). Defenders Defenders of the Deep In order to protect the oceans, Namor forms the Defenders of the Deep with Tiger Shark, Orka, Andromeda, Echidna, the Piranhas, Fathom Five members Bloodtide and Manowar, and King Crab as its members. Delta Network The Delta Network, also referred to as the Delta Force (no relation to the real life Delta Force) was the name of a group of Deviants, a fictional race of beings from Marvel Comics. The Delta Network was a group of Deviant warriors who were organized by Warlord Kro. When the Avengers were captured by the Deviant priesthood, Kro called the members into action to rescue them. Demi-Men Demons Department H Department K Desert Stars The Desert Stars are Arizona's sanctioned superhero team that are part of the Fifty-State Initiative. It consists of Two-Gun Kid, Komodo, Johnny Cool, and Supermax. Blacksmith was revealed to be a Skrull infiltrator. Desert Sword Desert Sword was designed to be Iraq's personal superhuman military team, led by Sirocco. The original team's roster included Sirocco, Aminedi, the Veil, and Black Raazer until Iraq forced Arabian Knight onto the team. Deviants Diabolical Duo Doctor Doom's Generals Dominus' Minions Dominous employed a number of minions to contend with the costumed champions who opposed its attempts to conquer the Earth. One of them was Sunstroke, a human being. The others were sentient beings created from lizards ("Gila"), cacti ("Cactus"), and rocks ("Butte") by means of the robot's alien technology. Dominus was able to create duplicates of each of the three artificially created beings. DP 7 E Earth Force The Earth Force is a group of hospitalized people that were transformed by Seth. It consists of Earth Lord (created from a police officer who was hospitalized after being shot by criminals), Skyhawk (created from a businessman who was hospitalized from overwork), and Wind Warrior (created from a housewife who was hospitalized following a suicide attempt). Elders of the Universe Elementals Elementals of Doom Four giant personifications of Air, Water, Earth and Fire and referred to as such. They were created by Diablo through the use of the Tailsmans of Power to battle the Fantastic Four. He later created a fifth member called the Trans-Mutant who had the ability to transform the composition of one object to another. Diablo later combined all four Elementals into the Elematrix. Elementals of Doom in other media In Spider-Man: Far From Home, a team of virtual monsters created by Mysterio dubbed the Elementals appear. However, their behavior is more akin to the Elementals of Doom right down to them combining in the final battle. While each one is never named in the film, the marketing referred to the fire and water Elementals as Molten Man and Hydro-Man, though the film implies that the latter does actually exist somewhere. Elements of Doom The Elements of Doom are a group consisting of numerous humanoid beings composed of the periodic table. They were created by aliens to battle the Avengers, but were all defeated. They were then recruited by Diablo after his Elementals of Doom were destroyed. Emissaries of Evil Enchanters Three Enclave Enforcers Eternals Euroforce Euro-Trash Excalibur Exemplars Exiles Externals F Factor Three Factor Three is a short-lived supervillain team led by the Mutant Master, who was secretly an alien from a race of beings from Sirius that resemble octopuses. Fallen Angels Fangs The Fangs are a group that was created to assist Viper in her goals. Its members are Bludgeon, Heat-Ray, Razorblade, and Slither. Fantastic Five Fantastic Force Fantastic Four Fathom Five The Fathom Five is an Atlantean splintered military group with goals to decimate the surface world and were formed by a strike force called the "Fury of the Sea". It consists of Bloodtide, Dragonrider, Llyron, Manowar, and Sea Leopard. Fear Lords Fearsome Foursome Femizons Femme Fatales FIRM First LineFirst Line is first seen in Marvel: The Lost Generation - Essentially a retcon to fill the gaps caused by Marvel's "sliding timescale", in which the emergence of major superheroes and events was only supposed to have occurred "about ten or fifteen years ago" FlashmobFlashmob is an organization of street criminals that were originally formed to attack Power Man. It consists of Nightshade, Chemistro III, Cheshire Cat, Comanche, Dontrell "Cockroach" Hamilton, Mr. Fish II, and Spear. Flight Folding Circle Followers of the Light Force Four Force of NatureForce of Nature is an eco-terrorist group that work for the organization Project Earth. Known members are Aqueduct, Firebrand, Firewall, Skybreaker, Sunstreak, and Terraformer. Force Works Forgotten Freedom's Brigade Freedom's FiveFreedom's Five is a World War I team featuring Union Jack, Phantom Eagle, Sir Steel, Silver Squire and Crimson Cavalier. Freedom Force Friends of Humanity Frightful Four Future Foundation G Galactic Guardians Gamma Corps Gamma Flight Garrison The Garrison is Vermont's sanctioned superhero team that's part of the Fifty-State Initiative. Its known members are Fin and Man-Eater. Gatherers Gene Nation Generation X Genetix Goblin Nation The Goblin Nation, also known as the Goblin Underground, is a group of organized crime composed of Goblin-themed villains led by the Goblin King against the Superior Spider-Man (Doctor Octopus' mind in Spider-Man's body). Goblin Nation in other media The Goblin Nation made its animated debut in the four-part Spider-Man animated series episode "Goblin War". This incarnation consists of various Goblin clans lead by Silvermane, Electro and Crossbones respectively with the Vulture operating as the Goblin King. Gods Godzilla Squad The Godzilla Squad was formed to study Godzilla, ideally by capturing him, and preventing injury both to and by him. It was funded and partially controlled by S.H.I.E.L.D., with technology -- such as the Red Ronin mecha -- constructed by Stark International. S.H.I.E.L.D. agents attached to the Godzilla Squad included Dum Dum Dugan, Jimmy Woo, and Gabe Jones. The group was occasionally aided by the Avengers (particularly Henry Pym), the Fantastic Four (particularly Reed Richards), and Spider-Man. The organization was frequently opposed by Doctor Demonicus. Goodman, Lieber, Kurtzberg & Holliway Grapplers Great Beasts Great Lakes Avengers Green Cross Green SpringsGreen Springs is a company that was started by Abomination that creates gamma mutates. Outside of gaining former Weapon X scientist Dr. Aliana Alba as an employee, Abomination had Green Springs repower Hulk's son Skaar. Guardians of the Galaxy There were two versions of the Guardians of the Galaxy: Guardians of the Galaxy (1969 version) Guardians of the Galaxy (2008 version) Guardsmen Gunhawks H H.A.M.M.E.R. Hand Harriers The Harriers are a team of mercenary soldiers, trained and equipped to battle both conventional and superhuman opponents. The organization consists of a military-style unit headed by the commanding officer, Hardcase, and nine other members. Each of the Harriers formerly served as an agent of the international law enforcement agency S.H.I.E.L.D. When the original version of S.H.I.E.L.D. was disbanded, these ten former S.H.I.E.L.D. banded together as the Harriers. The Harriers's last known base of operations was Colbert Chu's warehouse, Street of the Stunted Dog, Lowtown, Madripoor. Hardcase, Battleaxe, and Shotgun took an assignment from the DEA to infiltrate General Nguyen Ngoc Coy's organization in a failed attempt to destroy Coy's major opium crop in the Indochinese "Golden Triangle." During this operation, the Harriers clashed with Wolverine. The Harriers were later hired by Wolverine to try to capture him, Psylocke, and Jubilee as a test of the Harriers's skills. Harvesters The Harvesters are Kansas' sanctioned superhero team that's part of the Fifty-State Initiative. Its known members are Pioneer, Grain Belt, Topeka, Meadowlark, and Sunflower. H.A.T.E. Headmen Heavy Hitters The Heavy Hitters are Nevada's sanctioned superhero team that's part of the Fifty-State Initiative. Known members are Gravity, Hardball, Nonstop, Prodigy, and Telemetry. Heavy Metal There are two different versions of Heavy Metal: Heavy Metal (Androids)Heavy Metal is a group of androids consisting of Super-Adaptoid, Machine Man, Awesome Android, Sentry-459, and TESS-One. Heavy Metal (Brute Force villains)Heavy Metal is a group of cybernetic animals that were created by Multicorp to fight the Brute Force. It consists of a gorilla named Uproar, a rhinoceros named Ramrod, a shark named Bloodbath, a vulture named Tailgunner, and an octopus named Armory. Heavy MettleHeavy Mettle is a supervillain group that was founded by Joseph Manfredi. Heliopolitans Hell's BellesHell's Belles is a team is composed of female mutant terrorists. They were formed by Cyber to commit acts of extortion, and worked for a notorious drug cartel. Hellfire Club Hellbent Hellions Heralds of Galactus Heroes for Hire HordecultureHordeculture is a group of agrochemists, biotechnologists, and bioengineers consisting of Augusta Bromes, Lily Leymus, Edith Scutch, and Opal Vetiver. Specializing in the genetic manipulation and propaganda of plant life, they plan to depopulate the human race so that they can return Earth to what they consider a "more pristine state". Horsemen of Apocalypse Hounds Howling Commandos Hulk Gang In the life of Old Man Logan, it's incarnation of Bruce Banner got overloaded gamma radiation and was driven insane enough to impregnate She-Hulk. As a result over time while claiming the West Coast of the United States as his domain after overthrowing Abomination, Hulk's hillbilly grandchildren helped to form the Hulk Gang where they acted as landlords to those that live in the rebranded part of the United States called Hulkland. In addition, they reside in a series of caves and trailers. The Hulk Gang beat or killed anyone who didn't pay their rent on time. There were two versions of the Hulk Gang in the similar Earths: Hulk Gang (Earth-807128) Hulk Gang members Bobbie-Jo Banner, Charlie Banner, and Otis Banner beat up Logan and will inflict more pain on him if he didn't pay double by next month. As Logan was with Hawkeye to obtain the money, the Hulk Gang got tired of waiting and killed Logan's family. Upon returning and finding his family dead, Logan was informed of what happened by his neighbor Abraham Donovan causing Logan to bring out his claws for the first time. Logan proceeded to hunt down and kill the Hulk Gang members Beau Banner, Bobbie-Jo Banner, Charlie Banner, Elrod Banner, Eustace Banner, Luke Banner, Otis Banner, and Rufus Banner where he killed them. When he made his way to Pappy Banner who admitted that he got tired of being a supervillain landlord and wanted to fight Logan for old time sake by having his family killed, Logan engaged him in his Hulk form in battle and emerged as the victor. He spared Billy-Bob Banner and took custody of Hulk's infant son Bruce Banner Jr. Hulk Gang (Earth-21293) The Hulk Gang's history was the same here. Sometime after Pappy Banner's death and the deaths of Beau Banner, Bobbie-Jo Banner, Charlie Banner, Elrod Banner, Eustace Banner, Luke Banner, Otis Banner, and Rufus Banner, the remaining Hulk Gang members Beau Banner II, Billy-Bob Banner, Bobbie Sue Banner, Bodean Banner, Buck Banner, Cambria Banner, Clystine Banner, Horace Banner, Jackson Banner, Jefferson Banner, Jewel Banner, Jozelle Banner, Malakai Banner, Merle Banner, and Virgil Banner were gathered by an unidentified version of Maestro who he plans to make a paradise for the Hulk Gang on Earth-616. With help from the Cambria Banner who defected to their side, Logan and Hawkeye of Earth-616 were able to defeat Maestro and the surviving members of the Hulk Gang went their separate ways. Hulkbusters Humanity's Last Stand Hydra Hydro-Men These characters, created by Bill Everett, Steve Gerber and Win Mortimer first appeared in Sub-Mariner #61 (May, 1973). The Hydro-Men is an organization led by fanatical scientist Herman Frayne who used mutagenic Terrigen Mist to transform himself into a green, scaly-skinned humanoid. He took the name of Doctor Hydro. He also transformed his hired agents into Hydro-Men as well. Hyperkind I Illuminati Imperial Guard Infinity Watch Inhumans Initiative Institute of Evil The Institute of Evil was a group of the Squadron Supreme's arch-foes. They were brainwashed to not be evil and became members of the Squadron. IntelligenciaIntelligencia is a group that consists of the greatest criminal minds on Earth. Its known members are Leader, MODOK, Mad Thinker, Red Ghost, and Wizard. Doctor Doom and Egghead were shown as former members. Intruders The Intruders are an elite offshoot of the Wild Pack. Invaders Inner Circle J Jury K Kid Commandos Killraven's Freemen Knights of Pendragon Knights of Wundagore Kree Sentries L Lady Liberators Landau, Luckman, and Lake Lava Men League of Losers The League of Losers are a superhero from Earth-6215 that opposes the time-traveling Chronok. They consist of that world's version of Dagger, Darkhawk, Gravity, Speedball, Sleepwalker, Terror, and X-23. Leatherneck Raiders Lebeau Clan Legion Accursed During the "Secret Wars II" storyline, the Legion Accursed was formed when Mephisto sent his minion Bitterhorn to recruit 99 supervillains in his plot to steal the Beyonder's powers. The villains have included but are not limited to Abomination, Absorbing Man, Anaconda, Baron Mordo, Batroc the Leaper, Blastaar, Crimson Dynamo, Diablo, Doctor Doom, Doctor Octopus, Electro, Graviton, Hobgoblin, Juggernaut, Kang the Conqueror, Kraven the Hunter, Living Laser, Mole Man, Rhino, Silver Samurai, Titania, Ultron-11, Vanisher, Vulture, White Queen, Wizard, and Wrecker. The Legion Accursed was enchanted to send his powers into Mephisto's device called the Beyondersbane when they touched him. Upon seeing Beyonder about to leave the Pacific island he was living on, Mephisto had Thing sign a contract to make him stronger by the time the Legion Accursed was awakened. When the Legion Accursed attacked, Thing fought defeated most of them and even held back Juggernaut. This fight caused the Beyondersbane to malfunction. As a result, Mephisto ended his plot and sent the villains back to where he got them from. Legion of Monsters Legion of Night Legion of the Unliving Lemurians Lethal Legion Leviathan Liberteens The Liberteens are Pennsylvania's sanctioned superhero team that's part of the Fifty-State Initiative. Liberty Legion Livewires Living Erasers Lizard Men There are different types of Lizard Men in Marvel Comics: Lizard Men of Subterranea Lizard Men of Subterranea Lizard Men of Tok Lodge The Lookups The Lookers are a support group started by Edwin Jarvis for those who are associated with superheroes. It was funded by Tony Stark who uses his technology to make its members anonymous to one another. While Mary Jane Watson is clearly shown to be a member, the rest are implied to be Foggy Nelson, Ganke Lee, Peggy Rae Burdick, Pepper Potts, Carlie Cooper, and Willie Lumpkin. Loners Lost Souls Lunataks M Maelstrom's Minions Maggia Magistrates The Magistrates are a fictional police force that operate in the fictional nation of Genosha. Mandroids Mannites Marauders Masters of Evil The Mavericks The Mavericks are New Mexico's sanctioned superhero team that's part of the Fifty-State Initiative. Its known members are Annex, Geiger, and Jocasta. She-Thing was revealed to be a Skrull imposter. Mega Morphs Mercs for Money MI-13 Micronauts Midnight Sons Midnight Wreckers The Midnight Wreckers are a group of scavengers who allied with Dr. Peter Spaulding and Willie "Gears" Garvin during the robot revolution. They consist of Hassle, Bags, and Swift. Mighty Avengers Mindless Ones Minions of Menace Monster Hunters Morlocks Mutant Liberation Front Mys-Tech Myrmidons N Nasty Boys National Force Neo-Knights New Avengers New Canaanites New Enforcers After the fall of Kingpin, the New Enforcers were one of the groups contesting for control of the remains of his empire. The New Enforcers' inner circle consists of Controller, Fixer, Madame Menace, Mentallo, and Mister Fear while their outer circle consists of Blitz, Dragon Man, Dreadnought, Eel, Plantman, a Super-Adaptoid, Tangle, Thermite, and Vanisher. New Immortals The New Immortals are a group of characters created by the High Evolutionary to make his own race of immortals. They consist of Nobilus (who was created from Thor's DNA taken from his shaved beard), Juvan, and Zon. While Recorder #211 was rebuilt into Analyzer to work with the group, New Men member Count Tager became a member of the group after subjecting himself to the Pool of Knowledge. New Intelligencia The New Intelligencia is an incarnation of Intelligencia consisting of MODOK Superior, Leader, Mad Thinker, Awesome Android, and Mister Sinister. New Invaders New Men New Mutants New Warriors New X-Men Nextwave Neyaphem Nick Fury's Howling Commandos Night Shift Nightstalkers Norns Nova Corps O O-Force The O-Force is a superhuman team created for a reality television show where mutants compete for a place in the O-Force team. Its known members include Obituary, Ocean, Ocelot, Oink, Ooze, Optoman, Oracle, Orbit, Orchid, Orifice, and Overkill while Ozone was a wannabe member who was rejected. Octessence Office of National Emergency Offenders The Offenders are a short-lived team meant to serve as an anti-Defenders group formed by the Collector and consisting of Red Hulk, Baron Mordo, Tiger Shark, and Terrax. Offenders in other media Hulu intended to air an animated special called The Offenders with Howard the Duck, MODOK, Hit-Monkey, Tigra, and Dazzler making up the titular team, who would have all had pre-established shows of their own. In January 2020, Howard the Duck and Tigra & Dazzler were shelved while M.O.D.O.K. premiered in May 2021 and Hit-Monkey premiered in November 2021. Olympians Omega Flight Omega Gang The Order There were two different versions of The Order. The Order (Defenders offshoot version) This version of The Order is an offshoot of the Defenders formed by Doctor Strange, Hulk, Namor, and Silver Surfer who plotted to conquer the world in order to protect it while they were under Yandroth's curse. The Order (Initiative version) This version of The Order is California's sanctioned superhero team in the Fifty-State Initiative. Outcasts There are two different versions of Outcast. Outcasts (Subterranea version) The Outcasts are a fictional group of characters first appearing in [[Fantastic Four (comic book)|Fantastic Four Annual]] #13 (1978). The superhuman members of the Outcasts first appeared in Marvel Treasury Edition #25 (1980) and were created by Bill Mantlo and Sal Buscema. The Outcasts subsequently appear in Rom #28 (March 1982) and Iron Man Annual #12 (1991). The Outcasts are people who are ugly, deformed, or disabled who believe themselves to be outcasts in human society and have therefore chosen to live under the Mole Man's rule in Subterranea. The Mole Man has granted superhuman powers to a number of the Outcasts. They were first used in Mole Man's fight with Kala: Mistress of the Netherworld. This conflict drew the attention of Hulk and Spider-Man which led to Mole Man and Kala calling a truce. During the threat of the Dire Wraiths in Clairton, West Virginia, the Outcasts and other agents of the Mole Man fought against Rom until the Dire Wraiths revealed themselves. Both sides worked together against the Dire Wraiths until Rom banished them to Limbo. In the midst of the war in Subterranea when Mole Man went missing, Kala left for the surface to find help in fighting Mole Man's forces and she ran into Iron Man. Mole Man sent the Outcasts to bring Kala back to Subterranea. In addition, the Netherworlders sought to kill Kala for her past actions. Digger and Landslide assisted Iron Man in fighting off the Netherworlders who wanted Kala to become their leader again. She turned them down as she is right now interested in finding Mole Man. The members are: Boulder - Boulder has superhuman strength and durability. His current whereabouts is unknown. Digger - Digger can slice through most substances with his clawed hands. His current whereabouts are unknown. Landslide - Landslide can induce shattering internal vibrations within a person or object by touching it. This includes the ability to create earthquake tremors. His current whereabouts are unknown. Water Witch - Water Witch controls water with a wand. She can also project ice, water or steam. She was briefly a member of the Femizons. Her current whereabouts are unknown. Outcasts (Mutants version) The Outcasts are a fictional group of mutants appearing in American comic books. They were depicted as disguised as an entertainment troupe during the Age of Apocalypse. The group includes Brute, Mastermind, Soaron, Toad, X-Man and their leader, Forge. Later recruits were Sonique and Essex. All but Sonique, Soaron and X-Man are slain by either Essex or Domino and her Marauders. Outlaws The Outlaws are an elite version of the Wild Pack. P Pacific Overlords The Pacific Overlords is a fictional supervillain team consisted largely of humans mutated by Doctor Demonicus. Pale Riders Pantheon Paragons The Paragons are a fictional team made up of students of the Xavier Institute and are instructed by members of the X-Men. They consist of DJ, Match, Pixie, Preview, Trance, and Wolf Cub. The squad's colors are green, pink, and black. The Paragons are initially advised by original New Mutants member Wolfsbane. Wolfsbane is involved in a scandal when her romantic relationship with a student, Elixir, is brought to light. She chooses to leave before the school has a chance to fire her. Magma is assigned as the squad's new advisor. People's Defense Force There are two different versions of the People's Defense Force. People's Defense Force (Belgium version) This version of the People's Defense Force is a group of Hank Pym's enemies that operate out of the Bratislava Prison Superhuman Research Center. People's Defense Force (China version) This version of the People's Defense Force is China's sanctioned superhero team following the breakup of China Force. Pet Avengers Point Men The Point Men are Hawaii's sanctioned superhero team that is part of the Fifty-State Initiative. Its known members are Stingray, Devil-Slayer, Star Sign, and Paydirt. Magnitude was revealed to be a Skrull infiltrator. Power Broker Inc. Power Elite The Power Elite is a cabal of influential brokers that came together to strengthen the country after Hydra's brief takeover of the United States. Its known members include Thunderbolt Ross, Phil Coulson, Selene, Mayor Wilson Fisk, Norman Osborn, a resurrected Aleksander Lukin (who has the remnant of Red Skull's mind in him) and his wife Alexa, Zeke Stane, Baron Strucker, and Taskmaster. Power Pack Press Gang Pride Prime Sentinels Project Pegasus Project Rebirth Project Wideawake Psi-Force Psionex Purifiers Q Queen's Vengeance R Rangers The Rangers are a superhero team that later became the sanctioned superhero team for Texas. Ravagers The Ravagers are a group of space pirates that are led by Yondu. Ravagers in other media The Ravagers appear in the Guardians of the Galaxy animated television series. The Ravagers appear in the media set in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU), which predates their comic book appearance. Known members include Yondu Udonta, Kraglin Obfonteri, Taserface, Starhawk, Martinex T'Naga, Charlie-27, Aleta Ogord, Krugarr, and Mainframe. Additionally, Peter Quill was formerly a member after the Ravagers abducted him as a child, though he would go on to found and lead the Guardians of the Galaxy. While the Ravagers are made up of several factions, they all follow a code of not trafficking children. The Ravagers appear in the live-action films Guardians of the Galaxy, Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2, and Avengers: Endgame. Alternate timeline versions of the Ravagers appear in the Disney+ animated series What If...?. In the episode "What If... T'Challa Became a Star-Lord?", after Kraglin and Taserface accidentally abduct a young T'Challa instead of Quill, the Ravagers are restructured to behave like Robin Hood and his Merry Men and go on to recruit Thanos, Nebula, and Korath the Pursuer into their ranks. In the season one finale "What If... the Watcher Broke His Oath?", T'Challa's Ravagers battle Ego on Earth to prevent him from draining Quill of his cosmic powers, whom they later recruit. R.C.X. Reavers Recorder Redeemers Renegades Resistants Revengers Right The Right is an anti-mutant organization founded by Cameron Hodge that first appeared in X-Factor #17 (June 1987). The Right employed commandos in high-tech flying battle suits of powered armor with machine guns, missiles, and (presumably to disturb or distract their victims) faceplates resembling a smiley face (in some sources these suits were subsequently nicknamed "Smiley-Face Battlesuits"). They also employed scientists and inventors such as Nanny and Ani-Mator. They faced off against X-Factor and the New Mutants. Rocketeers The Rocketeers are beings who wear special costumes with rockets on their backs, enabling the wearers to fly. The Rocketeers also fire rockets as weapons from portable launching equipment they carry. The Rocketeers' costumes and equipment were designed by the Dire Wraiths for use against the Spaceknights of Galador. The Rocketeers' costumes are, however, inferior imitations of their prototype, which was worn by the Torpedo until his death. Roxxon Energy Corporation Runaways S S-Men The S-Men are a group of supervillains who were formed by a clone of Red Skull to serve as his version of the X-Men with the main objective to destroy mutantkind. The team is made up of people who have all suffered atrocities at the hands of mutants during their life, including those who have seen their families slaughtered by evil mutants. Its members include the Goat-Faced Girl, Dancing Water (the illegitimate daughter of Avalanche), Dangerous Jinn, Insect, Living Wind, Honest John, Mzee, and an unidentified monk. With the help of Red Skull and Arnim Zola, these people have gone through lengthy and painful genetic alterations involving mad science and magical artifacts in order to gain the powers they now possess (though some may have been born with their powers and others, such as Dancing Water, may in fact be mutants themselves). They first appeared after the Avengers vs. X-Men storyline where they attacked Rogue and Scarlet Witch near the grave of Professor X. The S-Men defeated Rogue and Scarlet Witch and managed to make off with Professor X's body while taking Rogue and Scarlet Witch as their captives. The S-Men held Rogue and Scarlet Witch as prisoners of Red Skull as he fused part of Professor X's brain with his own. Rogue managed to absorb some of Dancing Water's powers to escape and look for Scarlet Witch. Red Skull used Honest John to take the form of Odin in order to get Thor to help the S-Men attack the mutant race. Red Skull even used the Goat-Faced Girl to negate Wolverine's healing factor so that Thor can land a cataclysmic blow on him. Scarlet Witch and Havok assist Captain America in fighting Red Skull until Dancing Water got him out of there. Afterwards, Captain America and Havok search for leads on where to find Red Skull and the S-Men. During the "AXIS" storyline, the S-Men and their ally Ahab stop Magneto when he arrives on Genosha to attack Red Skull. Havok, Rogue, and Scarlet Witch are captured by the Red Skull's S-Men and sent to his concentration camp in Genosha. In a fit of rage over finding mutants being used for freak medical experiments, Magneto kills the entire S-Men. Honest John, Dangerous Jinn, and the unnamed monk were the only survivors of the attack. Salem's Seven Santerians Savage Land Mutates Savage Six Scarlet Knights Scarlet Spiders (Red Team) Scourges Schutz Heiliggruppe Secret Avengers Secret Empire (organization) Secret Warriors Sentinels Serpent Men Serpent Society Serpent Squad Shadow Council The Shadow Council is an organization that was founded by Aloysius Thorndrake and the Confederacy soldiers with him after they went through the Vanishing Point and came in contact with an entity called the Abyss. Shadow Council in other media A reimagined version of the Shadow Council appears in the Avengers: Black Panther's Quest animated television series. This iteration of the group is a secret organization once led by Heinrich Zemo in the 1940s before it was disbanded after Captain America and Peggy Carter defeated them in Switzerland. By the present, a horde of new supervillains re-established the organization and sought to recruit more new members to acquire three Wakandan relics called the Panther's Key. The organization is led by Killmonger and consists of Ulysses Klaue, Madame Masque, Tiger Shark, Princess Zanda, M'Baku, and several Wakandan civilians. Shadow Initiative Shadow-X Shadowmasters S.H.E. S.H.I.E.L.D. Shock Troop Siberforce Sinister Six Sinister Syndicate Sisterhood of the Wasp The Sisterhood of the Wasp is a group that is led by Wasp. Sisters of Sin Six Six-Fingered Hand Six Pack Skeleton Crew The Skeleton Crew was an organization built by the Red Skull from his operatives. Skrull Kill Krew Slingers Soldiers of Misfortune The Solution Sons of Satannish The Sons of Satannish were a cult of sorcerers who received mystical power from Satannish. Sons of the Serpent The Sons of the Serpent are a subversive organization of costumed American racist super-patriots who oppose all racial, ethnic, and religious minorities. Sons of the Tiger Soviet Super-Soldiers Spaceknights Space Phantoms Special Executive Spider Society Spider-Slayers Spinsterhood Spirits of Vengeance Squadron Sinister Squadron Supreme There are different incarnations of the Squadron Supreme: Squadron Supreme (Supreme Power version) This version of the Squadron Supreme was created for the Max imprint of Marvel Comics. Squadron Supreme of America When the Power Elite collaborated with Mephisto, he created some simulacrums that were programmed to become the Squadron Supreme of America where they would serve as the sanctioned superhero team in the United States. Power Elite member Phil Coulson serves as their liaison to the U.S. government. Stane InternationalStane International is the company that is run by Obadiah Stane. Starforce Starjammers Stark Industries Star Masters S.T.R.I.K.E. Subterraneans Sunset Riders Super-Axis The Super-Axis first appear in The Invaders #40 (May 1979) and were created by Roy Thomas and Alan Kupperberg. The Super-Axis, consisting of former Invaders foes Master Man; U-Man; the original Baron Blood and Warrior Woman are gathered together in the second last issue of the title by the Japanese spy Lady Lotus. Using hypnotism to summon and control the villains, Lotus intends to use the newly formed Super-Axis to undermine the United States on the home front during World War II. Individual members initially skirmish with the Invaders, and the original Human Torch is also hypnotised. In a final battle at an amusement park, the entire Super-Axis confront the Invaders, but are defeated by the heroes' superior teamwork. The Torch also frees himself from Lotus' control, and attempts to locate the villain, who has fled. The final panels of the last issue show Lotus being warned by master villain the Yellow Claw about the dangers of overconfidence. An issue of the limited series The New Invaders reveals in flashback that U-Man raped Lady Lotus in retaliation for the mind control. Lady Lotus eventually gives birth to their child, Nia Noble. Super Soldiers Superguardians Superhuman Restraint Unit S.W.O.R.D. T Team X Technet Temploids Teen Brigade Ten Rings The Ten Rings are a secret society that built their principles around the Wellspring of Power. Ironheart became their first target where she was ambushed by two assassins that were empowered by the Wellspring of Power. They wanted Ironheart to give in to her power only for Ironheart to attack them. They vanished after the fight. The Ten Rings sent an operative named Midnight's Fire to fight Ironheart to see if she was worthy of joining them. During her fight with Midnight's Fire, Ironheart learned that the Ten Tings are a terrorist organization whose ways of covert actions caused some people to believe that they are a myth. Midnight's Fire described his past history with Ironheart and tries to get Ironheart to join up with them. She turned him down and their fight continues. The Ten Rings were responsible for getting Councilman Thomas Birch elected as the Governor of Illinois. In order to make himself look good for Birch's election, Midnight's Fire had some children commit crimes. When Ironheart showed up to stop the Ten Rings, Midnight's Fire fought her and was defeated. Then Midnight's Fire and Birch were arrested by the authorities. The Ten Rings dispatched their operative Eclipse to Chicago so that she can perform a magical rite that would transform it's citizens into zombies. Ironheart and Wasp disrupted the ritual at O'Hare Airport, but Eclipse teleported away. Ironheart later discovered that her father Demetrius "Riri" Williams had faked his death in a gas station robbery gone wrong and joined the Ten Rings where he somehow developed geokinesis. Ten Rings in other media The Ten Rings appear in the projects set in the Marvel Cinematic Universe which predates their comic book appearance. Their history is that the Ten Rings was founded by Wenwu. The Ten Rings first appear in Iron Man. The Ten Rings is hired by Obadiah Stane to kidnap Tony Stark in Afghanistan, with the cell led by a man named Raza. The Ten Rings appear in Iron Man 2. They arranged for Ivan Vanko to travel to Monaco to enact his revenge on Stark. An operative of the Ten Rings appears in Ant-Man. He was one of Darren Cross' potential buyers of his Yellowjacket suit. The Ten Rings appear in Shang-Chi and the Legend of the Ten Rings. Terrible Trio Terror Inc. Thieves' Guild THEM Thor Corps During the "Secret Wars" storyline, there is a police force on Battleworld called the Thor Corps that enforce the laws of God Emperor Doom. Thunderbolts Thunderriders Time-Displaced X-Men Time Variance Authority Titanic Three Tough Kid Squad The Tough Kid Squad is a group of five kids (Wally and Tom Danger, Derrick Dawes, Butch, and Eagle) who appeared in Tough Kid Squad Comics #1 (March 1942) Tracksuit Mafia The Tracksuit Mafia (also called the Tracksuit Bros. and the Tracksuit Draculas) are a gang of non-superpowered organized criminals, so named because the eponymous athletic wear in which all of its members are seen, who serve as adversaries to Hawkeye. Created by writer Matt Fraction, they first appeared in Hawkeye (Vol 4) in 2012. Tracksuit Mafia in other media The Tracksuit Mafia were adapted into the 2021 Disney+ TV series Hawkeye. Its known members are Maya Lopez, Kazimierz "Kazi" Kazimierczak, Ivan, Tomas, Enrique and Dmitri. Trash Triumph Division The Triumph Division is the Philippines' sanctioned superhero team where its members are familial and have been traced back for centuries. The team is led by Red Feather and its members include Anitun, Fighter One, Great Mongoose, Mighty Mother, St. George, and Wishing Man. The ones that first appear were killed by suicide bombers with Iron Man attending a private funeral for them and their successors being made public. They later gained a new member called Wave who helped the Agents of Atlas fight Queen Sindr's fire demons. Triumvirate of Terror Triune Understanding The Triune Understanding is a religious cult created by Kurt Busiek for volume three of the Marvel Comics Avengers series. True Believers Twelve U U.S. Hulk Operations Also called Shadow Base, the U.S. Hulk Operations is a United States military organization that is tasked with the job to hunt down Hulk and his allies. It is led by General Reginald Fortean. After General Fortean's Subject B form is killed, Hulk took control of the U.S. Hulk Operations. U-Foes U-Men Ultimates ULTIMATUM Ultimate Fantastic Four Ultimate X-Men Ultraforce Uncanny Avengers Uncanny X-Force Uncanny X-Men Undying Ones Unholy Three Uni-Mind Unified Thieves and Assassins Guild of New Orleans Union The Union is a superhero team that is lead by Britannia and consists of Union Jack, Kelpie, Snakes and The Choir. The Union was introduced in The Union #1 and is part of the Britannia Project. Unlimited Class Wrestling Federation Upstarts Uranians V V-Battalion The V-Battalion is the name of two incarnations of a fictional secret organization composed of Golden Age superheroes and their descendants Valkyrior Vampiries Vanguard Vishanti Vulturions The Vulturions are a group of criminals who wield the same technology as Vulture. W Warbound The Warbound are a group of gladiators from the Planet Sakaar that were gathered by Hulk. They consist of Korg, Miek the Unhived, No-Name the Brood, Hiroim the Shamed, Elloe Kaifi, and her bodyguard Lavin Skee. Warbound in other media An adaption of the Warbound appears in the Hulk and the Agents of S.M.A.S.H. episode "Planet Leader." Korg and Miek appears amongst Leader's slaves while Hiroim is a mind-controlled overseer of the slaves and Elloe Kaifi was appointed to work as a handmaiden for She-Hulk. All four of them are freed from Leader's control by the Agents of S.M.A.S.H. The Warbound appeared in the direct-to-DVD Planet Hulk film. However, No-Name was cut out of the line up due to the time limit for the film. A version of the Warbound appear in Thor: Ragnarok. This version of the Warbound are gladiator warriors that are pitted against each other in games forced by Sakaar's planetary ruler Grandmaster. Warclan Warheads Warriors Three Warwolves Watchdogs Weapon P.R.I.M.E. Weapon Plus Weapon X Weathermen West Coast Avengers Wild Pack Wildboys The Wildboys are an unruly pair of street-dwellers that enjoy committing violent acts of vandalism. They are highly formidable street-fighters and are greatly skilled in the use of knives and other conventional street hardware. When the Horsemen of Apocalypse attacked Manhattan during the events of the Fall of the Mutants and caused a blackout, a Vietnam veteran named Ammo organized a gang including the Wildboys, who looted the city. Sometime later, Typhoid Mary gathered the Wildboys together with Ammo, Bullet, and Bushwacker to attack Daredevil; the criminals beat Daredevil so badly that they nearly killed him. Winter Guard The Winter Guard is Russia's sanctioned superhero team. Witches Wolfpack The Wolfpack are a group of five teenagers that reside in the South Bronx, in New York City. They were originally selected for their extraordinary abilities and aptitude by a retired Naval officer known only as Mr. Mack. He trained each of them separately from adolescence into their teen years in hand-to-hand combat, strategy, stealth, speed, endurance, and raw strength. When they were ready, he introduced them to each other. According to ancient legend, the Wolfpack has existed for at least two millennia, and serves as a cosmic balance to a group of mortal men completely devoid of compassion, love or charity, known as the Nine. The new Wolfpack soon began battling the forces of the Nine in the Bronx and continue to protect and patrol the Bronx, and battle the forces of The Nine. The Wolfpack appear in the House of M, as a gang of superpowered teens in the Bronx; in which Luke Cage made a treaty with the group. Members include Robbie Baldwin, Turbo, Darkhawk, Rage, Alex Power with his sister Julie and Raphael Vega, who is their leader. The team were seen later arranging a meeting with one of the Pride's kids; but this turns into a trap by Federal Agent Boom Boom, in which the Wolfpack were easily defeated by her, the Blob and Typhoid Mary. The team is apprehended and Vega surrenders. Vega, alongside Shang-Chi are charged with terrorism. The team were later freed by Luke Cage (along with the Dragons), in which they join in with the Avengers against Thunderbird's Brotherhood. Women Warriors The Women Warriors are Delaware's sanctioned superhero team that is part of the Fifty-State Initiative during the "Dark Reign" storyline. It consists of Asp, Black Mamba, Diamondback, Quicksand, and Skein. World Counterterrorism Agency The World Counterterrorism Agency (W.C.A.) is a counterterrorism organization founded by a group of ex-S.H.I.E.L.D. agents, including Mockingbird, following the events of the Secret Invasion storyline. Other members include Hawkeye and Dominic Fortune. Women Warriors Wrecking Crew X Xavier's Security Enforcers X-Babies X-CellX-Cell' is a group of depowered mutants who blamed the government for causing M-Day. X-Corporation X-Corps X-Factor X-Factor Investigations X-Force X-Men X-Men 2099 X-Nation 2099 X-People X-Statix X-Terminators X-Ternals X-Treme X-Men X-Treme Sanctions Executive Y Young Allies Young Avengers Young Gods Young X-Men Z Zodiac See also List of government agencies in Marvel Comics List of criminal organizations in Marvel Comics References External links Marvel Comics official site Groups at Marvunapp.com Marvel Comics teams and organizations, List of Marvel Comics teams and organizations, List of List of Marvel Comics teams and organizations

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The Lafayette Leopards football program represents Lafayette College in college football. One of the oldest college football programs in the United States, Lafayette currently plays in the Patriot League at the NCAA Division I Football Championship Subdivision level. Fielding their first team in 1882, Lafayette has won three college football national championships (1896, 1921, 1926), seven Patriot League championships (1988, 1992, 1994, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2013), six undefeated seasons (1896, 1909, 1921, 1926, 1937, 1940) and four undefeated, untied seasons (1921, 1926, 1937, 1940). For most of its history, Lafayette played an independent schedule until joining the Patriot League in 1986. Between 1929 and 1975, the Leopards were a part of an unofficial conference, the “Middle Three Conference,” which consisted of Rutgers University and Lehigh University. Today, Lafayette is most noted for its fierce arch-rivalry with Lehigh, which is the most played rivalry in college football (151 games) and the most consecutive years played (since 1897). ESPN considers "The Rivalry" to be among the top ten in college football, and was the subject of a PBS documentary narrated by NFL Films voice and Philadelphia Phillies broadcaster Harry Kalas. Aside from Lehigh, Lafayette's primary rivals are Bucknell University and the University of Pennsylvania. Lafayette has produced four consensus All-Americans (FBS), 11 FCS All-Americans, four College Football Hall of Fame players, and three College Football Hall of Fame coaches. Lafayette football has produced and nurtured several legendary football personalities, such as George Barclay, inventor of the football helmet, and Jock Sutherland, legendary coach of the Pittsburgh Panthers and Pittsburgh Steelers. Lafayette's Herb McCracken is also credited with inventing the huddle during a game in which Pennsylvania was stealing hand signals. Lafayette's nickname is the Leopards, dating from October 21, 1924. In its early history, the students, alumni, and press referred to the team as the 'Maroon.' The Leopards are still occasionally referred to as the 'Maroon' or the 'Maroon and White.' Currently, Lafayette has 650 wins, 33rd all-time in Division I. History Early history (1882–1890) 'Rugby' football was first introduced on College Hill in the fall of 1880 by Theodore H. Welles. A member of the class of 1884, Welles brought football to Easton after learning the new game at Wilkes Barre Academy and Princeton University, where he studied as a college freshman. H.R. Craven, who played and learned the sport at the Lawrenceville School, served as the first team captain. Early football at Lafayette was not organized. In 1880 and 1881, students competed against each other on campus. However, in the fall of 1882, Lafayette traveled to Rutgers to partake in its first intercollegiate football contest. On November 7, 1882, Lafayette fell to Rutgers 0-0/8-3. One week later, Lafayette lost its second game ever against the University of Pennsylvania 0-0/1-3. Although official records reflect only two games being played in 1882, Welles mentions playing Swarthmore College and the Stevens Institute of Technology on College Hill, winning both contests. With one season of intercollegiate football experience, Lafayette won its first game ever in 1883. After dropping its first three games to Princeton, Pennsylvania, and Stevens, Lafayette broke through against Rutgers on November 10. With four inches of slushy snow covering the Quad, Lafayette avenged the previous year's defeat 25–0 with four touchdowns despite a water-logged ball. The first game of 1884 brought a new team to Lafayette's schedule: Lehigh University. Located in nearby Bethlehem, Lehigh would be playing its first football game. With experience and superior skill on its side, Lafayette annihilated Lehigh 56–0 in what would shortly become known as "The Rivalry". Due to the proximity of the schools, Lafayette played a Lehigh as their last opponent in 1884, winning 36–0 in Bethlehem. True animosity soon developed between both teams. In 1886, Lafayette was winning 12–0 until a severe downpour halted play 15 minutes into the second half (in 1886, there were two 45 minute halves). Both team captains mutually agreed to end the game even though football tradition called for football to be played in all weather. The game's referee wrote Walter Camp on how to resolve the game. Camp said that the game should be declared a tie, but Lehigh acknowledged they were outplayed and gave Lafayette the victory. Later in the season, with the game scoreless late in the second half, Lehigh was protesting the officiating of the game. As the Lehigh captain pulled his team off the field in protest, Lafayette picked up the ball and scored a touchdown. To this day, Lafayette counts the game as a 4–0 win, while Lehigh considers the game scoreless. The schools would play each other twice per season until 1902. A bitter rivalry also emerged with Pennsylvania. During their annual contest on the Lafayette Quad on November 6, 1889, Lafayette's right tackle Wells, who had been ejected by the umpire earlier in the contest, tripped a Pennsylvania player running with the ball along the sidelines. As the two players converged following the trip, a crowd of spectators surged the Penn player and "struck, kicked, and generally misused him." Many outside newspapers trumped up the incident to make it seem like a mob had severely beaten the Penn player and there was general unruliness at the Lafayette game. However, since it was the late 19th century, it is possible that the account of the unruly mob was an instance of yellow journalism. Additionally, the umpire who ejected Wells, Dr. Shell, was from the University of Pennsylvania and was cited in the newspaper for making several bad calls against Lafayette, including negating a five-point field goal on a phantom offside. Regardless, Pennsylvania was upset about the altercation relations between the two schools were strained. The incident was a key catalyst in forming the Alumni Advisory Committee in January 1890. Pennsylvania played only two more times at Lafayette, in 1891 and 1893, until 1973. Although there were no formal conferences, Lafayette, Lehigh, and Pennsylvania were loosely affiliated and their games, two against each opponent, were considered the battle for the Pennsylvania State Championship College football upstart (1891–1918) After being managed by students, Lafayette hired its first paid football coach for the 1891 season, W.S. Moyle. Moyle was hired from Yale University since he was familiar with the Yale system and was considered a good player. His stipend was $400. As coach from 1891 to 1892, Moyle played in nearly every game and carried the ball on nearly every down. He was lauded as a football hero until the faculty disapproved of his playing. However, he was regarded as 'good coach' who 'taught for the first time what teamwork was.' Despite hiring coaches, Lafayette's record had a losing record each season. Between 1891 and 1894, Lafayette went 2–9 against Lehigh, including two losses and a neutral site loss before 3,000 spectators in Wilkes-Barre in 1891. In 1895, the alumni athletic advisors hired who would become a legendary college football figure, Parke H. Davis. Writing a history of Lafayette Athletics in 1926, Francis A. March, Jr. said, "With the advent of Davis, little Lafayette stepped from comparative obscurity to a level with the football giants." Davis, who played at Princeton, was the first coach hired based on experience, having coached Amherst College and the University of Wisconsin in previous seasons. Lafayette went 6–2 and had its first winning season since 1888 swept Lehigh for the first time since 1886. Davis is credited with bringing organization, recognition, and enthusiasm to Lafayette football through his charismatic personality and writing college fight songs. In 1896, Lafayette won its first National Championship, which featured a dramatic 6–4 win against Pennsylvania at Franklin Field. Davis coached one more season, a 9–2–1 campaign in 1897. Samuel B. Newton, who arrived after coaching Penn State led Lafayette to its most victories ever with a 12–1 record in 1899, with a lone 12–0 defeat to national champions Princeton (12–1) and outscoring opponents 253–23. Newton was 7–0 against Lehigh and 33–14 overall through his last season of 1902 before leaving Lafayette to coach Lehigh. In four games against Lafayette, Newton only won twice while going 23–20–2 overall. During this time, Newton coached Walter E. Bachman, who developed the roving center concept in football. Bachman was named second-team All-American by Walter Camp in 1900 and 1901, one of the first players outside of the 'Big Four' to earn the honor. The legendary roll of Lafayette coaches continued after the departure of Newton. Dr. Alfred E. Bull coached between 1903 and 1907, compiling a 37–10–3 record in five seasons, with one loss to Lehigh. Tragically, Lafayette football hero and helmet inventor George "Rose" Barclay, who became coach in 1908 and was the first Lafayette player to coach the team, died following after one season after suffering from an appendicitis. His successor, Bob Folwell, became one of the most decorated coaches in Lafayette history by posting a 19–2–1 record. Folwell led the University of Iowa to its first conference championship and after Lafayette, led Washington & Jefferson College to be recognized as 'an elite power team,' along with Notre Dame, Michigan, the University of Chicago, and Yale. In 1925, he became the first coach of the New York Giants. Folwell coached Lafayette to its first win against Princeton on October 23, 1909 in what the New York Times said was, "the most sensational finish that has ever been seen in a football game." With six second remaining and the score 0–0, Princeton was set to attempt a game-winning field goal from the Lafayette 10-yard line. Irmschler blitzed through the tackle and guard, caught the ball as it left the kicker's foot, and raced 92-yards for the win as time expired for a 6–0 win. The team was greeted with a jubilant crowd that paraded through Easton and College Hill when the team returned. In their next game two weeks later, Lafayette tied Pennsylvania 6–6 and ultimately finished second behind Yale (10–0–0) in the East and for the national championship. Lafayette outscored the opposition 176–6. Folwell left in the middle of the 1911 season with Lafayette holding a 5–0 record. It came at an inopportune moment as Lafayette was set to host the Carlisle Indians and Jim Thorpe. Lafayette lost 19–0 and went 2–3 the rest of the season under S.B. Newton. National college football power (1919–1948) Between 1921 and 1948, Lafayette was considered one of the premiere college football programs. The team earned two national championships, had four undefeated seasons, featured several All-Americans, played in major games, and was involved in several bowl scenarios. During nearly every season of the era, the team was led by a coach that would later be inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame. The 1920s The hiring of Jock Sutherland in 1919 started Lafayette on the road to national prominence during the 1920s. After coaching an undefeated team at an Army base in Georgia during World War I and only a few years removed from playing for the University of Pittsburgh and Pop Warner, Sutherland was prepared to enter a career in dentistry. However, a chance meeting with a friend propelled Sutherland to take a coaching job at Lafayette. Lafayette finished 1919 at 6–2 and 5–3 the following season. According to Sutherland, with virtually the same team as 1920, Lafayette went 9–0 in 1921 and went on a 17-game winning streak that stretched between 1920 and 1922, where Lafayette outscored opponents 495–47, with wins over major teams such as Penn, coached by John Heisman, Pittsburgh (twice), Fordham University, and Boston College. During the national championship season of 1921, no team came within three touchdowns of Lafayette except Pittsburgh, coached by Pop Warner. Late in the game, Lafayette used a triple pass and touchdown by ‘Bots’ Brunner near the Pitt goal line to gain a 6–0 lead. Pitt was inside the Lafayette ten with under two minutes to play, but an illegal substitution by Pitt cost the Panthers dearly and Lafayette held on for the win. Six games into the 1922 season, Lafayette was poised to claim another national championship. The Maroon defeated Pittsburgh at Forbes Field, the only loss of the season for a 10–1 team that claimed a 'post-season' victory at Stanford. Facing the 1922 Rose Bowl participant Washington & Jefferson before 38,000 at the Polo Grounds in New York City, Lafayette took a commanding 13–0 halftime lead. However, a dramatic and miraculous comeback by the Presidents resulted in a 14–13 Maroon defeat, one of the most bitter in Lafayette football history. Sutherland coached the Maroon until 1923, when he returned to his alma mater, Pittsburgh, for the 1924 season. New coach Herb McCracken, also a recent player under Pop Warner, quickly proved himself by defeating Sutherland at Pittsburgh 10–0 in the second game of the season. McCracken won his first five games before falling to Pennsylvania 6–3. Before the game, McCracken discovered that Penn had decoded Lafayette's play-calling signals. McCracken responded with a new and innovative solution: the huddle. Although McCracken is often credited as the inventor of the huddle, there are earlier, though some less substantiated claims of other schools implementing the huddle only a few years earlier. At the start of the 1926 season, Lafayette inaugurated its new, unfinished 18,000-seat stadium with a 35–0 win over Muhlenberg College. The Maroon continued to win by dominate scores en route to their third national championship on the back of All-American halfback Mike “George” Wilson, who led the nation in scoring with 120 points and 20 touchdowns, a national record at the time. The Maroon also led the East in scoring, with 328 points, and only surrendered 37 points in nine games. Halfback and team captain Frank Kirkleski, who later starred for the NFL's Pottsville Maroons, also received All-American praise played in the East-West Shrine Game in San Francisco. Lafayette continued to dominate opponents in the late 1920s, but would win only a few games against major teams, such as Penn State. In 1929, Lafayette joined with Lehigh and Rutgers to form the Middle Three Conference, which consisted of round-robin games between the two teams. The schools split the first year of the series at 1–1–0 each. Lafayette won their first Middle Three title the following season. The 1930s Lafayette made college football history on October 25, 1930, when the Leopards and Washington & Jefferson played the first night indoor college football game in history at the Atlantic City Boardwalk Hall before 25,000. The Presidents won 7–0 on an easy touchdown within the two-yard line with the help of a play that is illegal today – a recovered “fumble” by pushing a Lafayette defender into the kicker and the ball. In their final game of the season, Lafayette defeated Lehigh 16–6 before 20,000 at Fisher Field, the largest crowd to witness "The Rivalry" at the time. After a 7–2 season in 1931, Lafayette's record began to decline. Coach Herb McCracken had only won less than five games once since his first season in 1924, but did not win more than three games through his final season at Lafayette in 1935. Although he was only 36 at the time, McCracken retired from coaching to help friend Maurice Robinson start-up Scholastic Publications and write a popular magazine, Scholastic Coach. To return the Leopards to the spotlight, Lafayette called on Ernie Nevers, an assistant coach at Stanford University who helped lead the Indians to three straight Rose Bowl games. Nevers, along with Jim Thorpe, was considered one of the two best college football players ever and had a legendary career in the early NFL. Hope was high on College Hill as the 1935 freshman team went undefeated against the leading freshmen teams of the East, including Princeton. However, with a young team plagued by injuries, the Leopards went 1–8, their worst record since their first season of football in 1882, and were blown out in their last five games. Despite stating he would stay for the 1937 season, Nevers resigned to become an assistant coach at the University of Iowa. Absent a coach for the second straight season, Lafayette turned to Edward “Hook” Mylin, the inaugural Orange Bowl winning head coach of Bucknell University. In one of the most remarkable turnarounds in college football at the time, the 1–8 Leopards of 1936 went 8–0 in 1937. Furthermore, the Leopards posted seven shutouts, outscored opponents 130–6, and featured an unscored upon defense, including a 13–0 win over heavily favored New York University at Yankee Stadium. The key win featured a key 79-yard punt by quarterback Tommy Kearns and a 50-yard and 30-yard touchdown pass. Media sources such as “The Lafayette” student newspaper began referring to the 1937 team as the “Mylin Miracle Men” since the victory left Lafayette as the only undefeated, untied, and unscored upon team in the East. Two games later, Lafayette surrendered their only touchdown of the season against Rutgers. Early in the game, Rutgers defender Bill Tranavitch, who was the leading scorer in the nation at the time, returned an 87-yard interception for a touchdown. The victory elicited the first football parade in downtown Easton in 12 years as boisterous students clogged trolley and car traffic. Lafayette concluded their perfect season with a 6–0 win over Lehigh, their first victory over the Engineers since 1933. There was speculation that Lafayette would receive an Orange Bowl bid for the January 1, 1938 game. Sources at New York newspapers told the student newspaper that Lafayette was at the top of the list of the Bowl Committee as ‘feelers’ were sent to inquire about schools’ interest. Associated Press news releases at the end of the season also listed Lafayette at the top of a list that included Colorado, Fordham, Holy Cross, Villanova, Detroit, and Nebraska. However, the administration did not want to interfere with academic activity and a trustee doubted permission would be granted to play in Miami. Michigan State University was ultimately selected from the East. Mylin continued with a strong team in 1938, posting a 5–3 record and a 7–0 win at Penn State. Lafayette defeated Lehigh in 1938 and again in 1939. Following the 1939 season, Leopard captain John Quigg was invited to play in the Eastern Collegiate All-Star Game against the New York Giants, but the invitation arrived after the game was played. The 1940s Mylin led Lafayette to its second undefeated season in four years with the help of a physical team and the triumvirate of Walt Zirinsky, Sammy Moyer, and James Farrell. With a narrow 9–7 win over New York University in their second game and missing several injured players, Lafayette carried a 4–0 record into their meeting with Army at West Point. The team was suddenly awakened at 4 a.m. as the Cadets, cavalrymen, and horses paraded in front of the team hotel in an attempt to rattle the Leopards. It was also an important date at West Point since a visiting delegation of South American generals would be reviewing the cadets before the game. Army advanced deep into Lafayette territory early in the first quarter, but a missed field goal and key stops kept the Leopards in the game. Zirinsky scored in the third for a 6–0 lead, a spread formation newly unveiled by Mylin helped Lafayette to a 12–0 lead. A 70-yard interception return by Zirinsky in the final minute sealed Lafayette's 19–0 win. Despite injuries and facing many Army substitutes, Lafayette outgained Army 184–104. The following week, Army fell to Notre Dame 7–0 on a returned interception, leading many writers to compare Lafayette to Notre Dame. As of 2011, the 1940 victory over Army is Lafayette's only victory in 20 meetings. Two weeks later, Lafayette edged Rutgers University by an extra point 7–6 in New Brunswick before 20,000. At 8–0, Lafayette demolished Lehigh 46–0. Zirinsky scored three touchdowns as Lafayette gained 585 total yards, a record at the time in “The Rivalry.” Lafayette finished 1940 with 238 points, third in the nation behind Boston College and leader Tennessee. Lafayette was once again considered for the Orange Bowl as ‘feelers’ from the Committee approached Lafayette. Despite being in the final three from the East, the Committee selected Georgetown University. Ironically, the Administration elected to participate in the Bowl, with President Lewis going as far as throwing out an orange to open a post-season student pep rally. The Sun Bowl expressed interest in Lafayette, but the Administration declined. Farrell and Moyer received AP All-American honorable mention status as Lafayette achieved its only Associated Press Poll ranking: 19. The following year, Zirinsky scored two touchdowns to finish his career with 55 points against Lehigh, the most of any player in “The Rivalry.” Coupled with the 1939 game, Zirinsky outscored the entire Lehigh team 55–20 during the three-year span. Drafted by the Cleveland Rams in 1942, Zirinsky played in only the 1945 season. World War II soon impacted the Leopard football as many players and coaches became enlisted men, including Mylin. Lafayette went 3–5–1 in 1942, including a 19–13 win over the University of Virginia at Fisher Field and coming up one-yard short against Lehigh in the final seconds of a 7–7 tie. In 1943 and 1944, Lafayette continued to play football as other colleges suspended their programs such as nearby Moravian College, the former team of new Leopard coach Ben Wolfson. Unlike Harvard and Yale, Lafayette and Lehigh continued their rivalry, playing each other twice, as well as Rutgers twice and one game against nearby Willow Grove Naval Air Station. Only 5,000 attended the game in Easton, and 3,500 in Taylor Stadium, both Lafayette routs and devoid of bands or cheerleaders. In 1944, Lafayette expanded their schedule to include ‘local’ trips to Syracuse University and NYU, as well as two games against Rutgers and Lehigh. Only 300 fans attended the first game against Lehigh in a rainstorm. Lafayette romped in the finale 64–0, their largest margin of victory in the series, to finish 6–1. Between 1945 and 1946, Lafayette won three games, including two shutouts over Lehigh. Mylin returned for the 1946 season, his last, and finished his Lafayette career with a 6–0–1 mark against Lehigh. Ivan Williamson replaced Mylin in 1947 and went 6–3 in his first season, including a 14–7 win over Syracuse and the fifth straight shutout of Lehigh. "The Greatest Game They Never Played"—the 1949 Sun Bowl incident Following a 7–2 mark in 1948 and a 23–13 win against Lehigh before 21,000 at Fisher Field, Lafayette received an invitation to play UTEP (Texas College of Mines) in the 1949 Sun Bowl. Lafayette accepted the bid contingent upon being able to bring David Showell, an African-American halfback and former Tuskegee Airman. Texas law at the time prohibited African-Americans from playing on the same field as Caucasian players in a state-supported stadium. Showell's team members also did not want to accept the bid unless Showell could accompany the team to El Paso. The Chairman of the Sun Bowl, C.D. Belding, rejected the provision and Lafayette declined the bid. The Athletic Department did not issue a reason for the rejection, prompting a protest of 1,500 students and a bonfire. The students marched on the President's house, demanding an explanation. President Ralph Cooper Hutchison explained the situation and along with student leaders, phoned the Bowl Committee chairman to reconsider. Upon a prompt rejection by Belding, the student protest marched downtown and received an audience at the local radio station. The station and the students sent a telegram to President Truman condemning racial intolerance and segregation with a terse, “Denied Sun Bowl bid with Negro on team. Is that Democracy?” The protest and received national media attention in the New York Times and AP wires. The incident was also basis of a popular song, “The Greatest Game they Never Played.” The situation was also significant in that it drew attention to segregation and discrimination against African-American players in bowl games and college football. The 30-year 'Slump' (1949–1980) After a string of successful decades, Lafayette football receded from the national stage and was defined more by its Middle Three Conference duels with Lehigh University and Rutgers University. Lafayette gradually de-emphasized football with the inauguration of alumnus Ralph Cooper Hutchinson as president of the college. At Washington & Jefferson College, where he had been president from 1931 to 1945, Hutchinson had presided over the de-emphasis of the Presidents national profile in light of improper payments to players. Additionally, with the rise of state universities through the influx of returning servicemen and state funding, Lafayette and other small private schools were at a competitive disadvantage in financial support and recruiting. During this era, Lafayette defeated Lehigh only eight times out of 31 games and Rutgers only three times through the cessation of the rivalry in 1975. Following the departure of Ivan Williamson to the University of Wisconsin, Maurice J. "Clipper" Smith, who lost only two games as the coach of Villanova, only won four games between 1949 and 1951. However, he led the 1–6 Leopards to a 21–12 win over a 6–2 Lehigh team in 1949. Lafayette was losing 12–0 at halftime before a ferocious comeback gave the Leopards their seventh straight win over Lehigh and as of 2011, is the largest upset (record-wise) by the Leopards in the series to date. Lehigh rebounded the next year for their first win since 1936 and go undefeated for the first time in their history. Steve Hokuf took over as head coach in 1952 and led the Leopards to their first winless season since the program's first year in 1882. However, Lafayette rebounded and won three straight games against Lehigh through 1955, their last three-game winning streak until 2004–2006. The 1955 season was also one of the best of the era as the 6–2 Leopards scored two upset wins. Traveling to Dartmouth College as a 13-point underdog, Lafayette scored a 21–13 win for their first win over an Ivy League team since a 1923 win over Penn. Several weeks later, Lafayette defeated Rutgers 16–7 and Lehigh in the last week of the season to capture their last outright Middle Three Conference championship. Lafayette won six games in 1956 and would not win as many games until going 7–2 in 1968. Lafayette and Lehigh made college football history in 1964. Both schools met in Easton for the 100th edition of "The Rivalry" before a sold-out crowd and national media attention. Ironically, it was one of the worst ever match-ups of the Rivalry as Lafayette was winless and Lehigh had one win. The game fared no better as the schools played to a 6–6 tie, and both schools missed an extra point. Lafayette soon hired Harry Gamble, who would achieve later prominence as a coach at Penn and president of the Philadelphia Eagles. Gamble was the only coach between Edward “Hook” Mylin and Bill Russo to have a winning record as coach of the Leopards. In his second season in 1968, Gamble led Lafayette to their best record since 1948 with a 7–3 mark. The team had a three and four-game winning streak and was ranked first in the Lambert Cup poll as the best team in the east, but was upset at home by a two-win Lehigh team, 21–16. Wide receiver Mike Miller was named to the honorable mention 'Little' All-American team, the first time since 1940 any Lafayette player was mentioned on an All-American list. Gamble also went 2–2 against Lehigh, the best record of any coach from the era. The end of the Gamble era in the early 1970s saw the emergence of running back Tony Giglio, who would become one of the most prolific rushers in Lafayette history. Giglio amassed 2,519 yards and 22 touchdowns in only three seasons, including a 238-yard outburst in a 19-point loss at Colgate. Giglio was named third-team All-America by the Associated Press in 1973, the first Leopard team placement since legendary rusher Mike “George” Wilson in 1926. Lafayette continued to struggle on the field, never winning more than five games until 1981. In 1971, the Leopards scored an upset win over Penn in Gamble's first season as the Quaker's coach. The 17–15 at Franklin Field was the first Lafayette win over Penn since 1923. The season also featured the Leopards last ever win (as of 2011) over Rutgers. Despite mediocre records of three and five win seasons, the Lafayette student newspaper editorialized in 1975 that the program was in a 25-year demise between 1949 and 1975 and was being dominated by teams which the paper considered football 'powers.' Between 1960 and 1974, Lafayette went 10–56–1 against Bucknell, Colgate, Delaware, Lehigh, Penn, and Rutgers. Citing poor morale on campus and the administration's unwillingness to commit to improving the program and attributing losing to a 'temporary down cycle', the paper editorialized, "Let's get rid of Colgate and yes, even Lehigh. Both schools have moved onto higher football plateaus... the Engineers are actively seeking greater things for their program, while Lafayette only seems to be striving for mediocrity." The rivalry with Rutgers ended that season as the Leopards were blown out in their last three meetings. Lafayette managed a 21–17 upset of Lehigh in 1976, but finished no better than .500 or defeated Lehigh through the remainder of Neil Putman's tenure in 1980. Resurgence and Rebirth under Russo (1981–1996) With the hiring of Bill Russo, Lafayette football completed an unheralded rebirth and ushered in an era of explosive offensive. Through Russo's first 16 seasons, the Leopards finished below .500 only three times. In the preceding 30 years, the Leopards only had ten winning seasons and won more than six games five times. Russo quickly asserted his new style by winning the first five games of the season, a first since 1956, and entered the season finale against Lehigh with an identical 8–2 record. Despite being huge underdogs against the Lambert Cup leading Engineers, the Leopards relied upon their defense to spring a 10–3 upset at Taylor Stadium. Even though Lafayette finished with one more win than Lehigh and played a near identical schedule, Lafayette was denied a bid to the Division I-AA playoffs and finished fourth in the Lambert Cup poll. As of 2012, the 1981 game, along with 2004, is the highest combined win total for each school entering the season finale. Success continued under Russo as the Leopards defeated Lehigh for a second straight year and won seven games. The era also saw the inaugural season of the Colonial League in 1986, which later became known as the Patriot League. After beating Lehigh in 1984 and 1986, the Leopards finally won their first Colonial League championship in 1988 with an 8–2–1 mark. In the second game of 1988, Lafayette scored a monumental 28–20 upset over Holy Cross. The previous season, Holy Cross finished 11–0 and No. 1 in the final 1987 NCAA Division I-AA poll and its best player Gordie Lockbaum, finished third in the Heisman Trophy voting. With another win in 1992, Lafayette was the only Patriot League team to defeat Holy Cross between its dominant run against Eastern football between 1986 and 1993. The 1988 season was one of the best in Lafayette history and witnessed the emergence of its best quarterback ever, Frank Baur. Baur smashed and rewrote nearly every Lafayette offensive and passing record with a cannon arm. In the 1988 season, he led the nation in passing efficiency at 64% and led the Leopards to finish as the second-ranked offense. He finished his career with 8,399 yards and 62 touchdowns, which stood until 2003. Baur also achieved fame by being the only Lafayette and Patriot League athlete, as well as one of only a few non-BCS collegiate athletes, to appear on the cover of Sports Illustrated. He appeared on the cover of the September 4, 1989 college football preview and was projected to be one of the first three quarterbacks taken in the 1990 NFL Draft, along with Troy Aikman and Steve Walsh. After being selected the Hula Bowl following his senior season, Baur was drafted but later cut by the New York Giants. The 1988 team also featured Lafayette's record-breaking running back and wide receiver up to that time. As a freshman, Tom Costello ran for 1132 yards and later grabbed the record from Giglio with 1,397 yards in 1989. Phillip Ng served as Baur's primary target and raked in 13 touchdowns and 1,048 yards. His touchdown mark still stands as the most in Leopards history and was the first Leopard to catch over 1,000 yards in a season. With the Colonial League championship up for grabs, the 1988 Lafayette-Lehigh meeting surpassed all hype. Lafayette rolled to a 52–45 win in an explosive game, where both teams passed for over 300 yards by halftime and broke many Rivalry records that still stand today. Russo was also acknowledged following the 1988 season by winning the Eddie Robinson Coach of the Year award, which is presented to the best coach in Division I-AA. Lafayette won the Patriot League championship for the second time in 1992 and was the only school aside from Holy Cross to win the league championship at the time. At 8–3, Lafayette finished the season on a six-game winning streak and lost two games each by three points. During the season, Erik Marsh burst onto the scene and became the most prolific rusher in Lafayette football history. He rushed for 1,365 yards as a sophomore to set the record, only to break his own mark with 1,441 the next season. The record still stands today and is one of the highest single season totals in Patriot League history. During the 1992 season, Tom Kirchoff also established records as one of the most efficient quarterbacks in Lafayette history. Ranking only second to Baur at the time, Kirchoff threw for 26 touchdowns and nine interceptions, the best spread ever in a single season. His 26 touchdowns stood as a Lafayette record until 2009. Despite the loss of Kirchoff to graduation, Lafayette's offense continued to excel with Marsh through 1994. The running back essentially had a player's average career season against Lehigh alone, rushing for over 800 yards in four games against the Engineers, including 251 yards in 1992 and 249 yards in 1993. The 1994 season was arguably one of the most bizarre yet triumphant season's in Lafayette football history despite finishing with a 5–6 record. After losing their first six games of the season, including five losses by more than two touchdowns, the Leopards went on to win their last five games of the season to capture their third Patriot League championship. In their five wins, Lafayette allowed only more than two touchdowns once, with the only exception being a 56–20 drubbing of Lehigh. The "Study" Years (1997–1999) Despite decades of rich tradition, Lafayette nearly dropped its football program from Division I to Division III or outright canceled the program. As early as 1996, athletics director Eve Atkinson made proposals to de-emphasize portions of the department. Poor overall performance, interdepartmental budget conflicts, and issues with coach-recommended athletes competing in the admissions pool were factors cited for all athletics programs as a reason for downgrading to Division III. Several faculty argued that football should be eliminated to achieve budget savings and that the sport should not be a focus of the student body. The trustees ultimately voted to remain Division I and continue football. Considerable damage was done to the program during the period. Prospective recruits would not consider Lafayette based upon rumor of a downgrade or elimination of football, and current players transferred. Russo's teams, which had only four losing seasons in his first 15 years and did not win less than four games once, went a combined 10–23 in the next three seasons. Miraculously, Russo's teams contested Lehigh closely during the era, including a two-point loss to an undefeated Lehigh squad in his final game in 1999. Frank Tavani era (2000–2016) Frank Tavani was named head coach following the retirement of Russo in December 1999. Tavani had been a coach on Russo's staff since 1986 and was most recently the associate head coach. Challenges confronted the program at every angle: the recent study to disband or de-emphasize the program had left Lafayette in a disadvantaged position on the recruiting trail. Also, the success of Lehigh reaching double-digit wins and playoff berths each season since 1998, coupled with aged facilities, placed Lafayette in the shadow of its regional rival. However, Tavani's vision helped revitalize the program within five seasons and led to three consecutive championships and playoff appearances, nine winning seasons, national rankings, and a string of four consecutive victories over Lehigh. The tide began to turn with the arrival of quarterback Marko Glavic in Tavani's first season. The Canadian native was initially recruited to Bowling Green University, but offensive coordinator Mike Faragalli's move to Lafayette prompted Bowling Green to rescind Glavic's scholarship offer. Glavic, who won the Patriot League rookie of the year by throwing for 1,964 yards and 12 touchdowns, surpassed many of Baur's records and finished as Lafayette's all-time leading quarterback with 9,819 yards and tied Baur with 62 touchdowns. Glavic was the all-time Patriot League passing leader until Dominic Randolph of Holy Cross surpassed the mark in 2008. Lafayette continued to score recruiting gains with the arrival of running back Joe McCourt, the 2000 Philadelphia Inquirer player of the year. Several key linemen were also recruited in 2001, and success continued in 2002 with many key defensive players that built Lafayette's title run, such as All-American linebacker Maurice Bennett and future NFL player Blake Costanzo. Lafayette won two games each in Tavani's first two seasons, but the Leopards surpassed all expectations in 2002 by going 7–5, tying for second place, and upsetting Lehigh 14–7. The Mountain Hawks entered the season ranked as the nation's number one team and had beaten Lafayette for seven straight seasons. With the score tied 7–7 in the fourth quarter, the Leopards engineered "The Drive," a 19-play, nine-minute drive that resulted in Joe McCourt's winning touchdown dive. However, "The Drive's" biggest play occurred on a fake field goal attempt. Lafayette was set to kick a 58-yard field goal, but holder Mike O'Connor changed the play and scurried eight yards for a first down to keep the march alive. Expectations were high in 2003, but Lafayette went 5–6. However, Glavic and McCourt contributed record-breaking efforts. Glavic threw for a record 2,725 yards, while McCourt ran for 1,393 yards, the third most behind Marsh and Costello, and 15 touchdowns, the most since Nick Kowigos in 1982. Despite losing Glavic to graduation, many key players returned to the Leopards in 2004 and led Lafayette to its first ever postseason appearance and first Patriot League Championship since 1994. The Leopards signaled their championship form with an upset 21–16 win over scholarship University of Richmond and a game saving tackle inside the one-yard line in a 14–13 win at Bucknell. Quarterback Brad Maurer emerged as a dual run-and-pass threat for the Leopards by throwing and rushing for over 100 yards at Fordham, Tavani's first win over the Rams. Lafayette entered their game as underdogs to Lehigh, ranked number eight in the polls, but the dual-threat ability of Maurer, McCourt's 23 carries, and a punishing defensive effort, propelled the Leopards to a 24–10 win. The Leopards fell the following week to the University of Delaware when a game-tying touchdown drive was intercepted and returned for a score, but ended the season ranked 19 in two polls. It was Lafayette's first ranking since the 1997 preseason. McCourt finished the season with 16 touchdowns, tying Tom Costello in 1989 as second most behind Mike “George” Wilson's 20 scores in 1926. McCourt also finished his career second to Marsh with 4,474 yards and the 50 touchdowns, the most at Lafayette. He also finished with the fifth most career receptions ever, 139, and ranks 11th in career receiving yards. Success continued into 2005 as Maurer and a stingy defense led the Leopards to a second consecutive Patriot League Championship season, playoff berth, and 8–4 record. The Leopards entered their final game of the season at 12th ranked Lehigh needing a win to tie for the Patriot League championship and keep their slim playoff hopes alive. On the first drive, Maurer was injured and replaced by back-up quarterback Pat Davis. Though up 10–3 at halftime, Lafayette was down 19–17 in the fourth quarter. With 38 seconds remaining and Lafayette facing its potential last play, Davis chucked a 37-yard touchdown strike to running back Jonathan Hurt, who managed to sneak behind the last defender at the five for the reception and skipped into the end-zone for the winning 23–19 score. The play, known as "The Big Hurt," is one of the most famous plays in the storied "Rivalry". Future NFL San Francisco 49er Blake Costanzo terrorized Lehigh with three sacks. Following the win, Lafayette was awarded an at-large berth into the NCAA playoffs, assisted by its 7–0 win over Richmond, a top 15 team, earlier in the season. Though Lafayette fell to Appalachian State, the eventual national champions, after being tied 20–20 entering the fourth quarter, the Leopards ended the season ranked in the top 25. Lafayette earned its third consecutive trip to the NCAA Division I FCS Playoffs by clinching its third straight Patriot League Championship in 2006. The championship run was second to only 1994 in terms of improbability. After being ranked as high as 22 in week two, Lafayette lost its next five games. At 2–5, the Leopards earned a momentum-changing win at Colgate, Tavani's first over. Lafayette won its next three games, including what is known as the "Shock and Awe" game over Lehigh. Lafayette scored 28 points in eight minutes during the first half and led 28–21 at halftime. Lehigh cut the score to 28–27, but Lafayette scored 21 unanswered points in compiling 500 yards of offense. Maurer and Hurt were named game co-MVPs, one of only two occasions that the award was shared. The game was also characterized by many vicious Lafayette hits. The 2006 season also witnessed the reopening of Fisher Field. During the off-season, the 80-year-old stadium underwent extensive renovations that included new bleachers, press box, scoreboard, FieldTurf, and a football varsity house complex, among many other additions. Winning seasons continued through 2009. Lafayette defeated Lehigh for the fourth straight year in 2007, the first such string of Leopard victories since the 1943–1949 seasons. In 2008, Lafayette knocked-off 14th-ranked Liberty University on their home field to end the nation's longest active home winning streak. Led by quarterback Rob Curley, the Leopards had a record-breaking campaign in 2009. After starting 1–1, Lafayette won seven straight games, their longest in-season winning streak since the 9–0 1940 squad. The Leopards were also ranked 20th, the sixth straight season that they were in the top 25. Curley also had a record campaign by being the only Lafayette quarterback to throw for over 3,000 yards in a season and finished with a Lafayette record 28 touchdowns. He also threw for a record seven touchdowns in a wild 56–49 win over nationally ranked Colgate. At 8–1, Lafayette lost their next two games and their chance at a league championship. A two-point loss to eventual champion Holy Cross under controversial circumstances and an overtime upset loss at Lehigh kept the Leopards from their fourth playoff berth and title of the Tavani era. The Leopards struggled in the 2010 and 2011 seasons as injuries, depth, and the loss of many key players had a tremendous impact on the team. On November 30, 2016, Frank Tavani left Lafayette after 30 years on staff and 40 years of coaching college football. John Garrett era (2016–present) On December 21, 2016, former NFL assistant and college football assistant coach John Garrett (brother of Jason Garrett, then head coach of the Dallas Cowboys) was named the new Lafayette head football coach. Conference affiliations Lafayette has been both an independent and affiliated with two conferences. Independent (1882–1985) Colonial League (1986–1989) Patriot League (1990–present) Head coaches The following served as head coach at Lafayette. Championships National championships Lafayette has been selected national champions in three seasons (1896, 1921, 1926) by NCAA-designated major selectors. Lafayette claims all three national titles. 1896 Lafayette's 1896 championship was one of the most surprising and dramatic in the history of college football, and included arguably the first college football 'upset.' Lafayette began their season by tying Princeton 0–0, the first tie in their series, and defeated the University of West Virginia three times in three days by a combined score of 56–0. At 4–0–1, Lafayette was set to meet Pennsylvania on October 24 at Franklin Field. Penn, coached by George Woodruff, was in the midst of a 34-game winning streak and was only guaranteeing Lafayette $150 for a game that would net $10,000. As an intense media war surrounded the game, Lafayette enrolled Fielding H. Yost, a tackle from West Virginia, whom Lafayette had defeated in the final game of their series on October 17. With Yost, College Football Hall of Famer Charles "Babe" Rinehart, and the inventor of the football helmet George 'Rose' Barclay on the field, Lafayette won 6–4. It was the first victory of a 'small school' over one of the Big Four (Harvard-Yale-Penn-Princeton). Penn would win its next 31 games. Lafayette closed its season with an 18–6 win over Navy. Following the season, Lafayette was recognized as national champions along with Princeton (11–0–1) and was the first national champion outside of the H-Y-P-P rotation. However, absent from their 1896 schedule was Lehigh, who protested the eligibility and amateur status of George Barclay who had played professional baseball at Chambersburg PA the previous summer. 1921 In their final game, Lafayette defeated Lehigh University 28–6, prompting major papers such as the New York Herald to proclaim Lafayette to possess a share of the mythical title. Lafayette was mentioned in the press along with the University of Iowa (7–0), which upset Knute Rockne and Notre Dame (10–1) to end a 20-game winning streak. Officially, the NCAA record book recognizes the University of California (9–0–1), Cornell University (8–0), Lafayette, Iowa, and Washington & Jefferson (10–0–1) as champions, with only California, Cornell, and Lafayette claiming the title. According to Sutherland, Lafayette was approached by promoters to play a postseason game against a team from the west or southwest. Ultimately, Washington & Jefferson accepted an invitation to play California in the 1922 Rose Bowl. Lafayette and the Presidents had three common opponents in 1921: Pittsburgh, Bucknell University, and Lehigh. And both Lafayette and the Presidents won by nearly identical scores: Pittsburgh 6–0 vs. 7–0, Bucknell University 20–7 vs. 26–0, Lehigh 28–6 vs. 14–7. However, the policy of the athletic committee prohibited Lafayette from playing postseason games. Sutherland was also hesitant to play any postseason games as well, citing the 1921 team had the same players as the ‘mediocre’ 1920 team. 1926 The Maroon entered 1926 having narrowly missed winning the 1925 national championship. The previous year, Lafayette defeated the University of Pittsburgh for the Panthers lone loss in a season where they would be crowned Eastern champions. However, Lafayette tied Colgate University 7–7 at Franklin Field and lost to Washington & Jefferson 7–6 at the Polo Grounds. The Leopards received a boost on opening day by inaugurating Lafayette Stadium. Their still unfinished stadium, which was soon to be known as Fisher Field and modeled after Harvard Stadium, saw the Leopards defeat Muhlenberg University 35–0. Lafayette and Pittsburgh played another classic at Forbes Field, a 17–7 Maroon victory. Entering their sixth game at 5–0 and averaging 34 points per game, Lafayette met Washington & Jefferson and legendary coach Andy Kerr in what would soon become one of the greatest games in school history. Down 10–0 heading into halftime, Herb McCracken benched the entire starting 11 and had a starters-only closed-door meeting at halftime. The strategy worked, as Lafayette scored on the sixth play of the second half. Late in the fourth, down 10–9 and at their own 12 on third down, a fake punt handoff kept the drive alive. After a long pass to the W&J 35, a reverse-lateral-forward pass put the Maroon on the four with seconds to play. Tuffy Guest punched in the winning score and sent the Presidents to their only loss in a 7–1–1 season. McCracken called the victory the most dramatic, spirited and determined of his career, while sportswriters dubbed the game among the top ten they had witnessed. Lafayette did not surrender a point the rest of the season and scored the fewest points in a 35–0 win over Lehigh. Following the season and the nation's leading scorer Mike “George” Wilson’s exploits, Lafayette was crowned Eastern champion. The Associated Press also crowned Lafayette as the national 5-year champion, ahead of Michigan, Notre Dame, and the selected Rose Bowl participant Alabama. Conference championships Lafayette has won seven conference championships. Division I-AA/FCS Playoffs results The Leopards have appeared in the I-AA/FCS playoffs four times with an overall record of 0–4. Stadium and facilities Fisher Field The Leopards have played their home games at Fisher Field at Fisher Stadium since the 1926 season. The Field's west end was the site of the Easton City Dump. Fisher Field was made possible through a substantial donation by Thomas Fisher, Class of 1888, who almost single-handed raised the $445,000 for the Field's construction. The Field used to be known solely as Fisher Field until the 2006 season, when it was upgraded with FieldTurf, jogging track, new visitor stands, new bleacher seats, chairback seats, a video replay board, landscaping, lighting, press box, convenience stands, and the Bourger Varsity House. It acquired the name 'Fisher Stadium' to reflect the generosity of James Fisher, Class of 1977 (no relation), who donated a significant sum for the $23 million renovation. Fisher Field at Fisher Stadium is subsequently recognized as having one of the best FCS facilities in the country. Previously, Fisher Field contained a six-lane running track and track and field competition areas adjacent to the playing surface. The field was natural grass and a simple scoreboard at the west end of the stadium, which is the current location of the Bourger Varsity House. Additionally, the bleachers on the home side of the field were natural wood and thought to have been the original seats dating to the 1920s. In the early 21st century, seating areas became dangerous as rotting wood seats and their loose screws were uncomfortable for spectators. The press box and coaches' boxes rested at the top of the grandstand and were constructed approximately in the 1950s, according to old photos. The visiting stands' dimension and capacity altered several times, with the last concrete grandstand being built in 1973 along with the construction of Allan P. Kirby Field House. March Field March Field served as the primary venue from 1894 through 1925. The first organized athletic structure built at Lafayette was a small grandstand in front of Martien Hall (located on dormitory row, near the site of the current Kirby House), seating roughly 250 spectators. The grandstand, built in 1890, was one of the first acts of the newly formed Alumni Advisory Committee. Though the grandstand was well received by the College at the time, the Alumni Advisory Committee wanted to establish a formal athletics grounds. The site for the athletics grounds, which would be known as March Field, was identified as early as 1890. “The ground lies on the historic Sullivan road, or as it is more commonly called, Lover’s Lane, fronting 440 feet on that street, beginning 7 feet west of the reservoir, and extending southwest between parallel lines to the Bushkill Creek, and contains about 7 acres.” Plans included a 440-yard circular track, 100-yard straight away track, baseball and football fields, grandstand, large bleachers, and carriage stand. The entrance would be at the reservoir, which was at the time a reserve reservoir of the Easton Water Company. Engineers in the sophomore class surveyed the grounds in 1890, but financing was difficult. Originally anticipated to cost $2,000, the rocky subsurface on the upper half of the field and required grading on the lower half increased the cost to $3,000. The Panic of 1893, along with funds solicited mainly from the Alumni Advisory Committee members and alumni meetings, slowed progress on the field. Professor Francis A. March Jr. enabled the field's completion in 1894 by writing an alumni fundraising letter and selling bonds on the field, with the new field's mortgage as collateral. The field opened on June 19, 1894 with an all-Lafayette track meet that featured Olympic events, baseball throw, and tennis matches. Before baseball and football games could be played, special soil had to be imported since the hard, clay soil was not suitable to grow grass. The first football game was hosted on October 3, with a 36–0 defeat of Gettysburg College. Ultimately, the cost of the field was $12,000. The new field was soon unable to accommodate the athletics program. Since the football, baseball, and track configurations overlapped each other due to the angle of the field and the reservoir, the Athletic Association had to spend money on contractors to build and disassemble the bleachers for each season. The effort soon plunged the Alumni Advisory Committee into debt. However, the Committee devised a permanent solution: purchase the reservoir, enlarge the grounds, and build a field house. At commencement in 1904, the field house cornerstone was laid and work on the new field was completed towards the end of 1905 for a total cost of $9,000. The Quad The Quad is located in the center of Lafayette's campus and served as the venue of the first Lafayette-Lehigh in 1884 and other games through 1893. Baseball was also played on the Quad. Sources from the period indicate that games were played on the level ground between McKeen Hall and college buildings to the south (known today as the Quad). Since football was a new sport and organized by the undergraduates, games were played on the open field in the central area of campus. Small, but manageable crowds would attend the games, mostly consisting of students, alumni, and faculty. Spectators stood or sat alongside the unenclosed field, while undergrads watched the games from their dormitories that flanked the Quad. Around 1888 and 1889, crowds at Lafayette football games began to surge. Attempts were made to collect money for ticket revenues to offset the costs of athletic equipment, a trainer, and a training table. Policemen would be stationed at the entrances of the college to enforce the new ticket policies, however, it was not difficult to avoid paying the small fee. Young boys and many citizens of Easton would easily gain admittance, with only alumni wishing to support the new, informal athletic association paid for tickets. The need to raise revenue from ticket sales, as well as growing crowds, a few spectator incidents, and the persistent destruction of the Quad's grass, led to the formation of the Alumni Advisory Committee that soon raised funds for the new enclosed March Field. Tradition Nickname The Lafayette Student Council voted on the nickname "Leopards" since many other rival schools, such as Princeton, Pittsburgh, and Bucknell, had animal nicknames. It is not clear why the nickname "Leopards" was selected, although it is reasonable to speculate that an 'L' nickname was ideal since other schools had animal nicknames that started with the school's first letter (Pittsburgh Panthers, Bucknell Bison). The leopard was also selected because its 'cunning and physical strength, combined with the fact that it is irresistible when aroused, seemed to be typical of a Lafayette team.' The Leopard mascot made its debut against Washington & Jefferson at Yankee Stadium on October 25, 1924, a 20–6 Leopard victory. Rivalries Lehigh Lehigh is Lafayette's primary rival and is the most played rivalry in college football (155 games as of the 2019 season). The rivalry is also the longest running annual college football series in the United States, with the two schools meeting every year since 1897. Many publications, such as ESPN and Sports Illustrated, have dubbed the Lafayette-Lehigh rivalry as one of the most fierce and "must-see" events in college football. The schools played twice annually from 1884 until 1902, with three games in 1891, one at a neutral site in Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania. The schools also played two games annually during 1943 and 1944. The series started in 1884 with Lehigh's first collegiate football game, a 56–0 loss in Easton. Lafayette dominated the series from the mid-1890s until 1949, including a 14–1 stretch from 1919 to 1933 and a 14–0–1 stretch from 1937 to 1949. From 1950 until 1980, Lehigh controlled the series as Lafayette won only eight games. The series regained competitive balance between 1981 and 1994, with no team winning more than two consecutive games. However, Lafayette's possible downgrade evaluation study of football in the late 1990s, along with Lehigh's rise as a Division I-AA power, led to seven consecutive Lehigh victories between 1995 and 2001. Since in 2002 and through 2010, the series has regained its competitive balance. The 150th (and most recent) game was held on November 22, 2014, and was attended by 48,256 people (the most attended of any Laf-Lehigh rivalry game). Lafayette emerged victorious with a score of 27–7. Many festivities, traditions, and pranks have surrounded 'The Rivalry' since the beginning. In recent years, the Patriot League Championship and FCS playoff berth have added a new dimension to the Rivalry and are often decided upon the outcome of the game. The winner of the game is presented with the MVP trophy and the game ball. As of November 23, 2019, Lafayette leads 79–71–5. Bucknell Bucknell and Lafayette have met annually since 1945 have played 88 games (as of 2010) since the series began in 1883. Since the 1983 game, an outstanding player from each team is awarded the George McGaughey Memorial Award. McGaughey was a star center on the 1933 Bucknell Orange Bowl team and was an athletic administrator at Lafayette for 32 years. Penn Although Penn leads the all-time series 63–23–4, Lafayette has played Penn since the Leopards' first season in 1882. During the 1880s and 1890s, the two teams were a part of a fierce rivalry that often became boisterous and violent. Lafayette was awarded the 1896 national championship by ending Penn's 34-game winning streak in a 6–4 upset. Due to Lafayette's strong alumni base in Philadelphia, the large capacity of Franklin Field, and strong attendance at Penn football games, Lafayette has played a majority of its games against Penn at Franklin Field. From 1892 until 1973, which included only seven Lafayette victories, the two teams did not play a game on the Leopards' home field. The schools met for the 90th Game in 2013. Defunct rivalries Rutgers Lafayette and Rutgers University played annually between 1921 and 1975. Along with Lehigh, Lafayette battled Rutgers for the Little Brass Cannon and the Middle Three Conference Championship. Through 1945, Lafayette went 27–14–1 against Rutgers but won only three games in the next 30 years to finish 30–41–1. Lafayette's poor record and Rutgers increasing enrollment and dedication to major college football led to the end of the series. If not for the discontinuation of the rivalry in the 72nd meeting in 1975, the teams would be playing the 108th Game in 2011. As of 2011, there is a possibility that Rutgers and Lafayette will meet in a future season, contingent upon Lafayette instilling at least 57 football athletic scholarships or scholarship equivalencies. Lafayette football played the first game in its history against Rutgers in 1882 and earned the program's first victory against Rutgers in 1883. Washington & Jefferson During the 1920s, Lafayette and Washington & Jefferson College battled for supremacy of the Eastern football. The two schools played many dramatic, close games before large crowds at neutral sites such as the Polo Grounds, Yankee Stadium, and Franklin Field. Both schools have the distinction of playing the first night indoor football game in history at Atlantic City Boardwalk Hall in 1930, a 7–0 Presidents victory, as well as the first non-New York City college football teams to play a game in the Big Apple. Washington & Jefferson, due to its small size, gradually de-emphasized football in the face of the Depression and alleged impropriety in the program. The series ended in 1948, with a 12–9–2 Lafayette advantage. Colors Although Lafayette traditionally wears maroon and white, the team occasionally wears black jerseys and pants separately or together for important games. Lafayette first wore black jerseys for their 2004 'conference championship' game against Lehigh, where the winner would secure an automatic berth into the NCAA Tournament. The Leopards mainly wear their black uniforms at home, though there have been rare instances of black pants being combined with white jerseys on the road, such as the 2007 game at Lehigh. The 'invincibility' of the black jerseys on white pants combination ended with Lehigh's upset of Lafayette during their 2008 meeting. The coaching staff makes a decision before the game on which jerseys to wear. The Leopards wore gray pants with their white jerseys for their 2011 game at Lehigh along with gray numbered and striped helmets. It was the first time gray was sported in a Lafayette uniform for many years. Individual Honors The Leopards have placed 13 players on the All-American team, two of which earned the distinction twice. Due to the division of college football between FBS (I-A) and FCS (I-AA), Lafayette's All-Americans are divided between different eras. Although Lafayette earned many All-America team selections from various publications, especially in the early half of the 20th century, the Leopards' major college football All-Americans are considered consensus selections by receiving the majority of votes at their respective position by the NCAA Football Records book. Its FCS era selections were named first-team All-Americans by a variety of recognized publications. Major college football First-Team All-Americans Walter E. Bachman, C, 1900, 1901 Frank "Dutch" Schwab, G, 1921, 1922 FCS First-Team All-Americans Rich Smith, TE, 1979 Joe Skladany, LB, 1981 Tony Green, DL, 1982 Frank Baur, QB, 1988 Edward Hudak, OL, 1992 B. J. Gallis, DB, 1992 Dan Bengele, LB, 1997 Joe McCourt, RB, 2004 Maurice Bennett, LB, 2005 Mike Saint Germain, OL, 2006 Jesse Padilla, OL, 2007 College Football Hall of Fame members Players Charlie Berry, E, 1921–1924 Charles "Babe" Rinehart, G, 1893–1897 Frank "Dutch" Schwab, G, 1919–1923 George "Mike" Wilson, HB, 1926–1928 Coaches Herb McCracken, 1924–1935 Edward "Hook" Mylin, 1937–1942, 1946 Jock Sutherland, 1919–1924 Retired Jerseys Lafayette has retired only one jersey in its entire 130 season history, that of Fred Kirby of the class of 1942. In addition to being a standout player for the Leopards, Kirby was a dedicated alumnus who supported the program and was a recognized figure in the world of college football. In 2000, he received the Gold Medal Award from the National Football Foundation and was a member of the NFF from its founding in 1958 and was a board member until his death in 2011. His jersey was retired on October 1, 2011, during the intermission of a game against Harvard. #53 Fred Kirby, DL, OL, 1939–1941 Conference Awards Leopard players have won numerous awards since the founding of the Colonial League in 1986. Offensive Player of the Year 1988 Frank Baur, QB, Jr 1989 Tom Costello, RB, So 1992 Erik Marsh, RB, So 1993 Erik Marsh, RB, Jr 2000 Phil Yarberough, WR, Sr 2004 Joe McCourt, RB, Sr 2006 Jonathan Hurt, RB, Sr Defensive Player of the Year 1996 B.J. Gallis, SS, Sr 1997 Dan Bengele, LB, Sr 2007 Andy Romans, LB, Jr 2008 Andy Romans, LB, Sr 2019 Malik Hamm, DE, So Player of the Year 1988 Frank Baur, QB 1992 Tom Kirchhoff, QB 1994 Erik Marsh, RB Discontinued in 2000 Rookie of the Year 1988 Tom Costello, RB 1990 Art Dennis, RB 1991 Erik Marsh, RB 1994 Shawn McHale, QB 1995 Leonard Moore, RB 1998 Kenya Allen, DB 2000 Marko Glavic, QB 2001 Joe McCourt, RB 2011 Ross Scheuerman, RB 2018 Malik Hamm, DE Scholar-Athlete of the Year 1995 Jeff Denning, OL 2001 Stewart Kupfer, TE 2004 Stephen Bono, OL 2005 Maurice Bennett, LB 2006 Brad Maurer, QB 2013 Mark Ross, WR Coach of the Year 1988 Bill Russo 1992 Bill Russo 1994 Bill Russo 2004 Frank Tavani Major Awards Several Leopards have also won major regional and national awards. Amos Alonzo Stagg Award 1988 Herb McCracken Eddie Robinson Coach of the Year 1988 Bill Russo ECAC Player of the Year 1988 Frank Baur, QB ECAC Rookie of the Year 1988 Tom Costello, RB 2000 Marko Glavic, QB 2001 Joe McCourt, RB CFPA National Freshman Performer of the Year 2013 Drew Reed, QB Lafayette's NFL Players Lafayette has sent several players to the NFL since the inception of the league in 1920. A majority of the Leopards who played in the NFL were members of the early league, when Lafayette was a major college football power and possessed some of the top talent in the country. Currently, Lafayette has no active players on an NFL roster. Pottsville Maroons During the 1920s, several Lafayette alumni played for the NFL's Pottsville Maroons. The Maroons are best known for their role in the well documented and infamous 1925 NFL Championship controversy. Four players on the famous 1925 squad played for Lafayette: Charlie Berry, Jack Ernst, Joe Mahrefka, and Bob Millman. Berry played the largest role on the team, leading the NFL in scoring with 74 points and kicked the game-winning field goal against the University of Notre Dame All-Stars, the game which caused the NFL Championship controversy. Berry's field goal was arguably one of the most famous moments in the early NFL since college football was considered superior to the NFL and Notre Dame featured the famed Four Horsemen. Lafayette standout Frank Kirkleski also played for Pottsville in 1927. Future non-conference opponents Announced schedules as of November 22, 2019. References External links American football teams established in 1882 1882 establishments in Pennsylvania

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The Blockade of Saint-Domingue was a naval campaign fought during the first months of the Napoleonic Wars in which a series of British Royal Navy squadrons blockaded the French-held ports of Cap Français and Môle-Saint-Nicolas on the northern coast of the French colony of Saint-Domingue, soon to become Haiti, after the conclusion of the Haitian Revolution on 1 January 1804. In the summer of 1803, when war broke out between the United Kingdom and the French Consulate, Saint-Domingue had been almost completely overrun by Haitian forces commanded by Jean-Jacques Dessalines. In the north of the country, the French forces were isolated in the two large ports of Cap Français and Môle-Saint-Nicolas and a few smaller settlements, all supplied by a French naval force based primarily at Cap Français. At the outbreak of war on 18 May 1803, the Royal Navy immediately despatched a squadron under Sir John Duckworth from Jamaica to cruise in the region, seeking to eliminate communication between the French outposts and to capture or destroy the French warships based in the colony. On 28 June, the squadron encountered a French convoy from Les Cayes off Môle-Saint-Nicolas, capturing one ship although the other escaped. Two days later, an independently-sailing French frigate was chased down and captured in the same waters. On 24 July, another British squadron intercepted the main French squadron from Cap Français, which was attempting to break past the blockade and reach France. The British, led by Commodore John Loring gave chase, but one French ship of the line and a frigate escaped. Another ship of the line was trapped against the coast and captured after coming under fire from Haitian shore batteries. The remainder of the squadron was forced to fight two more actions on their return to Europe but eventually reached the Spanish port of Corunna. On 3 November, the frigate HMS Blanche captured a supply schooner near Cap Français, and by the end of the month, the garrison was starving and agreed to terms with Dessalines that permitted it to evacuate safely if it left the port by 1 December. Commodore Loring, however, refused the French permission to sail. The French commander, Rochambeau, procrastinated until the last possible moment but eventually was forced to surrender to the British commander. One of Rochambeau's ships was almost wrecked while it left the harbour but was saved by a British lieutenant acting alone, who not only rescued the 900 people on board but also refloated the ship. At Môle-Saint-Nicolas, General Louis de Noailles refused to surrender and instead sailed to Havana, Cuba in a fleet of small vessels on 3 December but was intercepted and mortally wounded by a Royal Navy frigate. The few remaining French-held towns in Saint-Domingue surrendered soon afterwards, and on 1 January 1804, the newly-independent nation of Haiti was declared. Background During the French Revolutionary Wars (1792–1802), the wealthy French colony of Saint-Domingue on the western half of the island of Hispaniola in the Caribbean Sea was the scene of heavy fighting. In addition to unsuccessful British and Spanish invasions, the colony was wracked by a brutal civil war as the black population of newly emancipated slaves, under the command of Toussaint Louverture, fought forces from the French Republic before allying themselves with the Republic against foreign powers. By 1801, Louverture had seized control of almost the entire island, including much of the neighbouring colony of Santo Domingo. Louverture officially pledged allegiance to France, declaring himself the island's governor. However, following the Peace of Amiens in Europe that brought an end to the French Revolutionary Wars in 1802, French First Consul Napoleon Bonaparte sent a large expeditionary force to Saint-Domingue under General Charles Leclerc. Leclerc's army had some initial success and Louverture was captured after signing a peace treaty with the French general, later dying in unclear circumstances in a French prison. However, following Louverture's arrest and under threat of the restoration of slavery, the Haitian general Jean Jacques Dessalines renewed the campaign against the French. Leclerc and much of his army died in an epidemic of yellow fever in the autumn of 1802, and command fell to the Vicomte de Rochambeau, whose forces were rapidly driven back into a few well fortified towns, relying for communication and supply on maritime links. In May 1803, the situation in Haiti deteriorated still further for the French when Britain and France once again went to war, after a peace lasting just fifteen months. In preparation for the coming conflict, the French had ordered a number of ships to sail from their southern ports in Saint-Domingue, the frigate Franchise sailing en flute from Port-au-Prince on 3 May. Franchise was however intercepted in the Bay of Biscay by a British battle squadron and captured on 28 May, as was the corvette Bacchante on 25 June which had sailed in April. The remaining French naval forces in the colony were consolidated at the port of Cap Français. The Blockade The Royal Navy was well prepared for the renewed conflict, with a squadron of ships of the line and numerous frigates based at the Jamaica station, the Navy's western Caribbean base, under Rear-Admiral John Thomas Duckworth. On 18 June 1803 two squadrons were sent to enact a blockade of the principal northern ports in French hands, Cap Français to the east and Môle-Saint-Nicolas to the west. The first squadron, which cruised off Môle-Saint-Nicolas consisted of the 74-gun ships of the line HMS Cumberland under Captain Henry William Bayntun, HMS Goliath under Captain Charles Brisbane and HMS Hercule under the acting command of Lieutenant John B. Hills. The second squadron, assigned to the blockade of Cap Français, was commanded by Commodore John Loring in HMS Bellerophon and included HMS Elephant under Captain George Dundas, HMS Theseus under Captain John Bligh and HMS Vanguard under Captain James Walker. Loring's force was accompanied by the frigates HMS Aeolus under Captain Andrew Fitzherbert Evans and HMS Tartar under Captain John Perkins. Actions off Môle-Saint-Nicolas On 28 June, the squadron off Môle-Saint-Nicolas sighted two sails close to the Haitian shoreline and closed to investigate. These were revealed to be the French heavy 44-gun frigate Poursuivante under Captain Jean-Baptiste Philibert Willaumez and the 16-gun corvette Mignonne under Captain Jean-Pierre Bargeau. The French ships had sailed with a reduced armament from Les Cayes in southern Saint-Domingue on 26 June with orders to visit Môle-Saint-Nicolas before returning to France. On identifying the ships as French, the British squadron separated under orders from Bayntun, the senior captain. Captain Brisbane was instructed to chase Mignonne, Goliath rapidly closing the gap between the ships as they exchanged a few distant shot without effect. Mignonne was becalmed close inshore, and when it became apparent that his ship would be caught by the far larger Goliath, Captain Bargeau surrendered without either side having suffered any damage or casualties. Mignonne was later commissioned into the Royal Navy as HMS Mignonne. Bayntun had also ordered Lieutenant Hills to pursue Poursuivante, but Hercule suffered in the light winds, and Hills ordered Hercule's broadside to be fired much too early. This allowed Willaumez to pull much closer to Môle-Saint-Nicolas. When the much faster Hercule did find the find wind, the ship of the line soon gained on the frigate and a sharp exchange of fire followed, in which both ships were damaged. Hercule was hit heavily in the sails and rigging, although casualties were limited to a few minor wounds, while Poursuivante was more severely damaged: the rigging, sails, masts and hull were all cut and battered with six men killed and 15 wounded. During the brief battle, Willaumez had manoeuvered his ship close to the shoreline, and Hills, his ship less manageable due to damage, suffered a devastating raking broadside that forced him to pull off in fear that Hercule might be grounded in shallow water. Working through the shallows, Willaumez managed to bring his frigate safely to Môle-Saint-Nicolas and then subsequently to Rochefort, although Poursuivante was soon afterwards decommissioned due to age and poor condition. Hills was forced to retire with his ship to Jamaica for repairs, his ship's place taken in Bayntun's squadron by Vanguard. Two days after the engagement between Hercule and Poursuivante, Vanguard and Cumberland were cruising off the northern coast of Haiti to the east of Môle-Saint-Nicolas when another strange ship was sighted attempting to enter the nearby port of Jean-Rabel. This ship was the 40-gun French frigate Créole under Captain Jean-Marie-Pierre Lebastard, travelling to Jean-Rabel from Cap Français with 530 troops under General Morgan. The ship was however in a poor state, the crew reduced to only 150 due to the yellow fever epidemic which had devastated the crews of the French ships in Saint-Domingue as well as the army ashore. Both Vanguard and Cumberland immediately gave chase to the frigate, which was unable to escape as a ship of the line rapidly overhauled Lebastard's vessel on either side. Walker fired a few shot from Vanguard at the frigate, and Lebastard fired a single shot in reply before striking his colours. Créole was subsequently conveyed to Port Royal in Jamaica for repairs and was there commissioned into the Royal Navy as HMS Creole under Captain Austin Bissell, but the ship was in a poor state, and foundered on the voyage to Britain, although the crew were saved by nearby British vessels. A French naval schooner was also captured by the squadron the same day, carrying a hundred bloodhounds from Cuba for use by the French armies in Saint-Domingue against their Haitian enemies. Flight of Touffet In the month following the capture of Créole there was little further movement from the French naval forces on the island, the yellow fever raging in the harbours and Loring's blockade squadron at sea constraining operations. The only action of any note during this period was fought off Léogâne in the Gulf of Gonâve on the afternoon of 11 July when the 10-gun French brig Lodi was intercepted by the 18-gun British brig HMS Racoon under Austen Bissell, and forced to surrender after an action lasting 40 minutes in which the British ship had one man wounded and the French one killed and 14 wounded. In late July the strategic situation altered when orders arrived from France demanding the return of the French squadron, primarily based at Cap Français under Contre-Admiral Latouche Tréville. Command of the returning squadron was given to Commodore Quérangal in the Duquesne, a 74-gun ship Consolidating enough healthy sailors to crew three of his ships, Latouche Tréville gave orders for Duquesne, the 74-gun ship Duguay-Trouin under Captain Claude Touffet that following a recent accident only carried 54 guns, and the 40-gun frigate Guerrière under Captain Louis-Alex Beaudoin to sail from Cap Français when it became possible. On the afternoon of 24 July, a rain squall drove the blockade force away from the post and Quérangal's ships slipped out of the harbour, initially sailing westwards with the prevailing wind. All were in a weakened state, none with full crews and all carrying large numbers of sick passengers aboard. The French ships were sighted almost immediately by the frigates of Loring's blockade squadron, which began pursuit. At 21:00, Quérangal took advantage of the darkness to divide his ships, Duguay-Trouin tacking to the east while Duquesne continued following the shoreline to the west. In response, Loring ordered Dundas in Elephant to chase Duguay-Trouin while he remained in pursuit of Duquesne with Aeolus and Tartar. During the night both British pursuits gained significant ground on their targets, Loring joined by Theseus and Vanguard. At 07:00 on 15 July, Quérangal's ship was sighted by a Haitian battery on shore and came under fire, Loring sending Theseus to investigate the gunfire and arriving on the scene himself soon afterwards, Tartar and Vanguard leading the squadron. Perkins was the first to come within range of the French ship, opening fire at 15:30, followed soon afterwards by Walker. Quérangal returned fire briefly, but his ship was too weak to face the British force, having only 275 crewmen aboard of whom only 215 were fit for duty. Duquesne was so poorly-manned that only 12 guns could be crewed at any one time, although one shot did strike Vanguard, killing one man and wounding another. Before the British ships could take up more effective firing positions however, Quérangal surrendered. His ship was taken into the Royal Navy as HMS Duquesne, but was broken up in 1804 following damage in an accident at Morant Cays. The second pursuit, that of Dundas in Elephant and Touffet in Duguay-Trouin continued throughout the night, the British ship coming within range of the French at 06:00 on 25 July. Touffet opened fire on Elephant with his stern-mounted guns, striking the British ship several times, although without serious effect. Dundas was able, despite the French fire, to pull up at some distance from the French starboard quarter, firing broadsides although at such long range that they too had little effect. The action was decided soon afterwards by the arrival of two ships, the 18-gun British sloop HMS Snake under Commander William Roberts to the northwest and the absent Guerrière from the opposite direction. Dundas considered that the arrival of the frigate favoured the French too much, and dropped back allowing both ships to combine and escape. This was a serious miscalculation: historian William Laird Clowes notes that the French ships were both desperately under-armed and undermanned and even if they fought alongside one another they would have been unable to match Dundas's weight or rate of shot. By the time night fell, the French ships had reached open water in preparation for the journey across the Atlantic. Touffet's voyage was however far from over: on 29 August while in the Eastern Atlantic close to the Bay of Biscay, they were spotted by the independently cruising 38-gun frigate HMS Boadicea under Captain John Maitland, which gave chase, the French ships turning southwards toward the friendly-neutral port of Ferrol in Spain. Throughout the following day, Boadicea followed the French squadron, losing them during the night of 30 August in a fog, but rediscovering them at 13:30 on 31 August when the wind shifted from the west to the northeast. Maitland could now see that Duguay-Trouin was a ship of the line, but was also aware that weakened ships were travelling to Europe from Saint-Domingue and consequently closed with Touffet's force, firing on his ship from a distance of at 14:00, the French ship of the line returning fire. The fire from Duguay-Trouin was fierce enough that, in combination with the approaching Guerrière, Maitland considered that they were too powerful for Boadicea to effectively fight and he sheered away, briefly followed by the French ships. At 14:50 however, with Boadicea rapidly widening the gap between the forces, Touffet abandoned the chase, turning southwards towards Ferrol. At Ferrol, a British battle squadron cruised off the port under the command of Commodore Sir Edward Pellew, HMS Culloden under Captain Barrington Dacres sailing at some distance from the remainder of the squadron. On 2 September, Touffet's small squadron appeared to windward sailing for the port of Corunna and Dacres was well situated to intercept them, opening fire at long range at 11:50. The French were faster than Culloden however, Duguay-Trouin successfully entering Corunna ahead of Guerrière as the Spanish batteries opened fire on the British ship. Although Dacres managed to damage Guerrière's masts and rigging severely, inflicting casualties of six killed and 15 wounded, the French frigate was able to enter Corunna ahead of Culloden. Dacres, who had brought his ship right into the entrance to the port was forced to retire, having suffered four men wounded. Surrender of Cap Français With the removal of the ships of the line from the squadron at Saint-Domingue, the only remaining force of any significance was based at Cap Français, consisting mainly of the frigates Surveillante, Clorinde and Vertu. In September, the southern port of Les Cayes surrendered, the garrison capitulating to the British brig HMS Pelican, while in the north Captain Bligh in Theseus bombarded Fort Labouque at the harbour of Fort Dauphin, an important anchorage for small craft resupplying the garrison of Cap Français, on 8 September. The fort rapidly surrendered, as did a 20-gun corvette Sagesse, which was at anchor nearby but with only 75 men aboard. Fort Dauphin also capitulated later in the day, the French prisoners requesting that Bligh intercede with the Haitian forces nearby which had captured a number of soldiers including General Dumont and were intending to execute them. Bligh successfully obtained the release of Dumont and transported all of the prisoners, including many suffering from yellow fever, to Cap Français. While Loring remained off Northern Saint-Domingue, the brig Raccoon was active against ships travelling between Saint-Domingue and Spanish-held Cuba, destroying two small convoys in September and October. In October, Latouche-Tréville obtained free passage from the British due to his poor health, and returned to France leaving Captain Jean-Baptiste Barré in command of the squadron. Attempts were still made however to supply the ports, which were under siege by Haitian forces. On 3 November the frigate HMS Blanche under Captain Zachary Mudge discovered an armed cutter in Mancenille Bay carrying 52 bullocks to the garrison of Cap Français and Mudge sent boats under Lieutenant Nicholls of the Royal Marines into the bay during the night. Nicholls, despite unhelpful interference from Lieutenant Warwick Lake of Blanche, successfully cut the ship out from under French shore batteries, losing two killed and two wounded to French losses of two killed and four wounded. In early November, Captain Walker in Vanguard took 850 French soldiers as prisoners of war from the port of Saint-Marc, General D'Henin surrendering his garrison after Dessalines's advancing forces had threatened to massacre them all. Captured in the harbour were the 12-gun corvette Papillon, naval schooner Courier and the transports Mary Sally and Le Trois Amis. On 16 November, Vanguard captured an American merchant schooner Independence attempting to enter Cap Français. On 17 November Rochambeau sent a message to Loring's squadron requesting that he be allowed to safely evacuate the port and return with his men to France. Loring refused, and so on 20 November the French general instead concluded a peace treaty with Dessalines, the terms of which insisted that the French garrison and population had to evacuate the port within ten days. Loring was informed of the terms of the agreement and although Rochambeau was ready to depart on 25 November, his ships crammed with thousands of refugees, the British squadron blocked all of the escape routes. On 30 November, as Haitian soldiers took possession of the vacated batteries and forts that protected the harbour, Rochambeau was still prevaricating, his ships lying at anchor directly under the guns of the forts. Orders were given to the Haitian garrisons to make preparations to fire heated roundshot at the French in order to burn their ships to the waterline should the squadron still be in the harbour following the deadline. Concerned with the delay, Loring ordered Captain Bligh to enter the harbour and offer terms of surrender to Rochambeau. After meeting Captain Barré, Bligh obtained a signed treaty establishing Rochambeau's total surrender to the British blockade squadron. Under the terms, the French ships would sail from the port flying the tricolour, fire a ceremonial broadside each, and then formally surrender to Loring's squadron. Having obtained French acquiescence, Bligh then had to carry the terms to a reluctant Dessalines, who ultimately agreed to permit the French to leave Cap Français unmolested, although he refused to provide pilots to ensure safe passage out of the harbour. During the afternoon, Rochambeau sailed out first in Surveillante, firing his broadside and striking his colours to Loring. He was followed by a procession of ships, including Vertu, the 12-gun brig , the naval schooner Découverte, and the French merchant vessels Endymion, Casar, L'Augusta, Louis Cherie, Jason, Bonnevallere, Jeremie, Havre de Grace, Necessaire, Union, Nicholas Debarre, Marin, and an unnamed schooner, all of which were heavily laden with refugees and taken as prizes. The French hospital ships Nouvelle Sophie and Justice also surrendered, but were packed with hundreds of sick soldiers and sailors and were subsequently reprovisioned and sent back to France as cartels. Five American ships: Sisters, Eugene, Thesbald, Adventurer, and Hiram, and two Danish vessels, Diana and Bentley, were also filled with refugees and seized by Loring's force. Duckworth had arrived during the evacuation on Hercule, adding its boats to the numerous British craft assisting the overloaded French ships. Disaster struck the operation however when the frigate Clorinde attempted to leave the harbour. Weighed down with 900 refugees and soldiers including General Jean François Cornu de La Poype and his staff, the ship accidentally grounded on rocks directly beneath Fort St. Joseph, now manned by Haitian soldiers. Clorinde was stuck fast, heeled over and being repeatedly bashed against the rocks so that the ship's rudder had been torn away, leaving it helpless. The situation was deemed so hopeless that a number of British ship's boats that had been supervising the evacuation of the harbour turned away without offering assistance, abandoning the frigate as a total wreck. One of the rearmost boats however, the launch from Hercule containing 30–40 men and commanded by Acting-Lieutenant Nesbit Willoughby, turned towards the frigate. Willoughby was determined to assist the wrecked crew and passengers, well aware that without help they would either be drowned or massacred by the Haitians, who could be seen making preparations to fire heated shot from the fort at the frigate. Aware that the people on Clorinde would swamp his boat if he drew alongside the frigate, possibly drowning all concerned, Willoughby instead commandeered a punt and used it to come aboard the frigate. Once on board, Willoughby persuaded La Poype to surrender the ship without the formalities observed outside the harbour, raising the Union Flag. The Haitians were consequently unable to fire on a ship in possession of their ally, Willoughby going ashore to meet with Dessalines, who promised assistance. Willoughby returned with a number of boats crewed by Haitians and was joined by several British boats in anticipation of removing the crew and passengers from the stricken ship. On his return however, Willoughby discovered that the wind had fallen significantly, allowing him to use the boats instead to haul Clorinde off the rocks and into deeper water. Her hull was still intact, and by the evening Clorinde had joined the rest of the British squadron off the mouth of the harbour. Final Actions With the surrender of the main French city in Northern Haiti, the Haitian Revolution was almost at an end, only Môle-Saint-Nicolas remaining in French hands. On 2 December, Loring's squadron reached the port and offered the same terms to Noailles as had been offered to Rochambeau, who refused, claiming he had stores to last a five-month siege and so Loring continued to Port Royal in Jamaica, his ships laden with prisoners, leaving Cumberland and the frigate HMS Pique to enforce the blockade. That evening however Noailles made a desperate attempt to escape the port with six small vessels. The French convoy was sighted during the night of 5–6 December, and soon overrun, the Republic, Temeraire, Belle Louise, Active and Sally Warner all seized by the British warships. Only one vessel, Noailles's flagship, escaped pursuit, although Noailles had apparently been mortally wounded as he died shortly after reaching Havana, Cuba as a result of his reported injuries. French histories recount that Noailles's vessel was able to board and overpower a small British warship en route, but no British warships of any size were lost in these waters during 1803 and so the origin of this story is unknown. Haitian Independence The fall of Môle-Saint-Nicolas marked the end of the Haitian Revolution and the final destruction of the French colony of Saint-Domingue. Although vestigial French forces remained in Spanish San Domingo, they were too few and too weak to make any impression on the forces of Dessalines which now controlled the western half of the island. In the process, Dessalines became arguably the most successful military commander in the struggle against Napoleonic France. On 1 January 1804, Dessailines proclaimed the foundation of the new nation of Haiti, the first independent Caribbean nation since the days before European settlement. Notes References Bibliography Saint-Domingue Saint-Domingue Conflicts in 1803 Saint-Domingue Haitian Revolution History of Hispaniola Military history of the Caribbean 19th century in Haiti 1800s in Haiti 1803 in the Caribbean 1803 in the British Empire 1803 in Haiti

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Edward IV (28 April 1442 – 9 April 1483) was King of England from 4 March 1461 to 3 October 1470, then again from 11 April 1471 until his death in 1483. He was a central figure in the Wars of the Roses, a series of civil wars in England fought between the Yorkist and Lancastrian factions between 1455 and 1487. Edward inherited the Yorkist claim when his father, Richard, Duke of York, died at the Battle of Wakefield in December 1460. After defeating Lancastrian armies at Mortimer's Cross and Towton in early 1461, he deposed King Henry VI and took the throne. His marriage to Elizabeth Woodville in 1464 led to conflict with his chief advisor, Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick, known as the "Kingmaker". In 1470, a revolt led by Warwick and Edward's brother George, Duke of Clarence, briefly re-installed Henry VI. Edward fled to Flanders, where he gathered support and invaded England in March 1471; after victories at the battles of Barnet and Tewkesbury, he resumed the throne. Shortly afterwards, Henry VI was found dead in the Tower of London. Despite a continuing threat from Henry Tudor, later Henry VII, the last Lancastrian claimant, Edward reigned in relative peace for the next twelve years. When he died suddenly in April 1483, Edward IV was succeeded by his minor son Edward V, but Edward IV's brother Richard III soon seized the throne. Birth and ancestry Edward was born on 28 April 1442 at Rouen in Normandy, eldest surviving son of Richard, 3rd Duke of York, and Cecily Neville. Until his father's death, he was known as the Earl of March. Both his parents were direct descendants of King Edward III, giving Edward a potential claim to the throne. This was strengthened in 1447, when York became heir to the childless King Henry VI on the death of Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester. Allegations of illegitimacy were discounted at the time as politically inspired, and by later historians. Edward and his siblings George, Duke of Clarence, and Margaret, Duchess of Burgundy, were physically very similar, all three being tall and blonde, in contrast to the Duke of York, who was short and dark. His youngest brother, who later became King Richard III, closely resembled their father. Early life Edward grew up amidst a background of economic decline at home, and military defeat abroad, exacerbated by a weak and corrupt central government. Both he and his younger brother Edmund, Earl of Rutland, were born in Rouen, where their father, the Duke of York, served as governor of English lands in France until 1445, when he was replaced by Henry Beaufort, 3rd Duke of Somerset. Edward and Edmund were probably brought up at Ludlow Castle, in the Welsh Marches, where the Duke of York was the dominant landowner. In 1447, the Duke of York was made chief governor of Ireland, although he did not take up the post until 1449. Shortly thereafter, a French offensive recaptured Normandy, leaving Calais as the last English possession in Northern France; despite responsibility for this defeat, Somerset was appointed King Henry's chief minister. English politics became dominated by the struggle between the Yorkists and supporters of the House of Lancaster, or Lancastrians, notably the Duke of Somerset, William de la Pole, 1st Duke of Suffolk, and King Henry VI's wife, Margaret of Anjou. Matters came to a head in August 1453 when King Henry VI collapsed into a catatonic stupor on hearing news of the loss of Gascony, an English possession for over 300 years. The Duke of York took over government, his chief supporters being Richard Neville, 5th Earl of Salisbury, and his eldest son, Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick. In January 1454, 12 year old Edward rode beside his father when he entered London to attend the Great Council. However, the birth of King Henry VI's son, Edward of Westminster, Prince of Wales, in October 1453 created a viable Lancastrian figurehead, and the 1450s was dominated by political conflict between the two factions. By the age of 17, the Earl of March was a political and military leader in his own right; after their defeat at the Battle of Ludford Bridge in 1459, his father and brother Edmund fled to Ireland, while the Earls of March, Salisbury and Warwick made their way to Calais. Edward's name appears alongside those of his father, Warwick and Salisbury in widely circulated manifestoes declaring their quarrel was only with Henry's evil counsellors. In 1460, Edward crossed the English Channel with Warwick and Salisbury, and marched into London. At Northampton in July, he commanded one of three divisions in a Yorkist victory that led to the capture of Henry VI. York crossed from Ireland to England; on entering the Palace of Westminster, he declared himself king, a claim greeted by the assembled lords in silence. The Act of Accord agreed a compromise, whereby Henry remained king, but York and his descendants were designated his successors. The implications of removing the legally accepted heir to the throne created substantial opposition to the Yorkist administration; in late 1460, Edward was given his first independent command and sent to deal with a Lancastrian insurgency in Wales. Warwick remained in London, while York, Salisbury, and Edmund marched north to suppress another in Yorkshire; all three were killed following defeat at Wakefield on 30 December, leaving Edward as the new head of the Yorkist party. Reign Accession to the throne At this stage of Edward's career, contemporaries like Philippe de Commines described him as handsome, affable, and energetic. Unusually tall for the period at , he was an impressive sight in armour, and took care to wear splendid clothes. This was done deliberately to contrast him with King Henry VI, whose physical and mental frailties undermined his position. On 2 February 1461, Edward won a hard-fought victory at Mortimer's Cross. The battle was preceded by a meteorological phenomenon known as parhelion, or three suns, which he took as his emblem, the "Sun in splendour". However, this was offset by Warwick's defeat at the Second Battle of St Albans on 17 February, the Lancastrians regaining custody of Henry VI. The two met in London, where Edward was hastily crowned king, before marching north, where the two sides met at the Battle of Towton. Fought on 29 March in the middle of a snowstorm, it was the bloodiest battle ever to take place on English soil, and ended in a decisive Yorkist victory. Estimates of the dead range from 9,000 to 20,000; figures are uncertain, as most of the mass graves were emptied or moved over the centuries, while corpses were generally stripped of clothing or armour before burial. Nevertheless, casualties among the Lancastrian nobility were enormous, and explains the enduring bitterness among those who survived. Since 1996, excavations have uncovered over 50 skeletons from the battle; an analysis of their injuries shows the brutality of the contest, including extensive post-mortem mutilations. Margaret fled to Scotland with Edward of Westminster, while the new king returned to London for his coronation. Henry VI remained at large for over a year, but was caught and imprisoned in the Tower of London. There was little point in killing him while his son remained alive, since this would have transferred the Lancastrian claim from a frail captive to one who was young and free. 1461 to 1470 Most of the nobility had either remained loyal to Henry or stayed neutral, forcing Edward to rely heavily on the Nevilles. Consolidating the regime initially took precedence, but John Neville's victory at the 1464 Battle of Hexham seemed to end the Lancastrian threat. This exposed internal divisions, particularly over foreign policy, which in this period largely focused on the relationship between England, France and the Duchy of Burgundy, with two of the parties manoeuvring to form an alliance against the third. Although Edward preferred Burgundy as a partner, he allowed Warwick to negotiate a treaty with Louis XI of France, which included a suggested marriage between Edward and Anne of France or Bona of Savoy, respectively daughter and sister-in-law of the French king. In October 1464, Warwick was enraged to discover that on 1 May, Edward had secretly married Elizabeth Woodville, a widow with two sons, whose Lancastrian husband, John Grey of Groby, died at Towton. If nothing else, it was a clear demonstration he was not in control of the king, despite suggestions to the contrary. Edward's motives have been widely discussed by contemporaries and historians alike. Although Elizabeth's mother, Jacquetta of Luxembourg, came from the upper nobility, her father, Richard Woodville, was a middle ranking provincial knight. The Privy Council told Edward with unusual frankness that "she was no wife for a prince such as himself, for she was not the daughter of a duke or earl." The marriage was certainly unwise and unusual, although not unheard of; Henry VI's mother, Catherine of Valois, married her chamberlain, Owen Tudor, while Edward's grandson Henry VIII created the Church of England to marry Anne Boleyn. By all accounts, Elizabeth possessed considerable charm of person and intellect, while Edward was used to getting what he wanted. Historians generally accept the marriage was an impulsive decision, but differ on whether it was also a "calculated political move". One view is the low status of the Woodvilles was part of the attraction, since unlike the Nevilles, they were reliant on Edward and thus more likely to remain loyal. Others argue if this was his purpose, there were far better options available; all agree it had significant political implications that impacted the rest of Edward's reign. One reason for this was that twelve of the new queen's siblings survived into adulthood, creating a large pool of competitors for offices and estates, as well as in the matrimony market. Resentment built when her sisters made a series of advantageous unions, including that of Catherine Woodville to Henry Stafford, 2nd Duke of Buckingham; Anne Woodville to William, heir to Henry Bourchier, 1st Earl of Essex; and Eleanor Woodville with Anthony, heir to Edmund Grey, 1st Earl of Kent. In 1467, Edward dismissed his Lord Chancellor, Warwick's brother George Neville, Archbishop of York. Warwick responded by building an alliance with Edward's disaffected younger brother and heir, the Duke of Clarence, who held estates adjacent to the Neville heartland in the north. Concerned by this, Edward blocked a proposed marriage between Clarence and Warwick's eldest daughter Isabel. In early July, Clarence defied his brother by traveling to Calais, where he married Isabel in a ceremony conducted by George Neville and overseen by Warwick. The three men issued a 'remonstrance', listing alleged abuses by the Woodvilles and other advisors close to Edward and then returned to London, where they assembled an army to remove these 'evil councillors' and establish good government. With Edward still in the north, the royal army was defeated by a Neville force at Edgecote Moor on 26 July 1469. After the battle, Edward was held in Middleham Castle; on 12 August, his father-in-law Richard Woodville and Richard's younger son, John Woodville, were executed at Kenilworth. However, it soon became clear there was little support for Warwick or Clarence; Edward was released in September and resumed the throne. Outwardly, the situation remained unchanged, but tensions persisted and Edward did nothing to reduce the Nevilles' sense of vulnerability. The Percys, traditional rivals of the Neville family in the North, fought for Lancaster at Towton; their titles and estates were confiscated and given to Warwick's brother John Neville. In early 1470, Edward reinstated Henry Percy as Earl of Northumberland; John was compensated with the title Marquess of Montagu, but this was a significant demotion for a key supporter. In March 1470, Warwick and Clarence exploited a private feud to initiate a full-scale revolt; when it was defeated, the two fled to France in May 1470. Seeing an opportunity, Louis XI persuaded Warwick to negotiate with his long-time enemy, Margaret of Anjou; she eventually agreed, first making him kneel before her in silence for fifteen minutes. With French support, Warwick landed in England on 9 September 1470 and announced his intention to restore Henry. By now, the Yorkist regime was deeply unpopular and the Lancastrians rapidly assembled an army of over 30,000; when John Neville switched sides, Edward narrowly escaped capture and was forced to seek refuge in Bruges. Exile and restoration Edward took refuge in Flanders, part of the Duchy of Burgundy, accompanied by a few hundred men, including his younger brother Richard, Duke of Gloucester, Anthony Woodville and William Hastings. The Duchy was ruled by Charles the Bold, husband of his sister Margaret; he provided minimal help, something Edward never forgot. The restored Lancastrian regime faced the same issue that dominated Henry's previous reign. Mental and physical frailties made him incapable of ruling and resulted in an internal struggle for control, made worse because the coalition that put him back on the throne consisted of bitter enemies. Edmund Beaufort, 4th Duke of Somerset, held Warwick responsible for his father's death in 1455, while he had executed his elder brother in 1464; Warwick and Clarence quickly found themselves isolated by the new regime. Backed by wealthy Flemish merchants, in March 1471 Edward landed near Hull, close to his estates in Yorkshire. Supporters were initially reluctant to commit; the key northern city of York opened its gates only when he claimed to be seeking the return of his dukedom, like Henry IV seventy years earlier. The first significant contingent to join was a group of 600 men under Sir William Parr and Sir James Harrington. Parr fought against the Yorkists at Edgecote in 1469 and his defection confirmed Clarence's decision to switch sides; as they marched south, more recruits came in, including 3,000 at Leicester. Edward entered London unopposed and took Henry prisoner; Warwick was defeated and killed at the Battle of Barnet on 14 April, while a second Lancastrian army was destroyed at the Battle of Tewkesbury on 4 May. 16 year old Edward of Westminster died on the battlefield, with surviving leaders like Somerset executed shortly afterwards. This was followed by Henry's death a few days later; a contemporary chronicle claimed this was due to "melancholy," but it is generally assumed he was killed on Edward's orders. Although the Lancastrian cause seemed at an end, the regime was destabilised by an ongoing quarrel between Clarence and his brother Gloucester. The two were married to Isabel Neville and Anne Neville, respectively, the daughters of the Earl and Countess of Warwick and heirs to their mother's considerable inheritance. Many of the estates held by the brothers had been granted by Edward, who could also remove them, making them dependent on his favour. This was not the case with property acquired through marriage and explains the importance of this dispute. 1471 to 1483 The last significant rebellion ended in February 1474 with the surrender of John de Vere, 13th Earl of Oxford, who survived to command the Lancastrian army at Bosworth in 1485. Clarence was widely suspected of involvement, a factor in his eventual execution in the Tower on 18 February 1478; claims he was "drowned in a butt of Malmsey wine" appear to have been a joke by Edward, referring to his favourite drink. In 1475, Edward allied with Burgundy, and declared war on France. However, with Duke Charles focused on besieging Neuss, Louis opened negotiations. Soon after Edward landed at Calais, the two signed the Treaty of Picquigny. Edward received an immediate payment of 75,000 crowns, plus a yearly pension of 50,000 crowns, thus allowing him to recoup the costs of his army. In 1482, Edward backed an attempt to usurp the Scottish throne by Alexander Stewart, 1st Duke of Albany, brother of James III of Scotland. Gloucester invaded Scotland and took the town of Edinburgh, but not the far more formidable castle, where James was being held by his own nobles. Albany switched sides and without siege equipment, the English army was forced to withdraw, with little to show for an expensive campaign, apart from the capture of Berwick Castle. Edward's health began to fail, and he became subject to an increasing number of ailments; his physicians attributed this in part to a habitual use of emetics, which allowed him to gorge himself at meals, then return after vomiting to start again. He fell fatally ill at Easter 1483, but survived long enough to add codicils to his will, the most important naming his brother as Protector after his death. He died on 9 April 1483 and was buried in St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle. His twelve-year-old son, Edward V, was never crowned, Gloucester becoming King Richard III in July. The cause of Edward's death is uncertain; allegations of poison were common in an era when lack of medical knowledge meant death often had no obvious explanation. Other suggestions include pneumonia or malaria, although both were well-known and easy to describe. One contemporary attributed it to apoplexy brought on by excess, which fits with what is known of his physical habits. While the War of the Roses has been documented by numerous historians, Edward as an individual is less well known; 19th century historians like William Stubbs generally dismissed him as a bloodthirsty nonentity. The most comprehensive modern biography was written by Charles Ross in 1974, who concluded the peace and stability of his later reign was squandered in short-term aggrandisement. He further suggests that Edward "remains the only king in English history since 1066 in active possession of his throne who failed to secure the safe succession of his son. His lack of political foresight is largely to blame for the unhappy aftermath of his early death." Political Commentators observe a marked difference between Edward's first period as king, and the second. The failure of attempts to reconcile former enemies like Somerset meant he was noticeably more ruthless after 1471, including the execution of his brother Clarence. In his youth, Edward was a capable and charismatic military commander, who led from the front, but as he grew older, the energy noted by contemporaries became less apparent. One effect of this was that Parliament became increasingly reluctant to approve taxes for wars which Edward failed to prosecute, then used the funds instead to finance his household expenditures. Under his rule, ownership of the Duchy of Lancaster was transferred to the Crown, where it remains today. In 1478, his staff prepared the so-called 'Black Book', a comprehensive review of government finances, still in use a century later. He invested heavily in business ventures with the City of London, which he used as an additional source of funding. Although the economy recovered from the depression of 1450 to 1470, Edward's spending habitually exceeded income; on his death in 1483, the Crown had less than £1,200 in cash. His close relationship with the London branch of the Medici Bank ended in its bankruptcy; in 1517, the Medicis were still seeking repayment of Edward's debts. Economics was closely linked to foreign policy; Edward's reign was dominated by the three-sided diplomatic contest between England, France, and Burgundy, with two of the three seeking to ally against the third. As Flemish merchants were the largest buyers of English wool, Edward was generally pro-Burgundian, although Duke Charles' reluctance to support him in 1471 impacted their relationship. The death of Charles in 1477 led to the 1482 Treaty of Arras; Flanders, along with the lands known as the Burgundian Netherlands, became part of the Holy Roman Empire, and France acquired the rest. Edward and his successors lost much of their leverage as a result. Cultural Edward's court was described by a visitor from Europe as "the most splendid ... in all Christendom". He spent large amounts on expensive status symbols to show off his power and wealth as king of England, while his collecting habits show an eye for style and an interest in scholarship, particularly history. He acquired fine clothes, jewels, and furnishings, as well as a collection of beautifully illuminated historical and literary manuscripts, many made specially for him by craftsmen in Bruges. These included books for both entertainment and instruction, whose contents reveal his interests. They focus on the lives of great rulers, including Julius Caesar, historical chronicles, and instructional and religious works. In 1476, William Caxton established the first English printing press in the outbuildings of Westminster Abbey; on 18 November 1477, he produced Sayengis of the Philosophres, translated into English for Edward by Anthony Woodville. It is not known where or how Edward's library was stored, but it is recorded that he transferred volumes from the Great Wardrobe to Eltham Palace and that he had a yeoman "to kepe the king's bookes". More than forty of his books survive intact from the 15th century, which suggests they were carefully stored, and are now included in the Royal Collection of manuscripts, held by the British Library. Edward spent large sums on Eltham Palace, including the still-extant Great Hall, site of a feast for 2,000 people in December 1482, shortly before his death in April. He also began a major upgrade of St George's Chapel, Windsor, where he was buried in 1483; later completed by Henry VII, it was badly damaged during the First English Civil War, and little of the original work remains. Marriage and children Edward had ten children by Elizabeth Woodville, seven of whom survived him; they were declared illegitimate under the 1484 Titulus Regius, an act repealed by Henry VII, who married Edward's eldest daughter, Elizabeth. Elizabeth of York (11 February 1466 – 11 February 1503), Queen consort of England; married Henry VII of England, mother of King Henry VIII. Mary of York (11 August 1467 – 23 May 1482). Cecily of York (20 March 1469 – 24 August 1507), Viscountess Welles; married John Welles, 1st Viscount Welles, then Thomas Kyme or Keme. Edward V of England (4 November 1470 – c. 1483); one of the Princes in the Tower; disappeared, assumed murdered prior to his coronation, c. 1483. Margaret of York (10 April 1472 – 11 December 1472). Richard, Duke of York (17 August 1473 – c. 1483); one of the Princes in the Tower; disappeared, assumed murdered c. 1483. Anne of York (2 November 1475 – 23 November 1511), Lady Howard; married Thomas Howard (later 3rd Duke of Norfolk). George Plantagenet, 1st Duke of Bedford (March 1477 – March 1479). Catherine of York (14 August 1479 – 15 November 1527), Countess of Devon; married William Courtenay, 1st Earl of Devon. Bridget of York (10 November 1480 – 1507), nun at Dartford Priory, Kent. Edward had numerous mistresses, including Lady Eleanor Talbot and Elizabeth Lucy, possibly daughter of Thomas Waite (or Wayte), of Southampton. The most famous was Jane Shore, later compelled by Richard III to perform public penance at Paul's Cross; Sir Thomas More claimed this backfired, since "albeit she were out of al array save her kyrtle only: yet went she so fair & lovely … that her great shame wan her much praise." Edward had several acknowledged illegitimate children; Elizabeth Plantagenet (born c. 1464), possibly daughter of Elizabeth Lucy, who married Thomas, son of George Lumley, Baron Lumley Arthur Plantagenet, 1st Viscount Lisle (1460s/1470s – 3 March 1542), author of the Lisle Papers, an important historical source for the Tudor period. From his first marriage to Elizabeth Grey, he had three daughters, Frances, Elizabeth and Bridget Plantagenet. Grace Plantagenet, recorded as attending the funeral of Elizabeth Woodville in 1492; There are claims for many others, including Mary, second wife of Henry Harman of Ellam, and Isabel Mylbery (born circa 1470), who married John Tuchet, son of John Tuchet, 6th Baron Audley. However, the evidence for these is circumstantial. Aftermath Edward IV's eldest son, also named Edward, was made Prince of Wales when he was seven months old and given his own household at the age of three. Based in Ludlow Castle, he was supervised by his uncle, Anthony Woodville, 2nd Earl Rivers, who also acted as his regent for the Council of Wales and the Marches. The historical consensus is he and his brother Richard were killed, probably between July to September 1483; debate on who gave the orders, and why, continues, although their uncle Richard III was the beneficiary. By mid-August, Elizabeth Woodville was certain of the deaths of her sons; after her initial grief turned to fury, she opened secret talks with Margaret Beaufort. She promised her support in return for Henry's agreement to marry her eldest daughter Elizabeth. In December 1483, Henry swore an oath to do so, which he duly carried out after his coronation in October 1485. Prior to his succession, Richard III declared his nephews illegitimate, on the grounds his brother's marriage to Elizabeth Woodville was invalid. The Titulus Regius argued that since Edward had agreed to marry Lady Eleanor Talbot, his marriage to Elizabeth Woodville was void. Both Eleanor and Edward were dead, but Robert Stillington, Bishop of Bath and Wells, further claimed to have actually carried out the ceremony. Once secure on the throne Henry VII annulled the Titulus and arrested Stillington, since his marriage to Elizabeth's daughter added legitimacy to his claim; Stillington died in prison in 1491. Despite this apparent resolution, the Yorkist cause continued well into the 16th century. The most famous are the pretenders Lambert Simnel and Perkin Warbeck, but Yorkist challengers remained a concern for Henry VII and his son. In 1541, Henry VIII executed Margaret Pole, Countess of Salisbury, daughter of the Duke of Clarence, while a number of attempts were made on the life of her son, Cardinal Reginald Pole, who died in 1558. Genealogical table See also List of earls in the reigns of Henry VI and Edward IV of England References Notes Sources Further reading External links Edward IV at BBC History British Library Catalogue of Illuminated Manuscripts (SEARCH: Keyword Edward IV, Start year 1470, End year 1480 for details and images of Edward IV's manuscripts). 1442 births 1483 deaths 15th-century English monarchs 15th-century English nobility Burials at St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle Dukes of York English pretenders to the French throne English people of French descent Plantagenet 03 Plantagenet Knights of the Golden Fleece People from Rouen People of the Hundred Years' War Earls of Cambridge

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The Nuova Camorra Organizzata (Italian: New Organized Camorra) was an Italian Camorra criminal organization founded in the late 1970s by a Neapolitan Camorrista, Raffaele Cutolo, in the region of Campania. It was also known by the initials NCO. The organization was established with the purpose of renewing the old rural Camorra, which dealt in contraband cigarettes and extortion schemes in the Neapolitan fruit market. To this end, Cutolo created a structured and hierarchical organization, in stark contrast to the traditional Camorra clans which are usually fragmented. The members of the NCO were often referred to by rival Camorristi and Italian law enforcement as "Cutoliani". According to the Italian Justice Department, by 1981 the NCO had become the strongest Camorra clan and one of the most powerful criminal organizations in the nation, providing a living for at least 200,000 people in the Neapolitan area alone. It was distinctly hostile to the Sicilian Mafia, but had an alliance with numerous Calabrian 'Ndrangheta clans, in addition to the Nuova Grande Camorra Pugliese, which was the precursor to the Sacra Corona Unita in Apulia. It was eventually supplanted by the Nuova Famiglia, a confederation of clans consisting of Michele Zaza (a Camorra boss with strong ties with Cosa Nostra), the Gionta clan (from Torre Annunziata), the Nuvoletta clan from Marano, Antonio Bardellino from San Cipriano d'Aversa and Casal di Principe, the Alfieri clan of Saviano led by Carmine Alfieri, the Galasso clan of Poggiomarino (led by Pasquale Galasso), the Giuliano clan from Naples' quarter Forcella (led by Luigi Giuliano) and the Vollaro clan from Portici (led by Luigi Vollaro). It was considered extinct in the late 1980s, when many of its bosses and members were killed or imprisoned. Cutolo's Camorra is described as the "mass Camorra" of unemployed youth specializing in protection rackets, while Carmine Alfieri's Camorra was seen as the "political Camorra" because of its ability to obtain public sector contracts through political contacts, and Lorenzo Nuvoletta's as the "business Camorra" reinvesting drug money into construction following the 1980 earthquake. History Formation The founder of this organization, Raffaele Cutolo, also known as "'o Professore" (The Professor), was born on 20 December 1941 in Ottaviano, a village in the hinterland of Naples. At the age of 18, on 24 February 1963, he committed his first homicide and was subsequently convicted and sentenced to life imprisonment, reduced to 24 years after appeal. He was sent to Poggioreale, Naples’ prison. Entering the prison world on a murder conviction made Cutolo a "tough guy". In prison Cutolo learned the rules of the criminal world: he became a man of honour, paid respect to more powerful inmates, and started gathering personal prestige because of his striking personality. He never lost sight of his ambition and his desire to become one of the biggest bosses of the Neapolitan underworld. Cutolo had established himself as a ringleader, when Antonio Spavone aka "'o Malommo" (The Badman), was transferred to Poggioreale prison. He challenged Spavone to a knife fight in the courtyard (a practise called 'o dichiaramento, the declaration), but Spavone refused. The challenged boss allegedly limited himself to a reply: "Today's young men want to die young by whatever means." Spavone was released from prison shortly after this event. From his prison cell, Cutolo ordered the murder of Spavone. A hitman, allegedly Cutolo's friend, shot him in the face from short range with a shotgun. Spavone survived the ambush, but the shotgun blast left considerable damage to his facial structure, which required plastic surgery. Spavone immediately resigned from his highly visible role as a Camorra boss. It was from within Naples' Poggioreale prison that Cutolo built the NCO. He began by befriending young inmates unfamiliar with jail, giving them a sense of identity and worth, so much so that when they were released they would send Cutolo "flowers" (i.e. money), which enabled him to increase his network. He helped poorer prisoners by buying food for them from the jail store, or arranging for food to be sent in from outside. In such ways, Cutolo created many "debts" or "rain cheques" which he would cash at the opportune moment. As his following grew, he also began to exercise a monopoly of violence within a number of prisons, thus increasing his power. By the early 1970s, Cutolo had become so powerful that he was able to decide which of his followers would be moved to which jails, use a prison governor's telephone to make calls anywhere in the world, and allegedly even slap the prison governor on one occasion for daring to search his cell. Another key bond Cutolo created was regular payments to the families of NCO members sent to prison, thereby guaranteeing the allegiance of both prisoners and their families. Cutolo was soon able to gather under him a small group of prisoners, the nucleus of which would later become the leadership of the NCO. They were Antonino Cuomo aka "'o Maranghiello" (The Cudgel), Pasquale Barra aka "'o Nimale" (The Animal), Giuseppe Puca aka "'o Giappone" (The Japanese), Pasquale D'Amico aka "'o Cartunaro" (The Cardboard picker) and Vincenzo Casillo aka "'o Nirone" (The Big Black). After being released, they would set up the first criminal activities on the outside which would be directly controlled by Cutolo from within the penitentiary system. Structure The NCO developed two parallel structures, one inside the penitentiary system called "cielo coperto" (covered sky), and the other outside the penitentiary system called "cielo scoperto" (clear sky). Since Cutolo and many NCO members were serving life sentences, communication between these two structures were of utmost importance. To retain his leadership, Cutolo needed to relay his orders to NCO members outside in an effective and reliable way, while simultaneously insuring that some of the profits generated by the expansion be delivered to prisons so that he could expand his recruitment drive. The peculiar conditions at Poggioreale prison which included its strategic location in the centre of Naples Western District and continuous flow of people such as parole violators and relatives of prisoners, to and from the prison made it possible for the NCO to successfully coordinate criminal activities from their centralized location. The NCO used this continuous flow to bring money and goods to prison and to send directives to their associates for outside operations. The relatives who could visit daily were being used as primary couriers, but when they were unavailable, some of these associates would be certified on paper as kin through the courtesy of obliging clerks from various municipalities in the area, especially Cutolo's municipality in Ottaviano. As the Justice Department discovered in 1983, Cutolo was visited daily from July 1977 to December 1978 by Giuseppe Puca who had a document from Ottaviano's municipality certifying him to be Cutolo's first cousin. He had also received three visits from another NCO member, Giuseppe Romano, one as Cutolo's brother-in-law, one as compare and finally as first cousin. The NCO became the organizing principle of a new kinship system based on Comparaggio, first cousins and allied kin, which was formally written into the municipal registry by obliging local bureaucrats. Once the first NCO group became operative and started generating profits, Cutolo established the soccorso verde (green cross) to help the NCO recruit new members from the prison population, providing them with clothes, lawyers, legal advice, money for themselves and their families, and even luxury items. There was a regular procedure for this financial allocation to prisoners. From the very beginning, Cutolo had his men set aside 500,000 lire from each successful operation in a fund for the prison population. This fund was distributed to inmates belonging to the NCO all over Italy through wire service by Raffaele's sister Rosetta Cutolo and some NCO lieutenants. In an attempt to control the entire region, the NCO surpassed the family structure of the urban Camorra. The NCO was an open structure with new members incorporated at a rate of 1,000 per year. Membership was open to everyone, the primary requisites being swearing loyalty to Cutolo and contributing to the common criminal activities. However, as soon as the organization's business expanded and there was a need for more manpower, recruitment became more aggressive and later, even mandatory. In prison, people were forced to become members of the NCO. Failure to do so would often result in the murder of the unwilling prisoner. The organization was a federation of different gangs, with their own territorial areas of action, but hierarchically ordered and tightly controlled by Raffaele Cutolo. A document found on pentito, Pasquale D'Amico, described the organization as a "Door-to-door sales business, specializing in underwear and lingerie". Cutolo was the CEO. There was a vice-chief executive at large (Vincenzo Casillo replacing Cutolo for emergency decisions, since Cutolo's reaction time was delayed by his imprisonment), an executive board (on which sat the members of the original group), then area managers, branch managers, and finally, salesmen in charge of collecting the weekly money from their rackets. Outside of prison, there was an executive meeting every fifteen days, where Rosetta Cutolo, who as the boss's sister, could easily communicate with him in prison. Ideology Cutolo had an ideology, another factor that appealed to rootless and badly educated youths. He founded the NCO in his home town Ottaviano on 24 October 1970, the day of Cutolo's patron saint, San Raffaele, and the organization used a statute of rules and regulations that were deliberately meant to have a striking resemblance to the Camorra of the last century. In such a way, Cutolo created the most powerful organization ever to exist in the Neapolitan hinterland. Using his personal appeal and almost magic charisma, he was able to achieve this single-handedly. The NCO strongholds were the towns to the east of Naples, such as Ottaviano. From its start, the NCO advocated using illegal resources available in the territory for the betterment of the community, claimed the role of protector of the community and assumed a strong regional identity based on criminal values. He accused the Sicilian Mafia of wanting to colonize Naples and the Campania. Cutolo appealed to a Campanian rather than Neapolitan sense of identity, perhaps as a result of his poor peasant background. For instance, Cutolo is once reported as having said: "The day when the people of Campania understand that it is better to eat a slice of bread as a free man than to eat a stake as a slave is the day when Campania will win." He talked about the need to re-establish respect for the people of this region: "We have to renew the ancient splendors of Naples and the Campania. We have to give back its destiny to our region, represented by the symbol of Vesuvio." It was this approach that made the NCO openly hostile to the Sicilian Mafia and other Camorra clans, and Cutolo consequently developed a long-standing alliance with the 'Ndrangheta, who had no intentions or designs in either Naples or Campania. Cutolo had strong ties with the 'Ndrangheta. According to some pentiti, Cutolo's career started with his affiliation with the 'Ndrangheta, supported by important bosses such as Giuseppe Piromalli, Paolo De Stefano, and Mammoliti. Cutolo based his organisation of the NCO on the model of the 'Ndrangheta, its internal codes and rituals. The NCO also established strong ties with the Apulian Sacra Corona Unita and the Roman Banda della Magliana, two other criminal organizations that did not directly operate in Campania. The organisation was unique in the history of the Camorra in that it was highly centralised and possessed a rudimentary form of ideology. For example, he publicly declared that children were not to be kidnapped or mistreated and allegedly arranged the assassination of at least one kidnapper. Perhaps the most potent ideological weapon was the cult of violence, which sometimes bordered on a kind of death wish, as Cutolo once wrote: "the value of a life doesn’t consist of its length but in the use made of it; often people live a long time without living very much. Consider this, my friends, as long as you are on this earth everything depends on your will-power, not on the number of years you have lived." Through his book of thoughts and poems, Poesie e pensieri and his many interviews with journalists, Cutolo was able to create a strong sense of identity amongst his members. The book was published in Naples in 1980, but never distributed to the public. The book, containing 235 pages of poems and pictures, was seized by the police and censored as an "apology of a criminal organization." According to the Justice department, this book was viewed by NCO members as the "Bible of the NCO" and was particularly popular in prison, due to Cutolo's own distribution by mail. Even though his book was impounded by magistrates within days of its publication, many prisoners, alienated from society both inside and outside jail, wrote to Cutolo and other NCO leaders asking for a copy. Its possession alone would later be considered incriminating evidence. Cutolo openly supported the young inmates, who were confronted with abuse, brutality, physical aggression and rape. He provided them with advice and protection from the brutalities of other inmates. At the same time they learned how to behave as a good picciotto, the lowest entry level into the Camorra. Cutolo challenged the old Camorra bosses and gave the youngsters a structure to belong to: "The new Camorra must have a statute, a structure, an oath, a complete ceremony, a ritual that must excite people to the point that they would risk their lives for this organization." Cutolo was revered by his soldiers. They called him Prince and kissed his left hand as if he were a bishop. Cutolo spent a great amount of time researching the 19th century Camorra and reconstructed the old Camorristic ritual of initiation. He took great care in making the ritual a binding social practise. In his cell, he created a ceremony in which the initiate received the award of the primo regalo (first gift) also called abbraccio (embrace) or fiore (flower). He infused the old Camorristic traditions with Catholicism and reconstituted the ritual of initiation of the traditional Camorra. The NCO has often been described as the "expression of a kind of collective mass movement of the violent and disbanded youth of Campania". However, an historian once declared the NCO to be just another "gangsters association" which had usurped the old and to some extent, respectful name of the Camorra. When the journalist Giorgio Rossi interviewed some of the young NCO members from Ottaviano, he recorded several testimonies of how willing were they to die for their boss and organization. One young picciotto said: "You ask me why I do what I do. The answer is simple. I don't care if I die or live. Actually in a way I'm looking for my death." A second picciotto said, "We are running towards our death. There is no purpose to living here. This is a bad life. Life here counts zero. What I have seen in these 23 years is enough and I'm already dead. Now I'm living on borrowed time. If they want to kill me, fine, what I have seen is enough." Similarly, a third one said, "We are in such a state that if they try to step on us, we will kill. We are the living dead. I have already half a foot stepping on my head. If you step on me with the other half, I'll kill you." In a letter found by the local police, a young picciotto named Turisio Agrippino wrote to Salvatore Federico: "The true god is our beloved Raffaele Cutolo." Another young member of the NCO named Antonio Lucarelli aka "'o Giarrone" (The rascal) told a national television reporter in a televised interview from Cutolo's family courtyard that he was ready to give his life for Cutolo. Cutolo thanked him by having one of his men, Marco Medda, write him a letter which was later seized by the police: "My dear Giarrone, your interview greatly flattered the professor; he is honored, in case of need, to accept the blood that from your noble vein will flow into his own. My dear Giarrone, you are a man of great quality." Three months later, Lucarelli was killed during a clash with a rival gang. Acquiring and consolidating power The NCO spread like wildfire in the crisis-ridden Campanian towns of the late 1970s, offering alienated youths an alternative to a lifetime of unemployment or poorly paid jobs. Hundreds of young men were employed as enforcers. Initially, the main specialisation of NCO gangs was extorting money through protection rackets from local businesses. The police calculated that the NCO had some 7000 armed associates in 1980. While the traditional Camorristic families held territorial powers and the consequent responsibility over their controlled areas, the NCO had no qualms over breaking the established social fabric by extorting shopkeepers, small factories and businesses, and building contractors. In its quest for cash, it even targeted individuals such as landlords, lawyers and professionals. The NCO's protection racket even included a transient circus. The NCO later branched out to cocaine trafficking, partly because it was less subject to police investigation than heroin, but also because the Sicilian Mafia was less involved in the cocaine trade. He also embarked on a ruthless campaign against the Sicilian Mafiosi operating in Campania. The years of the NCO's domination (1979–1983) saw the highest number of homicides, of which there were 900 in Campania alone. At the end of the 1970s, two types of Camorra gangs began to take shape: the NCO type gangs led by Cutolo, which dealt mainly in Cocaine and protection rackets, preserving a strong regional sense of identity, and the business oriented clans allied with the Mafia which were led by the likes of Michele Zaza, Carmine Alfieri, Lorenzo Nuvoletta, etc., who dealt in cigarettes and heroin, but soon moved on to invest in real estate and construction firms. Cutolo's NCO became more powerful by encroaching and taking over other group's territories. The NCO was able to break the circle of traditional power held by the families. Cutolo's organization was just too aggressive and violent to be resisted by any individual families. Other Camorra families initially were too weakened, too divided, and simply too intimidated by the NCO. Their territories were indefensible against an organization like the NCO, which raided and rules large areas, not by constant control, but by violence and quick action. Unlike the traditional Camorra clans which used slow and static methods of conducting their business, the gangs grouped inside the NCO displayed an open-ended dynamic force that depended on speed and movement. They usually came into the city from elsewhere, from the undifferentiated territories of the countryside; their men spread out across open space, relying on fast cars, motorcycles and mobile firepower instead of fortified positions. The NCO even had an extraterritorial hit team composed of the most violent gang members from its various criminal gangs, who were ready to do the NCO's bidding by wreaking destruction and violence when required. It was a ten-man team, capable of quick response to any emergency. It had some extremely powerful cars at its disposal which could cover the entire area of Naples in less than an hour. Its firing power was in the order of 10,000 bullets per minute. Cutolo insisted that if other criminal groups wanted to keep their business, they had to pay the NCO protection on all their activities, including a percentage for each carton of cigarettes smuggled into Naples. This practice came to be known as ICA (Imposta Camorra Aggiunta – or Camorristic Sale Tax), mimicking the state VAT sale tax IVA (Imposta sul Valore Aggiunto). For instance, Michele Zaza, the biggest Neapolitan cigarette smuggler, was reported to have paid the NCO more than 4 billion lire in the first three months after the imposition of the racket. Move into Apulia Raffaele Cutolo decided to expand the NCO to the neighboring region of Apulia in the late 1970s and early 1980s. This was precipitated by a number of factors. Firstly, a number of Camorristi had been incarcerated or forced to resettle in Apulia. In the 1970s, a large number of NCO members had been relocated from their prisons in Campania to the local Pugliese prisons resulting in massive prison overcrowding. Furthermore, by the early 1980s a new smuggling route from Yugoslavia had been opened, and Apulia became a crucial juncture of this trade. Apulia's geographical features were of great interest for possible exploitation of its strategic potential, since it had a particularly extensive coastal area, a territory which was conveniently linked to the main motorways of Central-Northern Italy, and several mid sized airports. The absence of any local criminal association made Apulia a natural place for border crossings by Camorra clans who had the opportunity to exploit a particularly lucrative market there, free from any threatening local competition. The NCO members soon attempted to install themselves at the highest levels of power inside the prison, harassing other prisoners (specifically with requests for money) as well as offering membership in their organization, a process called legalizzazione (legislation). After consulting with his nephew Stephen Cutolo, Raffaele decided to adopt a strategy of assimilation of the local criminals. He opened availability for membership in the NCO to the locals, and decided to intervene directly, promoting a series of meeting with the purpose of "legalizing" new bosses for Apulia. This process was called capi-zona a cielo scoperto (local outside bosses). To this end, Cutolo founded a separate branch of the NCO in Apulia called the Nuova Grande Camorra Pugliese (NGCP) in 1981, a formal organization particularly active in the area around Foggia, modeled after its parent organization in Campania, but with its own command hierarchy. It was headed by the brothers, Specidato and Gurrieri. The NGCP was created with the sole objective to unite all the groups in the region and constitute an autonomous, parallel organization with respect to the NCO, though still subject to it economically. Initially, there were no problems between the native criminals and the NCO. Their working relationship continued for years with no undue interference. At first local criminals were managing the illegal trades while the NCO lent financial resources and support demanding 40% of all profits derived from illegal activities. The local criminals were involved only during particularly difficult operations, and then contacts were established directly with single individuals or small groups active for some time in smuggling which for strategic reasons was concentrated mainly in the Brindisi area. However, the final outcome was not what he had planned and this arrangement proved to be an unstable one. Soon the local criminals tried to free themselves from the masters. Cutolo's relentless defeats in the wars against the Nuova Famiglia in Campania weakened the hegemony and prestige of the NCO which eventually collapsed in its entirety. Soon, this affiliation with the NCO was dissolved and replaced by a working relationship with the Calabrian 'Ndrangheta, whose leaders did not demand a share of the illicit profits. On 1 May 1983, with the sponsorship of the 'Ndrangheta capobastone, Giuseppe Rogoli founded the Sacra Corona Unita in Bari prison, a new Mafia invoking the regional Pugliese identity against the intrusion of the foreign Neapolitans. The Sacra Corona Unita received its legitimacy from Rogoli's induction into the 'Ndrangheta by the Calabrian 'Ndranghetisti, Carmine Alvaro and Umberto Bellocco, who were incarcerated with him in Porto Azzurro. Formation of Nuova Famiglia During the NCO's highest point of expansion, Camorra boss, Michele Zaza had to pay Cutolo's organisation US$400,000 for the right to carry on operating in contraband cigarettes. However, no hierarchy between Camorra gangs or stable spheres of influence had been created, and no gang leader was likely to agree to taking a back seat without making a fight of it. In 1978, Zaza formed a ‘honourable brotherhood’ (Onorata fratellanza) in an attempt to get the Mafia-aligned Camorra gangs to oppose Cutolo and his NCO, although without much success. In mid 1979, the NCO took on the Giuliano clan, which had traditionally controlled the Forcella, or "Casbah" area in the centre of Naples. Prior to this, the Giuliano clan had been in good terms with the NCO until the first half of 1979. The clan was also under such bad terms with Michele Zaza that it launched an attack against his nephew Pasquale in December 1979. Another Camorra clan leader named Luigi Vollaro aka "'o Califfo" (the Caliph) had first raised the idea of an anti-Cutolo alliance with the Giuliano clan boss, Luigi Giuliano in 1979, following Cutolo's demand to receive a cut from his illegal gambling centres and lottery system in his base of Portici. A provisional death squad was set up, which contributed to the dozens of gangland deaths that year. The breaking point was reached when the NCO tried to move into the Giuliano's stronghold of Forcella, Piazza Mercato and Via Duomo, in the centre of Naples. A few days before Christmas, 1980, two NCO members presented themselves at an unloading of contraband cigarettes at Santa Lucia and demanded immediate payment of $400,000 to their organization, as well as insisting on future payment of $25 for every crate of cigarettes brought ashore. They then proceeded to shoot and injure one of the Giuliano gang members unloading the cigarettes. On Christmas Eve, the gang's leader, Luigi Giuliano, was also wounded in an attack. The clash, which had occurred in a period of growing tension, led to the formation of the Nuova Famiglia (NF) to contrast Cutolo's predominant NCO, consisting of Zaza, the Nuvoletta's and Antonio Bardellino from Casal Di Principe (the so-called "Casalesi"). It was formed as a federation of Anti-Cutolo Camorra clans, and copied the organizational structure of the NCO. In stark contrast to the NCO's Campania-based model, the NF sought to impose a more traditional conduct based on the Sicilian code of conduct. The attacks continued through January 1981, until a summit meeting was called at the end of the month in a Roman hotel, under the mediation of Antonio Spavone. It was attended by the NF leaders and the NCO was represented by Rosetta Cutolo and Vincenzo Casillo. Representatives from the Sicilian Mafia were also present in the meeting. 1980 Camorra War A shaky peace was established, only to be broken on 14 February when, during the confusion provoked by a strong earth tremor, NCO members in Naples' Poggioreale prison killed three adversaries. A more serious incident occurred in May, when the NCO bombed houses in Portici owned by men working in the contraband cigarette trade for the Zaza brothers. This was soon followed by retaliatory acts from the rival Nuova Famiglia. The two men who had tried to encroach on the Zaza's patch were shot and a car bomb was planted outside Cutolo's family home in Ottaviano. From 1980 to 1983, a bloody war raged in and around Naples, which left several hundred dead and severely weakened the NCO. It had its root causes in two main events: the rapid growth of two distinct types of Camorra gangs and the profound political and financial instability created by the November 1980 earthquake. The war soon became a straightforward battle for power which was fueled by the billions pouring in from Rome for earthquake reconstruction. For instance, the highest number of deaths occurred in the 1981–82 period, when most of the reconstruction contracts were being assigned. The number of gangland murders soon grew to epic proportions. During this period, some Neapolitans would place illegal and macabre bets, in a system controlled by the Camorra itself, on whether there would be more gangland murders than days over the coming year. Between 16 and 19 June 1983, police arrested a thousand members of the NCO. The earthquake had a major impact on the criminal underworld. A lot of people lost their businesses and were left unemployed and destitute. Without any place to work at, these displaced persons particularly the young men, turned to the NF and NCO for work. During this time, the NCO was getting richer by infiltrating the network of earthquake relief agencies. It hoarded enormous quantities of relief funds and goods, and charged fees for protecting all businesses involved in earthquake re-construction. In addition to the massive hoarding, the NF was also greatly benefited by deterritorialization of the Camorra underworld in Naples. The earthquake had totally destroyed all social control, due to the displacement of people, cafes, small businesses and the cordoning of social blocks. The anti-Cutolo clans began to restructure themselves on the model of the NCO. Lacking any territory, they came to depend on open space, swapping their fortified positions for fast cars, motorcycles and mobile firepower. In this way, the NF began using the NCO's own tactics against them, i.e., high visibility, speed and brutal violence. In an act reminiscent of both Italian neo-fascist and left-wing terrorist groups, they sent messages to the press signed, "Nuclei Armati Anti-Cutoliani" (Armed Nucleus Anti-Cutolo) or "Giustizieri Campani" (Avengers from Campania) complete with their new slogans "Let's slay the coto-lette (literally porkchops, a pun on Cutolo's name)" and "Fight back". The savage war caused great inconveniences on the lives of the Neaploitan citizens, such that even a normal stroll through downtown Naples could be a potentially hazardous and life-threatening situation. This savage war caused in turn a greater attention from the Italian police organizations, pushing the Sicilian Mafia to accommodate an agreement between the two warring clans, favouring the Nuova Famiglia, which included a lot of former allies. Many high-ranking Sicilian mafiosi such as Leoluca Bagarella, Bernardo Provenzano and Totò Riina repeatedly tried to eliminate Cutolo. The war left Cutolo more exposed in terms of notoriety. He had not expected such a strong backlash from his adversaries, and his strong hostility to the Sicilian Mafia gave them another tactical advantage, in that they were able to obtain assistance from the Mafia. The individual gangs of the NF alliance had the added advantage of being less notorious than Cutolo's NCO. The NF were initially less affected by police crackdowns and investigations and were therefore able to carry the attack to the NCO, although the NF had suffered its own massive crackdown in 1984. Defeat of Cutolo In a one-year period between 1983 and 1984, there were a series of arrests and massive crackdowns coordinated by Italian justice on the activities and rackets operated by the NCO. In the first round-up on 17 June 1983 (a day labeled as "the Black Friday of the NCO" by the Neapolitan press), 856 people were arrested on a single day of coordinated operations involving 8,000 police and carabinieri. Of those arrested in a series of raids, 300 were convicted very quickly and another 630 committed for trial. Overall more than a thousand would later be indicted on the crime of association with the NCO. The resulting Maxi Trial lasted three years and required the participation of nine different judges and scores of legal clerks, attorneys, witnesses, and military policemen. The legal records which included audiotapes of the entire proceedings filled an entire room at Naples' hall of justice. There was also a steady stream of pentiti or supergrasses during this period, beginning with Pasquale Barra, who realizing that Cutolo was prepared to let him be killed, decided to reveal details of NCO murders in order to gain greater protection. He was then followed by Giovanni Pandico, one of the NCO's underwriter's whose accusations led to many arrests in the 1983 police crackdown. However, many of his accusations were later proven to be unfounded. The third major NCO supergrass was Mario Incarnato, who confessed to a series of murders in late 1983. In the mid-1980s, Giovanni Auriemma exposed the NCO's links with the secret services, whilst Pasquale D'Amico revealed Cutolo's links with the Calabrian 'Ndrangheta. Organized crime author Tom Behan illustrates the key factors leading to Cutolo's defeat and the downfall of the NCO: Firstly, he cites Cutolo's arrogance and impatience which caused the formation of the NF. He further states that had Cutolo moved at a slower pace and sought greater consensus, he might have succeeded in becoming the undisputed boss of the region of Naples. Secondly, he cites the youth and the rawness of many of the NCO's "foot soldiers" compared with the more experienced members of the NF gangs. NCO members had a tendency of killing fellow members on mere suspicion of treachery; thus further reducing their numbers. As one pentito recalled; "The cutoliani committed arrogant acts, killing people for no reason." Thirdly, he mentions that Cutolo had committed a strategic error in concentrating on labour-intensive activities such as protection rackets and avoiding the more lucrative heroin trafficking rackets almost entirely. Cirillo Kidnapping Cutolo had also overplayed his hand in the Cirillo kidnapping affair. On 27 April 1981, the Red Brigades kidnapped the 60-year-old Christian Democrat (DC) politician Ciro Cirillo and killed his two-man escort in the garage of his Naples apartment building. At the time Cirillo directed reconstruction efforts in Campania devastated by the earthquake in the Irpinia region on 23 November 1980. During the period in which Cirillo was missing, DC politician, Antonio Gava and his party associates contacted both the NCO and the NF with the view to them using their good standing with the Red Brigades to secure his release. The NF, under Carmine Alfieri refused to act, preferring to having nothing to do with the whole affair because he didn't want to be used by the politicians. However, Cirillo's release, as a result of the negotiations by Cutolo and the NCO, raised the spectre for Alfieri and the NF that the NCO had reinforced their association with Gava and his faction by this action. In return for negotiating the release of Cirillo, Cutolo allegedly asked for a slackening of police operations against the Camorra, for control over the tendering of building contracts in Campania (a lucrative venture since the devastating earthquake in November 1980) and for a reduction of his own sentence – as well as new psychiatric test to show that he is not responsible for his actions. Both these last concessions were granted. Later, Cutolo began to blackmail Gava, demanding that he respect the deal made and threatening, in the event of non compliance, to create a public scandal by revelations that would have devastated the state institutions (i.e., The Secret Service) which had plotted with him to secure the hostage's release. As a result, his former political protectors turned and provided their support to his main rival Carmine Alfieri. Pasquale Galasso, the Nuova Famiglia leader who later became a pentito, briefly elaborated the post-kidnapping tension that existed between the DC and NCO, while testifying in court: Alfieri, on the other hand, was also very keen to destroy Cutolo. He was well aware that had Cutolo received the advantages he had hoped for, then he would not hesitate to destroy any rival gang. As Galasso stated in court: Decline of the NCO It appears that Alfieri had already decided to eliminate the senior NCO leaders for the murders of his brothers during the war. In November 1982, the NCO's financier, Alfonso Ferrara Rosanova, was murdered. When his deputy and main 'military' chief, Vincenzo Casillo was killed via car bomb in January 1983 by Alfieri's ally, Pasquale Galasso, it was clear that Raffaele Cutolo had lost the war. His power declined considerably. Not only Cutolo but many other Camorra gangs understood the shift in the balance of power caused by the death of Casillo. They abandoned the NCO and allied themselves with Alfieri. The assassination of Casillo was followed by the murders of several NCO members by the Nuova Famiglia. Casillo's partner disappeared a few weeks after his death, and her body was eventually found under in a ditch under a motorway in December 1983. Nicola Nuzzo, a key NCO member involved in the negotiations was battered to death in the ward of a Roman hospital in 1986, soon after a meeting with an investigating magistrate, Carlo Alemi. Salvatore Imperatrice, Casillo's bodyguard and also a member of the NCO negotiating team, died mysteriously in a mental asylum in March 1989. Mario Cuomo, who lost his legs in the explosion that killed Casillo, was eventually murdered in October 1990. Enrico Madonna, Cutolo's defense lawyer was murdered in October 1993, three days after telling a journalist that he was willing to tell a parliamentary commission all he knew about the Cirillo kidnapping affair. Most of the murders were linked to the Cirillo Affair. Cutolo's influence was also reduced when at the insistence of President Sandro Pertini, he was relocated to a prison on the island Asinara in January 1982, far away from Naples and his ability to communicate with the outside was severely restricted when the harsh 41-bis prison regime was imposed upon him. The elimination of the key NCO figures not only marked the end of the NCO's defeat as a political and criminal force, but also the rise of Carmine Alfieri and the NF who, by now, virtually unopposed, replaced them as the main contact of the politicians and businessmen in Campania as well as other criminal organizations. These chain of killings, including that of Cutolo's son, Roberto Cutolo who was shot dead by members of the Fabbrocino clan on 24 December 1990, aged 25, coupled with the incarceration of many of its members brought an end to the Nuova Camorra Organizzata. However, with Cutolo and the NCO out of the picture, the NF alliance soon disintegrated into many feuding clans, with a war breaking out between the Bardellino and Nuvoletta clans towards the end of 1983. Death of Cutolo On 17 February 2021, Cutolo died in the prison unit of the Maggiore Hospital in Parma, at the age of 79. The Polizia di Stato prohibited public funerals. See also Raffaele Cutolo Camorra Nuova Famiglia List of Camorra clans List of members of the Camorra Sacra Corona Unita Turatello Crew Banda della Magliana 'Ndrangheta Footnotes References Behan, Tom (1996). The Camorra, London: Routledge, Fiandaca, Giovanni (ed.) (2007), Women and the Mafia: Female Roles in Organized Crime Structures, New York: Springer Gundle, Stephen & Simon Parker (1996). The new Italian Republic: from the fall of the Berlin Wall to Berlusconi, London: Routledge, Haycraft, John (1985). The Italian Labyrinth: Italy in the 1980s, London: Secker & Warburg Jacquemet, Marco (1996). Credibility in Court: Communicative Practices in the Camorra Trials, Cambridge University Press Scanni, Matteo and Oliva, Ruben H. (2006). ’O Sistema, Milan: Rizzoli Sciarrone, Rocco (1998). Mafie vecchie, mafie nuove: Radicamento ed espansione, Rome: Donzelli Editore External links Processo Raffaele Cutolo, Rai Tre on youtube.com Raffaele Cutolo and the NCO, Rai Tre on youtube.com Camorra clans Organizations established in 1970

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doc-en-1191

This is a list of the Australian moth species of the family Tortricidae. It also acts as an index to the species articles and forms part of the full List of moths of Australia. Chlidanotinae Chlidanotini Caenognosis incisa Walsingham, 1900 Daulocnema epicharis Common, 1965 Leurogyia peristictum Common, 1965 Trymalitis climacias Meyrick, 1911 Trymalitis optima Meyrick, 1911 Hilarographini Thaumatographa pampoecila (Turner, 1913) Polyorthini Apura xanthosoma Turner, 1916 Polylopha epidesma Lower, 1901 Polylopha phaeolopha (Turner, 1925) Olethreutinae Bactrini Bactra ablabes Turner, 1946 Bactra anthracosema Turner, 1916 Bactra blepharopis Meyrick, 1911 Bactra capnopepla Turner, 1946 Bactra opatanias Meyrick, 1911 Bactra psammitis Turner, 1916 Bactra scalopias Meyrick, 1911 Bactra testudinea Turner, 1916 Bactra venosana (Zeller, 1847) Bactra xuthochyta (Turner, 1945) Endothenia polymetalla (Turner, 1916) Syntozyga anconia (Meyrick, 1911) Syntozyga psammetalla Lower, 1901 Syntozyga sedifera (Meyrick, 1911) Enarmoniini Aglaogonia eupena (Turner, 1946) Aglaogonia historica (Meyrick, 1920) Anathamna plana Meyrick, 1911 Ancyclophyes monochroa Diakonoff, 1984 Ancylis acromochla (Turner, 1946) Ancylis anguillana (Meyrick, 1881) Ancylis argillacea (Turner, 1916) Ancylis artifica (Meyrick, 1911) Ancylis biscissana (Meyrick, 1881) Ancylis carpalima Meyrick, 1911 Ancylis colonota (Meyrick, 1911) Ancylis coronopa (Meyrick, 1911) Ancylis erythrana (Meyrick, 1881) Ancylis erythrosema (Turner, 1945) Ancylis fidana (Meyrick, 1881) Ancylis hibbertiana (Meyrick, 1881) Ancylis himerodana (Meyrick, 1881) Ancylis infectana (Meyrick, 1881) Ancylis longestriata (Durrant, 1891) Ancylis mesoscia (Meyrick, 1911) Ancylis ochropepla (Turner, 1926) Ancylis phileris (Meyrick, 1910) Ancylis pseustis (Meyrick, 1911) Ancylis sciodelta (Meyrick, 1921) Ancylis segetana (Meyrick, 1881) Ancylis stilpna (Turner, 1925) Ancylis synomotis (Meyrick, 1911) Ancylis volutana (Meyrick, 1881) Anthozela hilaris (Turner, 1916) Balbidomaga uptoni Horak, 2006 Cyphophanes gracilivalva Horak, 2006 Eucosmogastra miltographa (Meyrick, 1907) Eucosmogastra poetica (Meyrick, 1909) Eucosmogastra pyrrhopa (Lower, 1896) Helictophanes myrolychna (Turner, 1946) Helictophanes prospera (Meyrick, 1909) Helictophanes scambodes (Meyrick, 1911) Helictophanes uberana Meyrick, 1881 Irianassa aetheria (Turner, 1946) Loboschiza delomilta (Turner, 1946) Loboschiza deloxantha (Turner, 1946) Loboschiza exemplaris (Meyrick, 1911) Loboschiza furiosa (Meyrick, 1921) Loboschiza hemicosma (Lower, 1908) Loboschiza koenigiana (Fabricius, 1775) Loboschiza martia (Meyrick, 1911) Loboschiza thoenarcha (Meyrick, 1911) Metaselena allophlebodes Horak & Sauter, 1981 Metaselena lepta Horak & Sauter, 1981 Oriodryas olbophora Turner, 1925 Periphoeba trepida (Meyrick, 1911) Pseudancylis acrogypsa (Turner, 1916) Pternidora phloeotis Meyrick, 1911 Tetramoera gracilistria (Turner, 1946) Thysanocrepis crossota (Meyrick, 1911) Toonavora aellaea (Turner, 1916) Eucosmini Acroclita bryopa (Meyrick, 1911) Coenobiodes melanocosma (Turner, 1916) Crocidosema apicinota (Turner, 1946) Crocidosema lantana (Busck, 1910) Crocidosema plebejana Zeller, 1847 Eccoptocera australis Horak, 2006 Epiblema strenuana (Walker, 1863) Eucosmophyes commoni Horak, 2006 Fibuloides minuta Horak, 2006 Fibuloides phycitipalpia Horak, 2006 Heleanna chloreis (Turner, 1916) Hermenias epidola Meyrick, 1911 Hermenias rivulifera Turner, 1946 Herpystis avida Meyrick, 1911 Holocola aethalostola (Turner, 1946) Holocola ammostigma (Turner, 1946) Holocola argyrotypa (Turner, 1927) Holocola atmophanes (Turner, 1946) Holocola baeodes (Turner, 1946) Holocola chalcitis (Meyrick, 1911) Holocola chlidana (Turner, 1927) Holocola deloschema (Turner, 1914) Holocola ebenostigma (Turner, 1946) Holocola fluidana (Meyrick, 1881) Holocola honesta (Meyrick, 1911) Holocola hypomolybda (Turner, 1927) Holocola imbrifera (Meyrick, 1911) Holocola ischalea (Meyrick, 1911) Holocola liturata (Turner, 1925) Holocola lucifera (Turner, 1946) Holocola melanographa (Turner, 1916) Holocola morosa (Meyrick, 1911) Holocola niphosticha (Turner, 1946) Holocola nitida (Turner, 1946) Holocola notosphena (Turner, 1946) Holocola obeliscana (Meyrick, 1881) Holocola opsia (Meyrick, 1911) Holocola pellopis (Turner, 1946) Holocola peraea (Meyrick, 1911) Holocola pericyphana (Meyrick, 1881) Holocola periptycha (Turner, 1946) Holocola perspectana (Walker, 1863) Holocola phaeoscia (Turner, 1916) Holocola plinthinana (Meyrick, 1881) Holocola seditiosana (Meyrick, 1881) Holocola sicariana (Meyrick, 1881) Holocola sollicitana (Meyrick, 1881) Holocola spanistis (Meyrick, 1911) Holocola spodostola (Turner, 1946) Holocola striphromita (Turner, 1946) Holocola tarachodes (Meyrick, 1911) Holocola thalassinana Meyrick, 1881 Holocola tranquilla (Meyrick, 1911) Holocola triangulana Meyrick, 1881 Holocola vitiosa (Meyrick, 1911) Holocola zopherana (Meyrick, 1881) Icelita indentata (Bradley, 1957) Icelita monela Clarke, 1976 Melanodaedala scopulosana (Meyrick, 1881) Noduliferola neothela (Turner, 1916) Rhopobota hortaria (Meyrick, 1911) Spilonota acrosema (Turner, 1946) Spilonota constrictana (Meyrick, 1881) Spilonota quietana (Meyrick, 1881) Spilonota ruficomana (Meyrick, 1881) Strepsicrates dyselia (Turner, 1946) Strepsicrates ebenocosma (Turner, 1946) Strepsicrates ejectana (Walker, 1863) Strepsicrates infensa (Meyrick, 1911) Strepsicrates limnephilana (Meyrick, 1881) Strepsicrates macropetana (Meyrick, 1881) Strepsicrates semicanella (Walker, 1866) Strepsicrates sphenophora (Turner, 1946) Strepsicrates transfixa (Turner, 1946) Tritopterna capyra (Meyrick, 1911) Whittonella peltosema (Lower, 1908) Grapholitini Acanthoclita trichograpta (Meyrick, 1911) Apocydia pervicax (Meyrick, 1911) Archiphlebia endophaga (Meyrick, 1911) Archiphlebia rutilescens (Turner, 1945) Commoneria cyanosticha (Turner, 1946) Cryptophlebia iridosoma (Meyrick, 1911) Cryptophlebia ombrodelta (Lower, 1898) Cryptophlebia pallifimbriana Bradley, 1953 Cryptophlebia rhynchias (Meyrick, 1905) Cydia pomonella (Linnaeus, 1758) Fulcrifera persinnuata Komai & Horak, 2006 Grapholita dysaethria Diakonoff, 1982 Grapholita molesta (Busck, 1916) Grapholita amphitorna (Turner, 1916) Grapholita antitheta (Meyrick, 1911) Grapholita conficitana (Walker, 1863) Grapholita floricolana (Meyrick, 1881) Grapholita iridescens (Meyrick, 1881) Grapholita parvisignana (Meyrick, 1881) Grapholita tetrazancla (Turner, 1925) Grapholita tornosticha (Turner, 1946) Grapholita zapyrana (Meyrick, 1881) Gymnandrosoma gonomela (Lower, 1899) Ixonympha hyposcopa (Lower, 1905) Leguminivora longigula Horak, 2006 Loranthacydia aulacodes (Lower, 1902) Loranthacydia metallocosma (Lower, 1902) Loranthacydia multilinea (Turner, 1945) Loranthacydia pessota (Meyrick, 1911) Loranthacydia sinapichroa (Turner, 1926) Microsarotis sanderyi Komai & Horak, 2006 Notocydia atripunctis (Turner, 1946) Notocydia lomacula (Lower, 1899) Notocydia niveimacula Komai & Horak, 2006 Notocydia tephraea (Meyrick, 1911) Pammenemina tetramita (Turner, 1925) Pammenopsis barbata Komai & Horak, 2006 Parapammene dyserasta (Turner, 1916) Thaumatotibia aclyta (Turner, 1916) Thaumatotibia zophophanes (Turner, 1946) The following species belong to the tribe Grapholitini, but have not been assigned to a genus yet. Given here is the original name given to the species when it was first described: Argyroploce angustifascia Turner, 1925 Grapholita dentatana Walker, 1864 Sciaphila diffusana Walker, 1864 Microcorsini Collogenes albocingulata Horak, 2006 Cryptaspasma brachyptycha (Meyrick, 1911) Cryptaspasma sordida (Turner, 1945) Olethreutini Archilobesia drymoptila (Lower, 1920) Aterpia protosema (Diakonoff, 1973) Atriscripta arithmetica (Meyrick, 1921) Cnecidophora ochroptila (Meyrick, 1910) Costosa australis Horak, 2006 Dactylioglypha tonica (Meyrick, 1909) Demeijerella chrysoplea (Diakonoff, 1975) Diakonoffiana tricolorana (Meyrick, 1881) Diakonoffiana vindemians (Meyrick, 1921) Dudua aprobola (Meyrick, 1886) Dudua iniqua (Meyrick, 1921) Dudua phyllanthana (Meyrick, 1881) Dudua siderea (Turner, 1916) Eremas leucotrigona Turner, 1945 Eremas tetrarcha (Meyrick, 1920) Euobraztsovia chionodelta (Meyrick, 1911) Gatesclarkeana tenebrosa (Turner, 1916) Gnathmocerodes alphestis (Meyrick, 1921) Gnathmocerodes euplectra (Lower, 1908) Gnathmocerodes ophiocosma (Turner, 1946) Lobesia arescophanes (Turner, 1945) Lobesia extrusana (Walker, 1863) Lobesia parvulana (Walker, 1863) Lobesia peltophora (Meyrick, 1911) Lobesia physophora (Lower, 1901) Lobesia symploca (Turner, 1926) Lobesia transtrifera (Meyrick, 1920) Lobesia xylistis (Lower, 1901) Megalota helicana (Meyrick, 1881) Megalota uncimacula (Turner, 1925) Metrioglypha phyllodes (Lower, 1899) Metrioglypha thystas (Meyrick, 1911) Ophiorrhabda mormopa (Meyrick, 1906) Ophiorrhabda mysterica (Turner, 1916) Ophiorrhabda phaeosigma (Turner, 1916) Oxysemaphora hacobiani Horak, 2006 Oxysemaphora notialis Horak, 2006 Podognatha vinculata (Meyrick, 1916) Proschistis polyochtha Diakonoff, 1973 Rhodacra pyrrhocrossa (Meyrick, 1912) Sorolopha archimedias (Meyrick, 1912) Sorolopha cyclotoma Lower, 1901 Sorolopha delochlora (Turner, 1916) Sorolopha elaeodes (Lower, 1908) Sorolopha johngreeni Horak, 2006 Sorolopha leptochlora (Turner, 1916) Statherotis amaeboea (Lower, 1896) Statherotis batrachodes (Meyrick, 1911) Statherotis euryphaea (Turner, 1916) Statherotis pendulata (Meyrick, 1911) Sycacantha atactodes (Turner, 1946) Sycacantha castanicolor (Turner, 1946) Sycacantha exedra (Turner, 1916) Sycacantha niphostetha (Turner, 1946) Sycacantha placida (Meyrick, 1911) Sycacantha sphaerocosmana (Meyrick, 1881) Sycacantha symplecta (Turner, 1946) Temnolopha mosaica Lower, 1901 Trachyschistis hians Meyrick, 1921 Zomariana doxasticana (Meyrick, 1881) Tortricinae Archipini Acroceuthes leucozancla (Turner, 1945) Acroceuthes metaxanthana (Walker, 1863) Aristocosma chrysophilana (Walker, 1863) Atelodora agramma Lower, 1900 Atelodora pelochytana Meyrick, 1881 Authomaema diemeniana (Zeller, 1877) Authomaema pentacosma (Lower, 1900) Authomaema rusticata Meyrick, 1922 Clarana acrita (Turner, 1916) Clarana arrosta (Turner, 1945) Clarana arrythmodes (Turner, 1946) Clarana atristrigana (Meyrick, 1881) Clarana clarana (Meyrick, 1881) Clarana hyperetana (Meyrick, 1881) Clarana parastactis (Meyrick, 1910) Clarana thermaterimma (Lower, 1893) Constrictana catharia (Turner, 1926) Constrictana constrictana (Walker, 1866) Constrictana ephedra (Meyrick, 1910) Constrictana ischnomorpha (Turner, 1945) Constrictana leptospila (Lower, 1901) Constrictana montanana (Meyrick, 1881) Constrictana notograpta (Meyrick, 1910) Constrictana ophthalmias (Meyrick, 1910) Constrictana oxygona (Lower, 1899) Constrictana plagiomochla (Turner, 1945) Cosmoplaca cosmoplaca (Lower, 1903) Euryochra cerophanes (Meyrick, 1910) Euryochra euryochra (Turner, 1914) Euryochra naias (Turner, 1916) Glyphidoptera insignana (Meyrick, 1881) Glyphidoptera polymita Turner, 1916 Isochorista acrodesma (Lower, 1902) Isochorista chaodes Meyrick, 1910 Isochorista encotodes Meyrick, 1910 Isochorista helota Meyrick, 1910 Isochorista melanocrypta Meyrick, 1910 Isochorista panaeolana Meyrick, 1881 Isochorista parmiferana (Meyrick, 1881) Isochorista pumicosa Meyrick, 1910 Isochorista ranulana Meyrick, 1881 Phryctora deuterastis (Meyrick, 1910) Phryctora hedyma (Turner, 1915) Phryctora leucobela (Turner, 1945) Phryctora phaeosema (Turner, 1945) Phryctora phryctora (Meyrick, 1910) Phryctora tapinopis (Turner, 1945) Rupicolana argyrocosma (Turner, 1925) Rupicolana bleptodora (Turner, 1925) Rupicolana camacinana (Meyrick, 1882) Rupicolana catarrapha (Turner, 1945) Rupicolana celatrix (Turner, 1916) Rupicolana contortula (Turner, 1927) Rupicolana crotala (Meyrick, 1910) Rupicolana gnophodryas (Lower, 1902) Rupicolana lenoea (Meyrick, 1910) Rupicolana mermera (Meyrick, 1910) Rupicolana orthias (Meyrick, 1910) Rupicolana phosphora (Meyrick, 1910) Rupicolana polymicta (Turner, 1927) Rupicolana refluana (Meyrick, 1881) Rupicolana rupicolana (Meyrick, 1881) Rupicolana serena (Meyrick, 1910) Rupicolana stereodes (Meyrick, 1910) Rupicolana thiopasta (Turner, 1915) Rupicolana tribolana (Meyrick, 1881) Tarachota adynata (Turner, 1945) Tarachota asemantica (Turner, 1927) Tarachota ceramica (Lower, 1908) Tarachota cnaphalodes (Meyrick, 1910) Tarachota dryina (Meyrick, 1910) Tarachota eugrapta (Turner, 1927) Tarachota hemicosmana (Meyrick, 1881) Tarachota leucospila (Lower, 1893) Tarachota mersana (Walker, 1863) Tarachota multistriata (Turner, 1945) Tarachota notopasta (Turner, 1945) Tarachota poliobaphes (Turner, 1927) Tarachota scaphosema (Turner, 1945) Tarachota tarachota (Meyrick, 1910) Xenothictis sciaphila (Turner, 1925) Acropolitis canana (Walker, 1863) Acropolitis canigerana (Walker, 1863) Acropolitis ergophora Meyrick, 1910 Acropolitis excelsa Meyrick, 1910 Acropolitis hedista (Turner, 1916) Acropolitis magnana (Walker, 1863) Acropolitis malacodes Meyrick, 1910 Acropolitis ptychosema Turner, 1927 Acropolitis rudisana (Walker, 1863) Adoxophyes fasciculana (Walker, 1866) Adoxophyes heteroidana Meyrick, 1881 Adoxophyes instillata Meyrick, 1922 Adoxophyes melichroa (Lower, 1899) Adoxophyes panxantha (Lower, 1901) Adoxophyes templana (Pagenstecher, 1900) Adoxophyes tripselia (Lower, 1908) Coeloptera epiloma (Lower, 1902) Coeloptera gyrobathra (Turner, 1925) Coeloptera vulpina (Turner, 1916) Cryptoptila australana (Lewin, 1805) Cryptoptila crypsilopha (Turner, 1925) Cryptoptila immersana (Walker, 1863) Dichelopa achranta Meyrick, 1910 Dichelopa dichroa Lower, 1901 Dichelopa loricata Meyrick, 1910 Dichelopa panoplana (Meyrick, 1881) Dichelopa sabulosa Meyrick, 1910 Dichelopa sciota (Lower, 1916) Dichelopa tarsodes Meyrick, 1910 Epiphyas ammotypa (Turner, 1945) Epiphyas ashworthana (Newman, 1856) Epiphyas asthenopis (Lower, 1902) Epiphyas aulacana (Meyrick, 1881) Epiphyas balioptera (Turner, 1916) Epiphyas caryotis (Meyrick, 1910) Epiphyas cerussata (Meyrick, 1910) Epiphyas cetrata Meyrick, 1910 Epiphyas dotatana (Walker, 1863) Epiphyas epichorda (Meyrick, 1910) Epiphyas erysibodes (Turner, 1916) Epiphyas eucyrta Turner, 1927 Epiphyas eugramma (Lower, 1899) Epiphyas euphara (Turner, 1945) Epiphyas euraphodes (Turner, 1916) Epiphyas eveleena (Lower, 1916) Epiphyas fabricata (Meyrick, 1910) Epiphyas flebilis (Turner, 1939) Epiphyas haematephora (Turner, 1916) Epiphyas haematodes (Turner, 1916) Epiphyas hemiphoena (Turner, 1927) Epiphyas hyperacria (Turner, 1916) Epiphyas iodes (Meyrick, 1910) Epiphyas lathraea (Meyrick, 1910) Epiphyas liadelpha (Meyrick, 1910) Epiphyas loxotoma (Turner, 1927) Epiphyas lycodes (Meyrick, 1910) Epiphyas lypra (Turner, 1945) Epiphyas ocyptera (Meyrick, 1910) Epiphyas oresigona (Turner, 1939) Epiphyas oriotes (Turner, 1916) Epiphyas peloxythana (Meyrick, 1881) Epiphyas plastica (Meyrick, 1910) Epiphyas postvittana (Walker, 1863) Epiphyas pulla (Turner, 1945) Epiphyas scleropa (Meyrick, 1910) Epiphyas sobrina (Turner, 1945) Epiphyas spodota (Meyrick, 1910) Epiphyas xylodes (Meyrick, 1910) Ericodesma adoxodes (Turner, 1939) Ericodesma antilecta (Turner, 1939) Ericodesma concordana (Meyrick, 1881) Ericodesma indigestana (Meyrick, 1881) Ericodesma isochroa (Meyrick, 1910) Ericodesma leptosticha (Turner, 1916) Ericodesma liquidana (Meyrick, 1881) Ericodesma pallida (Turner, 1945) Ericodesma spodophanes (Turner, 1945) Homona aestivana (Walker, 1866) Homona fistulata Meyrick, 1910 Homona mermerodes Meyrick, 1910 Homona spargotis Meyrick, 1910 Homona trachyptera Diakonoff, 1941 Isodemis serpentiana Walker, 1863 Isotenes miserana (Walker, 1863) Merophyas calculata (Meyrick, 1910) Merophyas divulsana (Walker, 1863) Merophyas immersana (Walker, 1863) Merophyas petrochroa (Lower, 1908) Merophyas scandalota (Meyrick, 1910) Merophyas siniodes (Turner, 1945) Merophyas tenuifascia Turner, 1927 Merophyas therina (Meyrick, 1910) Neocalyptis molesta (Meyrick, 1910) Procalyptis oncota Meyrick, 1910 Procalyptis parooptera (Turner, 1925) Sobriana alysidina (Turner, 1927) Sobriana arcaria (Meyrick, 1910) Sobriana dyschroa (Turner, 1927) Sobriana haplopolia (Turner, 1939) Sobriana mnemosynana (Meyrick, 1881) Sobriana ophiodesma (Lower, 1902) Sobriana oressinoma (Turner, 1925) Sobriana sobriana (Walker, 1863) Sobriana stigmatias (Meyrick, 1910) Standishana concolorana (Meyrick, 1881) Standishana standishana (Newman, 1856) Technitis agrypna (Meyrick, 1910) Technitis amoenana (Walker, 1863) Technitis campylosema (Turner, 1945) Technitis campylosticha (Turner, 1939) Technitis cataractis (Meyrick, 1910) Technitis desmotana (Meyrick, 1881) Technitis eusticha (Turner, 1945) Technitis humerellus (Walker, 1866) Technitis hydractis (Meyrick, 1910) Technitis oriarcha (Meyrick, 1910) Technitis phaeoneura (Turner, 1945) Technitis polyphrica (Turner, 1927) Technitis procapna (Turner, 1945) Technitis technica (Turner, 1939) Technitis technitis (Meyrick, 1910) Technitis telephanta (Meyrick, 1910) Technitis tephrodes (Turner, 1916) Technitis tessulatana (Meyrick, 1881) Thrincophora cinefacta (Turner, 1945) Thrincophora dryinodes (Meyrick, 1910) Thrincophora impletana (Walker, 1863) Thrincophora inconcisana (Walker, 1863) Thrincophora lignigerana (Walker, 1863) Thrincophora signigerana (Walker, 1863) Thrincophora stenoptycha (Turner, 1926) The following species belong to the tribe Archipini, but have not been assigned to a genus yet. Given here is the original name given to the species when it was first described: Capua belophora Turner, 1945 Arotrophora chionaula Meyrick, 1910 Capua confragosa Meyrick, 1922 Dichelia cosmopis Lower, 1894 Capua gongylia Turner, 1925 Capua leucostacta Meyrick, 1910 Capua nummulata Meyrick, 1910 Capua paraloxa Meyrick, 1910 Capua phellodes Meyrick, 1910 Capua promiscua Meyrick, 1922 Conchylis tasmaniana Walker, 1863 Capua tetraplasia Turner, 1916 Procalyptis albanyensis Strand, 1924 Capua castanitis Turner, 1925 Tortrix coctilis Meyrick, 1922 Apateta cryphia Turner, 1926 Capua effulgens Meyrick, 1910 Tortrix eucela Meyrick, 1910 Tortrix haplodes Meyrick, 1910 Tortrix incompta Turner, 1927 Capua incorrupta Meyrick, 1922 Tortrix notophaea Turner, 1926 Tortrix paurozona Lower, 1902 Anisogona placoxantha Lower, 1896 Argyrotoxa pompica Turner, 1925 Tortrix umbratilis Meyrick, 1922 Cnephasiini Arotrophora anemarcha (Lower, 1902) Arotrophora arcuatalis (Walker, 1866) Arotrophora canthelias Meyrick, 1910 Arotrophora charistis Meyrick, 1910 Arotrophora diadela Common, 1963 Arotrophora ericirra Common, 1963 Arotrophora euides (Turner, 1927) Arotrophora ochraceellus (Walker, 1863) Arotrophora siniocosma Turner, 1926 Drachmobola strigulata Meyrick, 1910 Mictoneura flexanimana Meyrick, 1881 Paranepsia amydra Turner, 1916 Paraphyas callixena Turner, 1927 Parastranga macrogona Meyrick, 1910 Peraglyphis aderces Common, 1963 Peraglyphis anaptis (Meyrick, 1910) Peraglyphis aphanta Common, 1963 Peraglyphis atherista Common, 1963 Peraglyphis atimana (Meyrick, 1881) Peraglyphis chalepa Common, 1963 Peraglyphis confusana (Walker, 1863) Peraglyphis dyscheres Common, 1963 Peraglyphis epixantha Common, 1963 Peraglyphis eucrines Common, 1963 Peraglyphis hemerana (Meyrick, 1882) Peraglyphis idiogenes Common, 1963 Peraglyphis lividana (Meyrick, 1881) Peraglyphis scepasta Common, 1963 Syllomatia pertinax (Meyrick, 1910) Syllomatia pirastis (Meyrick, 1910) Syllomatia xythopterana (Meyrick, 1881) Symphygas nephaula (Meyrick, 1910) Taeniarchis catenata (Meyrick, 1910) Taeniarchis hestica Common, 1963 Taeniarchis periorma (Meyrick, 1910) Tanychaeta neanthes (Turner, 1933) The following species belongs to the tribe Cnephasiini, but have not been assigned to a genus yet. Given here is the original name given to the species when it was first described: Mictoneura eurypelta Lower, 1920 Cochylini Cochylis atricapitana (Stephens, 1852) Eupoecilia acrographa (Turner, 1916) Gynnidomorpha mesoxutha Turner, 1916 Lorita baccharivora Pogue, 1988 Epitymbiini Aeolostoma scutiferana (Meyrick, 1881) Anisogona hilaomorpha (Turner, 1926) Anisogona mediana (Walker, 1863) Anisogona notoplaga (Turner, 1945) Anisogona simana Meyrick, 1881 Anisogona similana (Walker, 1863) Anisogona thysanoma (Meyrick, 1910) Asthenoptycha conjunctana (Walker, 1863) Asthenoptycha craterana (Meyrick, 1881) Asthenoptycha encratopis (Meyrick, 1920) Asthenoptycha epiglypta Meyrick, 1910 Asthenoptycha hemicryptana Meyrick, 1881 Asthenoptycha heminipha (Turner, 1916) Asthenoptycha iriodes (Lower, 1898) Asthenoptycha sphaltica Meyrick, 1910 Asthenoptycha sphenotoma (Turner, 1945) Asthenoptycha tolmera (Turner, 1945) Capnoptycha cavifrons (Turner, 1926) Capnoptycha ipnitis (Meyrick, 1910) Capnoptycha tholera (Turner, 1925) Capnoptycha zostrophora (Turner, 1925) Capua intractana (Walker, 1869) Debiliana debiliana (Walker, 1863) Debiliana pentazona (Lower, 1901) Debiliana symphonica (Turner, 1945) Disputana disputana (Walker, 1863) Epitymbia alaudana Meyrick, 1881 Epitymbia apatela Horak & Common, 1985 Epitymbia cosmota (Meyrick, 1887) Epitymbia dialepta Horak & Common, 1985 Epitymbia eudrosa (Turner, 1916) Epitymbia eutypa (Turner, 1925) Epitymbia isoscelana (Meyrick, 1881) Epitymbia passalotana (Meyrick, 1881) Epitymbia scotinopa (Lower, 1902) Euphona ammochroa (Lower, 1893) Euphona decolorana (Walker, 1863) Euphona dyslecta (Turner, 1926) Euphona euphona (Meyrick, 1910) Euphona oxygrammana (Meyrick, 1881) Euphona plathanana (Meyrick, 1881) Euphona pseudarcha (Meyrick, 1910) Fuscicepsana cirrhoptera (Turner, 1927) Fuscicepsana fuscicepsana (Walker, 1863) Goboea copiosana Walker, 1866 Meritastis ferrea (Meyrick, 1910) Meritastis illucida (Meyrick, 1910) Meritastis laganodes (Meyrick, 1910) Meritastis lythrodana (Meyrick, 1881) Meritastis piperata (Meyrick, 1910) Meritastis polygraphana (Walker, 1863) Meritastis psarodes (Meyrick, 1910) Meritastis pyrosemana (Meyrick, 1881) Meritastis trissochorda (Turner, 1916) Meritastis umbrosa Meyrick, 1910 Meritastis ursina (Meyrick, 1910) Rhomboceros homogama Meyrick, 1910 Subfurcatana schematica (Turner, 1927) Subfurcatana subfurcatana (Walker, 1863) Trychnophylla taractica Turner, 1926 Vacuana vacuana (Walker, 1863) The following species belongs to the tribe Epitymbiini, but have not been assigned to a genus yet. Given here is the original name given to the species when it was first described: Capua dura Turner, 1945 Phricanthini Phricanthes asperana Meyrick, 1881 Phricanthes diaphorus Common, 1965 Phricanthes flexilineana (Walker, 1863) Phricanthes peistica Common, 1965 Scolioplecta allocotus Common, 1965 Scolioplecta araea Turner, 1916 Scolioplecta comptana (Walker, 1863) Scolioplecta exochus Common, 1965 Scolioplecta molybdantha Meyrick, 1910 Scolioplecta ochrophylla Turner, 1916 Scolioplecta rigida (Meyrick, 1910) Schoenotenini Cornuticlava aritrana Common, 1965 Cornuticlava phanera Common, 1965 Cornuticlava spectralis (Meyrick, 1912) Diactenis tryphera Common, 1965 Epitrichosma anisocausta (Turner, 1916) Epitrichosma ceramina Common, 1965 Epitrichosma crymodes (Turner, 1916) Epitrichosma hesperia Common, 1965 Epitrichosma luteola Diakonoff, 1974 Epitrichosma metreta Common, 1965 Epitrichosma neurobapta Lower, 1908 Epitrichosma phaulera (Turner, 1916) Palaeotoma styphelana Meyrick, 1881 Proselena annosana Meyrick, 1881 Proselena tenella (Meyrick, 1910) Syncratus paroecus Common, 1965 Syncratus scepanus Common, 1965 Tracholena dialeuca Common, 1982 Tracholena homopolia (Turner, 1945) Tracholena micropolia (Turner, 1916) Tracholena sulfurosa (Meyrick, 1910) Tortricini Amboyna diapella Common, 1965 Anameristes cyclopleura (Turner, 1916) Asterolepis earina Common, 1965 Asterolepis glycera (Meyrick, 1910) Exeristeboda exeristis (Meyrick, 1910) External links Tortricidae at Australian Faunal Directory Australia List

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In physics and fluid mechanics, a boundary layer is the layer of fluid in the immediate vicinity of a bounding surface where the effects of viscosity are significant. The liquid or gas in the boundary layer tends to cling to the surface. The boundary layer around a human is heated by the human, so it is warmer than the surrounding air. A breeze disrupts the boundary layer, and hair and clothing protect it, making the human feel cooler or warmer. On an aircraft wing, the boundary layer is the part of the flow close to the wing, where viscous forces distort the surrounding non-viscous flow. In the Earth's atmosphere, the atmospheric boundary layer is the air layer (~ 1 km) near the ground. It is affected by the surface; day-night heat flows caused by the sun heating the ground, moisture, or momentum transfer to or from the surface. Types of boundary layer Laminar boundary layers can be loosely classified according to their structure and the circumstances under which they are created. The thin shear layer which develops on an oscillating body is an example of a Stokes boundary layer, while the Blasius boundary layer refers to the well-known similarity solution near an attached flat plate held in an oncoming unidirectional flow and Falkner–Skan boundary layer, a generalization of Blasius profile. When a fluid rotates and viscous forces are balanced by the Coriolis effect (rather than convective inertia), an Ekman layer forms. In the theory of heat transfer, a thermal boundary layer occurs. A surface can have multiple types of boundary layer simultaneously. The viscous nature of airflow reduces the local velocities on a surface and is responsible for skin friction. The layer of air over the wing's surface that is slowed down or stopped by viscosity, is the boundary layer. There are two different types of boundary layer flow: laminar and turbulent. Laminar boundary layer flow The laminar boundary is a very smooth flow, while the turbulent boundary layer contains swirls or "eddies." The laminar flow creates less skin friction drag than the turbulent flow, but is less stable. Boundary layer flow over a wing surface begins as a smooth laminar flow. As the flow continues back from the leading edge, the laminar boundary layer increases in thickness. Turbulent boundary layer flow At some distance back from the leading edge, the smooth laminar flow breaks down and transitions to a turbulent flow. From a drag standpoint, it is advisable to have the transition from laminar to turbulent flow as far aft on the wing as possible, or have a large amount of the wing surface within the laminar portion of the boundary layer. The low energy laminar flow, however, tends to break down more suddenly than the turbulent layer. Aerodynamics The aerodynamic boundary layer was first defined by Ludwig Prandtl in a paper presented on August 12, 1904 at the third International Congress of Mathematicians in Heidelberg, Germany. It simplifies the equations of fluid flow by dividing the flow field into two areas: one inside the boundary layer, dominated by viscosity and creating the majority of drag experienced by the boundary body; and one outside the boundary layer, where viscosity can be neglected without significant effects on the solution. This allows a closed-form solution for the flow in both areas, a significant simplification of the full Navier–Stokes equations. The majority of the heat transfer to and from a body also takes place within the boundary layer, again allowing the equations to be simplified in the flow field outside the boundary layer. The pressure distribution throughout the boundary layer in the direction normal to the surface (such as an airfoil) remains constant throughout the boundary layer, and is the same as on the surface itself. The thickness of the velocity boundary layer is normally defined as the distance from the solid body to the point at which the viscous flow velocity is 99% of the freestream velocity (the surface velocity of an inviscid flow). Displacement thickness is an alternative definition stating that the boundary layer represents a deficit in mass flow compared to inviscid flow with slip at the wall. It is the distance by which the wall would have to be displaced in the inviscid case to give the same total mass flow as the viscous case. The no-slip condition requires the flow velocity at the surface of a solid object be zero and the fluid temperature be equal to the temperature of the surface. The flow velocity will then increase rapidly within the boundary layer, governed by the boundary layer equations, below. The thermal boundary layer thickness is similarly the distance from the body at which the temperature is 99% of the freestream temperature. The ratio of the two thicknesses is governed by the Prandtl number. If the Prandtl number is 1, the two boundary layers are the same thickness. If the Prandtl number is greater than 1, the thermal boundary layer is thinner than the velocity boundary layer. If the Prandtl number is less than 1, which is the case for air at standard conditions, the thermal boundary layer is thicker than the velocity boundary layer. In high-performance designs, such as gliders and commercial aircraft, much attention is paid to controlling the behavior of the boundary layer to minimize drag. Two effects have to be considered. First, the boundary layer adds to the effective thickness of the body, through the displacement thickness, hence increasing the pressure drag. Secondly, the shear forces at the surface of the wing create skin friction drag. At high Reynolds numbers, typical of full-sized aircraft, it is desirable to have a laminar boundary layer. This results in a lower skin friction due to the characteristic velocity profile of laminar flow. However, the boundary layer inevitably thickens and becomes less stable as the flow develops along the body, and eventually becomes turbulent, the process known as boundary layer transition. One way of dealing with this problem is to suck the boundary layer away through a porous surface (see Boundary layer suction). This can reduce drag, but is usually impractical due to its mechanical complexity and the power required to move the air and dispose of it. Natural laminar flow (NLF) techniques push the boundary layer transition aft by reshaping the airfoil or fuselage so that its thickest point is more aft and less thick. This reduces the velocities in the leading part and the same Reynolds number is achieved with a greater length. At lower Reynolds numbers, such as those seen with model aircraft, it is relatively easy to maintain laminar flow. This gives low skin friction, which is desirable. However, the same velocity profile which gives the laminar boundary layer its low skin friction also causes it to be badly affected by adverse pressure gradients. As the pressure begins to recover over the rear part of the wing chord, a laminar boundary layer will tend to separate from the surface. Such flow separation causes a large increase in the pressure drag, since it greatly increases the effective size of the wing section. In these cases, it can be advantageous to deliberately trip the boundary layer into turbulence at a point prior to the location of laminar separation, using a turbulator. The fuller velocity profile of the turbulent boundary layer allows it to sustain the adverse pressure gradient without separating. Thus, although the skin friction is increased, overall drag is decreased. This is the principle behind the dimpling on golf balls, as well as vortex generators on aircraft. Special wing sections have also been designed which tailor the pressure recovery so laminar separation is reduced or even eliminated. This represents an optimum compromise between the pressure drag from flow separation and skin friction from induced turbulence. When using half-models in wind tunnels, a peniche is sometimes used to reduce or eliminate the effect of the boundary layer. Boundary layer equations The deduction of the boundary layer equations was one of the most important advances in fluid dynamics. Using an order of magnitude analysis, the well-known governing Navier–Stokes equations of viscous fluid flow can be greatly simplified within the boundary layer. Notably, the characteristic of the partial differential equations (PDE) becomes parabolic, rather than the elliptical form of the full Navier–Stokes equations. This greatly simplifies the solution of the equations. By making the boundary layer approximation, the flow is divided into an inviscid portion (which is easy to solve by a number of methods) and the boundary layer, which is governed by an easier to solve PDE. The continuity and Navier–Stokes equations for a two-dimensional steady incompressible flow in Cartesian coordinates are given by where and are the velocity components, is the density, is the pressure, and is the kinematic viscosity of the fluid at a point. The approximation states that, for a sufficiently high Reynolds number the flow over a surface can be divided into an outer region of inviscid flow unaffected by viscosity (the majority of the flow), and a region close to the surface where viscosity is important (the boundary layer). Let and be streamwise and transverse (wall normal) velocities respectively inside the boundary layer. Using scale analysis, it can be shown that the above equations of motion reduce within the boundary layer to become and if the fluid is incompressible (as liquids are under standard conditions): The order of magnitude analysis assumes the streamwise length scale significantly larger than the transverse length scale inside the boundary layer. It follows that variations in properties in the streamwise direction are generally much lower than those in the wall normal direction. Apply this to the continuity equation shows that , the wall normal velocity, is small compared with the streamwise velocity. Since the static pressure is independent of , then pressure at the edge of the boundary layer is the pressure throughout the boundary layer at a given streamwise position. The external pressure may be obtained through an application of Bernoulli's equation. Let be the fluid velocity outside the boundary layer, where and are both parallel. This gives upon substituting for the following result For a flow in which the static pressure also does not change in the direction of the flow so remains constant. Therefore, the equation of motion simplifies to become These approximations are used in a variety of practical flow problems of scientific and engineering interest. The above analysis is for any instantaneous laminar or turbulent boundary layer, but is used mainly in laminar flow studies since the mean flow is also the instantaneous flow because there are no velocity fluctuations present. This simplified equation is a parabolic PDE and can be solved using a similarity solution often referred to as the Blasius boundary layer. Prandtl's transposition theorem Prandtl observed that from any solution which satisfies the boundary layer equations, further solution , which is also satisfying the boundary layer equations, can be constructed by writing where is arbitrary. Since the solution is not unique from mathematical perspective, to the solution can added any one of an infinite set of eigenfunctions as shown by Stewartson and Paul A. Libby. Von Kármán momentum integral Von Kármán derived the integral equation by integrating the boundary layer equation across the boundary layer in 1921. The equation is where is the wall shear stress, is the suction/injection velocity at the wall, is the displacement thickness and is the momentum thickness. Kármán–Pohlhausen Approximation is derived from this equation. Energy integral The energy integral was derived by Wieghardt. where is the energy dissipation rate due to viscosity across the boundary layer and is the energy thickness. Von Mises transformation For steady two-dimensional boundary layers, von Mises introduced a transformation which takes and (stream function) as independent variables instead of and and uses a dependent variable instead of . The boundary layer equation then become The original variables are recovered from This transformation is later extended to compressible boundary layer by von Kármán and HS Tsien. Crocco's transformation For steady two-dimensional compressible boundary layer, Luigi Crocco introduced a transformation which takes and as independent variables instead of and and uses a dependent variable (shear stress) instead of . The boundary layer equation then becomes The original coordinate is recovered from Turbulent boundary layers The treatment of turbulent boundary layers is far more difficult due to the time-dependent variation of the flow properties. One of the most widely used techniques in which turbulent flows are tackled is to apply Reynolds decomposition. Here the instantaneous flow properties are decomposed into a mean and fluctuating component with the assumption that the mean of the fluctuating component is always zero. Applying this technique to the boundary layer equations gives the full turbulent boundary layer equations not often given in literature: Using a similar order-of-magnitude analysis, the above equations can be reduced to leading order terms. By choosing length scales for changes in the transverse-direction, and for changes in the streamwise-direction, with , the x-momentum equation simplifies to: This equation does not satisfy the no-slip condition at the wall. Like Prandtl did for his boundary layer equations, a new, smaller length scale must be used to allow the viscous term to become leading order in the momentum equation. By choosing as the y-scale, the leading order momentum equation for this "inner boundary layer" is given by: In the limit of infinite Reynolds number, the pressure gradient term can be shown to have no effect on the inner region of the turbulent boundary layer. The new "inner length scale" is a viscous length scale, and is of order , with being the velocity scale of the turbulent fluctuations, in this case a friction velocity. Unlike the laminar boundary layer equations, the presence of two regimes governed by different sets of flow scales (i.e. the inner and outer scaling) has made finding a universal similarity solution for the turbulent boundary layer difficult and controversial. To find a similarity solution that spans both regions of the flow, it is necessary to asymptotically match the solutions from both regions of the flow. Such analysis will yield either the so-called log-law or power-law. The additional term in the turbulent boundary layer equations is known as the Reynolds shear stress and is unknown a priori. The solution of the turbulent boundary layer equations therefore necessitates the use of a turbulence model, which aims to express the Reynolds shear stress in terms of known flow variables or derivatives. The lack of accuracy and generality of such models is a major obstacle in the successful prediction of turbulent flow properties in modern fluid dynamics. A constant stress layer exists in the near wall region. Due to the damping of the vertical velocity fluctuations near the wall, the Reynolds stress term will become negligible and we find that a linear velocity profile exists. This is only true for the very near wall region. Heat and mass transfer In 1928, the French engineer André Lévêque observed that convective heat transfer in a flowing fluid is affected only by the velocity values very close to the surface. For flows of large Prandtl number, the temperature/mass transition from surface to freestream temperature takes place across a very thin region close to the surface. Therefore, the most important fluid velocities are those inside this very thin region in which the change in velocity can be considered linear with normal distance from the surface. In this way, for when , then where θ is the tangent of the Poiseuille parabola intersecting the wall. Although Lévêque's solution was specific to heat transfer into a Poiseuille flow, his insight helped lead other scientists to an exact solution of the thermal boundary-layer problem. Schuh observed that in a boundary-layer, u is again a linear function of y, but that in this case, the wall tangent is a function of x. He expressed this with a modified version of Lévêque's profile, This results in a very good approximation, even for low numbers, so that only liquid metals with much less than 1 cannot be treated this way. In 1962, Kestin and Persen published a paper describing solutions for heat transfer when the thermal boundary layer is contained entirely within the momentum layer and for various wall temperature distributions. For the problem of a flat plate with a temperature jump at , they propose a substitution that reduces the parabolic thermal boundary-layer equation to an ordinary differential equation. The solution to this equation, the temperature at any point in the fluid, can be expressed as an incomplete gamma function. Schlichting proposed an equivalent substitution that reduces the thermal boundary-layer equation to an ordinary differential equation whose solution is the same incomplete gamma function. Convective transfer constants from boundary layer analysis Paul Richard Heinrich Blasius derived an exact solution to the above laminar boundary layer equations. The thickness of the boundary layer is a function of the Reynolds number for laminar flow. = the thickness of the boundary layer: the region of flow where the velocity is less than 99% of the far field velocity ; is position along the semi-infinite plate, and is the Reynolds Number given by ( density and dynamic viscosity). The Blasius solution uses boundary conditions in a dimensionless form: at at and Note that in many cases, the no-slip boundary condition holds that , the fluid velocity at the surface of the plate equals the velocity of the plate at all locations. If the plate is not moving, then . A much more complicated derivation is required if fluid slip is allowed. In fact, the Blasius solution for laminar velocity profile in the boundary layer above a semi-infinite plate can be easily extended to describe Thermal and Concentration boundary layers for heat and mass transfer respectively. Rather than the differential x-momentum balance (equation of motion), this uses a similarly derived Energy and Mass balance: Energy: Mass: For the momentum balance, kinematic viscosity can be considered to be the momentum diffusivity. In the energy balance this is replaced by thermal diffusivity , and by mass diffusivity in the mass balance. In thermal diffusivity of a substance, is its thermal conductivity, is its density and is its heat capacity. Subscript AB denotes diffusivity of species A diffusing into species B. Under the assumption that , these equations become equivalent to the momentum balance. Thus, for Prandtl number and Schmidt number the Blasius solution applies directly. Accordingly, this derivation uses a related form of the boundary conditions, replacing with or (absolute temperature or concentration of species A). The subscript S denotes a surface condition. at at and Using the streamline function Blasius obtained the following solution for the shear stress at the surface of the plate. And via the boundary conditions, it is known that We are given the following relations for heat/mass flux out of the surface of the plate So for where are the regions of flow where and are less than 99% of their far field values. Because the Prandtl number of a particular fluid is not often unity, German engineer E. Polhausen who worked with Ludwig Prandtl attempted to empirically extend these equations to apply for . His results can be applied to as well. He found that for Prandtl number greater than 0.6, the thermal boundary layer thickness was approximately given by: and therefore From this solution, it is possible to characterize the convective heat/mass transfer constants based on the region of boundary layer flow. Fourier's law of conduction and Newton's Law of Cooling are combined with the flux term derived above and the boundary layer thickness. This gives the local convective constant at one point on the semi-infinite plane. Integrating over the length of the plate gives an average Following the derivation with mass transfer terms ( = convective mass transfer constant, = diffusivity of species A into species B, ), the following solutions are obtained: These solutions apply for laminar flow with a Prandtl/Schmidt number greater than 0.6. Naval architecture Many of the principles that apply to aircraft also apply to ships, submarines, and offshore platforms. For ships, unlike aircraft, one deals with incompressible flows, where change in water density is negligible (a pressure rise close to 1000kPa leads to a change of only 2–3 kg/m3). This field of fluid dynamics is called hydrodynamics. A ship engineer designs for hydrodynamics first, and for strength only later. The boundary layer development, breakdown, and separation become critical because the high viscosity of water produces high shear stresses. Another consequence of high viscosity is the slip stream effect, in which the ship moves like a spear tearing through a sponge at high velocity. Boundary layer turbine This effect was exploited in the Tesla turbine, patented by Nikola Tesla in 1913. It is referred to as a bladeless turbine because it uses the boundary layer effect and not a fluid impinging upon the blades as in a conventional turbine. Boundary layer turbines are also known as cohesion-type turbine, bladeless turbine, and Prandtl layer turbine (after Ludwig Prandtl). Predicting transient boundary layer thickness in a cylinder using dimensional analysis By using the transient and viscous force equations for a cylindrical flow you can predict the transient boundary layer thickness by finding the Womersley Number (). Transient Force = Viscous Force = Setting them equal to each other gives: Solving for delta gives: In dimensionless form: where = Womersley Number; = density; = velocity; ?; = length of transient boundary layer; = viscosity; = characteristic length. Predicting convective flow conditions at the boundary layer in a cylinder using dimensional analysis By using the convective and viscous force equations at the boundary layer for a cylindrical flow you can predict the convective flow conditions at the boundary layer by finding the dimensionless Reynolds Number (). Convective force: Viscous force: Setting them equal to each other gives: Solving for delta gives: In dimensionless form: where = Reynolds Number; = density; = velocity; = length of convective boundary layer; = viscosity; = characteristic length. Boundary layer ingestion Boundary layer ingestion promises an increase in aircraft fuel efficiency with an aft-mounted propulsor ingesting the slow fuselage boundary layer and re-energising the wake to reduce drag and improve propulsive efficiency. To operate in distorted airflow, the fan is heavier and its efficiency is reduced, and its integration is challenging. It is used in concepts like the Aurora D8 or the French research agency Onera’s Nova, saving 5% in cruise by ingesting 40% of the fuselage boundary layer. Airbus presented the Nautilius concept at the ICAS congress in September 2018: to ingest all the fuselage boundary layer, while minimizing the azimuthal flow distortion, the fuselage splits into two spindles with 13-18:1 bypass ratio fans. Propulsive efficiencies are up to 90% like counter-rotating open rotors with smaller, lighter, less complex and noisy engines. It could lower fuel burn by over 10% compared to a usual underwing 15:1 bypass ratio engine. See also Boundary layer separation Boundary-layer thickness Thermal boundary layer thickness and shape Boundary layer suction Boundary layer control Boundary microphone Blasius boundary layer Falkner–Skan boundary layer Ekman layer Planetary boundary layer Perturbation theory Logarithmic law of the wall Shape factor (boundary layer flow) Shear stress Surface layer References A.D. Polyanin and V.F. Zaitsev, Handbook of Nonlinear Partial Differential Equations, Chapman & Hall/CRC Press, Boca Raton – London, 2004. A.D. Polyanin, A.M. Kutepov, A.V. Vyazmin, and D.A. Kazenin, Hydrodynamics, Mass and Heat Transfer in Chemical Engineering, Taylor & Francis, London, 2002. Hermann Schlichting, Klaus Gersten, E. Krause, H. Jr. Oertel, C. Mayes "Boundary-Layer Theory" 8th edition Springer 2004 John D. Anderson, Jr., "Ludwig Prandtl's Boundary Layer", Physics Today, December 2005 H. Tennekes and J. L. Lumley, "A First Course in Turbulence", The MIT Press, (1972). Lectures in Turbulence for the 21st Century by William K. George External links National Science Digital Library – Boundary Layer Moore, Franklin K., "Displacement effect of a three-dimensional boundary layer". NACA Report 1124, 1953. Benson, Tom, "Boundary layer". NASA Glenn Learning Technologies. Boundary layer separation Boundary layer equations: Exact Solutions – from EqWorld Jones, T.V. BOUNDARY LAYER HEAT TRANSFER Aircraft wing design Heat transfer

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Faron Young (February 25, 1932 – December 10, 1996) was an American country music producer, musician, and songwriter from the early 1950s into the mid-1980s. Hits including "If You Ain't Lovin' (You Ain't Livin')" and "Live Fast, Love Hard, Die Young" marked him as a honky-tonk singer in sound and personal style; and his chart-topping singles "Hello Walls" and "It's Four in the Morning" showed his versatility as a vocalist. Known as the Hillbilly Heartthrob, and following a singing cowboy film role as the Young Sheriff, Young's singles charted for more than 30 years. In failing health, he committed suicide at 64 in 1996. Young is a member of the Country Music Hall of Fame. Early years Young was born in Shreveport, Louisiana, the youngest of six children of Harlan and Doris Young. He grew up on a dairy farm that his family operated outside the city. Young began singing at an early age, imagining a career as a pop singer. However, after he joined some friends watching Hank Williams perform with nine encores on the Louisiana Hayride, Young switched to country music instead. He performed at the local Optimist Club and was discovered by Webb Pierce, who brought him to star on the Hayride in 1951, then broadcast on KWKH-AM. He graduated from Fair Park High School that year and attended Centenary College of Louisiana. Career Young recorded in Shreveport. His first releases were on Philadelphia's Gotham Records. By February 1952, he was signed to Capitol Records, where he recorded for the next ten years. His first Capitol single appeared that spring. Young moved to Nashville, Tennessee, and recorded his first chart hit, "Goin' Steady" in October 1952. His career was sidetracked when he was drafted into the United States Army the following month. "Goin' Steady" hit the Billboard country charts while Young was in basic training. It peaked at No. 2, and the US Army Band took Young to replace Eddie Fisher on tours—its first country music singer—just as "If You Ain't Lovin'" was hitting the charts. He was discharged in November 1954. From 1954 to 1962, Young recorded many honky-tonk songs for Capitol, including the first hit version of Don Gibson's "Sweet Dreams". Most famous was "Hello Walls", a Willie Nelson song Young turned into a crossover hit in 1961. It sold over one million copies, and was awarded a gold disc. During the mid-1950s, Young starred in four low-budget films: Hidden Guns, Daniel Boone, Trail Blazer, Raiders of Old California and Country Music Holiday. He appeared as himself in cameo roles and performances in later country music films and was a frequent guest on television shows throughout his career, including ABC-TV's Ozark Jubilee. His band, the Country Deputies, was one of country music's top bands and they toured for many years. He invested in real estate along Nashville's Music Row in the 1960s and, in 1963, co-founded, with Preston Temple, the trade magazine, Music City News. The same year, Young switched to Mercury Records and drifted musically, but by the end of the decade he had returned to his sound including "Wine Me Up". Released in 1971, waltz-time ballad "It's Four in the Morning" written by Jerry Chesnut was one of Young's records and his last number one hit, also becoming his only major success in the United Kingdom, where it peaked at No. 3 on the pop charts. By the mid-1970s his records were becoming overshadowed by his behavior, making headlines in 1972 when he was charged with assault for spanking a girl in the audience at a concert in Clarksburg, West Virginia, who he claimed spat on him, and for other later incidents. In the mid-70s, Young was the spokesman for BC Powder. Young signed with MCA Records in 1979; the association lasted two years. Nashville independent label Step One Records signed him in 1988 where he recorded into the early 1990s (including a duet album with Ray Price), then withdrew from public view. Though country acts including BR549 were putting his music before audiences in the mid-1990s, Young apparently felt the music industry, which had undergone a revolution of sorts in 1991, had mostly rejected him. Faron Young's son Robyn followed him into the country music business starting in 1975. Robyn was the main headliner at his father's night club, Faron Young's Jailhouse. In the early 1980s Robyn began touring with his father, performing as an opening act. Personal life Young briefly dated Billie Jean Jones before she became the second wife of country music superstar Hank Williams. It was through Young that Jones was first introduced to Williams, who went on to wed Williams in October 1952. In 1952, while Young was stationed at Fort McPherson, he met his future wife Hilda Macon, the daughter of an Army master sergeant and the great-granddaughter of Uncle Dave Macon. The couple married two years later in November 1954 after Young was discharged from the Army. They had four children, sons Damion, Robyn and Kevin, and a daughter Alana. Young's later life was plagued with bouts of depression and alcoholism. In 1972, Young was arrested and charged with assault for spanking a girl in the audience at a concert in Clarksburg, West Virginia, after claiming she spat on him. Young appeared before a Wood County, West Virginia, justice of the peace and was fined $24, plus $11 in court costs. On the night of December 4, 1984, Young fired a pistol into the kitchen ceiling of his Harbor Island home. When he refused to seek help for his drinking problem, Young and his wife Hilda separated, sold their home, and bought individual houses. When asked at the divorce trial if he feared hurting someone by shooting holes into the ceiling, Young answered "Not whatsoever." The couple divorced after 32 years of marriage in 1986. A combination of feeling he had been abandoned by country music and despondency over his deteriorating health were cited as possible reasons that Young shot himself on December 9, 1996. He died in Nashville the following day and was cremated. His ashes were spread by his family over Old Hickory Lake outside Nashville at Johnny Cash and June Carter Cash's home while the Cashes were away. Legacy In 2000, Young was inducted into the Country Music Hall of Fame. The cat owned by Peanuts character Frieda was named "Faron" after Young, whom Charles Schulz "admired very much", but made few appearances in the strip. A live performance video clip of Young's "It's Four in the Morning" was the first music video to air on CMT when it launched on March 6, 1983. A country song by Tex Garrison mentions Faron Young in his opening lyrics with the lines "Got a stack of records when I was one, listened to Hank Williams and Faron Young." The Bottle Rockets make a wistful reference to Young in their song "Sometimes Found' on their album Brand New Year. Prefab Sprout recorded a country-tinged song called "Faron Young" on their album Steve McQueen. The chorus repeats the line "You give me Faron Young four in the morning". Faron's hits "Hello Walls" and "Alone with You" make brief appearances in the Dale Earnhardt biopic, "3". The Blazing Zoos' song "Still Up at Five", on their album "Chocks Away" is a sequel/homage to "It's Four in the Morning". "I Miss You Already" can be heard in the 2005 Johnny Cash biopic Walk The Line. CD reissues Box sets In 2012, the UK-based Jasmine Records released a budget-minded 2-CD box set entitled Live Fast, Love Hard, Die Young: The Early Album Collection. The set focused on Young's first four albums. Later in 2012, Real Gone Music released a similar compilation which combined Young's first six albums with key singles. Two years before Young's death, the German independent record label Bear Family Records released a box set entitled The Classic Years 1952–1962, which showcased Young's early recordings for Capitol. It did not include Young's recordings for Mercury or Step One. Young's final recordings were released on a CD entitled "Are You Hungry? Eat Your Import," by the record label Showboat Records, which was founded by fellow country music star Liz Anderson. Discography Albums {| class="wikitable" |- ! Year ! Album ! style="width:45px;"| US Country ! Label |- |1957 |Sweethearts or Strangers | style="text-align:center;"| — |Capitol T-778 |- |rowspan=""|1958 |The Object of My Affection | style="text-align:center;"| — |Capitol T-1004 |- |rowspan="3"|1959 |This Is Faron Young! | style="text-align:center;"| — |Capitol T-1096 |- |My Garden of Prayer | style="text-align:center;"| — |Capitol T-1185 |- |Talk About Hits! | style="text-align:center;"| — |Capitol T-1245 |- |1960 |Faron Young Sings the Best of Faron Young | style="text-align:center;"| — |Capitol ST-1450 |- |rowspan="2"|1961 |Hello Walls | style="text-align:center;"| — |Capitol ST-1528 |- |The Young Approach | style="text-align:center;"| — |Capitol ST-1634 |- |rowspan="3"|1963 |All Time Greatest Hits | style="text-align:center;"| — |Capitol DT-2037 |- |This Is Faron | style="text-align:center;"| — |Mercury SR-60785 |- |Aims at the West | style="text-align:center;"| 11 |Mercury SR-60840 |- |rowspan="3"|1964 |Story Songs for Country Folks | style="text-align:center;"| 7 |Mercury SR-60896 |- |Country Dance Favorites | style="text-align:center;"| 7 |Mercury SR-60931 |- |Story Songs of Mountains and Valleys | style="text-align:center;"| — |Mercury SR-60931 |- |rowspan="2"|1965 |Pen and Paper | style="text-align:center;"| — |Mercury SR-61007 |- |Greatest Hits | style="text-align:center;"| — |Mercury SR-61047 |- |1966 |Sings the Songs of Jim Reeves | style="text-align:center;"| 18 |Mercury SR-61058 |- |1967 |Unmitigated Gall | style="text-align:center;"| 18 |Mercury SR-61110 |- |rowspan="2"|1968 |Greatest Hits Vol. 2 | style="text-align:center;"| 24 |Mercury SR-61143 |- |Here's Faron Young | style="text-align:center;"| 35 |Mercury SR-61174 |- |rowspan="2"|1969 |I've Got Precious Memories | style="text-align:center;"| 38 |Mercury SR-61212 |- |Wine Me Up | style="text-align:center;"| 13 |Mercury SR-61241 |- |rowspan="2"|1970 |The Best of Faron Young | style="text-align:center;"| 45 |Mercury SR-61267 |- |Occasional Wife | style="text-align:center;"| 31 |Mercury SR-61275 |- |rowspan="2"|1971 |Step Aside | style="text-align:center;"| 19 |Mercury SR-61337 |- |Leavin' and Sayin' Goodbye | style="text-align:center;"| 23 |Mercury SR-61354 |- |rowspan="2"|1972 |Its Four in the Morning | style="text-align:center;"| 11 |Mercury SR-61359 |- |This Little Girl of Mine | style="text-align:center;"| 17 |Mercury SR-61364 |- |rowspan="2"|1973 |This Time the Hurtin's on Me | style="text-align:center;"| 19 |Mercury SR-61376 |- |Just What I Had in Mind | style="text-align:center;"| 26 |Mercury SRM1-674 |- |rowspan="2"|1974 |Some Kind of a Woman | style="text-align:center;"| 25 |Mercury SRM1-698 |- |A Man and His Music | style="text-align:center;"| 45 |Mercury SRM1-1016 |- |1976 |I'd Just Be Fool Enough | style="text-align:center;"| — |Mercury SRM1-1075 |- |1977 |The Best of Faron Young Vol. 2 | style="text-align:center;"| 32 |Mercury SRM1-1130 |- |1978 |That Young Feelin''' | style="text-align:center;"| — |Mercury SRM1-5005 |- |1979 |Chapter Two| style="text-align:center;"| — |MCA −3092 |- |1980 |Free and Easy| style="text-align:center;"| — |MCA – 3212 |- |rowspan="3"|1987 |Funny How Time Slips Away (with Willie Nelson) | style="text-align:center;"| — |Columbia FC – 39484 |- |Here's to You| style="text-align:center;"| — |Step One SOR – 0040 |- |Greatest Hits 1–3| style="text-align:center;"| — |Step One SOR – 43/44/45 |- |1988 |Country Christmas| style="text-align:center;"| — |Step One SOP – 0059 |- |1990 |Memories That Last (with Ray Price) | style="text-align:center;"| — |Step One SOP – 0068 |- |1993 |Live in Branson| style="text-align:center;"| — |Laserlight 12137 |} Singles {| class="wikitable" |- ! rowspan="2"| Year ! rowspan="2"| Single ! colspan="4" | Chart Positions ! rowspan="2"| Album |- ! style="width:45px;"| US Country ! style="width:45px;"| US ! style="width:45px;"| AU ! style="width:45px;"| CAN Country |- |1951 |"Hot Rod Shot Gun Boogie No 2" | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — |rowspan="3"|singles only |- |rowspan="6"| 1952 |"You're Just Imagination" | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — |- |"I Heard the Juke Box Playing" | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — |- |"Tattle Tale Tears" | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — |This Is Faron Young|- |"Foolish Pride" | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — |rowspan="2"|singles only |- |"Saving My Tears for Tomorrow" | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — |- |"Goin' Steady" | style="text-align:center;"| 2 | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — |This Is Faron Young|- |rowspan="4"| 1953 |"I Can't Wait (For the Sun to Go Down)" | style="text-align:center;"| 5 | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — |rowspan="3"|singles only |- |"That's What I'd Do for You" | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — |- |"I'm Gonna Tell Santa Claus on You" | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — |- |"Just Married" | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — |This Is Faron Young|- |rowspan="3"|1954 |"They Made Me Fall in Love with You" | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — |rowspan="2"|singles only |- |"Place for Girls Like You" | style="text-align:center;"| 8 | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — |- |"If You Ain't Lovin' (You Ain't Livin')" | style="text-align:center;"| 2 | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — |rowspan="2"|This Is Faron Young|- |rowspan="4"|1955 |"Live Fast, Love Hard, Die Young" | style="text-align:center;"| 1 | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — |- |"God Bless God" | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — |rowspan="2"|singles only |- |"Go Back, You Fool" | style="text-align:center;"| 11 | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — |- |"It's a Great Life (If You Don't Weaken)" | style="text-align:center;"| 5 | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — |rowspan="3"|This Is Faron Young|- |rowspan="4"|1956 |"I've Got Five Dollars and It's Saturday Night" | style="text-align:center;"| 4 | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — |- |"Sweet Dreams" | style="text-align:center;"| 2 | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — |- |"Turn Her Down" | style="text-align:center;"| 9 | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — |rowspan="7"|singles only |- |"I Miss You Already (And You're Not Even Gone)" | style="text-align:center;"| 5 | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — |- |rowspan="4"|1957 |"The Shrine of St. Cecilia" | style="text-align:center;"| 15 | style="text-align:center;"| 96 | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — |- |"Love Has Finally Come My Way" | style="text-align:center;"| 12 | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — |- |"Vacation's Over" | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — |- |"Locket" | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — |- |rowspan="4"|1958 |"I Can't Dance" | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — |- |"Alone with You" | style="text-align:center;"| 1 | style="text-align:center;"| 51 | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — |Sings the Best|- |"That's the Way I Feel" | style="text-align:center;"| 9 | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — |rowspan="2"|singles only |- |"Last Night at a Party" | style="text-align:center;"| 20 | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — |- |rowspan="3"|1959 |"That's the Way It's Gotta Be" | style="text-align:center;"| 14 | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — |rowspan="4"|Sings the Best|- |"Country Girl" | style="text-align:center;"| 1 | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — |- |"Riverboat" | style="text-align:center;"| 4 | style="text-align:center;"| 83 | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — |- |rowspan="3"|1960 |"Your Old Used to Be" | style="text-align:center;"| 5 | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — |- |"There's Not Any Like You Left" | style="text-align:center;"| 21 | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — |rowspan="3"|Hello Walls|- |"Forget the Past" | style="text-align:center;"| 20 | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — |- |rowspan="2"|1961 |"Hello Walls" | style="text-align:center;"| 1 | style="text-align:center;"| 12 | style="text-align:center;"| 69 | style="text-align:center;"| — |- |"Backtrack" | style="text-align:center;"| 8 | style="text-align:center;"| 89 | style="text-align:center;"| 70 | style="text-align:center;"| — |rowspan="2"|The Young Approach|- |rowspan="3"|1962 |"Three Days" | style="text-align:center;"| 7 | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — |- |"The Comeback" | style="text-align:center;"| 4 | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — |single only |- |"Down by the River" | style="text-align:center;"| 9 | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — |All Time Greatest Hits|- |rowspan="4"|1963 |"The Yellow Bandana" | style="text-align:center;"| 4 | style="text-align:center;"| 114 | style="text-align:center;"| 65 | style="text-align:center;"| — |rowspan="3"|This Is Faron|- |"I've Come to Say Goodbye" | style="text-align:center;"| 30 | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — |- |"We've Got Something in Common" | style="text-align:center;"| 13 | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — |- |"You'll Drive Me Back (Into Her Arms Again)" | style="text-align:center;"| 10 | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — |rowspan="2"|singles only |- |rowspan="4"|1964 |"Keeping Up with the Joneses" (with Margie Singleton) | style="text-align:center;"| 5 | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — |- |"Old Courthouse" | style="text-align:center;"| 48 | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — |Story Songs for Country Folks|- |"Another Woman's Man – Another Man's Woman"(with Margie Singleton) | style="text-align:center;"| 38 | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — |single only |- |"My Friend on the Right" | style="text-align:center;"| 11 | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — |Story Songs of Mountains and Valleys|- |rowspan="3"|1965 |"Walk Tall" | style="text-align:center;"| 10 | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — |rowspan="2"|Greatest Hits|- |"Nothing Left to Lose" | style="text-align:center;"| 34 | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — |- |"My Dreams" | style="text-align:center;"| 14 | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — |rowspan="4"|Unmitigated Gall|- |rowspan="2"|1966 |"You Don't Treat Me Right" | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — |- |"Unmitigated Gall" | style="text-align:center;"| 7 | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — |- |rowspan="2"|1967 |"I Guess I Had Too Much to Dream Last Night" | style="text-align:center;"| 48 | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — |- |"Wonderful World of Women" | style="text-align:center;"| 14 | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — |Greatest Hits Vol. 2|- |rowspan="2"|1968 |"She Went a Little Bit Farther" | style="text-align:center;"| 14 | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| 32 |rowspan="2"|Here's Faron Young|- |"I Just Came to Get My Baby" | style="text-align:center;"| 8 | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| 1 |- |rowspan="3"|1969 |"I've Got Precious Memories" | style="text-align:center;"| 25 | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — |I've Got Precious Memories|- |"Wine Me Up" | style="text-align:center;"| 2 | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| 3 |rowspan="2"|Wine Me Up|- |"Your Time's Coming" | style="text-align:center;"| 4 | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — |- |rowspan="3"|1970 |"Occasional Wife" | style="text-align:center;"| 6 | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| 15 |rowspan="2"|Occasional Wife|- |"If I Ever Fall in Love (With a Honky Tonk Girl)" | style="text-align:center;"| 4 | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| 2 |- |"Goin' Steady" | style="text-align:center;"| 5 | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| 8 |rowspan="2"|Step Aside|- |rowspan="3"|1971 |"Step Aside" | style="text-align:center;"| 6 | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| 11 |- |"Leavin' and Sayin' Goodbye" | style="text-align:center;"| 9 | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| 11 |Leavin' and Sayin' Goodbye|- |"It's Four in the Morning" | style="text-align:center;"| 1 | style="text-align:center;"| 92 | style="text-align:center;"| 9 | style="text-align:center;"| 1 |It's Four in the Morning|- |rowspan="2"|1972 |"This Little Girl of Mine" | style="text-align:center;"| 5 | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| 3 |rowspan="2"|This Little Girl of Mine|- |"Woman's Touch" | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — |- |rowspan="2"|1973 |"She Fights That Lovin' Feeling" | style="text-align:center;"| 15 | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| 6 |This Time The Hurtin's on Me|- |"Just What I Had in Mind" | style="text-align:center;"| 9 | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| 9 |Just What I Had in Mind|- |rowspan="3"|1974 |"Some Kind of a Woman" | style="text-align:center;"| 8 | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| 6 |rowspan="2"|Some Kind of a Woman|- |"The Wrong in Loving You" | style="text-align:center;"| 20 | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| 22 |- |"Another You" | style="text-align:center;"| 23 | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — |A Man and His Music|- |rowspan="2"|1975 |"Here I Am in Dallas" | style="text-align:center;"| 16 | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| 49 |rowspan="2"|The Best of Faron Young Vol. 2|- |"Feel Again" | style="text-align:center;"| 21 | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| 15 |- |rowspan="2"|1976 |"I'd Just Be Fool Enough" | style="text-align:center;"| 33 | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — |I'd Just Be Fool Enough|- |"(The Worst You Ever Gave Me Was) The Best I Ever Had" | style="text-align:center;"| 30 | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — |The Best of Faron Young Vol. 2|- |1977 |"Crutches" | style="text-align:center;"| 25 | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — |rowspan="2"|That Young Feelin'|- |1978 |"Loving Here and Living There and Lying in Between" | style="text-align:center;"| 38 | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — |- |rowspan="2"|1979 |"The Great Chicago Fire" | style="text-align:center;"| 67 | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| 30 |rowspan="2"|Chapter Two|- |"That Over Thirty Look" | style="text-align:center;"| 69 | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| 68 |- |rowspan="2"|1980 |"(If I'd Only Known) It Was the Last Time" | style="text-align:center;"| 56 | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| 74 |Free and Easy|- |"Tearjoint" | style="text-align:center;"| 72 | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — |rowspan="3"|singles only |- |rowspan="2"|1981 |"Until the Bitter End" | style="text-align:center;"| 88 | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — |- |"Pull Up a Pillow" | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — |- |1982 |"He Stopped Loving Her Today" | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — |"Black Tie Country" |- |rowspan="2"|1988 |"Stop and Take the Time" | style="text-align:center;"| 100 | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — |- |"Here's to You" | style="text-align:center;"| 87 | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — |- |1989 |"It's Four in the Morning" | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — |Greatest Hits 1–3|- |1991 |"Just an Ol' Heartache" | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — |single only |- |rowspan="3"|1992 |"Memories That Last" (with Ray Price) | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — |rowspan="2"|Memories That Last|- |"Too Big to Fight" (with Ray Price) | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — |- |"Christmas Song" | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — | style="text-align:center;"| — |Country Christmas|} B-sides Guest singles Music videos Filmography 1956 Hidden Guns1956 Daniel Boone, Trail Blazer1957 Raiders of Old California1958 Country Music Holiday1966 Second Fiddle to a Steel Guitar1966 Nashville Rebel1967 What Am I Bid?1967 The Road to Nashville1977 That's CountryFilm depiction Actor Fred Parker Jr. portrayed Young in the biopic I Saw the Light'', released on March 25, 2016. Notes References ., p. 606-7 Diekman, Diane. "Live Fast, Love Hard: The Faron Young Story." Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2007, p. 27 External links Faron Young at the Country Music Hall of Fame Faron Young biography and links Faron Young biography at CMT.com Faron Young obituary at CountryStandardTime.com 1932 births 1996 deaths 1996 suicides American country singer-songwriters American male singer-songwriters Country Music Hall of Fame inductees Grand Ole Opry members Musicians from Shreveport, Louisiana Fair Park High School alumni Suicides by firearm in Tennessee 20th-century American singers Singer-songwriters from Louisiana Capitol Records artists Mercury Records artists Country musicians from Louisiana Country musicians from Tennessee 20th-century American male singers Singer-songwriters from Tennessee

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Freediving, free-diving, free diving, breath-hold diving, or skin diving is a form of underwater diving that relies on breath-holding until resurfacing rather than the use of breathing apparatus such as scuba gear. Besides the limits of breath-hold, immersion in water and exposure to high ambient pressure also have physiological effects that limit the depths and duration possible in freediving. Examples of freediving activities are traditional fishing techniques, competitive and non-competitive freediving, competitive and non-competitive spearfishing and freediving photography, synchronised swimming, underwater football, underwater rugby, underwater hockey, underwater target shooting and snorkeling. There are also a range of "competitive apnea" disciplines; in which competitors attempt to attain great depths, times, or distances on a single breath. Historically, the term free diving was also used to refer to scuba diving, due to the freedom of movement compared with surface supplied diving. History In ancient times freediving without the aid of mechanical devices was the only possibility, with the exception of the occasional use of reeds and leather breathing bladders. The divers faced the same problems as divers today, such as decompression sickness and blacking out during a breath hold. Freediving was practiced in ancient cultures to gather food, harvest resources such as sponge and pearl, reclaim sunken valuables, and to help aid military campaigns. In Ancient Greece, both Plato and Homer mention the sponge as being used for bathing. The island of Kalymnos was a main centre of diving for sponges. By using weights (skandalopetra) of as much as to speed the descent, breath-holding divers would descend to depths up to to collect sponges. Harvesting of red coral was also done by divers. The Mediterranean had large amounts of maritime trade. As a result of shipwrecks, particularly in the fierce winter storms, divers were often hired to salvage whatever they could from the seabed. Divers would swim down to the wreck and choose the most valuable pieces to salvage. Divers were also used in warfare. Defenses against sea vessels were often created, such as underwater barricades, and hence divers were often used to scout out the seabed when ships were approaching an enemy harbor. If barricades were found, it was divers who were used to disassemble them, if possible. During the Peloponnesian War, divers were used to get past enemy blockades to relay messages as well as supplies to allies or troops that were cut off, and in 332 BC, during the Siege of Tyre, the city used divers to cut the anchor cables of Alexander's attacking ships. In Japan, ama divers began to collect pearls about 2,000 years ago. For thousands of years, most seawater pearls were retrieved by divers working in the Indian Ocean, in areas such as the Persian Gulf, the Red Sea, and in the Gulf of Mannar (between Sri Lanka and India). A fragment of Isidore of Charax's Parthian itinerary was preserved in Athenaeus's 3rd-century Sophists at Dinner, recording freediving for pearls around an island in the Persian Gulf. Pearl divers near the Philippines were also successful at harvesting large pearls, especially in the Sulu Archipelago. At times, the largest pearls belonged by law to the sultan, and selling them could result in the death penalty for the seller. Nonetheless, many pearls made it out of the archipelago by stealth, ending up in the possession of the wealthiest families in Europe. Pearling was popular in Qatar, Bahrain, Japan, and India. The Gulf of Mexico was also known for pearling. Native Americans harvested freshwater pearls from lakes and rivers like the Ohio, Tennessee, and Mississippi, while others dived for marine pearls from the Caribbean and waters along the coasts of Central and South America. In 1940, Dottie Frazier pioneered freediving for women in the United States and also began teaching classes. It was also during this time that she began to design and sell rubber suits for Navy UDT divers. Freediving activities Recreational hunting and gathering Spearfishing Spearfishing is an ancient method of fishing that has been used throughout the world for millennia. Early civilizations were familiar with the custom of spearing fish from rivers and streams using sharpened sticks. Today modern spearfishing makes use of elastic powered spearguns and slings, or compressed gas pneumatic powered spearguns, to strike the hunted fish. Specialised techniques and equipment have been developed for various types of aquatic environments and target fish. Spearfishing may be done using free-diving, snorkelling, or scuba diving techniques. Spearfishing while using scuba equipment is illegal in some countries. The use of mechanically powered spearguns is also outlawed in some countries and jurisdictions. Spearfishing is highly selective, normally uses no bait and has no by-catch. Collection of shellfish Breathing techniques, relaxation and inspiration Beside all the underwater activities, there is a trend in using the sea and nature as a medium and source of inspiration for rediscover of mindfulness. Non-competitive breathing techniques and relaxation before the dive and visualization under water are practiced. Mermaid diving also focuses on the beauty under water. Competitive breath-hold watersports Aquathlon Aquathlon (also known as underwater wrestling) is an underwater sport where two competitors wearing masks and fins wrestle underwater in an attempt to remove a ribbon from each other's ankle band in order to win the bout. The "combat" takes place in a 5-metre (16 ft) square ring within a swimming pool, and is made up of three 30-second rounds, with a fourth round played in the event of a tie. The sport originated during the 1980s in the former USSR (now Russia) and was first played at international level in 1993. It was recognised by the Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques (CMAS) in 2008. Competitive spearfishing Competitive spearfishing is defined by the world governing body CMAS as "the hunting and capture of fish underwater without the aid of artificial breathing devices, using gear that depends entirely on the physical strength of the competitor." They publish a set of competition rules that are used by affiliated organisations. Synchronised swimming Synchronized swimming is a hybrid form of swimming, dance, and gymnastics, consisting of swimmers (either solos, duets, trios, combos, or teams) performing a synchronized routine of elaborate moves in the water, accompanied by music. Synchronized swimming demands advanced water skills, and requires great strength, endurance, flexibility, grace, artistry and precise timing, as well as exceptional breath control when upside down underwater. During lifts swimmers are not allowed to touch the bottom. Traditionally it was a women's sport, but following the addition of a new mixed-pair event, FINA World Aquatics competitions are open to men since the 16th 2015 championships in Kazan, and the other international and national competitions allow male competitors in every event. However, men are currently still barred from competing in the Olympics. Both USA Synchro and Synchro Canada allow men to compete with women. Most European countries also allow men to compete, and France even allows male only podiums, according to the number of participants. In the past decade, more men are becoming involved in the sport and a global biannual competition called Men's Cup has been steadily growing. Swimmers perform two routines for the judges, one technical and one free, as well as age group routines and figures. Synchronized swimming is both an individual and team sport. Swimmers compete individually during figures, and then as a team during the routine. Figures are made up of a combination of skills and positions that often require control, strength, and flexibility. Swimmers are ranked individually for this part of the competition. The routine involves teamwork and synchronization. It is choreographed to music and often has a theme. Synchronized swimming is governed internationally by FINA (Fédération Internationale de Natation). Underwater hockey Underwater Hockey, (also called Octopush (mainly in the United Kingdom)) is a globally played limited-contact sport in which two teams compete to manoeuvre a puck across the bottom of a swimming pool into the opposing team's goal by propelling it with a pusher. It originated in England in 1954 when Alan Blake, the founder of the newly formed Southsea Sub-Aqua Club, invented the game he called Octopush as a means of keeping the club's members interested and active over the cold winter months when open-water diving lost its appeal. Underwater Hockey is now played worldwide, with the Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques, abbreviated CMAS, as the world governing body. The first Underwater Hockey World Championship was held in Canada in 1980 after a false start in 1979 brought about by international politics and apartheid. Underwater football Underwater football is a two-team underwater sport that shares common elements with underwater hockey and underwater rugby. As with both of those games, it is played in a swimming pool with snorkeling equipment (mask, snorkel, and fins). The goal of the game is to manoeuvre (by carrying and passing) a slightly negatively buoyant ball from one side of a pool to the other by players who are completely submerged underwater. Scoring is achieved by placing the ball (under control) in the gutter on the side of the pool. Variations include using a toy rubber torpedo as the ball, and weighing down buckets to rest on the bottom and serve as goals. It is played in the Canadian provinces of Alberta, Manitoba, Newfoundland and Labrador, and Saskatchewan. Underwater rugby Underwater rugby is an underwater team sport. During a match two teams try to score a negatively buoyant ball (filled with saltwater) into the opponents’ goal at the bottom of a swimming pool. It originated from within the physical fitness training regime existing in German diving clubs during the early 1960s and has little in common with rugby football except for the name. It was recognised by the Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques (CMAS) in 1978 and was first played as a world championship in 1980. Underwater target shooting Underwater target shooting is an underwater sport that tests a competitors’ ability to accurately use a speargun via a set of individual and team events conducted in a swimming pool using free diving or apnea technique. The sport was developed in France during the early 1980s and is currently practised mainly in Europe. It is known as Tir sur cible subaquatique in French and as Tiro al Blanco Subacuático in Spanish. Competitive apnea Competitive freediving is currently governed by two world associations: AIDA International (International Association for Development of Apnea) and CMAS (Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques – World Underwater Federation). Historically, there were two more organisations that regulated freediving records and activities - IAFD (International Association of Freedivers) and FREE (Freediving Regulations and Education Entity). Each organization has its own rules on recognizing a record attempt which can be found on the organization's website. Alongside competitive disciplines there are record disciplines - disciplines that are not held in competitions, that are just for setting world records. There is a third organization which in addition to AIDA and CMAS preside over those record disciplines and that is Guinness. Almost all types of competitive freediving have in common that it is an individual sport based on the best individual achievement. Exceptions to this rule are the bi-annual World Championship for Teams held by AIDA, where the combined score of the team members makes up the team's total points and Skandalopetra diving competitions held by CMAS, the only truly ‘team’ event in freediving - for which teams are formed by two athletes: one acting as an apneista (Voutichtis; diver) and the other acting as an assistant (Kolaouzeris; person who "extracts"). Disciplines There are currently eleven recognized disciplines defined by AIDA and CMAS, and a dozen more that are only practiced locally. All disciplines can be practiced by both men and women and only CMAS currently separates records in fresh water from those at sea. The disciplines of AIDA can be done both in competition and as a record attempt, with the exception of Variable Weight and No limits, which are both solely for record attempts. For all AIDA depth disciplines, the depth the athlete will attempt is announced before the dive; this is accepted practice for both competition and record attempts. Most divers choose monofin over bifins where there is a choice. Overview of the above disciplines BF - BiFins, MF - MonoFin World records Note 1: Best official result in STA is Guinness WR of 11:54 by Branko Petrović in 2014, a freediver who has results in STA over 10 minutes under both AIDA and CMAS. Note 2: Best NLT result is 253.2m by Herbert Nitsch in 2012; intention of having the dive sanctioned by AIDA fell through due to a sponsoring conflict. Note 3: After 2001-12-31 AIDA International no longer separated the records achieved in a lake from those in the sea. AIDA recognized world records The AIDA recognized world records are: CMAS recognized world records , the CMAS recognized world records are: Guinness recognized world records Note: Only those disciplines that are modifications of existing AIDA or CMAS disciplines and Guinness-exclusive (as it recognizes and inherits some AIDA/CMAS records) or Guinness-conceived (CMAS and AIDA do/did sanction at some time) disciplines. Recreational Freediving as a recreational activity is widely practiced and differs significantly from scuba diving. Although there are potential risks to all freediving, it can be safely practiced using a wide range of skill levels from the average snorkeler to the professional freediver. Compared to scuba diving, freediving offers: Freedom from cumbersome equipment and short preparation times. Low cost. It is quiet and does not disturb fish, the noise of breathing and bubbles can be quite loud on open circuit scuba though rebreathers are much quieter. Mobility and speed, but for a much more limited period. No decompression time for deep dives, although it is possible to get decompression sickness, or taravana, from repetitive deep free-diving with short surface intervals. The lack of exhaled air bubbles on ascent gives greater visibility on ascent. Accessibility, if the site can be walked to it can, potentially, be dived. Appropriately skilled and fit freedivers can go as deep, or deeper than, recreational scuba divers, the depth being limited only by the willingness to accept the risks; scuba diving is restricted by the level of certification. Freshwater springs, often with excellent visibility, provide good freediving opportunities but with greater risks. Diving into spring caverns with restricted access to the surface is very different from diving in open water. The time available to a freediver to solve problems underwater before hypoxia sets in is severely restricted in comparison with scuba. Freediving into confined cave systems such as Eagle's Nest Cave, Florida and Blue Springs State Park, Florida has resulted in several deaths. Cave freediving is commonly discouraged in basic freediver safety training. Physiology The human body has several oxygen-conserving adaptations that manifest under diving conditions as part of the mammalian diving reflex. The adaptations include: Reflex bradycardia: Significant drop in heart rate. Blood-shift: Blood flow and volume is redistributed towards vital organs by means of a reflex vasoconstriction. Blood vessels distend and become engorged, which in the case of the pulmonary capillaries assists with pressure compensation that comes with increasing diving depth, and without which a largely air-filled chest cavity would simply collapse for lack of compliance. Body-cooling: peripheral vasoconstriction results in cooling of peripheral tissue beds, which lower their oxygen demand in a thermodynamic manner. In addition, Murat et al. (2013) recently discovered that breath-holding results in prompt and substantial brain cooling, just like in diving birds and seals. (Dry) breath-holds result in cooling on the order of about 1 °C/minute, but this is likely to be greater with cold water submersion, in proportion to the magnitude and promptness of the dive response. Splenic contraction: Releasing red blood cells carrying oxygen. Techniques Breath-holding ability, and hence dive performance, is a function of on-board oxygen stores, scope for metabolic rate reduction, efficient oxygen utilization, and hypoxia tolerance. Athletes attempt to accomplish this in various ways. Some divers use "packing", which increases lung volume beyond normal total lung capacity. In addition, training is allocated to enhance blood and muscle oxygen stores, to a limited extent. Most divers rely on increasing fitness by increasing lung capacity. Simple breath-holding practice is highly effective for increasing lung capacity. In an interview on the radio talk show Fresh Air, journalist James Nestor, author of the book Breath: The New Science of a Lost Art, stated: "Some divers have a lung capacity of 14 liters, which is about double the size for a typical adult male. They weren't born this way. ... They trained themselves to breathe in ways to profoundly affect their physical bodies." Ascent Training Training for freediving can take many forms, some of which can be performed on land.The University of Miami presents a scientific freediving class that was developed by Claire Paris, a professor and freediver, the class is the first of its kind at the university. One example is the apnea walk. This consists of a preparation "breathe-up", followed by a short (typically 1 minute) breath hold taken at rest. Without breaking the hold, participants then begin walking as far as possible until it becomes necessary to breathe again. Athletes can do close to 400 meters in training this way. This form of training is good for accustoming muscles to work under anaerobic conditions, and for tolerance to CO2 build-up in the circulation. It is also easy to gauge progress, as increasing distance can be measured. Before competition attempts, freedivers perform a preparation sequence, which usually consists of physical stretching, mental exercise and breath exercise. It may include a succession of variable length static apnea and special purging deep breaths. Results of the preparation sequence are slower metabolism, lower heart rate and breath rate, and lower levels of carbon dioxide in the bloodstream and overall mental equilibrium. Safety Hazards The most obvious hazard is lack of access to air for breathing – a necessity for human life. This can result in asphyxia from drowning if the diver does not reach the surface while still capable of holding their breath and resuming breathing. The risk depends on several factors, including the depth, duration and shape of the dive profile. Latent hypoxia is a specific hazard of deeper freedives. This effect can cause hypoxic blackout during surfacing. There are also a wide range of environmental hazards possible specific to the site and water and weather conditions at the time of diving, and there may be other hazards specific to the freediving activity. Risk Failing to respond to physiological warning signals, or crossing the mental barrier by strong will, may lead to blackout underwater or on reaching the surface. Trained freedivers are well aware of this and competitions must be held under strict supervision and with competent first-aiders on standby. However, this does not eliminate the risk of blackout. Freedivers are encouraged by certification and sporting organisations to dive only with a 'buddy' who accompanies them, observing from in the water at the surface, and ready to dive to the rescue if the diver loses consciousness during the ascent. This is only reasonably practicable if the water clarity allows observation, and the buddy is capable of safely reaching the diver. Due to the nature of the sport, the risks of freediving can be reduced by strict adherence to safety measures as an integral part of the activity, but cannot be eliminated entirely. Competition rules may require all participants to be adept in rescue and resuscitation. Statistics and notable accidents Nicholas Mevoli, a diver from New York died on 17 November 2013 after losing consciousness on surfacing from a 3-minute 38 second dive to a depth of during an official record attempt in the "constant weight without fins" event. He had previously reached greater depths and longer times in other disciplines. Fiction and documentaries Documentaries Ocean Men (2001) is a documentary film about the art and science of freediving, featuring two of its most outstanding exponents: Francisco "Pipín" Ferreras and Umberto Pelizzari. My Pilot, Whale (2014) is a short documentary film directed by Alexander and Nicole Gratovsky, demonstrating direct communication between a human and free pilot whales in the open ocean. The entire underwater part was shot without underwater breathing equipment; both the operator and the person appearing in the frame are freediving. Fiction In the film Mission Impossible - Rogue Nation, Tom Cruise plays super spy Ethan Hunt fighting the forces of evil, and goes freediving in a scene to expose the villains. The Pearl by John Steinbeck (1947) is a novel about a poor pearl diver, Kino, who finds the 'Pearl of Heaven', which is exceptionally valuable, changing his life forever. The novel explores themes of man's nature as well as greed and evil. In South Sea Adventure (1952) by Willard Price the Hunt brothers, marooned on a coral island, use free diving to collect both pearls and fresh water. In Ian Fleming's (1964) James Bond novel You Only Live Twice, the character Kissy Suzuki is an ama diver. This connection was also mentioned in the film version. Man from Atlantis was a 1970s TV series which featured a superhero with the ability to breathe underwater and freedive in his own special way. The Big Blue (1988) is a romantic film about two world-class freedivers, a heavily fictionalized depiction of the rivalry of freedivers Jacques Mayol and Enzo Maiorca. In the movie Phoenix Blue (2001), protagonist Rick is a musician who freedives competitively. The children's novel The Dolphins of Laurentum by Caroline Lawrence (2003), which takes place in ancient Rome, describes the applications of freediving (sponge and pearl diving) and its hazards, as one of the principal characters, as well as the main antagonist, try to beat each other to a sunken treasure. The Freediver (2004) is a film about a talented female freediver who is discovered and brought to an island, where she is trained by an ambitious scientist to break a freediving world record currently held by an American woman. In the film Into the Blue (2005) starring Jessica Alba, a group of divers find themselves in deep trouble with a drug lord after they come upon the illicit cargo of a sunken airplane in the Caribbean. Jessica Alba is an accomplished freediver, and did much of the underwater work; some other stunts were performed by Mehgan Heaney-Grier. In Greg Iles' novel Blood Memory (2005), the main character Cat Ferry is an odontologist and a freediver. H2O: Just Add Water Series 3 added a freediver (Will Benjamin played by Luke Mitchell) as a regular. Freediving is featured in some episodes. The Greater Meaning of Water (2010) is an independent film about competitive constant weight freediving, focusing on the 'zen' of freediving. In the Canadian television series Corner Gas, the character Karen Pelly (Tara Spencer-Nairn) competed in static apnea, ranking fifth in Canada with a personal best of over six minutes. In the American television series Baywatch episode "The Chamber" (Session 2, Episode 17), the character Mitch Buchannon rescues a diver trapped 90 feet below the ocean surface, but almost dies while suffering the effects of decompression sickness; decompression sickness is highly improbable following freediving exposure to this depth. In the book Hornblower and the Atropos, CS Forester's character Horatio Hornblower is tasked by the Royal Navy to retrieve sunken treasure with the help of freediving Sinhalese pearl divers See also References Further reading DeeperBlue.com (2016) The Beginners Guide to Freediving, published by DeeperBlue.com Callagy, Feargus (2012) A Beginners Guide to Freediving, e-book published by DeeperBlue.com Donald, Ian (2013) Underwater foraging – Freediving for food, Createspace publishing, USA. Farrell, Emma (2006) One Breath: A Reflection on Freediving, photographs by Frederic Buyle, Pynto Ltd., Hatherley, UK: Pelizzari, Umberto & Tovaglieri, Stefano (2001) Manual of Freediving: Underwater on a single breath, English translation 2004 by Idelson-Gnocchi Ltd., Reddick, FL: Severinsen, Stig A. (2010) Breathology: The Art of Conscious Breathing, Idelson-Gnocchi Ltd., Reddick, FL: James Nestor (2015) "Deep: Freediving, Renegade Science, and What the Ocean Tells Us About Ourselves", Eamon Dolan/Mariner Books New York, NY: External links AIDA International Collaborative cartography of freediving spots/Cartographie collaborative des spots apnée DeeperBlue website The Beginners Guide to Freediving - published by DeeperBlue.com FreedivingCourses.com - a way to find Freediving instructors and dive centers around the world DiveWise.Org - non profit organization dedicated to freediving education and safety Explore Freediving - Freediving and Snorkeling events and instructor directory Freediving Spots Borgosub.fr French association to promote Wreck freediving Freitauchen-lernen.com - deutschsprachiger Freediving Blog www.apnoetauchen-lernen.de - German Center for education and development of freediving. Individual sports Underwater sports

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The Phantom of the Opera is a 1925 American silent horror film adaptation of Gaston Leroux's 1910 novel Le Fantôme de l'Opéra, directed by Rupert Julian and starring Lon Chaney in the title role of the deformed Phantom who haunts the Paris Opera House, causing murder and mayhem in an attempt to make the woman he loves a star. The film remains most famous for Chaney's ghastly, self-devised make-up, which was kept a studio secret until the film's premiere. The film was released on November 15, 1925. The picture also features Mary Philbin, Norman Kerry, Arthur Edmund Carewe, Gibson Gowland, John St. Polis and Snitz Edwards. The last surviving cast member was Carla Laemmle, niece of producer Carl Laemmle, who played a small role as a "prima ballerina" in the film when she was about 15 years old. In 1953, the film entered the public domain in the United States because the claimants did not renew its copyright registration in the 28th year after publication. Plot Based on the general release version of 1925, which has additional scenes and sequences in different order than the existing reissue print. The film opens with the debut of the new season at the Paris Opera House, with a production of Gounod's Faust. Comte Philippe de Chagny and his brother, the Vicomte Raoul de Chagny are in attendance. Raoul is there only in the hope of hearing his sweetheart Christine Daaé sing. Christine has made a sudden rise from the chorus to understudy of Mme. Carlotta, the prima donna. Raoul visits her in her dressing room during an interval in the performance, and makes his intentions known that he wishes for Christine to resign and marry him. Christine refuses to let their relationship get in the way of her career. At the height of the most prosperous season in the Opera's history, the management suddenly resign. As they leave, they tell the new managers of the Opera Ghost, a phantom who is "the occupant of box No. 5," among other things. The new managers laugh it off as a joke, but the old management leaves troubled. After the performance, the ballerinas are disturbed by the sight of a mysterious man in a fez prowling down in the cellars, and they wonder if he is the Phantom. Meanwhile, Mme. Carlotta, the prima donna, has received a letter from "The Phantom," demanding that Christine sing the role of Marguerite the following night, threatening dire consequences if his demands are not met. In Christine's dressing room, an unseen voice warns Christine that she must take Carlotta's place on Wednesday and that she is to think only of her career and her master. The following day, in a garden near the Opera House, Raoul meets Christine and asks her to reconsider his offer. Christine admits that she has been tutored by a divine voice, the "Spirit of Music," and that it is now impossible to stop her career. Raoul tells her that he thinks someone is playing a joke on her, and she storms off in anger. Wednesday evening, Christine takes Carlotta's place in the opera. During the performance, the managers enter Box 5 and are startled to see a shadowy figure seated there, who soon disappears when they are not looking. Later, Simon Buquet finds the body of his brother, stagehand Joseph Buquet, hanging by a noose and vows vengeance. Carlotta receives another peremptory note from the Phantom. Once again, he demands that she say she is ill and let Christine take on her role. The managers get a similar note, reiterating that if Christine does not sing, they will present Faust in a house with a curse on it. The following evening, despite the Phantom's warnings, a defiant Carlotta appears as Marguerite. During the performance, the large crystal chandelier hanging from the ceiling is dropped onto the audience. Christine enters a secret door behind the mirror in her dressing room, descending into the lower depths of the Opera. She meets the Phantom, who introduces himself as Erik and declares his love; Christine faints, and Erik carries her to a suite fabricated for her comfort. The next day, she finds a note from Erik telling her that she is free to come and go as she pleases, but that she must never look behind his mask. Christine sneaks up behind the Phantom and tears off his mask, revealing his deformed skull-like face. Enraged, the Phantom declares that she is now his prisoner. She pleads with him to sing again, and he relents, allowing her to visit the surface one last time. Released from the underground, Christine makes a rendezvous with Raoul at the annual masked-ball, at which the Phantom appears in the guise of the "Red-Death". Raoul and Christine flee to the roof of the Opera House, where she tells him about her experiences under the Opera House. Unbeknownst to them, the Phantom is listening nearby. Raoul plans to whisk Christine safely away to London following the next performance. As they leave the roof, the mysterious man with the fez approaches them. Aware that the Phantom is waiting downstairs, he leads Christine and Raoul to another exit. The following evening, during her performance, Christine is kidnapped by the Phantom. Raoul rushes to her dressing room, and meets the man in the fez, who reveals himself to be Inspector Ledoux, a secret policeman who has been tracking Erik since he escaped as a prisoner from Devil's Island. Ledoux reveals the secret door in Christine's room and the two men enter the catacombs of the Opera House in an attempt to rescue Christine. They fall into the Phantom's dungeon, a torture room of his design. Philippe has also found his way into the catacombs looking for his brother. Phillipe is drowned by Erik, who returns to find the two men in the torture chamber. The Phantom subjects the two prisoners to intense heat; the two manage to escape the chamber by opening a door in the floor. In the chamber below, the Phantom shuts a gate, locking them in with barrels full of gunpowder. Christine begs the Phantom to save Raoul, promising him anything in return, even becoming his wife. At the last second, the Phantom opens a trapdoor in his floor through which Raoul and Ledoux are saved. A mob led by Simon Buquet infiltrates the Phantom's lair. As the mob approaches, the Phantom attempts to flee with Christine in a carriage meant for Raoul and Christine. While Raoul saves Christine, the Phantom is thrown by the mob into the River Seine, where he drowns. In a brief epilogue, Raoul and Christine are shown on their honeymoon in Viroflay. Cast Pre-production In 1922, Carl Laemmle, the president of Universal Pictures, took a vacation to Paris. During his vacation Laemmle met the author Gaston Leroux, who was working in the French film industry. Laemmle mentioned to Leroux that he admired the Paris Opera House. Leroux gave Laemmle a copy of his 1910 novel The Phantom of the Opera. Laemmle read the book in one night and bought the film rights as a vehicle for actor Lon Chaney. Production was scheduled for late 1924 at Universal Studios. The filmmakers were unfamiliar with the layout of the Paris Opera House and consulted Ben Carré, a French art director who had worked at the Opera and was familiar with Leroux’s novel. He said Leroux’s depiction of the Opera cellars was based more on imagination than fact. Carré created twenty-four detailed charcoal sketches of the back and below-stage areas of the Opera, which the filmmakers replicated. Carré was in Europe when shooting began and had nothing more to do with the project; not until he was shown a print of the film in the 1970s did he realize his designs had been used. The screenplay was written by Elliot J. Clawson, who had worked as the scenario writer of director Rupert Julian since 1916. His first script was a close adaptation of Leroux and included scenes from the novel that never appeared in the released film, such as the Phantom summoning Christine to her father's graveyard in Brittany, where he poses as the Angel of Music and plays "The Resurrection of Lazarus" on his violin at midnight. The scene was filmed by Rupert Julian but excised after he left the project. Inspired by the novel, Clawson added a lengthy flashback to Persia, where Erik (the Phantom) served as a conjurer and executioner in the court of a depraved Sultana, using his lasso to strangle prisoners. Falling from her favor, Erik was condemned to be eaten alive by ants. He was rescued by the Persian (the Sultana’s chief of police, who became "Ledoux" in the final version of the film), but not before the ants had consumed most of his face. The flashback was eliminated during subsequent story conferences, possibly for budgetary reasons. Instead, a line of dialogue was inserted to explain that Erik had been the chief torturer and inquisitor during the Paris Commune, when the Opera served as a prison. The studio considered the novel's ending too low-key, but Clawson's third revised script retained the scene of Christine giving the Phantom a compassionate kiss. He is profoundly shaken and moans "even my own mother would never kiss me." A mob approaches led by Simon (the brother of a stagehand murdered by the Phantom). Erik flees the Opera House with Christine. He takes over a coach, which overturns thanks to his reckless driving, and then escapes the mob by scaling a bridge with his strangler's lasso. Waiting for him at the top is Simon, who cuts the lasso. The Phantom suffers a deadly fall. His dying words are "All I wanted...was to have a wife like anybody else...and to take her out on Sundays." The studio remained dissatisfied. In another revised ending, Erik and Christine flee the mob and take refuge in her house. Before entering Erik cringes "as Satan before the cross." Inside her rooms, he is overcome and says he is dying. He asks if she will kiss him and proposes to give her a wedding ring, so Christine can give it to Raoul. The Persian, Simon, and Raoul burst into the house. Christine tells them Erik is ill; he slumps dead to the floor, sending the wedding ring rolling across the carpet. Christine sobs and flees to the garden; Raoul follows to console her. Production Production began in mid-October and did not go smoothly. According to director of photography Charles Van Enger, Chaney and the rest of the cast and crew had strained relations with director Rupert Julian. Eventually the star and director stopped talking, so Van Enger served as a go-between. He would report Julian's directions to Chaney, who responded "Tell him to go to hell." As Van Enger remembered, "Lon did whatever he wanted." Rupert Julian had become Universal’s prestige director by completing the Merry-Go-Round (1923) close to budget, after original director Eric von Stroheim had been fired. But on the set of The Phantom of the Opera his directorial mediocrity was obvious to the crew. According to Van Enger, Julian had wanted the screen to go black after the chandelier fell on the Opera audience. Van Enger ignored him and lit the set with a soft glow, so the aftermath of the fall would be visible to the film audience. The ending changed yet again during filming. The scripted chase scene through Paris was discarded in favor of an unscripted and more intimate finale. To save Raoul, Christine agrees to wed Erik and she kisses his forehead. Erik is overcome by Christine’s purity and his own ugliness. The mob enters his lair under the Opera House, only to find the Phantom slumped dead over his organ, where he had been playing his composition Don Juan Triumphant. By mid-November 1924 the majority of Chaney’s scenes had been filmed. Principal photography was completed just before the end of the year, with 350,000 feet of negative exposed. Editor Gilmore Walker assembled a rough cut of nearly four hours. The studio demanded a length of no more than 12 reels. A score was prepared by Joseph Carl Breil. No information about the score survives other than Universal's release: "Presented with augmented concert orchestra, playing the score composed by J. Carl Briel, composer of music for The Birth of a Nation". The exact quote from the opening day full-page ad in the Call-Bulletin read: "Universal Weekly claimed a 60-piece orchestra. Moving Picture World reported that "The music from Faust supplied the music [for the picture]." The first cut of the film was previewed in Los Angeles on January 7 and 26, 1925. Audience reaction was extremely negative and summed up by the complaint "There's too much spook melodrama. Put in some gags to relieve the tension." By March the studio had taken against the ending and decided the Phantom should not be redeemed by a woman's kiss: "Better to have kept him a devil to the end." The "redemptive" ending is now lost, with only a few frames still surviving. The New York premiere was cancelled, and the film was rushed back into production, with a new script that focused more on Christine’s love life. It is unknown whether Rupert Julian walked away from the production or was fired; in any case, his involvement with the film had ended. To salvage the film Universal called upon the journeymen of its Hoot Gibson western unit, who worked cheaply and quickly. Edward Sedgwick (later the director of Buster Keaton's 1928 film The Cameraman) was then assigned by producer Laemmle to direct a reshoot of the bulk of the film. Raymond L. Schrock and original screenwriter Elliot Clawson wrote new scenes at the request of Sedgewick. The film was then changed from the dramatic thriller that was originally made into more of a romantic comedy with action elements. Most of the new scenes depicted added subplots, with Chester Conklin and Vola Vale as comedic relief to the heroes, and Ward Crane as the Russian Count Ruboff dueling with Raoul for Christine's affection. This version was previewed in San Francisco on April 26, 1925, and did not do well at all, with the audience booing it off of the screen. "The story drags to the point of nauseam", one reviewer stated. The third and final version resulted from Universal holdovers Maurice Pivar and Lois Weber editing the production down to nine reels. Most of the Sedgwick material was removed, except for the ending, with the Phantom being hunted by a mob and then being thrown into the Seine River. Much of the cut Julian material was edited back into the picture, though some important scenes and characters were not restored. This version, containing material from the original 1924 shooting and some from the Sedgwick reworking, was then scheduled for release. It debuted on September 6, 1925, at the Astor Theatre in New York City. It premiered on October 17, 1925, in Hollywood, California. The score for the Astor opening was to be composed by Professor Gustav Hinrichs. However, Hinrichs' score was not prepared in time, so instead, according to Universal Weekly, the premiere featured a score by Eugene Conte, composed mainly of "french airs" and the appropriate Faust cues. No expense was spared at the premiere; Universal even had a full organ installed at the Astor for the event. (As it was a legitimate house, the Astor theater used an orchestra, not an organ, for its music.) Makeup Following the success of The Hunchback of Notre Dame in 1923, Chaney was once again given the freedom to create his own makeup, a practice which became almost as famous as the films he starred in. Chaney commented "in The Phantom of the Opera, people exclaimed at my weird make-up. I achieved the Death's head of that role without wearing a mask. It was the use of paints in the right shades and the right places—not the obvious parts of the face—which gave the complete illusion of horror...It’s all a matter of combining paints and lights to form the right illusion." Chaney used a color illustration of the novel by Andre Castaigne as his model for the phantom’s appearance. He raised the contours of his cheekbones by stuffing wadding inside his cheeks. He used a skullcap to raise his forehead height several inches and accentuate the bald dome of the Phantom's skull. Pencil lines masked the join of the skullcap and exaggerated his brow lines. Chaney then glued his ears to his head and painted his eye sockets black, adding white highlights under his eyes for a skeletal effect. He created a skeletal smile by attaching prongs to a set of rotted false teeth and coating his lips with greasepaint. To transform his nose, Chaney applied putty to sharpen its angle and inserted two loops of wire into his nostrils. Guide-wires hidden under the putty pulled his nostrils upward. According to cinematographer CharlesVan Enger, Chaney suffered from his make-up, especially the wires, which sometimes made him "bleed like hell." When audiences first saw The Phantom of the Opera, they were said to have screamed or fainted during the scene where Christine pulls the concealing mask away, revealing his skull-like features to the audience. Chaney's appearance as the Phantom in the film has been the most accurate depiction of the title character based on the description given in the novel, where the Phantom is described as having a skull-like face with a few wisps of black hair on top of his head. As in the novel, Chaney's Phantom has been deformed since birth, rather than having been disfigured by acid or fire, as in later adaptations of The Phantom of the Opera. Soundstage 28 Producer Laemmle commissioned the construction of a set of the Paris Opera House. Because it would have to support hundreds of extras, the set became the first to be created with steel girders set in concrete. For this reason it was not dismantled until 2014. Stage 28 on the Universal Studios lot still contained portions of the opera house set, and was the world's oldest surviving structure built specifically for a movie, at the time of its demolition. It was used in hundreds of movies and television series. In preparation for the demolition of Stage 28, the Paris Opera House set went through a preservation effort and was placed into storage. Stage 28 was completely demolished on September 23, 2014. Reception Initial response Initial critical response for the film was mixed. Mordaunt Hall of The New York Times gave the film a positive review as a spectacle picture, but felt that the story and acting may have been slightly improved. TIME praised the sets but felt the picture was "only pretty good". Variety wrote, "The Phantom of the Opera is not a bad film from a technical viewpoint, but revolving around the terrifying of all inmates of the Grand Opera House in Paris by a criminally insane mind behind a hideous face, the combination makes a welsh rarebit look foolish as a sleep destroyer." Modern response Modern critical response for the film has been more positive, with many considering it the best adaption of Leroux's novel to another medium, or at least until the classic 1986 Lloyd Webber stage musical version was first performed. Roger Ebert awarded the film four out of four stars, writing "It creates beneath the opera one of the most grotesque places in the cinema, and Chaney's performance transforms an absurd character into a haunting one." Adrian Warren of PopMatters gave the film 8/10 stars, summarizing, "Overall, The Phantom of the Opera is terrific: unsettling, beautifully shot and imbued with a dense and shadowy Gothic atmosphere. With such a strong technical and visual grounding it would have been difficult for Chaney to totally muck things up, and his performance is indeed integral, elevating an already solid horror drama into the realms of legendary cinema." Time Out gave the film a mostly positive review, criticizing the film's "hobbling exposition", but praised Chaney's performance as being the best version of the title character, as well as the film's climax. TV Guide gave the film 4/5 stars, stating, "One of the most famous horror movies of all time, The Phantom of the Opera still manages to frighten after more than 60 years." On Rotten Tomatoes, The Phantom of the Opera holds an approval rating of 90% based on from June 2002 to October 2020, with a weighted average rating of 8.3/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "Decades later, it still retains its ability to scare -- and Lon Chaney's performance remains one of the benchmarks of the horror genre." 1930 reissue with sound After the successful introduction of sound pictures during the 1928–29 movie season, Universal announced that they had secured the rights to a sequel to The Phantom of the Opera from the Gaston Leroux estate. Entitled The Return of the Phantom, the picture would have sound and be in color. Universal could not use Chaney in the film as he was now under contract at MGM. Universal later scrapped the sequel, and instead opted to reissue The Phantom of the Opera with a new synchronized score and effects track, as well as new dialog sequences. Directors Ernst Laemmle and Frank McCormick reshot a little less than half of the picture with sound during August 1929. The footage reused from the original film was scored with music arranged by Joseph Cherniavsky, and sound effects. Mary Philbin and Norman Kerry reprised their roles for the sound reshoot, and Edward Martindel, George B. Williams, Phillips Smalley, Ray Holderness, and Edward Davis were added to the cast to replace actors who were unavailable. Universal was contractually unable to loop Chaney's dialogue, so another character was introduced who acts as a messenger for the Phantom in some scenes. Because Chaney's talkie debut was eagerly anticipated by filmgoers, advertisements emphasized, "Lon Chaney's portrayal is a silent one!" The sound version of Phantom opened on February 16, 1930, and grossed another million dollars. This version of the film is lost because it was burned in a fire in 1948, although the soundtrack discs survive. The success of The Phantom of the Opera inspired Universal to finance the production of a long string of horror films through to the 1950s, starting with the base stories of Dracula (1931), Frankenstein (1931), The Mummy (1932), The Invisible Man (1933) and The Wolf Man (1941), and continuing with numerous sequels to all five movies. Differences from the novel Although this particular adaptation is often considered the most faithful, it contains some significant plot differences from the original novel. In the movie, M. Debienne and M. Poligny transfer ownership of the opera to M. Montcharmin and M. Richard, while in the novel they are simply the old and new managers. The character of Ledoux is not a mysterious Persian and is no longer a onetime acquaintance of the Phantom. He is now a French detective of the Secret Police. This character change was not originally scripted; it was made during the title card editing process. The Phantom has no longer studied in Persia in his past. Rather, he is an escapee from Devil's Island and an expert in "the Black Arts". As described in the "Production" section of this article, the filmmakers initially intended to preserve the original ending of the novel, and filmed scenes in which the Phantom dies of a broken heart at his organ after Christine leaves his lair. Because of the preview audience's poor reaction, the studio decided to change the ending to a more exciting one. Edward Sedgwick was hired to provide a climactic chase scene, with an ending in which the Phantom, after having saved Ledoux and Raoul, kidnaps Christine in Raoul's carriage. He is hunted down and cornered by an angry mob, who beat him to death and throw him into the Seine. Preservation and home video status The finest quality print of the film existing was struck from an original camera negative for George Eastman House in the early 1950s by Universal Pictures. The original 1925 version survives only in 16mm "Show-At-Home" prints created by Universal for home movie use in the 1930s. There are several versions of these prints, but none is complete. All are from the original domestic camera negative. Because of the better quality of the Eastman House print, many home video releases have opted to use it as the basis of their transfers. This version has singer Mary Fabian in the role of Carlotta. In the reedited version, Virginia Pearson, who played Carlotta in the 1925 film, is credited and referred to as "Carlotta's Mother" instead. Most of the silent footage in the 1930 version is actually from a second camera, used to photograph the film for foreign markets and second negatives; careful examination of the two versions shows similar shots are slightly askew in composition in the 1930 version. In 2009, ReelClassicDVD issued a special edition multi-disc DVD set which included a matched shot side-by-side comparison of the two versions, editing the 1925 Show-At-Home print's narrative and continuity to match the Eastman House print. For the 2003 Image Entertainment–Photoplay Productions two-disc DVD set, the 1930 soundtrack was reedited in an attempt to fit the Eastman House print as best as possible. However, there are some problems with this attempt. There is no corresponding "man with lantern" sequence on the sound discs. While the "music and effect" reels without dialogue seem to follow the discs fairly closely, the scenes with dialogue (which at one point constituted about 60% of the film) are generally shorter than their corresponding sequences on the discs. Also, since the sound discs were synchronized with a projection speed of 24 frames per second (the established speed for sound film), and the film on the DVD is presented at a slower frame rate (to reproduce natural speed), the soundtrack on the DVD set has been altered to run more slowly than the originally recorded speed. A trailer for the sound reissue, included for the first time on the DVD set, runs at the faster sound film speed, with the audio at the correct pitch. On November 1, 2011, Image Entertainment released a new Blu-ray version of Phantom, produced by Film Preservation Associates, the film preservation company owned by David Shepard. On January 10, 2012, Shadowland Productions released The Phantom of the Opera: Angel of Music Edition, a two-disc DVD set featuring a newly recorded dialogue track with sound effects and an original musical score. The film was also reedited, combining elements from the 1925 version with the 1929 sound release. A 3D anaglyph version is included as an additional special feature. Eastman House print mystery It is uncertain for what purpose the negative used to strike the Eastman House print was produced, as it includes footage from the 1930 sound reissue, and shows few signs of wear or damage. For unknown reasons, an opening prologue showing a man with a lantern has been added—using a single continuous take—but no corresponding title cards or dialogue survive. This shot seems to have been a talking sequence, but it shows up in the original 1925 version, shorter in duration and using a different, close-up shot of the man with the lantern. Furthermore, the opening title sequence, the lantern man, the footage of Mary Fabian performing as Carlotta, and Mary Philbin's opera performances are photographed at 24 frames per second (sound film speed), and therefore were shot after the movie's original release. It is possible that the lantern man is meant to be Joseph Buquet, but the brief remaining close-up footage of this man from the 1925 version does not appear to be of Bernard Siegel, who plays Buquet. The man who appears in the reshot footage could be a different actor as well, but since there is no close-up of the man in this version, and the atmospheric lighting partially obscures his face, it is difficult to be certain. While it was common practice to simultaneously shoot footage with multiple cameras for prints intended for domestic and foreign markets, the film is one of few for which footage of both versions survives (others include Buster Keaton's Steamboat Bill, Jr. and Charlie Chaplin's The Gold Rush). Comparisons of the two versions (both in black and white and in color) yield: Footage of most of the scenes shot from two slightly different angles Different takes for similar scenes 24 fps sound scenes replacing silent scene footage Variations in many rewritten dialogue and exposition cards, in the same font Some possibilities regarding the negative's intended purpose are: It is an International Sound Version for foreign markets. It is a silent version for theaters not yet equipped with sound in 1930. It is a negative made for Universal Studios' reference. International sound version "International sound versions" were sometimes made of films which the producing companies judged not to be worth the expense of reshooting in a foreign language. These versions were meant to cash in on the talkie craze; by 1930 anything with sound did well at the box office, while silent films were largely ignored by the public. International sound versions were basically part-talkies, and were largely silent except for musical sequences. Since the films included synchronized music and sound effect tracks, they could be advertised as sound pictures, and therefore capitalize on the talkie craze in foreign markets without the expense of reshooting scenes with dialogue in foreign languages. To make an international version, the studio would simply replace any spoken dialogue in the film with music, and splice in some title cards in the appropriate language. Singing sequences were left intact, as well as any sound sequences without dialogue. The surviving sound discs of The Phantom of the Opera belong to the domestic release, but do not synchronize with the dialogue portions of the film, which have been abbreviated on the Eastman House print. However, there is no record of the content of the international version of The Phantom, nor even of the existence of such a version. Furthermore, for international sound versions, one negative was generally made for all of Europe, sent overseas, and not returned. Additionally, the Eastman House print shows no signs of negative wear that would be consistent with that of a negative printed for multiple countries. Silent version During the transition to sound in 1930, it was not uncommon for two versions of a picture, one silent and one sound, to play simultaneously (particularly for a movie from Universal, which kept a dual-format policy longer than most studios). One possibility is that the Eastman House print is actually a silent version of the reissued film, made for theaters not yet equipped with sound. However, according to trade journals of the time, no silent reissue was available. Harrison's Reports, which was always careful to specify whether or not a silent version of a movie was made, specifically stated that "there will be no silent version." Furthermore, by 1930, fewer exhibitors were booking completely silent films, and this had forced all of the major studios to add soundtracks and dialogue sequences to all of their major releases that had previously been intended for release as silent pictures. Studios no longer expended much time or money on silent versions, which were meant to be shown in rural areas where theaters could not yet afford the conversion to sound. Nevertheless, if the extant print is a silent version, it would explain why Universal still had it and also the lack of wear on the negative from which it was struck. Color preservation According to Harrison's Reports, when the film was originally released, it contained 17 minutes of color footage; this footage was retained in the 1930 part-talking version. Technicolor's records show 497 feet of color footage. Judging from trade journals and reviews, all of the opera scenes of Faust as well as the "Bal Masqué" scene were shot in Process 2 Technicolor (a two-color system). Prizmacolor sequences were also shot for the "Soldier's Night" introduction. Until recently, only the "Bal Masqué" scene survived in color; however in 2020, color footage of the ballet scene surfaced on YouTube. In the scene on the rooftop of the opera, the Phantom's cape was colored red, using the Handschiegl color process. This effect has been replicated by computer colorization in the 1996 restoration by Kevin Brownlow's Photoplay Productions. As with many films of the time, black-and-white footage was tinted various colors to provide mood. These included amber for interiors, blue for night scenes, green for mysterious moods, red for fire, and yellow (sunshine) for daylight exteriors. In January of 2021, moonflix, LLC (moonflix.com) released a color version of this film that uses their proprietary AI colorization methodologies. Legacy In 1998 The Phantom of the Opera was added to the United States National Film Registry, having been deemed "culturally, historically or aesthetically significant". It was included, at No. 52, in Bravo's 100 Scariest Movie Moments. It is listed in the film reference book 1001 Movies You Must See Before You Die. In the United States, the film is in the public domain because Universal did not renew the copyright in 1953. See also List of early color feature films List of films in the public domain in the United States Phantom of the Opera (1943 film) Universal Monsters References Explanatory notes Citations External links rare lobby card 1925 films 1920s horror films 1920s color films 1920s monster movies American films American monster movies American silent feature films American black-and-white films Films based on The Phantom of the Opera Films directed by Rupert Julian Films directed by Edward Sedgwick Films directed by Lon Chaney Films about composers Films based on horror novels Films set in Paris Films set in a theatre Films about opera Silent films in color United States National Film Registry films Universal Pictures films Articles containing video clips Gothic horror films Films with screenplays by Bernard McConville Films produced by Carl Laemmle Surviving American silent films Early color films American musical films Melodramas Romantic horror films Romantic musical films Halloween fiction Films about death Dark fantasy films Musical fantasy films American psychological horror films American serial killer films 1920s English-language films

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This is a list of award winners and league leaders for the Cleveland Guardians of Major League Baseball. Awards Most Valuable Player George Burns (1926) Lou Boudreau (1948) Al Rosen (1953) Cy Young Gaylord Perry (1972) CC Sabathia (2007) Cliff Lee (2008) Corey Kluber (2014, 2017) Shane Bieber (2020) Triple Crown Bob Feller (1940) Shane Bieber (2020) Rookie of the Year Herb Score (1955) Chris Chambliss (1971) Joe Charboneau (1980) Sandy Alomar, Jr. (1990) Manager of the Year Eric Wedge (2007) Terry Francona (2013, 2016) Gold Glove Award Minnie Miñoso (1959) Vic Power (1958, 1959, 1960, 1961) Jim Piersall (1961) Vic Davalillo (1964) Ray Fosse (1970, 1971) Rick Manning (1976) Sandy Alomar, Jr. (1990) Kenny Lofton (1993, 1994, 1995, 1996) Omar Vizquel (1994, 1995, 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2001) Matt Williams (1997) Roberto Alomar (1999, 2000, 2001) Travis Fryman (2000) Grady Sizemore (2007, 2008) Francisco Lindor (2016, 2019) Roberto Pérez (2019, 2020) César Hernández (2020) Silver Slugger Award Andre Thornton (1984) Julio Franco (1988) Carlos Baerga (1992, 1993) Albert Belle (1993, 1994, 1995, 1996) Manny Ramirez (1995, 1999, 2000) Jim Thome (1996) David Justice (1997) Matt Williams (1997) Roberto Alomar (1999, 2000) Juan Gonzalez (2001) Victor Martinez (2004) Grady Sizemore (2008) Asdrúbal Cabrera (2011) Michael Brantley (2014) Yan Gomes (2014) Francisco Lindor (2017, 2018) Carlos Santana (2019) José Ramírez (2017, 2018, 2020) Edgar Martínez Award Ellis Burks (2002) MLB "This Year in Baseball Awards" Note: These awards were renamed the "GIBBY Awards" in 2010 and then the "Esurance MLB Awards" in 2015. "GIBBY Awards" Best Breakout Pitcher Corey Kluber () "GIBBY Awards" Best Hitting Performance Lonnie Chisenhall (2014) – for "Chisenhall's career night" (June 9) Wilson defensive awards Roberto Perez (2019) Lee MacPhail MVP Award (ALCS) Orel Hershiser (1995) Marquis Grissom (1997) Andrew Miller () DHL Hometown Heroes (2006) Bob Feller – voted by MLB fans as the most outstanding player in the history of the franchise, based on on-field performance, leadership quality and character value Team award – American League pennant – World Series championship – American League pennant – World Series championship – American League pennant – Baseball America Organization of the Year 1995 – William Harridge Trophy (American League championship) 1997 – William Harridge Trophy (American League championship) 2016 – William Harridge Trophy (American League championship) Team records (single-game, single-season, career) Other achievements Cleveland Guardians Hall of Fame For a virtual tour, see footnote For photos of inductees' plaques, see footnote The Guardians Hall of Fame is located at Heritage Park at Progressive Field. Opened in 2007 – in the centerfield area of Progressive Field – Heritage Park contains bronze plaques and other exhibits honoring the franchise's history. Greater Cleveland Sports Hall of Fame Cleveland Chapter / BBWAA awards Cleveland Indians Man of the Year Award See footnote The "Cleveland Indians Man of the Year Award" was established in 1946, but was renamed the "Bob Feller Man of the Year Award" in 2010. From 1937 to 1943, the award was known as the "Cleveland Indians Most Valuable Player Award" chosen by the Cleveland BBWAA. There were no awards given for the years 1944 and 1945. Frank Gibbons-Steve Olin Good Guy Award See footnote Associated Press Athlete of the Year Lou Boudreau (1948) Bob Feller Act of Valor Award American League Statistical Leaders Batting Batting Average Nap Lajoie (.344, 1903) Nap Lajoie (.376, 1904) Elmer Flick (.308, 1905) Nap Lajoie (.384, 1910) Tris Speaker (.386, 1916) Lew Fonseca (.369, 1929) Lou Boudreau (.355, 1948) Bobby Ávila (.341, 1954) On-base percentage Nap Lajoie (.413, 1904) Joe Jackson (.468, 1911) Tris Speaker (.470, 1916) Tris Speaker (.474, 1922) Tris Speaker (.479, 1925) Larry Doby (.442, 1950) Mike Hargrove (.424, 1981) Slugging Percentage Nap Lajoie (.518, 1903) Nap Lajoie (.552, 1904) Elmer Flick (.462, 1905) Joe Jackson (.551, 1913) Tris Speaker (.502, 1916) Larry Doby (.541, 1952) Al Rosen (.613, 1953) Rocky Colavito (.620, 1958) Albert Belle (.690, 1995) Manny Ramirez (.663, 1999) Manny Ramirez (.697, 2000) Jim Thome (.677, 2002) OPS Nap Lajoie (.896, 1903) Nap Lajoie (.965, 1904) Elmer Flick (.845, 1905) Joe Jackson (1.011, 1913) Tris Speaker (.972, 1916) Larry Doby (.986, 1950) Al Rosen (1.034, 1953) Manny Ramirez (1.105, 1999) Manny Ramirez (1.154, 2000) Team Record Jim Thome (1.122, 2002) Travis Hafner(1.097, 2006) Games Elmer Flick (157, 1906) Nap Lajoie (157, 1908) Nap Lajoie (159, 1910) Larry Gardner (154, 1920) Co-Leader Joe Sewell (155, 1928) Co-Leader Johnny Hodapp (154, 1930) Co-Leader Earl Averill (154, 1934) Co-Leader Hal Trosky (154, 1934) Co-Leader Hal Trosky (154, 1935) Bill Knickerbocker (155, 1936) Co-Leader Ken Keltner (154, 1939) Co-Leader Lou Boudreau (155, 1940) Co-Leader Les Fleming (156, 1942) Mickey Rocco (155, 1944) Co-Leader Al Rosen (154, 1951) Co-Leader Al Smith (154, 1955) Co-Leader Leon Wagner (163, 1964) Co-Leader Team Record Rocky Colavito (162, 1965) Co-Leader Toby Harrah (162, 1982) Co-Leader Joe Carter (162, 1989) Co-Leader Grady Sizemore (162, 2006) Co-Leader At Bats Elmer Flick (624, 1906) Nap Lajoie (591, 1910) Charlie Jamieson (644, 1923) Co-Leader Carl Lind (650, 1928) Earl Averill (627, 1931) Mickey Rocco (653, 1944) Dale Mitchell (640, 1949) Julio Franco (658, 1984) Joe Carter (651, 1989) Co-Leader Kenny Lofton (662, 1996) Runs Elmer Flick (98, 1906) Ray Chapman (84, 1918) Larry Doby (104, 1952) Al Rosen (115, 1953) Al Smith (123, 1955) Albert Belle (121, 1995) Co-Leader Roberto Alomar (138, 1999) Grady Sizemore (134, 2006) Hits Nap Lajoie (208, 1904) Nap Lajoie (214, 1906) Nap Lajoie (227, 1910) Joe Jackson (226, 1912) Co-Leader Joe Jackson (197, 1913) Tris Speaker (211, 1916) Charlie Jamieson (222, 1923) George Burns (216, 1926) Co-Leader Johnny Hodapp (225, 1930) Joe Vosmik (216, 1935) Earl Averill (232, 1936) Dale Mitchell (203, 1949) Kenny Lofton (160, 1994) Total Bases Nap Lajoie (305, 1904) Nap Lajoie (304, 1910) Joe Jackson (331, 1912) Hal Trosky (405, 1936) Team Record Al Rosen (297, 1952) Al Rosen (367, 1953) Rocky Colavito (301, 1959) Albert Belle (294, 1994) Albert Belle (377, 1995) Doubles Nap Lajoie (49, 1904) Nap Lajoie (48, 1906) Nap Lajoie (51, 1910) Joe Jackson (39, 1913) Jack Graney (41, 1916) Co-Leader Tris Speaker (41, 1916) Co-Leader Tris Speaker (33, 1918) Tris Speaker (50, 1920) Tris Speaker (52, 1921) Tris Speaker (48, 1922) Tris Speaker (59, 1923) Joe Sewell (45, 1924) Co-Leader George Burns (64, 1926) Team Record Johnny Hodapp (51, 1930) Joe Vosmik (47, 1935) Lou Boudreau (45, 1941) Lou Boudreau (45, 1944) Lou Boudreau (45, 1947) Tito Francona (36, 1960) Albert Belle (52, 1995) Co-Leader Grady Sizemore (53, 2006) José Ramírez (56, 2017) Triples Elmer Flick (18, 1905) Elmer Flick (22, 1906) Elmer Flick (18, 1907) Joe Jackson (26, 1912) Team Record Joe Vosmik (20, 1935) Earl Averill (15, 1936) Co-Leader Jeff Heath (18, 1938) Jeff Heath (20, 1941) Hank Edwards (16, 1946) Dale Mitchell (23, 1949) Bobby Ávila (11, 1952) Brett Butler (14, 1986) Kenny Lofton (13, 1995) Home Runs Al Rosen (43, 1953) Rocky Colavito (42, 1959) Co-Leader Albert Belle (50, 1995) RBI Nap Lajoie (102, 1904) Hal Trosky (162, 1936) Al Rosen (105, 1952) Al Rosen (145, 1953) Larry Doby (126, 1954) Rocky Colavito (108, 1965) Joe Carter (121, 1986) Albert Belle (129, 1993) Albert Belle (126, 1995) Albert Belle (148, 1996) Manny Ramirez (165, 1999) Team Record Walks Jack Graney (94, 1917) Ray Chapman (84, 1918) Jack Graney (105, 1919) Rocky Colavito (93, 1965) Jim Thome (120, 1997) Jim Thome (127, 1999) Team Record Jim Thome (122, 2002) Carlos Santana (113, 2014) Strikeouts Braggo Roth (73, 1917) Ed Morgan (66, 1930) Co-Leader Pat Seerey (99, 1944) Pat Seerey (97, 1945) Pat Seerey (101, 1946) Co-Leader Larry Doby (111, 1952) Co-Leader Larry Doby (121, 1953) Jim Thome (171, 1999) Jim Thome (185, 2001) Team Record Stolen Bases Harry Bay (45, 1903) Harry Bay (38, 1904) Co-Leader Elmer Flick (38, 1904) Co-Leader Elmer Flick (39, 1906) Co-Leader George Case (28, 1946) Kenny Lofton (66, 1992) Kenny Lofton (70, 1993) Kenny Lofton (60, 1994) Kenny Lofton (54, 1995) Kenny Lofton (75, 1996) Team Record Singles Nap Lajoie (165, 1910) Tris Speaker (160, 1916) Charlie Jamieson (172, 1923) Team Record Charlie Jamieson (168, 1924) Dale Mitchell (162, 1948) Dale Mitchell (161, 1949) Carlos Baerga (152, 1992) Kenny Lofton (148, 1993) Kenny Lofton (107, 1994) Co-Leader Runs Created Nap Lajoie (124, 1904) Nap Lajoie (134, 1910) Joe Jackson (133, 1913) Tris Speaker (128, 1916) Al Rosen (153, 1953) Manny Ramirez (151, 1999) Co-Leader Extra-Base Hits Nap Lajoie (70, 1904) Nap Lajoie (62, 1910) Hal Trosky (96, 1936) Al Rosen (75, 1953) Rocky Colavito (70, 1958) Rocky Colavito (66, 1959) Albert Belle (73, 1994) Co-Leader Albert Belle (103, 1995) Team Record Grady Sizemore (92, 2006) José Ramírez (91, 2017) Times on Base Nap Lajoie (292, 1910) Joe Jackson (282, 1913) Tris Speaker (297, 1916) Tris Speaker (217, 1918) Al Rosen (290, 1953) Al Smith (294, 1955) Rocky Colavito (266, 1965) Hit By Pitch Bill Hinchman (15, 1907) Braggo Roth (8, 1918) Co-Leader Lew Fonseca (7, 1929) Earl Averill (6, 1932) Co-Leader Frankie Pytlak (5, 1934) Co-Leader Larry Doby (7, 1949) Co-Leader Luke Easter (10, 1950) Co-Leader Al Rosen (10, 1950) Co-Leader Minnie Miñoso (15, 1958) Minnie Miñoso (17, 1959) Team Record Max Alvis (10, 1963) Max Alvis (9, 1965) Co-Leader Roy Foster (12, 1970) Travis Hafner (17, 2004) Team Record Sacrifice Hits Bill Bradley (46, 1907) Bill Bradley (60, 1908) Ray Chapman (45, 1913) Terry Turner (38, 1914) Co-Leader Ray Chapman (67, 1917) Team Record Ray Chapman (50, 1919) Bill Wambsganss (43, 1921) Bill Wambsganss (42, 1922) Freddy Spurgeon (35, 1926) Joe Sewell (41, 1929) Lou Boudreau (14, 1941) Co-Leader Lou Boudreau (15, 1946) Co-Leader Bobby Ávila (19, 1954) Bobby Ávila (18, 1955) Dick Howser (16, 1964) Co-Leader Eddie Leon (23, 1970) Félix Fermín (32, 1989) Omar Vizquel (16, 1997) Omar Vizquel (17, 1999) Omar Vizquel (20, 2004) Coco Crisp (13, 2005) Sacrifice Flies Al Rosen (11, 1954) Vic Wertz (11, 1957) Vic Power (12, 1961) Co-Leader Jack Heidemann (10, 1970) Co-Leader Albert Belle (14, 1993) Roberto Alomar (13, 1999) Juan Gonzalez (16, 2001) Team Record Intentional Walks Andre Thornton (18, 1982) Co-Leader Team Record Grounded into Double Plays Lou Boudreau (23, 1940) Rocky Colavito (25, 1965) Co-Leader Julio Franco (28, 1986) Team Record At Bats per Strikeout Nap Lajoie (27.4, 1913) Nap Lajoie (27.9, 1914) Tris Speaker (52.3, 1918) Tris Speaker (42.5, 1920) Stuffy McInnis (107.4, 1922) Joe Sewell (152, 1925) Team Record Joe Sewell (96.3, 1926) Joe Sewell (81.3, 1927) Joe Sewell (65.3, 1928) Joe Sewell (144.5, 1929) Joe Sewell (117.7, 1930) Joe Vosmik (40.5, 1934) Lou Boudreau (36.8, 1946) Lou Boudreau (53.8, 1947) Lou Boudreau (62.2, 1948) Dale Mitchell (58.2, 1949) Dale Mitchell (56.8, 1952) Buddy Bell (16.1, 1972) Félix Fermín (34.3, 1993) At Bats per Home Run Charlie Hickman (43.5, 1903) Bill Hinchman (77.3, 1908) Pat Seerey (22.8, 1944) Al Rosen (15.0, 1950) Luke Easter (14.1, 1952) Rocky Colavito (11.9, 1958) Boog Powell (16.1, 1975) Manny Ramirez (11.9, 1999) Manny Ramirez (11.6, 2000) Jim Thome (10.7, 2001) Jim Thome (9.2, 2002) Team Record Outs Ray Chapman (460, 1917) Bill Wambsganss (485, 1920) Freddy Spurgeon (470, 1926) Co-Leader Homer Summa (442, 1927) Co-Leader Carl Lind (491, 1928) Mickey Rocco (509, 1944) Co-Leader Max Alvis (515, 1967) Team Record Pitching ERA Earl Moore (1.74, 1903) Addie Joss (1.59, 1904) Addie Joss (1.16, 1908) Team Record Vean Gregg (1.80, 1911) Stan Coveleski (2.76, 1923) Mel Harder (2.95, 1933) Bob Feller (2.61, 1940) Gene Bearden (2.43, 1948) Mike Garcia (2.36, 1949) Early Wynn (3.20, 1950) Mike Garcia (2.64, 1954) Sam McDowell (2.18, 1965) Luis Tiant (1.60, 1968) Rick Sutcliffe (2.96, 1982) Kevin Millwood (2.86, 2005) Cliff Lee (2.54, 2008) Corey Kluber (2.25, 2017) Shane Bieber (1.63, 2020) Wins Addie Joss (27, 1907) Co-Leader Jim Bagby, Sr. (31, 1920) Team Record George Uhle (26, 1923) George Uhle (27, 1926) Bob Feller (24, 1939) Bob Feller (27, 1940) Bob Feller (25, 1941) Bob Feller (26, 1946) Co-Leader Bob Feller (20, 1947) Bob Lemon (23, 1950) Bob Feller (22, 1951) Bob Lemon (23, 1954) Co-Leader Early Wynn (23, 1954) Co-Leader Bob Lemon (18, 1955) Co-Leader Jim Perry (18, 1960) Co-Leader Gaylord Perry (24, 1972) Co-Leader Cliff Lee (22, 2008) Shane Bieber (8, 2020) Won–Loss % Ed Klepfer (.778, 1917) Jim Bagby, Sr. (.721, 1920) George Uhle (.711, 1926) Johnny Allen (.938, 1937) Team Record Steve Hargan (.786, 1970) Cliff Lee (.783, 2005) Cliff Lee (.880, 2008) Shane Bieber (.889, 2020) WHIP Addie Joss (.948, 1903) Addie Joss (.806, 1908) Team Record Vean Gregg (1.054, 1911) Stan Coveleski (1.108, 1920) Bob Feller (1.133, 1940) Bob Feller (1.194, 1947) Bob Lemon (1.226, 1948) Early Wynn (1.25, 1950) Mike Garcia (1.125, 1954) Corey Kluber (0.87, 2017) Hits Allowed/9IP Earl Moore (7.12, 1903) Addie Joss (6.42, 1908) Vean Gregg (6.33, 1911) Stan Coveleski (6.09, 1917) Stan Coveleski (8.11, 1920) Bob Feller (7.29, 1938) Bob Feller (6.89, 1939) Bob Feller (6.88, 1940) Allie Reynolds (6.34, 1943) Steve Gromek (7.07, 1944) Early Wynn (6.99, 1950) Bob Lemon (6.86, 1952) Herb Score (5.85, 1956) Herb Score (6.89, 1959) Sam McDowell (5.87, 1965) Sam McDowell (6.02, 1966) Luis Tiant (5.30, 1968) Rick Sutcliffe (7.25, 1982) CC Sabathia (7.44, 2001) Walks/9IP Addie Joss (.83, 1908) Team Record Addie Joss (1.15, 1909) Sherry Smith (1.53, 1924) Sherry Smith (1.82, 1925) Clint Brown (1.71, 1932) Clint Brown (1.65, 1933) Mel Harder (1.66, 1935) Dick Donovan (1.69, 1962) Dick Donovan (1.22, 1963) Ralph Terry (1.25, 1965) Greg Swindell (1.17, 1991) Cliff Lee (1.37, 2008) Strikeouts/9IP Heinie Berger (5.90, 1909) Guy Morton (5.16, 1918) Guy Morton (4.53, 1922) Johnny Allen (6.11, 1936) Bob Feller (7.78, 1938) Bob Feller (7.46, 1939) Bob Feller (7.33, 1940) Bob Feller (6.82, 1941) Allie Reynolds (6.84, 1943) Bob Feller (5.90, 1947) Early Wynn (6.02, 1950) Herb Score (9.70, 1955) Herb Score (9.49, 1956) Herb Score (8.23, 1959) Sam McDowell (9.19, 1964) Sam McDowell (10.71, 1965) Sam McDowell (10.42, 1966) Luis Tiant (9.22, 1967) Sam McDowell (9.47, 1968) Sam McDowell (8.81, 1969) Sam McDowell (8.97, 1970) Len Barker (6.83, 1980) Len Barker (7.41, 1981) Shane Bieber (14.198, 2020) Games Jim Bagby, Sr. (45, 1918) Co-Leader Jim Bagby, Sr. (48, 1920) Johnny Humphries (45, 1938) Bob Feller (43, 1940) Bob Feller (44, 1941) Joe Heving (63, 1944) Bob Feller (48, 1946) Ed Klieman (58, 1947) Ray Narleski (60, 1955) Saves Bill Hoffer (3, 1901) Otto Hess (3, 1906) Co-Leader Ed Klieman (17, 1947) Co-Leader Russ Christopher (17, 1948) Ray Narleski (19, 1955) Johnny Klippstein (14, 1960) Co-Leader José Mesa (46, 1995) Bob Wickman (45, 2005) Co-Leader Joe Borowski (45, 2007) Brad Hand (15, 2020) Innings Jim Bagby, Sr. (, 1920) George Uhle (, 1923) George Uhle (, 1926) Bob Feller (, 1939) Bob Feller (, 1940) Bob Feller (343, 1941) Jim Bagby, Jr. (273, 1943) Bob Feller (, 1946) Team Record Bob Feller (299, 1947) Bob Lemon (, 1948) Bob Lemon (288, 1950) Early Wynn (, 1951) Bob Lemon (, 1952) Bob Lemon (, 1953) Early Wynn (, 1954) Sam McDowell (305, 1970) Co-Leader Strikeouts Stan Coveleski (133, 1920) Bob Feller (240, 1938) Bob Feller (246, 1939) Bob Feller (261, 1940) Bob Feller (260, 1941) Allie Reynolds (151, 1943) Bob Feller (348, 1946) Team Record Bob Feller (196, 1947) Bob Feller (164, 1948) Bob Lemon (170, 1950) Herb Score (245, 1955) Herb Score (263, 1956) Early Wynn (184, 1957) Sam McDowell (325, 1965) Sam McDowell (225, 1966) Sam McDowell (283, 1968) Sam McDowell (279, 1969) Sam McDowell (304, 1970) Len Barker (187, 1980) Len Barker (127, 1981) Shane Bieber (122, 2020) Games Started Stan Coveleski (40, 1921) George Uhle (40, 1922) George Uhle (44, 1923) Team Record George Uhle (36, 1926) Bob Feller (37, 1940) Bob Feller (40, 1941) Jim Bagby, Jr. (35, 1942) Jim Bagby, Jr. (33, 1943) Bob Feller (42, 1946) Bob Feller (37, 1947) Bob Feller (38, 1948) Bob Lemon (37, 1950) Bob Lemon (34, 1951) Co-Leader Early Wynn (34, 1951) Co-Leader Mike Garcia (36, 1952) Co-Leader Bob Lemon (36, 1952) Co-Leader Early Wynn (36, 1954) Early Wynn (37, 1957) Jim Perry (36, 1960) Co-Leader Complete Games Jim Bagby, Sr. (30, 1920) George Uhle (29, 1923) Sherry Smith (22, 1925) Co-Leader George Uhle (32, 1926) Wes Ferrell (27, 1931) Co-Leader Bob Feller (24, 1939) Co-Leader Bob Feller (31, 1940) Bob Feller (36, 1946) Team Record Bob Lemon (20, 1948) Bob Lemon (22, 1950) Co-Leader Bob Lemon (28, 1952) Bob Lemon (21, 1954) Co-Leader Bob Lemon (21, 1956) Co-Leader Gaylord Perry (29, 1972) Gaylord Perry (29, 1973) Tom Candiotti (17, 1986) Jake Westbrook (5, 2004) Co-Leader Corey Kluber (5, 2017) Co-Leader Shutouts Addie Joss (5, 1902) Stan Coveleski (9, 1917) George Uhle (5, 1922) Stan Coveleski (5, 1923) Clint Brown (3, 1930) Oral Hildebrand (6, 1933) Mel Harder (6, 1934) Co-Leader Bob Feller (4, 1940) Co-Leader Al Milnar (4, 1940) Co-Leader Bob Feller (6, 1941) Bob Feller (10, 1946) Team Record Bob Feller (5, 1947) Bob Lemon (10, 1948) Team Record Mike Garcia (6, 1952) Co-Leader Mike Garcia (5, 1954) Co-Leader Herb Score (5, 1956) Jim Perry (4, 1960) Co-Leader Dick Donovan (5, 1962) Co-Leader Sam McDowell (5, 1966) Co-Leader Luis Tiant (5, 1966) Co-Leader Steve Hargan (6, 1967) Co-Leader Luis Tiant (9, 1968) Cliff Lee (2, 2008) Co-Leader Corey Kluber (3, 2017) Co-Leader Home Runs Allowed Jim Bagby, Jr. (19, 1942) Bob Feller (22, 1951) Early Wynn (23, 1952) Jim Perry (35, 1960) Luis Tiant (37, 1969) Walks Allowed Earl Moore (101, 1902) Gene Krapp (138, 1911) George Kahler (121, 1912) Vean Gregg (124, 1913) George Uhle (118, 1926) Wes Ferrell (130, 1931) Bob Feller (208, 1938) Team Record Bob Feller (142, 1939) Bob Feller (194, 1941) Allie Reynolds (130, 1945) Bob Feller (153, 1946) Early Wynn (132, 1952) Sam McDowell (132, 1965) Sam McDowell (123, 1967) Sam McDowell (110, 1968) Luis Tiant (129, 1969) Sam McDowell (131, 1970) Sam McDowell (153, 1971) Hits Allowed Jim Bagby, Sr. (277, 1917) Stan Coveleski (286, 1919) Jim Bagby, Sr. (338, 1920) George Uhle (378, 1923) Team Record George Uhle (300, 1926) Willis Hudlin (291, 1927) Bob Feller (284, 1941) Jim Bagby, Jr. (248, 1943) Bob Feller (277, 1946) Bob Feller (255, 1948) Bob Lemon (281, 1950) Bob Lemon (244, 1951) Mike Garcia (284, 1952) Bob Lemon (283, 1953) Early Wynn (270, 1957) Cal McLish (253, 1959) Strikeout to Walk Bob Feller (2.21, 1940) Mike Garcia (1.57, 1949) Sonny Siebert (4.15, 1965) Dennis Eckersley (3.54, 1977) Greg Swindell (5.45, 1991) Losses Joe Shaute (17, 1924) Co-Leader Bob Lemon (14, 1951) Co-Leader Luis Tiant (20, 1969) Wayne Garland (19, 1977) Rick Wise (19, 1978) Earned Runs Allowed George Uhle (150, 1923) Team Record Monte Pearson (128, 1934) Early Wynn (126, 1957) Jim Perry (117, 1961) Co-Leader Sam McDowell (101, 1967) Wild Pitches Earl Moore (13, 1901) Co-Leader Otto Hess (18, 1905) Team Record Bob Rhoads (14, 1907) Co-Leader Heinie Berger (13, 1909) Cy Falkenberg (13, 1913) George Uhle (8, 1926) Co-Leader Garland Buckeye (10, 1927) Joe Shaute (7, 1928) Monte Pearson (15, 1934) Bob Feller (14, 1939) Gene Bearden (11, 1949) Herb Score (12, 1955) Herb Score (11, 1956) Cal McLish (8, 1957) Herb Score (14, 1959) Sam McDowell (17, 1965) Sam McDowell (18, 1967) Sam McDowell (17, 1970) Gaylord Perry (17, 1973) Len Barker (14, 1980) Jack Morris (13, 1994) Co-Leader Hit Batsmen Otto Hess (24, 1906) Team Record Vean Gregg (14, 1913) Co-Leader George Uhle (13, 1924) Co-Leader George Uhle (13, 1926) Earl Whitehill (9, 1938) Al Smith (6, 1940) Co-Leader Allie Reynolds (7, 1943) Batters Faced Jim Bagby, Sr. (1,364, 1920) George Uhle (1,548, 1923) Team Record George Uhle (1,367, 1926) Bob Feller (1,304, 1940) Bob Feller (1,466, 1941) Jim Bagby, Jr. (1,135, 1943) Bob Feller (1,512, 1946) Bob Feller (1,218, 1947) Bob Lemon (1,214, 1948) Bob Lemon (1,254, 1950) Bob Lemon (1,139, 1951) Bob Lemon (1,252, 1952) Bob Lemon (1,216, 1953) Early Wynn (1,102, 1954) Early Wynn (1,146, 1957) Sam McDowell (1,257, 1970) Games Finished José Mesa (57, 1995) Co-Leader Oldest Player Cy Young (42, 1909) Deacon McGuire (46, 1910) Cy Young (44, 1911) Joe Heving (41, 1942) Joe Heving (42, 1943) Joe Heving (43, 1944) Satchel Paige (42, 1949) Early Wynn (43, 1963) Phil Niekro (47, 1986) Dave Winfield (43, 1995) Dennis Martínez (41, 1996) Youngest Player Ed Cermak (19, 1901) Mel Harder (18, 1928) Bob Feller (17, 1936) Bob Feller (18, 1937) Vern Freiburger (17, 1941) Ted Sepkowski (18, 1942) Mike Lee (19, 1960) Alfredo Griffin (18, 1976) Julián Tavárez (20, 1993) CC Sabathia (20, 2001) See also Baseball awards List of Major League Baseball awards Footnotes Award Major League Baseball team trophies and awards

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This article describes the grammar of Tigrinya, a South Semitic language which is spoken primarily in Eritrea and Ethiopia, and is written in Ge'ez script. Nouns Gender Like other Afro-Asiatic languages, Tigrinya has two grammatical genders, masculine and feminine, and all nouns belong to either one or the other. Grammatical gender in Tigrinya enters into the grammar in the following ways: Verbs agree with their subjects in gender (unless the subject is first person). Second and third person personal pronouns (you, he, she, they, etc. in English) are distinguished by gender. Adjectives and determiners agree with the nouns they modify in gender. Some noun pairs for people distinguish masculine and feminine by their endings, with the feminine signaled by t. These include agent nouns derived from verbs — ከፈተ käfätä 'open', ከፋቲ käfati 'opener (m.)', ከፋቲት käfatit 'opener (f.)' — and nouns for nationalities or natives of particular regions — ትግራዋይ tǝgraway 'Tigrean (m.)', ትግራወይቲ tǝgrawäyti 'Tigrean (f.)'. Grammatical gender normally agrees with biological gender for people and animals; thus nouns such as ኣቦ ’abbo 'father', ወዲ wäddi 'son, boy', and ብዕራይ bǝ‘ǝray 'ox' are masculine, while nouns such as ኣደ addä 'mother', ጓል gʷal 'daughter, girl', and ላም lam or ላሕሚ lah.mi 'cow' are feminine. However, most names for animals do not specify biological gender, and the words ተባዕታይ täba‘tay 'male' and ኣንስተይቲ anǝstäyti must be placed before the nouns if the gender is to be indicated. The gender of most inanimate nouns is not predictable from the form or the meaning. Grammars sometimes disagree on the genders of particular nouns; for example, ጸሓይ ṣäḥay 'sun' is masculine according to Leslau, feminine according to Amanuel. This disagreement seems to be due to dialectal differences. Number Tigrinya has singular and plural number, but nouns that refer to multiple entities are not obligatorily plural. That is, if the context is clear, a formally singular noun may refer to multiple entities: ሓሙሽተ ḥammuštä 'five', ሰብኣይ säb’ay 'man', ሓሙሽተ ሰብኡት ḥammuštä säbut, 'five men'. It is also possible for a formally singular noun to appear together with plural agreement on adjectives or verbs: ብዙሓት bǝzuḥat 'many (pl.)', ዓዲ ‘addi 'village'; ብዙሓት ዓዲ bǝzuḥat ‘addi 'many villages'. The conventions for when this combination of singular and plural is or is not possible appear to be complex. As in Arabic, Tigre, and Ge'ez, noun plurals are formed both through the addition of suffixes to the singular form ("external" plural) and through the modification of the pattern of vowels within (and sometimes outside) the consonants that make up the noun root ("internal" or "broken" plural). In some cases suffixes may also be added to an internal plural. The most common patterns are as follows. In the designation of internal plural patterns, "C" represents one of the consonants of the noun root. Note that some nouns (for example, ዓራት ‘arat 'bed') have more than one possible plural. External plural -at, -tat ዓራት ‘arat 'bed', ዓራታት(ዓራውቲ) ‘aratat 'beds' እምባ ǝmba 'mountain', እምባታት ǝmbatat 'mountains' -ot (following deletion of -a or -ay) ጐይታ gʷäyta 'master', ጐይቶት gʷäytot 'masters' ሓረስታይ ḥarästay 'farmer', ሓረስቶት ḥarästot 'farmers' -ǝtti, -wǝtti (sometimes with deletion of final -t) ገዛ gäza 'house', ገዛውቲ gäzawǝtti 'houses' ዓራት ‘arat 'bed', ዓራውቲ ‘arawǝtti 'beds' Internal plural ’aCCaC ፈረስ färäs 'horse', ኣፍራሰ ’afras 'horses' እዝኒ ’ǝzni 'ear', ኣእዛን ’a’zan 'ears' ’aCaCǝC ንህቢ nǝhbi 'bee', ኣናህብ ’anahǝb 'bees' በግዕ bäggǝ‘ 'sheep' (s.), ኣባግዕ ’abagǝ‘ 'sheep' (p.) CäCaCu ደርሆ därho 'chicken', ደራሁ därahu 'chickens' ጕሒላ gʷǝḥila 'thief', ጕሓሉ gʷǝḥalu 'thieves' C{ä,a}CaCǝC መንበር mänbär 'chair', መናብር mänabǝr 'chairs' ሓርማዝ ḥarmaz 'elephant', ሓራምዝ ḥaramǝz 'elephants' ...äCti for the plural of agent and instrument nouns derived from verbs ቀላቢ k'ällabi 'feeder', ቀለብቲ k'älläbti 'feeders' ኣገልጋሊ ’agälgali 'server', ኣገልገልቲ ’agälgälti 'servers' መኽደኒ mäxdäni 'cover', መኽደንቲ mäxdänti 'covers' CǝCawǝCti ክዳን kǝdan 'clothing', ክዳውንቲ kǝdawǝnti 'articles of clothing' ሕጻን ḥǝs'an 'infant', ሕጻውንቲ ḥǝs'awǝnti 'infants' CäCaCǝCti መጽሓፍ mäs'ḥaf 'book', መጻሕፍቲ mäs'aḥǝfti 'books' ኮኸብ koxäb 'star', ከዋኽብቲ käwaxǝbti 'stars' ...C*aC*ǝC..., where "C*" represents a single root consonant ወረቐት wäräx'ät 'paper', ወረቓቕቲ wäräx'ax'ti 'papers' ተመን tämän 'snake', ተማምን tämamǝn 'snakes' Among the completely irregular plurals are ሰበይቲ säbäyti 'woman', ኣንስቲ ’anǝsti 'women' and ጓል gʷal 'girl, daughter', እዋልድ ’awalǝd 'girls, daughters' (alongside ኣጓላት ’agʷalat). Expression of possession, genitive Tigrinya has two ways to express the genitive relationships that are expressed in English using possessives (the city's streets), of phrases (the streets of the city), and noun-noun compounds (city streets). Prepositional phrases with the preposition ናይ nay 'of' ሓደ ḥadä 'one', ሰብ säb 'person', ቈልዓ kʷ'äl‘a 'child', ናይ ሓደ ሰብ ቈልዓ nay ḥadä säb kʷ'äl‘a 'one person's child', nat can come before and after the possessee መስተዋድድ mästäwadǝd 'preposition', ተሰሓቢ tësëḥabi 'object', ናይ መስተዋድድ ተሰሓቢ nay mästäwadǝd täsäḥabi 'object of a preposition' Noun-noun constructions, with the "possessor" following the "possessed thing" ጓል gʷal 'daughter', ሓወይ ḥawwäy 'my brother', ጓል ሓወይ gʷal ḥawwäy 'my brother's daughter (niece)' መዓልቲ mä‘alti 'day', ሓርነት ḥarǝnnät 'freedom', መዓልቲ ሓርነት ኤርትራ mä‘alti ḥarǝnnät ’ertǝra 'Eritrean Liberation Day' Pronouns Personal pronouns In most languages, there is a small number of basic distinctions of person, number, and often gender that play a role within the grammar of the language. Tigrinya and English are such languages. We see these distinctions within the basic set of independent personal pronouns, for example, English I, Tigrinya ኣነ anä; English she, Tigrinya ንሳ nǝssa. In Tigrinya, as in other Semitic languages, the same distinctions appear in three other places within the grammar of the languages as well. Subject–verb agreement All Tigrinya verbs agree with their subjects; that is, the person, number, and (second and third person) gender of the subject of the verb are marked by suffixes or prefixes on the verb. Because the affixes that signal subject agreement vary greatly with the particular verb tense/aspect/mood, they are normally not considered to be pronouns and are discussed elsewhere in this article under verb conjugation. Object pronoun suffixes Tigrinya verbs often have additional morphology that indicates the person, number, and (second and third person) gender of the object of the verb. While suffixes such as -yya in this example are sometimes described as signaling object agreement, analogous to subject agreement, they are more often thought of as object pronoun suffixes because, unlike the markers of subject agreement, they do not vary significantly with the tense/aspect/mood of the verb. For arguments of the verb other than the subject or the object, a separate set of related suffixes have a dative, benefactive, adversative, instrumental, or locative meaning ('to', 'for', 'against', 'with', 'by', 'at'). Suffixes such as -lla in this example will be referred to in this article as prepositional object pronoun suffixes because they correspond to prepositional phrases such as 'for her', to distinguish them from the direct object pronoun suffixes such as -yya 'her'. Possessive suffixes Tigrinya has a further set of morphemes that are suffixed to either nouns or prepositions. These signal possession on a noun and prepositional object on a preposition. They will be referred to as possessive suffixes. ገዛ gäza 'house', ገዛይ gäza-y 'my house', ገዛኣ gäza-’a 'her house' ብዛዕባ bǝza‘ba 'about', ብዛዕባይ bǝza‘ba-y 'about me', ብዛዕብኣ bǝza‘bǝ-’a 'about her' In each of these four aspects of the grammar, independent pronouns, subject–verb agreement, object-pronoun suffixes, and possessive suffixes, Tigrinya distinguishes ten combinations of person, number, and gender. For first person, there is a two-way distinction between singular ('I') and plural ('we'), whereas for second and third persons, there is a four-way distinction for the four combinations of singular and plural number and masculine and feminine gender ('you m. sg.', 'you f. sg.', 'you m. pl.', 'you f. pl.', 'he', 'she', 'they m.', 'they f.'). Like other Semitic languages, Tigrinya is a pro-drop language. That is, neutral sentences, in which no element is emphasized, normally use the verb conjugation rather than independent pronouns to indicate the subject, and incorporates the object pronoun into the verb: ኤርትራዊ እዩ ’erǝtrawi ’ǝyyu 'he's Eritrean,' ዓዲመያ ‘addimäyya 'I invited her'. The Tigrinya words that translate directly as 'he' and 'I' do not appear in these sentences, while the word 'her' is indicated by the 'a' at the end of the verb (thus, the person, number, and (second or third person) gender of the subject and object are all marked by affixes on the verb). When the subject in such sentences is emphasized, an independent pronoun is used: ንሱ ኤርትራዋይ እዩ nǝssu ’erǝtraway ̈’ǝyyu 'he's Eritrean,' ኣነ ዓዲመያ anǝ ‘addimäyya 'I invited her'. When the object is emphasized, instead of an independent pronoun, the accusative marker nǝ- is used with the appropriate possessive suffix: ንኣኣ ዓዲመያ nǝ’a’a ‘addimäyya 'I invited her'. The table below shows alternatives for many of the forms. In each case, the choice depends on what precedes the form in question. For the possessive suffixes, the form depends on whether the noun or preposition ends in a vowel or a consonant, for example, ከልበይ kälb-äy 'my dog', ኣዶይ ’addo-y 'my mother'. For the object pronoun suffixes, for most of the forms there is a "light" (non-geminated) and a "heavy" (geminated) variant, a pattern also found in a number of other Ethiopian Semitic languages, including Tigre and the Western Gurage languages. The choice of which variant to use is somewhat complicated; some examples are given in the verb section. Within second and third person, there is a set of additional "polite" independent pronouns, for reference to people that the speaker wishes to show respect towards. This usage is an example of the so-called T-V distinction that is made in many languages. The polite pronouns in Tigrinya are just the plural independent pronouns without -xat- or -at: ንስኹም nǝssǝxum 'you m. pol.', ንስኽን nǝssǝxǝn 'you f. pol.', ንሶም nǝssom 'he pol.', ንሰን nǝssän 'she pol.'. Although these forms are most often singular semantically — they refer to one person — they correspond to second or third person plural elsewhere in the grammar, as is common in other T-V systems. For second person, there is also a set of independent vocative pronouns, used to call the addressee. These are ኣታ atta (m. sg.), ኣቲ atti (f. sg.), ኣቱም attum (m. pl.), ኣተን attän. For possessive pronouns ('mine', 'yours', etc.), Tigrinya adds the possessive suffixes to nat- (from the preposition nay 'of'): ናተይ natäy 'mine', ናትካ natka 'yours m. sg.', ናትኪ natki 'yours f. sg.', ናታ nata 'hers', etc. Reflexive pronouns For reflexive pronouns ('myself', 'yourself', etc.), Tigrinya adds the possessive suffixes to one of the nouns ርእሲ rǝ’si 'head', ነፍሲ näfsi 'soul', or ባዕሊ ba‘li 'owner': ርእሰይ rǝ’säy / ነፍሰይ näfsäy / ባዕለይ ba‘läy 'myself', ርእሳ rǝ’sa / ነፍሳ näfsa / ባዕላ ba‘la 'herself', etc. Demonstrative pronouns Like English, Tigrinya makes a two-way distinction between near ('this, these') and far ('that, those') demonstrative pronouns and adjectives. Besides singular and plural, as in English, Tigrinya also distinguishes masculine and feminine gender. Adjectives Tigrinya adjectives may have separate masculine singular, feminine singular, and plural forms, and adjectives usually agree in gender and number with the nouns they modify. The plural forms follow the same patterns as noun plurals; that is, they may be formed by suffixes or internal changes or a combination of the two. Some common patterns relating masculine, feminine and plural forms of adjectives are the following. Note that ä in the patterns becomes a after pharyngeal or glottal consonants (as elsewhere in Tigrinya). masculine CǝC(C)uC, feminine CǝC(C)ǝCti, plural CǝC(C)uCat ሕሙም ḥǝmum ሕምምቲ ḥǝmǝmti ሕሙማት ḥǝmumat 'sick' masculine CäCCiC, feminine CäCCaC, plural CäCCäCti or CäCCaCti ጸሊም s'ällim ጸላም s'ällam ጸለምቲ s'ällämti 'black' ነዊሕ näwwiḥ ነዋሕ näwwaḥ ነዋሕቲ näwwaḥti 'long' masculine and feminine the same , plural -(t)at. In the following case, the adjective is formed from adding -"am" to a noun, a feature shared with Amharic ሃብቲ habti, 'wealth', ሃብታም habtam ሃብታማት habtamat 'rich' Adjectives modifying plural animate nouns must be plural, but adjectives modifying plural inanimate nouns may be singular: ጻዕዳ ክዳውንቲ s'a‘da kǝdawǝnti 'white clothes' ('white' singular, 'clothes' plural). However, nouns referring to multiple entities may be singular when the context makes the plurality clear, and these singular nouns may be modified by plural adjectives: ክልተ ሃብታማት ሰበይቲ kǝlǝttä habtamat säbäyti 'two rich women' (lit. 'two rich (pl.) woman'). Adjectives are used less often in Tigrinya than in English. Most adjectives have a corresponding verb that is derived from the same consonantal root, and this verb often appears where English would have an adjective. For example, ከቢድ käbbid 'heavy' ከበደ käbädä 'be, become heavy', ሕማቕ ḥǝmmax 'bad', ሓመቐ ḥammäx'ä 'be, become bad'. In particular, an adjective may be replaced by the relative perfect form of the corresponding verb: ሕማቕ ሰብኣይ ḥǝmmax' säb’ay 'a bad man', ዝሓመቐ ሰብኣይ zǝḥammäx'ä säb’ay 'a bad man' (lit. 'man who became bad'). Determiners Demonstrative adjectives As with the demonstrative pronouns, the Tigrinya demonstrative adjectives divide into expression for near ('this, these') and far ('that, those') referents, with separate forms for the four combinations of singular and plural number and masculine and feminine gender. Like other adjectives, demonstrative adjectives precede the noun, but they are often accompanied by a second copy or slightly modified form that follows the noun. The vowel beginning the form following the noun is often dropped and in writing may then be represented by an apostrophe: እዚ ሰብ'ዚ ǝzi säbzi 'this man'. Articles Like other Semitic languages, Tigrinya has no indefinite article (English a), but has a definite article (English the). In Tigrinya, as in Tigre, but unlike in the Southern Ethiopian Semitic languages such as Amharic, this takes the form of a word that appears at the beginning of the noun phrase. The definite article is derived from, and almost identical to, the distal demonstrative adjective (English 'that'), as can be seen in the table below. When the definite article is preceded by the accusative marker/preposition ን nǝ or the preposition ብ bǝ, the vowel sequence ǝ+ǝ merges into the vowel ä: በቲ መጋዝ bäti mägaz 'with the saw'. After other prepositions, the initial vowel of the article is often dropped: ካብቲ እተሓደረሉ ቦታ kabti ǝttäḥadärällu bota 'from the place where he spent the night'. Verbs In Tigrinya, as in other Semitic languages, a verb is a complex object, the result of selections by the speaker/writer along at least four separate dimensions. Root At the heart of a Semitic verb is its root, most often consisting of three consonants. This determines the basic lexical meaning of the verb. For example, the Tigrinya root meaning 'break' consists of the three consonants {sbr}. Derivational pattern The root may be altered in one of several ways that modify the basic meaning of the verb. In Tigrinya there are five such possibilities (though not all are possible for each verb). For example, the verb can be made passive: the sense 'be broken' is derived from the root {sbr} 'break' with the addition of the PASSIVE morpheme, though the form's actual realization depends on choices on other dimensions. Tense/Aspect/Mood The root must be assigned a particular basic tense/aspect/mood (TAM). In Tigrinya there are four possibilities, conventionally referred to as perfect, imperfect, jussive/imperative, and gerundive. Once a lexical root, possibly altered through the addition of a derivational element, has been assigned a basic TAM, it becomes a pronounceable stem, though still not a complete word. For example, {sbr}+PASSIVE 'be broken' in the imperfect becomes sǝbbär 'is broken'. Conjugation Semitic verbs are conjugated; that is, they agree with the verb's subject in person, number, and gender. For example, if the subject of the imperfect of the passive of {sbr} is third person plural masculine ('they'), the form becomes the word ይስበሩ yǝsǝbbäru 'they are broken'. In addition to these basic dimensions of variation characterizing all Tigrinya verbs, there are four additional possible modifications. A direct object or prepositional object suffix (see #Personal pronouns) may be added to the verb. For example, the prepositional object -läy 'for me' could be suffixed to the word ይስበሩ yǝsǝbbäru 'they are broken' to give ይስበሩለይ yǝsǝbbäruläy 'they are broken for me'. The verb may be negated. This requires a prefix and sometimes a suffix. For example, the word ይስበሩለይ yǝsǝbbäruläy 'they are broken for me' is negated by the prefixing of ay- and the suffixing of -n: ኣይስበሩለይን ayyǝsǝbbäruläyǝn 'they are not broken for me'. One or more morphemes including the relativizing morpheme zǝ- and various prepositions and conjunctions may be prefixed to the verb. For example, with the relativizing prefix, the form ኣይስበሩለይን ayyǝsǝbbäruläyǝn 'they are not broken for me' becomes ዘይስበሩለይ zäyyǝsǝbbäruläy '(those) that are not broken for me'. (The negative suffix -n does not occur in subordinate clauses.) The aspect of the verb may be modified through the addition of an auxiliary verb. Auxiliaries are usually treated as separate words in Tigrinya but in some cases are written as suffixes on the main verb. For example, with the auxiliary allo in its third person plural masculine form, the word ዘይስበሩለይ zäyyǝsǝbbäruläy '(those) that are not broken for me' takes on continuous aspect: ዘይስበሩለይ ዘለዉ zäyyǝsǝbbäruläy zälläwu '(those) which are not being broken for me'. (The relativizing prefix zǝ- must also appear on the auxiliary.) Prepositions Tigrinya has both simple and compound prepositions. The main simple prepositions are the following. With personal pronouns as objects, the pronouns take the form of possessive suffixes. In some cases, these are suffixed to a modified version of the preposition, and for the third person forms, there may be various possibilities: ንዕኡ nǝ‘ǝ’u ንእኡ nǝ’ǝ’u ንኡ nǝ’u 'for him'. The compound prepositions consist of one of the simple prepositions, usually ኣብ ab, followed by a relational noun or a form related to a noun. Some compound prepositions alternate with simple prepositions consisting only of the second word: ድሕሪ dǝḥri ኣብ ድሕሪ ab dǝḥri 'after, behind', ቅድሚ qǝdmi ኣብ ቅድሚ ab qǝdmi 'before, in front of'. Other examples: ኣብ ውሽጢ ab wǝšt'i 'inside', ኣብ ጥቓ ab t'ǝx'a 'near', ኣብ ልዕሊ ab lǝ‘ǝli 'above, on', ኣብ ትሕቲ ab tǝḥti 'below', ኣብ ማእከል ab ma’käl 'in the middle of, among', ኣብ መንጎ ab mängo 'between'. Bibliography Dan'el Täxlu Räda (1996, Eth. Cal.) Zäbänawi säwasəw kʷ'ankʷ'a Təgrəñña. Mäx'älä. Leslau, Wolf (1941) Documents tigrigna: grammaire et textes. Paris: Libraire C. Klincksieck. Mason, John (Ed.) (1996) Säwasǝw Tǝgrǝñña, Tigrinya grammar. Lawrenceville, NJ, USA: Red Sea Press. (, paperback) Praetorius, F. (1871) Grammatik der Tigriñasprache in Abessinien. Halle. (1974 reprint) Tadross, Andrew & Abraham Teklu. (2015) The Essential Guide to Tigrinya: The Language of Eritrea and Tigray Ethiopia. References Grammar Semitic grammars

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Language pedagogy is the discipline concerned with the theories and techniques of teaching language. It contains three stages. In the late 1800s and most of the 1900s, it was usually conceived in terms of method. In 1963, University of Michigan Linguistics Professor Edward Mason Anthony Jr. formulated a framework to describe them into three levels: approach, method and technique. It has been expanded by Richards and Rogers in 1982 to approach, design, and procedure. There are many methods of teaching language, but all may be characterized by the following three principal views: The structural view treats language as a system of structurally related elements to code meaning (e.g. grammar). The functional view sees language as a vehicle to express or accomplish certain functions, (e.g. making a request, giving information or asking for information). The interactive view sees language as a vehicle for the creation and maintenance of social relations, focusing on patterns of moves, acts, negotiation and interaction found in conversational exchanges. This view has been fairly dominant since the 1980s. Each view encompasses a number of methods which can be utilised in order to teach and learn languages. Additionally, there are an abundance of proprietary methods tied to particular companies or schools that are not as widely used in mainstream teaching. The most notable being specific computer courses which use programming and speech recognition to give feedback to participants. Methodology In the late 1800s and most of the 1900s, language teaching was usually conceived in terms of method. In seeking to improve teaching practices, teachers and researchers would typically try to find out which method was the most effective. However, method is an ambiguous concept in language teaching, and has been used in many different ways. According to Bell, this variety in use "offers a challenge for anyone wishing to enter into the analysis or deconstruction of methods". Approach, method and technique In 1963, University of Michigan Linguistics Professor Edward Mason Anthony Jr. formulated a framework to describe various language teaching methods, which consisted of three levels: approach, method, and technique. According to Anthony, "The arrangement is hierarchical. The organizational key is that techniques carry out a method which is consistent with an approach." His concept of approach was of a set of principles or ideas about the nature of language learning which would be consistent over time; "an approach is axiomatic". His method was more procedural; "an overall plan for the orderly presentation of language material, no part of which contradicts, and all of which is based upon, the selected approach." Finally, his concept of technique referred to the actual implementation in the language classroom; "a particular trick, stratagem, or contrivance used to accomplish an immediate objective." He saw techniques as being consistent with a given method and by extension, with a given approach. A method is a plan for presenting the language material to be learned and should be based upon a selected approach. In order for an approach to be translated into a method, an instructional system must be designed considering the objectives of the teaching/learning, how the content is to be selected and organized, the types of tasks to be performed, the roles of students and the roles of teachers. A technique is a very specific, concrete stratagem or trick designed to accomplish an immediate objective. Such are derived from the controlling method, and less-directly, with the approach. Anthony's framework was welcomed by the language teaching community when it was introduced, and it was seen as a useful way of classifying different teaching practices. However, it did not clearly define the difference between approach, method, and technique, and Kumaravadivelu reports that due to this ambiguity there was "widespread dissatisfaction" with it. Anthony himself recognized the limitations of his framework, and was open to the idea of improvements being made to it. Approach, design and procedure Richards and Rogers' 1982 approach expanded on Anthony's three-level framework; however, instead of approach, method and technique, they chose the terms approach, design, and procedure. Their concept of approach was similar to Anthony's, but their design and procedure were of broader scope than Anthony's method and technique. Their design referred to all major practical implications in the classroom, such as syllabus design, types of activities to be used in the classroom, and student and teacher roles; procedure referred to different behaviors, practices and techniques observed in the classroom. These new terms were intended to address limitations in Anthony's framework, and also gave them specific criteria by which they could evaluate different "methods". This evaluation process was a key way that their formulation differed from Anthony's, as Anthony's framework was intended as purely descriptive. Despite Richards and Rogers' efforts to clearly define approach, design, and procedure, their framework has been criticized by Kumaravadivelu for having "an element of artificiality in its conception and an element of subjectivity in its operation". Kumaravadivelu also points to similar objections raised by Pennyworth and by the Routledge Encyclopedia of Language Teaching and Learning. Brown also questions the suitability of Richards and Rogers' term design; he points out that in English teaching design is usually used to refer specifically to curriculum design, rather than the broad definition Richards and Rogers used. Most current teacher training manuals favor the terms approach, method, and technique. Structural methods Grammar–translation method The grammar translation method instructs students in grammar, and provides vocabulary with direct translations to memorize. It was the predominant method in Europe in the 19th century. Most instructors now acknowledge that this method is ineffective by itself. It is now most commonly used in the traditional instruction of the classical languages, however it remains the most commonly practiced method of English teaching in Japan. At school, the teaching of grammar consists of a process of training in the rules of a language which must make it possible for all the students to correctly express their opinion, to understand the remarks which are addressed to them and to analyze the texts which they read. The objective is that by the time they leave college, the pupil controls the tools of the language which are the vocabulary, grammar and the orthography, to be able to read, understand and write texts in various contexts. The teaching of grammar examines texts, and develops awareness that language constitutes a system which can be analyzed. This knowledge is acquired gradually, by traversing the facts of language and the syntactic mechanisms, going from simplest to the most complex. The exercises according to the program of the course must untiringly be practiced to allow the assimilation of the rules stated in the course. That supposes that the teacher corrects the exercises. The pupil can follow his progress in practicing the language by comparing his results. Thus can he adapt the grammatical rules and control little by little the internal logic of the syntactic system. The grammatical analysis of sentences constitutes the objective of the teaching of grammar at the school. Its practice makes it possible to recognize a text as a coherent whole and conditions the training of a foreign language. Grammatical terminology serves this objective. Grammar makes it possible for each pupil to understand how his mother tongue functions, in order to give him the capacity to communicate his thought. Audio-lingual method The audio-lingual method was developed in the United States around World War II when governments realized that they needed more people who could conduct conversations fluently in a variety of languages, work as interpreters, code-room assistants, and translators. However, since foreign language instruction in that country was heavily focused on reading instruction, no textbooks, other materials or courses existed at the time, so new methods and materials had to be devised. For example, the U.S. Army Specialized Training Program created intensive programs based on the techniques Leonard Bloomfield and other linguists devised for Native American languages, where students interacted intensively with native speakers and a linguist in guided conversations designed to decode its basic grammar and learn the vocabulary. This "informant method" had great success with its small class sizes and motivated learners. The U.S. Army Specialized Training Program only lasted a few years, but it gained a lot of attention from the popular press and the academic community. Charles C. Fries set up the first English Language Institute at the University of Michigan, to train English as a second or foreign language teachers. Similar programs were created later at Georgetown University, University of Texas among others based on the methods and techniques used by the military. The developing method had much in common with the British oral approach although the two developed independently. The main difference was the developing audio-lingual methods allegiance to structural linguistics, focusing on grammar and contrastive analysis to find differences between the student's native language and the target language in order to prepare specific materials to address potential problems. These materials strongly emphasized drill as a way to avoid or eliminate these problems. This first version of the method was originally called the oral method, the aural-oral method or the structural approach. The audio-lingual method truly began to take shape near the end of the 1950s, this time due government pressure resulting from the space race. Courses and techniques were redesigned to add insights from behaviorist psychology to the structural linguistics and constructive analysis already being used. Under this method, students listen to or view recordings of language models acting in situations. Students practice with a variety of drills, and the instructor emphasizes the use of the target language at all times. The idea is that by reinforcing 'correct' behaviors, students will make them into habits. The typical structure of a chapter employing the Audio-Lingual-Method (ALM—and there was even a text book entitled ALM [1963]) was usually standardized as follows: 1. First item was a dialog in the foreign language (FL) to be memorized by the student. The teacher would go over it the day before. 2. There were then questions in the FL about the dialog to be answered by the student(s) in the target language. 3. Often a brief introduction to the grammar of the chapter was next, including the verb(s) and conjugations. 4. The mainstay of the chapter was "pattern practice," which were drills expecting "automatic" responses from the student(s) as a noun, verb conjugation, or agreeing adjective was to be inserted in the blank in the text (or during the teacher's pause). The teacher could have the student use the book or not use it, relative to how homework was assigned. Depending on time, the class could respond as a chorus, or the teacher could pick individuals to respond. Julian Dakin, in 'The Language Laboratory and Language Learning' (Longman 1973), coined the phrase 'meaningless drills' to describe this kind of pattern practice, which others have also described as "mimicry-memorization." 5. There was a vocabulary list, sometimes with translations to the mother tongue. 6. The chapter usually ended with a short reading exercise. Due to weaknesses in performance, and more importantly because of Noam Chomsky's theoretical attack on language learning as a set of habits, audio-lingual methods are rarely the primary method of instruction today. However, elements of the method still survive in many textbooks. Functional methods The oral approach and situational language teaching The oral approach was developed from the 1930s to the 1960s by British applied linguists such as Harold Palmer and A.S. Hornsby. They were familiar with the direct method as well as the work of 19th-century applied linguists such as Otto Jespersen and Daniel Jones but attempted to formally develop a more scientifically founded approach to teaching English than was evidenced by the direct method. A number of large-scale investigations about language learning and the increased emphasis on reading skills in the 1920s led to the notion of "vocabulary control". It was discovered that languages have a core basic vocabulary of about 2,000 words that occur frequently in written texts, and it was assumed that mastery of these would greatly aid reading comprehension. Parallel to this was the notion of "grammar control", emphasizing the sentence patterns most-commonly found in spoken conversation. Such patterns were incorporated into dictionaries and handbooks for students. The principal difference between the oral approach and the direct method was that methods devised under this approach would have theoretical principles guiding the selection of content, gradation of difficulty of exercises and the presentation of such material and exercises. The main proposed benefit was that such theoretically based organization of content would result in a less-confusing sequence of learning events with better contextualization of the vocabulary and grammatical patterns presented. Last but not least, all language points were to be presented in "situations". Emphasis on this point led to the approach's second name. Proponents claim that this approach leads to students' acquiring good habits to be repeated in their corresponding situations. These teaching methods stress PPP: presentation (introduction of new material in context), practice (a controlled practice phase) and production (activities designed for less-controlled practice). Although this approach is all but unknown among language teachers today, elements of it have had long-lasting effects on language teaching, being the basis of many widely used English as a Second/Foreign Language textbooks as late as the 1980s and elements of it still appear in current texts. Many of the structural elements of this approach were called into question in the 1960s, causing modifications of this method that led to communicative language teaching. However, its emphasis on oral practice, grammar and sentence patterns still finds widespread support among language teachers and remains popular in countries where foreign language syllabuses are still heavily based on grammar. Directed practice Directed practice has students repeat phrases. This method is used by U.S. diplomatic courses. It can quickly provide a phrasebook-type knowledge of the language. Within these limits, the student's usage is accurate and precise. However the student's choice of what to say is not flexible. Interactive methods Direct method The direct method, sometimes also called natural method, is a method that refrains from using the learners' native language and just uses the target language. It was established in Germany and France around 1900 and is best represented by the methods devised by Berlitz and de Sauzé, although neither claims originality and it has been re-invented under other names. The direct method operates on the idea that second language learning must be an imitation of first language learning, as this is the natural way humans learn any language: a child never relies on another language to learn its first language, and thus the mother tongue is not necessary to learn a foreign language. This method places great stress on correct pronunciation and the target language from outset. It advocates teaching of oral skills at the expense of every traditional aim of language teaching. Such methods rely on directly representing an experience into a linguistic construct rather than relying on abstractions like mimicry, translation and memorizing grammar rules and vocabulary. According to this method, printed language and text must be kept away from second language learners for as long as possible, just as a first language learner does not use printed words until he has good grasp of speech. Learning of writing and spelling should be delayed until after the printed word has been introduced, and grammar and translation should also be avoided because this would involve the application of the learner's first language. All above items must be avoided because they hinder the acquisition of a good oral proficiency. The method relies on a step-by-step progression based on question-and-answer sessions which begin with naming common objects such as doors, pencils, floors, etc. It provides a motivating start as the learner begins using a foreign language almost immediately. Lessons progress to verb forms and other grammatical structures with the goal of learning about thirty new words per lesson. The series method In the 19th century, François Gouin went to Hamburg to learn German. Based on his experience as a Latin teacher, he thought the best way to do this would be memorize a German grammar book and a table of its 248 irregular verbs. However, when he went to the academy to test his new language skills, he was disappointed to find out that he could not understand anything. Trying again, he similarly memorized the 800 root words of the language as well as re-memorizing the grammar and verb forms. However, the results were the same. During this time, he had isolated himself from people around him, so he tried to learn by listening, imitating and conversing with the Germans around him, but found that his carefully constructed sentences often caused native German speakers to laugh. Again, he tried a more classical approach, translation, and even memorizing the entire dictionary but had no better luck. His three-year-old nephew who has learned to speak French inspired him. Gouin noticed the boy had a curiosity to everything in the world and enjoyed sharing his experience to whoever would listen or himself. Gouin decided that language learning was a matter of transforming perceptions into conceptions, using language to represent what one experiences. Language is not an arbitrary set of conventions but a way of thinking and representing the world to oneself. It is not a conditioning process, but one in which the learner actively organizes his perceptions into linguistics concepts. The series method is a variety of the direct method in that experiences are directly connected to the target language. There are three reasons that Gouin preceded psycholinguistic theory of the 20th century. Firstly, in Gouin's opinion, transferring the experience into words will make language easier to understand. Secondly, Gouin noticed that children organize concepts in succession of time, relating a sequence of concepts in the same order. Lastly, Gouin found that if the series of sentences are shuffled, their memorization becomes nearly impossible. He also found that people will memorize events in a logical sequence, even if they are not presented in that order. He discovered a second insight into memory called "incubation". Linguistic concepts take time to settle in the memory. The learner must use the new concepts frequently after presentation, either by thinking or by speaking, in order to master them. His last crucial observation was that language was learned in sentences with the verb as the most crucial component. Gouin would write a series in two columns: one with the complete sentences and the other with only the verb. With only the verb elements visible, he would have students recite the sequence of actions in full sentences of no more than twenty-five sentences. Another exercise involved having the teacher solicit a sequence of sentences by basically ask him/her what s/he would do next. While Gouin believed that language was rule-governed, he did not believe it should be explicitly taught. His course was organized on elements of human society and the natural world. He estimated that a language could be learned with 800 to 900 hours of instruction over a series of 4000 exercises and no homework. The idea was that each of the exercises would force the student to think about the vocabulary in terms of its relationship with the natural world. While there is evidence that the method can work extremely well, it has some serious flaws. One of which is the teaching of subjective language, where the students must make judgments about what is experienced in the world (e.g., "bad" and "good") as such do not relate easily to one single common experience. However, the real weakness is that the method is entirely based on one experience of a three-year-old. Gouin did not observe the child's earlier language development such as naming (where only nouns are learned) or the role that stories have in human language development. What distinguishes the series method from the direct method is that vocabulary must be learned by translation from the native language, at least in the beginning. Communicative language teaching Communicative language teaching (CLT), also known as the Communicative Approach, emphasizes interaction as both the means and the ultimate goal of learning a language. Despite a number of criticisms it continues to be popular, particularly in Europe, where constructivist views on language learning and education in general dominate academic discourse. Although the 'Communicative Language Teaching' is not so much a method on its own as it is an approach. In recent years, task-based language learning (TBLL), also known as task-based language teaching (TBLT) or task-based instruction (TBI), has grown steadily in popularity. TBLL is a further refinement of the CLT approach, emphasizing the successful completion of tasks as both the organizing feature and the basis for assessment of language instruction. Dogme language teaching shares a philosophy with TBL, although differs in approach. Dogme is a communicative approach and encourages teaching without published textbooks and instead focusing on conversational communication among the learners and the teacher. Language immersion Language immersion in school contexts delivers academic content through the medium of a foreign language, providing support for L2 learning and first language maintenance. There are three main types of immersion education programs in the United States: foreign language immersion, dual immersion, and indigenous immersion. Foreign language immersion programs in the U.S. are designed for students whose home language is English. In the early immersion model, for all or part of the school day elementary school children receive their content (academic) instruction through the medium of another language: Spanish, French, German, Chinese, Japanese, etc. In early total immersion models, children receive all the regular kindergarten and first grade content through the medium of the immersion language; English reading is introduced later, often in the second grade. Most content (math, science, social studies, art, music) continues to be taught through the immersion language. In early partial immersion models, part of the school day (usually 50%) delivers content through the immersion language, and part delivers it through English. French-language immersion programs are common in Canada in the provincial school systems, as part of the drive towards bilingualism and are increasing in number in the United States in public school systems (Curtain & Dahlbert, 2004). Branaman & Rhodes (1998) report that between 1987 and 1997 the percentage of elementary programs offering foreign language education in the U.S. through immersion grew from 2% to 8% and Curtain & Dahlberg (2004) report 278 foreign language immersion programs in 29 states. Research by Swain and others (Genesee 1987) demonstrate much higher levels of proficiency achieved by children in foreign language immersion programs than in traditional foreign language education elementary school models. Dual immersion programs in the U.S. are designed for students whose home language is English as well as for students whose home language is the immersion language (usually Spanish). The goal is bilingual students with mastery of both English and the immersion language. As in partial foreign language immersion academic content is delivered through the medium of the immersion language for part of the school day, and through English the rest of the school day. Indigenous immersion programs in the U.S. are designed for American Indian communities desiring to maintain the use of the native language by delivering elementary school content through the medium of that language. Hawaiian Immersion programs are the largest and most successful in this category. Silent Way The Silent Way is a discovery learning approach, invented by Caleb Gattegno in the late 1950s. The teacher is largely silent, giving more space for the students to explore the language. Students are responsible for their own learning and are encouraged to express themselves; beginners talk about what they see, more advanced students talk about their lives and what they think. The role of the teacher is not to model the language but to correct mistakes by giving sensitive feedback. With respect to teaching pronunciation, the Silent Way is a good example of the Articulatory Approach. Community language learning The community language learning (CLL) is a method proposed by Charles A. Curran during the 1970s. It is based on the counseling approach in which the teacher is seen as a counselor. It emphasizes the sense of community in the learning group, encourages interaction as a vital aspect of learning, and it considers as a priority the students' feelings and the recognition of struggles in language acquisition. There is no syllabus or textbook to follow, and it is the students themselves who determine the content of the lesson. Notably, it incorporates translation and recording techniques. Suggestopedia Suggestopedia was a method that experienced popularity especially in past years, with both staunch supporters and very strong critics, some claiming it is based on pseudoscience. Natural approach The natural approach is a language teaching method developed by Stephen Krashen and Tracy D. Terrell. They emphasise the learner receiving large amounts of comprehensible input. The Natural Approach can be categorized as part of the comprehension approach to language teaching. Total physical response In total physical response (TPR), the instructor gives the students commands in the target language and the students act those commands out using whole-body responses. This can be categorized as part of the comprehension approach to language teaching. Teaching Proficiency through Reading and Storytelling Teaching Proficiency through Reading and Storytelling (TPR Storytelling or TPRS) was developed by Blaine Ray, a language teacher in California, in the 1990s. At first it was an offshoot of Total Physical Response that also included storytelling, but it has evolved into a method in its own right and has gained a large following among teachers, particularly in the United States. TPR Storytelling can be categorized as part of the comprehension approach to language teaching. Dogme language teaching Dogme language teaching is considered to be both a methodology and a movement. Dogme is a communicative approach to language teaching and encourages teaching without published textbooks and instead focusing on conversational communication among the learners and the teacher. It has its roots in an article by the language education author, Scott Thornbury. The Dogme approach is also referred to as “Dogme ELT”, which reflects its origins in the ELT (English language teaching) sector. Although Dogme language teaching gained its name from an analogy with the Dogme 95 film movement (initiated by Lars von Trier), the connection is not considered close. Growing Participator Approach The Growing Participator Approach (GPA) is an alternative way of thinking about second language acquisition, developed by Greg Thomson. GPA as an approach is usually implemented using Thomson's Six Phase Program (SPP) method, which involves 1,500 hours of special growth participation activities, supported by a local native language speaker, and targeted towards the learners growth zone (Zone of proximal development). The Six Phase Program utilises a number of techniques, such as TPR, to quickly grow the leaners comprehension ability without the use of English. The goal is to help learners continually 'grow' in their ability to meaningful 'participate' in the host culture. GPA influences include Vygotsky, as well as "the psycholinguistics of comprehension and production, usage-based approaches to language, linguistic anthropology and discourse analysis." Proprietary methods Some methods are tied to a particular company or school and are not used in mainstream teaching. Besides those mentioned below, there are dozens of competitors, each slightly different. Notable are the computer courses which use speech recognition to give feedback on pronunciation. Pimsleur method Pimsleur language learning system is based on the research of and model programs developed by American language teacher Paul Pimsleur. It involves recorded 30-minute lessons to be done daily, with each lesson typically featuring a dialog, revision, and new material. Students are asked to translate phrases into the target language, and occasionally to respond in the target language to lines spoken in the target language. The instruction starts in the student's language but gradually changes to the target language. Several all-audio programs now exist to teach various languages using the Pimsleur Method. The syllabus is the same in all languages. Michel Thomas Method Michel Thomas Method is an audio-based teaching system developed by Michel Thomas, a language teacher in the USA. It was originally done in person, although since his death it is done via recorded lessons. The instruction is done entirely in the student's own language, although the student's responses are always expected to be in the target language. The method focuses on constructing long sentences with correct grammar and building student confidence. There is no listening practice, and there is no reading or writing. The syllabus is ordered around the easiest and most useful features of the language, and as such is different for each language. Other Appropedia is increasingly being used to as a method to enable service learning in language education. Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) is a method that includes a combination of methods and techniques using the resources available on the internet, as well as a variety of language learning software. There is a lot of language learning software using the multimedia capabilities of computers. Learning by teaching (LdL) Learning by teaching is a widespread method in Germany, developed by Jean-Pol Martin. The students take the teacher's role and teach their peers. See also Language education Notes References Further reading Irons, Glenwood H., compiler. Second Language Acquisition: Selected Readings in Theory and Practice. Welland, Ont.: Canadian Modern Language Review, 1988. Language education Pedagogy

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Robert Keith Orton Jr. (born November 10, 1950), better known by the ring name "Cowboy" Bob Orton, is an American semi-retired professional wrestler. He is the son of professional wrestler Bob Orton Sr., the brother of professional wrestler Barry Orton, and the father of professional wrestler Randy Orton. He is best known for his time in the WWF (World Wrestling Federation, now WWE). He has also wrestled for several promotions in the United States, Japan, and other countries. Early life Bob Orton Jr. was born in Kansas City, Missouri, and was the son of professional wrestler Bob Orton Sr. Professional wrestling career Championship Wrestling from Florida (1972–1980) Orton trained with Hiro Matsuda, after dropping out of college, and at the age of 22, Orton made his debut in the promotion Championship Wrestling from Florida in 1972 with the ring name of Young Mr. Wrestling wrestling in instances with his father Bob Orton Sr. They won the tag team title from the promotion. Orton was one of the first wrestlers to use the Superplex as his finishing maneuver. Orton, in his early days in wrestling, used a gimmick of a masked wrestler known as The Invader. He often used this gimmick, until 1976. American Wrestling Association (mid-70s) Orton spent time in Verne Gagne's American Wrestling Association during his early 70s travels, a large portion of it under the tutelage of AWA MVP Manager Bobby Heenan. Orton feuded with Greg Gagne among others. Gagne-Orton was a featured match on the AWA undercard for the Muhammad Ali-Antonio Inoki mixed martial arts match. National Wrestling Alliance (1980–1981) Following experiencing success in the Florida, Central States, and Mid-South regions, Orton competed in the National Wrestling Alliance in 1980-1981 using a cowboy's gimmick. While he competed in the NWA, he won several matches and earned a reputation as a hard worker and legit tough wrestler. In 1981 he left the NWA to sign a contract with the World Wrestling Federation. World Wrestling Federation (1981–1983) In 1982, Orton competed in the World Wrestling Federation. He challenged Bob Backlund for the WWF Heavyweight Championship in Philadelphia, winning by count-out (the title cannot change of hands by disqualification or count-out). They had a lumberjack match a month later again in Philadelphia but Orton was again unsuccessful. Their matches ran in some of the largest cities on the WWF circuit. Return to NWA (1983) He returned to the NWA again in 1983 and captured the tag team title with Don Kernodle. The duo held the title for two months before succumbing to Wahoo McDaniel and Mark Youngblood. Together with Dick Slater, he had a feud with Ric Flair. Orton and Slater interfered in Flair's return match against NWA World Champion Harley Race, who had beaten Flair for the title. They attacked Flair with an aided piledriver, which caused Flair a severe injury in the neck and put Flair out of wrestling for several months, thus collecting a bounty placed on Flair's head by Race, who was reluctant to wrestle Flair in return matches for the title. In the run-up to this incident, Orton had been portrayed as a babyface and a longtime friend of Flair - his participation in the attack was thus portrayed as the betrayal of that friendship. Flair would eventually return in late 1983, attacking both Orton and Slater with a baseball bat (before going on to win back the title from Race at Starrcade '83). Return to WWF (1984–1987, 1989, 1990) Orton re-joined the WWF in 1984 for what would be the most famous run of his career. He was often addressed as "Ace" Orton by Roddy Piper, and was Piper's bodyguard. His other gimmick, wearing a cast during his matches, stemmed from legitimately having his left forearm broken in a match with Jimmy Snuka at the 1985 event The War to Settle the Score in Madison Square Garden. Although the injury healed in real life, the "cast" gimmick involved Orton—on "doctor's orders"—continuing to wear the cast, claiming the injury had not healed; Orton instead would use the cast to his advantage, striking his opponents behind the referee's back. He won several matches, with the cast and without the cast. In 1984, Orton was the #1 contender to the WWF Intercontinental Championship, eventually wrestling then-current champion Tito Santana. Orton was successful in winning untelevised matches and events against Santana, but Orton mostly won by either count-out or disqualification. Orton would also be successful in defeating Santana in non-title bouts, but Santana ultimately remained as the champ, and Santana eventually got the upper hand in the feud. Orton would also engage in a bitter feud with Jimmy Snuka through 1985 and 1986. Orton, just like with Santana, managed to achieve victories over Snuka but mainly in untelevised shows. Just like his feud with Santana, Snuka would get the upper hand in the feud. Orton was involved in the main event of the first WrestleMania at Madison Square Garden in 1985, being in the corner of Piper and 'Mr. Wonderful' Paul Orndorff in their match against Hulk Hogan and Mr. T. Orton accidentally cost his team the match after an attempted cheat backfired, resulting in him hitting Orndorff with the cast. Orton also competed in the main event against WWF Champion Hulk Hogan on Saturday Night's Main Event I on NBC broadcast May 11, 1985, which he lost by disqualification due to the interference of Piper. Orton took part in the 1985 King of the Ring tournament on July 8 he fought Paul Orndorff to a double disqualification Orton remained with Piper for the remainder of 1985, feuding with Orndorff and a variety of partners, such as Hogan, André the Giant, and Bruno Sammartino. In early 1986, Orndorff began wearing a cast as a neutralizer, and the WWF ordered both men to remove their casts. Also in late 1985 and early 1986, Orton challenged Hogan for the WWF Heavyweight Championship; like his matches four years earlier against Backlund, Orton was not successful. On June 30, at a house show held on Bloomington, Minnesota, Orton and Piper surprisingly scored an upset victory over Orndorff and Hogan, albeit by DQ; this event also would be the first time Orton got a victory over Hogan as previous matches between them typically saw Hogan winning. Orton was dubbed "Boxing" Bob and "Battling" Bob in early 1986 after the cast came off and fought Mr. T at Saturday Night's Main Event V, which served as a setup for the Piper-Mr. T match at WrestleMania 2. Prior to WrestleMania 2, "Boxing" Bob Orton defeated Jose Luis Rivera in a boxing match. At WrestleMania 2, Orton was introduced as "Ace in Comedy and Funnyman" by guest ring announcer Joan Rivers, who misread the card. Piper and Orton went their separate ways after WrestleMania, with Piper taking a hiatus and Orton in the meantime becoming the bodyguard for Piper's talk-segment successor "Adorable" Adrian Adonis; Adonis had Orton wear a pink cowboy hat. When Piper returned later in 1986 to reclaim his talk show segment (turning face in the process), Orton betrayed his long-time friend, sparking a violent feud between Piper and Orton and his new partners, which typically saw Piper winning. During this time, Orton formed a tag team with The Magnificent Muraco, with the duo managed by Mr. Fuji, and sometimes Jimmy Hart. During their first years as a team, the team of Muraco and Orton was given a fairly decent push, and both were able to easily defeat preliminary wrestlers when not teaming. They appeared at the opening match at WrestleMania III, losing to the Can-Am Connection. The team of Muraco and Orton also got into a series of matches with The Killer Bees (a team composed of B. Brian Blair and Jumpin' Jim Brunzell). Both teams exchanged victories at televised events, but ultimately the Bees got the upper hand at untelevised events. Referee Danny Davis would usually disqualify the Bees as a part of his heel gimmick. They (along Tiger Chung Lee) were notable for being the first team to lose to The Young Stallions (a team composed by Jim Powers and Paul Roma) alongside Tito Santana. By 1987, the team of Muraco and Orton was clearly stepping down the card. While they were still able to defeat preliminary teams, Orton and Muraco would usually find themselves on the losing end to upper-card teams. Orton and Muraco then eventually started arguing during their matches, which also caused them to lose credibility as a team. This finally led to a match on WWF Superstars of Wrestling where Orton caused him and Muraco to lose a match when Orton kept Muraco from performing a Superplex, which was Orton's finishing move. Orton felt offended that Muraco was trying to steal his hold. This led to a brawl between both wrestlers that took place inside and outside the ring. On September 7, 1987, Orton and Muraco finally faced off at a WWF house show. This match ended in a double disqualification. Orton and Muraco faced off during the late months of 1987. By this point, the team was essentially disbanded, with the now-turned face "The Rock" Magnificent Muraco getting the upper hand in the feud. During Orton's feud with Muraco, Mr. Fuji would return to manage Orton (Muraco dumped Mr. Fuji as his manager following his face turn). Orton's last televised match and victory as a whole in the WWF came on October 10, 1987, in a heated victory against preliminary wrestler Siva Afi. Orton's last match with the WWF came on November 7, 1987, where Orton fought preliminary wrestler Sam Houston to a draw in his home state of Missouri. Orton was fired after this for getting arrested for causing a disturbance at a Calgary airport. In 1989, Orton attempted to make a comeback to the WWF, losing to Ted DiBiase in a WWF house show at Springfield, MI on October 11. However no contract was ever offered to him. By 1990, Orton was wrestling for the Arena Wrestling Alliance promotion. As the AWA had an agreement with the WWF to exchange talent, Orton made appearances for the WWF, at three house show-matches. All took place in New Zealand. Orton was also scheduled to make an appearance for a WWF show in Madison Square Garden in January 1990 against Bret Hart, but that was cancelled. Then Orton would depart from the company for 15 years before returning in 2005. New Japan Pro-Wrestling (1988–1989) After leaving the WWF, Orton took a short hiatus from wrestling, inactive until 1988, when Orton travelled to Japan. During this time, he wrestled for New Japan Pro-Wrestling, working with his brother Barry O, and they formed the team of the Gaspar Brothers, two hockey-masked pirates, with Bob using the ring name of Billy Gaspar while Barry called himself Barry Gaspar. They won several matches together, beating the teams of Nobuhiko Takada and Antonio Inoki, Kuniaki Kobayashi and Riki Choshu, Osamu Kido and Yoshiaki Fujiwara, Hiro Saito and Super Strong Machine and many others. After the team of the Gaspar Brothers ended, Orton briefly teamed with Dick Murdoch and Scott Hall in NJPW for the Japan Cup Elimination League. After wrestling a few more matches in 1989 with a low number of victories, Orton left New Japan. World Championship Wrestling (1989) On March 30, 1989 Orton made his debut with then National Wrestling Alliance member, World Championship Wrestling. Wrestling at a WCW Saturday Night taping in Atlanta, Georgia and managed by Gary Hart, Orton defeated Shane Douglas. On the April 1 episode of Saturday Night, it was announced that Orton would be facing his former partner Dick Murdoch at the upcoming Clash of Champions VI. The following day at the Clash, Orton defeated Murdoch after Gary Hart interfered. He then went on a house show tour facing mostly preliminary opposition. On April 14 in Milwaukee, Wisconsin Orton suffered his first defeat, falling to Mike Justice. Murdoch challenged Orton to a bullrope match after he had interfered in one of Orton's matches, in which Orton defeated Trent Knight. He lost to Murdoch at the 1989 Wrestlewar in the bullrope match. Shortly after the match, Orton's manager "Playboy" Gary Hart started brawling with Murdoch, and then Orton attacked Murdoch with the cowbell of the bullrope, and threw him out of the ring, choking him, and attacking the referees that were trying to stop him in the process. After his release, Orton made a one-time appearance at a WCW house show in Kiel, Missouri, defeating Dutch Mantell. Second return to WWE (2005–2006) On February 3, 2005, Bob Orton was announced as a 2005 inductee into the WWE Hall of Fame. In the weeks preceding WrestleMania 21, Orton became entangled in his son Randy's feud with The Undertaker. During an episode of SmackDown!, Orton begged The Undertaker to show mercy on his son in order to distract The Undertaker long enough for his son to sneak into the ring and hit the RKO. At WrestleMania, he (unsuccessfully) interfered in the match between Orton and The Undertaker, striking The Undertaker with his cast. On August 21, 2005, at SummerSlam, Orton interfered in a rematch between Randy and The Undertaker, this time enabling his son to defeat The Undertaker. Orton then began accompanying Randy to ringside during his matches, and teamed with his son at No Mercy on October 9, 2005, defeating The Undertaker in a handicap casket match. The Ortons teamed together once again on the October 28, 2005 episode of SmackDown!, joining forces with Ken Kennedy to face Roddy Piper, Batista, and Eddie Guerrero in a six-man tag team match. The match ended in defeat for the Ortons when Orton succumbed to Piper's sleeper hold. On the December 16, 2005 episode of SmackDown!, Orton disguised himself as one of the Undertaker's druids and carried The Undertaker's signature urn to ringside as The Undertaker came to the ring to confront Randy. Orton remained at ringside after the other druids had left, distracting The Undertaker and enabling Randy to attack him. Orton then handed Randy the urn, which Randy used to knock The Undertaker unconscious. At Armageddon, Orton (still holding the urn) accompanied Randy to ringside for his Hell in a Cell match with The Undertaker. He interfered in the match several times, but was ultimately unable to prevent The Undertaker from delivering a Tombstone Piledriver to both Ortons and then covering Randy for the win. On February 13, 2006, Orton was released from WWE. Independent circuit (1990–present) In 1990 he appeared in the Five Star Wrestling Federation in Baton Rouge which was headed by Grizzly Smith, and that same year, Orton appeared in International World Class Championship Wrestling. In 1991 he wrestled for Herb Abrams' Universal Wrestling Federation at their lone pay-per-view Beach Brawl, as well as their live wrestling special Blackjack Brawl. In the UWF, Orton was awarded the UWF Intercontinental Heavyweight Championship as well as winning the UWF Southern States Championship from former rival and tag-team partner Ron Garvin. Orton lost the UWF Southern States Championship to Paul Orndorff, although, Orton was awarded the title back in 1994 when Orndorff left the promotion, vacating the title in the process. In 1994, Orton made a few appearances for Jim Cornette's Smoky Mountain Wrestling. That same year, Orton wrestled for the American Wrestling Federation, and during his time in the AWF, he was managed by Oliver Humperdink. Orton challenged Tito Santana for the AWF Championship, with AWF commissioner Jim Brunzell as the special referee for the match, but Orton lost the match. During 1995 and 1996 he feuded with Santana. During Orton's time in the AWF, Orton received a big push, and he was the number one contender for Santana's AWF Championship in 1996. He won the AWF Championship in his second attempt, before losing the championship to Santana that same night in the last round. He had a brief feud in 1997 against "Sexy" Ace Steele in MVWA in St. Louis. In 1999, he appeared at the Heroes of Wrestling PPV, in which Orton was defeated by former rival Jimmy Snuka, after an interference of Snuka's manager Lou Albano. He retired from full-time active competition in that same year, but has continued to wrestle on a semi-regular basis. Orton returned to the ring at Millennium Wrestling Federation Soul Survivor II in 2004, teaming with Todd Hanson and Beau Douglas to defeat "The Ugandan Giant" Kamala, Gino Marktino, and Ox Baker's Executioner. On December 5, 2005, Orton participated in a match against wrestler Dingo. Orton was defeated. On October 17, 2009, Orton (accompanied by his youngest son Nathan) performed at Independent Hardcore Wrestling against "Bloody" Harker Dirge, in a match for the Pro Wrestling Entertainment championship, losing by disqualification after Nathan attacked Dirge. This occasion marked Nathan Orton's first appearance in a professional wrestling event. In 2009, Orton appeared at the IWC "Night of Legends" event, performing against former rival Jimmy Snuka. Orton was defeated. In 2009, Orton faced Vance Desmond in the 2009 Winter Wrestlefest event, promoted by Canadian Promotion All Star Wrestling (ASW) Orton lost to Desmond. In 2010, Orton faced "Bullet" Bob Armstrong for the Juggalo Championship Wrestling "Wrestling Legend & Loonies 2010" event. Orton was defeated by Armstrong despite Orton dominating him most of the match. On November 19, 2011, Orton appeared in the main event of a Holy Havoc Championship Wrestling card in Springfield, Illinois, teaming with HHCW Heavyweight Champion Pretty Boy Floyd and Mr. Allstar Rex Gill to defeat The Irish Revolution (Mickey Thomas and Seamus Farnam) and Beast. On August 25, 2012 Orton appeared at a Wrestling Past Present Future (WPPF) event in East Moline, IL. The match was billed as "Cowboy versus Cowboy" due to Orton's opponent, "Cowboy" Troy Hansen also using the moniker "Cowboy". Orton won by pinfall. On February 9, 2013 Orton appeared at a Traditional Championship Wrestling (TCW) event in Jonesboro, Ark., where he managed and mentored International Heavyweight Champion "Mr. Saturday Night" Michael Barry in a feud with his cousin "All That" Alan Steel. He also participated in a non-televised dark match at the event when he turned on Barry and aligned himself with "The Empire" consisting of Matt Riviera and "Golden Boy" Greg Anthony. This team took on Michael Barry, Barrett Brown and John Saxon. The Empire along with Orton lost to Barry, Brown, and Saxon. On June 13, 2013, Orton faced Barrett Brown in a losing effort. On August 16, 2013, Orton and George South faced Tim Horner and Tom Prichard at the Brad Armstrong Memorial event. Orton and South lost to Horner and Prichard. On November 16, 2013, Orton teamed up with former rival Harker Dirge to take on the team of Attitude, Inc., Guy Smith and Spencer Powers, in tag team action at the monthly Pro Wrestling Glory show in Maroa, Illinois. Orton and Dirge won the match. On October 25, 2014, Orton wrestled rival "Spotlight" Spencer Powers for the Pinfall Wrestling Association P.W.A. Heavyweight title at the Jaycee's Center in Springfield, Illinois. Orton was defeated. On March 21, 2015, Orton participated in a 6-man tag team match teaming with Ricky Cruz and Red River Jack with Nikolai Volkoff as their manager to take on Chris Hargas, Bull Bronson and Attila Khan. Orton's team came victorious. In April 2015, Orton participated in a 2-on-1 handicap match taking on "Iron Man" Ken Kasa & Travis Cook for the St. Louis Wrestling promotion. Orton defeated Kasa and Cook after applying an RKO to Kasa. On May 30, 2015, Orton was the Special Guest of Pinfall Wrestling Association in Springfield, Illinois at their biggest show of the year, The Grand Wrestling Spectacle V. Orton defeated Bradley Stephens III (who was looking for a "Legend" to challenge). As of 2021, Orton makes occasional appearances at age 71. Third return to WWE (2010, 2012, 2017) Orton made an appearance on the November 15, 2010 episode of WWE Raw as the show went old school, with appearances from past WWE wrestlers, announcers and other on-air personalities. He also appeared on the April 10, 2012 episode of WWE SmackDown and was attacked by Kane (offscreen) who had been feuding with his son Randy at the time. Orton appeared once again on June 18, 2017 at the Money in the Bank Pay-per-view, situated in the front row of the crowd along with fellow Hall of Famers Ric Flair and Sgt. Slaughter. During the match between his son Randy and Jinder Mahal he would be assaulted by the Singh brothers as they were ejected from ringside, this prompted Randy to attack the Singh brothers. However this distraction proved enough for Jinder to hit Randy with the Khallas for the victory. Personal life Orton is married to Elaine Orton, a nurse at Christian Hospital NE in Missouri, and they have two sons, Randy (also a professional wrestler), Nathan (a stand-up comedian), and a daughter, Becky. His first grandchild was born on July 12, 2008, when son Randy and his now ex-wife Samantha had their first child, a daughter, Alanna. On an episode of WWE Confidential, he admitted that his forearm injury in the 1985 match with Jimmy Snuka was not a work, and did not heal when he wore the cast. It wouldn't heal fully until he left the WWF in 1987. Around 1986, Orton was involved in an incident in Fresno, California, where the Fresno Police Department were called for an incident involving Orton and Roddy Piper in a hotel. Orton would end up naked and drunk on the roof of the hotel and would be shot three times with police tasers, according to Orton himself. Health As a teenager, Orton was diagnosed with hepatitis C, but apparently showed no apparent symptoms and would eventually no longer recall having the disease. Over 30 years later, in the midst of his feud with his son Randy against The Undertaker, Orton was retested and it was confirmed that he still carried the disease. The Undertaker was furious that he was uninformed of Orton's illness and learned that Head of Talent Relations John Laurinaitis (who knew of Orton's disease) allowed him to blade, as at one point in the feud (during a Hell in a Cell match at Armageddon 2005), Orton spilled blood directly onto him, which could have caused him to contract the disease. This was the main reason Orton was let go by WWE in February 2006. Championships and accomplishments American Wrestling Federation AWF Heavyweight Championship (1 time) Cauliflower Alley Club Family Award (2005) – with Barry Orton and Bob Orton Central States Wrestling Alliance CSWA Heavyweight Championship (1 time) Championship Wrestling from Florida NWA Florida Heavyweight Championship (1 time) NWA Florida Tag Team Championship (3 times) - with Bob Orton (1) and Bob Roop (2) International Championship Wrestling ICW Southeastern Heavyweight Championship (1 time) ICW Southeastern Tag Team Championship (3 times) - with Barry Orton (1), Bob Roop (1) and Tony Peters (1) ICW Television Championship (1 time) Mid-Atlantic Championship Wrestling NWA World Tag Team Championship (Mid-Atlantic version) (1 time) - with Don Kernodle Mid-South Sports/Georgia Championship Wrestling NWA Georgia Junior Heavyweight Championship (1 time) NWA Georgia Tag Team Championship (2 times) - with Dick Slater (1) and Mr. Wrestling II (1) NWA Macon Tag Team Championship (1 time) - with Dick Slater Mid-South Wrestling Mid-South Mississippi Heavyweight Championship (1 time) Midwest Powerhouse Wrestling MPW Heavyweight Championship (1 time) Powerhouse Championship Wrestling PCW Heavyweight Championship (1 time) Pro Wrestling Illustrated PWI Rookie of the Year (1973) tied with Tony Garea Ranked No. 121 of the 500 best singles wrestlers of the "PWI Years" in 2003. Old School Wrestling Alliance OSWA Heavyweight Championship (1 time) Southeastern Championship Wrestling NWA Southeastern Tag Team Championship (4 times) - with Bob Roop (1), Jerry Blackwell (1) and Ron Garvin (2) Universal Wrestling Federation UWF Intercontinental Heavyweight Championship (1 time) UWF Southern States Championship (2 times) World Wrestling Entertainment WWE Hall of Fame (Class of 2005) Other Titles VWS Television Championship (1 time) Wrestling Observer Newsletter Most Unimproved (1986) References External links WWE Hall of Fame profile Bob Orton at Online World of Wrestling 1950 births Living people Sportspeople from Kansas City, Kansas American male professional wrestlers People from St. Louis County, Missouri Professional wrestling trainers WWE Hall of Fame inductees Masked wrestlers Professional wrestlers from Kansas

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Melanesian mythology is the folklore, myths and religion of Melanesia — the archipelagos of New Guinea, the Torres Strait Islands, the Admiralty Islands, Solomon Islands, New Caledonia and Vanuatu. Professor Roland Burrage Dixon wrote an account of the mythology of this region for The Mythology of All Races, which was published in 1916. Since that time, the region has developed new cults and legends as a result of exposure to western civilisations and their missionaries. These include the cargo cults in which the natives attempt to restore the supply of material goods which were a side-effect of the campaigning in this region during the Pacific War. Geography Melanesia falls into two geographic divisions: New Guinea with the smaller adjacent islands forming one, and the long series of islands lying to the north and east of it, from the Admiralty Group to New Caledonia and Fiji, constituting the other. From the anthropological point of view the population of the Melanesian area is exceedingly complex, being composed of a number of different racial types. While detailed knowledge of the area is still too fragmentary to render conclusions other than tentative, it may be said that at least three groups can be recognized. Presumably most ancient and underlying all others, though now confined to certain of the more inaccessible parts of the interior of New Guinea and possibly to some few islands of the Eastern Archipelago, are a number of Negrito or Negrito-like tribes in regard to which we thus far have only the scantiest details. The bulk of the population of the interior of New Guinea, of considerable stretches of its southern, south-western, and northern coasts, and of portions of other islands forms a second stratum known as Papuan. Mythological material from them is exceedingly scanty. The third type is that which occupies much of south-eastern New Guinea, together with part of its northern and north-western coasts, and forms the majority of the inhabitants of the islands reaching from the Admiralty Islands to Fiji. Strictly speaking, the term Melanesian should be applied to this group only; and from it and the Papuo-Melanesian mixtures the greater part of the myth material at present available has been derived. It is quite evident that no adequate presentation of the mythology of the whole Melanesian area, using the term in its broader geographical sense, can as yet be made; the most that can be done is to present an outline of the material derived from what is clearly the latest stratum of the population and to supplement this, when possible, by such fragmentary information as we possess from the older Papuan Group. Of Negrito mythology, here, as in the case of Indonesia, absolutely nothing is known. Summary The material on the mythology of Melanesia, though incomplete and fragmentary, appears rather clearly to prove the existence of two distinct strata, one of which may be called Papuan, the other Melanesian. The former is best represented among the Kai tribes of the region north of Huon Gulf in German New Guinea, as well as by the Baining and Sulka of northern New Britain, and may be traced, more or less plainly, among the remaining coastal tribes of both German and British New Guinea; whereas it is much less apparent in the Banks Islands, the New Hebrides, and Fiji. The Melanesian stratum, on the other hand, is perhaps best developed in eastern Melanesia, i.e. Santa Cruz, the Banks Islands, the New Hebrides, and Fiji; though it is well represented throughout the New Guinea littoral districts, among the coast tribes of northern New Britain and in the Admiralty Islands. What has been called the Papuan type of mythology seems to be characterized by a relative absence of cosmogonic myths, by the prominence of ghosts, and by a general simplicity and naivete; and this category also appears to show an extensive development of tales of local distribution only, corresponding to the discreteness and lack of relationship on the linguistic side. The Melanesian stratum, on the other hand, exhibits a considerably greater evolution on the side of cosmogony, an especial fondness for cannibalistic tales, and a rudimentary dualistic character which is revealed in the many stories of the wise and foolish culture hero brothers. Further examination of this Melanesian type seems to indicate that it is by no means a unit, although, because of the character of the material, any conclusions must be wholly tentative. The following grouping is suggested: myths of general distribution throughout Melanesia; those confined more or less strictly to New Guinea and the immediate vicinity; and those similarly restricted in their distribution to Fiji, the New Hebrides, and the Banks and Santa Cruz Islands. If now, instead of limiting our view to Melanesia alone, we include the whole of the Oceanic area and endeavour to discover the relationship of Melanesian mythology to that of the adjacent sections, it appears that, whereas of the two main types (the Papuan and Melanesian) the former shows little in common with any of the other Oceanic regions, the latter, on the contrary, exhibits numerous and interesting relationships with Indonesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia, and some even with Australia. The Melanesian type of incidents which reveal similarities with these other areas may be divided into four groups: those whose resemblances are only with Indonesia; only with Polynesia; with both Indonesia and Polynesia; and with Micronesia. The first of these groups is represented much more strongly in New Guinea than in the eastern archipelago; and in New Guinea it is far more prominent on the northern coast than on the southern. It would seem to manifest influences from Indonesia which, in the course of migrations eastward, did not extend beyond Melanesia, and which were greater in New Guinea and its vicinity than in the eastern and more distant archipelagos. The second group—rather unexpectedly—is, like the first, more prominent in New Guinea than farther east, but is better represented on the south coast than is the first group. From the character of the incidents and their distribution in Melanesia and Polynesia this group itself would appear to comprise (a) incidents preponderantly Melanesian, borrowed by the Polynesian ancestors and carried with them into Polynesia, and {b) incidents of Polynesian development which have been transmitted westward as a result of the probable late reflex of Polynesian peoples into parts of eastern Melanesia. The third group, comprising myth-incidents from Indonesia, Melanesia, and Polynesia, is contrasted with both the others in that it is best represented in eastern Melanesia. Theoretically, these incidents may be regarded as a portion of those brought by the Polynesian ancestors from their Indonesian homes and still preserved by them in Polynesia. Their presence in Melanesia would thus be hypothetically due to their having been taken over from the migrant Polynesians, and their greater prominence in the eastern archipelago would be expected, as it was presumably in this area, rather than in New Guinea, that, during their migration, the Polynesian ancestors made their longest halt and exerted their greatest influence on the aboriginal population. The last group, which is composed of those incidents common to Melanesia and Micronesia, is about equally represented in New Guinea and the eastern archipelago. The relatively large number of similarities between Micronesia and Melanesia is only what we should expect, owing to the many evidences derived from other sources, of relationship between the peoples of the two areas; but the amount of agreement with eastern Melanesia is rather striking. Myths of origins and the deluge Apparently one of the clearest characteristics of the mythology of the Melanesian area is the almost total lack of myths relating to the origin of the world. With one or two exceptions, the earth seems to be regarded as having always existed in very much the same form as today. In the Admiralty Islands a portion of the population believed that once there was nothing but a widespread sea; and one myth states that in this sea swam a great serpent, who, desiring a place on which he might rest, called out, "Let the reef rise!", and the reef rose out of the ocean and became dry land. Another version differs in that a man and a woman, after having floated upon the primeval sea, climbed upon a piece of driftwood and wondered whether the ocean would dry up or not. At last the waters wholly retired, and land appeared covered with hills, but barren and without life; whereupon the two beings planted trees and created foods of various sorts. In New Britain, among the coastal tribes of the Gazelle Peninsula, we find the familiar story of the fishing of the land from the bottom of the sea, a task which was accomplished by the two culture hero brothers, To-Kabinana and To-Karvuvu, some of whose other deeds will be recounted later. The same story in slightly greater detail is found also in the southern New Hebrides. This conception of a primeval sea is found widely in central Polynesia, Micronesia, and Indonesia, and it is perhaps significant that it apparently occurs in Melanesia only on its northern margin, where contact with non-Melanesian peoples would theoretically be expected. A much closer affiliation with Polynesia is shown, however, in another class of origin-myths to which we may now turn. If there is little interest in the beginning of the world in the Melanesian area, the same cannot be said of the origin of mankind, for on this subject there is considerable and widely variant material. Three types of myths may be recognized: one, that in which mankind is directly created by some deity or pre-existing being; second, that in which man comes into being spontaneously or magically; and, third, that where mankind descends to earth from the sky-land. Creation of mankind In the Admiralty Islands it is said that Manual was alone and longed for a wife; so he took his axe, went into the forest, and cut down a tree, and after he had fashioned the trunk into the figure of a woman, he said, "My wood there, become a woman!", and the image came to life. In the Banks Islands a somewhat more elaborate tale is told. Qat was the first to make man, cutting wood out of the dracaena-tree and forming it into six figures, three men and three women. When he had finished them, he hid them away for three days, after which he brought them forth and set them up. Dancing in front of them and seeing that they began to move, he beat the drum before them, and they moved still more, and "thus he beguiled them into life, so that they could stand of themselves." Then he divided them into three pairs as husband and wife. Now Marawa, who was a malicious, envious fellow, saw what Qat had made and determined to do likewise. So he took wood of another sort, and when he had fashioned the images, he set them up and beat the drum before them, and gave them life as Qat had done. But when he saw them move, he dug a pit and covered the bottom with coco-nut fronds, burying his men and women in it for seven days; and when he dug them up again, he found them lifeless and decomposed, this being the origin of death among men. According to another version from this same area, while the first man was made of red clay by Qat, he created the first woman of rods and rings of supple twigs covered with the spathes of sago palms, just as they make the tall hats which are used in the sacred dances. A tale of the creation of man from earth is told in the New Hebrides. "Takaio made from mud ten figures of men. When they were finished, he breathed upon them, breathed upon their eyes, their ears, their mouths, their hands, their feet, and thus the images became alive. But all the people he had made were men and Takaro was not satisfied, so he told them to light a fire and cook some-food. When they had done so, he ordered them to stand still and he threw at one of them a fruit, and lo! one of the men was changed into a woman. Then Takaro ordered the woman to go and stay by herself in the house. After a while, he sent one of the nine men to her to ask for fire, and she greeted him as her elder brother. A second was sent to ask for water, and she greeted him as her younger brother. And so one after another, she greeted them as relatives, all but the last, and him she called her husband. So Takaro said to him, "Take her as your wife, and you two shall live together." A still different version is that from New Britain. In the beginning a being drew two figures of men upon the ground, and then, cutting himself with a knife, he sprinkled the two drawings with his blood and covered them over with leaves, the result being that they came to life as To-Kabinana and To-Karvuvu. The former then climbed a coco-nut-tree which bore light yellow nuts, and picking two unripe ones, he threw them to the ground, where they burst and changed into two women, whom he took as his wives. His brother asked him how he had come to be possessed of the two women, and To-Kabinana told him. Accordingly, To-Karvuvu also climbed a tree and likewise threw down two nuts; but they fell so that their under side struck the ground, and from them came two women with depressed, ugly noses. So To-Karvuvu was jealous because his brother's wives were better looking than his, and he took one of To-Kabinana's spouses, abandoning the two ugly females who were his own. Another version from the same region brings out more clearly the distinction between the characters of the two brothers and serves moreover, to account for the two marriage classes into which the people are divided. To-Kabinana said to To-Karvuvu, "Do you get two light-coloured coco-nuts. One of them you must hide, then bring the other to me". To-Karvuvu, however, did not obey, but got one light and one dark nut, and having hidden the latter, he brought the light-coloured one to his brother, who tied it to the stem of his canoe, and seating himself in the bow, paddled out to sea. He paid no attention to the noise that the nut made as it struck against the sides of his canoe nor did he look around. Soon the coco-nut turned into a handsome woman, who sat on the stem of the canoe and steered, while To-Kabinana paddled. When he came back to land, his brother was enamoured of the woman and wished to take her as his wife, but To-Kabinana refused his request and said that they would now make another woman. Accordingly, To-Karvuvu brought the other coco-nut, but when his brother saw that it was dark-coloured, he upbraided To-Karvuvu and said: "You are indeed a stupid fellow. You have brought misery upon our mortal race. From now on, we shall be divided into two classes, into you and us." Then they tied the coco-nut to the stem of the canoe, and paddling away as before, the nut turned into a black-skinned woman; but when they had retumed to shore, To-Kabinana said: "Alas, you have only ruined our mortal race. If all of us were only light of skin, we should not die. Now, however, this dark-skinned woman will produce one group, and the light-skinned woman another, and the light-skinned men shall marry the dark-skinned women, and the dark-skinned men shall marry the light-skinned women." And so To-Kabinana divided mankind into two classes. Origin of mankind from other sources Turning now to the second type of tales of the origin of mankind, the belief in a direct or indirect origin from birds may first be considered. In the Admiralty Islands, according to one version, a dove bore two young, one of which was a bird and one a man, who became the ancestor of the human race by incestuous union with his mother. Another recension has it that a tortoise laid ten eggs from which were hatched eight tortoises and two human beings, one man and one woman; and these two, marrying, became the ancestors of both light-skinned and dark-skinned people. At the other extremity of Melanesia, in Fiji, it is said that a bird laid two eggs which were hatched by Ndengei, the great serpent, a boy coming from one and a girl from the other. A variant of this is found in Torres Straits where, according to the Eastern Islanders, a bird having laid an egg, a maggot or worm was developed from it, which then was transformed into human shape. Myths of the origin of men or of deities from a clot of blood are of interest in their relation to other areas in Oceania. One version again comes from the Admiralty Islands. A woman, named Hi-asa, who lived alone, one day cut her finger while shaving pandanus strips. Collecting the blood from the wound in a mussel-shell, she put a cover over it and set it away; but when, after eleven days, she looked in the shell, it contained two eggs. She covered them up, and after several days they burst, one producing a man and the other a woman, who became the parents of the human race. In the neighbouring island of New Britain one account gives a similar origin for the two brothers To-Rabinana and To-Karvuvu. While an old woman was wading in the sea searching for shellfish, her arms pained her, and so, taking two sharp strips of pandanus, she scratched and cut first one arm and then the other. The two strips of pandanus, thus covered with her blood, she laid away in a heap of refuse which she intended to burn; but after a time the pile began to swell, and when she was about to set fire to it, she saw that two boys had grown from her blood—from the blood of her right arm, To-Kabinana, and from that of her left arm, To-Karvuvu. At several points in German New Guinea we find similar tales of children originating from clots of blood, although here they are not considered as the parents of mankind. An origin of the human race from plants seems definitely stated only in the Solomon Islands, where it is said that two knots began to sprout on a stalk of sugar-cane, and when the cane below each sprout burst, from one issued a man and from the other a woman, these becoming the parents of mankind. With this we may compare the tales from New Britain. Two men (sometimes described as To-Kabinana and To-Karvuvu) were fishing at night, and while they were so engaged a piece of wild sugar-cane floated into the net, where it became entangled. Disengaging it, they threw it away, but again it was enmeshed and was once more discarded. When, however, it was caught for the third time, they determined to plant it, and did so. Taking root, the cane grew, and after a time it began to swell, until one day, while the two men were absent at work, the stalk burst and from it came out a woman who cooked food for the men and then returned to her hiding-place. The two came back from their work and were much surprised to find their food ready for them; but since the same thing occurred the next day, on the following morning they hid themselves to see who it was that had prepared their food. After a time the stalk opened and the woman came out, whereupon they immediately seized her and held her fast. In some versions, the woman then became the wife of one of the men, and all mankind are supposed to be descended from the pair. An origin of the first woman from a tree and of the first man from the ground is given by the Papuan tribes of Elema in British New Guinea; while in the New Hebrides the first female being is said to have sprung from a cowrie-shell which turned into a woman. An origin of man from stone is told by the Baining of New Britain. At first the only beings in the world were the sun and the moon, but they married, and from their union were born stones and birds, the former subsequently turning into men, the latter into women, and from these the Baining are descended. The origin of Qat himself is ascribed in the Banks Group to a stone, which in the beginning burst asunder and gave birth to the culture hero—a concept which recalls the tales of the source of the first supernatural beings in Tonga, Celebes, and the Union and Gilbert Groups. The third type of myths of the beginning of mankind has thus far been reported apparently only from one portion of German New Guinea. Origin of the sea Although Melanesia seems characteristically to lack myths of the origin of the world, a tale recounting the source of the sea is quite widely spread. As told by the Baining in New Britain, the story runs as follows. In the beginning the sea was very small—only a tiny water-hole, belonging to an old woman and from which she got the salt water for the flavouring of her food. She kept the hole concealed under a cover of tapa cloth, and though her two sons repeatedly asked her whence she obtained the salt water, she refused to answer. So they determined to watch and eventually surprised her in the act of lifting the cover and dipping up the salt water. When she had gone they went to the spot and tore the cover open; and the farther they tore, the larger became the water-hole. Terrified by this, they ran away, each carrying a corner of the cloth; and thus the water spread and spread until it became the sea, which rose so that only a few rocks, covered with earth, remained above it. When the old woman saw that the sea constantly grew larger, she feared that the entire world would be covered by it, so she hastily planted some twigs along the edge of the shore, thus preventing the ocean from destroying all things. Origin of the sun and moon Of the origin of the sun and moon various tales are told. In the Admiralty Islands it is said that when the sea had dried so that man appeared, the first two beings, after planting trees and creating food plants, made two mushrooms, one of which the man threw into the sky, creating the moon, while the woman tossed the other upward and formed the sun. A different account is given by the people of southern British New Guinea. According to this, a man was digging a deep hole one day when he uncovered the moon as a small bright object. After he had taken it out, it began to grow, and finally, escaping from his hands, rose high into the sky. Had the moon been left in the ground until it was born naturally, it would have given a brighter light; but since it was taken out prematurely, it sheds only feeble rays. With this we may compare a tale from German New Guinea which recounts how the moon was originally kept hidden in a jar by an old woman. Some boys discovered this, and coming secretly, opened the jar, whereupon the moon flew out; and though they tried to hold it, it slipped from their grasp and rose into the sky, bearing the marks of their hands on its surface. The people of Woodlark Island have another tale in which the origin of the sun and moon is connected with the origin of fire. According to this, in the beginning an old woman was the sole owner of fire, and she alone could eat cooked food, while other people must devour theirs raw. Her son said to her: "You are cruel. You see that the taro takes the skin off our throats, yet you do not give us fire with which to cook it"; but since she proved obdurate, he stole some of the flame and gave it to the rest of mankind. In anger at his action, the old woman seized what was left of her fire, divided it into two parts, and threw them into the sky, the larger portion thus becoming the sun, and the smaller the moon. In all of these myths the sun and moon seem to be regarded as inanimate objects, or at least as such in origin. Another group of tales, however, considers them to be living beings. As an example we may take the version given by one of the tribes of the Massim district of British New Guinea. One day a woman who was watching her garden close to the ocean, seeing a great fish sporting in the surf, walked out into the water and played with the fish, continuing to do this for several days. By and by the woman's leg, against which the fish had rubbed, began to swell and became painful until at last she got her father to make a cut in the swelling, when out popped an infant. The boy, who was named Dudugera, grew up among the other children of the village until one day, in playing a game, he threw his dart at the other children rather than at the mark, whereupon they became angry and abused him, taunting him with his parentage. Fearing lest the others might really harm him, Dudugera's mother determined to send him to his father; so she took the boy to the beach, whereupon the great fish came, seized him in his mouth, and carried him far away to the east. Before he left, Dudugera warned his mother and relatives to take refuge under a great rock, for soon, he said, he would climb into a pandanus-tree and thence into the sky, and, as the sun, would destroy all things with his heat. So Indeed, it came to pass, for excepting his mother and her relatives, who heeded Dudugera's advice, nearly everything perished. To prevent their total annihilation his mother took a lime-calabash, and climbing upon a hill near which the sun rose, cast the lime into his face as he came up, which caused the sun to shut his eyes and thus to decrease the amount of heat. The concept that originally there was no night is rather characteristic of Melaneslan mythology: day was perpetual and night was discovered or brought to mankind. In the Banks Islands, after Qat had formed men, pigs, trees, and rocks he still did not know how to make night, for daylight was continuous. His brothers said to him, "Thls is not at all pleasant. Here is nothing but day. Can't you do something for us?" Now Qat heard that at Vava in the Torres Islands there was night, so he took a pig, and went to Vava, where he bought night from I-Qong, Night, who lived there. Other accounts say that Qat sailed to the edge of the sky to buy night from Night, who blackened his eyebrows, showed him sleep and taught him how to make the dawn. Qat returned to his brothers, bringing a fowl and other birds to give notice of the dawn. He begged his brothers to prepare beds of coco-nut fronds. Then for the first time, they saw the sun sinking in the west, and they cried out to Qat that it was crawling away. "'It will soon be gone,' said he, 'and if you see a change on the face of the earth, that is night,' Then he let go the night, 'What is this coming out of the sea,' they cried, 'and covering the sky?' 'That is night,' said he, 'sit down on both sides of the house, and when you feel something in your eyes, lie down and be quiet.' Presently it was dark, and their eyes began to blink. 'Qat! Qat! what is this? Shall we die?' 'Shut your eyes,' said he, 'that is it, go to sleep.' When night had lasted long enough the cock began to crow and the birds to twitter; Qat took a piece of red obsidian and cut the night with it; the light over which the night had spread itself shone forth again, and Qat's brothers awoke." Origin of fire Myths of the origin of fire present a number of interesting types in the Melanesian area. We may begin with the form widely current in British New Guinea. According to a version told by the Motu, the ancestors of the present people had no fire, and ate their food raw or cooked it in the sun until one day they perceived smoke, rising out at sea. A dog, a snake, a bandicoot, a bird, and a kangaroo all saw this smoke and asked, "Who will go to get fire?" First the snake said that he would make the attempt, but the sea was too rough, and he was compelled to come back. Then the bandicoot went, but he, too, had to return. One after another, all tried but the dog, and all were unsuccessful. Then the dog started and swam and swam until he reached the island whence the smoke rose. There he saw women cooking with fire, and seizing a blazing brand, he ran to the shore and swam safely back with it to the mainland, where he gave it to all the people. Some of the Massim tribes of eastern British New Guinea give quite a different origin, according to which people had no fire in the beginning, but simply warmed and dried their food in the sun. There was, however, a certain old woman called Goga who thus prepared food for ten of the youths, but for herself she cooked food with fire, which she obtained from her own body. Before the boys came home each day, she cleared away all traces of the fire and every scrap of cooked food that they should not know her secret; but one day a piece of boiled taro accidentally got among the lads' food, and when the youngest ate it, he found it much better than what was usually given him. The youths resolved to discover the secret, so the next day, when they went to hunt, the youngest hid at home and saw the old woman take the fire from her body and cook with it. After his companions had returned, he told them what he had seen, and they determined to steal some of the fire. Accordingly, on the following day they cut down a huge tree, over which all tried to jump, but only the youngest succeeded, so they selected him to steal the fire. He waited until the others had gone, and then creeping back to the house, he seized the firebrand when the old woman was not looking, and ran off with it. The old woman chased him, but he jumped over the tree, which she was unable to do. As he ran on, however, the brand burned his hand, and he dropped it in the dry grass, which caught the blaze and set fire to a pandanus-tree which was near. Now, in a hole in this tree, lived a snake, whose tail caught fire and burned like a torch. The old woman, finding that she could not overtake the thief, caused a great rain to fall, hoping thus to quench the fire, but the snake stayed in his hole, and his tail was not extinguished. When the rain had stopped, the boys went out to look for fire, but found none, because the rain had put it all out; but at last they saw the hole in the tree, pulled out the snake, and broke off its tail, which was still alight. Then making a great pile of wood, they set fire to it, and people from all the villages came and got flame, which they took home with them. "Different folk used different kinds of wood for their firebrands and the trees from which they took their brands became their pitani (totems)." A snake in this tale plays the part of the saviour of fire; but in other forms of the myth the serpent is the real source or bringer of flame. A version from the Admiralty Islands runs as follows: The daughter of Ulimgau went into the forest. The serpent saw her, and said, "Come!" and the woman replied, "Who would have you for a husband? You are a serpent. I will not marry you." But he replied, "My body is indeed that of a serpent, but my speech is that of a man. Come!" And the woman went and married him, and after a time she bore a boy and a girl, and her serpent husband put her away, and said, "Go, I will take care of them and give them food." And the serpent fed the children and they grew. And one day they were hungry, and the serpent said to them, "Do you go and catch fish." And they caught fish and brought them to their father. And he said, "Cook the fish." And they replied, "The sun has not yet risen." By and by the sun rose and warmed the fish with its rays, and they ate the food still raw and bloody. Then the serpent said to them, "You two are spirits, for you eat your food raw. Perhaps you will eat me. You, girl, stay; and you, boy, crawl into my belly." And the boy was afraid and said, "What shall I do?" But his father said to him, "Go," and he crept into the serpent's belly. And the serpent said to him, "Take the fire and bring it out to your sister. Come out and gather coco-nuts and yams and taro and bananas." So the boy crept out again, bringing the fire from the belly of the serpent. And then having brought the food, the boy and girl lit a fire with the brand which the boy had secured and cooked the food. And when they had eaten, the serpent said to them, "Is my kind of food or your kind of food the better?" And they answered, "Your food is good, ours is bad." Similar to this in that the igneous element was obtained from snakes, but on the other hand suggesting aflinities with the fire-quest of the Polynesian Maui, is a myth current in New Britain. There was once a time when the Sulka were ignorant of fire; but one day a man named Emakong lost one of his ornaments, which fell into a stream. Taking off his loin-cloth he jumped in and dove to recover the lost object, but was amazed, on reaching the bottom, to find himself in the yard of a house. Many people came up and asked him his name, and when he replied that he was called Emakong, one of them said, "Oh, that is also my name," whereupon he took the bewildered man to his house and gave him a new loin-cloth. Great was Emakong's astonishment to see a fire in the house. At first he was afraid of it, but after he had been given cooked food and had found this much better than the raw viands which he had always eaten before, he lost his fear of the new thing. When it became night, the crickets began to sing and this also alarmed him, for in the world above there was no night, and crickets were unknown. His terror became still greater, however, when he heard resounding claps of thunder from every side and saw all the people turn into snakes in order to sleep. His namesake reassured him, however, and said that he need not fear, for this was their custom, and that when day should come again, all would return to their human form. Then, with a loud report, he also changed into a snake, and Emakong alone retained the shape of man. In the morning, when the birds sang to announce the coming day, he awoke, and with a crash all the serpents again turned into men. His namesake now did up a package for him, containing night, some fire, some crickets, and the birds that sing at dawn, and with this Imakong left, rising through the water. On reaching the shore, he threw the fire into dry grass, but when the people saw the blaze and heard the crackling of the flame, they were greatly alarmed and all fled. Emakong, however, ran after them and telling them of his adventures, explained to them the use of the things that he had brought. Origin of death Although not cosmogonic in the stricter sense of the term, we may conveniently include here the myths given to account for the origin of death. According to the version current in Ambrym, the good and the malicious deities were discussing man after he had been made. The former said: "Our men seem to get on well, but haven't you noticed that their skins have begun to wrinkle? They are yet young, but when they are old, they will be very ugly. So when that happens, we will flay them like an eel, and a new skin will grow, and thus men shall renew their youth like the snakes and so be immortal." But the evil deity replied: "No, it shall not be that way. When a man is old and ugly, we will dig a hole in the ground and put the body in it, and thus it shall always be among his descendants." And because the one who has the last word prevails, death came into the world. With this we may compare another form of myth as told in the Banks Islands, according to which, in the beginning men did not die, but cast their skins like snakes and crabs, and thus renewed their youth. One day an old woman went to a stream to change her skin and threw the old one into the water where, as it floated away, it caught upon a stick. When she went home, her child refused to recognize her in her new and youthful form, and to pacify the infant, who cried without ceasing, she returned and got her old skin, and put it on again. From that time men have ceased to cast their skins and have died when they grew old. According to other tales, death was due to a mistake. Thus in the Banks Islands it is said that in the beginning men lived forever, casting their skins, and that the permanence of property in the same hands led to much trouble. Qat, therefore, summoned a man called Mate ("Death") and laid him on a board and covered him over; after which he killed a pig and divided Mate's property among his descendants, all of whom came and ate of the funeral feast. On the fifth day, when the conch-shells were blown to drive away the ghost, Qat removed the covering, and Mate was gone; only his bones were left. Meanwhile, Qat had sent Tagaro the Foolish to watch the way to Panoi, where the paths to the underworld and the upper regions divide, to see that Mate did not go below; but the Fool sat before the way of the world above so that Mate descended to the lower realms; and ever since that time all men have followed Mate along the path he took. Still another explanation is that death was due to disobedience. Thus the Baining in New Britain say that one day the sun called all things together and asked which wished to live forever. All came except man; so the stones and the snakes live forever, but man must die. Had man obeyed the sun, he would have been able to change his skin from time to time like the snake, and so would have acquired immortality. As a last example of this class of myths we may take one which attributes the origin of death to ingratitude. In the Admiralty Group one account states that a man once went out fishing; but since an evil spirit wished to kill and eat him, he fled into the forest. There he caused a tree to open, and creeping inside, the tree closed again, so that when the evil being came, he did not see his victim and went away, whereupon the tree opened, and the man came out. The tree said to him, "Bring to me two white pigs," so the man went to his village and got two pigs, but he cheated the tree in that he brought only a single white one, the other being black whitened with chalk. For this the tree rebuked him and said: "You are unthankful, though I was good to you. If you had done what I had asked, you might have taken refuge in me whenever danger threatened. Now you cannot, but must die." So, as a result of this man's ingratitude, the human race is doomed to mortality and cannot escape the enmity of evil spirits. Deluge and Flood Of deluge-myths from the Melanesian area, only a few have been reported which do not bear the marks of missionary influence. As told in British New Guinea, the story runs that once a great flood occurred, and the sea rose and overflowed the earth, the hills being covered, and people and animals hurrying to the top of Tauaga, the highest mountain. But the sea followed and all were afraid. Yet the king of the snakes, Raudalo, did not fear. "At last he said to his servants, 'Where now are the waters?' And they answered, 'They are rising, lord.' Yet looked he not upon the flood. And after a space he said again, 'Where now are the waters?' and his servants answered as they had done before. And again he inquired of them, 'Where now are the waters?' But this time all the snakes, Titiko, Dubo and Anaur, made answer, 'They are here, and in a moment they will touch thee, lord.' "Then Raudalo turned him about, . . . and put forth his forked tongue, and touched with the tip of it the angry waters which were about to cover him. And on a sudden the sea rose no more, but began to flow down the side of the mountain. Still was Raudalo not content, and he pursued the flood down the hill, ever and anon putting forth his forked tongue that there might be no tarrying on the way. Thus went they down the mountain and over the plain country until the sea shore was reached. And the waters lay in their bed once more and the flood was stayed." Another tale from this same region presents features of interest. One day a man discovered a lake in which were many fish; and at the bottom of the lake lived a magic eel, but the man knew it not. He caught many fish and returned the next day with the people of his village whom he had told of his discovery; and they also were very successful, while one woman even laid hold of the great eel, Abaia, who dwelt in the depths of the lake, though he escaped her. Now Abaia was angry that his fish had been caught and that he himself had been seized, so he caused a great rain to fall that night, and the waters of the lake also rose, and all the people were drowned except an old woman who had not eaten of the fish and who saved herself in a tree. The association of snakes and eels with the deluge in these tales strongly suggests the type of deluge-myth current in parts of Indonesia, and known also apparently in the Cook Group. Geographical flow From the examples given it may be seen that the origin-myths of Melanesia show clear evidence of composite origins. From small groups like the Admiralty Islands several quite different legends accounting for the same thing have been collected, and throughout the whole area a striking variety exists. In how far we are justified in attributing one set of myths to the older Papuan stratum and another to the later Melanesian layer is very difficult to say, since but little from the purer Papuan tribes of the area has as yet been recorded. Comparison with Polynesia and Indonesia suggests that the myths of the origin of the sea, of mankind as originally having had the power to renew their youth by changing skins, and of the obtaining of fire from or with the aid of snakes, were primarily Papuan, for no traces of either appear in Indonesia, and only the former is found in somewhat mutilated form in Samoa, but nowhere else in Polynesia. Other themes, however, such as the origin of human beings from eggs or from a clot of blood, are widely known in Indonesia and also occur in western and south-western Polynesia, and would seem to be immigrant elements from the great culture stream which, passing from Indonesia eastward into the Pacific, swept with greatest strength the north-eastern and south-eastern parts of Melanesia. Culture heroes One of the most noteworthy features of Melanesian mythology is the prominence of tales relating either to two culture heroes, one of whom is, as a rule, wise and benevolent, while the other is foolish and malicious; or to a group of brothers, usually ten or twelve in number, two of whom, one wise and one foolish, are especially outstanding. Thus a rudimentary sort of dualism is developed which stands in rather marked contrast to Indonesian mythology, while showing points of contact with Polynesian and Micronesian ideas. In New Britain we have already seen how To-Karvuvu unsuccessfully imitated To-Kabinana in the making of woman; and in the local forms of the myth of the origin of death it was To-Karvuvu who cried and refused to recognize his mother when she had shed her skin and become rejuvenated, so that he was thus directly responsible for the entrance of death into the world. A few other examples of his foolishness may be given from the same region. According to one of these tales, To-Kabinana and To-Karvuvu were one day walking in the fields when the former said to the latter, "Go, and look after our mother." So To-Karvuvu went, filled a bamboo vessel with water, poured it over his mother, heated stones in the fire, killed her, and laid her in the oven to roast, after which he returned to To-Kabinana, who asked him how their parent was and if he had taken good care of her. To-Karvuvu replied, "I have roasted her with the hot stones," whereupon his brother demanded, "Who told you to do that?" "Oh," he answered, "I thought you said to kill her!" but To-Kabinana declared, "Oh, you fool, you will die before me. You never cease doing foolish things. Our descendants now will cook and eat human flesh." On another occasion To-Kabinana said to his brother, "Come, let us each build a house," and accordingly each constructed a dwelling, but To-Kabinana roofed his house outside, while his foolish brother covered his on the inside. Then To-Kabinana said, "Let us make rain!" so they performed the proper ceremony, and in the night it rained. The darkness pressed heavily on To-Karvuvu so that he sat up, and the rain came through the roof of his house and fell upon him, and he wept. In the morning he came to his brother, saying, "The darkness pressed upon me, and the rain-water wet me, and I cried." But when To-Kabinana asked, "How did you build your house?" the other replied, "I covered it with the roof covering inside. It is not like yours." Then they both went to look at it, and To-Karvuvu said, "I will pull it down and build like yours." But his brother had pity on him and said, "Do not do that. We will both of us live together in my house." Many of the evil or harmful things in the world were the work of the foolish brother. One day To-Kabinana carved a Thum-fish out of wood and let it float on the sea and made it alive so that it might always be a fish; and the Thum-fish drove the Malivaran-fish ashore in great numbers so that they could be caught. Now To-Karvuvu saw them, and asked his brother where were the fish that forced the Malivaran-fish ashore, sa}ring that he also wished to make some. Accordingly, To-Kabinana told him to make the figure of a Thum-fish, but instead the stupid fellow carved the effigy of a shark and put it in the water. The shark, however, did not drive the other fish ashore, but ate them all up, so that To-Karvuvu went crying to his brother and said, "I wish I had not made my fish, for he eats all the others"; whereupon To-Kabinana asked, "What kind of a fish did you make?" and he replied, "A shark." Then To-Kabinana said, "You are indeed a stupid fellow. You have brought it about that our descendants shall suffer. That fish will eat all the others, and he will also eat people as well." The characters of the two brothers are seen to be quite clearly distinguished, To-Karvuvu being in these tales (as in many others from this same area) foolish or stupid rather than designedly malicious, although his follies are usually responsible for the troubles and tribulations of human life; whereas To-Kabinana, on the other hand, appears as actively benevolent, his well-intentioned deeds in behalf of mankind being frustrated by his brother. Tales of a similar type have been collected at one or two points on the German New Guinea shore, but appear to be much less common than among the coast population of New Britain. From British New Guinea few tales of this sort seem to have been collected, although stories of the wise and foolish brothers are very prevalent in the Solomon, Santa Cruz, and Banks Islands and the New Hebrides, where they are of the second type, in that, instead of the usual two brothers, we have a group of ten or twelve. In the Banks Islands Qat is the great hero, and many tales are told of him and his eleven brothers, all of whom were named Tagaro, one being Tagaro the Wise, and one Tagaro the Foolish. In the stories told in Mota, all seem to have combined against Qat and endeavoured to kill him; but in Santa Maria, another island of the group, Qat has his antithesis in Marawa, the Spider, a personage who in Mota seems to become Qat's friend and guide. Thus, according to one tale, when Qat had finished his work of creation, he proposed to his brothers, Tagaro, that they make canoes for themselves. Qat himself cut down a great tree and worked secretly at it every day, but made no progress, for each morning, when he came back to his task, he found that all that had been done the previous day was undone, and the tree-trunk made solid again. On finishing work one night, he determined to watch, and accordingly, making himself of very small size, he hid under a large chip which he carried away from the pile that he had made during the day. By and by a little old man appeared from a hole in the ground and began to put the chips back, each in the place from which it had been cut, until the whole tree-trunk was almost whole once more, only one piece being lacking, namely, that under which Qat had hidden himself. Finally the old man found it, but just as he was about to pick it up, Qat sprang out, grew to his full size, and raised his axe to kill the old man who had thus interfered with his work. The latter, however, who was Marawa in disguise, begged Qat to spare his life, promising to complete the canoe for him if he would do so. So Qat had mercy on Marawa, and he finished the boat, using his nails to scoop and scrape it out. When the canoes were finished, Qat told his brothers to launch theirs, and as each slipped into the water, he raised his hand, and the boat sank; whereupon Qat and Marawa appeared, paddling about in their canoe and surprising the other brothers, who had not known that Qat was at work. After this, the brothers tried to destroy Qat in order that they might possess his wife and canoe. "One day they took him to the hole of a land-crab under a stone, which they had already so prepared by digging under it that it was ready to topple over upon him. Qat crawled into the hole and began to dig for the crab; his brothers tipped over the stone upon him, and thinking him crushed to death, ran off to seize Ro Lei and the canoe. But Qat called on Marawa by name, 'Marawa! take me round about to Ro Lei,' and by the time that his brothers reached the village, there was Qat to their astonishment sitting by the side of his wife." They tried to kill him in many other ways, but Qat was always the victor, and their plans were frustrated. The element of the opposition of the wise and foolish brothers is better brought out, it seems, in the New Hebrides, where Tagaro becomes the chief actor and is pitted against Suqe-matua. "Tagaro wanted everything to be good, and would have no pain or suffering; Suqe-matua would have all things bad. When Tagaro made things, he or Suqe-matua tossed them up into the air; what Tagaro caught is good for food, what he missed is worthless." In a neighbouring island Tagaro is one of twelve brothers, as in the Banks Islands, and usually another of them is Suqe-matua, who continually thwarts him. In Lepers Island " Tagaro and Suqe-matua shared the work of creation, but whatever the latter did was wrong. Thus when they made the trees, the fruit of Tagaro's were good for food, but Suqe-matua's were bitter; when they created men, Tagaro said they should walk upright on two legs, but Suqe-matua said that they should go like pigs; Suqe-matua wanted to have men sleep in the trunks of sago palms, but Tagaro said they should work and dwell in houses. So they always disagreed, but the word of Tagaro prevailed. In this latter feature we have the exact opposite of the conditions in New Britain. Tagaro was said to be the father of ten sons, the cleverest of whom was Tagaro-Mbiti. In another portion of this island Tagaro's opponent, here known as Meragbuto, again becomes more of a simple fool, and many are the tricks that Tagaro plays upon him." One day Meragbuto saw Tagaro, who had just oiled his hair with coco-nut oil, and admiring the effect greatly, asked how this result had been produced. Tagaro asked him if he had any hens, and when Meragbuto answered that he had many, Tagaro said: "Well, when they have roosted in the trees, do you go and sit under a tree, and anoint yourself with the ointment which they will throw down to you." Meragbuto carried out the instructions exactly and rubbed not only his hair, but his whole body with the excrement of the fowls. On the following day he went proudly to a festival, but as soon as he approached everyone ran away, crying out at the intolerable odour; only then did Meragbuto realize that he had been tricked, and washed himself in the sea. Another time Tagaro placed a tabu upon all coco-nuts so that no one should eat them; but Meragbuto paid no attention to this prohibition, eating and eating until he had devoured nearly all of them. Thereupon Tagaro took a small coco-nut, scraped out half the meat, and leaving the rest in the shell, sat down to await the coming of Meragbuto, who appeared by and by, and seeing the coco-nut, asked Tagaro if it was his. "Yes," said Tagaro, "if you are hungry, eat it, but only on condition that you eat it all." So Meragbuto sat down and scraped the remainder of the nut and ate it; but though he scraped and scraped, more was always left, and so he continued eating all day. At night Meragbuto said to Tagaro, "My cousin, I can't eat any more, my stomach pains me." But Tagaro answered, "No. I put a tabu on the coco-nuts, and you disregarded it; now you must eat it all." So Meragbuto continued to eat until finally he burst and died. If he had not perished, there would have been no more coco-nuts, for he would have devoured them all. At last Tagaro determined to destroy Meragbuto, and accordingly he said, "Let us each build a house." This they did, but Tagaro secretly dug a deep pit in the floor of his house and covered it over with leaves and earth; after which he said to Meragbuto: "Come, set fire to my house, so that I and my wife and children may be burned and die; thus you will become the sole chief." So Meragbuto came and set fire to Tagaro's house, and then went to his own and lay down and slept. Tagaro and his family, however, quickly crawled into the pit which he had prepared, and so they escaped death; and when the house had burned, they came up out of their hiding-place and sat down among the ashes. After a time Meragbuto awoke, and saying, "Perhaps my meat is cooked," he went to where Tagaro's house had been, thinking to find his victims roasted. Utterly amazed to see Tagaro and his family safe and sound, he asked how this had happened, and Tagaro replied that the flames had not harmed him at all. "Good!" said Meragbuto, "when it is night, do you come and set fire to my house and burn me also." So Tagaro set fire to Meragbuto's house, but when the flames began to burn him, Meragbuto cried out, "My cousin! It hurts me. I am dying." Tagaro, however, replied, "No, you will not die; it was just that way in my case. Bear it bravely; it will soon be over." And so it was, for Meragbuto was burned up and entirely destroyed. Two points of special interest in connexion with these tales deserve brief discussion. One of the most characteristic features of Polynesian mythology is the prominence of the Maui cycle; and if we compare these Polynesian tales with the Melanesian stories of the wise and foolish brothers, there is a suggestion of some sort of relationship between them. To be sure, the similarity lies mainly in the fact that in both regions there is a group of brothers, one of whom is capable, the others incapable or foolish, whereas the actual exploits of the two areas are different. Again, it is only in New Zealand that even this slight amount of correspondence is noticeable. In spite, however, of this very slender basis for comparison, it seems, in view of the relative absence of this type of tale from the rest of the Pacific area, that the suggestion of connexion between the two groups of myths is worth further investigation. This is especially evident in view of the second of the two points to which reference has been made, i.e. the similarity between Tagaro, the name of the Melanesian brothers in the New Hebrides, and the Polynesian deity Tangaroa, who appears in several guises, i. e. as a simple god of the sea in New Zealand, as the creator in the Society and Samoan Groups, and as an evil deity in Hawaii. It is not yet possible to determine the exact relationship between the Polynesian Tangaroa and the New Hebridian Takaro, but it is probable that there is some connexion between them. It may be that the use of the name in the New Hebrides is due wholly to borrowing during the comparatively recent Polynesian contact; but on the other hand, it is possible that Tangaroa is a Polynesian modification of the Melanesian Tagaro. The general uniformity of the conceptions of Tagaro in Melanesia, contrasted with the varied character of Tangaroa in Polynesia, adds considerable difficulty to the problem. The final elucidation of the puzzle must wait, however, for the materials at present available are not sufficiently complete to enable us to draw any certain conclusions. Miscellaneous tales Cannibals A very common class of tales in Melanesia deals with cannibals and monsters, and our discussion of the general or more miscellaneous group of myths may well begin with examples of this type. As told by the Sulka, a Papuan tribe of New Britain, one of these stories runs as follows. Once there was a cannibal and his wife who had killed and eaten a great many persons, so that, fearing lest they should all be destroyed, the people resolved to abandon their village and seek safety in flight. Accordingly, they prepared their canoes, loaded all their property on board, and made ready to leave; but Tamus, one of the women of the village, was with child, whence the others refused to take her with them, saying that she would only be a burden upon the journey. She swam after them, however, and clung to the stem of one of the canoes, but they beat her off, compelling her to return to the deserted village and to live there alone. In due time she bore a son, and when he grew up a little, she would leave him in her hut while she went out to get food, warning him not to talk or laugh, lest the cannibals should hear and come and eat him. One day his mother left him a dracaena-plant as a plaything, and when she was gone he said to himself, "What shall I make out of this, my brother or my cousin?" Then he held the dracaena behind him, and presently it turned into a boy, with whom he played and talked. Resolving to conceal the presence of his new friend. Pupal, from his mother, he said to her on her return, "Mother, I want to make a partition in our house; then you can live on one side, and I will live on the other" and this he did, concealing Pupal in his portion of the house. From time to time his mother thought that she heard her son talking to someone and was surprised at the quantity of food and drink he required; but though she often asked him if he was alone, he always declared that he was. At last one day she discovered Pupal and then learned how he had come from the dracaena. She was glad that her son now had a companion, and all three lived happily together. Tamus was, however, more than ever afraid that the cannibals would hear sounds, and suspecting the presence of people in the deserted village, would come to eat them; but the two boys reassured her, saying, "Have no fear; we shall kill them, if they dare to come." Accordingly, making themselves shields and spears, they practised marksmanship and also erected a slippery barricade about the house, so that it would be difficult to climb. When they had completed their preparations, they set up a swing near the house, and while they were swinging, called out to the cannibals, "Where are you? We are here, come and eat us." The cannibals heard, and one said to the other, "Don't you hear someone calling us over there? Who can it be, for we have eaten all of them." So they set out for the village to see what could have made the noise, the two boys being meanwhile ready in hiding. When the cannibals tried to climb the barricade, they slipped and fell, and the boys rushing out succeeded in killing them both after a hard fight. The children then called to the boy's mother, who had been greatly terrified, and when she came and saw both the cannibals dead, she built a fire, and they cut up the bodies and burned them, saving only the breasts of the ogress. These Tamus put in a coco-nut-shell, and setting it afloat on the sea, said: "Go to the people who ran away from here, and if they ask, 'Have the cannibals killed Tamus, and are these her breasts?' remain floating; but if they say, 'Has Tamus borne a son and has he killed the cannibals, and are these the breasts of the ogress?' then sink!". The coco-nut-shell floated away at once and by and by came to the new village built by the people who had fled years before. All occurred as Tamus had foreseen, and through the aid of the coco-nut-shell and its contents the people learned the truth. When they discovered the death of the cannibals, they were overjoyed and set out at once for their old home; but just as they were about to land, Pupal and Tamus's son attacked them, and the latter said, "Ye abandoned my mother and cast her away. Now, ye shall not come back." After a while, however, he relented and allowed the people to land, and all lived together again happily and safely in their old home. Another cannibal story which introduces interesting features is told in the New Hebrides. There was once a cannibal named Taso, who came one day upon the sister of Qatu and killed her, but did not eat her because she was with child. So he abandoned her body in a thicket, and there, though their mother was dead, twin boys were bom. They found rain-water collected in dead leaves, and shoots of plants that they could eat; so they lived, and when they grew old enough to walk, they wandered about in the forest until one day they found a sow belonging to their uncle Qatu. He came daily to give it food, but when he had gone, the boys would eat part of the sow's provisions. Thus they grew, and their skins and hair were fair. Qatu wondered why his sow did not become fat, and watching, discovered the tmns and caught them; but when they told him who they were, he welcomed them as his nephews and took them home with him. After they grew bigger, he made little bows of sago fronds for them, and when they could shoot lizards, he broke the bows, giving them larger ones with which they brought down greater game; and thus he trained them until they were grown up and could shoot anything. When they were young men, Qatu told them about Taso and how he had murdered their mother, warning them to be careful, lest he should catch them. The twins, however, determined to kill the cannibal, so they set a tabu on a banana-tree belonging to them and said to their uncle: "If our bunch of bananas begins to ripen at the top and ripens downwards, you will know that Taso has killed us; but if it begins to ripen at the bottom and ripens upwards, we shall have killed him." So they set off to kill Taso, but when they came to his house, he had gone to the beach to sharpen his teeth, and only his mother was at home. Accordingly, they went and sat in the gamal the men's house, to wait for him, and lighting a fire in the oven, they roasted some yams and heated stones in the blaze. Thereupon Taso's mother sang a song, telling him that there were two men in the gamal and that they should be food for him and for her; so the cannibal quickly returned from the shore, and as he came, he moved his head from side to side, striking the trees so that they went crashing down. When he reached the gamal he climbed over the door-rail, but the boys immediately threw at him all the hot rocks from the oven and knocked him down, and then with their clubs they beat him until he was dead, after which they killed his mother, and setting fire to the house over them, went away. Now Qatu, hearing the popping of the bamboos as the house burned, said, "Alas, Taso has probably burned the boys!" Hastening to see what had happened, however, he met them on the way and heard from them that they had killed Taso and had revenged their mother whom he had slain. Although greatly feared, and capable of destroying people in numbers, the cannibals are usually pictured as stupid and easily deceived, as shown in the following two tales. In a village lived four brothers, the eldest of whom one day took his bow and went out to shoot fish. Those which were only wounded he buried in the sand, and so went on until his arrow hit and stuck in the trunk of a bread-fruit-tree; whereupon, looking up and seeing ripe fruit, he climbed the tree and threw several of them down. An old cannibal heard the sound as they dropped and said, "Who is that stealing my fruit?" The man in the tree replied, "It is I with my brothers," and the old ogre answered, "Well, let us see if what you say is true. Just call to them." Accordingly, the man shouted, "My brothers!" and all the fish that he had buried in the sand, replied, so that it sounded as if many men were near; whereupon the cannibal was frightened and said, "It is true, but hurry up, take what you will, only leave me the small ones." So the man took the bread-fruit, gathered up the fish which he had buried, and went home; but when his brothers begged him to share his food with them, or at least to give them the skins of the fish, he refused, telling them to go and get some for themselves. The next day the second brother went off, followed his brother's tracks, imitated his procedure, and came back with fish and fruit; the third brother did the same on the following day; and then it came the turn of the fourth to go. He, however, failed to bury the wounded fish, but killed them, and when the cannibal asked him to call his brothers, there was no reply. "Aha," said the cannibal, "now I have got you. You must come down from the tree." "Oh, yes!" said the youngest brother, "I shall come down on that tree there." Quickly the ogre took his axe and cut down the tree, and in this way he felled every one that stood near. "Now, I surely have you," said he, but the youngest brother replied, "No, I will come down on your youngest daughter there." So the cannibal rushed at her and gave her a fatal blow; and thus the man in the tree induced the stupid monster to kill all his children and his wife and lastly to cut off his own hand, whereupon the man came down from the tree and slew the ogre. The following story presents striking features of agreement with certain Indonesian tales. A man and his family had dried and prepared a great quantity of food, which they stored on a staging in their home; and one day, when the man had gone off to his field to work, a cannibal came to the house, and seeing all the provisions, resolved to get them. So he said to the man's wife, who had been left alone with the children, "My cousin told me to tell you to give me a package of food." The woman gave him one, and he hid it in the forest, after which he returned and repeated his request, thus carrying away all the food which the people had stored. Finally he seized the woman and her children, shut them up in a cave, and went away, so that when the husband returned, he found his house empty. Searching about, he at last heard his wife calling to him from the cave where she had been imprisoned, and she told him how the cannibal, after stealing their food, had taken her and the children. Hard though her husband tried, he could not open the cave, but was forced to sit there helpless while his wife and family starved to death, after which he returned to his town and plaited the widower's wristlets and arm-bands for himself. One day the old cannibal came by, and seeing him sitting there, he admired the plaited ornaments which the man wore, but did not know what they were. He asked the man to make him some like them, and the widower agreed, saying, "You must first go to sleep, then I can make them properly." So they went to seek a suitable place, and the man, after secretly telling the birds to dam up the river, that the bed might be dry, led the cannibal to a great tree-root in the channel of the stream and told him that this would be a good place. Believing him, the cannibal lay down on the root and slept, whereupon the man took strong rattans and vines and tied the monster fast, after which he called out to the birds to break the dam and let the flood come down the river. He himself ran to the bank in safety, and when the cannibal, awakened by the water which rose higher and higher, cried out, "What is this cold thing which touches me?" the man replied: "You evil cave-monster, surely it was for you that we prepared all the food, and you came and ate it up. You also killed my wife and children, and now you want me to plait an arm-band for you." Then he tore off his own arm-bands and signs of mourning and threw them away, while the water rose above the head of the cannibal and drowned him. Women The theme of the woman abandoned by the people of the village, one form of which has already been given, is very common in Melanesia, and another version presents several interesting features for comparison. A woman named Garawada one day went with her mother-in-law into the jungle to gather figs. Coming to a fig-tree, Garawada climbed up and began to eat the ripe fruit, while she threw down the green ones to her mother-in-law. The latter, angered at this, called to Garawada to come down, but when she reached the fork in the tree, the old woman, who was a witch, caused the forks to come together, thus imprisoning her daughter-in-law, after which she went away and left her. For many days the woman remained in the tree, and finally bore a son; but after a while the child fell to the ground, and though his mother feared that he would die, he found wild fruits and water, and lived. One day he looked up into the tree and discovered his mother, and from that time he gave her fruits and berries in order that she might not starve. Nevertheless, he longed for other companions, and one day he said to his parent, "Mother, teach me my party that I may sing it when I find my people, and that thus they may know me." So she taught him his spell: "I have sucked the shoots of dabedabe; My mother is Garawada." The child then ran off to seek his way out of the jungle. Once he forgot his song, but after hastening back to relearn it, he hurried away again and came to the edge of the forest, where he saw some children throwing darts at a coco-nut which was rolled upon the ground. He yearned to play with them, and making for himself a dart, he ran toward them, singing his charm and casting his missile. Not being used to aim at a mark, however, he missed the coco-nut and struck one of the children in the arm, whereat, thinking an enemy had attacked them, the children all ran shrieking to their homes. The next day he came again, and this time the children fled at once, but though he followed, he was unable to catch them, and so returned a second time to his mother. The children now reported their adventure to their parents, and the father of one of them determined to go with them the following day and hide that he might watch what happened. Accordingly, when the little jungle-boy came the third time, the man ran out and caught him and asked him who he was; whereupon the boy told him the story of his mother's bravery, and how he himself had grown up alone in the jungle, and then sang his song: "I have sucked the shoots of dabedabe; My mother is Garawada" At this the man said, "Truly thou art my nephew. Come, let us go and set thy mother free." So they went with many of the villagers and cut down the tree, for they could not separate the branches; but as the tree fell, Garawada slipped away and ran swiftly to the beach, and there, turning into a crab, crawled into a hole in the sand. Her son wept, because he knew that his mother had left him, but his uncle led him back to the village and took him into his own home, and the children no longer were afraid to have him for a playfellow. The theme of the swan-maiden, which perhaps occurs in parts of Polynesia and widely in Indonesia, seems quite well developed in the New Hebrides. According to the version told in Lepers Island, a party of heavenly, winged maidens once flew down to earth to bathe, and Tagaro watched them. He saw them take off their wings, stole one pair, and hid them at the foot of the main pillar of his house. He then returned and found all fled but the wingless one, and he took her to his house and presented her to his mother as his wife. After a time Tagaro took her to weed his garden, when the yams were not yet ripe, and as she weeded and touched the yam vines, ripe tubers came into her hand. Tagaro's brothers thought she was digging yams before their time and scolded her; she went into the house and sat weeping at the foot of the pillar, and as she wept her tears fell, and wearing away the earth pattered down upon her wings. She heard the sound, took up her wings, and flew back to heaven. Another version adds that the returning sky-maiden took her child with her; and when Tagaro came back to find his wife and son absent, he asked his mother regarding them, her reply being that they had gone to the house and wept because they had been scolded about the yams. Tagaro hurried to the dwelling, but seeing that the wings were gone, he knew that his wife and child had returned to the sky-land. Thereupon he called a bird and said, "Fly up and seek for them in their country, for you have wings and I have not." So the bird flew up and up and up, and perched upon a tree in the sky-country. Under the tree Tagaro's wife sat with her child, making mats, and the bird, scratching upon a fruit pictures of Tagaro, the child, and its mother, dropped it at their feet. The boy seized it, and recognizing the pictures, they looked up and saw the bird, from whom they learned that Tagaro was seeking them. The sky-woman bade the bird tell Tagaro that he must ascend to the sky-land, for only if he should come up to her would she agree to descend to earth again. The bird carried the message, but Tagaro was in despair, for how, without wings, could he possibly reach the sky? At last he had an idea. Quickly making a powerful bow and a hundred arrows, he shot one of them at the sky. The arrow stuck firmly, and he then shot another into the butt of the first, and a third into the butt of the second, and thus, one after another, he sent his arrows, making an arrow-chain, until, when he had sped the last one, the end of the chain reached the earth. Then from the sky a banian-root crept down the arrow-chain and took root in the earth. Tagaro breathed upon it, and it grew larger and stronger, whereupon, taking all his ornaments, he and the bird climbed the banian-root to the sky. There he found his lost wife and child, and said to them, "Let us now descend." Accordingly, his wife gathered up her mats and followed him, but when Tagaro said to her, "Do you go first," she replied, "No, do you go first." So Tagaro started, and they followed; but when they were halfway down, his wife took out a hatchet which she had concealed and cut the banian-root just beneath her, so that Tagaro and the bird fell to earth, while she and her child climbed back again to the sky. In its distribution the story of the Isle of Women presents a number of elements of interest. According to the version from New Britain, a man one day set some snares in a tree to catch pigeons. One of the birds was caught, but succeeded in tearing the snare loose and flew away over the sea. The man, thinking to secure it, followed it in his canoe, and after having paddled all day and all night, in the morning he saw an island and the bird perched upon a tree. Carefully concealing his canoe, he started after the bird, but hearing people coming, he hurriedly climbed into a tree and hid himself. The tree stood directly over a spring, and soon many women appeared, coming to get water. One of them preceded the others, and as she stooped to dip up water, she saw the reflection of the man in the surface of the pool; whereupon she called out to her companions, "I will fill your water-vessels for you," for she did not wish the others to know that there was a man in the tree. When all the vessels had been filled and the women had started to return home, she secretly left her sun-shield behind; and after they had gone a little way, she said, "Oh, I left my sun-shield! Do you all go on, I will catch up." So she went back to the spring, and calling to the man to come down, she asked him to marry her, and he agreed. She took him to her house and secreted him there, and thus she alone of all the women had a man for her husband; for all the rest had only tortoises. In due time she had a child, at which the other women were envious and asked her how her human child had been born but she refused to disclose her secret, although by and by she confided to her sister that she had found a man and agreed to let her also become his wife. When later her sister bore a child, the other women were again curious, and at last discovering the secret, each and every one of them wished to have the man for her husband, and they paid the sisters to let them all marry the man and become his wives; so that the man had very many spouses. After the man's first child had grown, he determined to leave the island; and accordingly, uncovering his canoe, which he had concealed, he paddled away to his own home, where he saw the signs that were put up in the house of the dead, for all thought him drowned. It was evening when he reached his village, and as he rapped on the drum to let his wife know that he had returned, she called out, "Who is there?" to which he answered, "It is I." She lit a torch and came out of the house and looked at him; but was angry, and saying, "You are the one who caused us to spend all our bead-money in vain on your funeral ceremonies, while you have been living shamelessly with other wives, she seized an axe and struck him so that he died. Of tales in which inanimate objects become persons or act as such, and which arc apparently characteristic of the Melanesian area, we may take an example from German New Guinea. One night, while two women were sleeping in a house, a tapa-beater transformed itself into a woman resembling one of the pair, and waking the other, said to her, "Come, it is time for us to go fishing." So the woman arose, and they took torches and went out to sea in a canoe. After a while she saw an island of drift-wood, and as the dawn came on, perceived that her companion had turned into a tapa-beater, whereupon she said: "Oh, the tapa-beater has deceived me. While we were talking in the evening, it was standing in the corner and heard us, and in the night it came and deceived me." Landing her on the island, the tapa-beater paddled away and abandoned her; but she sought for food, and found a sea-eagle's egg which she held in her hand until it broke and hatched out a young bird, for which she cared until it grew large. Then the bird would fly off and get fish for her to eat, and also brought her a fire-brand, so that she could cook her food. Her great desire, however, was to return to her home; but when the bird said that he would carry her to the shore, she doubted whether he was strong enough. Then the bird seized a great log of wood and showed her that he could lift that, so she finally trusted him and thus was borne safely back to her own island. Her parents were delighted to see her, and she petted and fed the bird who had taken care of her so well; but since the sea-eagle could not be content, it flew away. Then the woman told her parents how the tapa-beater had deceived and kidnapped her; and her father was angry, and building a great fire, he threw the tapa-beater into it and burned it up. Ghosts Equally typical of Melanesia are the many tales of ghosts; and an example from the Kai, a Papuan tribe of German New Guinea, runs as follows. One day a number of brothers who were gathering material for making arm-bands had climbed into a great tree, when the youngest made a mis-step, and falling to the ground, was killed. The other brothers, who could not see what had happened because of the thick foliage, called out, "What was that which fell?" The ghost of the dead brother, however, still stood in the tree and said, "I stepped on a dead branch which broke," and thus lying to his brothers, he descended from the tree before them, wrapped his body in leaves, and hid it. When his brothers came down, the ghost went along with them, but on the way he suddenly said, "Oh! I forgot and left something at that tree. Wait for me till I get it." Accordingly, they waited while the ghost went back, picked up his body, and brought it along, but hid it again before he came to the place where his brothers were. Then they all went on toward the village; but after a while he repeated the trick several times until his brothers, becoming suspicious, watched and found out how they had been deceived. Thereupon they all fled, and coming to the village, cried out, "We have seen something mysterious. Shut your doors." So all the people obeyed, all but an old woman and her grandson, for she had not heard the warning and left her door open. By and by the ghost came, carrying his body on his back. He tried to throw his corpse into the first house, but it struck against the closed door and fell down again; so he picked it up and cast it at the next with like result. Thus he tried them all until he came to the last house, in which the old woman lived; and here, because the door was open, the ghost succeeded and threw his body into the house. Quickly the old woman seized the bundle and tossed it out again, but the ghost caught it and hurled it back. Thus they continued to send the body to and fro; but at last the old woman seized her grandson by mistake and threw him out, at which the ghost cried, "That is great! Now you have given me something to eat." The old woman then said, "Throw him back again," but the ghost replied, thinking to cheat her, "Do you first throw out my body. Then I will throw him back." So they argued until dawn was near, when the old woman shouted, "The dawn is coming. Does that mean something for you or for me?" Since the ghost replied, "For me!" the woman delayed until the day had come. The light of the sun put the ghost in danger, so he threw the grandson back and received his own body in return; but being no longer able to conceal himself, he was changed into a wild taro-plant, while his body became a piece of bark. Animals In many parts of Melanesia a type of tale is found which seems to be rare in Polynesia and Indonesia, but is, on the other hand, common in Australia, i.e. the stories told to account for peculiar markings or characteristics of different animals, plants, or inanimate things. In the Banks Islands it is said that a rat and a rail, once finding a gariga-tree full of ripe fruit, disputed which should climb the tree. At last the rat went up, but instead of throwing ripe fruit down to the rail, he ate them himself and tossed down only stones. Finding that the rat refused to give him any fully ripe fruit, the bird said, "Throw me down that one. It is only red ripe," whereupon the rat took the fruit and tossed it at the rail, so that it hit him on his forehead and stuck fast. The rail was angry, and as the rat came down from the tree, he thrust the unfolded leaf of a dracaena into the rat's rump, where it stuck fast. So the tail of the rat is the leaf of the dracaena that the rail put there, and the red lump on the head of the rail is the gariga-fruit which the rat threw at him. In Lepers Island in the New Hebrides the origin of good and bad yams is given as follows. One day a hen and her ten chickens came across a wild yam, which got up after a while and ate one of the chickens. The survivors called to a kite, which said to the hen, "Put the chickens under me," and when the yam came and asked the kite where the chickens were, the bird replied, "I don't know." Thereupon the yam scolded the kite, and the latter, seizing the yam, flew high into the air and dropped it to the ground. Then another kite took it up and let it fall, so that the yam was broken into two parts; and thus the two kites divided the yam between them, whence some yams are good and some are bad. The story of how the turtle got his shell is told as follows in British New Guinea. The turtle and the wallaby, being hungry one day, went together to the hombill's garden and began to eat his bananas and sugar-cane. While they were thus engaged, the birds were preparing a feast, and Binama, the hornbill, asked one of them to go to the shore for some salt water with which to flavour the food. Several made excuses, for they feared that an enemy might kill them, but at last the wagtail agreed to go, and on the way passed through Binama's garden, where he saw the wallaby and the turtle feasting. The turtle was much frightened at being discovered and said, "Your master bade us eat his bananas, for we were hungry." The wagtail knew that this was not true, but said nothing, got the sea-water, and returning to the village by another path, cried out, "Friends, the turtle and the wallaby are eating in our master's garden." Then all the people were angry, and getting their spears, they ran and surrounded the garden. The wallaby, seeing his danger, made a tremendous leap and escaped, but the turtle, having no means of flight, was caught and carried prisoner to Binama's house, where he was tied to a pole and laid upon a shelf until the morrow, when Binama and the others went to get food to make a feast, at which they intended to kill the turtle. Only Binama's children were left in the house, and the turtle, speaking softly to them, said, "Loosen my bonds, O children, that we may play together." This the children did and then, at the turtle's request, got the best of their father's ornaments, which the turtle donned and wore as he crawled about. This amused the children and they laughed loudly, for the turtle had put a great bead necklace about his neck and shell armlets on his arms and a huge wooden bowl on his back. By and by the people could be heard returning; and as soon as the turtle became aware of this, he ran swiftly to the sea, while the children cried out, "Come quickly, for the turtle is running away!" So all the people chased the turtle, but he succeeded in reaching the sea and dived out of sight. When the people arrived at the shore, they called out, "Show yourself! Lift up your head!" Accordingly, the turtle rose and stuck his head above water, whereupon the birds hurled great stones at him and broke one of the armlets; they threw again and destroyed the other; again, and hit the necklace, so that the string gave way, and the beads were lost. Then for a last time calling to the turtle to show himself, they threw very large stones which fell upon the wooden bowl on his back, but they did not break it, and the turtle was not harmed. Then he fled far away over the sea, and to this day all turtles carry on their backs the bowl that once was in the house of Binama. From New Britain comes the following tale of the dog and the kangaroo. One day when the kangaroo was going along, followed by the dog, he ate a yellow lapua-fruit and was asked by the dog, when the latter came up with him, "Tell me, what have you eaten that your mouth is so yellow?" The kangaroo replied, "There is some of it on yonder log," pointing to a pile of filth; whereupon the dog, thinking that it was good, ran quickly and ate it up, only to hear his companion laugh and say, "Listen, friend, what I ate was a yellow laptua''- fruit like that; what you have eaten is simply filth." Angered at the trick played upon him, the dog resolved to have his revenge, and so, as they went on toward the shore, he ran ahead and buried his forepaws in the sand. When the kangaroo came up, the dog said: "Gracious, but you have long forepaws! Break off a piece of your long paws. I have broken off a piece of mine as you see, and now mine are beautiful and short. Do you do likewise, and then we shall both be alike." So the kangaroo broke off a piece of each of his forepaws and threw the pieces away, whereupon the dog jumped up and said, triumphantly, "Aha! I still have long forepaws, but you have only short ones. You are the one who deceived me and made me eat the filth," and as he uttered these words, he sprang at the kangaroo and killed him, and ever since the kangaroo has had short forepaws. In several cases the parallelism between the Melanesian and Australian tales of this type is very striking; its significance will be apparent later. References Citations Sources Further reading

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The 2020 season was the Las Vegas Raiders' 51st in the National Football League, their 61st overall, and their first in the Las Vegas metropolitan area. The Raiders began playing their home games in the brand-new Allegiant Stadium. The season was the third under head coach Jon Gruden since his rehiring by the organization (seventh overall) and final full season as a head coach. With a Week 17 victory over the Denver Broncos the Raiders improved on their 7–9 record from the previous season finishing 8–8. With two wins, the Raiders became the third team originating in the American Football League to reach 500 all-time wins. However despite a 6–3 start with wins against the Chiefs, Saints, and Browns, all of whom would go on to make the playoffs, the Raiders suffered a late season collapse for the second consecutive year, losing five of their last seven games and after a devastating loss to the Dolphins in week 16, they were eliminated from playoff contention for the fourth consecutive year. As a result of the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, all games at Allegiant Stadium took place without fans. Relocation On January 22, 2020, the Raiders officially announced their relocation to Las Vegas. This marked the third re-location of the franchise and made the 2020 season the team's first ever season as the only professional football team in its metropolitan area. The team shared the Bay Area market with the San Francisco 49ers during both of its tenures in Oakland, and shared the Los Angeles market with the Los Angeles Rams during its 13-year stint in Southern California. Roster transactions Free agents signed Players released Draft Notes The Chicago Bears traded first- and third-round selections as well as 2019 first- and sixth-round selections to the Raiders in exchange for defensive end/outside linebacker Khalil Mack, a second-round selection, and a seventh-round conditional selection (condition unknown), originally a fifth-round selection. The Raiders traded picks 91 and 159 to the New England Patriots in exchange for picks 100, 139 and 172. The Raiders traded picks 121 and 172 to the Detroit Lions in exchange for pick 109. Undrafted free agents Staff Final roster Preseason The Raiders' preseason schedule was announced on May 7, but was later cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Regular season Schedule The Raiders' 2020 schedule was announced on May 7. Note: Intra-division opponents are in bold text. Game summaries Week 1: at Carolina Panthers In game one as the Las Vegas Raiders, the Raiders traveled across the country to play the Carolina Panthers. The Raiders got the ball first, but could accomplish nothing and quickly fell behind by three as the Panthers converted their opening drive into a 47-yard field goal. In the Raiders second possession of the game, Derek Carr hit rookie wide receiver Henry Ruggs on a 45-yard pass play to set the Raiders up at Carolina's one-yard line. Josh Jacobs scored on the next play to give the Raiders the 7–3 lead. The Panthers quickly answered on a 10-play drive that ended in a touchdown and 10–7 lead for the Panthers. A 15-play, 73-yard Raider drive stalled on the Panther six-yard line as Daniel Carlson tied the game with a 20-yard field goal. Two more Panther field goals sandwiched around another Raider scoring drive, this one an eight-play, 75-yard drive capped off by a Carr pass to newly acquired wide receiver Nelson Agholor as the Raiders went to the half leading 17–15. In the second half, the Raider defense limited the Panthers to two three-and-outs in their first two possessions as the Raiders pushed the lead to 20–15 on a 54-yard Carlson field goal. Jacobs rushed for his second touchdown of the game with just over five minutes remaining in the third and it looked like the Raiders had put the game away, leading 27–15. However, a 17-play, 75-yard drive for the Panthers ended in a Teddy Bridgewater touchdown pass to Christian McCaffrey. Following a Raiders punt, Bridgewater hit Robby Anderson on a 75-yard touchdown pass to give the Panthers a 30–27 lead with eight minutes remaining in the game. The Raiders answered with a 75-yard drive as Jacobs scored his third touchdown on the day, a six-yard run to give the Raiders a 34–30 lead with four minutes remaining. Needing a touchdown to win, the Panthers moved to midfield, but were stuffed on a fourth and one and the Raiders took over with a chance to run out the game. The Raiders failed to notch a first down to end the game and were forced to punt to the Panthers with eight seconds remaining. The Panthers ran out of time as the Raiders earned their first victory as the Las Vegas Raiders, winning 34–30. Week 2: vs. New Orleans Saints The Raiders opened Allegiant Stadium on Monday Night Football when the New Orleans Saints visited in Week 2. The Saints took the opening possession 62 yards in 11 plays to score the first points in Allegiant Stadium history as Wil Lutz kicked a field goal from 31 yards out to give the Saints an early 3–0 lead. The Raiders managed a first down on their first possession, but were forced to punt quickly thereafter. The Saints increased their lead by scoring the first touchdown in Allegiant Stadium history as Alvin Kamara scored from one-yard out to push the lead to 10–0. The teams exchanged punts on their next possessions before the Raiders went 63 yards on 11 plays as Derek Carr hit fullback Alec Ingold on a three-yard touchdown pass to draw the score to 10–7 with eight mintutes remaining in the second quarter. The Saints quickly returned the favor, scoring on a Drew Brees pass to Jared Cook to return the lead to 10. A 10-play, 75-yard drive capped off by Zay Jones touchdown catch brought the Raiders within three with less than two minutes remaining in the half. The Saints, looking to extend the lead before half, turned the ball over as Nicholas Morrow intercepted Brees at the Saints' 40. The Raiders moved the ball inside the New Orleans' 10-yard line, but could not go farther, settling for a Daniel Carlson 28-yard field goal to tie the game at 17 at the half. In the second half, the Raiders took the opening drive 75 yards in nine plays capped off by a Carr pass to Darren Waller to give the Raiders their first lead of the game, 24–17. A defensive stop by the Raiders gave the ball back to the offense, looking to score on their fifth straight possession, but a Carr fumble on the Saints' 40 ended the drive. The Raider defense continued to hold the Saints in check, forcing yet another punt. The Raiders would capitalize, moving 89 yards on 10 plays before Jalen Richard scored on a 20-yard run to give the Raiders a 31–17 lead with just under eight minutes remaining the game. The Saints quickly answered going 67 yards before Kamara scored from three yards out to narrow the lead to seven. With just over four minutes remaining in regulation, the Raiders, helped by a pass interference penalty by Janoris Jenkins, moved into Saints' territory and Carlson hit a 54-yard field goal to put the game out of reach at 34–24. The Saints ran out of time as the Raiders won the inaugural game at Allegiant Stadium and moved their record to 2–0 on the young season. The Raiders also reached 500 career wins encompassing regular season and playoffs, the third team originating in the American Football League to do so. Week 3: at New England Patriots The Raiders returned to the East Coast to face the New England Patriots at Gillette Stadium. Neither offense got off to an early start as the Patriots sandwiched two punts around a Raider punt. On the next Raider drive, the Raiders moved 77 yards before Josh Jacobs fumbled the ball at the New England 13-yard line. The Patriots took over, but quickly turned the ball back over to the Raiders as Johnathan Abram intercepted Cam Newton at the Patriots' 38, returning it to the 14-yard line. The Raiders could manage nothing on the ensuing possession and settled for a 29-yard Daniel Carlson field goal and 3–0 lead. The Patriots tied it on their next drive on a 33-yard Nick Folk field goal. Two plays into the ensuing Raider possession, Carr was stripped of the ball and the Patriots took over at the Raiders' 42-yard line. The Raider defense held the Patriots to a 23-yard field goal as the Patriots took a 6–3 lead. The Raiders were forced to punt again on their next possession and the Patriots took over with about five minutes remaining in the half. An 88-yard drive capped by a Rex Burkhead 11-yard touchdown catch from Newton extended the Patriots lead to 13–3. The Raiders' offense finally got going, moving 75 yards in four plays before Foster Moreau caught a one-yard pass for a touchdown as Vegas narrowed the lead to 13–10. The Patriots ran out the clock and entered half time with the lead. In the second half, the Raiders moved into Patriot territory, but Carlson missed a 41-yard field goal. New England extended its lead on their next possession, going 69 yards while Burkhead scored from five yards out to push the lead to 20–10. A Raider punt preceded a 32-yard field goal by Folk as the Raiders fell behind 23–10. Vegas moved 68 yards on their next possession, but the drive stalled inside the Patriot 10-yard line. The Raiders settled for another Carlson field goal to draw within 10. However, another Burkhead touchdown run pushed the Patriot lead to 17 with just over five minutes remaining in the game. On the ensuing possession, Carr was sacked and fumbled in the end zone and Deatrich Wise Jr. recovered the fumble to put the game out of reach at 36–13. With just over three minutes remaining, the Raiders were able to drive into Patriot territory and score on a 13-yard touchdown pass to Hunter Renfrow to make the final score 36–20. Week 4: vs. Buffalo Bills Returning home to faced the undefeated Buffalo Bills, the Raiders quickly fell behind as the Bills moved 75 yards on the first possession and took the lead on a Gabriel Davis 26-yard touchdown pass from Josh Allen. the Raiders responded with a Daniel Carlson 54-yard field goal to narrow the lead to 7–3. However, Buffalo again moved the down the field on a 75-yard drive capped off by a 11-yard touchdown pass from Allen to Cole Beasley to extend the Bills lead to 14–3. Las Vegas again could only answer with a field goal by Carlson from 39 yards out. The Raider defense was able to prevent the Bills from scoring another touchdown on their next possession, but the Bills did get a 34-yard field goal from Tyler Bass to move the lead to 17–6. The Raider offense, taking over with just over four minutes remaining in the half, moved to the Bills' three-yard line with 13 seconds remaining before Derek Carr hit Jason Witten for his first touchdown as a Raider. The score narrowed the Bills lead to 17–13 at the half. The Raiders settled for another Carlson field goal to start off the second half, this one from 25 yards out to bring the Raiders within one at 17–16. Both teams then exchanged punts on their next possessions before the Bills took over at the Raider 45 following a 38-yard punt return by Andre Roberts. Allen capped off the short drive with a one-yard run on the first play of the fourth quarter to give the Bills a 23–16 lead after a missed extra point. After moving to the Buffalo 36-yard line, Darren Waller fumbled after making a catch and Bills recovered. Four plays later, Devin Singletary from two yards out to push the lead to 30–16. On the ensuing possession, the Raider went for it from their own 34 on a fourth and one, but were stopped, turning the ball over on downs. The Bills wen backward on their possession and were forced to punt the ball to the Raiders. Taking over with 7:20 remaining in the game, the Raiders moved to the Buffalo 33 before Carr was sacked and fumbled the ball and Bills lineman Quinton Jefferson recovered. The Bills were again forced to punt and the Raiders got the ball with 3:30 remaining in the game. Carr hit Nelson Agholor on a seven-yard touchdown pass with 1:20 remaining to bring the Raiders with 30–23. After a failed onside kick, the Bills were able to run out the clock as the defeated the Raiders 30–23. The loss was the second in a row for the Raiders, dropping them to 2–2 on the season. Week 5: at Kansas City Chiefs Traveling to Kansas City to face the undefeated Chiefs, the Raider defense started well, forcing the Chiefs to punt. Led by Josh Jacobs, the Raiders drove to the Chief 20-yard line before settling for a 38-yard field by Daniel Carlson to take an early 3–0 lead. The Chiefs quickly responded, going 88 yards in just over four minutes as Patrick Mahomes scored from three yards out to give KC the 7–3 lead. On the ensuing possession, Derek Carr threw his first interception of the season, setting the Chiefs up at the Raider 28-yard line. Tyreek Hill scored on a 10-yard run to push the lead to 14–3 as the Raiders appeared to be on the verge of being routed. However, the Raiders answered on a five-play scoring drive as Carr his Nelson Agholor on a 59-yard touchdown pass to draw the Raiders within four. The Chiefs again extended the lead, scoring on an eight-yard pass from Mahomes to Sammy Watkins, moving the Chiefs back ahead by 11, 21–10. With just over nine minutes remaining in the second quarter, the Raider offense refused to give up, moving 75 yards on five plays before Carr hit Darren Waller on a five-yard touchdown pass which again narrowed the Chief lead to four. The Raider defense forced the Chiefs to punt on the next possession for the second time in the game, giving the Raiders the ball at their own 20 with 4:16 remaining in the half. Carr then hit Henry Ruggs on a 72-yard touchdown pass to give the Raiders the lead at 24–21. The Chiefs tied it with a Harrison Butker 32-yard field goal with 28 seconds left in the half which left the game tied at 24 at the half. After the offensive outburst in the first half, each team punted on their first two possessions in the third quarter and no points were scored in the quarter. The Raiders took over with 7:14 left in the quarter and engineered a 13-play, eight-minute drive that ended with Jacobs scoring from seven yards out with 14:14 remaining in the game. The score gave the Raiders the 30–24 lead as Carlson's extra point was no good. The Chiefs again were forced to punt and the Raiders extended the lead to 33–24 on a Carlson 43-yard field goal with 6:34 remaining. The Chiefs, trailing with time ticking down went for it on fourth down at their own 28. However, Mahomes' pass was intercepted by Raider safety Jeff Heath and he returned the ball to the Chief two-yard line. Jacobs punched the ball in on the next play and the Raiders moved the lead to 16 with 5:36 remaining. The Chief offense finally got going, moving 75 yards on eight plays before Mahomes hit Travis Kelce on a seven-yard touchdown pass. The two-point conversion was successful and the Chiefs moved within eight at 40–32. With 3:57 remaining, the Raiders notched one first down and moved to the KC 45-yard line at the two-minute warning. Faced with a fourth-and-one, John Gruden elected to go for it and Carr took the quarterback sneak up the middle for the first down and assured the win. The Raiders were then able to kneel out the clock and hold on to the 40–32 win. The win moved the Raiders to 3–2 on the season as their bye week lay ahead. Week 7: vs. Tampa Bay Buccaneers The Raiders were scheduled to play the Tampa Bay Buccaneers on Sunday Night Football at Allegiant Stadium. However, after Raiders offensive tackle Trent Brown tested positive for COVID-19, the game was moved to earlier in the day and to ensure, if the game had to be rescheduled, that a game would be played on Sunday Night Football. Shortly thereafter, the Raiders placed five more players on the COVID-19 list including the entire starting offensive line and safety Johnathan Abram. On October 24, left tackle Kolton Miller, center Rodney Hudson, and guards Gabe Jackson and Denzelle Good were available and played in the game. John Gruden faced his former team whom he led to a Super Bowl XXXVII win over the Raiders in 2003. The Raiders jumped to an early lead after the Bucs were forced to punt on their first possession. A six-play, 70-yard drive was capped off by a Nelson Agholor touchdown reception from Derek Carr. Tampa Bay answered on the ensuing possession as Tom Brady scored from one yard out to even the score at seven. A Raider field goal gave the Raiders a 10–7 lead early in the second quarter. After each team traded punts, the Buccaneers took the lead on five-yard touchdown pass from Brady to Rob Gronkowski moving the score to 14–7. A Raider punt preceded another Tampa touchdown, this one a 33-yard pass from Brady to Scotty Miller as Tamp took a 21–10 lead at the half. In the second half, Vegas was forced to punt again while Tampa extended the lead to 24–10 on a Ryan Succop 47-yard field goal. Trailing by 14, the Raiders cut the lead in half on their next possession as Darren Waller scored on a one-yard pass from Carr. Vegas moved even closer on their next possession as Daniel Carlson hit a 36-yard field goal to narrow the lead to 24–20. However, Brady's third touchdown pass on the day preceded a Carr interception setting up Tampa inside the Raider 25-yard line. Ronald Jones II rushed for a touchdown as the lead ballooned to 38–20. After Vegas turned the ball over on downs, the Bucs scored again, on Brady's fourth touchdown pass to finish the game 45–20. The loss moved the Raiders to 3–3 on the season. Week 8: at Cleveland Browns Prior to the game, offensive lineman Trent Brown was rushed to the hospital after a botched IV attempt let air enter his bloodstream. Brown was released from the hospital two days later. A few days later, Brown was placed back on the COVID-19/reserve list and was expected to miss several weeks. The Raiders traveled to play the Browns in Cleveland in poor weather conditions including high winds. As a result, both offenses struggled in the game as the Raiders missed an early field goal attempt on their first possession. A Browns' fumble on the ensuing possession led to nothing as the Raiders were forced to punt. The Brown managed a 14-play, 60-yard drive on their next possession before Cody Parkey hit a 41-yard field goal early in the second quarter. The Raiders answered on the ensuing possession, moving 58 yards on 16 plays before Daniel Carlson connected on a 29-yard field goal to tie the game at three. Following a three-and-out for the Browns, the Raiders took the lead on a Carlson 33-yard field goal as the half expired. The Brown quickly tied the game at six on the first possession of the second half. However, the Raiders responded with a 15-play, 75-yard drive capped off a Hunter Renfrow four-yard touchdown catch from Derek Carr to give Vegas the 13– lead. A missed field goal by the Browns set the Raiders up for another long drive, this one 13 play and covering 74 yards while using up almost nine minutes of game time. Josh Jacobs was stuffed at the goal line on three straight running plays as the Raiders settled for the field goal and the 16–6 lead with 4:24 remaining in the game. The Browns were able to move the ball 56 yards on their next possession, but a missed field goal turned the ball over to the Raiders who were able to run out the clock for the 16–6 win. The win moved the Raiders to 4–3 on the season. Week 9: at Los Angeles Chargers Vegas traveled to their former home Los Angeles to play the Chargers at SoFi Stadium. After trading punts on their first possessions, the Chargers missed a field goal setting the Raiders up at their 38-yard line. Seven plays later, Devontae Booker scored for the Raiders on a 23-yard run to give Vegas a 7–0 lead. The Chargers answered on a 13-play drive capped off by a give yard run by Kalen Ballage to tie the game at seven. The teams again exchanged punts before the Raiders took the lead on a 14-yard touchdown run by Josh Jacobs. The Charges answered again, tying the game at 14 on a Keenan Allen 27-yard pass from Justin Herbert. Derek Carr was sacked and fumbled the ball on the Raiders next possession with less than 10 seconds remaining which set the Chargers up for a 45-yard field goal and a 17–14 lead at the half. Vegas scored touchdown on their first two possessions of the second half as Nelson Agholor caught a 45-yard pass from Carr and Darren Waller scored on a two-yard pass from Waller to give the Raiders a 28–17 lead. A field goal by the Chargers narrowed the lead to eight. Following a Vegas punt, Herbert hit Gabe Nabers on a four-yard touchdown pass. The two-point conversion failed, leaving the Raiders with a 28–26 lead with nine minutes remaining in the game. The Raiders were again forced to punt, but Charger return man K. J. Hill fumbled the punt, giving the Raiders the ball at the Chargers 31. The Raiders drive stalled at the Chargers 13 and the Raiders settled for a 31-yard field goal and a 31–26 lead. With 4:37 remaining in the game, the Chargers moved into Raider territory attempting to win the game in the final seconds. Getting to the one-yard line with one second left, Herbert hit Donald Parham in the corner of the end zone as time expired for an apparent game-winning touchdown. However, upon review, the ball clearly hit the ground as Parham fell and the call was overturned resulting in an incomplete pass and a Raider victory. The win marked the Raiders second straight as they moved to 5–3 on the season. Week 10: vs. Denver Broncos The Raiders played a complete game and dominated on both sides of the ball. The defense, which had not intercepted a pass in its last three games, intercepted Broncos QB Drew Lock four times. The Raiders scored four rushing touchdowns in the game, their most of the season. Week 11: vs. Kansas City Chiefs With the loss, the Raiders failed to sweep the Chiefs, and continued an ongoing drought of a Chiefs sweep that has been in effect since 2012. On November 17, the Raiders placed two players on the COVID-19/reserve list. Defensive end Clelin Ferrell and cornerback Lamarcus Joyner joined linebacker Cory Littleton what was placed on the list November 12. On November 18, the Raiders placed seven additional defensive players on the list: safety Johnathan Abram, defensive tackles Maliek Collins, Johnathan Hankins, and Kendal Vickers, defensive end Arden Key, cornerback Isaiah Johnson, and practice-squad defensive end David Irving were determined to have had close contact with Ferrell. It was later revealed that Ferrell and Joyner were the only ones who had tested positive. It is possible the players beside Ferrell and Joyner could play in the game against the Chiefs if they have positive tests before the game. Week 12: at Atlanta Falcons The Raiders suffered from an offensive meltdown against the Falcons as Carr threw a pick-six and lost 3 fumbles on the day and Jacobs also lost a fumble. The blowout loss dropped the Raiders to 6-5 on the season. Week 13: at New York Jets After suffering a disappointing loss, the Raiders then went to MetLife Stadium to face the winless Jets. The Jets took an early lead, before the Raiders tied with 12 seconds in the first quarter. The Jets scored again, but the PAT failed. The Raiders took a 17–10 halftime lead after scoring 10 points. The Raiders would take the lone TD in the third and lead 24–13. The Jets began to rally in the fourth, and managed to retake the lead with 5:34 remaining. After back and forth possessions, when it seemed like all hope was lost, Henry Ruggs scored the game-winning touchdown with five seconds left to give the Raiders the 31–28 win. Jets defensive coordinator Gregg Williams was fired after the game amid scrutiny for the "cover zero" play call on the Raiders' final touchdown, in which there was no safety left behind the play to help out in coverage, a risky call that allowed Ruggs to beat Jets rookie corner Lamar Jackson one-on-one for the easy touchdown. With the win, the Raiders improved to 7–5 and snapped a 2-game losing streak. Week 14: vs. Indianapolis Colts The loss had deeper repercussions as defensive coordinator Paul Guenther was fired following a poor performance which saw the Colts roll up 456 yards and 44 points. Week 15: vs. Los Angeles Chargers Forced into action when a groin injury sidelined Derek Carr, backup quarterback Marcus Mariota made his debut as a Raider and threw for 226 yards, a touchdown, and an interception, and rushed for 88 yards and the tying score in the fourth quarter. This was Mariota's first appearance in a game since the 2019 AFC Championship game, when he was a member of the Tennessee Titans. The Chargers twice missed field goal attempts in the final six minutes of regulation. Week 16: vs. Miami Dolphins The Raiders took a 13-6 lead at halftime, but the Dolphins were able to come back and tie the score at 16-16 with 4:01 remaining. Then both offenses exploded in the final few minutes to set up a wild finish. After a holding penalty on the Raiders, Carr completed a deep pass to Nelson Agholor, who then juked safety Bobby McCain and ran to the end zone for an 85-yard touchdown to put the Raiders up 22-16 after the missed extra point. The Dolphins then responded with a short pass from Ryan Fitzpatrick to Myles Gaskin, who broke a tackle and got some downfield blocks for a 59-yard touchdown to take the lead at 23-22 after the extra point. On the ensuing Raiders possession, Byron Jones was called for a penalty on another deep throw from Carr to Agholor, which set the Raiders up at the Dolphins' 22-yard line. The Raiders then ran out much of the clock and kicked a field goal to take a 25-23 lead with 0:19 remaining. On the first play of the Dolphins' next possession, Fitzpatrick completed an improbable 34-yard pass down the sideline to Mack Hollins with a defender dragging him down by the facemask as he threw the pass. The 15-yard facemask penalty put the Dolphins in field goal range, and after one incomplete pass, Jason Sanders' 44-yard field goal put the Dolphins ahead for good, 26-25. The Raiders fumbled on the ensuing kickoff and lateral, sealing the win for the Dolphins. With the close loss, the Raiders fell below .500 for the first time all season and were eliminated from contention in the 2020 playoffs. Week 17: at Denver Broncos The Raiders led 17–10 at halftime, but the Broncos later attempted a rally and, in a repeat of the previous week for the Raiders, the lead changed four times in the fourth quarter. This time, however, the Raiders would prevail, as Derek Carr led a touchdown drive and a successful two-point conversion, and then the Raiders special teams blocked a last-second field goal try by the Broncos. With the win, the Raiders swept the Broncos for the first time since 2010. Also, head coach Jon Gruden swept the Broncos for the first time in his career. Standings Division Conference References External links Las Vegas Las Vegas Raiders seasons Las Vegas Raiders 21st century in Las Vegas

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Grid energy storage (also called large-scale energy storage) is a collection of methods used for energy storage on a large scale within an electrical power grid. Electrical energy is stored during times when electricity is plentiful and inexpensive (especially from intermittent power sources such as renewable electricity from wind power, tidal power and solar power) or when demand is low, and later returned to the grid when demand is high, and electricity prices tend to be higher. , the largest form of grid energy storage is dammed hydroelectricity, with both conventional hydroelectric generation as well as pumped storage hydroelectricity. Developments in battery storage have enabled commercially viable projects to store energy during peak production and release during peak demand, and for use when production unexpectedly falls giving time for slower responding resources to be brought online. Two alternatives to grid storage are the use of peaking power plants to fill in supply gaps and demand response to shift load to other times. Benefits Any electrical power grid must match electricity production to consumption, both of which vary drastically over time. Any combination of energy storage and demand response has these advantages: fuel-based power plants (i.e. coal, oil, gas, nuclear) can be more efficiently and easily operated at constant production levels electricity generated by intermittent sources can be stored and used later, whereas it would otherwise have to be transmitted for sale elsewhere, or shut down peak generating or transmission capacity can be reduced by the total potential of all storage plus deferrable loads (see demand side management), saving the expense of this capacity more stable pricing – the cost of the storage or demand management is included in pricing so there is less variation in power rates charged to customers, or alternatively (if rates are kept stable by law) less loss to the utility from expensive on-peak wholesale power rates when peak demand must be met by imported wholesale power emergency preparedness – vital needs can be met reliably even with no transmission or generation going on while non-essential needs are deferred Energy derived from solar, tidal and wind sources inherently varies – the amount of electricity produced varies with time of day, moon phase, season, and random factors such as the weather. Thus, renewables in the absence of storage present special challenges to electric utilities. While hooking up many separate wind sources can reduce the overall variability, solar is reliably not available at night, and tidal power shifts with the moon, so slack tides occur four times a day. How much this affects any given utility varies significantly. In a summer peak utility, more solar can generally be absorbed and matched to demand. In winter peak utilities, to a lesser degree, wind correlates to heating demand and can be used to meet that demand. Depending on these factors, beyond about 20–40% of total generation, grid-connected intermittent sources such as solar power and wind power tend to require investment in grid interconnections, grid energy storage or demand-side management. In an electrical grid without energy storage, generation that relies on energy stored within fuels (coal, biomass, natural gas, nuclear) must be scaled up and down to match the rise and fall of electrical production from intermittent sources (see load following power plant). While hydroelectric and natural gas plants can be quickly scaled up or down to follow the wind, coal and nuclear plants take considerable time to respond to load. Utilities with less natural gas or hydroelectric generation are thus more reliant on demand management, grid interconnections or costly pumped storage. The French consulting firm Yole Développement estimates the "stationary storage" market could be a $13.5 billion opportunity by 2023, compared with less than $1 billion in 2015. Demand side management and grid storage The demand side can also store electricity from the grid, for example charging a battery electric vehicle stores energy for a vehicle and storage heaters, district heating storage or ice storage provide thermal storage for buildings. At present this storage serves only to shift consumption to the off-peak time of day, no electricity is returned to the grid. The need for grid storage to provide peak power is reduced by demand side time of use pricing, one of the benefits of smart meters. At the household level, consumers may choose less expensive off-peak times to wash and dry clothes, use dishwashers, take showers and cook. As well, commercial and industrial users will take advantage of cost savings by deferring some processes to off-peak times. Regional impacts from the unpredictable operation of wind power has created a new need for interactive demand response, where the utility communicates with the demand. Historically this was only done in cooperation with large industrial consumers, but now may be expanded to entire grids. For instance, a few large-scale projects in Europe link variations in wind power to change industrial food freezer loads, causing small variations in temperature. If communicated on a grid-wide scale, small changes to heating/cooling temperatures would instantly change consumption across the grid. A report released in December 2013 by the United States Department of Energy further describes the potential benefits of energy storage and demand side technologies to the electric grid: "Modernizing the electric system will help the nation meet the challenge of handling projected energy needs—including addressing climate change by integrating more energy from renewable sources and enhancing efficiency from non-renewable energy processes. Advances to the electric grid must maintain a robust and resilient electricity delivery system, and energy storage can play a significant role in meeting these challenges by improving the operating capabilities of the grid, lowering cost and ensuring high reliability, as well as deferring and reducing infrastructure investments. Finally, energy storage can be instrumental for emergency preparedness because of its ability to provide backup power as well as grid stabilization services". The report was written by a core group of developers representing Office of Electricity Delivery and Energy Reliability, ARPA-E, Office of Science, Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, Sandia National Laboratories, and Pacific Northwest National Laboratory; all of whom are engaged in the development of grid energy storage. Energy storage for grid applications Energy storage assets are a valuable asset for the electrical grid. They can provide benefits and services such as load management, power quality and uninterruptable power supply to increase the efficiency and supply security. This becomes more and more important in regard to the energy transition and the need for a more efficient and sustainable energy system. Numerous energy storage technologies (pumped-storage hydroelectricity, electric battery, flow battery, flywheel energy storage, supercapacitor etc.) are suitable for grid-scale applications, however their characteristics differ. For example, a pumped-hydro station is well suited for bulk load management applications due to their large capacities and power capabilities. However, suitable locations are limited and their usefulness fades when dealing with localized power quality issues. On the other hand, flywheels and capacitors are most effective in maintaining power quality but lack storage capacities to be used in larger applications. These constraints are a natural limitation to the storage's applicability. Several studies have developed interest and investigated the suitability or selection of the optimal energy storage for certain applications. Literature surveys comprise the available information of the state-of-the-art and compare the storage's uses based on current existing projects. Other studies take a step further in evaluating energy storage with each other and rank their fitness based on multiple-criteria decision analysis. Another paper proposed an evaluation scheme through the investigation and modelling of storage as equivalent circuits. An indexing approach has also been suggested in a few studies, but is still in the novel stages. In order to gain increased economic potential of grid connected energy storage systems, it is of interest to consider a portfolio with several services for one or more applications for an energy storage system. By doing so, several revenue streams can be achieved by a single storage and thereby also increasing the degree of utilization. To mention two examples, a combination of frequency response and reserve services is examined in, meanwhile load peak shaving together with power smoothing is considered in. Forms Air Compressed air One grid energy storage method is to use off-peak or renewably generated electricity to compress air, which is usually stored in an old mine or some other kind of geological feature. When electricity demand is high, the compressed air is heated with a small amount of natural gas and then goes through turboexpanders to generate electricity. Compressed air storage is typically around 60–90% efficient. Liquid air Another electricity storage method is to compress and cool air, turning it into liquid air, which can be stored, and expanded when needed, turning a turbine, generating electricity, with a storage efficiency of up to 70%. A commercial liquid-air energy storage plant is under construction in the North of England, with commercial operation planned for 2022. The energy storage capacity of 250MWh of the plant will be nearly twice the capacity of the world’s largest existing lithium-ion battery, the Hornsdale Power Reserve in South Australia. Batteries Battery storage was used in the early days of direct current electric power. Where AC grid power was not readily available, isolated lighting plants run by wind turbines or internal combustion engines provided lighting and power to small motors. The battery system could be used to run the load without starting the engine or when the wind was calm. A bank of lead–acid batteries in glass jars both supplied power to illuminate lamps, as well as to start an engine to recharge the batteries. Battery storage technology is typically around 80% to more than 90% efficient for newer lithium-ion devices. Battery systems connected to large solid-state converters have been used to stabilize power distribution networks. Some grid batteries are co-located with renewable energy plants, either to smooth the power supplied by the intermittent wind or solar output, or to shift the power output into other hours of the day when the renewable plant cannot produce power directly (see Installation examples). These hybrid systems (generation and storage) can either alleviate the pressure on the grid when connecting renewable sources or be used to reach self-sufficiency and work "off-the-grid" (see Stand-alone power system). Contrary to electric vehicle applications, batteries for stationary storage do not suffer from mass or volume constraints. However, due to the large amounts of energy and power implied, the cost per power or energy unit is crucial. The relevant metrics to assess the interest of a technology for grid-scale storage is the $/Wh (or $/W) rather than the Wh/kg (or W/kg). The electrochemical grid storage was made possible thanks to the development of the electric vehicle, that induced a fast decrease in the production costs of batteries below $300/kWh. By optimizing the production chain, major industrials aim to reach $150/kWh by the end of 2020. These batteries rely on a lithium-ion technology, which is suited for mobile applications (high cost, high density). Technologies optimized for the grid should focus on low cost per kWh. Grid-oriented battery technologies Sodium-ion batteries are a cheap and sustainable alternative to lithium-ion, because sodium is far more abundant and cheaper than lithium, but it has a lower power density. However, they are still on the early stages of their development. Automotive-oriented technologies rely on solid electrodes, which feature a high energy density but require an expensive manufacturing process. Liquid electrodes represent a cheaper and less dense alternative as they do not need any processing. Molten-salt/liquid-metal batteries These batteries are composed of two molten metal alloys separated by an electrolyte. They are simple to manufacture but require a temperature of several hundred degree Celsius to keep the alloys in a liquid state. This technology includes ZEBRA, sodium-sulfur batteries and liquid metal. Sodium sulphur batteries are being used for grid storage in Japan and in the United States. The electrolyte is composed of solid beta alumina. The liquid metal battery, developed by the group of Pr. Donald Sadoway, uses molten alloys of magnesium and antimony separated by an electrically insulating molten salt. It is being brought to market by MIT spinoff company Ambri, which is currently contracted to install a first 250MWh system for TerraScale data centre company near Reno, Nevada. Flow batteries In rechargeable flow batteries, the liquid electrodes are composed of transition metals in water at room temperature. They can be used as a rapid-response storage medium. Vanadium redox batteries are a type of flow battery. Various flow batteries are installed at different sites including; Huxley Hill wind farm (Australia), Tomari Wind Hills at Hokkaidō (Japan), as well as in non-wind farm applications. A 12 MW·h flow battery was to be installed at the Sorne Hill wind farm (Ireland). These storage systems are designed to smooth out transient wind fluctuations. Hydrogen Bromide has been proposed for use in a utility-scale flow-type battery. Examples In Puerto Rico a system with a capacity of 20 megawatts for 15 minutes (5 megawatt hour) stabilizes the frequency of electric power produced on the island. A 27 megawatt 15-minute (6.75 megawatt hour) nickel-cadmium battery bank was installed at Fairbanks Alaska in 2003 to stabilize voltage at the end of a long transmission line. In 2014, the Tehachapi Energy Storage Project was commissioned by Southern California Edison. In 2016, a zinc-ion battery was proposed for use in grid storage applications. In 2017, the California Public Utilities Commission installed 396 refrigerator-sized stacks of Tesla batteries at the Mira Loma substation in Ontario, California. The stacks are deployed in two modules of 10 MW each (20 MW in total), each capable of running for 4 hours, thus adding up to 80 MWh of storage. The array is capable of powering 15,000 homes for over four hours. BYD proposes to use conventional consumer battery technologies such as lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4) battery, connecting many batteries in parallel. The largest grid storage batteries in the United States include the 31.5 MW battery at Grand Ridge Power plant in Illinois and the 31.5 MW battery at Beech Ridge, West Virginia. Two batteries under construction in 2015 include the 400 MWh (100 MW for 4 hours) Southern California Edison project and the 52 MWh project on Kauai, Hawaii to entirely time shift a 13MW solar farm's output to the evening. Two batteries are in Fairbanks, Alaska (40 MW for 7 minutes using Ni-Cd cells), and in Notrees, Texas (36 MW for 40 minutes using lead–acid batteries). A 13 MWh battery made of used batteries from Daimler's Smart electric drive cars is being constructed in Lünen, Germany, with an expected second life of 10 years. In 2015, a 221 MW battery storage was installed in the US, with total capacity expected to reach 1.7 GW in 2020. The UK had a 50 MW lithium-ion grid-battery installed in Hertfordshire in 2018. In February 2021, construction began on a 50 MW battery storage development in Burwell, Cambridgeshire and a 40 MW site in Barnsley, South Yorkshire. In November 2017 Tesla installed a 100 MW, 129 MWh battery system in South Australia. The Australian Energy Market Operator stated that this "is both rapid and precise, compared to the service typically provided by a conventional synchronous generation unit". Electric vehicles Companies are researching the possible use of electric vehicles to meet peak demand. A parked and plugged-in electric vehicle could sell the electricity from the battery during peak loads and charge either during night (at home) or during off-peak. Plug-in hybrid or electric cars could be used for their energy storage capabilities. Vehicle-to-grid technology can be employed, turning each vehicle with its 20 to 50 kWh battery pack into a distributed load-balancing device or emergency power source. This represents two to five days per vehicle of average household requirements of 10 kWh per day, assuming annual consumption of 3,650 kWh. This quantity of energy is equivalent to between of range in such vehicles consuming . These figures can be achieved even in home-made electric vehicle conversions. Some electric utilities plan to use old plug-in vehicle batteries (sometimes resulting in a giant battery) to store electricity However, a large disadvantage of using vehicle to grid energy storage would be if each storage cycle stressed the battery with one complete charge-discharge cycle. However, one major study showed that used intelligently, vehicle-to-grid storage actually improved the batteries longevity. Conventional (cobalt-based) lithium-ion batteries break down with the number of cycles – newer li-ion batteries do not break down significantly with each cycle, and so have much longer lives. One approach is to reuse unreliable vehicle batteries in dedicated grid storage as they are expected to be good in this role for ten years. If such storage is done on a large scale it becomes much easier to guarantee replacement of a vehicle battery degraded in mobile use, as the old battery has value and immediate use. Flywheel Mechanical inertia is the basis of this storage method. When the electric power flows into the device, an electric motor accelerates a heavy rotating disc. The motor acts as a generator when the flow of power is reversed, slowing down the disc and producing electricity. Electricity is stored as the kinetic energy of the disc. Friction must be kept to a minimum to prolong the storage time. This is often achieved by placing the flywheel in a vacuum and using magnetic bearings, tending to make the method expensive. Greater flywheel speeds allow greater storage capacity but require strong materials such as steel or composite materials to resist the centrifugal forces. The ranges of power and energy storage technology that make this method economic, however, tends to make flywheels unsuitable for general power system application; they are probably best suited to load-leveling applications on railway power systems and for improving power quality in renewable energy systems such as the 20MW system in Ireland. Applications that use flywheel storage are those that require very high bursts of power for very short durations such as tokamak and laser experiments where a motor generator is spun up to operating speed and is partially slowed down during discharge. Flywheel storage is also currently used in the form of the Diesel rotary uninterruptible power supply to provide uninterruptible power supply systems (such as those in large datacenters) for ride-through power necessary during transfer – that is, the relatively brief amount of time between a loss of power to the mains and the warm-up of an alternate source, such as a diesel generator. This potential solution has been implemented by EDA in the Azores on the islands of Graciosa and Flores. This system uses an 18 megawatt-second flywheel to improve power quality and thus allow increased renewable energy usage. As the description suggests, these systems are again designed to smooth out transient fluctuations in supply, and could never be used to cope with an outage exceeding a couple of days. Powercorp in Australia have been developing applications using wind turbines, flywheels and low load diesel (LLD) technology to maximize the wind input to small grids. A system installed in Coral Bay, Western Australia, uses wind turbines coupled with a flywheel based control system and LLDs. The flywheel technology enables the wind turbines to supply up to 95 percent of Coral Bay's energy supply at times, with a total annual wind penetration of 45 percent. Hydrogen Hydrogen is being developed as an electrical energy storage medium. Hydrogen is produced, then compressed or liquefied, cryogenically stored at −252.882 °C, and then converted back to electrical energy or heat. Hydrogen can be used as a fuel for portable (vehicles) or stationary energy generation. Compared to pumped water storage and batteries, hydrogen has the advantage that it is a high energy density fuel. Hydrogen can be produced either by reforming natural gas with steam or by the electrolysis of water into hydrogen and oxygen (see hydrogen production). Reforming natural gas produces carbon dioxide as a by-product. High temperature electrolysis and high pressure electrolysis are two techniques by which the efficiency of hydrogen production may be able to be increased. Hydrogen is then converted back to electricity in an internal combustion engine, or a fuel cell. The AC-to-AC efficiency of hydrogen storage has been shown to be on the order of 20 to 45%, which imposes economic constraints. The price ratio between purchase and sale of electricity must be at least proportional to the efficiency in order for the system to be economic. Hydrogen fuel cells can respond quickly enough to correct rapid fluctuations in electricity demand or supply and regulate frequency. Whether hydrogen can use natural gas infrastructure depends on the network construction materials, standards in joints, and storage pressure. The equipment necessary for hydrogen energy storage includes an electrolysis plant, hydrogen compressors or liquifiers, and storage tanks. Biohydrogen is a process being investigated for producing hydrogen using biomass. Micro combined heat and power (microCHP) can use hydrogen as a fuel. Some nuclear power plants may be able to benefit from a symbiosis with hydrogen production. High temperature (950 to 1,000 °C) gas cooled nuclear generation IV reactors have the potential to electrolyze hydrogen from water by thermochemical means using nuclear heat as in the sulfur-iodine cycle. The first commercial reactors are expected in 2030. A community based pilot program using wind turbines and hydrogen generators was started in 2007 in the remote community of Ramea, Newfoundland and Labrador. A similar project has been going on since 2004 in Utsira, a small Norwegian island municipality. Underground hydrogen storage Underground hydrogen storage is the practice of hydrogen storage in caverns, salt domes and depleted oil and gas fields. Large quantities of gaseous hydrogen have been stored in caverns by Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI) for many years without any difficulties. The European project Hyunder indicated in 2013 that for the storage of wind and solar energy an additional 85 caverns are required as it cannot be covered by PHES and CAES systems. Power to gas Power to gas is a technology which converts electrical power to a gas fuel. There are 2 methods, the first is to use the electricity for water splitting and inject the resulting hydrogen into the natural gas grid. The second less efficient method is used to convert carbon dioxide and water to methane, (see natural gas) using electrolysis and the Sabatier reaction. The excess power or off peak power generated by wind generators or solar arrays is then used for load balancing in the energy grid. Using the existing natural gas system for hydrogen, fuel cell maker Hydrogenics and natural gas distributor Enbridge have teamed up to develop such a power to gas system in Canada. Pipeline storage of hydrogen where a natural gas network is used for the storage of hydrogen. Before switching to natural gas, the German gas networks were operated using towngas, which for the most part consisted of hydrogen. The storage capacity of the German natural gas network is more than 200,000 GW·h which is enough for several months of energy requirement. By comparison, the capacity of all German pumped storage power plants amounts to only about 40 GW·h. The transport of energy through a gas network is done with much less loss (<0.1%) than in a power network (8%). The use of the existing natural gas pipelines for hydrogen was studied by NaturalHy The power-to-ammonia concept The power-to-ammonia concept offers a carbon-free energy storage route with a diversified application palette. At times when there is surplus low-carbon power, it can be used to create ammonia fuel. Ammonia may be produced by splitting water into hydrogen and oxygen with electricity, then high temperature and pressure are used to combine nitrogen from the air with the hydrogen, creating ammonia. As a liquid it is similar to propane, unlike hydrogen alone, which is difficult to store as a gas under pressure or to cryogenically liquefy and store at −253 °C. Just like natural gas, the stored ammonia can be used as a thermal fuel for transportation and electricity generation or used in a fuel cell. A standard 60,000 m³ tank of liquid ammonia contains about 211 GWh of energy, equivalent to the annual production of roughly 30 wind turbines. Ammonia can be burned cleanly: water and nitrogen are released, but no CO2 and little or no nitrogen oxides. Ammonia has multiple uses besides being an energy carrier, it is the basis for the production of many chemicals, the most common use is for fertilizer. Given this flexibility of usage, and given that the infrastructure for the safe transport, distribution and usage of ammonia is already in place, it makes ammonia a good candidate to be a large-scale, non-carbon, energy carrier of the future. Hydroelectricity Pumped water In 2008, world pumped storage generating capacity was 104 GW, while other sources claim 127 GW, which comprises the vast majority of all types of grid electric storage – all other types combined are some hundreds of MW. In many places, pumped storage hydroelectricity is used to even out the daily generating load, by pumping water to a high storage reservoir during off-peak hours and weekends, using the excess base-load capacity from coal or nuclear sources. During peak hours, this water can be used for hydroelectric generation, often as a high value rapid-response reserve to cover transient peaks in demand. Pumped storage recovers about 70% to 85% of the energy consumed, and is currently the most cost effective form of mass power storage. The chief problem with pumped storage is that it usually requires two nearby reservoirs at considerably different heights, and often requires considerable capital expenditure. Pumped water systems have high dispatchability, meaning they can come on-line very quickly, typically within 15 seconds, which makes these systems very efficient at soaking up variability in electrical demand from consumers. There is over 90 GW of pumped storage in operation around the world, which is about 3% of instantaneous global generation capacity. Pumped water storage systems, such as the Dinorwig storage system in Britain, hold five or six hours of generating capacity, and are used to smooth out demand variations. Another example is the 1836 MW Tianhuangping Pumped-Storage Hydro Plant in China, which has a reservoir capacity of eight million cubic meters (2.1 billion U.S. gallons or the volume of water over Niagara Falls in 25 minutes) with a vertical distance of 600 m (1970 feet). The reservoir can provide about 13 GW·h of stored gravitational potential energy (convertible to electricity at about 80% efficiency), or about 2% of China's daily electricity consumption. A new concept in pumped-storage is utilizing wind energy or solar power to pump water. Wind turbines or solar cells that direct drive water pumps for an energy storing wind or solar dam can make this a more efficient process but are limited. Such systems can only increase kinetic water volume during windy and daylight periods. Hydroelectric dams Hydroelectric dams with large reservoirs can also be operated to provide peak generation at times of peak demand. Water is stored in the reservoir during periods of low demand and released through the plant when demand is higher. The net effect is the same as pumped storage, but without the pumping loss. Depending on the reservoir capacity the plant can provide daily, weekly, or seasonal load following. Many existing hydroelectric dams are fairly old (for example, the Hoover Dam was built in the 1930s), and their original design predated the newer intermittent power sources such as wind and solar by decades. A hydroelectric dam originally built to provide baseload power will have its generators sized according to the average flow of water into the reservoir. Uprating such a dam with additional generators increases its peak power output capacity, thereby increasing its capacity to operate as a virtual grid energy storage unit. The United States Bureau of Reclamation reports an investment cost of $69 per kilowatt capacity to uprate an existing dam, compared to more than $400 per kilowatt for oil-fired peaking generators. While an uprated hydroelectric dam does not directly store excess energy from other generating units, it behaves equivalently by accumulating its own fuel – incoming river water – during periods of high output from other generating units. Functioning as a virtual grid storage unit in this way, the uprated dam is one of the most efficient forms of energy storage, because it has no pumping losses to fill its reservoir, only increased losses to evaporation and leakage. A dam which impounds a large reservoir can store and release a correspondingly large amount of energy, by controlling river outflow and raising or lowering its reservoir level a few meters. Limitations do apply to dam operation, their releases are commonly subject to government regulated water rights to limit downstream effect on rivers. For example, there are grid situations where baseload thermal plants, nuclear or wind turbines are already producing excess power at night, dams are still required to release enough water to maintain adequate river levels, whether electricity is generated or not. Conversely there's a limit to peak capacity, which if excessive could cause a river to flood for a few hours each day. Superconducting magnetic energy Superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES) systems store energy in the magnetic field created by the flow of direct current in a superconducting coil which has been cryogenically cooled to a temperature below its superconducting critical temperature. A typical SMES system includes three parts: superconducting coil, power conditioning system and cryogenically cooled refrigerator. Once the superconducting coil is charged, the current will not decay and the magnetic energy can be stored indefinitely. The stored energy can be released back to the network by discharging the coil. The power conditioning system uses an inverter/rectifier to transform alternating current (AC) power to direct current or convert DC back to AC power. The inverter/rectifier accounts for about 2–3% energy loss in each direction. SMES loses the least amount of electricity in the energy storage process compared to other methods of storing energy. SMES systems are highly efficient; the round-trip efficiency is greater than 95%. The high cost of superconductors is the primary limitation for commercial use of this energy storage method. Due to the energy requirements of refrigeration, and the limits in the total energy able to be stored, SMES is currently used for short duration energy storage. Therefore, SMES is most commonly devoted to improving power quality. If SMES were to be used for utilities it would be a diurnal storage device, charged from base load power at night and meeting peak loads during the day. Superconducting magnetic energy storage technical challenges are yet to be solved for it to become practical. Thermal In Denmark the direct storage of electricity is perceived as too expensive for very large scale usage, albeit significant usage is made of existing Norwegian Hydro. Instead, the use of existing hot water storage tanks connected to district heating schemes, heated by either electrode boilers or heat pumps, is seen as a preferable approach. The stored heat is then transmitted to dwellings using district heating pipes. Molten salt is used to store heat collected by a solar power tower so that it can be used to generate electricity in bad weather or at night. Building heating and cooling systems can be controlled to store thermal energy in either the building's mass or dedicated thermal storage tanks. This thermal storage can provide load-shifting or even more complex ancillary services by increasing power consumption (charging the storage) during off-peak times and lowering power consumption (discharging the storage) during higher-priced peak times. For example, off-peak electricity can be used to make ice from water, and the ice can be stored. The stored ice can be used to cool the air in a large building which would have normally used electric AC, thereby shifting the electric load to off-peak hours. On other systems stored ice is used to cool the intake air of a gas turbine generator, thus increasing the on-peak generation capacity and the on-peak efficiency. A pumped-heat electricity storage system uses a highly reversible heat engine/heat pump to pump heat between two storage vessels, heating one and cooling the other. The UK-based engineering company Isentropic that is developing the system claims a potential electricity-in to electricity-out round-trip efficiency of 72–80%. A Carnot battery is a type of energy storage systems that stores electricity in heat storage and converts the stored heat back to electricity via thermodynamics cycles. This concept has been investigated and developed by many research projects recently. One of the advantage of this type of system is that the cost at large-scale and long-duration of thermal storage could be much lower than other storage technologies. Gravitational potential energy storage with solid masses Alternatives include storing energy by moving large solid masses upward against gravity. This can be achieved inside old mine shafts or in specially constructed towers where heavy weights are winched up to store energy and allowed a controlled descent to release it. In rail energy storage, rail cars carrying large weights are moved up or down a section of inclined rail track, storing or releasing energy as a result; In disused oil-well potential energy storage, weights are raised or lowered in a deep, decommissioned oil well. Economics The levelized cost of storing electricity depends highly on storage type and purpose; as subsecond-scale frequency regulation, minute/hour-scale peaker plants, or day/week-scale season storage. Using battery storage is said to be $120-$170 per MWh. This compares with open cycle gas turbines which, as of 2020, have a cost of around $151–198/MWh. Generally speaking, energy storage is economical when the marginal cost of electricity varies more than the costs of storing and retrieving the energy plus the price of energy lost in the process. For instance, assume a pumped-storage reservoir can pump to its upper reservoir a volume of water capable of producing 1,200 MW·h after all losses are factored in (evaporation and seeping in the reservoir, efficiency losses, etc.). If the marginal cost of electricity during off-peak times is $15 per MW·h, and the reservoir operates at 75% efficiency (i.e., 1,600 MW·h are consumed and 1,200 MW·h of energy are retrieved), then the total cost of filling the reservoir is $24,000. If all of the stored energy is sold the following day during peak hours for an average $40 per MW·h, then the reservoir will see revenues of $48,000 for the day, for a gross profit of $24,000. However, the marginal cost of electricity varies because of the varying operational and fuel costs of different classes of generators. At one extreme, base load power plants such as coal-fired power plants and nuclear power plants are low marginal cost generators, as they have high capital and maintenance costs but low fuel costs. At the other extreme, peaking power plants such as gas turbine natural gas plants burn expensive fuel but are cheaper to build, operate and maintain. To minimize the total operational cost of generating power, base load generators are dispatched most of the time, while peak power generators are dispatched only when necessary, generally when energy demand peaks. This is called "economic dispatch". Demand for electricity from the world's various grids varies over the course of the day and from season to season. For the most part, variation in electric demand is met by varying the amount of electrical energy supplied from primary sources. Increasingly, however, operators are storing lower-cost energy produced at night, then releasing it to the grid during the peak periods of the day when it is more valuable. In areas where hydroelectric dams exist, release can be delayed until demand is greater; this form of storage is common and can make use of existing reservoirs. This is not storing "surplus" energy produced elsewhere, but the net effect is the same – although without the efficiency losses. Renewable supplies with variable production, like wind and solar power, tend to increase the net variation in electric load, increasing the opportunity for grid energy storage. It may be more economical to find an alternative market for unused electricity, rather than try and store it. High Voltage Direct Current allows for transmission of electricity, losing only 3% per 1000 km. The United States Department of Energy's International Energy Storage Database provides a free list of grid energy storage projects, many of which show funding sources and amounts. Load leveling The demand for electricity from consumers and industry is constantly changing, broadly within the following categories: Seasonal (during dark winters more electric lighting and heating is required, while in other climates hot weather boosts the requirement for air conditioning) Weekly (most industry closes at the weekend, lowering demand) Daily (such as the morning peak as offices open and air conditioners get switched on) Hourly (one method for estimating television viewing figures in the United Kingdom is to measure the power spikes during advertisement breaks or after programmes when viewers go to switch a kettle on) Transient (fluctuations due to individual's actions, differences in power transmission efficiency and other small factors that need to be accounted for) There are currently three main methods for dealing with changing demand: Electrical devices generally having a working voltage range that they require, commonly 110–120 V or 220–240 V. Minor variations in load are automatically smoothed by slight variations in the voltage available across the system. Power plants can be run below their normal output, with the facility to increase the amount they generate almost instantaneously. This is termed 'spinning reserve'. Additional generation can be brought online. Typically, these would be hydroelectric or gas turbines, which can be started in a matter of minutes. The problem with standby gas turbines is higher costs; expensive generating equipment is unused much of the time. Spinning reserve also comes at a cost; plants running below maximum output are usually less efficient. Grid energy storage is used to shift generation from times of peak load to off-peak hours. Power plants are able to run at their peak efficiency during nights and weekends. Supply-demand leveling strategies may be intended to reduce the cost of supplying peak power or to compensate for the intermittent generation of wind and solar power. Portability This is the area of greatest success for current energy storage technologies. Single-use and rechargeable batteries are ubiquitous, and provide power for devices with demands as varied as digital watches and cars. Advances in battery technology have generally been slow, however, with much of the advance in battery life that consumers see being attributable to efficient power management rather than increased storage capacity. Portable consumer electronics have benefited greatly from size and power reductions associated with Moore's law. Unfortunately, Moore's law does not apply to hauling people and freight; the underlying energy requirements for transportation remain much higher than for information and entertainment applications. Battery capacity has become an issue as pressure grows for alternatives to internal combustion engines in cars, trucks, buses, trains, ships, and aeroplanes. These uses require far more energy density (the amount of energy stored in a given volume or weight) than current battery technology can deliver. Liquid hydrocarbon fuel (such as gasoline/petrol and diesel), as well as alcohols (methanol, ethanol, and butanol) and lipids (straight vegetable oil, biodiesel) have much higher energy densities. There are synthetic pathways for using electricity to reduce carbon dioxide and water to liquid hydrocarbon or alcohol fuels. These pathways begin with electrolysis of water to generate hydrogen, and then reducing carbon dioxide with excess hydrogen in variations of the reverse water gas shift reaction. Non-fossil sources of carbon dioxide include fermentation plants and sewage treatment plants. Converting electrical energy to carbon-based liquid fuel has potential to provide portable energy storage usable by the large existing stock of motor vehicles and other engine-driven equipment, without the difficulties of dealing with hydrogen or another exotic energy carrier. These synthetic pathways may attract attention in connection with attempts to improve energy security in nations that rely on imported petroleum, but have or can develop large sources of renewable or nuclear electricity, as well as to deal with possible future declines in the amount of petroleum available to import. Because the transport sector uses the energy from petroleum very inefficiently, replacing petroleum with electricity for mobile energy will not require very large investments over many years. Reliability Virtually all devices that operate on electricity are adversely affected by the sudden removal of their power supply. Solutions such as UPS (uninterruptible power supplies) or backup generators are available, but these are expensive. Efficient methods of power storage would allow for devices to have a built-in backup for power cuts, and also reduce the impact of a failure in a generating station. Examples of this are currently available using fuel cells and flywheels. See also Battery electric vehicles Battery-to-grid Cost of electricity by source Distributed generation Energy demand management Energy storage Energy storage as a service (ESaaS) Fuel-cell vehicle Grid-tied electrical system Hybrid electric vehicle Hydrogen economy List of energy storage projects Off-peak Power-to-X Rechargeable battery Solar vehicle Solar-powered boats U.S. Department of Energy International Energy Storage Database, a list of grid energy storage projects Vanadium redox battery, dispatchable grid energy storage Vehicle-to-grid Virtual power plant Wind farm References Saving For a Windless day by Sean Davies in The E&T Magazine Vol 5 Issue 9 from the www.IET.org Further reading External links A large grid-connected nickel-cadmium battery Stationary Energy Storage…Key to the Renewable Grid Electricity Storage FactBook Power engineering

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The Czechs (, ; singular masculine: Čech , singular feminine: Češka ), or the Czech people (), are a West Slavic ethnic group and a nation native to the Czech Republic in Central Europe, who share a common ancestry, culture, history, and the Czech language. Ethnic Czechs were called Bohemians in English until the early 20th century, referring to the former name of their country, Bohemia, which in turn was adapted from the late Iron Age tribe of Celtic Boii. During the Migration Period, West Slavic tribes settled in the area, "assimilated the remaining Celtic and Germanic populations", and formed a principality in the 9th century, which was initially part of Great Moravia, in form of Duchy of Bohemia and later Kingdom of Bohemia, the predecessors of the modern republic. The Czech diaspora is found in notable numbers in the United States, Canada, Israel, Austria, Germany, Slovakia, Ukraine, Switzerland, Italy, the United Kingdom, Australia, France, Russia, Argentina, Romania and Brazil, among others. Ethnology The Czech ethnic group is part of the West Slavic subgroup of the larger Slavic ethno-linguistical group. The West Slavs have their origin in early Slavic tribes which settled in Central Europe after East Germanic tribes had left this area during the migration period. The West Slavic tribe of Czechs settled in the area of Bohemia during the migration period, and assimilated the remaining Celtic and Germanic populations. In the 9th century the Duchy of Bohemia, under the Přemyslid dynasty, was formed, which had been part of Great Moravia under Svatopluk I. According to mythology, the founding father of the Czech people was Forefather Čech, who according to legend brought the tribe of Czechs into its land. The Czech are closely related to the neighbouring Slovaks (with whom they constituted Czechoslovakia 1918–1993). The Czech–Slovak languages form a dialect continuum rather than being two clearly distinct languages. Czech cultural influence in Slovak culture is noted as having been much higher than the other way around. Czech (Slavic) people have a long history of coexistence with the Germanic people. In the 17th century, German replaced Czech in central and local administration; upper classes in Bohemia and Moravia were Germanized, and espoused a political identity (), while Czech ethnic identity survived among the lower and lower-middle classes. The Czech National Revival took place in the 18th and 19th centuries aiming to revive Czech language, culture and national identity. The Czech were the initiators of Pan-Slavism. The Czech ethnonym (archaic Čechové) was the name of a Slavic tribe in central Bohemia that subdued the surrounding tribes in the late 9th century and created the Czech/Bohemian state. The origin of the name of the tribe itself is unknown. According to legend, it comes from their leader Čech, who brought them to Bohemia. Research regards Čech as a derivative of the root čel- (member of the people, kinsman). The Czech ethnonym was adopted by the Moravians in the 19th century. Genetics The population of the Czech lands has been influenced by different human migrations that wide-crossed Europe over time. In their Y-DNA haplogroups, which are inherited along the male line, Czechs have shown a mix of Eastern and Western European traits. According to a 2007 study, 34.2% of Czech men belong to R1a. Within the Czech Republic, the proportion of R1a seems to gradually increase from west to east According to a 2000 study, 35.6% of Czech men have haplogroup R1b, which is very common in Western Europe among Germanic and Celtic nations, but rare among Slavic nations. A mtDNA study of 179 individuals from Western Bohemia showed that 3% had East Eurasian lineages that perhaps entered the gene pool through admixture with Central Asian nomadic tribes in the early Middle Ages. A group of scientists suggested that the high frequency of a gene mutation causing cystic fibrosis in Central European (including Czech R.) and Celtic populations supports the theory of some Celtic ancestry among the Czech population. History The population of the Czech Republic descends from diverse peoples of Slavic, Celtic and Germanic origin. Presence of West Slavs in the 6th century during the Migration Period has been documented on the Czech territory. Slavs settled in Bohemia, Moravia and Austria sometime during the 6th or 7th centuries, and "assimilated the remaining Celtic and Germanic populations". According to a popular myth, the Slavs came with Forefather Čech who settled at the Říp Mountain. During the 7th century, the Frankish merchant Samo, supporting the Slavs fighting against nearby settled Avars, became the ruler of the first known Slav state in Central Europe, Samo's Empire. The principality Great Moravia, controlled by the Moymir dynasty, arose in the 8th century and reached its zenith in the 9th (during the reign of Svatopluk I of Moravia) when it held off the influence of the Franks. Great Moravia was Christianized, the crucial role played Byzantine mission of Cyril and Methodius. The Duchy of Bohemia emerged in the late 9th century. In 880, Prague Castle was constructed by Prince Bořivoj, founder of the Přemyslid dynasty and the city of Prague was established. Vratislav II was the first Czech king in 1085 and the duchy was raised to a hereditary kingdom under Ottokar I in 1198. The second half of the 13th century was a period of advancing German immigration into the Czech lands. The number of Czechs who have at least partly German ancestry today probably runs into hundreds of thousands. The Habsburg Monarchy focused much of its power on religious wars against the Protestants. While these religious wars were taking place, the Czech estates revolted against Habsburg from 1546 to 1547 but were ultimately defeated. Defenestrations of Prague in 1618, signaled an open revolt by the Bohemian estates against the Habsburgs and started the Thirty Years' War. After the Battle of White Mountain in 1620, all Czech lands were declared hereditary property of the Habsburg family. The German language was made equal to the Czech language. Czech patriotic authors tend to call the following period, from 1620 to 1648 until the late 18th century, the "Dark Age". It is characterized by devastation by foreign troops; Germanization; and economic and political decline. It is estimated that the population of the Czech lands declined by a third. The 18th and 19th century is characterized by the Czech National Revival, focusing to revive Czech culture and national identity. Since the turn of the 20th century, Chicago is the city with the third largest Czech population, after Prague and Vienna. During World War I, Czechoslovak Legions fought in France, Italy and Russia against the Central Powers. In 1918 the independent state of Czechoslovakia was proclaimed. Czechs formed the leading class in the new state emerging from the remnants of the Austrian-Hungarian Monarchy. After 1933, Czechoslovakia remained the only democracy in central and eastern Europe. However, in 1938 the Munich Agreement severed the Sudetenland, with a considerable Czech minority, from Czechoslovakia, and in 1939 the German Nazi regime established the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia for Resttschechei (the rump Czech state). Emil Hácha became president of the protectorate under Nazi domination, which only allowed pro-Nazi Czech associations and tended to stress ties of the Czechs with the Bohemian Germans and other parts of the German people, in order to facilitate assimilation by Germanization. In Lidice, Ležáky and Javoříčko the Nazi authorities committed war crimes against the local Czech population. On 2 May 1945, the Prague Uprising reached its peak, supported by the Russian Liberation Army. The post-war expulsion of Germans from Czechoslovakia and the immediate reprisals against Germans and Nazi collaborators by Czech resistance and the Czechoslovak state authorities, made Czechs—especially in the early 1950s—settle alongside Slovaks and Romani people in the former lands of the Sudeten Germans, who had been deported to East Germany, West Germany and Austria according to the Potsdam Conference and Yalta Conference. The Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1968 was followed by a wave of emigration, unseen before and stopped shortly after in 1969 (estimate: 70,000 immediately, 300,000 in total), typically of highly qualified people. Tens of thousands of Czechs had repatriated from Volhynia and Banat after World War II. Since the 1990s, the Czech Republic has been working to repatriate Romania and Kazakhstan's ethnic Czechs. Following the Czech Republic's entry into the European Union in May 2004, Czechs gradually gained the right to work in EU countries without a work permit. Notable people Historical figures The last five Přemyslids were kings: Ottokar I of Bohemia, Wenceslaus I of Bohemia, Ottokar II of Bohemia, Wenceslaus II of Bohemia and Wenceslaus III of Bohemia. The most successful and influential of all Czech kings was Charles IV, who also became the Holy Roman Emperor. The Luxembourg dynasty represents the heights of Czech (Bohemian) statehood territorial and influence as well as advancement in many areas of human endeavors. Many people are considered national heroes and cultural icons, many national stories concern their lives. Jan Hus was a religious reformist from the 15th century and spiritual father of the Hussite Movement. Jan Žižka and Prokop the Great were leaders of hussite army, George of Poděbrady was a hussite king. Albrecht von Wallenstein was a notable military leader during the Thirty Years' War. The teacher of nations Jan Amos Komenský is also considered a notable figure in Czech history. Joseph Radetzky von Radetz was an Austrian general staff during the later period of the Napoleonic Wars. Josef Jungmann is often credited for expanding the modern Czech language, and preventing its extinction. The most famous Czech historian was František Palacký, often called "father of nation". Modern politicians One of the most notable figures are founders of Czechoslovakia, modern state of independence of Czech and Slovak nations, Presidents Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk and Edvard Beneš, who was also leader of exile government in World War II. Ludvík Svoboda was a head of the Czechoslovak military units on the Eastern Front during the World War II (later president of Czechoslovakia). The key figures of the Communist regime were Klement Gottwald, Antonín Zápotocký, Antonín Novotný (and Slovak Gustáv Husák), the most famous victims of this regime were Milada Horáková and Rudolf Slánský. Jan Palach committed self-immolation as a political protest against the end of the Prague Spring resulting from the 1968 invasion of Czechoslovakia by the Warsaw Pact armies. Another notable politician after the fall of the communist regime is Václav Havel, last President of Czechoslovakia and first President of the Czech Republic. The current first directly elected president is Miloš Zeman. The Czech Republic has had multiple Prime Ministers the first of which was latter Presidents Václav Klaus and Miloš Zeman. Another Prime Ministers of the Czech Republic were conservative politicians such as Mirek Topolánek, Petr Nečas and social democratic such as Vladimír Špidla, Jiří Paroubek, Bohuslav Sobotka. Diplomat Madeleine Albright is of Czech origin and fluent in Czech. Other well-known Czech diplomats were Jan Masaryk or Jiří Dienstbier. Science Czechs established themselves mainly in Biology, Chemistry, Philology and Egyptology. Chemistry – Jaroslav Heyrovský (Nobel Prize 1959), Otto Wichterle, Zdenko Hans Skraup, Antonín Holý Biology – Jan Evangelista Purkyně, Carl Borivoj Presl, Jan Svatopluk Presl, Karel Domin, Kaspar Maria von Sternberg, Friedrich von Berchtold, Ferdinand Stoliczka, Wenceslas Bojer, Jan Janský, Alberto Vojtěch Frič, August Carl Joseph Corda Mathematics – Eduard Čech, Miroslav Katětov, Petr Vopěnka, Václav Chvátal, Otakar Borůvka, Vojtěch Jarník Physics and engineering – Ignaz von Born, František Běhounek, Jan Marek Marci, Josef Ressel, František Křižík, Vincenc Strouhal, Prokop Diviš, František Josef Gerstner, Ernst Mach Astronomy – Antonín Mrkos, Antonín Bečvář Astronautics – Vladimír Remek Philology – Bedřich Hrozný, Josef Dobrovský, Josef Jungmann, Vilém Mathesius, Julius Pokorny, René Wellek, Jan Mukařovský Medicine – Carl von Rokitansky, Joseph Škoda Archeology – Pavel Pavel, Lubor Niederle, Karel Absolon, Miroslav Verner Anthropology and ethnography – Aleš Hrdlička, Emil Holub, Alois Musil History – František Palacký, Bohuslav Balbín, Konstantin Jireček, Max Dvořák, Miroslav Hroch Philosophy – Jan Patočka, Karel Kosík, Egon Bondy, Ladislav Klíma Psychology – Stanislav Grof Theology – Jan Hus, Jerome of Prague, Petr Chelčický, Jan Rokycana, Tomáš Špidlík, Tomáš Halík Modern occultism – Franz Bardon Pedagogy – Jan Amos Komenský Folklorists – František Ladislav Čelakovský, Karel Jaromír Erben Literary theory – Karel Teige, Pavel Janáček Sports Sports have also been a contributor to famous Czechs especially tennis, football, hockey, and athletics: Tennis – Jaroslav Drobný, Jan Kodeš, Martina Navrátilová, Ivan Lendl, Hana Mandlíková, Jana Novotná, Helena Suková, Petr Korda, Petra Kvitová, Tomáš Berdych, Karolína Plíšková Football – Oldřich Nejedlý, Antonín Puč, František Plánička, Josef Bican, Josef Masopust, Ivo Viktor, Antonín Panenka, Zdeněk Nehoda, Tomáš Skuhravý, Pavel Nedvěd, Karel Poborský, Jan Koller, Milan Baroš, Marek Jankulovski, Vladimír Šmicer, Tomáš Rosický, Petr Čech Hockey – Jaromír Jágr, Dominik Hašek, Vladimír Růžička, Jiří Šlégr, Ivan Hlinka, Jiří Holeček, Jaroslav Pouzar, Jiří Hrdina, Petr Sýkora, Patrik Eliáš, Bobby Holík, Michal Rozsíval, Milan Hejduk, Petr Nedvěd, Martin Straka, Václav Prospal, Jakub Voráček, Tomáš Plekanec, František Kaberle, David Výborný, Pavel Patera, Martin Procházka, David Krejčí, David Pastrňák Athletics – Emil Zátopek, Dana Zátopková, Jarmila Kratochvílová, Roman Šebrle, Jan Železný, Barbora Špotáková Chess – Wilhelm Steinitz, Věra Menčíková, Richard Réti, Salo Flohr, David Navara Others – Věra Čáslavská, Martina Sáblíková, Martin Doktor, Štěpánka Hilgertová, Josef Holeček, Kateřina Neumannová, Filip Jícha, Jiří Zídek Sr., Jan Veselý, Ester Ledecká The arts Music Czech music had its first significant pieces created in the 11th century. The great progress of Czech artificial music began with the end of the Renaissance and the early Baroque era, concretely in works of Adam Václav Michna z Otradovic, where the specific character of Czech music was rising up by using the influence of genuine folk music. This tradition determined the development of Czech music and has remained the main sign in the works of great Czech composers of almost all eras – Jan Dismas Zelenka and Josef Mysliveček in Baroque, Bedřich Smetana and Antonín Dvořák in Romanticism, Leoš Janáček, Bohuslav Martinů and Josef Suk in modern classical or Petr Eben and Miloslav Kabeláč in contemporary classical music. Czech musicians also played an important role in the development of European music. Jan Václav Antonín Stamic in 18th-century contributed to the creation of Classicism in music by innovations of compositional forms and the founding of the Mannheim school. Similarly, Antonín Rejcha's experiments prefigured new compositional techniques in the 19th century. The influence of Czech musicians expanded beyond the borders of the European continent, when Antonín Dvořák created a new American classical music style, using the richness of ethnic music of that country during his mission in the US. The contribution of Alois Hába to microtonal music in the 20th century must be also mentioned. Czech music reached as far as Qing China. Karel Slavíček was a Jesuit missionary, scientist and sinologist who was introduced to the Kangxi Emperor on 3 February 1717, in Beijing. The emperor favored him and employed him as court musician. (Slavíček was a Spinet player). Some notable modern Czech musicians are US-based composer and guitarist Ivan Král, musician and composer Jan Hammer and the rock band The Plastic People of the Universe which played an important part in the underground movement during the communist regime. The Czech Republic first entered the Eurovision Song Contest in 2007. Czech performer qualified for the grand final for the first time in 2016 when singer Gabriela Gunčíková finished in 25th place. In 2018 the singer Mikolas Josef reached the 6th place in the contest being the best result of the Czech Republic until today. Other important names: Franz Benda, Rafael Kubelík, Jan Ladislav Dussek, Vítězslav Novák, Zdeněk Fibich, Jan Kubelík, Jiří Antonín Benda, Julius Fučík, Karel Svoboda, Karel Kryl, Václav Neumann, Václav Talich, František Xaver Richter, Jan Křtitel Vaňhal, Vojtěch Živný, Josef Bohuslav Foerster, Magdalena Kožená, Karel Ančerl, Ema Destinnová, Maria Jeritza, František Xaver Brixi, Jiří Bělohlávek, Oskar Nedbal, Karel Gott. Literature Jaroslav Seifert was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature for his poetry. Božena Němcová has become a cultural icon and gained much fame for her book Babička (The Grandmother). Other important Czech writers include Milan Kundera, Karel Čapek, Jaroslav Hašek, Jan Neruda, Franz Kafka, Bohumil Hrabal, Viktor Dyk, Kosmas, Pavel Kohout, Alois Jirásek, Josef Škvorecký, Karel Jaromír Erben, Jiří Wolker, Karel Hynek Mácha, Vítězslav Nezval, Arnošt Lustig, Jaroslav Vrchlický, Karel Havlíček Borovský, Ivan Klíma, Egon Erwin Kisch, Vladimír Holan, Julius Zeyer or Svatopluk Čech. From contemporary Czech writers can be mentioned Jáchym Topol, Patrik Ouředník, Michal Viewegh or Daniela Hodrová. Important playwrights were Karel Čapek, František Langer or Josef Kajetán Tyl. Strong was also the theatrical avant-garde (Jan Werich, Jiří Voskovec, Emil František Burian). Known journalists were Julius Fučík, Milena Jesenská or Ferdinand Peroutka. Visual arts Mikoláš Aleš was a painter, known for redesigning the Prague National Theatre. Alphonse Mucha was an influential artist in the Art Nouveau movement of the Edwardian period. František Kupka was a pioneer and co-founder of the abstract art movement. Other well-known painters are Josef Čapek, Josef Lada, Theodoric of Prague, Wenceslaus Hollar, Toyen, Jan Kupecký, Petr Brandl, Vladimír Vašíček, Václav Brožík, Josef Mánes, Karel Škréta or Max Švabinský. Renowned sculptors were Josef Václav Myslbek or Matyáš Bernard Braun, photographers Jan Saudek, Josef Sudek, František Drtikol or Josef Koudelka, illustrators Zdeněk Burian or Adolf Born, architects Jan Kotěra or Josef Gočár. Jiří Kylián was an important ballet choreographer. Film Film director Miloš Forman, known best for his movie, One Flew over the Cuckoo's Nest is of Czech origin and started his career in Czechoslovakia. Forman was a member of the so-called Czech New Wave. Other members included Jiří Menzel (Oscar 1967), Ivan Passer, Věra Chytilová and Elmar Klos (Oscar 1965). Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film has also Jan Svěrák (1996). The influential surrealist filmmaker and animator Jan Švankmajer was born in Prague and has resided in the Czech Republic throughout his life. In the field of animation and puppet film made famous Zdeněk Miler, Karel Zeman and Jiří Trnka. Actors Zdeněk Svěrák, Vlastimil Brodský, Vladimír Menšík, Libuše Šafránková or Karel Roden have also made a mark in modern Czech history. The most successful Czech erotic actress is Silvia Saint. Modeling The first Czech models have made a breakthrough in the international modeling were Paulina Porizkova or Ivana Trump. After the fall of communism in Czechoslovakia many other models succeeded: Karolína Kurková, Eva Herzigová, Taťána Kuchařová, Petra Němcová and Daniela Peštová. Saints Czech culture involves many saints, most notably St. Wenceslaus (Václav), patron of the Czech nation, St. John of Nepomuk (Jan Nepomucký), St. Adalbert (Vojtěch), Saint Procopius or St. Agnes of Bohemia (Anežka Česká). Although not a Christian, rabbi Judah Loew ben Bezalel of Prague, a 16th Century scholar and one of the most influential figures of Jewish history, is considered to be part of the country's religious legacy as well. Natives Modern Czech nation was formed in process of Czech national revival. In it, he pushed linguistic concept of the nation (particularly promoted by Jungmann), i.e. "Czech = one who has Czech language as their first language – naturally or by choice." (That is why they are often considered the Czechs, Slovaks who have chosen the Czech language as their literary language, such as Ján Kollár or Pavel Jozef Šafařík). Like other nations, the Czechs also discuss two alternative concepts – land concept (Czech is one who is born in the historic Czech territory), which in times of Jungmann success primarily nobility, and ethnic concept. Definition by the territory is still discussed alternative, from time to time is indicated for Czechs number of natives (speaking mostly German, English or otherwise) – these include US Secretary of State Madeleine Albright, film director Karel Reisz, actor Herbert Lom, the founder of psychoanalysis Sigmund Freud, the founder of genetics Gregor Mendel, logician and mathematician Kurt Gödel, the philosopher Edmund Husserl, scientists Gerty Cori, Carl Cori and Peter Grünberg (all Nobel Prize winners) and Ernst Mach, economists Joseph Schumpeter and Eugen Böhm von Bawerk, philosophers Bernard Bolzano, Ernest Gellner, Vilém Flusser and Herbert Feigl, Marxist theoretician Karl Kautsky, astronomer Johann Palisa, legal theorist Hans Kelsen, inventors Alois Senefelder and Viktor Kaplan, automotive designer Ferdinand Porsche, psychologist Max Wertheimer, a geologist Karl von Terzaghi, musicologists Eduard Hanslick and Guido Adler, chemist Johann Josef Loschmidt, biologists Heinrich Wilhelm Schott and Georg Joseph Kamel, the founder of the dermatology Ferdinand Ritter von Hebra, peace activist Bertha von Suttner (Nobel Peace Prize), the composers Gustav Mahler, Heinrich Biber, Viktor Ullmann, Ervin Schulhoff, Pavel Haas, Erich Wolfgang Korngold and Ralph Benatzky, writers Franz Kafka, Reiner Maria Rilke, Max Brod, Karl Kraus, Franz Werfel, Marie von Ebner-Eschenbach, Leo Perutz, Tom Stoppard and Egon Erwin Kisch, painters Anton Raphael Mengs and Emil Orlik, architects Adolf Loos, Peter Parler, Josef Hoffmann, Jan Santini Aichel and Kilian Ignaz Dientzenhofer, cellist David Popper, violist Heinrich Wilhelm Ernst, pianists Alice Herz-Sommer and Rudolf Serkin, president of Austria Karl Renner, Prime Minister of Poland Jerzy Buzek, industrialist Oskar Schindler, or chess player Wilhelm Steinitz. Czech ancestry People with Czech ancestry include the astronauts Eugene Cernan and Jim Lovell, film directors Chris Columbus and Jim Jarmusch, swimmer Katie Ledecky, politicians John Forbes Kerry and Caspar Weinberger, chemist and Nobel Prize laureate Thomas Cech, physicist Karl Guthe Jansky, economist Friedrich Hayek, painters Jan Matejko, Gustav Klimt, Egon Schiele and Oskar Kokoschka, actors Ashton Kutcher, Sissy Spacek and Kim Novak, tennis players Richard Krajicek, Jakob Hlasek and Stan Wawrinka, singer Jason Mraz, Brazil president Juscelino Kubitschek, founder of McDonald's company Ray Kroc, writers Georg Trakl and Robert Musil, mayor of Chicago Anton Cermak and Ivanka Trump and her brother Donald Trump Jr. Geography The Czechs live in three historical lands: Bohemia, Moravia, and Czech Silesia; these regions make up the modern Czech Republic. However, the country is now divided into 14 administrative regions. The local culture varies somewhat in each of the historical regions. Moravians are usually more nationalistic regional patriots of Moravia, but they also speak Czech. Local dialects (such as Central Bohemian, the Chod dialect, Moravian dialects, Cieszyn Silesian, etc.) are found in various parts of the country. Czech language The Czech language is spoken by approximately 12 million people around the world, but the vast majority are in the Czech Republic. It developed from the Proto-Slavic language in the 10th century and is mutually intelligible with the Slovak language. Religion In 1977, Richard Felix Staar described Czechs as "tolerant and even indifferent towards religion as a rule". After the Bohemian Reformation, most Czechs (about 85%) became followers of Jan Hus, Petr Chelčický and other regional Protestant Reformers. Bohemian Estates' defeat in the Battle of White Mountain brought radical religious changes and started a series of intense actions taken by the Habsburgs in order to bring the Czech population back to the Roman Catholic Church. After the Habsburgs regained control of Bohemia, Czech people were forcibly converted to Roman Catholicism. All kinds of Protestant communities including the various branches of Hussites, Lutherans and Reformed were either expelled, killed, or converted to Catholicism. The Catholic Church lost the bulk of its adherents during the Communist era. As of 2015, Pew Research Center found in that 72% of the population of Czech Republic declared to be irreligious, a category which includes atheists, agnostics and those who describe their religion as "nothing in particular", 26% were Christians (vast majority Catholics), while 2% belonged to other faiths. Demographics In the Czech Republic, the nation state of the Czech people, 6,732,104 (63.7%) declared as ethnic Czech according to the 2011 census. Notably, another 2,742,669 (26%) were undeclared, and 522,474 (4.9%) declared as Moravians. There is a large Czech diaspora, which includes 1,703,930 Americans of Czech/Czechoslovak ancestry, 94,805 Canadians of Czech ancestry, an estimated 45,000 Czech-born residents in the United Kingdom, and ca. 31,000 in Australia. There are smaller communities throughout Europe. Number of Israelis of Czech-Jewish ancestry is estimated to be about 50,000 to 100,000, with notable individuals such as Max Brod, Yosef Chaim Sonnenfeld or Yehuda Bauer. See also List of Czechs The Greatest Czech List of Bohemian monarchs List of prime ministers of the Czech Republic List of prime ministers of Czechoslovakia List of presidents of Czechoslovakia List of presidents of the Czech Republic References Notes Citations Sources Further reading External links Official Czech website, links to multiple articles regarding the Czech people. Ethnic groups in the Czech Republic Slavic ethnic groups West Slavs

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The Donegal county football team represents Donegal in men's Gaelic football and is governed by Donegal GAA, the county board of the Gaelic Athletic Association. The team competes in the three major annual inter-county competitions; the All-Ireland Senior Football Championship, the Ulster Senior Football Championship and the National Football League. Donegal's home ground is MacCumhaill Park, Ballybofey. The team's manager is Declan Bonner. Donegal was the third Ulster county to win an All-Ireland Senior Football Championship (SFC), following Cavan and Down. The team last won the Ulster Senior Championship in 2019, the All-Ireland Senior Championship in 2012 and the National League in 2007. The team is a major force in the sport. Currently regarded as one of the best teams in the sport, Karl Lacey won the 2012 All Stars Footballer of the Year, Michael Murphy won the 2009 All Stars Young Footballer of the Year and Ryan McHugh won the 2014 All Stars Young Footballer of the Year, while numerous other players have been selected on All Star teams. Donegal players comprised most of the 2012 All Stars Team of the Year, as well as all three nominations for Footballer of the Year, ultimately won by Lacey. In addition, having been invited to assist the Celtic soccer team in Scotland, Donegal manager Jim McGuinness became the first Gaelic football inter-county manager to have been offered a role at a professional sports team abroad. McGuinness's services have also been sought by Premier League soccer teams. In terms of style, "the system" deployed by McGuinness's team was likened to that of the Spanish association football team FC Barcelona. Donegal are one of only five counties to have defeated Kerry in their first Championship meeting — the others being Down (1960), Derry (1958), Dublin (1893) and Cork (1889). Distances to games involving provincial opponents have been a problem. History Following the first Donegal County Board's formation in 1905, the county team's first football game was against Derry on 17 March 1906. Donegal lost the 1933 "Home final" of the All-Ireland Junior Football Championship to Mayo (2–15 to 2–2) and then made their next appearance at Croke Park on Sunday 6 April 1952. The occasion was a National Football League semi-final and their opponents that day were Cork. 1960s The sixties saw Donegal emerge as a footballing force with victories to match their undoubted abilities. Unfortunately they came into contact with a majestic Down machine that was also blistering the national stage with their prowess, becoming the first team from the North to win All Ireland senior championships in 1960, 1961 and 1968. Amazingly, Donegal's first appearance in an Ulster senior final was not until 1963, followed by a second appearance in 1966, On both occasions they were defeated by Down. 1970s–1980s: Ulster and Under-21 success The county came to the fore of Ulster football in the 1970s, winning their first Ulster Senior Football Championship in 1972. McEniff was player-manager of the 1972 team. The win coincided with the county's first All Star—in the form of McEniff himself—in the second year of the award's existence. Reigning All-Ireland champions Offaly defeated the Ulster champions in the All-Ireland Senior Football Championship semi-final on the way to their second consecutive All-Ireland title. A second provincial title followed for Donegal in 1974. McEniff was again player-manager. Galway, All-Ireland finalists in 1971 and 1973, defeated them in the All-Ireland Senior Football Championship semi-final. In 1979, Donegal reached the Ulster Final again under the guidance of Sean O'Donnell, but were defeated by Monaghan. In October 1982, Tom Conaghan managed Donegal to the All-Ireland Under-21 Football Championship. McEniff returned as senior manager and Donegal won a third provincial title in 1983, with ten members of the 1982 under-21 team included in the panel. Seamus Bonner became the first player from the county to win the competition as a player on three occasions, having earlier won in 1972 and 1974. Again they were beaten by Galway in the All-Ireland Senior Football Championship semi-final, ahead of what would become a notorious 1983 All-Ireland Senior Football Championship Final, known as the "Game of Shame". Tom Conaghan took over as senior manager from McEniff after McEniff departed again in the mid-1980s. Over the course of his time as senior manager during the 1980s, Conaghan fell out with players such as Declan Bonner, Manus Boyle, Matt Gallagher, Barry McGowan and Sylvester Maguire. Conaghan's spell as county manager ended with a heavy defeat to Tyrone. In 1987, Donegal won the All-Ireland Under 21 Football Championship, a success which provided the basis for future prosperity in the county. They defeated Kerry in the final. 1990s: Sam Maguire Cup McEniff returned as senior manager for a fourth time in September 1989. He led the county to another Ulster Senior Football Championship in 1990, restoring players that Conaghan had thrown by the wayside, such as Bonner, Boyle, Gallagher, McGowan and Maguire. Eventual All-Ireland Finalists Meath beat them in the 1990 All-Ireland Senior Football Championship semi-final. However, Donegal would win the Ulster Senior Football Championship Final again in 1992. As a result of this victory an All-Ireland Senior Football Championship semi-final against Mayo beckoned. Donegal overcame the men from Mayo to set up a 1992 All-Ireland Senior Football Championship Final meeting with raging-hot favourites Dublin. Donegal's greatest footballing accomplishment yet was realised on 20 September 1992 when they defeated the highly fancied Dublin by a scoreline of 0–18 to 0–14 to take the Sam Maguire Cup for the first time. Brian McEniff, serving in his second spell as Donegal manager, pulled the strings. Man of the Match Manus Boyle scored 0–9 (four from play), while Gary Walsh pulled off a great save from Vinny Murphy at the end. This was the zenith of this great Donegal team who contested five successive Ulster Senior Football Championship Finals between 1989 and 1993. The Donegal team of this era also contested the final of the National Football League three times in a four-year period (1993 v. Dublin, 1995 v. Derry, 1996 v. Derry) without success. McEniff soon stood down as manager. Martin McHugh wanted to take charge of Donegal after McEniff left the job. However, he was prevented from doing so by the Donegal County Board in a snub that would be echoed in Jim McGuinness's numerous later attempts to get the same job—McGuinness was, however, ultimately successful; after being rejected by the Donegal County Board on several occasions he would go on to be Donegal's most successful manager since McEniff. McHugh was hurt by his rejection, saying: "I thought there was another All-Ireland in Donegal and that's why I went for that job. I thought there was another All-Ireland there, and there was a lot of good players coming too. But anyway, that's the way it worked out". Declan Bonner (first term): 1997–2000 Declan Bonner managed the team between 1997 and 2000. He began on his 32nd birthday, within four weeks of retirement. He was informed of the decision to appoint him at 9.29 pm on 11 August 1997, after Anthony Molloy, past manager Conaghan and Pauric McShea all withdrew. Charlie Mulgrew and Matt Gallagher were part of Bonner's management team. Bonner led Donegal to the 1997–98 National Football League semi-final against eventual title winners Offaly and the 1998 Ulster SFC final against Derry — a last-minute Joe Brolly goal, accompanied by a few kisses to the crowd, put paid to that one. John Joe and the Derrymen: 2000–10 Mickey Moran was appointed manager on a three-year term in August 2000, succeeding Declan Bonner. Moran's first game in charge was a league victory at home to Offaly, a win achieved while fielding four debutants (Stephen Cassidy, Michael Doherty, Barry Monaghan and ... one other?). During his tenure selector Michael Houston quit after a public falling out with Moran. Moran's first year in charge of Donegal was a disappointing one, but 2002 was more successful, leading Donegal to the Ulster final (where they were beat by Armagh) and then to the All-Ireland quarter-final against Dublin. However, in September 2002 he informed the county board he would not be staying for the third year of the term. All-Ireland winning manager Brian McEniff took the reins for the 2003 season. His first game back in charge, an away league fixture to Galway in Tuam in February 2003, ended in defeat. However, McEniff guided Donegal to the All-Ireland semi-final for the first time since 1992. The following year they reached another Ulster final, again losing out to Armagh. McEniff stepped down after the 2005 season to end his fourth and final tenure with the county. Brian McIver was appointed manager in 2006. His tenure saw a slight improvement in the fortunes of the team as he led them into Division 1 of the National Football League. However, the county had been without a trophy for 15 years. They had contested the 1993 and 1998 Ulster Senior Football Championship Finals, but lost to Derry on both occasions. Defeat to Armagh in the same contest in 2002, 2004 and 2006 meant another decade passed without a Championship trophy. They contested the 2006 Division 2 Final, but lost to Louth. The famine came to an abrupt end in 2007 when the senior football team won the National Football League title for the first time in the county's history. Donegal overcame Mayo at Croke Park on Sunday 22 April 2007 with a score line of 0–13 to 0–10. On-route to the final Donegal defeated Cork, Mayo, Tyrone, Dublin, Kerry, Fermanagh and Kildare while drawing with Limerick. McIver stood down as manager after the 2007 Championship; however, he was reinstated before the beginning of the 2008 Championship. In 2008, at a County Board meeting, a motion of no confidence was tabled by the St Eunan's and Gaoth Dobhair clubs; as a result McIver felt compelled to resign. Declan Bonner and Charlie Mulgrew were appointed "Joint Managers" when John Joe Doherty of the Naomh Columba club was said to have rejected the opportunity to become manager. However, Doherty entered negotiations before Bonner and Mulgrew were rubber stamped. He was later offered the job for a second time, which he accepted. Bonner and Mulgrew had contested that the procedure which led to the installing of John Joe Doherty as football manager in the county was flawed. The duo's case was heard November 2008 but had taken 13 days of deliberation for the DRA to reach a verdict. John Joe Doherty was appointed manager at the November county board meeting. Bonner, Mulgrew and Doherty had been joined by Michael Houston, Francie Martin and Jim McGuinness on the shortlist to become manager. McGuinness years: 2010–14 In July 2010, Jim McGuinness, the then under-21 manager, was appointed as county senior manager, succeeding John Joe Doherty. McGuinness guided the county's under-21 side to the All-Ireland Under 21 Football Championship final in 2010. He was appointed to the senior management on a four-year term, with a review after two years. His first year in charge brought Donegal the National Football League Division 2 title, promotion to Division 1, the county's first championship win in four years, the county's first provincial title in 19 years, and made Donegal the third team in the history of the GAA to win a provincial title from the preliminary round. His second season brought a second consecutive provincial title, also achieved from the preliminary round, as well as a defeat of Kerry at Croke Park and a win over Cork on 26 August to secure a place in the 2012 All Ireland Football Final. In 2010, after a disappointing Championship, in which Donegal lost at home to Down after extra-time, and to Armagh in Crossmaglen by nine points in the first round of the All-Ireland Qualifiers, John Joe Doherty resigned from his post as senior football manager. The only candidate to replace him was Jim McGuinness. Upon his appointment on 26 July 2010, McGuinness brought Kevin Cassidy and Michael Hegarty out of retirement, introduced many players from the U-21 side he had taken to the 2010 All-Ireland Under 21 Football Championship Final, and introduced structure and discipline, a feature that many observers claimed was lacking in many talented Donegal teams between 1993 and 2011. McGuinness's first major success as senior manager was to win the National Football League Division 2 when they beat Laois in Croke Park by 2–11 to 0–16 points. They went through the league season unbeaten, except for the last league match proper, when they lost to Laois. Before the Division 2 Final, they had topped the Division 2 league and were guaranteed promotion with four wins, two draws, and one loss. After this victory, expectations for the county were high, with many pundits predicting that Donegal would win the Ulster Championship. Donegal beat Antrim 1–10 to 0–07 in the preliminary round. This was the team's first Championship win since 2007. This set up an away match against Cavan from which Donegal once again emerged victorious, by a scoreline of 2–14 to 1–08. A more ominous test against Tyrone would follow this Cavan victory. The new defensive system developed by Jim McGuinness would be put to the test against a Tyrone team which perfected the blanket defense tactic on the way to three All Ireland victories in the 2000s. Donegal fought their way to a 2–06 to a 0–09 win. This set up an Ulster Final meeting against a heavily fancied Derry, which one week prior to Donegal's victory over Tyrone, put 3–14 past an Armagh team which had just overcome Down, the 2010 All-Ireland Senior Football Championship runners-up. On 17 July 2011, in Clones, Donegal played in their first Ulster final in five years and their sixth Ulster Final since 1992. In front of a crowd of 28,364 Donegal beat Derry by 1–11 to 0–08 points. This was only the third time in the history of the Ulster Senior Football Championship that a team which played the preliminary round would win the Final, following in the footsteps of Armagh in 2005 and Cavan 66 years earlier. On 30 July 2011, Donegal travelled to Croke Park to play Kildare in the All-Ireland quarter-final. In an absorbing contest, a Kevin Cassidy point deep into extra time sealed Donegal's progression to their first All Ireland semi-final since 2003. The semi-final against Dublin, which Dublin eventually won 0–8 to 0–6, was to be regarded as one of the lowest scoring but most absorbing Championship duels in living memory. On 22 July 2012, Donegal retained the Ulster title for the first time in their history with a 2–18 to 0–13 victory over Down. On 5 August 2012, they defeated Kerry. The first ever Championship meeting between the sides at senior level, it was only the second time in history that Kerry had been defeated at the quarter final stage. Ahead of their next match against Cork, few outside the county gave Donegal a chance, and Cork went into the game as heavy favourites to win the title itself (even though this was only the semi-final). Donegal endeavoured to swat aside a lacklustre Cork side with ease and progressed to their first title decider since 1992. Tyrone's Mickey Harte, attempting to analyse the game for the BBC, expressed his shock: "To be honest, I could not see that coming. Donegal annihilated Cork, there is no other word for it." Martin McHugh, a member of the successful 1992 side, said it was the best ever performance by any Donegal team including his own. Donegal emerged victorious from the 2012 All-Ireland Senior Football Championship Final on 23 September 2012 to take the Sam Maguire Cup for the second time, with early goals from Michael Murphy and Colm McFadden. They defeated Mayo, on a scoreline of 2–11 to 0–13. Man of the Match was awarded to Michael Murphy, who scored 1–04. The 2013 season brought great expectation with Donegal as reigning All-Ireland champions. However, they suffered relegation from Division 1 of the National Football League early in the year. In the Ulster Championship they dispatched Tyrone and Down to set up a provincial decider with Monaghan. Monaghan were unfancied coming into the game with most of the pressure on the shoulders of the Tir Conaill men. Despite this Monaghan defied the odds and emerged as 0–13 to 0–07 winners. After defeating Laois in the fourth round of the qualifiers Donegal faced a Mayo team looking for revenge in the All-Ireland quarter-final. They got their revenge with a 4–17 to 1–10 drubbing that ended Donegal's bid to retain the Sam Maguire. 2014 saw a resurgent Donegal claim promotion from Division 2 of the National League alongside Monaghan. They overcame Derry in a tense quarter final and Antrim in the semi-final to set up another Ulster final clash with Monaghan. This time Donegal came out on top by three points to reclaim the Ulster title. A meeting with Armagh beckoned in the All-Ireland quarter-final. An Odhran MacNiallais goal proved crucial in a 1–12 to 1–11 win. This set up a daunting semi-final clash with 2013 champions Dublin. At the time Dublin were seen by many as unstoppable and were heavy favourites for the clash with Donegal. Bookmakers had Donegal as low as 7/1 to win the game. However, after surviving a first half onslaught a Ryan McHugh goal gave Donegal the lead at half time. In the second half Donegal swept Dublin aside running out six-point winners, with McHugh and Colm McFadden to the fore. Kerry were the opponents in the final, and despite Kerry's traditional dominance Donegal went into the game as favourites after their semi-final defeat of Dublin. Again Kerry upset the form books to claim a 2–09 to 0–12 win and their 37th All-Ireland title. Jim McGuinness stepped down in the aftermath of the game, after leading his county to three Ulster titles and one All-Ireland. Bonner–McGuinness interim: 2014–17 McGuinness's former assistant Rory Gallagher took over for the 2015 campaign, and the year began brightly with Donegal reaching the National League semi-final, losing out to Cork. Starting in the preliminary round of the Ulster Championship, Donegal defeated Tyrone, Armagh and Derry to set up a third successive Ulster final with now bitter rivals Monaghan. After winning tough games against Tyrone and Derry, Donegal were seen as slight favourites going into the game. However, Monaghan prevailed by a single point to consign Donegal to the qualifiers. Galway awaited them there but Donegal won by a scoreline of 3–12 to 0–11 in an improved performance. Mayo were the opponents in the quarter-finals and Donegal went in as underdogs. So it proved as Mayo won by a comfortable seven-point margin to end Donegal's hopes for another year. 2016 began with Donegal looking to reclaim the Ulster title and make a serious assault on the All-Ireland. They again reached the semi-final of the National League, this time being defeated by Dublin. Their Ulster Championship began with a tricky encounter against Fermanagh at MacCumhaill Park where they eventually won by four points after going down to 14 men. They faced familiar foes Monaghan in the semi-final. After two intense games of football Donegal won out to advance to their sixth successive Ulster final, a feat only matched by the great Down side of the 1960s. They were up against Mickey Harte's Tyrone who were appearing in their first final since 2010. Two injury time points handed Tyrone their first provincial title since 2010 and again Donegal were heading for the qualifiers. However, Donegal continued their recent good form in the qualifiers with a three-point victory over Cork, with Patrick McBrearty achieving an individual haul of 0–11. Leinster and All-Ireland champions Dublin were the opponents in the All-Ireland quarter-final. Dublin avenged their defeat in 2014 semi-final by winning 1–15 to 1–10 in a close contest. They required a late Paul Mannion goal to kill off the game and Donegal's Championship aspirations for 2016. A 2017 Ulster Senior Football Championship semi-final capitulation to Tyrone and 2017 All-Ireland Senior Football Championship exit to Galway at Markievicz Park and Gallagher was gone. Declan Bonner (second term): 2017– Five contenders for the senior manager emerged: minor manager Shaun Paul Barrett, Declan Bonner, Cathal Corey, Gary McDaid and Séamus McEnaney. Bonner was announced as manager on 22 September 2017, taking charge for the second time. They won the 2018 Ulster Senior Football Championship. They won the 2019 Ulster Senior Football Championship. Bonner was reappointed for another two-year term as manager at the end of August 2021 when no other candidates emerged to succeed him. Seasons Captains Current management team Confirmed in November 2017, with replacements noted: Manager: Declan Bonner Assistant manager: Paul McGonigle, not listed among November 2017 appointments Paddy Campbell, joined ahead of the 2022 season Head coach: John McElholm Coach: Gary Boyle Selector: Stephen Rochford, replacing Karl Lacey after 2018 season but Lacey actually carried on until the end of 2020 Goalkeeping coach: James Gallagher, after 2020 season replacing Andrew McGovern Strength and conditioning coach: Antoin McFadden, after 2020 season, replacing Paul Fisher Nutritionist: Ronan Doherty Team physician: Kevin Moran Physio: Cathal Ellis Psychology and performance manager: Anthony McGrath, previously involved with the minor team Video analysis: Chris Byrne Logistics: Packie McDyre Kitman: Barry McBride Current squad INJ RET RET Player has since retired from the county team. INJ Player has had an injury which has affected recent involvement with the county team. WD Player has since withdrawn from the county team due to a non-injury issue. Recent call-ups The following players have also been called up to the Donegal panel during the previous two seasons, or in the 2018 Championship. Supporters The team has an official supporters' club called, simply, Donegal GAA Supporters' Club. The chairperson is Father Brian Quinn, the secretary is Catriona McCaffrey and the joint treasurers are Grace Boyle and Brendan Brady. It existed from the early 1990s until 2006 before being resurrected following the winning 2012 All-Ireland SFC campaign. The aim of the club is to provide financial assistance to the team. Daniel O'Donnell has performed fundraising concerts for the team. He and his wife Majella are regular spectators at games. O'Donnell was at Croke Park for the 1992 All-Ireland SFC final and sang a duet with manager Jim McGuinness at the 2012 All-Ireland SFC homecoming in Donegal Town. Former Ireland international goalkeeper Shay Given is a supporter and has helped trained the team. Séamus Coleman is another prominent supporter who has attended games. The "banana bunch" were noted for bringing inflatable bananas to games in the early 1990s. Christy Murray and his bagpipes have featured in the approach to and aftermath of games for several decades. Colours and crest Donegal play since their foundation in green and gold kits, which are also the colours of the board's logo and of the county crest because they recall the gold of the sandy beaches of the county and the green of the well known Hills of Donegal. Despite the colours have been always the same during the years, their disposal has been very different for much of the team's history. The classic Donegal kit was indeed composed by a green shirt with a golden hoop, white shorts and green and gold socks (identical to Kerry). In 1966 the board opted for golden shirts but they turned green after only a short period, in the 1980s also often with green shorts. In 1992, when they reached the semifinal against Mayo, they had to use a change kit which was a gold shirt with green sleeves and green shorts. Due to the unexpected victory against the favorite Connacht side, they decided to retain this colour combination for the final against Dublin. Donegal won their first All-Ireland title and since then they have favoured a yellow/gold shirt and green shorts. Usually Donegal wore as change kit gold shirts with green trim, or gold shitrs with black trim (recalling Ulster GAA colours). Since they switched to gold as their primary colour, change kits have been green or white. Ahead of the 2022 season, a new kit was launched, featuring a "shadow print" naming each of the county's clubs. Kit evolution Team sponsorship The following companies have sponsored Donegal. Evolve Clothing has supplied the team with casual and formal attire on All-Ireland and Ulster final days. Managerial history Players Notable players Records Oldest players in an All-Ireland SFC final The following were aged 30 or over when playing in an All-Ireland SFC final.Where a player has appeared in more than one final the latest is referenced. Neil Gallagher 31/32? 2014 Rory Kavanagh 31/32? 2014 Colm McFadden 31/32? 2014 Christy Toye 31 2014 Martin McHugh 30 1992 Paul Durcan 30 2014 Eamon McGee 30 2014 Anthony Molloy 30 1992 Karl Lacey 30 2014 Donal Reid 30 1992 Youngest players in an All-Ireland SFC final The following were aged 24 or under when playing in an All-Ireland SFC final.Where a player has appeared in more than one final the first is referenced. Darach O'Connor 18 2014 Patrick McBrearty 19 2012 Ryan McHugh 20 2014 Dermot Molloy 20/21 2012 Tony Boyle 22 1992 Odhrán Mac Niallais 22 2014 Mark McHugh 22 2012 Michael Murphy 23 2012 Paddy McGrath 23 2012 Leo McLoone 22/23? 2012 Martin McElhinney 24 2012 Most appearances As of May 1st, 2020. The following are among those to have made the highest number of appearances for the senior team: Top scorers Updated 14 August 2018. All Stars Players listed in bold indicates that they were voted Footballer of the Year 1972 – Brian McEniff 1974 – Donal Monaghan 1983 – Martin McHugh 1990 – Joyce McMullan 1992 – Gary Walsh, Matt Gallagher, Martin Gavigan, Anthony Molloy, Martin McHugh (2nd), James McHugh, Tony Boyle 1993 – John Joe Doherty 2002 – Kevin Cassidy 2003 – Adrian Sweeney 2006 – Karl Lacey 2009 – Karl Lacey (2nd) 2011 – Karl Lacey (3rd), Kevin Cassidy (2nd), Neil McGee 2012 – Paul Durcan, Neil McGee (2nd), Karl Lacey (4th), Frank McGlynn, Neil Gallagher, Mark McHugh, Michael Murphy, Colm McFadden 2014 – Paul Durcan (2nd), Neil McGee (3rd), Neil Gallagher (2nd), Michael Murphy (2nd) 2016 – Ryan McHugh 2018 – Ryan McHugh (2nd) 2019 – Michael Murphy (3rd) Multiple winners 4 – Karl Lacey 3 – Neil McGee, Michael Murphy 2 – Martin McHugh, Kevin Cassidy, Paul Durcan, Neil Gallagher, Ryan McHugh Player of the Year Honours 2 All-Ireland Senior Football Championships 1992, 2012 10 Ulster Senior Football Championships 1972, 1974, 1983, 1990, 1992, 2011, 2012, 2014, 2018, 2019 2 All-Ireland Under 21 Football Championships 1982, 1987 6 All-Ireland Vocational Schools Championships 1984, 1985, 1995, 1996, 2002, 2011 5 Ulster Junior Football Championships 1930, 1933, 1939, 1952, 1954 8 Ulster Under-21 Football Championships 1963, 1964, 1966, 1982, 1987, 1995, 2010, 2017 7 Ulster Minor Football Championships 1956, 1985, 1991, 1996, 2006, 2014, 2016 15 Ulster Vocational Schools Football Championships 1964, 1965, 1984, 1985, 1986, 1987, 1992, 1994, 1995, 1996, 2002, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013 1 National Football League 2007 2 National Football League Division 2 2011, 2019 11 Dr McKenna Cups 1963, 1965, 1967, 1975, 1985, 1991, 2001, 2002, 2009, 2010, 2018 4 Dr Lagan Cups 1952, 1965, 1966, 1967 1 RTÉ Team of the Year Award 2012 References External links Cláracha na gCluichí/Programmes — access many hundreds from the 1950s to 2020, as reported here

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The Schutzstaffel (SS; also stylized as ᛋᛋ with Armanen runes; ; "Protection Squadron") was a major paramilitary organization under Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party in Nazi Germany, and later throughout German-occupied Europe during World War II. It began with a small guard unit known as the Saal-Schutz ("Hall Security") made up of party volunteers to provide security for party meetings in Munich. In 1925, Heinrich Himmler joined the unit, which had by then been reformed and given its final name. Under his direction (1929–1945) it grew from a small paramilitary formation during the Weimar Republic to one of the most powerful organizations in Nazi Germany. From the time of the Nazi Party's rise to power until the regime's collapse in 1945, the SS was the foremost agency of security, surveillance, and terror within Germany and German-occupied Europe. The two main constituent groups were the Allgemeine SS (General SS) and Waffen-SS (Armed SS). The Allgemeine SS was responsible for enforcing the racial policy of Nazi Germany and general policing, whereas the Waffen-SS consisted of combat units within Nazi Germany's military. A third component of the SS, the SS-Totenkopfverbände (SS-TV; "Death's Head Units"), ran the concentration camps and extermination camps. Additional subdivisions of the SS included the Gestapo and the Sicherheitsdienst (SD) organizations. They were tasked with the detection of actual or potential enemies of the Nazi state, the neutralization of any opposition, policing the German people for their commitment to Nazi ideology, and providing domestic and foreign intelligence. The SS was the organization most responsible for the genocidal murder of an estimated 5.5 to 6 million Jews and millions of other victims during the Holocaust. Members of all of its branches committed war crimes and crimes against humanity during World War II (1939–45). The SS was also involved in commercial enterprises and exploited concentration camp inmates as slave labor. After Nazi Germany's defeat, the SS and the Nazi Party were judged by the International Military Tribunal at Nuremberg to be criminal organizations. Ernst Kaltenbrunner, the highest-ranking surviving SS main department chief, was found guilty of crimes against humanity at the Nuremberg trials and hanged in 1946. Origins Forerunner of the SS By 1923, the Nazi Party led by Adolf Hitler had created a small volunteer guard unit known as the Saal-Schutz (Hall Security) to provide security at their meetings in Munich. The same year, Hitler ordered the formation of a small bodyguard unit dedicated to his personal service. He wished it to be separate from the "suspect mass" of the party, including the paramilitary Sturmabteilung ("Storm Battalion"; SA), which he did not trust. The new formation was designated the Stabswache (Staff Guard). Originally the unit was composed of eight men, commanded by Julius Schreck and Joseph Berchtold, and was modeled after the Erhardt Naval Brigade, a Freikorps of the time. The unit was renamed Stoßtrupp (Shock Troops) in May 1923. The Stoßtrupp was abolished after the failed 1923 Beer Hall Putsch, an attempt by the Nazi Party to seize power in Munich. In 1925, Hitler ordered Schreck to organize a new bodyguard unit, the Schutzkommando (Protection Command). It was tasked with providing personal protection for Hitler at party functions and events. That same year, the Schutzkommando was expanded to a national organization and renamed successively the Sturmstaffel (Storm Squadron), and finally the Schutzstaffel (Protection Squad; SS). Officially, the SS marked its foundation on 9 November 1925 (the second anniversary of the Beer Hall Putsch). The new SS protected party leaders throughout Germany. Hitler's personal SS protection unit was later enlarged to include combat units. Early commanders Schreck, a founding member of the SA and a close confidant of Hitler, became the first SS chief in March 1925. On 15 April 1926, Joseph Berchtold succeeded him as chief of the SS. Berchtold changed the title of the office to Reichsführer-SS (Reich Leader-SS). Berchtold was considered more dynamic than his predecessor, but became increasingly frustrated by the authority the SA had over the SS. This led to him transferring leadership of the SS to his deputy, Erhard Heiden, on 1 March 1927. Under Heiden's leadership, a stricter code of discipline was enforced than would have been tolerated in the SA. Between 1925 and 1929, the SS was considered to be a small Gruppe (battalion) of the SA. Except in the Munich area, the SS was unable to maintain any momentum in its membership numbers, which declined from 1,000 to 280 as the SA continued its rapid growth. As Heiden attempted to keep the SS from dissolving, Heinrich Himmler became his deputy in September 1927. Himmler displayed good organizational abilities compared to Heiden. The SS established a number of Gaus (regions or provinces). The SS-Gaus consisted of SS-Gau Berlin, SS-Gau Berlin Brandenburg, SS-Gau Franken, SS-Gau Niederbayern, SS-Gau Rheinland-Süd, and SS-Gau Sachsen. Himmler appointed With Hitler's approval, Himmler assumed the position of Reichsführer-SS in January 1929. There are differing accounts of the reason for Heiden's dismissal from his position as head of the SS. The party announced that it was for "family reasons." Under Himmler, the SS expanded and gained a larger foothold. He considered the SS an elite, ideologically driven National Socialist organization, a "conflation of Teutonic knights, the Jesuits, and Japanese Samurai". His ultimate aim was to turn the SS into the most powerful organization in Germany and most influential branch of the party. He expanded the SS to 3,000 members in his first year as its leader. In 1929, the SS-Hauptamt (main SS office) was expanded and reorganized into five main offices dealing with general administration, personnel, finance, security, and race matters. At the same time, the SS-Gaue were divided into three SS-Oberführerbereiche areas, namely the SS-Oberführerbereich Ost, SS-Oberführerbereich West, and SS-Oberführerbereich Süd. The lower levels of the SS remained largely unchanged. Although officially still considered a sub-organization of the SA and answerable to the Stabschef (SA Chief of Staff), it was also during this time that Himmler began to establish the independence of the SS from the SA. The SS grew in size and power due to its exclusive loyalty to Hitler, as opposed to the SA, which was seen as semi-independent and a threat to Hitler's hegemony over the party, mainly because they demanded a "second revolution" beyond the one that brought the Nazi Party to power. By the end of 1933, the membership of the SS reached 209,000. Under Himmler's leadership, the SS continued to gather greater power as more and more state and party functions were assigned to its jurisdiction. Over time the SS became answerable only to Hitler, a development typical of the organizational structure of the entire Nazi regime, where legal norms were replaced by actions undertaken under the Führerprinzip (leader principle), where Hitler's will was considered to be above the law. In the latter half of 1934, Himmler oversaw the creation of SS-Junkerschule, institutions where SS officer candidates received leadership training, political and ideological indoctrination, and military instruction. The training stressed ruthlessness and toughness as part of the SS value system, which helped foster a sense of superiority among the men and taught them self-confidence. The first schools were established at Bad Tölz and Braunschweig, with additional schools opening at Klagenfurt and Prague during the war. Ideology The SS was regarded as the Nazi Party's elite unit. In keeping with the racial policy of Nazi Germany, in the early days all SS officer candidates had to provide proof of Aryan ancestry back to 1750 and for other ranks to 1800. Once the war started and it became more difficult to confirm ancestry, the regulation was amended to just proving the candidate's grandparents were Aryan, as spelled out in the Nuremberg Laws. Other requirements were complete obedience to the Führer and a commitment to the German people and nation. Himmler also tried to institute physical criteria based on appearance and height, but these requirements were only loosely enforced, and over half the SS men did not meet the criteria. Inducements such as higher salaries and larger homes were provided to members of the SS since they were expected to produce more children than the average German family as part of their commitment to Nazi Party doctrine. Commitment to SS ideology was emphasized throughout the recruitment, membership process, and training. Members of the SS were indoctrinated in the racial policy of Nazi Germany and were taught that it was necessary to remove from Germany people deemed by that policy as inferior. Esoteric rituals and the awarding of regalia and insignia for milestones in the SS man's career suffused SS members even further with Nazi ideology. Members were expected to renounce their Christian faith, and Christmas was replaced with a solstice celebration. Church weddings were replaced with SS Ehewein, a pagan ceremony invented by Himmler. These pseudo-religious rites and ceremonies often took place near SS-dedicated monuments or in special SS-designated places. In 1933, Himmler bought Wewelsburg, a castle in Westphalia. He initially intended it to be used as an SS training center, but its role came to include hosting SS dinners and neo-pagan rituals. In 1936, Himmler wrote in the pamphlet "The SS as an Anti-Bolshevist Fighting Organization": The SS ideology included the application of brutality and terror as a solution to military and political problems. The SS stressed total loyalty and obedience to orders unto death. Hitler used this as a powerful tool to further his aims and those of the Nazi Party. The SS was entrusted with the commission of atrocities, illegal activities, and war crimes. Himmler once wrote that an SS man "hesitates not for a single instant, but executes unquestioningly ..." any Führer-Befehl (Führer order). Their official motto was "Meine Ehre heißt Treue" (My Honour is Loyalty). As part of its race-centric functions during World War II, the SS oversaw the isolation and displacement of Jews from the populations of the conquered territories, seizing their assets and deporting them to concentration camps and ghettos, where they were used as slave labor or immediately killed. Chosen to implement the Final Solution ordered by Hitler, the SS were the main group responsible for the institutional murder and democide of more than 20 million people during the Holocaust, including approximately 5.2 million to 6 million Jews and 10.5 million Slavs. A significant number of victims were members of other racial or ethnic groups such as the 258,000 Romani. The SS was involved in murdering people viewed as threats to race hygiene or Nazi ideology, including the mentally or physically handicapped, homosexuals, and political dissidents. Members of trade unions and those perceived to be affiliated with groups that opposed the regime (religious, political, social, and otherwise), or those whose views were contradictory to the goals of the Nazi Party government, were rounded up in large numbers; these included clergy of all faiths, Jehovah's Witnesses, Freemasons, Communists, and Rotary Club members. According to the judgments rendered at the Nuremberg trials, as well as many war crimes investigations and trials conducted since then, the SS was responsible for the majority of Nazi war crimes. In particular, it was the primary organization that carried out the Holocaust. Pre-war Germany After Hitler and the Nazi Party came to power on 30 January 1933, the SS was considered a state organization and a branch of the government. Law enforcement gradually became the purview of the SS, and many SS organizations became de facto government agencies. The SS established a police state within Nazi Germany, using the secret state police and security forces under Himmler's control to suppress resistance to Hitler. In his role as Minister President of Prussia, Hermann Göring had in 1933 created a Prussian secret police force, the Geheime Staatspolizei or Gestapo, and appointed Rudolf Diels as its head. Concerned that Diels was not ruthless enough to use the Gestapo effectively to counteract the power of the SA, Göring handed over its control to Himmler on 20 April 1934. Also on that date, in a departure from long-standing German practice that law enforcement was a state and local matter, Hitler appointed Himmler chief of all German police outside Prussia. Himmler named his deputy and protégé Reinhard Heydrich chief of the Gestapo on 22 April 1934. Heydrich also continued as head of the Sicherheitsdienst (SD; security service). The Gestapo's transfer to Himmler was a prelude to the Night of the Long Knives, in which most of the SA leadership were arrested and subsequently executed. The SS and Gestapo carried out most of the murders. On 20 July 1934, Hitler detached the SS from the SA, which was no longer an influential force after the purge. The SS became an elite corps of the Nazi Party, answerable only to Hitler. Himmler's title of Reichsführer-SS now became his actual rank – and the highest rank in the SS, equivalent to the rank of field marshal in the army (his previous rank was Obergruppenführer). As Himmler's position and authority grew, so in effect did his rank. On 17 June 1936, all police forces throughout Germany were united under the purview of Himmler and the SS. Himmler and Heydrich thus became two of the most powerful men in the country's administration. Police and intelligence forces brought under their administrative control included the SD, Gestapo, Kriminalpolizei (Kripo; criminal investigative police), and Ordnungspolizei (Orpo; regular uniformed police). In his capacity as police chief, Himmler was nominally subordinate to Interior Minister Wilhelm Frick. In practice, since the SS answered only to Hitler, the de facto merger of the SS and the police made the police independent of Frick's control. In September 1939, the security and police agencies, including the Sicherheitspolizei (SiPo; security police) and SD (but not the Orpo), were consolidated into the Reich Security Main Office (RSHA), headed by Heydrich. This further increased the collective authority of the SS. During Kristallnacht (9–10 November 1938), SS security services clandestinely coordinated violence against Jews as the SS, Gestapo, SD, Kripo, SiPo, and regular police did what they could to ensure that while Jewish synagogues and community centers were destroyed, Jewish-owned businesses and housing remained intact so that they could later be seized. In the end, thousands of Jewish businesses, homes, and graveyards were vandalized and looted, particularly by members of the SA. Some 500 to 1,000 synagogues were destroyed, mostly by arson. On 11 November, Heydrich reported a death toll of 36 people, but later assessments put the number of deaths at up to two thousand. On Hitler's orders, around 30,000 Jewish men were arrested and sent to concentration camps by 16 November. As many as 2,500 of these people died in the following months. It was at this point that the SS state began in earnest its campaign of terror against political and religious opponents, who they imprisoned without trial or judicial oversight for the sake of "security, re-education, or prevention". In September 1939, the authority of the SS expanded further when the senior SS officer in each military district also became its chief of police. Most of these SS and police leaders held the rank of SS-Gruppenführer or above, and answered directly to Himmler in all SS matters within their district. Their role was to police the population and oversee the activities of the SS men within their district. By declaring an emergency, they could bypass the district administrative offices for the SS, SD, SiPo, SS-Totenkopfverbände (SS-TV; concentration camp guards), and Orpo, thereby gaining direct operational control of these groups. Hitler's personal bodyguards As the SS grew in size and importance, so too did Hitler's personal protection forces. Three main SS groups were assigned to protect Hitler. In 1933, his larger personal bodyguard unit (previously the 1st SS-Standarte) was called to Berlin to replace the Army Chancellery Guard, assigned to protect the Chancellor of Germany. Sepp Dietrich commanded the new unit, previously known as SS-Stabswache Berlin; the name was changed to SS-Sonderkommando Berlin. In November 1933, the name was changed to Leibstandarte Adolf Hitler. In April 1934, Himmler modified the name to Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler (LSSAH). The LSSAH guarded Hitler's private residences and offices, providing an outer ring of protection for the Führer and his visitors. LSSAH men manned sentry posts at the entrances to the old Reich Chancellery and the new Reich Chancellery. The number of LSSAH guards was increased during special events. At the Berghof, Hitler's residence in the Obersalzberg, a large contingent of the LSSAH patrolled an extensive cordoned security zone. From 1941 forward, the Leibstandarte became four distinct entities, the Waffen-SS division (unconnected to Hitler's protection but a formation of the Waffen-SS), the Berlin Chancellory Guard, the SS security regiment assigned to the Obersalzberg, and a Munich-based bodyguard unit which protected Hitler when he visited his apartment and the Brown House Nazi Party headquarters in Munich. Although the unit was nominally under Himmler, Dietrich was the real commander and handled day-to-day administration. Two other SS units composed the inner ring of Hitler's protection. The SS-Begleitkommando des Führers (Escort Command of the Führer), formed in February 1932, served as Hitler's protection escort while he was traveling. This unit consisted of eight men who served around the clock protecting Hitler in shifts. Later the SS-Begleitkommando was expanded and became known as the Führerbegleitkommando (Führer Escort Command; FBK). It continued under separate command and remained responsible for Hitler's protection. The Führer Schutzkommando (Führer Protection Command; FSK) was a protection unit founded by Himmler in March 1933. Originally it was charged with protecting Hitler only while he was inside the borders of Bavaria. In early 1934, they replaced the SS-Begleitkommando for Hitler's protection throughout Germany. The FSK was renamed the Reichssicherheitsdienst (Reich Security Service; RSD) in August 1935. Johann Rattenhuber, chief of the RSD, for the most part, took his orders directly from Hitler. The current FBK chief acted as his deputy. Wherever Hitler was in residence, members of the RSD and FBK would be present. RSD men patrolled the grounds and FBK men provided close security protection inside. The RSD and FBK worked together for security and personal protection during Hitler's trips and public events, but they operated as two groups and used separate vehicles. By March 1938, both units wore the standard field grey uniform of the SS. The RSD uniform had the SD diamond on the lower left sleeve. Concentration camps founded The SS was closely associated with Nazi Germany's concentration camp system. On 26 June 1933, Himmler appointed SS-Oberführer Theodor Eicke as commandant of Dachau concentration camp, one of the first Nazi concentration camps. It was created to consolidate the many small camps that had been set up by various police agencies and the Nazi Party to house political prisoners. The organizational structure Eicke instituted at Dachau stood as the model for all later concentration camps. After 1934, Eicke was named commander of the SS-Totenkopfverbände (SS-TV), the SS formation responsible for running the concentration camps under the authority of the SS and Himmler. Known as the "Death's Head Units", the SS-TV was first organized as several battalions, each based at one of Germany's major concentration camps. Leadership at the camps was divided into five departments: commander and adjutant, political affairs division, protective custody, administration, and medical personnel. By 1935, Himmler secured Hitler's approval and the finances necessary to establish and operate additional camps. Six concentration camps housing 21,400 inmates (mostly political prisoners) existed at the start of the war in September 1939. By the end of the war, hundreds of camps of varying size and function had been created, holding nearly 715,000 people, most of whom were targeted by the regime because of their race. The concentration camp population rose in tandem with the defeats suffered by the Nazi regime; the worse the catastrophe seemed, the greater the fear of subversion, prompting the SS to intensify their repression and terror. SS in World War II By the outbreak of World War II, the SS had consolidated into its final form, which comprised three main organizations: the Allgemeine SS, SS-Totenkopfverbände, and the Waffen-SS, which was founded in 1934 as the SS-Verfügungstruppe (SS-VT) and renamed in 1940. The Waffen-SS evolved into a second German army alongside the Wehrmacht and operated in tandem with them, especially with the Heer (German Army). However, it never obtained total "independence of command", nor was it ever a "serious rival" to the German Army. Members were never able to join the ranks of the German High Command and it was dependent on the army for heavy weaponry and equipment. Although SS ranks generally had equivalents in the other services, the SS rank system did not copy the terms and ranks used by the Wehrmacht's branches. Instead, it used the ranks established by the post-World War I Freikorps and the SA. This was primarily done to emphasize the SS as being independent of the Wehrmacht. Invasion of Poland In the September 1939 invasion of Poland, the LSSAH and SS-VT fought as separate mobile infantry regiments. The LSSAH became notorious for torching villages without military justification. Members of the LSSAH committed atrocities in numerous towns, including the murder of 50 Polish Jews in Błonie and the massacre of 200 civilians, including children, who were machine-gunned in Złoczew. Shootings also took place in Bolesławiec, Torzeniec, Goworowo, Mława, and Włocławek. Some senior members of the Wehrmacht were not convinced the units were fully prepared for combat. Its units took unnecessary risks and had a higher casualty rate than the army. Generaloberst Fedor von Bock was quite critical; following an April 1940 visit of the SS-Totenkopf division, he found their battle training was "insufficient". Hitler thought the criticism was typical of the army's "outmoded conception of chivalry." In its defense, the SS insisted that its armed formations had been hampered by having to fight piecemeal and were improperly equipped by the army. After the invasion, Hitler entrusted the SS with extermination actions codenamed Operation Tannenberg and AB-Aktion to remove potential leaders who could form a resistance to German occupation. The murders were committed by Einsatzgruppen (task forces; deployment groups), assisted by local paramilitary groups. Men for the Einsatzgruppen units were drawn from the SS, the SD, and the police. Some 65,000 Polish civilians, including activists, intelligentsia, scholars, teachers, actors, former officers, and others, were killed by the end of 1939. When the army leadership registered complaints about the brutality being meted out by the Einsatzgruppen, Heydrich informed them that he was acting "in accordance with the special order of the Führer." The first systematic mass shooting of Jews by the Einsatzgruppen took place on 6 September 1939 during the attack on Kraków. Satisfied with their performance in Poland, Hitler allowed further expansion of the armed SS formations, but insisted new units remain under the operational control of the army. While the SS-Leibstandarte remained an independent regiment functioning as Hitler's personal bodyguards, the other regiments—SS-Deutschland, SS-Germania, and SS-Der Führer—were combined to form the SS-Verfügungs-Division. A second SS division, the SS-Totenkopf, was formed from SS-TV concentration camp guards, and a third, the SS-Polizei, was created from police volunteers. The SS gained control over its own recruitment, logistics, and supply systems for its armed formations at this time. The SS, Gestapo, and SD were in charge of the provisional military administration in Poland until the appointment of Hans Frank as Governor-General on 26 October 1939. Battle of France On 10 May 1940, Hitler launched the Battle of France, a major offensive against France and the Low Countries. The SS supplied two of the 89 divisions employed. The LSSAH and elements of the SS-VT participated in the ground invasion of the Battle of the Netherlands. Simultaneously, airborne troops were dropped to capture key Dutch airfields, bridges, and railways. In the five-day campaign, the LSSAH linked up with army units and airborne troops after several clashes with Dutch defenders. SS troops did not take part in the thrust through the Ardennes and the river Meuse. Instead, the SS-Totenkopf was summoned from the army reserve to fight in support of Generalmajor Erwin Rommel's 7th Panzer Division as they advanced toward the English Channel. On 21 May, the British launched an armored counterattack against the flanks of the 7th Panzer Division and SS-Totenkopf. The Germans then trapped the British and French troops in a huge pocket at Dunkirk. On 27 May, 4 Company, SS-Totenkopf perpetrated the Le Paradis massacre, where 97 men of the 2nd Battalion, Royal Norfolk Regiment were machine-gunned after surrendering, with survivors finished off with bayonets. Two men survived. By 28 May the SS-Leibstandarte had taken Wormhout, from Dunkirk. There, soldiers of the 2nd Battalion were responsible for the Wormhoudt massacre, where 80 British and French soldiers were murdered after they surrendered. According to historian Charles Sydnor, the "fanatical recklessness in the assault, suicidal defense against enemy attacks, and savage atrocities committed in the face of frustrated objectives" exhibited by the SS-Totenkopf division during the invasion were typical of the SS troops as a whole. At the close of the campaign, Hitler expressed his pleasure with the performance of the SS-Leibstandarte, telling them: "Henceforth it will be an honor for you, who bear my name, to lead every German attack." The SS-VT was renamed the Waffen-SS in a speech made by Hitler in July 1940. Hitler then authorized the enlistment of "people perceived to be of related stock", as Himmler put it, to expand the ranks. Danes, Dutch, Norwegians, Swedes, and Finns volunteered to fight in the Waffen-SS under the command of German officers. They were brought together to form the new division SS-Wiking. In January 1941, the SS-Verfügungs Division was renamed SS-Reich Division (Motorized), and was renamed as the 2nd SS Panzer Division Das Reich when it was reorganized as a Panzergrenadier division in 1942. Campaign in the Balkans In April 1941, the German Army invaded Yugoslavia and Greece. The LSSAH and Das Reich were attached to separate army Panzer corps. Fritz Klingenberg, a company commander in the Das Reich, led his men across Yugoslavia to the capital, Belgrade, where a small group in the vanguard accepted the surrender of the city on 13 April. A few days later Yugoslavia surrendered. SS police units immediately began taking hostages and carrying out reprisals, a practice that became common. In some cases, they were joined by the Wehrmacht. Similar to Poland, the war policies of the Nazis in the Balkans resulted in brutal occupation and racist mass murder. Serbia became the second country (after Estonia) declared Judenfrei (free of Jews). In Greece, the Wehrmacht and Waffen-SS encountered resistance from the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) and Greek Army. The fighting was intensified by the mountainous terrain, with its heavily defended narrow passes. The LSSAH was at the forefront of the German push. The BEF evacuated by sea to Crete, but had to flee again in late May when the Germans arrived. Like Yugoslavia, the conquest of Greece brought its Jews into danger, as the Nazis immediately took a variety of measures against them. Initially confined in ghettos, most were transported to Auschwitz concentration camp in March 1943, where they were killed in the gas chambers on arrival. Of Greece's 80,000 Jews, only 20 percent survived the war. War in the east On 22 June 1941, Hitler launched Operation Barbarossa, the invasion of the Soviet Union. The expanding war and the need to control occupied territories provided the conditions for Himmler to further consolidate the police and military organs of the SS. Rapid acquisition of vast territories in the East placed considerable strain on the SS police organizations as they struggled to adjust to the changing security challenges. The 1st and 2nd SS Infantry Brigades, which had been formed from surplus concentration camp guards of the SS-TV, and the SS Cavalry Brigade moved into the Soviet Union behind the advancing armies. At first, they fought Soviet partisans, but by the autumn of 1941, they left the anti-partisan role to other units and actively took part in the Holocaust. While assisting the Einsatzgruppen, they formed firing parties that participated in the liquidation of the Jewish population of the Soviet Union. On 31 July 1941, Göring gave Heydrich written authorization to ensure the cooperation of administrative leaders of various government departments to undertake genocide of the Jews in territories under German control. Heydrich was instrumental in carrying out these exterminations, as the Gestapo was ready to organize deportations in the West and his Einsatzgruppen were already conducting extensive murder operations in the East. On 20 January 1942, Heydrich chaired a meeting, called the Wannsee Conference, to discuss the implementation of the plan. During battles in the Soviet Union during 1941 and 1942, the Waffen-SS suffered enormous casualties. The LSSAH and Das Reich lost over half their troops to illness and combat casualties. In need of recruits, Himmler began to accept soldiers that did not fit the original SS racial profile. In early 1942, SS-Leibstandarte, SS-Totenkopf, and SS-Das Reich were withdrawn to the West to refit and were converted to Panzergrenadier divisions. The SS-Panzer Corps returned to the Soviet Union in 1943 and participated in the Third Battle of Kharkov in February and March. The Holocaust The SS was built on a culture of violence, which was exhibited in its most extreme form by the mass murder of civilians and prisoners of war on the Eastern Front. Augmented by personnel from the Kripo, Orpo (Order Police), and Waffen-SS, the Einsatzgruppen reached a total strength of 3,000 men. Einsatzgruppen A, B, and C were attached to Army Groups North, Centre, and South; Einsatzgruppe D was assigned to the 11th Army. The Einsatzgruppe for Special Purposes operated in eastern Poland starting in July 1941. The historian Richard Rhodes describes them as being "outside the bounds of morality"; they were "judge, jury and executioner all in one", with the authority to kill anyone at their discretion. Following Operation Barbarossa, these Einsatzgruppen units, together with the Waffen-SS and Order Police as well as with assistance from the Wehrmacht, engaged in the mass murder of the Jewish population in occupied eastern Poland and the Soviet Union. The greatest extent of Einsatzgruppen action occurred in 1941 and 1942 in Ukraine and Russia. Before the invasion there were five million registered Jews throughout the Soviet Union, with three million of those residing in the territories occupied by the Germans; by the time the war ended, over two million of these had been murdered. The extermination activities of the Einsatzgruppen generally followed a standard procedure, with the Einsatzgruppen chief contacting the nearest Wehrmacht unit commander to inform him of the impending action; this was done so they could coordinate and control access to the execution grounds. Initially, the victims were shot, but this method proved impracticable for an operation of this scale. Also, after Himmler observed the shooting of 100 Jews at Minsk in August 1941, he grew concerned about the impact such actions were having on the mental health of his SS men. He decided that alternate methods of murder should be found, which led to introduction of gas vans. However, these were not popular with the men, because removing the dead bodies from the van and burying them was a horrible ordeal. Prisoners or auxiliaries were often assigned to do this task so as to spare the SS men the trauma. Anti-partisan operations In response to the army's difficulties in dealing with Soviet partisans, Hitler decided in July 1942 to transfer anti-partisan operations to the police. This placed the matter under Himmler's purview. As Hitler had ordered on 8 July 1941 that all Jews were to be regarded as partisans, the term "anti-partisan operations" was used as a euphemism for the murder of Jews as well as actual combat against resistance elements. In July 1942 Himmler ordered that the term "partisan" should no longer be used; instead resisters to Nazi rule would be described as "bandits". Himmler set the SS and SD to work on developing additional anti-partisan tactics and launched a propaganda campaign. Sometime in June 1943, Himmler issued the Bandenbekämpfung (bandit fighting) order, simultaneously announcing the existence of the Bandenkampfverbände (bandit fighting formations), with SS-Obergruppenführer Erich von dem Bach-Zelewski as its chief. Employing troops primarily from the SS police and Waffen-SS, the Bandenkampfverbände had four principal operational components: propaganda, centralized control and coordination of security operations, training of troops, and battle operations. Once the Wehrmacht had secured territorial objectives, the Bandenkampfverbände first secured communications facilities, roads, railways, and waterways. Thereafter, they secured rural communities and economic installations such as factories and administrative buildings. An additional priority was securing agricultural and forestry resources. The SS oversaw the collection of the harvest, which was deemed critical to strategic operations. Any Jews in the area were rounded up and killed. Communists and people of Asiatic descent were killed presumptively under the assumption that they were Soviet agents. Death camps After the start of the war, Himmler intensified the activity of the SS within Germany and in Nazi-occupied Europe. Increasing numbers of Jews and German citizens deemed politically suspect or social outsiders were arrested. As the Nazi regime became more oppressive, the concentration camp system grew in size and lethal operation, and grew in scope as the economic ambitions of the SS intensified. Intensification of the killing operations took place in late 1941 when the SS began construction of stationary gassing facilities to replace the use of Einsatzgruppen for mass murders. Victims at these new extermination camps were killed with the use of carbon monoxide gas from automobile engines. During Operation Reinhard, run by officers from the Totenkopfverbände, who were sworn to secrecy, three extermination camps were built in occupied Poland: Bełżec (operational by March 1942), Sobibór (operational by May 1942), and Treblinka (operational by July 1942), with squads of Trawniki men (Eastern European collaborators) overseeing hundreds of Sonderkommando prisoners, who were forced to work in the gas chambers and crematoria before being murdered themselves. On Himmler's orders, by early 1942 the concentration camp at Auschwitz was greatly expanded to include the addition of gas chambers, where victims were killed using the pesticide Zyklon B. For administrative reasons, all concentration camp guards and administrative staff became full members of the Waffen-SS in 1942. The concentration camps were placed under the command of the SS-Wirtschafts-Verwaltungshauptamt (SS Main Economic and Administrative Office; WVHA) under Oswald Pohl. Richard Glücks served as the Inspector of Concentration Camps, which in 1942 became office "D" under the WVHA. Exploitation and extermination became a balancing act as the military situation deteriorated. The labor needs of the war economy, especially for skilled workers, meant that some Jews escaped the genocide. On 30 October 1942, due to severe labor shortages in Germany, Himmler ordered that large numbers of able-bodied people in Nazi-occupied Soviet territories be taken prisoner and sent to Germany as forced labor. By 1944, the SS-TV had been organized into three divisions: staff of the concentration camps in Germany and Austria, in the occupied territories, and of the extermination camps in Poland. By 1944, it became standard practice to rotate SS members in and out of the camps, partly based on manpower needs, but also to provide easier assignments to wounded Waffen-SS members. This rotation of personnel meant that nearly the entire SS knew what was going on inside the concentration camps, making the entire organization liable for war crimes and crimes against humanity. Business empire In 1934, Himmler founded the first SS business venture, Nordland-Verlag, a publishing house that released propaganda material and SS training manuals. Thereafter, he purchased Allach Porcelain, which then began to produce SS memorabilia. Because of the labor shortage and a desire for financial gain, the SS started exploiting concentration camp inmates as slave labor. Most of the SS businesses lost money until Himmler placed them under the administration of Pohl's Verwaltung und Wirtschaftshauptamt Hauptamt (Administration and Business office; VuWHA) in 1939. Even then, most of the enterprises were poorly run and did not fare well, as SS men were not selected for their business experience, and the workers were starving. In July 1940 Pohl established the Deutsche Wirtschaftsbetriebe GmbH (German Businesses Ltd; DWB), an umbrella corporation under which he took over administration of all SS business concerns. Eventually, the SS founded nearly 200 holding companies for their businesses. In May 1941 the VuWHA founded the Deutsche Ausrüstungswerke GmbH (German Equipment Works; DAW), which was created to integrate the SS business enterprises with the burgeoning concentration camp system. Himmler subsequently established four major new concentration camps in 1941: Auschwitz, Gross-Rosen, Natzweiler-Struthof, and Neuengamme. Each had at least one factory or quarry nearby where the inmates were forced to work. Himmler took a particular interest in providing laborers for IG Farben, which was constructing a synthetic rubber factory at Auschwitz III–Monowitz. The plant was almost ready to commence production when it was overrun by Soviet troops in 1945. The life expectancy of inmates at Monowitz averaged about three months. This was typical of the camps, as inmates were underfed and lived under disastrously bad living conditions. Their workload was intentionally made impossibly high, under the policy of extermination through labor. In 1942, Himmler consolidated all of the offices for which Pohl was responsible into one, creating the SS Main Economic and Administrative Office (Wirtschafts- und Verwaltungshauptamt; WVHA). The entire concentration camp system was placed under the authority of the WVHA. The SS owned Sudetenquell GmbH, a mineral water producer in Sudetenland. By 1944, the SS had purchased 75 percent of the mineral water producers in Germany and were intending to acquire a monopoly. Several concentration camps produced building materials such as stone, bricks, and cement for the SS-owned Deutsche Erd- und Steinwerke (German Earth And Stone Works; DEST). In the occupied Eastern territories, the SS acquired a monopoly in brick production by seizing all 300 extant brickworks. The DWB also founded the Ost-Deutsche Baustoffwerke (East German Building Supply Works; GmbH or ODBS) and Deutsche Edelmöbel GmbH (German Noble Furniture). These operated in factories the SS had confiscated from Jews and Poles. The SS owned experimental farms, bakeries, meat packing plants, leather works, clothing and uniform factories, and small arms factories. Under the direction of the WVHA, the SS sold camp labor to various factories at a rate of three to six Reichsmarks per prisoner per day. The SS confiscated and sold the property of concentration camp inmates, confiscated their investment portfolios and their cash, and profited from their dead bodies by selling their hair to make felt and melting down their dental work to obtain gold from the fillings. The total value of assets looted from the victims of Operation Reinhard alone (not including Auschwitz) was listed by Odilo Globocnik as 178,745,960.59 Reichsmarks. Items seized included 2,909.68 kilograms of gold worth 843,802.75 RM, as well as 18,733.69 kg of silver, 1,514 kg of platinum, 249,771.50 American dollars, 130 diamond solitaires, 2,511.87 carats of brilliants, 13,458.62 carats of diamonds, and 114 kg of pearls. According to Nazi legislation, Jewish property belonged to the state, but many SS camp commandants and guards stole items such as diamonds or currency for personal gain or took seized foodstuffs and liquor to sell on the black market. Military reversals On 5 July 1943, the Germans launched the Battle of Kursk, an offensive designed to eliminate the Kursk salient. The Waffen-SS by this time had been expanded to 12 divisions, and most took part in the battle. Due to stiff Soviet resistance, Hitler halted the attack by the evening of 12 July. On 17 July he called off the operation and ordered a withdrawal. Thereafter, the Germans were forced onto the defensive as the Red Army began the liberation of Western Russia. The losses incurred by the Waffen-SS and the Wehrmacht during the Battle of Kursk occurred nearly simultaneously with the Allied assault into Italy, opening a two-front war for Germany. Normandy landings Alarmed by the raids on St Nazaire and Dieppe in 1942, Hitler had ordered the construction of fortifications he called the Atlantic Wall all along the Atlantic coast, from Spain to Norway, to protect against an expected Allied invasion. Concrete gun emplacements were constructed at strategic points along the coast, and wooden stakes, metal tripods, mines, and large anti-tank obstacles were placed on the beaches to delay the approach of landing craft and impede the movement of tanks. In addition to several static infantry divisions, eleven panzer and Panzergrenadier divisions were deployed nearby. Four of these formations were Waffen-SS divisions. In addition, the SS-Das Reich was located in Southern France, the LSSAH was in Belgium refitting after fighting in the Soviet Union, and the newly formed panzer division SS-Hitlerjugend, consisting of 17- and 18-year-old Hitler Youth members supported by combat veterans and experienced NCOs, was stationed west of Paris. The creation of the SS-Hitlerjugend was a sign of Hitler's desperation for more troops, especially ones with unquestioning obedience. The Normandy landings took place beginning 6 June 1944. 21st Panzer Division under Generalmajor Edgar Feuchtinger, positioned south of Caen, was the only panzer division close to the beaches. The division included 146 tanks and 50 assault guns, plus supporting infantry and artillery. At 02:00, Generalleutnant Wilhelm Richter, commander of the 716th Static Infantry Division, ordered 21st Panzer Division into position to counter-attack. However, as the division was part of the armored reserve, Feuchtinger was obliged to seek clearance from OKW before he could commit his formation. Feuchtinger did not receive orders until nearly 09:00, but in the meantime, on his own initiative he put together a battle group (including tanks) to fight the British forces east of the Orne. SS-Hitlerjugend began to deploy in the afternoon of 6 June, with its units undertaking defensive actions the following day. They also took part in the Battle for Caen (June–August 1944). On 7–8 and 17 June, members of the SS-Hitlerjugend shot and killed twenty Canadian prisoners of war in the Ardenne Abbey massacre. The Allies continued to make progress in the liberation of France, and on 4 August Hitler ordered a counter-offensive (Operation Lüttich) from Vire towards Avranches. The operation included LSSAH, Das Reich, 2nd, and 116th Panzer Divisions, with support from infantry and elements of the 17th SS Panzergrenadier Division Götz von Berlichingen under SS-Oberstgruppenführer Paul Hausser. These forces were to mount an offensive near Mortain and drive west through Avranches to the coast. The Allied forces were prepared for this offensive, and an air assault on the combined German units proved devastating. On 21 August, 50,000 German troops, including most of the LSSAH, were encircled by the Allies in the Falaise Pocket. Remnants of the LSSAH which escaped were withdrawn to Germany for refitting. Paris was liberated on 25 August, and the last of the German forces withdrew over the Seine by the end of August, ending the Normandy campaign. Battle for Germany Waffen-SS units that had survived the summer campaigns were withdrawn from the front line to refit. Two of them, the 9th SS and 10th SS Panzer Divisions, did so in the Arnhem region of Holland in early September 1944. Coincidentally, on 17 September, the Allies launched in the same area Operation Market Garden, a combined airborne and land operation designed to seize control of the lower Rhine. The 9th and 10th Panzers were among the units that repulsed the attack. In December 1944, Hitler launched the Ardennes Offensive, also known as the Battle of the Bulge, a significant counterattack against the western Allies through the Ardennes with the aim of reaching Antwerp while encircling the Allied armies in the area. The offensive began with an artillery barrage shortly before dawn on 16 December. Spearheading the attack were two panzer armies composed largely of Waffen-SS divisions. The battlegroups found advancing through the forests and wooded hills of the Ardennes difficult in the winter weather, but they initially made good progress in the northern sector. They soon encountered strong resistance from the US 2nd and 99th Infantry Divisions. By 23 December, the weather improved enough for Allied air forces to attack the German forces and their supply columns, causing fuel shortages. In increasingly difficult conditions, the German advance slowed and was stopped. Hitler's failed offensive cost 700 tanks and most of their remaining mobile forces in the west, as well as most of their irreplaceable reserves of manpower and materiel. During the battle, SS-Obersturmbannführer Joachim Peiper left a path of destruction, which included Waffen-SS soldiers under his command murdering American POWs and unarmed Belgian civilians in the Malmedy massacre. Captured SS soldiers who were part of Kampfgruppe Peiper were tried during the Malmedy massacre trial following the war for this massacre and several others in the area. Many of the perpetrators were sentenced to hang, but the sentences were commuted. Peiper was imprisoned for eleven years for his role in the murders. In the east, the Red Army resumed its offensive on 12 January 1945. German forces were outnumbered twenty to one in aircraft, eleven to one in infantry, and seven to one in tanks on the Eastern Front. By the end of the month, the Red Army had made bridgeheads across the Oder, the last geographic obstacle before Berlin. The western Allies continued to advance as well, but not as rapidly as the Red Army. The Panzer Corps conducted a successful defensive operation on 17–24 February at the Hron River, stalling the Allied advance towards Vienna. The 1st and 2nd SS Panzer Corps made their way towards Austria, but were slowed by damaged railways. Budapest fell on 13 February. Hitler ordered Dietrich's 6th Panzer Army to move into Hungary to protect the Nagykanizsa oilfields and refineries, which he deemed the most strategically valuable fuel reserves on the Eastern Front. Frühlingserwachsen (Operation Spring Awakening), the final German offensive in the east, took place in early March. German forces attacked near Lake Balaton, with 6th Panzer Army advancing north towards Budapest and 2nd Panzer Army moving east and south. Dietrich's forces at first made good progress, but as they drew near the Danube, the combination of muddy terrain and strong Soviet resistance brought them to a halt. By 16 March the battle was lost. Enraged by the defeat, Hitler ordered the Waffen-SS units involved to remove their cuff titles as a mark of disgrace. Dietrich refused to carry out the order. By this time, on both the Eastern and Western Front, the activities of the SS were becoming clear to the Allies, as the concentration and extermination camps were being overrun. Allied troops were filled with disbelief and repugnance at the evidence of Nazi brutality in the camps. On 9 April 1945 Königsberg fell to the Red Army, and on 13 April Dietrich's SS unit was forced out of Vienna. The Battle of Berlin began at 03:30 on 16 April with a massive artillery barrage. Within the week, fighting was taking place inside the city. Among the many elements defending Berlin were French, Latvian, and Scandinavian Waffen-SS troops. Hitler, now living in the Führerbunker under the Reich Chancellery, still hoped that his remaining SS soldiers could rescue the capital. In spite of the hopelessness of the situation, members of the SS patrolling the city continued to shoot or hang soldiers and civilians for what they considered to be acts of cowardice or defeatism. The Berlin garrison surrendered on 2 May, two days after Hitler committed suicide. As members of SS expected little mercy from the Red Army, they attempted to move westward to surrender to the western Allies instead. SS units and branches Reich Security Main Office Heydrich held the title of Chef der Sicherheitspolizei und des SD (Chief of the Security Police and SD) until 27 September 1939, when he became chief of the newly established Reich Security Main Office (RSHA). From that point forward, the RSHA was in charge of SS security services. It had under its command the SD, Kripo, and Gestapo, as well as several offices to handle finance, administration, and supply. Heinrich Müller, who had been chief of operations for the Gestapo, was appointed Gestapo chief at this time. Arthur Nebe was chief of the Kripo, and the two branches of SD were commanded by a series of SS officers, including Otto Ohlendorf and Walter Schellenberg. The SD was considered an elite branch of the SS, and its members were better educated and typically more ambitious than those within the ranks of the Allgemeine SS. Members of the SD were specially trained in criminology, intelligence, and counter-intelligence. They also gained a reputation for ruthlessness and unwavering commitment to Nazi ideology. Heydrich was attacked in Prague on 27 May 1942 by a British-trained team of Czech and Slovak soldiers who had been sent by the Czechoslovak government-in-exile to assassinate him in Operation Anthropoid. He died from his injuries a week later. Himmler ran the RSHA personally until 30 January 1943, when Heydrich's positions were taken over by Ernst Kaltenbrunner. SS-Sonderkommandos Beginning in 1938 and throughout World War II, the SS enacted a procedure where offices and units of the SS could form smaller sub-units, known as SS-Sonderkommandos, to carry out special tasks, including large-scale murder operations. The use of SS-Sonderkommandos was widespread. According to former SS Sturmbannführer Wilhelm Höttl, not even the SS leadership knew how many SS-Sonderkommandos were constantly being formed, disbanded, and reformed for various tasks, especially on the Eastern Front. An SS-Sonderkommando unit led by SS-Sturmbannführer Herbert Lange murdered 1,201 psychiatric patients at the Tiegenhof psychiatric hospital in the Free City of Danzig, 1,100 patients in Owińska, 2,750 patients at Kościan, and 1,558 patients at Działdowo, as well as hundreds of Poles at Fort VII, where the mobile gas van and gassing bunker were developed. In 1941–42, SS-Sonderkommando Lange set up and managed the first extermination camp, at Chełmno, where 152,000 Jews were killed using gas vans. After the Battle of Stalingrad in February 1943, Himmler realized that Germany would likely lose the war, and ordered the formation of Sonderkommando 1005, a special task force under SS-Standartenführer Paul Blobel. The unit's assignment was to visit mass graves on the Eastern Front to exhume bodies and burn them in an attempt to cover up the genocide. The task remained unfinished at the end of the war, and many mass graves remain unmarked and unexcavated. The Eichmann Sonderkommando was a task force headed by Adolf Eichmann that arrived in Budapest on 19 March 1944, the same day that Axis forces invaded Hungary. Their task was to take a direct role in the deportation of Hungarian Jews to Auschwitz. The SS-Sonderkommandos enlisted the aid of antisemitic elements from the Hungarian gendarmerie and pro-German administrators from within the Hungarian Interior Ministry. Round-ups began on 16 April, and from 14 May, four trains of 3,000 Jews per day left Hungary and traveled to the camp at Auschwitz II-Birkenau, arriving along a newly built spur line that terminated a few hundred meters from the gas chambers. Between 10 and 25 percent of the people on each train were chosen as forced laborers; the rest were killed within hours of arrival. Under international pressure, the Hungarian government halted deportations on 6 July 1944, by which time over 437,000 of Hungary's 725,000 Jews had been murdered. Einsatzgruppen The Einsatzgruppen had its origins in the ad hoc Einsatzkommando formed by Heydrich following the Anschluss in Austria in March 1938. Two units of Einsatzgruppen were stationed in the Sudetenland in October 1938. When military action turned out not to be necessary because of the Munich Agreement, the Einsatzgruppen were assigned to confiscate government papers and police documents. They secured government buildings, questioned senior civil servants, and arrested as many as 10,000 Czech communists and German citizens. The Einsatzgruppen also followed Wehrmacht troops and killed potential partisans. Similar groups were used in 1939 for the occupation of Czechoslovakia. Hitler felt that the planned extermination of the Jews was too difficult and important to be entrusted to the military. In 1941 the Einsatzgruppen were sent into the Soviet Union to begin large-scale genocide of Jews, Romani people, and communists. Historian Raul Hilberg estimates that between 1941 and 1945 the Einsatzgruppen and related agencies killed more than two million people, including 1.3 million Jews. The largest mass shooting perpetrated by the Einsatzgruppen was at Babi Yar outside Kiev, where 33,771 Jews were killed in a single operation on 29–30 September 1941. In the Rumbula massacre (November–December 1941), 25,000 victims from the Riga ghetto were killed. Another mass shooting early in 1942 claimed the lives of over 10,000 Jews in Kharkov. The last Einsatzgruppen were disbanded in mid-1944 (although some continued to exist on paper until 1945) due to the German retreat on both fronts and the consequent inability to continue extermination activities. Former Einsatzgruppen members were either assigned duties in the Waffen-SS or concentration camps. Twenty-four Einsatzgruppen commanders were tried for war crimes following the war. SS Court Main Office The SS Court Main Office (Hauptamt SS-Gericht) was an internal legal system for conducting investigations, trials, and punishment of the SS and police. It had more than 600 lawyers on staff in the main offices in Berlin and Munich. Proceedings were conducted at 38 regional SS courts throughout Germany. It was the only authority authorized to try SS personnel, except for SS members who were on active duty in the Wehrmacht (in such cases, the SS member in question was tried by a standard military tribunal). Its creation placed the SS beyond the reach of civilian legal authority. Himmler personally intervened as he saw fit regarding convictions and punishment. The historian Karl Dietrich Bracher describes this court system as one factor in the creation of the Nazi totalitarian police state, as it removed objective legal procedures, rendering citizens defenseless against the "summary justice of the SS terror." SS Cavalry Shortly after Hitler seized power in 1933, most horse riding associations were taken over by the SA and SS. Members received combat training to serve in the Reiter-SS (SS Cavalry Corps). The first SS cavalry regiment, designated SS-Totenkopf Reitstandarte 1, was formed in September 1939. Commanded by then SS-Standartenführer Hermann Fegelein, the unit was assigned to Poland, where they took part in the extermination of Polish intelligentsia. Additional squadrons were added in May 1940, for a total of fourteen. The unit was split into two regiments in December 1939, with Fegelein in charge of both. By March 1941 their strength was 3,500 men. In July 1941, they were assigned to the Pripyat swamps punitive operation, tasked with rounding up and exterminating Jews and partisans. The two regiments were amalgamated into the SS Cavalry Brigade on 31 July, twelve days after the operation started. Fegelein's final report, dated 18 September 1941, states that they killed 14,178 Jews, 1,001 partisans, and 699 Red Army soldiers, with 830 prisoners taken. The historian Henning Pieper estimates the actual number of Jews killed was closer to 23,700. The SS Cavalry Brigade took serious losses in November 1941 in the Battle of Moscow, with casualties of up to 60 percent in some squadrons. Fegelein was appointed as commander of the 8th SS Cavalry Division Florian Geyer on 20 April 1943. This unit saw service in the Soviet Union in attacks on partisans and civilians. In addition, SS Cavalry regiments served in Croatia and Hungary. SS Medical Corps The SS Medical Corps were initially known as the Sanitätsstaffel (sanitary units). After 1931, the SS formed the headquarters office Amt  V as the central office for SS medical units. An SS medical academy was established in Berlin in 1938 to train Waffen-SS physicians. SS medical personnel did not often provide actual medical care; their primary responsibility was medicalized genocide. At Auschwitz, about three-quarters of new arrivals, including almost all children, women with small children, all the elderly, and all those who appeared on brief and superficial inspection by an SS doctor not to be completely fit were killed within hours of arrival. In their role as Desinfektoren (disinfectors), SS doctors also made selections among existing prisoners as to their fitness to work and supervised the murder of those deemed unfit. Inmates in deteriorating health were examined by SS doctors, who decided whether or not they would be able to recover in less than two weeks. Those too ill or injured to recover in that time frame were killed. At Auschwitz, the actual delivery of gas to the victims was always handled by the SS, on the order of the supervising SS doctor. Many of the SS doctors also conducted inhumane medical experiments on camp prisoners. The most infamous SS doctor, Josef Mengele, served as a medical officer at Auschwitz under the command of Eduard Wirths of the camp's medical corps. Mengele undertook selections even when he was not assigned to do so in the hope of finding subjects for his experiments. He was particularly interested in locating sets of twins. In contrast to most of the doctors, who viewed undertaking selections as one of their most stressful and horrible duties, Mengele undertook the task with a flamboyant air, often smiling or whistling a tune. After the war, many SS doctors were charged with war crimes for their inhumane medical experiments and for their role in gas chamber selections. Other SS units Ahnenerbe The Ahnenerbe (Ancestral Heritage Organization) was founded in 1935 by Himmler, and became part of the SS in 1939. It was an umbrella agency for more than fifty organizations tasked with studying the German racial identity and ancient Germanic traditions and language. The agency sponsored archaeological expeditions in Germany, Scandinavia, the Middle East, Tibet, and elsewhere to search for evidence of Aryan roots, influence, and superiority. Further planned expeditions were postponed indefinitely at the start of the war. SS-Frauenkorps The SS-Frauenkorps was an auxiliary reporting and clerical unit, which included the SS-Helferinnenkorps (Women Helper Corps), made up of female volunteers. Members were assigned as administrative staff and supply personnel and served in command positions and as guards at women's concentration camps. While female concentration and extermination camp guards were civilian employees of the SS, the SS-Helferinnen who completed training at the Reichsschule für SS-Helferinnen in Oberehnheim (Alsace) were members of the Waffen-SS. Like their male equivalents in the SS, females participated in atrocities against Jews, Poles, and others. In 1942, Himmler set up the Reichsschule für SS Helferinnen (Reich school for SS helpers) in Oberehnheim to train women in communications so that they could free up men for combat roles. Himmler also intended to replace all female civilian employees in his service with SS-Helferinnen members, as they were selected and trained according to Nazi ideology. The school was closed on 22 November 1944 due to the Allied advance. SS-Mannschaften The SS-Mannschaften (Auxiliary-SS) were not considered regular SS members, but were conscripted from other branches of the German military, the Nazi Party, the SA, and the Volkssturm for service in concentration camps and extermination camps. Foreign legions and volunteers Beginning in 1940, Himmler opened up Waffen-SS recruiting to ethnic Germans that were not German citizens. In March 1941, the SS Main Office established the Germanische Leitstelle (Germanic Guidance Office) to establish Waffen-SS recruiting offices in Nazi-occupied Europe. The majority of the resulting foreign Waffen-SS units wore a distinctive national collar patch and preceded their SS rank titles with the prefix Waffen instead of SS. Volunteers from Scandinavian countries filled the ranks of two divisions, the SS-Wiking and SS-Nordland. Swiss German speakers joined in substantial numbers. Belgian Flemings joined Dutchmen to form the SS-Nederland legion, and their Walloon compatriots joined the SS-Wallonien. By the end of 1943 about a quarter of the SS were ethnic Germans from across Europe, and by June 1944, half the Waffen-SS were foreign nationals. Additional Waffen-SS units were added from the Ukrainians, Albanians from Kosovo, Serbians, Croatians, Turkic, Caucasians, Cossack, and Tatars. The Ukrainians and Tatars, who had suffered persecution under Stalin, were likely motivated primarily by opposition to the Soviet government rather than ideological agreement with the SS. The exiled Grand Mufti of Jerusalem Amin al-Husseini was made an SS-Gruppenführer by Himmler in May 1943. He subsequently used antisemitism and anti-Serb racism to recruit a Waffen-SS division of Bosnian Muslims, the SS-Handschar. The year-long Soviet occupation of the Baltic states at the beginning of World War II resulted in volunteers for Latvian and Estonian Waffen-SS units. The Estonian Legion had 1,280 volunteers under training by the end of 1942. Approximately 25,000 men served in the Estonian SS division, with thousands more conscripted into Police Front battalions and border guard units. Most of the Estonians were fighting primarily to regain their independence and as many as 15,000 of them died fighting alongside the Germans. In early 1944, Himmler even contacted Pohl to suggest releasing Muslim prisoners from concentration camps to supplement his SS troops. The Indian Legion was a Wehrmacht unit formed in August 1942 chiefly from disaffected Indian soldiers of the British Indian Army captured in the North African Campaign. In August 1944 it was transferred to the auspices of the Waffen-SS as the Indische Freiwilligen-Legion der Waffen-SS. There was also a French volunteer division, SS-Charlemagne, which was formed in 1944 mainly from the remnants of the Legion of French Volunteers Against Bolshevism and French Sturmbrigade. Ranks and uniforms The SS established its own symbolism, rituals, customs, ranks, and uniforms to set itself apart from other organizations. Before 1929, the SS wore the same brown uniform as the SA, with the addition of a black tie and a black cap with a Totenkopf (death's head) skull and bones symbol, moving to an all-black uniform in 1932. In 1935, the SS combat formations adopted a service uniform in field grey for everyday wear. The SS also developed its own field uniforms, which included reversible smocks and helmet covers printed with camouflage patterns. Uniforms were manufactured in hundreds of licensed factories, with some workers being prisoners of war performing forced labor. Many were produced in concentration camps. Hitler and the Nazi Party understood the power of emblems and insignia to influence public opinion. The stylized lightning bolt logo of the SS was chosen in 1932. The logo is a pair of runes from a set of 18 Armanen runes created by Guido von List in 1906. It is similar to the ancient Sowilō rune, which symbolizes the sun, but was renamed as "Sig" (victory) in List's iconography. The Totenkopf symbolized the wearer's willingness to fight unto the death, and also served to frighten the enemy. SS membership estimates 1925–1945 After 1933 a career in the SS became increasingly attractive to Germany's social elite, who began joining the movement in great numbers, usually motivated by political opportunism. By 1938 about one-third of the SS leadership were members of the upper middle class. The trend reversed after the first Soviet counter-offensive of 1942. {| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable" style="text-align: center;" |- ! scope="col" class="unsortable" | Year ! scope="col" | Membership ! scope="col" class="unsortable" | Reichsführer-SS |- ! scope="row" | 1925 | | style="text-align:left;" | Julius Schreck |- ! scope="row" | 1926 | | style="text-align:left;" | Joseph Berchtold |- ! scope="row" | 1927 | | style="text-align:left;" | Erhard Heiden |- ! scope="row" | 1928 | | style="text-align:left;" | Erhard Heiden |- ! scope="row" | 1929 | | style="text-align:left;" | Heinrich Himmler |- ! scope="row" | 1930–33 | (Nazis come to power in 1933) | style="text-align:left;" | Heinrich Himmler (establishment of Nazi Germany) |- ! scope="row" | 1934–39 | | style="text-align:left;"| Heinrich Himmler |- ! scope="row" | 1940–44 | | style="text-align:left;" | Heinrich Himmler |- ! scope="row" | 1944–45 | Unknown | style="text-align:left;" | Heinrich Himmler and Karl Hanke |} SS offices By 1942 all activities of the SS were managed through twelve main offices. Personal Staff Reichsführer-SS SS Main Office (SS-HA) SS-Führungshauptamt (SS Main Operational Office; SS-FHA) Reich Security Main Office (RSHA) SS Main Economic and Administrative Office (WVHA) Ordnungspolizei Hauptamt (Main Office of the Order Police) SS Court Main Office SS Race and Settlement Main Office (RuSHA) SS Personnel Main Office Hauptamt Volksdeutsche Mittelstelle (Racial German Assistance Main Office; VOMI) SS Education Office Main Office of the Reich Commissioner for the Consolidation of German Nationhood (RKFDV) Austrian SS The term "Austrian SS" is often used to describe that portion of the SS membership from Austria, but it was never a recognized branch of the SS. In contrast to SS members from other countries, who were grouped into either the Germanic-SS or the Foreign Legions of the Waffen-SS, Austrian SS members were regular SS personnel. It was technically under the command of the SS in Germany but often acted independently concerning Austrian affairs. The Austrian SS was founded in 1930 and by 1934 was acting as a covert force to bring about the Anschluss with Germany, which occurred in March 1938. Early Austrian SS leaders were Kaltenbrunner and Arthur Seyss-Inquart. Austrian SS members served in every branch of the SS. Political scientist David Art of Tufts University notes that Austrians constituted 8 percent of the Third Reich's population and 13 percent of the SS; he states that 40 percent of the staff and 75 percent of commanders at death camps were Austrian. After the Anschluss, the Austrian SS was folded into SS-Oberabschnitt Donau. The third regiment of the SS-Verfügungstruppe (Der Führer) and the fourth Totenkopf regiment (Ostmark) were recruited in Austria shortly thereafter. On Heydrich's orders, mass arrests of potential enemies of the Reich began immediately after the Anschluss. Mauthausen was the first concentration camp opened in Austria following the Anschluss. Before the invasion of the Soviet Union, Mauthausen was the harshest of the camps in the Greater German Reich. The Hotel Metropole was transformed into Gestapo headquarters in Vienna in April 1938. With a staff of 900 (80 percent of whom were recruited from the Austrian police), it was the largest Gestapo office outside Berlin. An estimated 50,000 people were interrogated or tortured there. The Gestapo in Vienna was headed by Franz Josef Huber, who also served as chief of the Central Agency for Jewish Emigration in Vienna. Although its de facto leaders were Adolf Eichmann and later Alois Brunner, Huber was nevertheless responsible for the mass deportation of Austrian Jews. Post-war activity and aftermath Following Nazi Germany's collapse, the SS ceased to exist. Numerous members of the SS, many of them still committed Nazis, remained at large in Germany and across Europe. On 21 May 1945, the British captured Himmler, who was in disguise and using a false passport. At an internment camp near Lüneburg, he committed suicide by biting down on a cyanide capsule. Several other leading members of the SS fled, but some were quickly captured. Kaltenbrunner, chief of the RSHA and the highest-ranking surviving SS main department chief upon Himmler's suicide, was captured and arrested in the Bavarian Alps. He was among the 22 defendants put on trial at the International Military Tribunal in 1945–46. Some SS members were subject to summary execution, torture, and beatings at the hands of freed prisoners, displaced persons, or Allied soldiers. American soldiers of the 157th Regiment, who entered the concentration camp at Dachau in April 1945 and saw the human deprivation and cruelty committed by the SS, shot some of the remaining SS camp guards. On 15 April 1945, British troops entered Bergen-Belsen. They placed the SS guards on starvation rations, made them work without breaks, forced them to deal with the remaining corpses, and stabbed them with bayonets or struck them with their rifle butts if they slowed their pace. Some members of the US Army Counter Intelligence Corps delivered captured SS camp guards to displaced person camps, where they knew they would be subject to summary execution. International Military Tribunal at Nuremberg The Allies commenced legal proceedings against captured Nazis, establishing the International Military Tribunal at Nuremberg in 1945. The first war crimes trial of 24 prominent figures such as Hermann Göring, Albert Speer, Joachim von Ribbentrop, Alfred Rosenberg, Hans Frank, and Kaltenbrunner took place beginning in November 1945. They were accused of four counts: conspiracy, waging a war of aggression, war crimes, and crimes against humanity in violation of international law. Twelve received the death penalty, including Kaltenbrunner, who was convicted of crimes against humanity and executed on 16 October 1946. The former commandant at Auschwitz, Rudolf Höss, who testified on behalf of Kaltenbrunner and others, was tried and executed in 1947. Additional SS trials and convictions followed. Many defendants attempted to exculpate themselves using the excuse that they were merely following superior orders, which they had to obey unconditionally as part of their sworn oath and duty. The courts did not find this to be a legitimate defense. A trial of 40 SS officers and guards from Auschwitz took place in Kraków in November 1947. Most were found guilty, and 23 received the death penalty. In addition to those tried by the Western allies, an estimated 37,000 members of the SS were tried and convicted in Soviet courts. Sentences included hangings and long terms of hard labor. Piotr Cywiński, the director of the Auschwitz-Birkenau Museum, estimates that of the 70,000 members of the SS involved in crimes in concentration camps, only about 1,650 to 1,700 were tried after the war. The International Military Tribunal declared the SS a criminal organization in 1946. Escapes After the war, many former Nazis fled to South America, especially to Argentina, where they were welcomed by Juan Perón's regime. In the 1950s, former Dachau inmate Lothar Hermann discovered that Buenos Aires resident Ricardo Klement was, in fact, Adolf Eichmann, who had in 1948 obtained false identification and a landing permit for Argentina through an organization directed by Bishop Alois Hudal, an Austrian cleric with Nazi sympathies, then residing in Italy. Eichmann was captured in Buenos Aires on 11 May 1960 by Mossad, the Israel I intelligence agency. At his trial in Jerusalem in 1961, he was found guilty and sentenced to death by hanging. Eichmann was quoted as having stated, "I will jump into my grave laughing because the fact that I have the death of five million Jews [or Reich enemies, as he later claimed to have said] on my conscience gives me extraordinary satisfaction." Franz Stangl, the commandant of Treblinka, also escaped to South America with the assistance of Hudal's network. He was deported to Germany in 1967 and was sentenced to life in prison in 1970. He died in 1971. Mengele, worried that his capture would mean a death sentence, fled Germany on 17 April 1949. Assisted by a network of former SS members, he traveled to Genoa, where he obtained a passport under the alias "Helmut Gregor" from the International Committee of the Red Cross. He sailed to Argentina in July. Aware that he was still a wanted man, he moved to Paraguay in 1958 and Brazil in 1960. In both instances he was assisted by former Luftwaffe pilot Hans-Ulrich Rudel. Mengele suffered a stroke while swimming and drowned in 1979. Thousands of Nazis, including former SS members such as Trawniki guard Jakob Reimer and Circassian collaborator Tscherim Soobzokov, fled to the United States under the guise of refugees, sometimes using forged documents. Other SS men, such as Soobzokov, SD officer Wilhelm Höttl, Eichmann aide Otto von Bolschwing, and accused war criminal Theodor Saevecke, were employed by American intelligence agencies against the Soviets. As CIA officer Harry Rositzke noted, "It was a visceral business of using any bastard so long as he was anti-Communist ... The eagerness or desire to enlist collaborators means that sure, you didn't look at their credentials too closely." Similarly, the Soviets used SS personnel after the war; Operation Theo, for instance, disseminated "subversive rumours" in Allied-occupied Germany. Simon Wiesenthal and others have speculated about the existence of a Nazi fugitive network code-named ODESSA (an acronym for Organisation der ehemaligen SS-Angehörigen, Organization of former SS members) that allegedly helped war criminals find refuge in Latin America. British writer Gitta Sereny, who conducted interviews with SS men, considers the story untrue and attributes the escapes to postwar chaos and Hudal's Vatican-based network. While the existence of ODESSA remains unproven, Sereny notes that "there certainly were various kinds of Nazi aid organizations after the war — it would have been astonishing if there hadn't been." See also Germanic-SS Glossary of Nazi Germany HIAG List of SS personnel Myth of the clean Wehrmacht SS State of Burgundy List of Waffen-SS divisions Informational notes Citations Bibliography Further reading External links Judgment of Nuremberg Trials on the SS SS at the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Testimonies concerning SS crimes in occupied Poland in "Chronicles of Terror" testimony database 1925 establishments in Germany 1945 disestablishments in Germany Antisemitism in Germany Heinrich Himmler Military wings of nationalist parties Nazi Party organizations Organizations disestablished in 1945 Organizations established in 1925 The Holocaust in Germany The Holocaust

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Oregon State Penitentiary (OSP), sometimes called Oregon State Prison, is a maximum security prison in Oregon, United States. Opened in 1851, the 2,242-capacity prison is the oldest prison in the state. The all-male facility is located in Salem and is operated by the Oregon Department of Corrections. OSP contains Oregon's death row, which houses most of the 37 people awaiting execution in Oregon. It also contains an intensive management wing, which is being transformed into a psychiatric facility for mentally ill prisoners throughout Oregon. History Prior to the construction of prisons in Oregon, many people convicted of crimes were either hanged or pardoned. Oregon State Penitentiary was originally built in Portland in 1851. Operating this facility proved difficult because it spanned two blocks, with a city street running through the middle. In 1859, the facility was leased to private contractors (Robert Newell and L. N. English), who instituted a system of prison labor. This new system led to many escapes. In 1866 the state officially moved the penitentiary to a site in Salem, enclosed by a reinforced concrete wall averaging in height. The prison also began using a device called the "Gardner shackle" (later called the "Oregon Boot"), a heavy metal device attached to prisoners' legs to impede movement. Escapes continued at the new facility, despite the wall and the Boot. The most famous of these occurred in 1902, when Harry Tracy and David Merrill killed three guards with a gun. Details about this period can be read in Thirteen Years in Oregon State Penitentiary, a book written by Joseph "Bunko" Kelly. Kelly describes scenes of extreme brutality, particularly floggings, which he recounts happening to whites, blacks, Indians, and a Chinese "half boy and half woman". He describes negligent doctors and a lack of mental health care, and complains that whiskey drinking affects the behavior of the guards. He also identifies a five-year period in which the warden stopped newspaper deliveries to prevent convicts from learning of pardons. The prison announced in 1904 that it would end the use of flogging, and instead punish prisoners by spraying them with cold water from a garden hose. The prison experimented briefly in 1917–1918 with an "honor system" in which 130 prisoners were paroled with certain conditions. The prisoners were released into jobs outside the prison during the daytime. After 66 of these absconded, Governor James Withycombe announced that he would find a way for them to work jobs within the prison facility. In the 1920s, the Penitentiary created a flax plant which employed more than half of its inmates. Inmates worked on construction and in the fields, and were paid $0.50–$1.00 per day. The plant was touted nationally as a way to make the prison financially self-sustaining, and to rehabilitate prisoners by giving them something to do and preparing them to work. In 1925, OSP had the largest flax scutching mill in the world, with 175 workers producing 100–150 tons of flax per day.<ref>"Prisoners Share in Profits of Large Oregon Flax Mill: Convicts Work Without Armed Guards—Product Said to Equal That of Canada, Ireland, Belgium", Christian Science Monitor,8 August 1925; accessed via ProQuest.</ref> With assistance from the federal Bureau of Education, OSP ran a unique and successful adult education program during the same era. With Prohibition in effect, 80 of the prison's 575 inmates at this time were moonshiners. Nine prisoners were shot in a 1926 riot beginning in the prison cafeteria. Seven hundred inmates were involved in a riot on August 1, 1936, in response to a court ruling that made it more difficult for prisoners to be released after serving their minimum sentence. The riot was put down by armed guards; one prisoner, Thomas Baughn, was killed and two were wounded."Tear-Gas Threats Quell Prison Riot", Baltimore Sun (AP), 1 August 1936; accessed via ProQuest. After being deprived of their weapons (and of food, in punishment), prisoners began to break windows and throw projectiles from their cells. Inmates at OSP attempted a mass escape in December 1951, after receiving weapons from a sympathetic guard. The plan was foiled by an informant, John Edward Ralph, who was quickly transferred to Folsom Prison for his own protection. Unrest continued through 1952 with civil disobedience and more escape attempts."Oregon Prison Escape Foiled", Lewiston Morning Tribune (AP), 29 October 1952.</ref> Over 1300 prisoners conducted an eight-day hunger strike in August to protest alleged brutality of a guard named Morris Race."1310 Convicts Skip Meals; 40 Give In", Spokane Daily Chronicle, 20 August 1951."Convicts Back At Work At Oregon Prison", News and Courier, 24 August 1951. In October 1952, an escape attempt involving armed conflict with guards was suppressed with gunfire."Oregon Prison Break Nipped: 300 Convicts Demand Chance to Confer with Stevenson", Spokane Daily Chronicle (AP), 28 October 1952. On January 1, 1953, prison officials announced the discovery of an escape tunnel being dug by prisoner Robert Green. The tunnel was 12 feet underground and 50 feet long, reaching within 15 feet of the world outside OSP walls."Escape Tunnel Discovered in Oregon Prison", Chicago Daily Tribune, 2 January 1953, p. 5; accessed via ProQuest. A major insurrection erupted in July 1953 when prisoners stopped working, on strike for better food and medical care. They barricaded themselves in the cafeteria. Under instructions from Warden Clarence T. Gladden, guards used tear gas to prevent the prisoners from reaching food supplies. The angry prisoners gained control of most of the prison and started fires in the flax plant, laundry room, tailor room, and machine shop."Convict Rebellion Still On in Oregon: 800 Prisoners Forced Behind Fences After Fires Are Set—Gas Clears Commissary", New York Times, 12 July 1953, p. 55; accessed via ProQuest. Ultimately the prisoners were subdued by guards with tear gas, shotguns, and rifles."1100 in Prison Riot Corralled In Ball Park", Washington Post, 12 July 1953, p. M16; accessed via ProQuest. 1100 Rebels were confined to a baseball diamond without food or water, with Warden Gladden saying they would stay there until "I am sure they are repentant"."Prison Rebels In Oregon Toss in Towel", Washington Post, 13 July 1936; accessed via ProQuest. They stayed on the diamond for two days and one night, until twenty ringleaders identified by prison authorities were surrendered, and prisoners agreed to be individually searched."1,000 Convicts End Revolt At State Prison In Oregon", Baltimore Sun, 13 July 1953, p. 1; accessed via ProQuest. In what may have been the first gender confirmation surgery officially conducted in a prison, a DMAB prisoner changed her sex to female, through surgery and hormones, in a period prior to release in 1965."Inmate's Sex Is Changed in Oregon Prison", Chicago Tribune (AP), 4 October 1965, p. A11; accessed via ProQuest. Discontent continued in the 1960s. The public became aware that only 200 of the 1200 inmates at OSP actually had sentences calling for maximum security incarceration; yet all inmates were treated according to maximum security standards. Prisoners continued to complain about medical care, dental care, and visitation rights."Unlikely Gladden entirely to blame for prison riot", The Bulletin, 11 March 1968. Unrest culminated in March 1968, in an uprising which began with a surprise takeover of the prison's control center.Paul W. Harvey, Jr., "Big Shelter Problem Faced at Riot-Torn Oregon Prison", Spokane Daily Chronicle, 11 March 1968. 700 prisoners took control of the facility, started a fire in the flour shop, and held 40 guards and prison employees hostage."700 Convicts Riot at Oregon Prison", New York Times, 10 March 1960, accessed via ProQuest. The hostages were freed after prison officials announced the resignation of Warden Gladden (then 73 years old), as well as immunity for the rioters.Lawrence E. Davies, "Oregon Convicts Win Concessions; Revolt Ends, Guards Freed", New York Times, 11 March 1968; accessed via ProQuest. Prisoners were criticized for damaging facilities that supported them."Convicts Easy Winners?", Spokane Daily Chronicle, 13 March 1968. Ron Schmidt, press secretary of Governor Tom McCall, said: "It's pure devastation. The men destroyed everything that was of any benefit to them.""Oregon Inmates Riot and Force Reforms, Warden's Resignation", Lodi News-Sentinel (AP), 11 March 1968. Two inmates were stabbed during the riot: Delmar DuBray, 30, was stabbed in the right kidney; Melvin Newell, 36, was stabbed in the abdomen and groin. In November 1968, a work stoppage by 81 prisoners in the laundry room was controlled by guards with clubs, and the prisoners placed in isolation"Prison Sitdown Ended", New York Times, 6 November 1968; accessed via ProQuest. Also in 1968, OSP inmates founded UHURU, an organization dedicated to Afro-American culture, history, and community service. Although the prison establishment was skeptical at first, UHURU gained official support and had a membership of several hundred in 1982.Joe Brown, "UHURU: Its History", The Skanner, 16 May 1979; accessed via ProQuest. OSP prisoners were politically active in the following decades, holding forums on politicsLarry Baker, "Imprisoned: Political forum 'success'", The Skanner, 5 May 1982; accessed via ProQuest. and communicating with the Oregon NAACP. OSP began to recruit African American staff in 1981 in response to pressure from activist black prisoners."Corrections Division recruits minorities", The Skanner, 24 June 1981; accessed via ProQuest. In September 1988, 28 female inmates at the Oregon Correctional Center staged a sit-down protest that prison Superintendent Robert H. Scheidler described as the first of its kind in the facility's history. On October 1, between four and eight women staged a hunger strike—inmate Jody Bedell fasted for 24 days before ending the strike. Both the sit-down protest and hunger strike were meant to call attention to overcrowding, poor medical care, inadequate education programs and the shortage of showers and laundry machines. At the time, the prison was built for 80 women but was housing over 140 women and had only one shower for every 43 inmates. The women who participated in the hunger strike were ordered to spend a year in a segregation unit and were fined $214.Sarah B. Ames "Protests Put Women's Prison in Spotlight", Oregonian, 31 October 1988; accessed via Newsbank In May 2020, ODOC announced that the state will close its death row. Facility and programs The prison is located on of land in the southeast of Salem, Oregon. The facility itself consists of , surrounded by a wall which is patrolled by armed correctional officers.Jessica Rondema, "Oregon State Penitentiary", The Oregon Encyclopedia, c. May 2011. Most housing in the penitentiary is in large cell blocks with most inmates housed in single man cells that have been converted to double man cells to increase capacity. The penitentiary also has a full service infirmary. Intensive Management Unit Oregon State Penitentiary was the site of Oregon's first supermax unit. the "Intensive Management Unit" (IMU), constructed in 1991. The 196-bed self-contained Intensive Management Unit provides housing and control for those death row and male inmates who disrupt or pose a substantial threat to the general population in all department facilities. In 2006 this facility held 147 people (out of a total of 784 across Oregon) in solitary confinement. Conditions in the IMU were the object of public criticism, triggered particularly by multiple suicide of mentally ill prisoners.Mary Beth Pfeiffer, "Mentally ill inmates need more help", Portland Oregonian, 12 February 2005. Former warden Brian Belleque also expressed doubts about the possibility of rehabilitation in the IMU, saying: "We realize that 95 to 98 percent of these inmates here are going to be your neighbor in the community. They are going to get out."Laura Sullivan, "As Populations Swell, Prisons Rethink Supermax", NPR, 27 July 2006. Prisoners in the OSP IMU were moved in 2009 to Snake River Correctional Institution in Ontario, Oregon.Sal Rodriguez, "'Total Isolation': Solitary Confinement in Oregon", Solitary Watch, 11 September 2012. In 2010, ODOC began to convert the IMU into a psychiatric facility, which will serve mentally ill prisoners from across Oregon.Stuart Tomlinson, "Oregon's mentally ill prison inmates will all move to one building at the Oregon State Penitentiary", The Oregonian, 15 April 2010.Alan Gustafson, "Oregon State Penitentiary to adapt to mental illnesses", Statesman Journal, 25 April 2010. Some advocates for the mentally ill have argued that the IMU facility is not suitable for treating the mentally ill because it is "dark" and "crowded", and generally designed for solitary confinement.Chris Lehman, "Prison Mental Health Unit Not Designed for Treatment", Oregon Public Broadcasting (Northwest News Network), 29 February 2012. Death row OSP has long been the site of death row in Oregon. As of November 2012, death row contains 34 men (with two men and one woman, also slated for execution, held elsewhere for medical reasons). Death row includes notorious serial killers such as Dayton Leroy Rogers."Oregon Death Row", Oregon Live (The Oregonian), accessed 10 November 2012. OSP also contains the lethal injection chamber where prisoners are executed.James Pitkin, "Killing Time:Dead Men Waiting on Oregon’s Death Row", Willamette Week, 23 January 2008. Executions in Oregon were conducted in public by counties until 1902, when they were centralized (and made less spectacular) at the State Penitentiary.William R. Long, "Death penalty", The Oregon Encyclopedia, c. 2008. Since the US Supreme Court reaffirmed the death penalty in Gregg v. Georgia (1976), Oregon has executed only two people: Douglas Franklin Wright, in 1996, and Harry Charles Moore, in 1997. Governor John Kitzhaber announced an official moratorium on executions in November 2011.William Yardley, "Oregon Governor Says He Will Block Executions", New York Times, 22 November 2011. OSP prisoner Gary Haugen says he is ready to die and has sought to waive this waiver and be executed. In May 2020, ODOC announced that the state will close its death row. Hospice Oregon State Penitentiary is home to a hospice, which is staffed by volunteers from among the prison population. The current incarnation of the hospice began in 1999, and won "Program of the Year Award" from the National Commission on Correctional Health Care in 2001. The OSP hospice was at the forefront of a national trend of prison hospices—reacting to increased prison deaths resulting from the HIV/AIDS epidemic and from harsher sentencing laws. The program's volunteer-based structure has served as a model for other institutions.Jaime Shimkus, "Prison Hospice Comforts the Dying, Touches the Living", CorrectCare, Spring 2002.Jeff Barnard, "Convicted Murderers Relearn Compassion in Prison Hospice", Los Angeles Times (AP), 1 August 1999. Minimum security annex Oregon State Penitentiary has a separate minimum security facility located on its grounds."Oregon State Penitentiary." Oregon Department of Corrections. Retrieved on November 2, 2010. It was first opened in 1964 as Oregon's first women's prison,Zaitz, Les. "Oregon to close prison, lay off 63 workers in $2.5 million budget cut." The Oregonian. Thursday September 30, 2010. Updated on Friday October 1, 2010. Retrieved on November 2, 2010. and was called Oregon Women's Correctional Center. In 2010, the state closed the minimum security annex. Criticism and legal actions Prisoners and advocates have charged the OSP system with racism, saying that the system discriminates against black inmates—both by placing them in worse conditions and by failing to protect them from racially motivated violence. They cite the case of Pete Wilson, a black prisoner who was stabbed by ten white inmates while white guards looked on.Larry Baker, "IMPRISONED: OSP Prisoner Stabbed", The Skanner, 6 October 1982; accessed via ProQuest. "Wilson recalled one of the guards who was supposedly supervising him repeatedly shouting for the inmates to stop fighting, while others merely stood in the gun tower and watched with rifles in hand. But the guards were white. Wilson stated it was 10 minutes before any guards were able to rescue him and by that time his lungs had been punctured and he had sustained many other wounds. During his struggle with the 10 whites, a Cuban prisoner, Ricardo Guerra, tried to assist Wilson but to no avail. 'I couldn't just stand by and see 10 white prisoners beating on a black man just because his skin is a different color,' said Guerra." Black inmates also charged the OSP library with showing racial bias in access and employment. One black inmate described their opinion on the causes and effects of this bias:Larry Baker, "IMPRISONED: Bias in Library", The Skanner, 17 November 1982; accessed via ProQuest. Black and other minorities at OSP have an acute problem with the librarian when it comes to their gaining access to courts. First we recognize racism is an ingrained traditional attitude. And second, prisons are reflections of those views. Therefore, Blacks and others in their own wherewithal struggle towards the path of freedom through redress in our courts. But quite often the librarian tries to preclude these efforts in many different ways. Such as telling prisoners his notary seal is broken and of course this tactic will go on for two or three weeks until one of the counselors puts a stop to it, being that if the librarian doesn't notarize documents they will have to do his job. Prisoners have accused OSP guards of homophobia, censoring homosexual materials in the men's prison and contact among inmates in the women's prison (closed in 2010). In 1982, prisoners filed a class-action lawsuit against the prison, charging that their rights to receive mail were being violated. In particular, they charged prison officials with censoring the mail by withholding "not approved" material, including material related to homosexuality."ACLU files against prison censorship", The Skanner, 10 March 1982; accessed via ProQuest. District Judge Owen Panner decided for the prisoners and the ACLU, ruling that blacklisting certain publications and materials (including those related to homosexuality) violated the First and Fourteenth Amendment rights of the prisoners. However, some advocates believed that the legal ruling would have little effect. Carole Pope, a former prisoner at OSP, said: "We've had five major law suits. After each one, there was a token change, then it went back to the way it was. They [prison officials] don't take any of this seriously."Jil Clark, "Court Bars Prison Censorship of Periodicals", Gay Community News 10 (38), 16 April 1983; accessed via ProQuest. In 1977, three inmates (two current and one former) filed a lawsuit alleging that they had been harmed by medical experiments using drugs and radiation. The experiments were voluntary and affected 67 prisoners, who were paid $125 each."Convicts Who Were Part of Test Of Drugs File $3.6 Million Suit", New York Times (UPI), 11 September 1977; accessed via ProQuest. In popular culture Oregon State Prison appears in the opening scene of the 2001 film Bandits, during an escape scene in which the two protagonists forcibly break out of the prison and then proceed on a bank robbing spree. The "Gardner shackle" (later called the "Oregon Boot") is featured in the March 16, 1960 episode of Wagon Train, "The Alexander Portlass Story", and in the January 27, 1957 episode of Alfred Hitchcock Presents, "The Manacled." Notable inmatesList of inmates (with dates of incarceration) at Oregon State Penitentiary: Micheal Dunn (loud music killer of Jordan Davis) Richard Laurence Marquette (1961–1973, since 1975) Randall Woodfield (since 1981) – "The I-5 Killer"; injured at OSP in 1983;Domestic News. United Press International, October 3, 1983, Monday, AM cycle. filed suit (unsuccessfully) in 1987 against author Ann Rule for publishing a libelous account of his caseTims, Dana. Murderer's libel suit dismissed. The Oregonian, January 18, 1988. Gary Haugen (since 1981) – killed David Polin, another OSP inmate, in 2003; on death row, amidst an ongoing legal dispute over whether Haugen himself can decline Governor Kitzhaber's reprieve of the death penaltyCliff Collins, "Continuing the Death Penalty Discussion: How some Oregon lawyers are grappling with capital punishment", Oregon State Bar Bulletin, November 2012.Lynne Terry, "Gary Haugen can reject Gov. Kitzhaber's reprieve, judge rules", The Oregonian, 3 August 2012.Peter Wong, "Oregon Supreme Court to hear Haugen appeal", Statesman Journal, 23 October 2012. Dayton Leroy Rogers (since 1989) – amidst legal appeals to avoid the death penaltyRick Bella, "State Supreme Court orders fourth sentencing trial for serial killer Dayton Leroy Rogers", The Oregonian, 11 October 2012. Colt Lyerla – former college football player Bradly Morris Cunningham (since 1995) – serving a life sentence for murdering his ex-wife and mother of his three sons Cheryl Keeton. True crime writer and author Ann Rule wrote a best selling book titled "Dead by Sunset" in the year 1995. The book focused on Bradly and Cheryl's bitter divorce and custody battle over their sons as well as Bradly's murder of Cheryl. A made-for-television movie also titled "Dead by Sunset" premiered on the MSNBC television network in the year 1995 too. The film was based on Anne Rule's book. Bradly also wrote and published an ebook titled "Ann Rule Deconstructed". In his ebook, Bradly accused Anne Rule of being a liar and having exaggerated with regards to her "Dead By Sunset" book. Keith Hunter Jesperson (since 1995) – the "Happy Face Killer" Christian Longo (since 2003) – On death row for the murders of his wife and three children. Former inmates Hank Vaughan (1865–1870) – moved with the prison from Portland to Salem, narrowly avoiding a lynch mob; paroled early for good behavior, moved to Nevada, and became a blacksmithJim Yuskavitch, Outlaw Tales of Oregon, Globe Pequot, 2012, , p. 105. Joseph "Bunko" Kelly (1895–1908) – released; author of Thirteen Years In The Oregon PenitentiaryHarry Tracy (1901–1902) – escaped, committed suicide when threatened with capture Carl Panzram (1915–1918) – escaped, assumed a false identity, committed more crimes, captured in 1928 in Washington, D.C., incarcerated at USP Leavenworth and executed there in 1930 Albert Rosser (1938, 1939–1943) – held then released with a stay, facing a 12-year sentence from the Oregon Supreme Court; imprisoned in 1939; released after minimum sentence of four years with good behavior;"Al Rosser Released from Prison Tuesday", Eugene Register-Guard, 8 July 1943. secretary of the Oregon teamsters, dubbed a "labor terrorist" and convicted of complicity with arson at the West Salem Box plant;"Reign of Labor Leader Broken by Prison Term": Rosser Gets 12 Years on Arson Charge", Chicago Daily Tribune, 10 July 1939; accessed via ProQuest."Prison Decreed for Al Rosser: Former Teamster Leader at Portland Loses His Appeal to the Supreme Court", Lewiston Morning-Tribune (AP), 7 June 1939. delivered testimony while imprisoned for the Harry Bridges trial<ref>"Rosser Questioned by Bridges Attorney", Eugene Register-Guard (AP), 5 September 1939. John Omar Pinson (1947–1959) – paroled after six years of good behavior; accused of killing police officer Delmond E. Rondeau and setting fire to the flax plant in 1949;"Officer Delmond E. Rondeau", Oregon State Police, accessed 9 November 2012. profiled on the television show Gang Busters!Gary Gilmore (1962, 1964–1972, 1972–1975) – released to halfway house, quickly convicted of new crimes, re-incarcerated, transferred to USP Marion for bad behavior, paroled to Utah in April 1976, committed multiple murders in July 1976, executed in January 1977 Jerry Brudos (1969–2006) – died of liver cancer; OSP's longest-term residentTony Lystra, "Ex-officer recalls hunt for killer", Corvalis Gazette-Times, 9 April 2006."Passages", Seattle Times, 2 April 2006. Randal Krager (1992–1994, 1995–1996) – released, re-arrested, pardoned; founded Volksfront in 1994 while incarceratedPhilip Dawdy, "The Flickering Torch of Racism", Willamette Week, 12 December 2001. Harry Charles Moore (1993–1997) – executed by lethal injection Bobby Jack Fowler (1996–2006) – connected to the Highway of Tears murders, died in prison of lung cancer George Hayford (1858–?), attorney and swindler Diane Downs – convicted in the 1983 shooting of her three children, transferred to Clinton Correctional Facility for Women after her 1987 escape John Arthur Ackroyd – Died in December 2016 Sebastian Shaw – Died in October 2021 See also List of Oregon prisons and jails List of U.S. death row inmates (Oregon) Harry Minto References Bibliography Hubert Howe Bancroft, History of Oregon Vol. II: 1848-1888', San Francisco: The History Company, 1888. Joseph "Bunko" Kelly, Thirteen Years in Oregon State Penitentiary'', 1908 External links Prisons in Oregon Buildings and structures in Salem, Oregon Capital punishment in Oregon Execution sites in the United States 1851 establishments in Oregon Territory

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The WarGames match is a match used originally in the National Wrestling Alliance (NWA) and later held annually in World Championship Wrestling (WCW), usually at their Fall Brawl pay-per-view event in September. Dusty Rhodes is cited with coming up with the idea. The match usually involved two teams of either four, five, or more wrestlers locked inside a steel cage that encompassed two rings. Since 2017, WWE, which purchased the assets of WCW in 2001, has held annual WarGames matches as part of their NXT brand's "TakeOver" events. History WarGames was created when Dusty Rhodes was inspired by a viewing of Mad Max Beyond Thunderdome. It was originally used as a specialty match for the Four Horsemen. The first WarGames match took place at The Omni in Atlanta during the NWA's Great American Bash '87 tour, where it was known as War Games: The Match Beyond. It would be held at three house shows later that year, once at the Miami Orange Bowl, once in Chicago at the UIC Pavilion and the other at the NWA's debut at The Nassau Coliseum on Long Island. The next year, it would be held during the Great American Bash Tour in 1988 at 11 house shows (one was released on the WWE Horsemen DVD). The final War Games matches under the NWA banner were at The Great American Bash in 1989 and a house show rematch at The Omni in Atlanta. WCW used it originally in 1991 at WrestleWar and at five house shows during the 1991 Great American Bash tour and in 1992 at WrestleWar, before it became a traditional Fall Brawl event from 1993 to 1998. Format The WarGames match consists of two or three teams, with between three and five participants facing off with each other in staggered entry format. The setup of the cage consists of two rings side by side with a ring-encompassing rectangular cage that covered both rings, but not the ringside area. Doors are placed at far corners of the cage, near where the opposing teams wait to enter, so the teams do not contact each other before they enter the match. The match begins with one member of each team entering the cage. After five minutes, a member from one of the teams (usually determined by a coin toss, and almost always the "heel" team in order to provide heat) would enter the cage, giving his team the temporary 2-on-1 handicap advantage. After two minutes, a member from the other team would enter to even the odds for the next 2 minutes. Entrants alternate between teams every two minutes, giving the coin toss-winning team the temporary advantage in terms of numbers, before giving the other team the advantage with the freshest man and even odds. Teams continue to alternate during the two-minute periods until all participants are in the ring. Once all participants enter the cage, what is referred to as "The Match Beyond" begins. Both teams wrestle each other in the cage until any participant either submits, surrenders, or is knocked unconscious. There originally were no pinfalls, no count-outs, and no disqualifications. However, later WCW versions began to allow pinfalls. In NXT and Major League Wrestling's variations, the cage was roofless and pinfalls were allowed. However, in NXT's variation, if one member of a team escaped the cage, their whole team would be disqualified. On the October 31, 2019 episode of WWE NXT, the first-ever women's WarGames match was announced for that year's NXT TakeOver: WarGames event. Women Superstars Uncensored and Pro-Wrestling: EVE have previously held variations of the WarGames match, but this would be the first official match to follow the Wargames format. NWA/WCW/WWE Match history WCW WarGames variations 1998 In 1998, WCW decided to try something different and converted WarGames into a 3-team, 9-man competition (with the same cage and entry format, but they allowed pinfalls) for the #1 Contendership to the WCW World Heavyweight Title. Team WCW consisted of: Diamond Dallas Page, Roddy Piper, The Warrior Team Hollywood consisted of: Hollywood Hogan, Stevie Ray, Bret Hart Team Wolfpac consisted of: Kevin Nash, Sting, Lex Luger Hogan entered the cage early, by force, so he and Stevie Ray could take out all the other participants, including their teammate Bret Hart. When Hogan went to pin Kevin Nash, smoke engulfed the ring and it appeared that The Warrior had magically entered the cage. Hogan and Stevie Ray beat him down, but more smoke appeared, and when it cleared away The Warrior was gone leaving Hogan holding his coat. The real Warrior then ran out from the back to enter the match. Hogan would eventually force his way out of the cage door, with Warrior following suit by climbing up the cage wall and kicking it in. Davey Boy Smith suffered a near career ending back injury earlier that night after he fell on the trap door WCW used for this stunt. He became dependent on painkillers during his rehabilitation from this injury which would ultimately contribute to his early death. Perry Saturn was also injured from the trap door, but not as severely. Page won the match by scoring the Diamond Cutter on Stevie Ray for the pinfall victory. He went on to Halloween Havoc to face Goldberg for the title, only to lose after being hit with a spear and Jackhammer. 2000 After the WarGames match was not held in 1999, Vince Russo brought back WarGames in a new format he called "WarGames 2000", with the tagline "Russo's Revenge". It was held on the September 4, 2000 episode of WCW Nitro. The match consisted of two teams vying for the WCW World Heavyweight Championship in a three-tiered cage first seen in the climax of the WCW produced film Ready to Rumble and later used at Slamboree in May 2000. The rules combined the traditional WarGames entry formats with the rules of the Triple Cage match at Slamboree, which required the competitors to scale the cages in order to retrieve the belt. There were two differences between the matches, however. Instead of the belt hanging above the roof of the third cage, it was instead placed inside said cage. Second, in order to win the match, someone had to escape from the bottom cage with the belt; this meant that a wrestler had to climb up through both cages, open the third cage to get the belt, and then climb back down and leave the cage all while avoiding the other participants who could steal the belt from him and take it for themselves without ever having to leave the bottom cage. The match pitted Sting, Booker T, Goldberg, and KroniK (Brian Adams and Bryan Clark) against Russo's hand-picked team: WCW World Champion Kevin Nash, Jeff Jarrett, Scott Steiner, and The Harris Brothers (Don and Ron). The match had been scheduled as a four-on-four match, with Sting, Booker T, Goldberg and Ernest Miller against Nash, Jarrett, Steiner and Russo. Earlier in the night, each man from the first team was forced to wrestle a qualifying match to compete: Sting beat both Vampiro and The Great Muta in a handicap match, Goldberg defeated Shane Douglas, and Booker T had to defeat his brother Stevie Ray. However, Miller lost to KroniK in a handicap match, making it five-on-four. Thus, when it was his turn to enter, Russo sent the Harris Brothers instead, making it 6 on 5. During the match, Nash teased a betrayal: when he entered the first cage, he chokeslammed Sting then grabbed Steiner, Jarrett and Russo by the throats. However, as Russo was later walking to the door, Nash grabbed and hugged him. The Harris Brothers and KroniK drove each other out of the arena. Booker T retrieved the belt from the top, but Russo interfered on behalf of his team. Ernest Miller entered the ring but was Jackknife Powerbombed by Nash. Steiner and Jarrett handcuffed Sting and Booker to the walls of the second cage. Goldberg broke free of the handcuffs which held him to the turnbuckle of the ring and attempted to leave the cage with the belt, but was cut off by Bret Hart, who slammed the cage door in his face. Nash then retrieved the title belt and walked out the cage door, retaining the title. Spin-off matches All Elite Wrestling All Elite Wrestling (AEW) announced during Revolution that it would debut the "Blood and Guts" match on March 25, 2020 during a special episode of its weekly series Dynamite (billed as Blood and Guts). The Blood and Guts match is based largely on the original Crockett-era WarGames rules, with a win condition of submission or surrender (no pinfalls, countouts, or escaping the cage). The inaugural match was announced to be The Elite (Adam Page, Cody Rhodes, Kenny Omega, and Matt and Nick Jackson) vs. The Inner Circle (Chris Jericho, Jake Hager, Sammy Guevara, Santana and Ortiz). Nick Jackson was attacked by The Inner Circle, leaving him out indefinitely. The Inner Circle (Jake Hager, Santana and Ortiz) defeated The Elite (Adam Page, Cody, Matt Jackson) on the March 18 episode of Dynamite, giving them the entry advantage. After the match with The Elite seemingly expected to be outnumbered 5-on-4 going into the event, Matt Jackson revealed the debuting Matt Hardy as their fifth member. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the event was postponed. The concept returned as during April 2021 episodes, Jericho announced that Inner Circle will participate in the WarGames style match against The Pinnacle (MJF, Wardlow, Shawn Spears, FTR) scheduled on the May 5, 2021 episode of Dynamite. This match, which was also AEW's first ever "Blood and Guts" match, took place on the scheduled date at AEW Blood and Guts. Combat Zone Wrestling Combat Zone Wrestling has used WarGames stipulations the some of their Cage of Death events, the most recent being in Cage Of Death XV (2013). For Cage of Death 5, in that there were two rings; one of them was surrounded by the cage, and the other was filled with "one million" thumbtacks (the actual amount has never been verified). Above the two rings was scaffolding walkway on which the wrestlers could walk on at any time. The match started with two members of each team, and every 90 seconds a wrestler, from either team, entered the match according to the number they drew before the match started. These eliminations which will occurred in that would happen when a wrestler would hit the arena floor; however, Cage of Death 5 also had rules that the wrestlers who were not tossed out of or off the cage, that they could travel a scaffold hanging above another ring filled with thumbtacks to safety, scoring points for the team. For Cage of Death 6 there were eliminations that would happen when a wrestler would hit the arena floor much like Cage of Death 5 the year before, the difference being that the tag team titles were hanging on a scaffold stretched across the length of the top of the cage overlooking the two rings, plus all weapons littered around double caged ring. Cage of Death 7 just had standard pinfall and submissions after all combatants entered the cage. For 2008's Cage of Death, the large eight-sided cage that surrounds the entire ringside area with a barbwire spidernet setup on one side and glass setup on another side with tables underneath and two scaffold platforms across the ring from each other. All different Hardcore and deathmatch wrestling weapons such as thumbtack turnbuckles, barbed wire bats, staple guns, light tubes, barbed wire, baseball bats, thumbtacks, panes of glass, and all others littered around it for wrestlers to use. The WarGames rules returned with pinfalls and submissions that could be done throughout the match after all combatants of either team entered the cage. Extreme Championship Wrestling Extreme Championship Wrestling (ECW) held a version of WarGames known as an "Ultimate Jeopardy steel cage match"; the match is conducted in a similar manner to WarGames, with victory by submission, pinfall, knockout, or surrender, but with weapons provided, and stipulation penalties for the losing team. The first Ultimate Jeopardy match was held at Ultimate Jeopardy 1994, between Shane Douglas, Mr. Hughes and The Public Enemy, and a team of Terry Funk, Road Warrior Hawk, Kevin Sullivan and The Tazmaniac for the ECW World Heavyweight Championship. IWA Mid-South Independent Wrestling Association Mid-South presented "No Blood, No Guts, No Glory 2005" at the National Guard Armory in Valparaiso, Indiana on Saturday night, July 2, 2005. The match pitted "Team Ian" Ian Rotten, Axl Rotten, Chris Hero, Corporal Robinson and Bull Pain against "Team Fannin" B.J. Whitmer, Eddie Kingston, Mark Wolf, J. C. Bailey, and Steve Stone and "Team NWA" Eric Priest, Chandler McClure, Tank and Sal and Vito Thomaselli in a double-ring, double-cage, three-team War Games match, with the winning team taking full control of the IWA-MS. The match was won when JC Bailey caused his own team to be outnumbered, allowing Ian Rotten's Team IWA to capitalize and win the match. Major League Wrestling On September 19, 2003 at the War Games TV Taping held at the Fort Lauderdale, FL War Memorial Auditorium, the Funkin' Army (Terry Funk, The Sandman, Steve Williams, Sabu, and Bill Alfonso) defeated The Extreme Horsemen (Steve Corino, Simon Diamond, C. W. Anderson, PJ Walker, and Barry Windham) when Funk made Corino submit following a fireball to Corino's face. In 2018, MLW would return to Fort Lauderdale for a second "War Games" event, which was taped for a special episode of MLW Fusion on BeIN Sports. Pro Wrestling Unplugged Pro Wrestling Unplugged (PWU) had held a match called "Cuffed and Caged" match on January 20, 2007. It is somewhat similar to a Lethal Lockdown match in TNA, but with a few small differences. Two teams of five wrestlers take part in this match. Starts with one member of each team, with one new member added to the match at certain time intervals until all ten are in. The main differences between this match and a Lethal Lockdown and WarGames match, is that in this match wrestlers are eliminated by pin or submit in the cage or getting handcuffed to the outside of the cage. The winner is the one man or team left standing after all members of opposing team are eliminated. Pro-Wrestling:EVE Pro-Wrestling: EVE presented the second ever all female War Games match. It had a steel cage surrounding only the one ring, but all other rules were the same as the original concept. It was the opening contest as part of the first WrestleQueendom event in the iconic York Hall, in Bethnal Green, London on Saturday 5 May 2018. The teams of "Squad Goals" consisting of Rhia O’Reily, Laura Di Matteo, Addy Starr and Emi Sakura and "The Deserving" made up of Jamie Hayter, Charli Evans, Jayla Dark and Blue Nikita competed in the bout. Highlights include a brawl outside the cage before the match started, O'Reilly entering the cage last and diving onto all the competitors and Squad Goals locking in a submission on each member of The Deserving to win the match. Ring of Honor In December 2005, Ring of Honor held the first Steel Cage Warfare match. It was used to settle the year-long feud between Generation Next and their former leader Alex Shelley, who was now with The Embassy. The match consisted of only one ring but followed the War Games match in that two wrestlers from each team started the match, and after five minutes another wrestler would enter, then every two minutes after another wrestler would enter. The main difference, however, is that the match was an elimination match contested by teams of three, four, or more. Wrestlers can be eliminated at any point by either pin fall or submission. In July 2006, Ring of Honor held another War Games style match to settle their feud with Combat Zone Wrestling. ROH challenged them to a Steel Cage Warfare match, but CZW said they would only compete if it were their Cage of Death match. This match that could be contested under WarGames rules so the match can only end when all members of both teams have entered the cage. The cage itself is a yellow-steel wired and eight-sided, and surrounds the entire ringside area. All sorts of weapons surround between the ring and the cage walls. The match starts 2 men for 5 minutes, then having a coin flip to see what team would have the advantage with a new man entering every two minutes. In September 2008, Ring of Honor held a three 'team' Steel Cage Warfare match. This pitted the team of The Briscoe Brothers and Austin Aries, against the team of The Age of the Fall represented by Delirious, Jimmy Jacobs and Tyler Black, against Necro Butcher who fought alone with no partners. The match was held under the same rules, stating Butcher although alone could be drawn and enter the match at any time regardless of a man advantage held by the other teams. In June 2013, another Steel Cage Warfare match was held, pitting an ROH team of B.J. Whitmer, Michael Elgin, Jay Lethal and Kevin Steen against the S.C.U.M. team of Jimmy Jacobs, Rhino, Cliff Compton and Rhett Titus, where if the ROH team wins, S.C.U.M. must disband, but if the S.C.U.M. team wins, Steve Corino replaces Nigel McGuinness as match maker. Team ROH won the match on a taped episode of Ring of Honor Wrestling television. Tennessee Smoky Mountain Wrestling (Knoxville) The Knoxville, Tennessee-based Smoky Mountain Wrestling (SMW) had their own variation of the WarGames match, called Rage in a Cage. In Rage in a Cage, the ring was surrounded by a cage made of the wooden frameworks and regular fence wires. The match began with one member of each team entering the cage. After five minutes, a member from one of the teams (usually determined by a coin toss) would enter the cage, giving his team the temporary handicap advantage. After two minutes, a member from the other team would enter to even the odds. Once all eight or ten men (depending on team size) had entered the cage, the match begins. The object of the match was to eliminate one-by-one by submitting or handcuffing all members of the opposing team to and in the cage. The first Rage in a Cage match was held at the Civic Coliseum in Knoxville on May 9, 1993, with The Rock n' Roll Express (Ricky Morton and Robert Gibson), The Stud Stable (Robert Fuller and Jimmy Golden), and Brian Lee defeating The Heavenly Bodies (Tom Prichard and Stan Lane), Killer Kyle, Kevin Sullivan, and The Tazmaniac. United States Wrestling Association (Memphis) In the summer of 1995, a inter-promotional feud between Smoky Mountain Wrestling and the Memphis, Tennessee-based United States Wrestling Association saw the match move across the state. On August 7, 1995, the Rage in a Cage match was held at the Mid-South Coliseum in Memphis, which saw Team USWA (Bill Dundee, Billy Jack Haynes, Tommy Rich, Doug Gilbert, Brian Lee, Steven Dunn, & PG-13 (J.C. Ice and Wolfie D)) defeat Team SMW (Tracy Smothers, Robert Gibson, Brad Armstrong, Buddy Landell, The Heavenly Bodies (Tom Prichard and Jimmy Del Ray), Terry Gordy, Pat Tanaka & D-Lo Brown). Impact Wrestling Impact Wrestling, then known as NWA: Total Nonstop Action, had their own variation of the WarGames match known as the "Wednesday Bloody Wednesday" Steel Cage match. The single ring was surrounded by a large single steel cage with poles attached to the ring posts measured about five to six feet above the turnbuckles, with single chains wrapped from and hanging on the poles to various points on the ring itself with many weapons hanging from and attached to steel chains above itself but followed the rules of War Games match in that two wrestlers from both teams started the match, and after ninety seconds another wrestler would enter. The only way to win is by pinfall or submission. The first and only "Wednesday Bloody Wednesday" Steel Cage match was contested on September 3, 2003 between a team of AJ Styles, Shane Douglas, Christopher Daniels, Simon Diamond and Johnny Swinger and a team of Jeff Jarrett, Raven, D'Lo Brown, Chris Harris and James Storm. Later, Impact would introduce the Lethal Lockdown match for their annual Lockdown pay-per-view. The only differences are that one ring enclosed by a steel cage with two teams facing off with each other. The staggered entry system is identical, but weapons are permitted and are even provided. The match begins with two wrestlers who must fight for 5 minutes; after that, a member from one of the teams (usually determined by a coin toss) would enter the cage, giving his team the temporary handicap advantage. After two minutes, a member from the other team would enter to even the odds. Entrants alternated between teams every two minutes, giving the coin toss-winning team the temporary advantage in the numbers game before giving the other team the advantage with the freshest man and even odds. When all competitors have entered the ring, a roof is lowered onto the top of the cage, with various weapons hanging from it. Victory can be attained by pinfall or submission. United Wrestling Federation On September 21, 2007 United Wrestling Federation held a WarGame match in Richmond Va. Team Sgt. Slaughter (Rick and Scott Steiner; Dustin Rhodes and Kirby and TJ Mack) def. Team JBL (Homicide and Hernandez; Steve Corino; CW Anderson and Elix Skipper) in a double ring double cage WarGames match, dubbed as and entitled "Uncivil War", when Scott Steiner submitted Corino with the Steiner Recliner as Slaughter simultaneously submitted JBL with the cobra clutch. Women Superstars Uncensored Women Superstars Uncensored presented the first ever War Games match with female wrestlers on November 19, 2011 as part of their Breaking Barriers II iPPV. The match featured two trios - Team WSU of Mercedes Martinez, Alicia and Brittney Savage, and the Midwest Militia of Jessicka Havok, Allysin Kay and Sassy Stephie. The match was contested in a steel cage surrounding only one ring, but all other rules were the same as the original concept. The Midwest Militia won the match when Havok threatened to murder an injured Martinez with a machete, and Savage surrendered on Martinez's behalf. WWE In June 2013, WWE released a DVD anthology set, War Games: WCW's Most Notorious Matches. During the November 2017 tapings for WWE NXT, it was announced that at NXT TakeOver: Houston, the main event would be a WarGames match. The event was subsequently renamed to NXT TakeOver: WarGames. This would be the first official WarGames match in nearly 20 years. The match was quite different from standard WarGames- including the cage having no roof (although escaping the cage forfeited the match for that person's team), pinfalls were allowed and all remaining members of a team entered at the same time. The match involved three teams, with The Undisputed Era defeating Sanity and Roderick Strong/The Authors of Pain. NXT TakeOver events preceding WWE's Survivor Series pay-per-view have since continued to be headlined by WarGames, with NXT TakeOver: WarGames (2019) featuring two WarGames matches, one of which was WWE's first-ever women's WarGames match. Xtreme Pro Wrestling Rob Black's Xtreme Pro Wrestling promotion also capitalized on the popularity of the WarGames match by holding one of their own, called "Genocide", with the same rules. However, in the XPW version of the WarGames match, an 18-feet-high steel cage that encompassed two rings with weapons are in two rings but the three-sided cage top that covers over, around and on the top of only one of the two rings, which surrounded by large steel cage, permitting wrestlers to (hypothetically) brawl each other at a top the cage and do table spots off the top of the cage, plus all weapons permitted and provided; the cage, however, was extremely poorly constructed, and started to fall apart during the match, preventing most of the promised action. References Professional wrestling match types World Championship Wrestling WWE NXT WWE match types

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"Can't Tell Me Nothing" is a song by American rapper Kanye West from his third studio album, Graduation (2007). The song contains additional vocals from Young Jeezy and Connie Mitchell. It was produced by West with DJ Toomp with West being responsible for 60 percent of the production. The song originated from Young Jeezy's "I Got Money", after West made changes to the track. On May 15, 2007, the song premiered via Hot 97 and was released by Roc-A-Fella and Def Jam that same day as the lead single from the album. A hip hop track, it was described by West as a theme song for the people. The lyrics see West reflecting on his fame while he expresses different types of feelings. "Can't Tell Me Nothing" received universal acclaim from music critics, who mostly appreciated the lyrical content. Others praised the production, while some critics highlighted the song's inclusion on Graduation. It was listed amongst the best tracks of 2007 by several publications, including Consequence of Sound and Pitchfork. The song received a nomination for Best Rap Song at the 50th Annual Grammy Awards, ultimately losing to "Good Life". The former reached number 41 on the US Billboard Hot 100, alongside peaking at number 20 on the US Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart, and was certified triple platinum in the United States by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). It has also been certified gold and silver in Australia and the United Kingdom by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) and British Phonographic Industry (BPI), respectively. An accompanying music video was released on May 25, 2007. It sees West walking around El Mirage Lake unaccompanied, while his silhouette follows him. The video received positive reviews from critics, often being complemented for its camera work. The song's alternate music video was released on July 25, 2007, which features Zach Galifianakis and Will Oldham lip-syncing "Can't Tell Me Nothing" at Galifianakis' farm. West performed the song live throughout 2007 and 2008, including at a Live Earth concert in the former year. He later performed it at the Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival and Glastonbury Festival in 2011 and 2015, respectively. "Can't Tell Me Nothing" was used in the film The Hangover (2009), marking the first of three times that West's music was featured in the films from the series of the same name. In 2013, West named it his favourite song out of his entire discography. Francis and the Lights covered the song in 2009, and an acoustic cover version was later performed by Taking Back Sunday in 2011. The song's Young Jeezy-featuring remix was released in July 2007, which contains a verse from him. Background and development Following on from meeting West when working on rapper T.I.'s second studio album Trap Muzik (2003), record producer DJ Toomp went to New York and joined West in the studio for the creation of Graduation. West showed a high amount of respect for him and was using an Ensoniq ASR-10 keyboard in the studio, which DJ Toomp said "is the same keyboard I've been using since day one." Speaking of the two of them collaborating for the album, he opined that "it definitely felt like a team atmosphere" and also "felt like, 'we.'" DJ Toomp admitted that he "would say that sixty percent of 'Can't Tell Me Nothing' was Ye, and forty me," while he called West "a mastermind." In an interview with Revolt, DJ Toomp explained that his 40 percent of the song's production was the beat and bassline, while the 60 percent contributed by West consisted of the strings and the "oh-oh-ah-oh-ah-oh" backing vocals. He revealed that the song was originally supposed to be a remix of West's Def Jam labelmate Young Jeezy's song "I Got Money", since West loved "the whole cadence of how that beat was flowing" and "wanted the song to be a remix featuring him." However, Young Jeezy ultimately "wasn't really feeling it" according to DJ Toomp, which led to the song being passed on to West. Young Jeezy also offered an explanation of how "Can't Tell Me Nothing" came from "I Got Money" during an interview with HipHopDX, saying that it was supposed to be a collaboration between him and T.I. for the former's third studio album The Recession (2008). The song was recalled as being sent to West by Young Jeezy and he subsequently recorded a verse, before getting in contact with DJ Toomp after discovering that he was the producer and West then heavily altered the sonic direction of "I Got Money". Due to the changes made by West, Young Jeezy explained that he decided not to release the song on the album. By 2007, six months later, the song was unused until West played "Can't Tell Me Nothing" for Young Jeezy at a studio session in Los Angeles, which is a reworked version of "I Got Money", though he revealed that West asked him for permission to use his ad-libs and was granted it. The track marked the two's first collaboration, though Young Jeezy admitted after contributing that he "was like, 'Yo, [West] owes me one." For giving back to him, West delivered a verse on Young Jeezy's single "Put On" (2008). While traveling to Japan for a few days in 2006, West visited Japanese contemporary artist Takashi Murakami at the artist's Kaikai Kiki studio in the country's city Asaka. West told Murakami that he is a fan of him and asked about the artist's works; Murakami drew designs for West during the meeting and the two of them arranged to meet at a later date in the United States. The cover art of the single was designed by Murakami. Accompanying artwork for the album's other singles was also created by Murakami, alongside him overseeing the art direction of Graduation. Despite "Can't Tell Me Nothing" not achieving the same level of radio success as the album's subsequent singles, West took pride in the fact that the song had marked his first hood anthem, and it gave him a new level of popularity in the hood. West also explained during an interview with Concrete Loop that the song "is like the people's anthem and radio didn't want to play it," while comparing the challenge faced by him to playing a video game. In the same interview, West stated that the song's "actual melody is made to rock 50,000 people," which he called the reason as to "why it's so simple." According to West, he tried to step up as a rapper with the song and West recalled that after fellow rapper Andre 3000 heard the song "he said, 'I believe you.'" West named "Can't Tell Me Nothing" as an example of him creating a track "that people never heard before." Composition and lyrics Musically, "Can't Tell Me Nothing" is a hip hop track. The song features slow, moody synth-driven production, which contains foghorn keyboards. It also includes a bassline alongside strings. West explained that the song's chords are akin to that of a rock melody, specifically comparing them to the music of Led Zeppelin. The song contains ad-libs from Young Jeezy in the background, which are repeated throughout the chorus. Additional vocals are also provided by Connie Mitchell of the Australian electronic group Sneaky Sound System, being looped within the song. West explained that he wanted to create a theme song with the track, describing it as being a song for the people. Lyrically, "Can't Tell Me Nothing" serves as West's reflection on his fame and as a result of this, he hovers between insecure and confrontational while marked by bitter regret as well as self-aware defiance. West begins the song by expounding his conflicted feelings regarding wealth and desire, describing a compulsion to spend that overwhelms any and all other objectives in life. This is tied by West into his perceived overall inability to keep himself together even as he grows into an increasingly prominent figure in the public eye with lyrics like, "I feel the pressure, under more scrutiny / And what do I do? Act more stupidly." Uncertainty is also expressed by West in the song's lyrics, with him asking: "Then you can't tell me nothing, right?" Shortly afterwards, West affirms "you can't tell me nothing." West said the line "When You Try Hard, That's when you Die Hard" is about having accepted who he is and stopping trying to prove himself all the time, while West revealed that it refers to the outfit worn by him at the 48th Annual Grammy Awards in 2006. Release and reception West premiered "Can't Tell Me Nothing" via Hot 97 on May 15, 2007, with it being played by DJ Enuff. That same day, the song was released as the lead single from Graduation. West decided on the song being the first single due to fellow rapper 50 Cent calling it his favorite song from the album, after West met up with 50 Cent and played the album to him. On June 19, 2007, the song was serviced to US rhythmic contemporary radio stations through West's record labels Roc-A-Fella Records and Def Jam Recordings. A 12" vinyl was later released for the song by Universal Music on August 7 of that year. On September 11, 2007, West's third studio album Graduation was released, featuring "Can't Tell Me Nothing" as the sixth track. The song was met with universal acclaim from music critics, with general praise for West's lyricism. In a highly positive review for Slant Magazine, Eric Henderson noted "Can't Tell Me Nothing" for having the "most justifiable title" on the album and expressed the opinion that "you couldn't find a campus library cavernous enough" for annotating the song. Dan Weiss from LAS Magazine highlighted it as the peak of West's examination of "his character flaws every few tracks in a manner that's neither pitying nor arrogant" throughout the album, with Weiss branding the song a "secret sing-along." Dave Heaton of PopMatters described the song as a "powerful single," while he commented that it is the only track on Graduation which deals with reservations about the album's "major theme" of fame and wealth "in any substantial way." In the Chicago Tribune, Greg Kot chronicled West's performance as "defiant, defensive, rueful, sarcastic and deadly passionate." Nathan Rabin from The A.V. Club called the song a "terrific hyper-soul single" that "tempers" the enthusiasm of West "with the haunting realization that for someone who's hit the top, there's nowhere to go but down, and the public's love has a tricky way of curdling into resentment." MTV writer Shaheem Reid called it "aptly titled," while complimenting West's rapping for him dropping "a myriad of one-liners." Writing for NME, Louis Pattison labeled the song "pretty special," describing it as "a rare sort of track that brings little but chest-pumped arrogance and shameless cash-flashing to the table." Jesal 'Jay Soul' Padania of RapReviews viewed "Can't Tell Me Nothing" as "brilliant" and pointed out that the beat, verses and chorus are "all classic stuff." Spin journalist Charles Aaron praised the song's "soulful double-unconsciousness." For Pitchfork, Mark Pytlik asserted that the song's production somehow takes "on new life in context of the record." In a less enthusiastic review, The Guardians Dorian Lynskey branded it a "tense, angry" track, though criticized certain lyrics for being disappointing. Accolades "Can't Tell Me Nothing" appeared on year-end lists for 2007 of multiple publications. The track was voted 34th on The Village Voices Pazz & Jop poll for that year with 12 mentions, tying it with 4 other songs for the position. PopMatters named the track the 30th best song of 2007, with Barry Lenser of the magazine praising West's performance as well as calling the track "rich and hypnotic." It was ranked as the 29th best song of the year by Junkmedia, while Pitchfork listed the track as the 25th best song. Stylus Magazine cited it as the 13th best song of 2007. The track was ranked by Entertainment Weekly as the sixth best song of the year, and the staff admitted that the beat "might be [West's] most mesmerizing ever." Consequence of Sound named it the third best song of 2007, while the track's best achievement was being listed as the second best song of the year by laut.de. For the 2014 issue of XXL that celebrated 40 years of hip hop, the track was listed as one of the five best singles of 2007 by the magazine. In 2009, the track was ranked as the fifth best song of the 2000s by Complex. On a 2017 list of the greatest rap songs since 2000 by Cleveland.com, the track was ranked at number 56. In 2014, LA Weekly named "Can't Tell Me Nothing" the 17th best song in hip hop history. Complex named the track their song of the Complex decade, which spanned from when the magazine was founded in 2002 to its 10th anniversary in 2012. The track was later ranked by Complex as West's second best song in 2018, while the magazine listed it among rap's most motivational songs two years later. At the 50th Annual Grammy Awards in 2008, the song and fellow Graduation single "Good Life" were both contenders for the award of Best Rap Song. This made West the only artist to receive two nominations for Best Rap Song at the ceremony; he was mostly nominated in rap categories. However, the song lost the award to "Good Life" at the Grammy Awards. "Can't Tell Me Nothing" was nominated for Track of the Year at the 2007 BET Hip Hop Awards, ultimately losing to "Party Like a Rockstar" by Shop Boyz. Music videos Two separate music videos were released to accompany "Can't Tell Me Nothing". The first music video was directed by Hype Williams, who West had collaborated with previously on videos. Due to wanting to create simplistic images with the visual, West reached out to Williams. It was filmed at the dry lake bed El Mirage Lake, which is located in the Mojave Desert's northwestern Victor Valley. On May 25, 2007, the video was premiered by West through his website. It was also released for download via the iTunes Store. The music video is set in both daytime and the night, seeing West wearing a mankerchief and medallion. It features West as the sole star, with him walking around the desert. West is accompanied by his silhouette, and there is a vivid blue sky and blazing sun in the background. A number of scenes are shot from above, showing the body of West moving in and out of view. Following on from the shots, a smoke machine and spotlights are turned on. A Lamborghini car is included in the video, appearing as B-roll footage. In another B-roll shot, a girl wearing a fly away burka is shown, which was compared to the clothing worn in the 1998 music video for American singer Madonna's single "Frozen". Steven Gottlieb of Video Static called the visual "surprisingly watchable" and commented that its "epic scope makes sure we can't take our eyes off [West]," while Nadine Cheung from The Boombox described West as looking "tough" as his silhouette "dances among a sprawling desert." Entertainment Weeklys Chris Schonberger opined that the music video "offers a rather insightful takeon Kanye's controversial persona" and said he "is removed from the vices that threaten his yearning for spirituality" when wandering the desert, as well as noting the clip's "epic quality" due to the scenes shot from above. The staff of Stereogum highlighted the video's "stuttering camera work." An alternate music video for "Can't Tell Me Nothing" was directed by American actor Michael Blieden, who shot it in New York after receiving an email from comedian Zach Galifianakis that told him to fly there for the filming. The production was handled by Blieden and film director Inman Young. Of the video's creation, Blieden recalled him and the production team asking themselves, "What if two farmers from North Carolina set out to make their own Kanye West music video...and succeeded?" Though hiring clog dancers for the visual was Galifianakis' idea, they were tracked down by Young. West had been introduced to Galifianakis' work through his personal trainer, and eventually asked him to perform in the alternate video after attending one of Galifianakis' stand-up shows in Los Angeles. The unscripted, low-budget music video was filmed at Galifianakis' farm in North Carolina. Galifianakis admitted that he struggled to lip-sync the song's lyrics at the correct pace, as well as finding it difficult to use a tractor. On July 25, 2007, West shared the alternate music video on his website. In the video, Galifianakis and folk singer-songwriter Will Oldham lip-sync to the song while dancing on tractors, with the two of them being surrounded by cows. Various farm-related high jinks are featured, and Galifianakis and Oldham spit gratuitously. An exploding tractor, numerous clog dancers, and hay bales are included. In one scene, the words "I Love Turd" are shown on Galifianakis' forehead while he holds a chainsaw. The alternate video was selected by Rolling Stone as the third best music video of 2007, while Pitchfork listed it as one of the top 50 videos of the year. On a list of the top 50 music videos from the 2000s decade, Pitchfork ranked the clip at number 13. At the 2009 Antville Music Video Awards, the alternate music video was nominated for Most Fun Video. Commercial performance The song debuted at number 80 on the US Billboard Hot 100 for the issue dated June 9, 2007, standing as the third highest new entry of that week. For the same issue, the song entered at number 73 on the US Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart. It ultimately peaked at number 41 on the Hot 100 for the issue date of September 29, 2007. The song was present at number 24 on the US Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart for that week, though it rose four places to peak at number 20 on the chart the following week. On September 29, 2007, the song peaked at number eight on the US Hot Rap Songs chart. In September 2020, "Can't Tell Me Nothing" was certified triple platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for selling 3,000,000 certified units in the US. On the UK Singles Chart, the song peaked at number 107 for the chart dated June 23, 2007. "Can't Tell Me Nothing" was certified silver by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) for sales of 200,000 units in the United Kingdom in August 2018. As of October 24, 2019, the song ranks as West's 32nd most popular track of all time on the UK Singles Chart. For the issue date of September 29, 2012, the song entered at number 159 on France's SNEP chart. The following week, it rose 14 places to number 145. In December 2015, "Can't Tell Me Nothing" was certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) for shipments of 35,000 copies in Australia. Live performances On June 1, 2007, West made a surprise appearance at DJ Gomez Warren's set in Los Angeles to play "Can't Tell Me Nothing". West performed the song as part of his set at a concert of the Live Earth event in 2007, accompanied by a string section which included female members that wore exotic face paint. On July 7 of that year, West performed the song during his appearance at the Manchester Apollo for the Manchester International Festival. For S.O.B.'s impromptu jam session in Manhattan on July 18, 2007, hosted by Hot 97, West deliver a performance of the song. West performed a medley during his in-studio appearance for MTV's Total Request Live on August 10, 2007, which consisted of the song and fellow Graduation single "Stronger". On September 11 of that year, West transitioned from a snippet of the album's track "Champion" into a performance of "Can't Tell Me Nothing" when appearing on BET's 106 & Park. West performed the song to open the 2007 BET Hip Hop Awards, surrounded by black-clad dancers who moved around similarly to ballerinas. At the launch party for the new T-Mobile Sidekick LX in Los Angeles' Griffith Park on October 17, 2007, West made a surprise appearance that included him performing the song. During his surprise appearance at a Kid Sister concert in New York's Museum of Natural History on January 25, 2008, West delivered a performance of the song. West performed "Can't Tell Me Nothing" as a duet with collaborator Jay-Z at the American Airlines Arena in Miami for the opening concert of the Heart of the City Tour, co-headlined by Mary J. Blige and Jay-Z, on March 22, 2008. At the opening of Murakami's exhibit in the Brooklyn Museum on April 4 of that year, West performed the song live, extending the performance into a freestyle. West and Young Jeezy performed "Can't Tell Me Nothing" together at the Philips Arena in Atlanta for the 13th annual Hot 107.9 Birthday Bash concert on June 13, 2008. During the first concert of West's conceptual Glow in the Dark Tour, an LCD screen seated behind him displayed a fiery explosion that ignited for the song's "oh" vocals while he performed. West performed the song on the final night of Lollapalooza 2008 in his hometown of Chicago, which he co-headlined with Nine Inch Nails. Dressed in an all red outfit, West performed "Can't Tell Me Nothing" during his set at Z100's the Jingle Ball concert in Madison Square Garden on December 12, 2008. West delivered a performance of the song in Hyde Park when headlining the second and final day of the 2009 Wireless Festival. On August 6, 2009, he performed it for Casio G-Shock's the World event at Cipriani's on Wall Street, performing in front of a shifting digital display screen that counted down the time West was onstage. At the 2011 Coachella Festival, West transitioned from his single "Jesus Walks" (2004) into a performance of the song. West's dancers left the stage during the transition and for the performance, he remained at the front of the stage throughout. West headlined the 2015 Glastonbury Festival, with his set including a performance of the song. As part of West and his gospel group the Sunday Service Choir's tribute to deceased basketball player Kobe Bryant at the Super Bowl LIV in 2020, they performed the song. West and the Sunday Service Choir performed a gospel version of "Can't Tell Me Nothing" at the Credit Union 1 Arena in Chicago on February 16, 2020. In popular culture During West's rivalry with 50 Cent that was caused by the coinciding release date of September 11, 2007 for both Graduation and 50 Cent's third studio album Curtis, West recalled "Can't Tell Me Nothing" being "the #2 song [on the radio]" in New York at one point, while 50 Cent simultaneously had the radio's most popular song with the album's third single "I Get Money". West explained that the singles were "neck-and-neck," which he called "exciting to people." By October 2007, West recalled people comparing the song to "Spaceship" from his debut studio album The College Dropout (2004), saying people told him that both songs gave them inspiration "when they going [sic] to work." "Can't Tell Me Nothing" was included as the sixth track on the compilation album Now That's What I Call Music! 26, released on November 13, 2007 as the 26th edition of the Now series in the US. For the soundtrack of 2009 American comedy film The Hangover, the song was included. It is played alongside a scene that sees the wolfpack driving to Las Vegas for the film's bachelor party, with the line "Wait 'til I get my money right" being part of the portion of the song which is featured. West's music was used in all of the films released as part of The Hangover trilogy, being included in the soundtrack for the second and third installments of the film series in 2011 and 2013, respectively. In an October 2013 interview on Power 106, West revealed that the track is his favorite song to have been released by him. On August 16, 2018, Kanye's wife Kim Kardashian shared a video of her playing the song to their son Saint West, who recognized it as being rapped by his father. Remixes and other versions The official remix of "Can't Tell Me Nothing", which features Young Jeezy, was released on July 25, 2007. Pimp C of American hip hop duo UGK had originally been slated to appear on the remix, though his verse was ultimately removed due to him dissing Young Jeezy in it. Speaking about the situation, Pimp C recalled promising not to "drop that shit, because Kanye told me that the song is a prayer," and a reworked version of the song's chorus was also recorded by him. Of the remix, Jay-Z said that it was used to help build up anticipation for Graduation and he also admitted that there is "a strategy involved" for putting "yourself in the best position." The remix includes a verse by Young Jeezy and new lines from Kanye West. Later in 2007, it was released on the A-side of the song's 12" vinyl, while also released as the B-side to "Good Life". Another remix was released on August 30, 2007, with guest appearances from fellow rappers Lil Wayne and Busta Rhymes alongside Young Jeezy. It features shouting by DJs and Lil Wayne delivering instant message speak, as well as more ad-libs from Young Jeezy. The following month, the Rocafella Remix of "Can't Tell Me Nothing" was released, featuring West's labelmates Beanie Sigel and Freeway. On February 7, 2009, West linked to American pop project Francis and the Lights' cover version of the song on his blog. The cover maintains the hip hop sound of the original version and the project's lead singer Francis Farewell Starlite felt that being among the artists shared via West's blog is "an honor," while he explained that covering the song "was in essence a 'call' to him" that sent a personal message about his feelings towards West's music. During Billboards instalment of Mashup Mondays for August 8, 2011, alternative rock band Taking Back Sunday performed an acoustic cover of the song. On November 26, 2014, recorder and early woodwinds player Carlos Serrano shared a mashup of "Can't Tell Me Nothing" with English singer Sam Smith's single "I'm Not the Only One" (2014) to his SoundCloud page. Track listing U.S. 12" vinyl' A-side "Can't Tell Me Nothing" (Album) "Can't Tell Me Nothing" (Instrumental) "Can't Tell Me Nothing" (Remix) (featuring Young Jeezy) B-side "Barry Bonds" (Main) "Barry Bonds" (Instrumental) "Barry Bonds" (Accapella) Credits and personnel Information taken from Graduation liner notes. Recording Recorded at Doppler Studios (Atlanta, GA), Sony Music Studios (NYC), The Record Plant (Hollywood, CA) and Chalice Studios (Los Angeles, CA) Mixed at Encore Studios (Los Angeles, CA) and Chung King Studios (NYC) Personnel Kanye West songwriter, production DJ Toomp songwriter, production Andrew Dawson recording, mixer Anthony Kilhoffer recording Tony Rey recording Mike Dean mixer Darryl Beaton keyboards Chris Rob keyboards Young Jeezy additional vocals Connie Mitchell additional vocals Charts Weekly charts Year-end charts Certifications Release history Further reading References External links "Can't Tell Me Nothing" Lyrics at MTV (archive from 2008) 2007 singles 2007 songs Kanye West songs Music videos directed by Hype Williams Roc-A-Fella Records singles Song recordings produced by DJ Toomp Song recordings produced by Kanye West Songs written by DJ Toomp Songs written by Kanye West

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Shneur Zalman of Liadi (, September 4, 1745 – December 15, 1812 O.S. / 18 Elul 5505 – 24 Tevet 5573), was an influential rabbi and the founder and first Rebbe of Chabad, a branch of Hasidic Judaism, then based in Liadi in the Russian Empire. He was the author of many works, and is best known for Shulchan Aruch HaRav, Tanya, and his Siddur Torah Or compiled according to the Nusach Ari. Zalman is a Yiddish variant of Solomon and Shneur (or Shne'or) is a Yiddish composite of the two Hebrew words "shnei ohr" (שני אור "two lights"). Zalman of Liady is also known as "Shneur Zalman Baruchovitch," Baruchovitch being the Russian patronymic from his father Baruch, and by a variety of other titles and acronyms including "Baal HaTanya VeHaShulchan Aruch'" (Author of the Tanya and the Shulchan Aruch), "Alter Rebbe" (Yiddish for ″Old Rabbi″), "Admor HaZaken" (Hebrew for ″Our Master, Our Teacher, and Our Old Rabbi″), "Rabbenu HaZaken" (Hebrew for ″Our Old Rabbi″), "Rabbenu HaGadol" (Hebrew for ″Our Great Rabbi″)", "RaShaZ" ( for Rabbi Shneor Zalman), "GRaZ" ( for Ga'on Rabbi Zalman), and "HaRav" (The Rabbi, par excellence). Biography Early life Shneur Zalman was born in 1745 in the small town of Liozna, Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (present-day Belarus). He was the son of Baruch, who was a paternal descendant of the mystic and philosopher Rabbi Judah Loew ben Bezalel. According to Meir Perels of Prague, the Maharal was the great-great-grandson of Judah Leib the Elder who was said to have descended paternally from Hai Gaon and therefore also from the Davidic dynasty, however several modern historians such as Otto Muneles and Shlomo Engard have questioned this claim. Shneur Zalman was a prominent (and the youngest) disciple of Dov Ber of Mezeritch, the "Great Maggid", who was in turn the successor of the founder of Hasidic Judaism, Yisrael ben Eliezer, known as the Baal Shem Tov. He displayed extraordinary talent while still a child. By the time he was eight years old, he wrote an all-inclusive commentary on the Torah based on the works of Rashi, Nahmanides and Abraham ibn Ezra. Until the age of 12, he studied under Issachar Ber in Lyubavichi (Lubavitch); he distinguished himself as a Talmudist, such that his teacher sent him back home, informing his father that the boy could continue his studies without the aid of a teacher. At the age of 12, he delivered a discourse concerning the complicated laws of Kiddush Hachodesh, to which the people of the town granted him the title "Rav". At age 15 he married Sterna Segal, the daughter of Yehuda Leib Segal, a wealthy resident of Vitebsk, and he was then able to devote himself entirely to study. During these years, Shneur Zalman was introduced to mathematics, geometry, and astronomy by two learned brothers, refugees from Bohemia, who had settled in Liozna. One of them was also a scholar of the Kabbalah. Thus, besides mastering rabbinic literature, he also acquired a fair knowledge of the sciences, philosophy, and Kabbalah. He became an adept in Isaac Luria's system of Kabbalah, and in 1764 he became a disciple of Dov Ber of Mezeritch. In 1767, at the age of 22, he was appointed maggid of Liozna, a position he held until 1801. Parents According to the Chabad Hasidic tradition, Shneur Zalman's father, Baruch, was a laborer who preferred to earn a living as a gardener rather than accept a post as a community rabbi or as a preacher (magid). In this tradition, Baruch was one of the disciples of Rabbi Israel Baal Shem Tov, however, he only occasionally joined his teacher on his legendary travels. This tradition is used to justify why Hasidic records do not refer to Baruch as with a rabbinic title, claiming that Baruch was averse to any public acknowledgment of his status. Misnagdim In the course of the Hasidic movement's establishment, opponents (Misnagdim) arose among the local Jewish community. Disagreements between Hasidim and their opponents included debates concerning knives used by butchers for shechita, and the phrasing of prayers, among others. Shneur Zalman and a fellow Hasidic leader, Menachem Mendel of Vitebsk (or, according to the tradition in the Soloveitchik family, Levi Yitzchok of Berditchev), attempted to persuade the leader of Lithuanian Jewry, the Vilna Gaon, of the legitimacy of Hasidic practices. However, the Gaon refused to meet with them. Children and succession Shneur Zalman's sons were: Dov Ber Schneuri who eventually succeeded him, Chaim Avraham, and Moshe. Shneur Zalman's daughters were named Freida, Devorah Leah and Rochel. Other families have lore telling that they are also descendants, but they are undocumented in existing family records. Dov Ber Shneuri Dovber Schneuri succeeded his father as Rebbe of the Chabad movement. At the age of 39, while studying in the city of Kremenchug, Shneur Zalman died. Shneuri then moved to the small border-town of Lubavichi, from which the movement would take its name. His accession was disputed by one of his father's prime students, Aharon HaLevi of Strashelye, however the majority of Shneur Zalman's followers stayed with Schneuri, and moved to Lubavichi. Thus Chabad had now split into two branches, each taking the name of their location to differentiate themselves from each other. He established a Yeshivah in Lubavitch, which attracted gifted young scholars. His nephew/son-in-law, Menachem Mendel of Lubavitch, headed the Yeshivah, and later became his successor. Thus, while Schneuri succeeded his father as Rebbe of the Chabad movement, a senior disciple of his father, Aharon HaLevi of Strashelye, a popular and respected figure, differed with him on a number of issues and led a breakaway movement. Strashelye When Schneur Zalman died, many of his followers flocked to one of his top students, Aharon HaLevi of Strashelye. He had been Shneur Zalman's closest disciple for over thirty years. While many more became followers of Dovber Shneuri, the Strashelye school of Chassidic thought was the subject of many of Dovber's discourses. Aharon HaLevi emphasized the importance of basic emotions in divine service (especially the service of prayer). Dovber Shneuri did not reject the role of emotion in prayer, but emphasized that if the emotion in prayer is to be genuine, it can only be a result of contemplation and understanding (hisbonenus) of the explanations of Chassidus, which in turn will lead to an attainment of "bittul" (self-nullification before the Divine). In his work entitled Kuntres Hispa'alus ("Tract on Ecstasy"), Dovber Shneuri argues that only through ridding oneself of what he considered disingenuous emotions could one attain the ultimate level in Chassidic worship (that is, bittul). Moshe Schneersohn Moshe Schneersohn (born c. 1784 - died, before 1853) was the youngest son of Shneur Zalman. According to scholars he converted to Christianity and died in a St. Petersburg asylum. Chabad sources say that his conversion and related documents were faked by the Church, but Belarusian State archives in Minsk uncovered by historian Shaul Stampfer support the conversion. Lithuania During the latter portion of Dovber's life, his students dispersed over Europe, and after Dovber's death, Shneur Zalman became the leader of Hasidism in Lithuania, along with his senior colleague Menachem Mendel of Vitebsk. When Menachem Mendel died (in 1788), Shneur Zalman was recognized as leader of the Chassidim in Lithuania. At the time Lithuania was the center of the misnagdim (opponents of Hasidism), and Shneur Zalman faced much opposition. In 1774 he and Menachem Mendel of Vitebsk traveled to Vilna in an attempt to create a dialogue with the Vilna Gaon who led the Misnagdim and had issued a ban (cherem) against the Hasidim, but the Gaon refused to see them (see Vilna Gaon: Antagonism to Hasidism and Hasidim and Mitnagdim). Undaunted by this antagonism, he succeeded in creating a large network of Hasidic centers. He also joined opposition to Napoleon's advance on Russia by recruiting his disciples to the Czar's army. He was also active in canvassing financial support for the Jewish settlements in the Land of Israel, then under the control of the Ottoman Empire. Philosophy: Chabad See Hasidic philosophy As a Talmudist, Shneur Zalman endeavored to place Kabbalah and Hasidism on a rational basis. In his seminal work, Tanya, he defines his approach as "" ("mind ruling over the heart/emotions"). He chose the name "Chabad" for this philosophy—the Hebrew acronym for the intellectual attributes (sefirot) Chochma ("wisdom"), Bina ("understanding"), and Da'at ("knowledge”). According to Shneur Zalman, a man is neither a static nor a passive entity. He is a dynamic being who must work to develop his potential talent and perfect himself. Both in his works and in his sermons he "indicated an intelligent and not a blind faith", and assumed an intellectual accessibility of the mystical teachings of the Kabbalah. This intellectual basis differentiates Chabad from other forms of Hasidism - in this context referred to as "Chagas"—the "emotional" attributes (sefirot) of Chesed ("kindness"), Gevurah ("power"), and Tiferes ("beauty"). As Shneur Zalman, founder of the Chabad intellectual school in Hasidism, shared the same Hebrew birthday (18th of Ellul, some 47 years apart) with the Baal Shem Tov, founder of the whole Hasidic movement, Habad tradition identifies them symbolically with the 2 Great Luminaries of the 4th day of Creation (Genesis 1:16: "And God made the two great luminaries: the greater light to rule the day, and the lesser light to rule the night". In Rabbinic esoteric midrash, the sun and moon were originally created equal ("2 Great Lights"), the moon only later losing its light ("the lesser"). Accordingly, as the "2 Great Luminaries" of Hasidism, the Baal Shem Tov corresponds to the sun, Shneur Zalman to the moon before it was diminished. The Baal Shem Tov revealed infinite divine faith, Shneur Zalman drew the faith of Hasidic thought down into intellectual grasp. In Likkutei Sichos talks, the 7th Rebbe equates the Hasidic Rebbes followed in Chabad with different Sephirot divine manifestations: the Baal Shem Tov with Keter infinite faith, Shneur Zalman with Chokhmah wisdom, the 2nd Chabad Rebbe with Binah understanding, etc. Opposition to Napoleon and support for the Tsar During the French invasion of Russia, while many Polish Hasidic leaders supported Napoleon or remained quiet about their support, Shneur Zalman openly and vigorously supported the Tsar. While fleeing from the advancing French army he wrote a letter explaining his opposition to Napoleon to a friend, Moshe Meizeles: Some argue that Shneur Zalman's opposition stemmed from Napoleon's attempts to arouse a messianic view of himself in Jews, opening the gates of the ghettos and emancipating their residents as he conquered. He established an ersatz Sanhedrin, recruiting Jews to his ranks, and spreading rumors about his conquest of the Holy Land to make Jews subversive for his own ends. Thus, his opposition was based on a practical fear of Jews turning to the false messianism of Napoleon as he saw it. Yisroel Hopsztajn of Kozienice, another Hasidic leader, also considered Napoleon a menace to the Jewish people, but believed that after victory over Russia, Messiah will arrive. Menachem Mendel Schneerson identifies Hopsztajn as the Chasidic leader who preferred that Napoleon defeat the Czar. Arrests In 1797 following the death of the Gaon, leaders of the Vilna community accused the Hasidim of subversive activities - on charges of supporting the Ottoman Empire, since Shneur Zalman advocated sending charity to support Jews living in the Ottoman territory of Palestine. In 1798 he was arrested on suspicion of treason and brought to St. Petersburg where he was held in the Petropavlovski fortress for 53 days, at which time he was subjected to an examination by a secret commission. Ultimately he was released by order of Paul I of Russia. The Hebrew day of his acquittal and release, 19 Kislev, 5559 on the Hebrew calendar, is celebrated annually by Chabad Hasidim, who hold a festive meal and make communal pledges to learn the whole of the Talmud; this practice is known as "Chalukat HaShas". In Chabad tradition, his imprisonment is interpreted as a reflection of accusations in Heaven that he was revealing his new dimensions of mystical teachings too widely. The traditional tendency to conceal Jewish mysticism is founded on the Kabbalistic notion of the Sephirot. The side of Divine Chesed seeks to give physical and spiritual blessing without restriction. This is counterbalanced by the side of Gevurah, which measures and restricts the flow to the capacity and merit of the recipient. The subsequent Sephirah of Hod implements any restriction in order to preserve the glory of the Divine majesty. In the Hasidic story of an earlier episode among the "Holy Society" disciples of Dov Ber of Mezeritch, one of the great followers saw a page of Hasidic writings blowing around the courtyard. He regretted the undue dissemination of Hasidut for its desecration of Divine holiness. In the account, his vocalisation of these thoughts caused a Heavenly accusation against the Maggid, for revealing too much. The young Schneur Zalman replied with a famous Hasidic parable: A king had an only son who became ill and all the attending doctors were at a loss of how to heal him. A wise person understood the only possible cure. He told the king that he would have to desecrate the royal crown by removing its most precious jewel. This would have to be ground up and fed to the king's son. The king regretted the loss to his majesty but immediately agreed that the life of his son was more important. The jewel was ground and the solution was fed to the son. Most of the cure fell to the ground, but the son received a few drops and became cured. Concluded Schneur Zalman in defence of Hasidic dissemination, the king represents God, and the son represents the Jewish community, who recognise the "God of Israel". At the time of the emerging Hasidic movement, the Jewish people were at a physical and spiritual low ebb. The only cure would be the dissemination of the inner Divine teachings of Hasidic thought. Even though this would also involve their desecration, this would fully be justified in order to heal the people. The accusing student of the Maggid realised the wisdom of this, and agreed with Schneur Zalman. When the Maggid heard about this, he told Schneur Zalman that "you have saved me from the Heavenly accusation". The story of this parable is famous across other Hasidic dynasties as well. Chabad commentary asks about this the question of why a new Heavenly accusation would have arisen against Shneur Zalman himself, and result in his incarceration in St. Petersburg. Had he not already received the Heavenly agreement to the wisdom of disseminating Chassidic teachings? Since Chabad thought presented Hasidic thought with a new degree of elucidation in intellectual form, this caused a new, more severe Heavenly accusation to emerge. This went beyond the justified spiritual revival and healing of mainstream Hasidism. Here, in Hasidic thought, Schneur Zalman was seeking to fulfill the Messianic impulse to disseminate Hasidic philosophy as a preparation for Mashiach. Therefore, his subsequent exoneration by the Tzarist authorities is interpreted in Chabad as a new Heavenly agreement to begin the fullest dissemination of Hasidic thought without its prior limitations. Chabad tradition tells that in prison, Schneur Zalman was visited by the deceased Baal Shem Tov and Maggid of Mezeritch, who told him the reason for his imprisonment. In reply to the question of whether he should stop, they replied that once released, he should continue with even more dedication. Therefore, in Chabad thought, the 19th day of Kislev is called the "New Year of Hasidut", complementing the other 4 Halachic "New Year" dates in the Hebrew calendar. In 1800 Rav Shneur Zalman was again arrested and transported to St. Petersburg, this time along with his son Moshe who served as interpreter, as his father spoke no Russian or French. He was released after several weeks but banned from leaving St. Petersburg. The accession of Tsar Alexander I (Alexander I of Russia) to the throne,a few weeks later, led to his release; he was then “given full liberty to proclaim his religious teachings” by the Russian government. According to some, his first arrest was not the result of anti-Hasidic agitators fabricating charges, or officials seeking extortion monies. An accusation was made on May 8, 1798 by Hirsh ben David of Vilna accused him of trying to assist the French Revolution, by sending money to Napoleon and the Sultan. Since this Hirsch ben David was untraceable, some were led to believe that there was no such person as Hirsh and the authorities were attempting to stir up internecine fighting among the Jews. Liadi After his release he moved his base to Liadi, Vitebsk Region, Imperial Russia; rather than returning to Liozna. He took up his residence in the town of Liadi at the invitation of Polish Prince Stanisław Lubomirski, voivode of the town, were Zalman settled for the next 12 years. His movement grew there immensely, and to this day he is associated with the town. In 1812, fleeing the French Invasion, he left Mogilev, intending to go to Poltava, but died on the way in the small village of Pena, Kursk Oblast. He is buried in Hadiach. Subsequent history of Chabad See Chabad#History Dovber Schneuri moved the movement to the town of Lubavitch (Lyubavichi) in present-day Russia. A top follower of Shneur Zalman, Aharon HaLevi Horowitz, established a rival Chabad school in Strashelye, which did not last after his death. In 1940, under the leadership of the previous Rebbe, Yosef Yitzchok Schneersohn, the Chabad-Lubavitch movement moved its headquarters to Brooklyn, New York in the United States. Under the leadership of Menachem Mendel Schneerson, Chabad established branches all over the world staffed by its own Lubavitch-trained and ordained rabbis with their wives and children. The number of branches continues to grow to this day, and existing branches continue to expand. Many descendants of Shneur Zalman carry surnames such as Shneur, Shneuri, Schneerson, and Zalman. Works Shneur Zalman was a prolific writer. He produced works of both mysticism and Jewish law. Chabad tradition recasts his Yiddish name "Shneur" (שניאור) as the two Hebrew words "Shnei Ohr" (שני אור-Two Lights), referring to Schneur Zalman's mastery of both the outer dimensions of Talmudic Jewish study, and the inner dimensions of Jewish mysticism. His works form the cornerstone of Chabad philosophy. His ability to explain even the most complex issues of Torah made his writings popular with Torah scholars everywhere. Tanya He is probably best known for his systematic exposition of Hasidic Jewish philosophy, entitled Likkutei Amarim, more widely known as the Tanya, said to be first published in 1797. The legendary 1797 Tanya got lost in a fire and no copies survived. The extant version of this work dates from 1814. Due to the popularity of this book, Hasidic Jews often refer to Shneur Zalman as the Baal HaTanya (lit. "Master of the Tanya"). The Tanya deals with Jewish spirituality and psychology from a Kabbalistic point of view, and philosophically expounds on such themes as the Oneness of God, Tzimtzum, the Sefirot, simcha, bitachon (confidence), among many other mystical concepts. Shulchan Aruch HaRav Shneur Zalman is well known for the Shulchan Aruch HaRav, a collection of authoritative codes of Jewish laws and customs commissioned by Dovber of Mezeritch and composed at the legendary age of twenty-one. The Maggid of Mezeritch sought a new version of the classic Shulkhan Arukh for the Hasidic movement. The work states a selection of decided halakha, as well as the underlying reasoning, and common Hasidic customs. The Shulchan Aruch HaRav is considered authoritative by other Hasidim, and citations to this work are many times found in non-Hasidic sources such as the Mishnah Berurah used by Lithuanian Jews and the Ben Ish Chai used by Sephardic Jews. Shneur Zalman is also one of three halachic authorities on whom Shlomo Ganzfried based his Kitzur Shulkhan Arukh (Concise version of Jewish law). Siddur He also edited the first Chabad siddur, based on the Ari Siddur of the famous kabbalist Isaac Luria of Safed, but he altered it for general use, and corrected its textual errors. Today's Siddur Tehillat HaShem is a later print of Shneur Zalman's Siddur. Music Shneur Zalman composed a number of Hassidic melodies. Some accompany certain prayers, others are sung to Biblical verses or are melodies without words. Depending on the tune they are meant to arouse joy, spiritual ecstasy or teshuvah. One special melody, commonly referred to as The Alter Rebbe's Niggun or Dalet Bovos, is reserved by Chabad Hassidim for ushering a groom and bride to their wedding canopy and other select occasions. Other Shneur Zalman's other works include: Torah Or and Likutei Torah, chassidic explanations of the weekly Torah portions, Shir HaShirim and the Book of Esther, drawn from his Hasidic Discourses and published by his grandson, the Tzemach Tzedek, who added his own glosses. Sefer HaMa'amarim, also known as Maamarei Admor HaZaken, Hassidic Discourses: Hanachot HaRaP; Et’haleich Lyozna; 5562- 2 vol.; 5563, 2 vol.; 5564; 5565, 2 vol.; 5566; 5567; 5568, 2 vol.; 5569; 5570; 5571; Haketzarim; Al Parshiyot HaTorah VehaMoadim, 2 vol.; Inyanim; Ma’amarei Razal; Nach, 3 vol. Hilchot Talmud Torah, on the study of Torah. Sefer She’elot Uteshuvot, Responsa. Siddur Im Dach, a prayerbook with Hasidic discourses Boneh Yerushalayim. Me'ah She'arim. Igrot Kodesh, 2 vol. References External links Rabbi Schneur Zalman 1745–1812, chabad.org Founder of Chabad, chabad.org The Alter Rebbe, lessonsintanya.com Rabbi Schneur Zalman of Liadi, Adin Steinsaltz Rabbi Shneiur Zalman of Ladi (1746–1812), Prof. Eliezer Segal Shneor Zalman Ben Baruch, jewishencyclopedia.com Rabbi Shneur Zalman of Liadi 5505–5573 (1745–1812), asknoah.org What is Lubavitch Chasidism and Chabad?, scjfaq.org Family Tree Books by Rabbi Shneur Zalman From chabadlibrary.org 1745 births 1812 deaths 18th-century Jewish theologians 18th-century philosophers 18th-century rabbis 19th-century Jewish theologians 19th-century philosophers 19th-century rabbis Belarusian Hasidic rabbis Exponents of Jewish law Hasidic rabbis in Europe Jewish philosophers Jewish theologians Kabbalists Panentheists People from Liozna District Philosophers of Judaism Philosophers of religion Rebbes of Lubavitch Russian Hasidic rabbis Authors of books on Jewish law Hasidic writers Students of Dov Ber of Mezeritch

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The mayor of New York City is elected in early November every four years, in the year immediately following a United States presidential election year, and takes office at the beginning of the following year. The city, which elects the mayor as its chief executive, consists of the five boroughs (Manhattan, The Bronx, Brooklyn, Queens and Staten Island), which consolidated to form "Greater" New York on January 1, 1898. The consolidated city's first mayor, Robert A. Van Wyck, was elected with other municipal officers in November 1897. Mayoral elections previously had been held since 1834 by the City of Brooklyn and the smaller, unconsolidated City of New York (Manhattan, later expanded into the Bronx). Eric Adams took office 12:01 AM on January 1, 2022 at a private swearing-in, followed by a public ceremony later in the day. He is the second Black mayor in the history of the city. He follows Bill de Blasio, who served two consecutive terms after being elected in 2013 and for a second term in 2017. Overview Scope of this article The vast bulk of this page's contents is statistical: the main results, citywide and by borough, of each of the 32 elections to the Mayoralty of the City of New York since Greater New York was consolidated from the five boroughs in 1897-1898. For many years, but not all, there are also results for minor candidates and for the different parties nominating the same major candidate. (Because minor parties' votes are not uniformly available, totals and thus percentages can be slightly inconsistent, either between different elections or between individual boroughs and the entire city in the same election.) There are brief comments about some of the elections, and separate articles have been written for those of 1917, 1977, 1997, 2001, 2005, and 2009. Different elections are compared in many of the individual notes, in two summary tables and in one specialized table. New York City's mayoral elections have been marked by an interplay of factors that are magnified by the size of the population. There was a history of a large socialist vote, there is a history of tension between 'regular' and 'reform' politicians, and there has been electoral fusion, a factor not seen in most of the rest of the United States, with a resulting plethora of smaller, yet influential, third parties. Terms and term limits (since 1834) Direct elections to the mayoralty of the unconsolidated City of New York began in 1834 for a term of one year, extended to two years after 1849. The 1897 Charter of the consolidated City stipulated that the mayor was to be elected for a single four-year term. In 1901, the term halved to two years, with no restrictions on reelection. In 1905, the term was extended to four years once again. (Mayors Fiorello La Guardia, Robert F. Wagner Jr. and Ed Koch were later able to serve for twelve years each.) In 1993, the voters approved a two-term (eight-year) limit, and reconfirmed this limit when the issue was submitted to referendum in 1996. In 2008, the New York City Council voted to change the two-term limit to three terms (without submitting the issue to the voters). Legal challenges to the Council's action were rejected by Federal courts in January and April, 2009. However, in 2010, yet another referendum, reverting the limit to two terms, passed overwhelmingly. Principal source: The Encyclopedia of New York City (see Sources below), entries for "charter" and "mayoralty". See List of mayors of New York City. Mayor Strong, elected in 1894, served an extra year because no municipal election was held in 1896, in anticipation of the consolidated City's switch to odd-year elections. George B. McClellan Jr. was elected to one two-year term (1904–1905) and one four-year term (1906–1909) David Dinkins was not affected by the term limit enacted in 1993 because he had served only one term by 1993 and failed to win re-election. The September 11 attacks on the World Trade Center in Manhattan coincided with the primary elections for a successor to Mayor Giuliani, who was completing his second and final term of office. Many were so impressed by both the urgency of the situation and Giuliani's response that they wanted to keep him in office beyond December 31, 2001, either by removing the term limit or by extending his service for a few months. However, neither happened, the primary elections (with the same candidates) were re-run on September 25, the general election was held as scheduled on November 6, and Michael Bloomberg took office on the regularly appointed date of January 1, 2002. On October 2, 2008, Michael Bloomberg announced that he would ask the city council to extend the limit for mayor, council and other officers from two terms to three, and that, should such an extended limit prevail, he himself would seek re-election as mayor. On October 23, the New York City Council voted 29-22 to extend the two-term limit to three terms. (A proposed amendment to submit the vote to a public referendum had failed earlier the same day by a vote of 22–28 with one abstention.) In November 2010, yet another popular referendum, limiting mayoral terms to two, passed overwhelmingly. Interrupted terms Mayors John T. Hoffman (1866–68, elected Governor 1868), William Havemeyer (1845–46, 1848–49, and 1873–74), William Jay Gaynor (1910–13), Jimmy Walker (1926–32), and William O'Dwyer (1946–50) failed to complete the final terms to which they were elected. The uncompleted mayoral terms of Hoffman, Walker, and O'Dwyer were added to the other offices elected in (respectively) 1868, 1932, and 1950 [those three elections are listed as "special" in the table below because they occurred before the next regularly scheduled mayoral election; the "regular" mayoral elections of 1874 and 1913, on the other hand, were held on the same day that they would have happened had the mayoralty not become vacant.] † Became acting mayor as the president of the board of aldermen or (in 1950) city council. (D) = (Democratic) (R) = (Republican) Mayor Havemeyer was a Democrat who ran as a Republican against the Democratic Tweed Ring in 1872. Acting Mayors Coman, Vance and Kline did not seek election as mayor. Acting Mayors McKee and Impellitteri were Democrats who lost the Democratic primary to succeed themselves, but still ran in the general election as independents. Elected Mayor Oakey Hall won re-election, while Mayor Wickham did not seek it. Mayors Mitchel and O'Brien lost attempts at re-election, while Mayor Impellitteri did not run for a full term in the 1953 regular general election after losing the Democratic primary. Summary tables Principal candidates' city-wide vote since 1897 This chart has several purposes. One is to provide ordinary readers with simple, basic information from a very detailed page. Another is to provide a handy index for those looking for a particular candidate or campaign. (Just click on the year, the candidate's name, or the party name or abbreviation for more details.) A slightly more sophisticated purpose is to sketch out on one screen the flow of votes across parties and candidates, as affected by fusion, splitting, cross-endorsement and the emergence of new movements or personalities. Votes in thousands for principal candidates only, generally those winning more than 4.0% (1/25) of the total vote. (Therefore, low votes may not be shown in a particular year for an otherwise significant party, such as Socialist or Conservative. For some of the lesser left-wing candidates before 1945, see below.) Total vote includes that for all candidates and parties, major and minor. Winner in bold-face in a colored box. Sitting mayor (elected or acting) at the time of the election in italics. To determine the meaning of abbreviations, click the link or check the list below this table. (Different first names, initials and nicknames may be used for the same person purely to fit the available space.) Abbreviations used in this table: Fu. or Fus = Fusion, Ind. = Independent, Ind Fu. = Independent Fusion (1989), Independence or Indep'ce = Independence Party of New York, L or Lib. = Liberal Party of New York, Cons. = Conservative Party of New York, ALP = American Labor Party, Soc. = Socialist Party of America, Jeff'n D = The Democracy of Thomas Jefferson (Henry George, 1897), Civic All'ce = Civic Alliance (Hearst 1909), Exp = Experience party (Impellitteri's label for his independent campaign in 1950), Jobs & Educ. = Independent Jobs & Education party (Bloomberg's personal label sharing a ballot line with Independence Party in 2009) How the boroughs voted See the table above for more information about the candidates and parties involved. Blue indicates a candidate endorsed by the Democratic Party; pink one endorsed by the Republicans; and buff (or beige) one endorsed by neither party. (Darker shades indicate where a borough voted for a candidate who lost the citywide vote.) In 1981, Edward Koch ran on the tickets of both the Democrats and the Republicans. Click a year to see the table or tables for that particular election (# indicates a link devoted to one specific election rather than to a set of two to six.) Although separate boroughs since 1898, the Bronx and Manhattan shared New York County and reported elections together until the separate Bronx County was formed in April 1912 and started her separate existence on January 1, 1914. The borough of Richmond changed its name to Staten Island in 1975, although the co-extensive Richmond County still retains that name. Although it was not uncommon for a candidate to carry all five boroughs in the same election, variations in voting patterns are noticeable. Since it started reporting separate returns in 1913, the Bronx has supported only one Republican (Fiorello La Guardia) and Manhattan has opposed only two successful candidates (Giuliani in 1993 and Bloomberg in 2001). On the other hand, in the eleven elections since 1965 that were contested between Democratic and Republican candidates (i.e. excluding 1981, when Ed Koch was endorsed by both parties), Staten Island has voted for only two Democratic candidates, Abe Beame in 1973 and Koch in 1985. Queens has voted for only three, Abe Beame in 1973, Koch in 1985, and Bill de Blasio in 2017. The City as a whole elected four of the Democratic candidates in those same eleven elections from 1965 to 2009. The Bronx supported all eleven, Brooklyn nine, and Manhattan six. Some basic patterns of mayoral elections in New York City Democrats, Republicans, and reformers One pattern, stretching back well before consolidation and lasting into the 1960s, is the conflict between, on one side, Tammany Hall, the Democratic political organization largely built on political patronage with a consequent deep skepticism about Civil Service, the merit system of assigning government jobs, and competitive bidding for city contracts, and on the other hand, its various opponents, including Republicans, businessmen opposed to taxation or extorted bribes, middle-class reformers and labor union activists. Until the election of Fiorello H. La Guardia in 1933, it was almost never possible to unite the disparate anti-Tammany elements in a coalition strong enough to prevail for more than one election. (This was not only for negative reasons: Tammany could listen to and satisfy some of its opponents' needs, and could on occasion run candidates of undoubted quality, such as Abram Hewitt to oppose Henry George's United Labor Party in 1886. ) In the reported words of the Tammany leader George Washington Plunkitt, reformers were only "mornin' glories —- looked lovely in the mornin' and withered up in a short time, while the regular machines went on flourishin' forever, like fine old oaks.". Quite apart from Tammany Hall itself, both Republicans and left-wing reform parties have always had to deal with the overwhelmingly Democratic sympathies of New York City's voters. An examination of the election table below will show that neither the various Socialist and labor parties nor the Republicans were ever strong enough to elect a Mayor alone without the support, or at least the benign non-hostility, of other parties and independents. Fusion, second ballot lines, and third parties The local term for uniting several constituencies or movements against Tammany was Fusion, which usually required the Republicans to abstain from competing with a non-Republican reform candidate (as in the elections of Seth Low in 1901 and John P. Mitchel in 1913). Later the unusual ability of New York candidates to combine (fuse) votes from several different parties allowed Republicans and Democrats to run their own reform candidates on third party lines, such as "Fusion", American Labor, Liberal, Conservative and Independence. In fact, no Republican has ever been elected Mayor of consolidated New York without the support of at least one other significant party, from LaGuardia to the ex-Democrat Michael Bloomberg. See the Statistical Appendix for other examples. Even when a candidate could not gain another party's support, they often found it expedient to create a separate line or party name for independent voters to support him, such as "Recovery" (Joseph V. McKee in 1933), "Anticommunist" (Jeremiah T. Mahoney in 1937), "Experience" (Vincent Impellitteri in 1950) or "Brotherhood" (Robert F. Wagner, Jr. in 1961). In 1965, Rep. John V. Lindsay (R-Liberal) won votes on the "Independent Citizens" line, while his opponent Comptroller Abe Beame (D) won additional votes for "Civil Service Fusion". Although granting or withholding endorsement was an effective tool for a minor party to influence a candidate's policies and actions, it could sometimes lead to counter-pressure from those who felt that candidates were being swayed too far in the wrong direction. This was one of the main reasons for founding the Conservative Party of New York in 1962 by those upset at the liberalism of Republican Governor Nelson A. Rockefeller and (later) Lindsay, against whose 1965 Mayoral campaign the Conservatives ran William F. Buckley, Jr. More recently, there has been a trend of reformers working not through third parties (such as the now-dormant Liberals) but through Reform Democratic clubs, leading to lively internal contests such as the 1989 Democratic primary where David Dinkins unseated incumbent Mayor Edward Koch who started his own political career in a Reform Democratic Club. On the other side, however, dissatisfied conservatives have created their own new parties outside the Republican Party, such as the New York State Right to Life Party and the Independence Party of New York. Recent elections 2021 Brooklyn Borough President Eric Adams of the Democratic Party defeated Guardian Angels founder Curtis Sliwa, who ran on the Republican and Independent lines by a margin of 441,416 votes or 66.99% against 27.76%. Notable third party candidates included teacher Cathy Rojas of the Party for Socialism and Liberation (2.49%/27,982 votes) and retired police officer Bill Pepitone of the Conservative Party (1.12%/12,575 votes). However, this was ultimately a fairly partisan election by New York City standards with 94% of voters voting on the Democratic and Republican lines. This was likely due to the absence of the Working Families Party from the ballot, who elected not to endorse a candidate and the standalone candidacy of the Conservative Party, who typically garner votes by endorsing the Repulican candidate. 2017 Bill de Blasio, the incumbent mayor, won re-election to a second term, on Democratic and Working Families Party lines, over challengers Nicole Malliotakis on the Republican and Conservative party lines, Sal Albanese on the Reform Party line, Akeem Browder on the Green Party line, independent candidates Mike Tolkin and Bo Dietl, and Libertarian Party candidate Aaron Commey. 2013 The principal candidates were Joe Lhota on the Republican and Conservative lines, Bill de Blasio on the Democratic and Working Families lines, and some independents. Bill de Blasio won the election in a landslide 2013 results by borough Democratic primary election, Tuesday, September 10, 2013 Bill de Blasio, the city's elected Public Advocate, won 40.8% of the total Democratic primary vote and, by exceeding 40.0%, avoided an October 1 primary runoff with Bill Thompson, who won the second-highest number of primary votes, or 26.1%. (In 2009, Thompson had won the Democratic primary only to lose a close general election to Mayor Michael Bloomberg.) Christine Quinn, the Speaker of the New York City Council, came in third, with 15.7%, while none of the other candidates, including City Comptroller John Liu and former Congressman Anthony Weiner, won as much as 10%. De Blasio carried all five boroughs and Thompson came in second in every borough except Manhattan, where he finished third behind Quinn. From the Board of Elections in the City of New York, September 27, 2013 Republican primary election, Tuesday, September 10, 2013 In the Republican primary, Joe Lhota, a former deputy mayor and former chairman of the Metropolitan Transportation Authority carried every borough but Staten Island, which was won by John Catsimatidis, a businessman, publisher and property developer. Catsimatidis, in losing, won nearly as large a percentage of his own party's vote (40.69%) as the Democratic winner, Bill de Blasio won of his (40.81%). The 61,111 valid votes cast in the Republican primary were less than one-eleventh of the 691,801 cast in the Democratic one held on the same day in the same polling places. From the Board of Elections in the City of New York, September 27, 2013 2009 The principal candidates were Mayor Michael Bloomberg, an independent running for the third time on the Republican and Independence Party lines, and New York City Comptroller Bill Thompson, running for the Democratic and Working Families Parties. Bloomberg had enjoyed pluralities of about 9% to 16% in most independent published pre-election polls and on Tuesday, November 3, he won his third term with 50.7% of votes over Thompson's 46%. Other candidates included: Steven Christopher of Memorial Baptist Church in Brooklyn, Conservative Party of New York State Joseph Dobrian, Libertarian Party of New York Reverend Billy Talen of the Church of Life After Shopping, Green Party of New York Dan Fein, Socialist Workers Party Francisca Villar, Party for Socialism and Liberation Jimmy McMillan, Rent Is Too Damn High Party Tyrell Eiland, New Voice Party Jonny Porkpie, independent John M. Finan, independent General election, Tuesday, November 3, 2009 Democratic primary, Tuesday, September 15, 2009 From the Board of Elections in the City of New York, September 26, 2009 Tony Avella represents a Queens district on the New York City Council. Out of the nearly 400 write-in votes, almost half or 184 (representing about one Democratic voter in 2,000) were some form or spelling of Mayor Michael Bloomberg. 2005 In 2005, Mayor Bloomberg won every borough but The Bronx (of which his Democratic opponent was the former Borough President) against a Democratic Party split by a divisive primary, in contrast to his first victory in 2001, when Bloomberg carried only Queens and Staten Island. Source: Board of Elections in the City of New York http://www.vote.nyc.ny.us/results.html 2001 The 2001 mayoral election was held on Tuesday, November 6. Republican incumbent Rudy Giuliani could not run again due to term limits. As Democrats outnumber Republicans by 5 to 1 in the city, it was widely believed that a Democrat would succeed him in City Hall. However, billionaire Michael Bloomberg, a lifelong Democrat, changed his party affiliation a few months before the election in order to avoid a crowded primary, and ran as a Republican. The Democratic primary was meant to be held on September 11 but was postponed due to the September 11 attacks; it was instead held on September 25. The primary opened the way to a bitter run-off between the Bronx-born Puerto Rican Fernando Ferrer, and Mark J. Green, a non-Hispanic who attacked Ferrer's close ties to Rev. Al Sharpton, leaving the party divided along racial lines. Bloomberg spent $74 million on his election campaign, which was a record amount at the time for a non-presidential election (Bloomberg would break his own record in 2005). Thanks also in part to active support from Giuliani, whose approval ratings shot up after the September 11 attacks, Bloomberg won a very close general election. 1997 Notes: Giuliani vote was 748,277 Republican and 35,538 Liberal. Other vote was Sal Albanese -Independence-14,316 1.1%; Peter Gaffney-Right to Life-5,304 0.5%; Olga Rodriguez-Socialist Workers-3,753 0.3%; Dominick Fusco-Fusion- 632; Scattered 293 In the Democratic Primary, Messinger defeated Rev. Al Sharpton, Sal Albanese and 2 others, avoiding a runoff election. The vote was: Messenger-165,377 40.2%; Sharpton-131,848 32.0%; Albanese-86,485 21.0%; Eric Melendez-17,633 4.3%; Roland Rogers-10,086 2.5% Past elections 1993 | |||||||||||| Giuliani vote included 867,767 Republican and 62,469 Liberal. Marlin vote included 9,433 Conservative and 6,493 Right to Life. In addition, there were 2,229 votes for J. Brennan-Libertarian; 2,061 votes for M. Bockman - Socialist Workers and 117 Scattered votes. Dinkins won Democratic Primary with 336,285 votes to 126,449 for Roy Innis and 35,492 for Eric Melendez 1989 | |||||||||||||| Giuliani vote was 815,387 Republican and 55,077 Liberal. Other vote was 1,732 Lenora Fulani-New Alliance; 1,671-James Harris-Socialist Workers; 1,118 Warren Raum-Libertarian; 435 Mazelis-Workers League. |}Giuliani won the Republican Primary, defeating Ron Lauder 77,150 (67.0%) to 37,960 (33.0%) 1985 The Koch vote include 862,226 Democratic and 6,034 Independent votes. The McGrath vote was 79,508 Republican and 22,160 Conservative. Other vote was: Yehuda Levin - Right to Life - 14,517; Lenora Fulani - New Alliance - 7,597;Jarvis Tyner - People Before Profits - 3,370; Andrea Gonzalez - Socialist Workers - 1,677; Gilbert DiLucia - Coalition - 1,135; Marjorie Stanberg - Spartacist - 1,101; Scattered - 9 Koch won the Democratic Primary: Koch-436,151 64.0%; Bellamy - 127,690 18.7%; Denny Farrell - 89,845 13.2%; DiLucia - 11, 627 1.7%; Fred Newman - 8,584 1.2%; Judah Rubenstein - 8,057 1.2% 1981 Koch had 738,288 Democratic votes and 174,334 Republican votes. Others = 45,485. Jeronimo Dominguez - Right to Life - 32,790 2.7%; Judith Jones - Libertarian - 6,902 0.6%; Wells Todd - Socialist Workers - 5,793 0.5% Koch won the Democratic Primary with 347,351 votes (59.8%), defeating Barbaro who had 209,369 votes (36.0%) and Melvin Klenetsky who had 24,352 votes (4.2%). Koch also won the Republican Primary, defeating Esposito by 44,724 to 22,354. 1977 In his 2005 book Ladies and Gentlemen, The Bronx Is Burning, historian Jonathan Mahler argues that the New York City blackout of 1977, with its accompanying rioting, enabled the law-and-order advocate Ed Koch to beat out his more left-wing opponents, including incumbent mayor Abe Beame, in the 1977 election. Other vote was: Kenneth F. Newcombe - Communist - 5,300; Catarino Garza - Socialist Workers - 3,294; Vito Battista - United Taxpayers Party - 2,119; Louis Wein - Independent - 1,127; William Lawry - Free Libertarian - 1,068; Elijah Boyd - Labor - 873. Cuomo's total vote included 522,942 Liberal and 64,971 Neighborhood Government. Runoff-Koch-433,002 55.0%; Cuomo-354,833 45.0% Total vote 787,835 Manhattan-Koch-115,251 65.2%; Cuomo—61,570 34.8% Bronx-----Koch-69,612 55.7%; Cuomo—55,355 44.3% Brooklyn—Koch-131,271 53.8%; Cuomo—112,587 46.2% Queens----Koch-107,033 50.4%; Cuomo—105,522 49.6% Staten----Koch-9,835 33.1%; Cuomo—19,799 66.9% Note that the eventual winner, Rep. Ed Koch, could not win a plurality in any of the Five Boroughs for the initial Democratic primary. Rep. Bella Abzug took Manhattan, Mayor Abe Beame Brooklyn, Rep. Herman Badillo the Bronx, and NY Sec. of State Mario Cuomo Queens & Staten Island. In the Democratic run-off with Cuomo, Koch took Queens and three other boroughs, leaving Cuomo with only Staten Island. In the general election, Cuomo kept Staten Island and won back Queens, but lost the other three boroughs (Manhattan, Brooklyn and The Bronx) to Koch. In the Republican primary, Roy M. Goodman, a member of the New York State Senate, defeated Barry Farber, a radio commentator, by a vote of 41,131 to 31,078(57.0% to 43.0%). Farber, however, won the nomination of the Conservative Party of New York and won almost as many votes in the general election (57,437 or 4.0%) as Goodman did as the Republican nominee (58,606 or 4.1%). 1929 to 1973 Some figures and anecdotes courtesy James Trager's New York Chronology (HarperCollins: 2003). Other numbers are from The World Almanac and Book of Facts, then published by The New York World-Telegram (Scripps-Howard), for 1943 (page 412) and 1957 (page 299), and from The Encyclopedia of New York City (see Sources below). Before 1975, the present Borough of Staten Island was formally known as The Borough of Richmond. 1973 note: All the candidates except Marchi had run in the Democratic primary. Candidates votes on their second ballot lines included above were: Beame-Civil Service & Fusion -67,277; Marchi-Integrity - 14,271; Blumenthal - Good Government - 29, 335; Biaggi - Safe City - 8,010. Other vote includes 8,818 Fran Youngstein - Free Libertarian Party; 3,601 Rasheed Storey - Communist; 2,282 Norman Oliver - Socialist Workers; 2,000 Anton Chaiken -Labor; 1,762 John Emanuel - Socialist Labor 1969 Note: In one of the most unusual primary seasons since the conglomeration of greater New York, the incumbent Mayor (Lindsay) and a former incumbent (Robert F. Wagner Jr.) both lost their parties' primaries. Procaccino won with less than 33% of the vote against four opponents, which inspired the use of runoffs in future primaries. In the general election, Lindsay carried Manhattan (the only borough he had carried in losing the Republican primary to Marchi, 107,000 to 113,000) as he did in 1965, but he was only 4,000 votes ahead of giving first place in Queens to Procaccino. Turnout dropped to 2.4 million from 2.6 million in 1965. (In the same election, Lindsay's 1965 opponent Abe Beame was easily returned to his old job of comptroller.) The New York Mets' unlikely win in the 1969 World Series and Mayor Lindsay's participation in their postgame celebration may have given the Mayor a late public relations boost which contributed to his victory. The Lindsay vote was 872,660 Liberal (36.5%) and 139,973 Independent (5.9%). Procaccino's vote was 774,708 Democratic (32.4%) and 57,064 Civil Service Fusion (2.4%). The Marchi vote was 329,506 Republican (13.8%) and 212,905 Conservative (8.9%). By themselves, the straight Democratic and Republican lines added up to less than 50% of the mayoral vote (1,104,214 or 46.2%), but more than the total vote for Lindsay (1,012,633 or 42.4%). Procaccino's general election votes on the Democratic line alone (774,708) were slightly fewer than the total votes received by all candidates in the Democratic primary (777,796). Lindsay's general election votes on the Liberal line alone (872,660) exceeded Procaccino's total votes on all lines (831,772). 1965 Almost a quarter of Lindsay's vote (281,796) was on the Liberal Party line, while 63,590 of Beame's votes were on the Civil Service Fusion line. John Lindsay, a Republican Congressman from the "Silk-Stocking" District on the Upper East Side of Manhattan, carried Manhattan, Queens, and traditionally Republican Staten Island (Richmond), while Abe Beame, the city comptroller, carried The Bronx and his home borough of Brooklyn, both of which he had also won in the Democratic primary. However, while Beame had also carried Queens in the primary, he lost it to Lindsay in the general election. (Five years later, Bill Buckley's brother James L. Buckley would win the 1970 New York state election for U.S. Senator on the Conservative Party line against divided opposition.) The Other vote was 11,104- Vito Battista - United Taxpayer Party; 3,977- Clifton DeBerry - Socialist Workers; 2,087 - Eric Haas - Socialist Labor 1961 Mayor Wagner broke with the regular Democratic organization which had supported him in 1953 and 1957, defeating their candidate, Arthur Levitt, in the Democratic primary 61% to 39%. At the same time, after running successfully with Lawrence Gerosa for Comptroller in the previous two elections, Wagner chose to run instead with Abraham Beame in 1961. Gerosa ran against Wagner for mayor as the "real Democrat" on a pro-taxpayer platform. 211,000 of Wagner's 1,237,000 votes came on the Liberal Party line, and 55,000 on the purpose-built Brotherhood line. Other vote was: Vito Battista - United Taxpayers Party - 19,960; Richard Garza - Socialist Workers - 7,037; Eric Haas - Socialist Labor - 3,272 1957 Other vote was: Joyce Cowley - Socialist Workers - 13,453 0.6%; Eric Haas - Socialist Labor- 4,611 0.2% 1953 Total vote was 2,207,516 Other vote was David L. Weiss-Socialist Workers-2,054 (0.1%);Nathan Karp-Industrial Government-916; Scattered-180. "Industrial Government" is a ballot title sometimes used, to avoid confusion or to meet election laws, by the Socialist Labor Party. The Liberal Party of New York won over five times as many votes as the American Labor Party in Manhattan, and eight-to-ten times as many in the other boroughs. The ALP lost its ballot status after the 1954 Governor's race, and voted to dissolve itself in 1956. 1950 Vincent Impellitteri, the mayor who succeeded mid-term after William O'Dwyer resigned on August 31, 1950, swept Manhattan, Queens and Staten Island in this special election, while Ferdinand Pecora (aided by the Liberal Party) took very narrow leads in The Bronx and Brooklyn. In this election, the Liberals heavily outpolled the American Labor Party in every borough but Manhattan and Staten Island, where the two parties' votes were almost equal. 1949 Other vote was: Eric Haas - Industrial Government - 7,857; Joseph G. Glass - Socialist - 3,396; Michael Bartell - Socialist Workers - 1,224. The Morris vote was 570,713 Republican, 373,287 Liberal and 12,069 Fusion 1945 O'Dwyer received 867,426 Democratic votes and 257,929 on the American Labor Party line. The Goldstein vote was 301,144 Republican, 122,316 Liberal and 8,141 City Fusion. The No Deal Party (according to Chris McNickle in The Encyclopedia of New York City) was founded by the retiring maverick Republican Mayor Fiorello La Guardia to draw Republican votes towards Newbold Morris and away from the official Republican Party with whom La Guardia was having a dispute. The No Deal Party dissolved soon after the 1945 election. Newbold Morris was a Republican, while Jonah Goldstein was a Democrat until nomination day. Other vote was: Joseph G. Glass - Socialist - 9,304; Farrell Dobbs - Trotskyist Anti-War - 3,656; Eric Hass - Socialist Labor - 3,465; Max Shachtman - Workers - 585; Scattered - 45. 1941 As in 1937, more voters in every borough voted on the Democratic line than on any other single line; but this time (unlike 1937) the Democrat carried Queens and Staten Island over La Guardia, shrinking the Mayor's overall citywide percentage lead from 20% to 6%. As in 1937, La Guardia's overall margin of victory depended on the American Labor Party, which again won more votes than the Republicans in The Bronx. While the total vote and Republican vote were almost identical in 1937 and 1941, the ALP line lost 47,000 votes (2.4%), almost entirely from Manhattan (-18,000) and Brooklyn (-26,000), as the vote on La Guardia's other lines (Fusion, Progressive and United City) dropped from 187,000 (8.3%) to 86,000 (3.7%). The Democratic Party gained about 160,000 votes lost by La Guardia (and about 7½% of the total). In both Queens and Richmond (Staten Island), the swing was even greater: La Guardia lost over 15% of the total vote (and the Democrats gained over 15%) from 1937, as his lead there flipped from roughly 56%-44% to 39%-60%. 1937 Note that the leading line in every borough, and in the City as a whole, is the Democratic line for Judge Mahoney. Running on the Republican line alone (as he did when losing the election of 1929), Mayor La Guardia would have lost every borough, but he carried all five when the American Labor Party line was added. The ALP line did better than the Republican line in The Bronx, although worse than the Democratic one. There were also 2,307 votes for Emil Teichert on the Industrial Government line. 1933 While opposed by Tammany Hall, McKee enjoyed the support of Democratic President (and former Governor) Franklin D. Roosevelt, who declared neutrality when his ally Mayor La Guardia was running for reelection in . (See Ed Flynn's comments about FDR's 1936 contribution to starting the American Labor Party in the below.) According to Michael Tomasky, La Guardia, who had lost the Republican Mayoral primary to Manhattan Borough President Henry Curran, did not enjoy the support of a united Republican Party when he won the party's nomination and lost the general election in , but was able to win over Republican organizational support in 1933. The 1933 LaGuardia vote was 446,833 Republican and 421,689 City Fusion. The O'Brien vote was 570,937 Democratic and 15,735 Jeffersonian. There were also 1,778 votes for Henry Klein-Five Cent Fare & Taxpayers; 472 for Aaron Orange - Socialist Labor; and 118 for Adolph Silver - Independent Union. Collapse of the Socialist Party vote In 1933, a year that might otherwise have favored the Socialist Party's chances, the New Deal began, Morris Hillquit died, Norman Thomas refused to run again for mayor, and the Socialist vote (previously as high as one-eighth to one-fifth of the total) collapsed irretrievably from a quarter of a million to sixty thousand (one-thirtieth of the total). Many supporters of Thomas's 1929 campaign defected (some, like Paul Blanshard, also leaving the Party) to support Fiorello La Guardia. By the time of the next mayoral election in 1937, which the Socialist Party decided by internal referendum not to contest, many reformers and trade-unionists who wanted to support major-party progressives like La Guardia (R-ALP-Fusion), Gov. Herbert Lehman (D-ALP) and Pres. Franklin D. Roosevelt (D-ALP) from outside the two-party structure backed the American Labor Party (ALP), the Social Democratic Federation and later the Liberal Party of New York. After a disastrous gubernatorial campaign in 1938 (where Thomas and George Hartmann won only 25,000 votes out of over 4.7 million), the Socialist Party lost its separate line on the New York ballot, allowed its members to join the ALP, and indeed encouraged them to do so. In 1939, the Socialist Harry W. Laidler, a co-founder of the Intercollegiate Socialist Society and League for Industrial Democracy, was elected (with the help of proportional representation) to the New York City Council on the ALP's ticket, but lost its renomination two years later because of rivalry with the Communists. [Although not apparent from the table below, the Communist Party's vote for other municipal offices, such as City Council and President of the Board of Aldermen, was increasing at the same time that the Socialist Party's was declining below the Communists'. But in 1936, when the foundation of the ALP coincided with world Communism's shift from independent action towards the Popular Front, New York City Communists redirected much of their own energy towards supporting the ALP.] [Click on the year for fuller details. ALP = American Labor Party (see commentary above). Socialist Labor Party candidates and votes not retrievable for every year from the sources used for this article. Readers are encouraged to supply any missing details.] † In 1894 and in 1897, Lucien Sanial was the mayoral candidate of the Socialist Labor Party before both the SLP and the Social Democratic Party each split in two. In 1901, one faction of the SLP, led by Morris Hillquit, and one faction of the SDP, led by Eugene V. Debs, united to form the Socialist Party of America, which soon drew away many votes formerly cast for the SLP. For further details, see Hillquit's History of Socialism in the United States (1910) and Howard Quint's Forging of American Socialism (1964), both cited in the at the end of this article. 1932 Totals after a court-ordered recount: Joseph V. McKee, as the (popularly elected) President of the Board of Aldermen, became Acting Mayor upon the resignation of elected Mayor Jimmy Walker on September 1, 1932. McKee's write-in total is, in fact, the highest any New York City election would ever see. For the election after the next one, voting machines which would make write-in voting much more difficult were introduced. Machines of this basic design are still being used. Lewis Humphrey Pounds was President of the Borough of Brooklyn from June 1913 to December 1917. This was the last of many campaigns for different offices by Morris Hillquit, a co-founder of the Socialist Party of America, who died in 1933. Hillquit had won over 21% of the vote for mayor in 1917. Borough returns before the recount (which did not significantly affect the outcome): There were also 24,014 votes 1.2% for William Patterson - Communist and 11,379 0.5% for Olive Johnson - Socialist Labor 1929 There were also 5,805 votes for William Weinstone - Communist and 320 votes for Lawrence Tracy - Commonwealth Land. The great stock market crash hit Wall Street on October 24–29, 1929, less than two weeks before Election Day. Richard Edward Enright was New York City Police Commissioner from 1918 to 1925. 1897 to 1925 ¶ Basic numbers for the elections of 1897 to 1925 come from The World Almanac and Book of Facts for 1929 and 1943. Percentages and borough totals calculated independently. (Because of some anomalies, not all columns and rows add precisely.) First names and informational links gathered from Wikipedia and several external sources, including the free public archive of The New York Times. 1925 Mayor Hylan, an ally of the newspaper publisher William Randolph Hearst, was unseated in a venomous Democratic primary by "Gentleman" Jimmy Walker, the Democratic party leader in the New York State Senate, who had been recruited to oppose Hylan by Hearst's inveterate enemy, Democratic Governor Al Smith. After the death of Tammany Hall leader Charles F. Murphy in 1924, the regular Democratic organizations also split their allegiances, with Hylan receiving support from John McCooey, the leader in Brooklyn, and Walker from Ed Flynn of the Bronx. (Hearst had run for mayor on third-party tickets in 1909 and 1913, while Al Smith had lost a bid for the Democratic nomination for mayor in 1917, instead winning the presidency of the New York City Council as Hylan's running-mate.) 1921 Henry Curran was the borough president of Manhattan and heavily defeated Fiorello H. La Guardia, president of the board of aldermen, in the Republican primary election for mayor. There was also 454 votes for Joseph Miller on the Single Tax Line and 443 votes for Benjamin Gitlow on the Workers League Line 1917 Notes: The Single Tax on land values was the proposal and platform of Henry George, who ran for mayor in 1897 and 1886. D. Leigh Colvin later contested the U.S. presidential election of 1936 for the Prohibition Party. The Fall 1917 election would have been exciting even had it occurred in peacetime. In September, the City held its first-ever primary elections for mayor. The sitting independent Mayor, John P. Mitchel, who had enjoyed Republican support under Fusion in 1913, narrowly lost the Republican primary to William Bennett, after mistakes and frauds led to a series of recounts. When negotiations between the parties failed, Mitchel ran alone as a Fusion candidate against Bennett, the Socialist Morris Hillquit and John F. Hylan, the regular Democrat supported by Tammany Hall and William Randolph Hearst. However, the elections happened after the United States had declared war on April 6. Hillquit and the Socialist Party quickly and vigorously opposed the war, which Mitchel vigorously supported. Hillquit's anti-war position helped the Socialists win their highest-ever vote for mayor, but also led to vitriolic denunciations by many, including The New York Times and former President Theodore Roosevelt. Mitchel and Hillquit each won less than quarter of the vote, while Hylan, who had been non-committal about the war, won the election with less than half the vote. However, as in 1897, the numbers suggest that Tammany Hall might have won even against a unified opposition. 1897 to 1913 ¶ The Bronx and Manhattan, although separate Boroughs since 1898, shared New York County and reported their votes together until Bronx County was formed in April 1912 and came into its separate existence on January 1, 1914. [ The World Almanac does not list separate returns for the two boroughs until 1917, but The Encyclopedia of New York City (see Sources) gives these major candidates' results for 1913: Manhattan: McCall 103,429 - Mitchel 131,280, and The Bronx: McCall 25,684 - Mitchel 46,944. ] Mayor William Jay Gaynor, who had survived being shot in the throat by a disappointed office-seeker in 1910, died at sea from the indirect effects of his injury on September 10, 1913. He was succeeded for the rest of 1913 by Ardolph Loges Kline, the acting president of the board of aldermen. The election of 1897 was held just before the Five Boroughs formally consolidated into Greater New York in 1898, so it was the present city's first mayoral election. For preliminary results for all the municipal offices, broken down into smaller districts, see "Democrats Take All - The Tammany Ticket Makes Almost a Clean Sweep of the Greater City - Only Two Republicans in the Council..." in The New York Times, November 4, 1897 (seen April 11, 2008). † Henry George, author of Progress and Poverty and proponent of the Single Tax on land, died (probably from the strain of campaign speeches) on October 29, four days before Election Day; his son was nominated to take his place representing "The Democracy of Thomas Jefferson". [In 1886, George had been the United Labor Party's candidate for Mayor of the smaller City of New York, now the Borough of Manhattan, winning 68,110 votes to 90,552 for the Democrat Abram Hewitt and 60,435 for the Republican Theodore Roosevelt, although George's supporters maintained that he had lost the election through fraud.] For Lucien Sanial, see the table notes under above (1933) and ALL THEY NEED IS VOTES; THREE CANDIDATES FOR MAYOR WHO WOULD MAKE A STIR. in The New York Times for Wednesday, November 4, 1894, page 19. It appears from the percentages to be an open question whether the Republican Party's decision in 1897 not to support Seth Low's Fusion campaign caused his defeat by splitting the vote against Tammany Hall. Republicans withdrew in Low's favor in 1901 (when he won) and in 1903 (when he lost). See also Mayor of New York City List of mayors of New York City History of New York City Government of New York City Politics of New York (state) Elections in New York (State) Tammany Hall American Labor Party Liberal Party of New York Conservative Party of New York State Independence Party of New York Working Families Party Green Party of New York Libertarian Party of New York New York City: the 51st State (a municipal political slate in 1969) References Sources Many sources have been consulted and compared, but the most important ones are these: [2001-2009] The Board of Elections in the City of New York — http://www.vote.nyc.ny.us/results.html [1997] , pages 815-816; Cable News Network (CNN), 1997: http://www.cnn.com/ALLPOLITICS/1997/gen/resources/election97/results.html [1834-1993] The Encyclopedia of New York City (1st edition), edited by Kenneth T. Jackson (Yale University Press and The New York Historical Society, New Haven, Connecticut, 1995, ), especially the article "Mayoralty" by Charles W. Brecher with tables compiled by James Bradley [1929-1973] The New York Chronology by James Trager (HarperCollins, 2003, ) More details and preview available at https://books.google.com/books?id=xvGhQoNT27IC [1950-1953] The World Almanac and Book of Facts, 1957, page 299 [1909-1941] The World Almanac and Book of Facts, 1943, page 412 [1897-1925] The World Almanac and Book of Facts, 1929 (1971 reprint by American Heritage and Workman Publishing, ), page 893 [1867-1923 and later] The New York Times archives

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Blue Is the Warmest Colour (; ) is a 2013 romance film co-written, co-produced, and directed by Abdellatif Kechiche starring Léa Seydoux and Adèle Exarchopoulos. The film follows Adèle (Exarchopoulos), a French teenager who discovers desire and freedom as an aspiring painter Emma (Seydoux) enters her life. It charts their relationship from Adèle's high school years to her early adult life and career as a school teacher. The premise of the film is based on the 2010 graphic novel of the same name by Jul Maroh. Production began in March 2012 and lasted five months. Approximately 800 hours of footage was shot, including extensive B-roll footage, with Kechiche ultimately trimming the final cut of the film down to 179 minutes. The film generated controversy upon its premiere at the 2013 Cannes Film Festival and before its release. Much of the controversy was about claims of poor working conditions on set alleged by the crew and the lead actresses, and also the film's raw depiction of sexuality. At the 2013 Cannes Film Festival, the film unanimously won the Palme d'Or from the official jury and the FIPRESCI Prize. It is the first film to have the Palme d'Or awarded to both the director and the lead actresses, with Seydoux and Exarchopoulos joining Jane Campion (The Piano) and later Julia Ducournau (Titane) as the only women to have won the award. The film had its North American premiere at the 2013 Telluride Film Festival. It received critical acclaim and was nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Foreign Language Film and the BAFTA Award for Best Film Not in the English Language. Many critics declared it one of the best films of 2013. Plot Adèle is an introverted 15-year-old high-school student. She passes an older woman with short blue hair in the streets one day and is instantly attracted. She sleeps with a boy from school but is ultimately dissatisfied and ends their relationship. After having vivid fantasies about the blue-haired woman and kissing one of her female friends, Adèle becomes troubled about her sexual identity. The friend says she doesn't want to proceed further and tells Adèle to forget the kiss. Adèle's best friend, the openly gay Valentin, takes her to a gay dance bar. Adèle later leaves and enters a lesbian bar, where some women flirt with her. The blue-haired woman, art student Emma, is there and intervenes, claiming Adèle is her cousin. Emma and Adèle become friends. After Emma shows up at the school, Adèle's friends suspect her of being a lesbian and ostracise her. Adèle and Emma grow closer and kiss at a picnic. They later have sex and begin a passionate relationship. Emma's artsy family is welcoming to Adèle, but Adèle tells her conservative, working-class parents that Emma is her tutor for philosophy class. Some of Adèle's old friends attend her surprise 18th birthday party, but Emma does not. In the years that follow, the two women move in with each other. Adèle becomes an elementary school teacher, while Emma tries to advance her painting career by throwing frequent house parties. At one party, Adèle meets Emma's pregnant colleague Lise, gallery owner Joachim, and aspiring actor Samir. Samir discusses America with Adèle while the others discuss sex, and the two become friends. Emma spends more time at the party with Lise. Emma belittles Adèle's career but encourages her to pursue writing, while Adèle insists she is happy the way she is. Their relationship grows tense as they have little in common. Emma comes home late, having spent the evening working with Lise. Out of loneliness, Adèle sleeps with a male colleague. Emma learns about the cheating and furiously breaks up with Adèle. Three years later, the two meet at a restaurant. Adèle is happy with her job as a kindergarten teacher but has not moved on: she is still deeply in love with Emma. Emma is in a committed partnership with Lise and helps raise Lise's three-year-old daughter. Emma and Adèle kiss, but Emma withdraws, although she admits she does not feel sexually fulfilled. She tells Adèle that their relationship was special and that she will always have "infinite tenderness" for Adèle. The two part with apologies and tears. Adèle attends Emma's art exhibition. On one wall is a nude portrait of Adèle that Emma painted during their time together. Emma acknowledges Adèle but is focused on Lise and the other guests. Adèle congratulates Emma on her success and, after a brief conversation with Samir, leaves. He chases after her but goes in the wrong direction, while Adèle walks off into the distance. Cast Léa Seydoux as Emma Adèle Exarchopoulos as Adèle Salim Kechiouche as Samir Aurélien Recoing as Adèle's father Catherine Salée as Adèle's mother Benjamin Siksou as Antoine as Lise Alma Jodorowsky as Béatrice Jérémie Laheurte as Thomas as Emma's mother Benoît Pilot as Emma's stepfather Sandor Funtek as Valentin Fanny Maurin as Amélie Maelys Cabezon as Laetitia Stéphane Mercoyrol as Joachim Aurelie Lemanceau as Sabine Themes and interpretations Sexuality Lesbian sexuality is one of the strongest themes of the film, as the narrative deals mainly with Adele's exploration of her identity in this context. However, the film's treatment of lesbian sexuality has been questioned by academics, due to its being directed from a straight, male perspective. In Sight & Sound, film scholar Sophie Mayer suggests that in Blue is the Warmest Colour, "Like homophobia, the lesbian here melts away. As with many male fantasies of lesbianism, the film centers on the erotic success and effective failures of relations between women". The issue of perspective has also been addressed in a Film Comment review by Kristin M. Jones, who points out that "Emma's supposedly sophisticated friends make eager remarks about art and female sexuality that seem to mirror the director's problematic approach toward the representation of women". One critic has suggested that the film is not a lesbian film, highlighting the exploration of bisexuality of the character Adele. Paulina Plazas, writing on IndieWire, stated that throughout the film, bisexual erasure is "central to understanding Adele's particular sense that she does not belong as she comes of age." Social class One recurring thematic element addressed by critics and audiences is the division of social class and the exploration of freedom and love between the two central characters, Adèle and Emma. The reference to social class is juxtaposed between the two dinner table scenes in the film, with Adèle's conservative, working-class family engaging in discussion over comparatively banal subjects to Emma's more open-minded, middle-class family, who focus their discussion primarily on more existential matters: art, career, life and passion. Perhaps one of the most significant differences between Adèle's and Emma's families is that Emma's is aware of their lesbian relationship, while Adèle's conservative parents are under the impression the women are just friends. Some critics have noted that the difference of social class is an ongoing theme in Kechiche's filmography: "As in Kechiche's earlier work, social class, and the divisions it creates, are a vital thread; he even changed the first name of the story's passionate protagonist from Clémentine to that of his actress, partly because it means "justice" in Arabic. His fascination and familiarity with the world of pedagogy, as shown here in Adèle's touching reverence for teaching, is another notable characteristic", was noted by a Film Comment critic. Food Kechiche explores how food can evoke varying levels of symbolism, for instance through the sexually suggestive food metaphors of Adèle's liking of the fat on ham and her learning to eat oysters from Emma. Additionally, he looks at how food can be seen as an indicator of social class. Production Adaptation Director and screenwriter Abdellatif Kechiche developed the premise for Blue Is the Warmest Colour while directing his second feature film, Games of Love and Chance (2003). He met teachers "who felt very strongly about reading, painting, writing" and it inspired him to develop a script which charts the personal life and career of a female French teacher. However, the concept was only finalized a few years later when Kechiche chanced upon Maroh's graphic novel, and he saw how he could link his screenplay about a school teacher with Maroh's love story between two young women. Although Maroh's story takes precedence in the adaptation, Adèle's character, named "Clémentine" in the book, differs from the original as explored by Charles Taylor in The Yale Review: "The novel includes scenes of the girls being discovered in bed and thrown out of the house and speeches like What's horrible is that people kill each other for oil and commit genocide, not that they give their love to someone." In the film, Adèle's parents are seemingly oblivious to her love affair with Emma and politely greet her under the impression that she is Adèle's philosophy tutor. Further themes are explored in Maroh's novel, such as addiction to prescription pills. Regarding his intention to portray young people, Kechiche claimed: "I almost wish I was born now, because young people seem to be much more beautiful and brighter than my generation. I want to pay them tribute." Casting In late 2011, a casting call was held in Paris to find the ideal actress for the role of Adèle. Casting director Sophie Blanvillain first spotted Adèle Exarchopoulos and then arranged for her to meet Abdellatif Kechiche. Exarchopoulos described how her auditions with Kechiche over the course of two months consisted of improvisation of scenarios, discussions, and also of them both sitting in a café, without talking, while he quietly observed her. It was later, a day before the New Year, that Kechiche decided to offer Exarchopoulos the leading role in the film; as he said in an interview, "I chose Adèle the minute I saw her. I had taken her for lunch at a brasserie. She ordered lemon tart and when I saw the way she ate it I thought, 'It's her!'" On the other hand, Léa Seydoux was cast for the role of Emma, ten months before principal photography began in March 2012. Kechiche felt that Seydoux "shared her character's beauty, voice, intelligence and freedom" and that she has "something of an Arabic soul". He added on saying, "What was decisive during our meeting was her take on society: She's very much tuned in to the world around her. She possesses a real social awareness, she has a real engagement with the world, very similar to my own. I was able to realise to how great an extent, as I spent a whole year with her between the time she was chosen for the role and the end of shooting." Speaking to IndieWire on the preparation for her role, Seydoux said "During those ten months (before shooting) I was already meeting with him (Kechiche) and being directed. We would spend hours talking about women and life; I also took painting and sculpting lessons, and read a lot about art and philosophy." Filming The film, originally planned to be shot in two and a half months, was shot in five months, from March to August 2012 with a budget of €4 million. Seven hundred and fifty hours of dailies were shot. Shooting took place in Lille as well as Roubaix and Liévin. In terms of cinematography, the shot/reverse shot scenes in the film were simultaneously shot with two different cameras. For Kechiche, this technique not only facilitates editing but also adds beauty to the scene which feels more truthful. Another characteristic aspect of Blue'''s cinematography is the predominance of close-ups. Cinematographer Sofian El Fani used the Canon EOS C300 camera with Angénieux zoom lenses, and the entire production was undertaken in a digital workflow. Controversies Upon its premiere at the 2013 Cannes Festival, a report from the French Audiovisual and Cinematographic Union (Syndicat des professionnels de l'industrie de l'audiovisuel et du cinéma) criticised the working conditions from which the crew suffered. According to the report, members of the crew said the production occurred in a "heavy" atmosphere with behavior close to "moral harassment," which led some members of the crew and workers to quit. Further criticism targeted disrupted working patterns and salaries. Technicians accused director Abdellatif Kechiche of harassment, unpaid overtime, and violations of labor laws. In September 2013, the two main actresses, Léa Seydoux and Adèle Exarchopoulos, also complained about Kechiche's behaviour during the shooting. They described the experience as "horrible," and said they would not work with him again. Exarchopoulos later said about the rift: "No, it was real, but it was not as big as it looks. For me, a shoot is a human adventure, and in every adventure you have some conflict." In an interview in January 2014, Seydoux clarified: "I'm still very happy with this film. It was hard to film it and maybe people think I was complaining and being spoiled, but that's not it. I just said it was hard. The truth is it was extremely hard but that's OK. I don't mind that it was hard. I like to be tested. Life is much harder. He's a very honest director and I love his cinema. I really like him as a director. The way he treats us? So what!" In September 2013, Kechiche stated that the film should not be released. Speaking to French magazine Télérama, Kechiche said "I think this film should not go out; it was too sullied", referring to the negative press about his on-set behaviour. Style The camerawork and many of Kechiche's directorial decisions allow a true-to-life feel for the film, which in turn has led to audiences reading the film with meaning that they can derive from their own personal experiences. In The Yale Review, Charles Taylor puts this into words: "Instead of fencing its young lovers within a petting zoo... Kechiche removes the barriers that separate us from them. He brings the camera so close to the faces of his actresses that he seems to be trying to make their flesh more familiar to us than his own." Significance of the colour blue Blue Is the Warmest Colour is also filled with visual symbolism. The colour blue is used extensively throughout the film—from the lighting in the gay club Adèle visits, to the dress she wears in the last scene and most notably, in Emma's hair and eyes. For Adèle, blue represents emotional intensity, curiosity, love, and sadness. Adèle also references Pablo Picasso a number of times, who famously went through a melancholy Blue Period. As Emma grows out of her relationship with Adèle and their passion wanes, she removes the blue from her hair and adopts a more natural, conservative hairstyle. Music Reviewer Spencer Wolff noted the political stance adopted by Adèle, which changes as her life experiences change and reflect her alternating views: "Blue is the Warmest Colour is no different; at least, at first. Framed by black and Arab faces, Adèle marches in a protest to demand better funding for education. The music, "On lâche rien" ("We will never give up!"), by the Algerian-born Kaddour Haddadi, is the official song of the French Communist Party. Yet, soon after she begins her relationship with Emma, we see Adèle marching again, hip-to-hip with her new lover, at a gay pride parade." Distribution Release Blue Is the Warmest Colour had its world premiere at the 66th Cannes Film Festival on 23 May 2013. It received a standing ovation and ranked highest in critics' polls at the festival. In August 2013, the film had its North American premiere at the 2013 Telluride Film Festival and was also screened in the Special Presentation section of the 2013 Toronto International Film Festival on 5 September 2013. The film was screened at more than 131 territories and was commercially released on 9 October 2013 in France by Wild Bunch with a "12" rating. In the United States, the film was rated NC-17 by the Motion Picture Association of America for "explicit sexual content". It had a limited release at four theatres in New York City and Los Angeles on 25 October 2013, and expanded gradually in subsequent weeks. The film was released on 15 November 2013 in the United Kingdom and in Australia and New Zealand on 13 February 2014. Home media La Vie d'Adèle – Chapitres 1 & 2 was released on Blu-ray Disc and DVD in France by Wild Side on 26 February 2014, and in North America, as Blue is the Warmest Color through The Criterion Collection on 25 February 2014. As Blue Is the Warmest Colour, the film was also released on DVD and Blu-ray Disc in Canada on 25 February 2014 by Mongrel Media, in the United Kingdom on 17 March 2014 by Artificial Eye and on 18 June 2014, in Australia by Transmission Films. In Brazil, Blu-ray manufacturing companies Sonopress and Sony DADC are refusing to produce the film because of its content. The distributor is struggling to reverse this situation. Reception Box office Blue Is the Warmest Colour grossed a worldwide total of $19,492,879. During its opening in France on 9 October 2013, the film debuted with a weekend total of $2.3 million on 285 screens for a $8,200 per-screen average. It took the fourth spot in its first weekend, which was seen as a "notably good showing because of its nearly three-hour length". The film had a limited release in the U.S. and it grossed an estimated $101,116 in its first weekend ending 25 October 2013, with an average of $25,279 for four theatres in New York City and Los Angeles. The film grossed $2,199,787 at US theatrically. The film went on to achieve greater success in the U.S. home entertainment market, generating more than $3,500,000 in US Blu-ray/DVD sales alone. Critical response On review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, 89% of 197 critics have given the film a positive review, with an average rating of 8.10/10. The site's critical consensus is: "Raw, honest, powerfully acted, and deliciously intense, Blue Is the Warmest Colour offers some of modern cinema's most elegantly composed, emotionally absorbing drama." On Metacritic, which assigned a score of 89 averaged from 55 reviews, the film received "universal acclaim". More than 40 critics named the film as one of the ten best of 2013. In 2016, the film was named as the 45th best film of the 21st century, from a poll of 177 film critics from around the world. In France Les Cahiers du cinéma placed the film third in their 2013 Top Ten chart. In The Daily Telegraph, Robbie Collin awarded the film a maximum of five stars and tipped it to win the Palme d'Or. He wrote: "Kechiche's film is three hours long, and the only problem with that running time is that I could have happily watched it for another seven. It is an extraordinary, prolonged popping-candy explosion of pleasure, sadness, anger, lust and hope, and contained within it – although only just – are the two best performances of the festival, from Adèle Exarchopoulos and Léa Seydoux." Writing for The Guardian, Peter Bradshaw added that "it is genuinely passionate film-making" and changed his star rating for the film to five out of five stars after previously having awarded it only four. Stephen Garrett of The New York Observer said that the film was "nothing less than a triumph" and "is a major work of sexual awakening". Andrew Chan of the Film Critics Circle of Australia writes, "Not unlike Wong Kar-wai's most matured effort in cinema, Happy Together, director Abdellatif Kechiche knows love and relationship well and the details he goes about everything is almost breathtaking to endure. There is a scene in the restaurant where two meet again, after years of separation, the tears that dwell on their eyes shows precisely how much they love each other, yet there is no way they will be together again. Blue Is the Warmest Colour is likely to be 2013's most powerful film and easily one of the best." Concerns about graphic sex At Cannes, the film shocked some critics with its long and graphic sex scenes (although fake genitalia were used), leading them to state that the film may require some editing before it is screened in cinemas. Several critics placed the film as the front-runner to win the Palme d'Or. The judging panel, which included Steven Spielberg, Ang Lee, and Nicole Kidman, made an unprecedented move to award the Palme d'Or to the film's two main actresses along with the director. Jury President Steven Spielberg explained: Justin Chang, writing for Variety, said that the film contains "the most explosively graphic lesbian sex scenes in recent memory". Writing in The Australian, David Stratton said, "If the film were just a series of sex scenes it would, of course, be problematic, but it's much, much more than that. Through the eyes of Adèle we experience the breathless excitement of first love and first physical contact, but then, inevitably, all the other experiences that make life the way it is ... All of these are beautifully documented". Manohla Dargis of The New York Times described the film as "wildly undisciplined" and overlong, and wrote that it "feels far more about Mr. Kechiche's desires than anything else". Conversely, Richard Brody, writing in The New Yorker'' about "Sex Scenes That Are Too Good", stated: "The problem with Kechiche's scenes is that they're too good—too unusual, too challenging, too original—to be assimilated ... to the familiar moviegoing experience. Their duration alone is exceptional, as is their emphasis on the physical struggle, the passionate and uninhibited athleticism of sex, the profound marking of the characters' souls by their sexual relationship." LGBT and feminist response The film received LGBT and feminist critical comment for the perceived dominance of the male gaze and lack of female gaze, with some reviewers calling it a "patriarchal gaze." After a test screening of selected scenes for a lesbian audience, one viewer commented that it was "hot at the beginning, and then it got ridiculous when they kept switching sex positions every ten seconds" and that it was like an infomercial designed to address all of the sexual acts that lesbians can engage in. The depiction of scissoring was also debated. Jul Maroh, the author of the graphic novel upon which the film was based, said, "It appears to me this was what was missing on the set: lesbians." Although praising Kechiche's originality, describing his adaptation as "coherent, justified and fluid ... a masterstroke", Maroh also felt that he failed to capture the lesbian heart of their story, and disapproved of the sex scenes. In a blog post, Maroh called the scenes, "a brutal and surgical display, exuberant and cold, of so-called lesbian sex, which turned into porn, and made me feel very ill at ease", saying that in the movie theatre, "the hetero-normative laughed because they don't understand it and find the scene ridiculous. The gay and queer people laughed because it's not convincing, and found it ridiculous. And among the only people we didn't hear giggling were the potential guys too busy feasting their eyes on an incarnation of their fantasies on screen". Maroh added that "as a feminist and lesbian spectator, I cannot endorse the direction Kechiche took on these matters. But I'm also looking forward to hearing what other women will think about it. This is simply my personal stance." Accolades The film won the Palme d'Or at the 2013 Cannes Film Festival. The actresses were also given the Palme as a special prize. Kechiche dedicated the award to "the youth of France" and the Tunisian Revolution, where "they have the aspiration to be free, to express themselves and love in full freedom". At Cannes it also won the FIPRESCI Prize. In addition, this was also the first film adapted from either a graphic novel or a comic to win the Palme d'Or. In December 2013, it received the Louis Delluc Prize for best French film. The film was nominated for the Best Foreign Language Film award at the 71st Golden Globe Awards and the BAFTA Award for Best Film Not in the English Language. At the 39th César Awards, the film received eight nominations with Exarchopoulos winning the César Award for Most Promising Actress. See also List of French films of 2013 List of lesbian, gay, bisexual or transgender-related films of 2013 References External links Cannes Film Festival press kit (French version) Blue Is the Warmest Color: Feeling Blue an essay by B. Ruby Rich at the Criterion Collection 2013 films 2013 independent films 2013 LGBT-related films 2013 romantic drama films 2010s coming-of-age drama films 2010s erotic drama films 2010s French-language films Belgian coming-of-age drama films Belgian erotic drama films Belgian films Belgian independent films Belgian LGBT-related films Belgian romantic drama films Best Film Lumières Award winners Best Foreign Film Guldbagge Award winners Coming-of-age romance films French erotic drama films Erotic romance films Female bisexuality in film Films about gender Films based on French comics Films directed by Abdel Kechiche Films featuring a Best Actress Lumières Award-winning performance Films set in Lille Films shot in France Films whose director won the Best Director Lumières Award French coming-of-age drama films French films French independent films French LGBT-related films French romantic drama films Independent Spirit Award for Best Foreign Film winners Lesbian-related films LGBT-related coming-of-age films LGBT-related romantic drama films Live-action films based on comics Louis Delluc Prize winners Magritte Award winners Palme d'Or winners Spanish coming-of-age drama films Spanish erotic drama films Spanish films Spanish independent films Spanish LGBT-related films Spanish romantic drama films

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The noisy miner (Manorina melanocephala) is a bird in the honeyeater family, Meliphagidae, and is endemic to eastern and southeastern Australia. This miner is a grey bird, with a black head, orange-yellow beak and feet, a distinctive yellow patch behind the eye, and white tips on the tail feathers. The Tasmanian race has a more intense yellow panel in the wing, and a broader white tip to the tail. Males, females and juveniles are similar in appearance, though young birds are a brownish-grey. As the common name suggests, the noisy miner is a vocal species with a large range of songs, calls, scoldings and alarms, and almost constant vocalisations, particularly from young birds. One of four species in the genus Manorina, the noisy miner itself is divided into four subspecies. The separation of the Tasmanian M. m. leachi is of long standing, and the mainland birds were further split in 1999. Found in a broad arc from Far North Queensland through New South Wales and Victoria to Tasmania and southeastern South Australia, the noisy miner primarily inhabits dry, open eucalypt forests that lack understory shrubs. These include forests dominated by spotted gum, box and ironbark, as well as in degraded woodland where the understory has been cleared, such as recently burned areas, farming and grazing areas, roadside reserves, and suburban parks and gardens with trees and grass, but without dense shrubbery. The density of noisy miner populations has significantly increased in many locations across its range, particularly in human-dominated habitats. The popularity of nectar-producing garden plants, such as the large-flowered grevilleas, was thought to play a role in its proliferation, but studies now show that the noisy miner has benefited primarily from landscaping practices that create open areas dominated by eucalypts. Noisy miners are gregarious and territorial; they forage, bathe, roost, breed and defend territory communally, forming colonies that can contain several hundred birds. Each bird has an 'activity space', and birds with overlapping activity spaces form associations called 'coteries', which are the most stable units within the colony. The birds also form temporary flocks called 'coalitions' for specific activities, such as mobbing a predator. Group cohesion is facilitated not only by vocalisations, but also through ritualised displays, which have been categorised as flight displays, postural displays, and facial displays. The noisy miner is a notably aggressive bird, so that chasing, pecking, fighting, scolding, and mobbing occur throughout the day, targeted at both intruders and colony members. Foraging in the canopy of trees, on trunks and branches, and on the ground, the noisy miner mainly eats nectar, fruit, and insects. Most time is spent gleaning the foliage of eucalypts, and it can meet most of its nutritional needs from manna, honeydew, and lerp gathered from the foliage. The noisy miner does not use a stereotyped courtship display, but copulation is a frenzied communal event. It breeds all year long, building a deep cup-shaped nest and laying two to four eggs. Incubation is by the female only, although up to twenty male helpers take care of the nestlings and fledglings. Noisy miners have a range of strategies to increase their breeding success, including multiple broods and group mobbing of predators. The noisy miner's population increase has been correlated with the reduction of avian diversity in human-affected landscapes. Its territoriality means that translocation is unlikely to be a solution to its overabundance, and culling has been proposed, although the noisy miner is currently a protected species across Australia. Taxonomy English ornithologist John Latham described the noisy miner four times in his 1801 work Supplementum Indicis Ornithologici, sive Systematis Ornithologiae, seemingly not knowing it was the same bird in each case: the chattering bee-eater (Merops garrulus), black-headed grackle (Gracula melanocephala), hooded bee-eater (Merops cucullatus), and white-fronted bee-eater (Merops albifrons). Early notes recorded its tendency to scare off prey as hunters were about to shoot. It was as the chattering bee-eater that it was painted between 1792 and 1797 by Thomas Watling, one of a group known collectively as the Port Jackson Painter. John Gould treated the name Merops garrulus as the original description, and renamed it Myzantha garrula in his 1865 work Handbook to the Birds of Australia, giving it the common name of garrulous honeyeater, and noting the alternate name of chattering honeyeater. He noted the colonists of Tasmania called it a miner, and aboriginal people of New South Wales called it cobaygin. Que que gang was a local aboriginal name from the Blue Mountains. In the early 20th century, Australian ornithologists started using the name Manorina melanocephala instead, because it was listed first by Latham in 1801. This usage did not follow the letter of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature, and in 2009 the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature conserved the current name by formally suppressing the name M. garrula. The species name melanocephala is derived from the Ancient Greek words melas 'black', and kephale 'head', referring to its black crown. Other common names include Mickey miner and soldierbird. Four subspecies are recognised, including subspecies leachi found in eastern Tasmania. The mainland population was split into three subspecies in 1999 by Richard Schodde—titaniota from Cape York Peninsula in Queensland as far south as Mareeba, lepidota from central Queensland and inland New South Wales west of Nyngan, and the nominate subspecies melanocephala from southeastern New South Wales, Victoria, and southern South Australia. There are broad zones where birds are intermediate between subspecies. Further study is required to settle the taxonomic status of these populations. The noisy miner is one of four species in the genus Manorina in the large family of honeyeaters known as Meliphagidae. The other three species of the genus Manorina are the black-eared miner (M. melanotis), the yellow-throated miner (M. flavigula), and the bell miner (M. melanophrys). One of the most obvious characteristics of the genus is a patch of bare yellow skin behind the eyes, which gives them an odd 'cross-eyed' look. Within the genus, the noisy, black-eared and yellow-throated miners form the subgenus Myzantha. The noisy miner occasionally hybridises with the yellow-throated miner. Molecular analysis has shown honeyeaters to be related to the Pardalotidae (pardalotes), Acanthizidae (Australian warblers, scrubwrens, thornbills, etc.), and the Maluridae (Australian fairy-wrens) in the large superfamily Meliphagoidea. Description Appearance The noisy miner is a large honeyeater, in length, with a wingspan of , and weighing . Male, female and juvenile birds all have similar plumage: grey on the back, tail and breast, and otherwise white underneath, with white scalloping on the nape and hind-neck, and on the breast; off-white forehead and lores; a black band over the crown, bright orange-yellow bill, and a distinctive patch of yellow skin behind the eye; a prominent white tip to the tail; a narrow olive-yellow panel in the folded wing; and orange-yellow legs and feet. A juvenile can be distinguished by softer plumage, a brownish tinge to the black on its head and the grey on its back, and a duller, greyish-yellow skin-patch behind the eye. The noisy miner is similar in appearance to the yellow-throated miner and the black-eared miner; it has a dull white forehead and a black crown, while the others have grey heads. Geographical variations Size variation in the noisy miner over its range follows Bergmann's rule; namely, birds tend to be larger where the climate is colder. Adults from central-eastern and northern Queensland tend to have little or no olive-yellow edging to the feathers of the back and wings, and have a wider white fringe on the feathers of the hind-neck and back, giving birds from Queensland the appearance of having more distinctive scalloping than other populations. Wing length generally increases with latitude, yet M. m. leachi has measurably shorter wings than the nominate race, although no significant difference in wing length was found in a study comparing populations north of 30° S and south of the Murray River. The subspecies leachi also has finer scalloping on the hind-neck than the nominate race, a more intense yellow tinge to the wing panels, and a slightly broader off-white tip to the tail. The far north Queensland subspecies titaniota has a shorter tail, paler crown, larger yellow skin-patch, and paler upper parts without the yellow-olive of the nominate race; and lepidota, found in western New South Wales, is smaller than the nominate race with a black crown, and darker, more mottled upperparts. Vocalisations As the common name suggests, the noisy miner is an unusually vocal species. Previously known as the garrulous honeyeater, it has a large and varied repertoire of songs, calls, scoldings, and alarms. Most are loud and penetrating, and consist of harsh single notes. It has two broad-frequency alarm calls that are used when mobbing intruders into their territory, or when predators (including humans) are sighted; and a narrow-frequency alarm call that is primarily used when airborne predators are seen, such as the brown falcon (Falco berigora), or other large flying birds, including the Australian magpie (Gymnorhina tibicen) and the pied currawong (Strepera graculina). The aerial predator alarm call is a series of high-pitched, slurred whistling notes. The broad-frequency alarm calls are a series of 'churr' notes, low-pitched and harsh, occurring at low and high levels of intensity. The narrow-band call is used in situations where the bird signals the presence of a predator and restricts information about its own location, while the broad-band alarm is used to attract attention, and can initiate mobbing behaviour. These churring calls vary between individuals, and laboratory tests show that noisy miners can distinguish calls by different birds. Hence, this may be integral to the complex social structure of the species. Contact or social facilitation calls are low-pitched sounds that carry long distances. 'Chip' calls are given by individual birds when foraging, and a similar call is given by nestlings that call at an increased rate as the mother approaches the nest. Where there is a high level of social activity, such as during territorial disputes with conspecifics, calls are a series of quick, regular, single notes. The noisy miner has a mating display flight song: a soft warble of low-frequency notes given during short, undulating flights by the male, and responded to by the female with a low-frequency whistle. The noisy miner is found in open woodland habitats, where it is an advantage to call from the air, so as to overcome sound attenuation. Another display call, described as 'yammer', is a rapid rhythmical series of notes that is uttered during open-bill, wing-waving displays. The noisy miner has a song described as the 'dawn song'—a communal song of clear, whistled notes emitted in chorus in the early hours of the morning from May through January. The dawn song, which is also sung at dusk, is audible over long distances and features duets that often involve antiphony. A nestling begins to give the 'chip' call soon after it emerges from the egg, and it calls frequently for the first two-thirds of the nestling period and constantly for the last third. The call does not vary in the presence of an adult at the nest, so it seems likely that the call is not directed at the adult bird. The nestling becomes silent when an adult gives an alarm call, and makes a squealing sound when the adult delivers food. The begging call of a fledgling is similar to the call of the nestling, but significantly louder and covering a greater frequency range (which may make it more directional). The rate of calling, on average, is 85 to 100 calls in a minute, and in open scrub, the call can be heard up to a kilometre away. Subsong, a juvenile vocalisation comprising elements of various calls, begins to be uttered when the fledgling is around thirty days old. The noisy miner also produces non-vocal sounds by clicking or snapping its bill, usually during antagonistic encounters with other bird species, or when mobbing a predator. Distribution and habitat The noisy miner is endemic to eastern and southeastern Australia, occupying a broad arc from Far North Queensland where there are scattered populations, to New South Wales where it is widespread and common from the coast to a line from Angledool to Balranald, through Victoria into southeastern South Australia, and eastern Tasmania. Its range in South Australia has been steadily expanding since it was first recorded near Adelaide in the early 1890s. It is sedentary over its entire range. The noisy miner is territorial, and the territory of a colony is aggressively defended—which has led to a significant reduction in avian diversity in areas occupied by the noisy miner, with smaller species excluded. The noisy miner primarily inhabits dry, open eucalypt forest without understory shrubs. It is commonly found in open sclerophyll forests, including those on coastal dunes or granite outcrops; forests dominated by spotted gum on mountain ridges and exposed slopes; box and ironbark forests on the foothills of the Great Dividing Range; mixed forests of eucalypts and cypress (Callitris); forests dominated by yapunya, mulga, gidgee, brigalow or emu bush; in stands of belah and scattered clumps of boree; on the edges of woodlands of river red gum, including swamp woodlands bordering floodplains, and areas dominated by exotic species, such as European ash and willow. It regularly inhabits degraded patches of forest where the understory has been cleared, including recently burned areas, and modified habitats, such as lightly-timbered farming and grazing areas, roadside reserves, bushland remnants in towns and cities, and suburban parks and gardens with trees and grass, but without dense shrubbery. The noisy miner has benefited from the thinning of woodland on rural properties, heavy grazing that removes the understory, fragmentation of woodland that increases the percentage of edge habitat, and urban landscaping practices that increase open eucalypt environments. It has been described as a 'reverse keystone' species, as it is colonising an ever-increasing range of human-dominated habitats, and aggressively excluding smaller bird species from urban environments. This phenomenon has been also observed in rural areas. A field study across the South West Slopes of New South Wales showed that the noisy miner's presence corresponded with reduced numbers of insectivorous birds, such as fantails, whistlers, the restless flycatcher (Myiagra inquieta), and other honeyeater species, and that this decrease was most marked in sites with better access to water and nutrients. While it has been hypothesised that the proliferation of large-flowering grevillea cultivars has contributed to the abundance of noisy miners, recent research has identified the proliferation of lightly treed, open areas, and the presence of eucalypt species as the most significant factors in the population increase. Large-flowered grevillea hybrids, such as Grevillea 'Robyn Gordon', can benefit the noisy miner, in that an abundance of resources is usually dominated by larger, aggressive honeyeaters, and a continuous nectar source could provide an advantage for the non-migratory species. A field study in box-ironbark country in central Victoria found that noisy miner numbers were correlated with the occurrence of yellow gum (Eucalyptus leucoxylon), which reliably produces flowers (and nectar) each year. The abundance of the noisy miner is primarily determined by habitat structure. While the range of the noisy miner has not significantly expanded, the density of the population within that range has substantially increased. High densities of noisy miners are regularly recorded in forests with thick understory in southern Queensland, or more from the forest/agricultural land edge. Many of these sites have extensive road networks used for forest management, and picnic areas and walking tracks for recreational use, and it has been found that these cleared spaces play a role in the abundance of noisy miners in the forest. There is evidence to suggest that higher road densities correspond with higher noisy miner population levels. Field work in Victoria showed that noisy miners infiltrated anywhere from into remnant woodland from the edges, with greater penetration occurring in less densely forested areas. This has implications for the size of woodland habitat needed to contain miner-free areas—around . Revegetation projects restoring buloke woodland, a species of she-oak integral to the survival of the red-tailed black cockatoo (Calyptorynchus banksii), have been interplanted with a nurse species, usually fast-growing eucalypts. Noisy miner populations were more likely in those buloke woodlands where eucalypts had been planted at densities of up to 16 per hectare (6.4 per acre). The presence of noisy miners was accompanied by a substantial difference in number and types of other birds found in the woodland. Behaviour Social organisation The noisy miner is a gregarious species, and the birds are rarely seen singly or in twos; they forage, move and roost in colonies that can consist of several hundred birds Within a colony, a male bird will occupy an 'activity space', which will overlap with the activity spaces of other males. Males with overlapping activity spaces form associations called 'coteries', usually consisting of 10 to 25 birds. Coteries are the most stable unit within the colony. The birds also form temporary flocks when engaged in the same activity. These flocks, called 'coalitions', usually comprise five to eight birds, although coalitions of up to 40 birds can occur when mobbing a potential predator. Membership of the coalition changes frequently as individuals leave the group as it passes beyond the boundary of their activity space, or the activity ends or changes, as when the breeding season begins. Females use activity spaces that overlap with those of male birds, but not other females, so that females will join coalitions with males in their area, but only rarely will there be more than one female in the coalition. The exclusivity of female activity spaces leads to young females being driven out of the colony in which they were born, and also makes it difficult for them to gain a place in a new colony. A study of banded nestlings that survived in one colony until the next breeding season, found that they were all male birds, suggesting that all female nestlings had died or left the colony. Emigration of males does not seem to occur until the population density of the colony reaches a critical level. Looking after the young is communal, with males of the coterie bringing food to the nestlings and removing faecal sacs. Communal feeding increases after fledging, when males from nearby coteries may even bring food to the young birds, if not driven off. Roosting is usually communal, with two to six adults and juveniles roosting in contact with each other, usually near the end of a hanging branch up to above ground, within their activity space. They select a new site each evening, often selecting and rejecting several sites, and engaging in aggressive calling and chasing as other birds attempt to join the group. They are often the last birds to roost at night, but appear to sleep soundly, undisturbed by torchlight. Noisy miners drink together at the edge of lakes and dams, and from cattle troughs, often perching on a submerged branch. They bathe by diving head first into water and, when almost totally submerged, flapping their wings vigorously and ducking their heads under the water. They shake excess water off and then fly to a nearby branch to preen. They have been observed using rain- or dew-soaked foliage to bathe, and in dry weather will dust-bathe in dry soil or fine litter, such as grass clippings. Bathing is communal, with birds stimulated to participate by observing others. They are occasionally observed anting. Flock behaviour The noisy miner engages in most activities in a group. Roosting, foraging, preening, bathing and dust-bathing or anting are communal activities. Dawn song is a communal chorus, particularly during the breeding season. The communal interaction is facilitated by ritualised displays that have been categorised as flight displays, postural displays, and facial displays. In 'long flight' displays, initiated by either male or female birds, groups of up to twenty birds from more than one coterie fly about above the canopy for distances of up to from the colony, constantly calling and not returning to the colony for about twenty minutes. As they return, the remaining birds show signs of agitation, and sometimes fly up to join them. The 'short flight' display is performed by the male, and may be analogous to the territorial advertising displays of other birds. In a ritualised movement, the noisy miner flies out from a perch across an open area, in a rhythmic undulating pattern, usually calling in flight. At the end of the clearing it turns on an upward swoop and flies silently back to a perch near the starting point. The 'head-up flight' is performed by the female during the nesting period, and may function to attract male helpers. In its most intense form the body and tail are held almost vertically, with legs dangling, and the head held up and back. It is performed by the female when she is selecting the nest site, and when carrying nest-building material, and probably has the function of indicating the location of the nest to other group members. Postural displays include tall and low poses, pointing, open-bill and wing-waving. The 'tall posture' is used when in close contact with another bird and is a mild threat. The bird holds itself upright with neck and legs stretched, and it faces the other bird. The 'low posture' is a submissive gesture; the bird sits low on a perch with legs obscured by fluffed feathers, and often faces away from the other bird. Fledglings threatened by adult birds will adopt a low posture and open their bill widely. 'Pointing' is a threat display where the bird stretches out horizontally, with feathers sleeked and the bill pointed at the target of the aggression. A bill snap will sometimes accompany pointing. An 'open-bill display' is used by subordinates in encounters between two birds, and by a female on the nest when other birds approach. The 'trident bill display' involves a fully open bill with the tongue raised and protruding, and is a higher-intensity submissive display. 'Wing-waving' is often performed at the same time as an open-bill display. The wings are flexed and held slightly away from the body, and flapped out and up around three to six times. Wing-waving may be accompanied by a yammer call. 'Eagle' displays involve holding the wings and tail spread out, in either a vertical or horizontal position. Eye displays are made by exposing or covering the bare yellow patch behind the eye—when the feathers are completely sleeked the entire patch is visible, and when they are fluffed the patch is hidden. Eye displays are used in conjunction with postural displays, with the yellow patch fully displayed by dominant birds using threat postures, and immature birds tending to reduce the size of the eye-patch when under attack from other members of the coterie. On occasion early in the breeding season, mass displays erupt, where twenty or thirty birds perform the various wing-spreading displays, short flights, and constant calling. Displaying birds are attacked by others, and groups of silent but agitated birds watch the interactions. Mass displays are more common in the early morning, can last for up to 40 minutes, and seem to be a combination of sexual and agonistic behaviour. A 'corroboree' (from the word for a ceremonial meeting of Aboriginal Australians) is a group display, where birds converge on adjacent branches and simultaneously pose hunchbacked, giving wing-waving and open-bill displays, and the yammer call. A corroboree occurs when birds meet after a change in the social environment, such as a bird returning after an absence, or the repulsion of an intruder, or the coming together of different coteries. The corroboree appears to have a bonding function, and may involve all members of a colony. Agonistic behaviour Described as "always at war with others of the feathered kind" in early notes, the noisy miner is one of the most aggressive of the honeyeaters. Much of the activity within a noisy miner colony is agonistic with chasing, pecking, fighting, scolding, and mobbing occurring frequently throughout the day. The birds unite to attack predators and to defend the colony area against all other species of birds; the species is also highly aggressive intraspecifically. Female noisy miners are aggressive towards each other, and one cause of a male-biased sex-ratio in colonies may be the females' greater intolerance for each other, driving immatures out of the colony and preventing the immigration of new females. Aggression at the nest is common between males. Adult males begin attacking juveniles when they are around 11 weeks old, and attackers can include males that previously cared for the fledgling. Adult females are less aggressive towards young birds, although mothers do occasionally attack their own offspring, and infanticide has been recorded. There is little male to female aggression other than the 'driving flights' that form part of the mating ritual. In direct attacks on young birds, pecks are directed at the eye-patch. Agonistic behaviour has been observed among nestlings, with aggression intensifying after fledging and at times resulting in the death of a sibling. The noisy miner colony unites to mob inter-specific intruders and predators. The noisy miner will approach the threat closely and point, expose eye patches, and often bill-snap. Five to fifteen birds will fly around the intruder, some birds diving at it and either pulling away or striking the intruder. The mobbing continues until the intruder remains still, as with a tawny frogmouth (Podargus strigoides), or it leaves the area. Mobbing of snakes and goannas is particularly intense, and most species of bird, even non-predators, entering the territory are immediately chased. The noisy miner has been recorded attacking an Australian owlet-nightjar (Aegotheles cristatus) during the day, grebes, herons, ducks and cormorants on lakes at the edge of territories, crested pigeons (Ocyphaps lophotes), pardalotes, and rosellas. Non-predatory mammals such as bats, cattle, sheep, and wallabies are also attacked, though less vigorously than birds. Noisy miner attacks are not limited to chasing the intruder, and aggressive incidents often result in the death of the trespasser. Reports include those of two noisy miners repeatedly pecking a house sparrow (Passer domesticus) at the base of its skull and killing it in six minutes; one noisy miner grasping a striated pardalote (Pardalotus striatus) by the wing, while another pecked it on the head until it died; and a sacred kingfisher (Todiramphus sanctus) being chased and harassed for over five hours, and then found dead with a fractured skull. Response to threats Noisy miners make louder alarm calls in noisier sections of urban environments, such as main roads. The most common initial response to alarm calls is to stay in the area and scan for threats, rather than withdraw. A study conducted in Melbourne and a nearby rural area found that noisy miners in urban areas were less likely to take flight, and when they did they flew shorter distances. It is unclear whether this is an adaptation or that bolder miners had been the ones to settle in the city. A field study in Canberra found that superb fairywrens (Malurus cyaneus) that lived in areas frequented by noisy miners recognised miner alarm calls and took flight, and had learnt to ignore their non-alarm calls, while those that live in areas not frequented by noisy miners did not respond to miner alarm calls. This suggests that the species has adapted and learnt to discriminate and respond to another species' vocalisations. Breeding The noisy miner does not use a stereotyped courtship display; displays can involve 'driving', where the male jumps or flies at the female from away, and if she moves away he pursues her aggressively. The female may perform a 'bowed-wing display', where the wings and tail are spread and quivered, with the wings arched and the head pointing down. The male may adopt a vertical or horizontal 'eagle display', with wings and tail spread wide and held still for several seconds. Copulation is frequent and conspicuous, with both males and females copulating with several birds, while other members of the colony display or otherwise interfere with the mating pair. Copulation usually occurs on larger, exposed branches close to the nest site and can occur at any time of the day, although slightly more often between 11:00 and 13:00, when communal activities are less frequent. The frenzied courtship activity had led to speculation that the female mates promiscuously to recruit males to help care for the young, but recent genetic testing shows that 96.5% of noisy miner broods result from monogamous mating and that multiple paternity is rare. An observation of banded birds noted that while females copulated repeatedly, it was always with the same male. Mate switching between broods is uncommon, with pairs staying together over several years. The noisy miner breeds all year long, with most activity from July through November, though the peak period is subject to seasonal variations, with sharp peaks in laying activity when conditions are particularly favourable for raising young. The nest is built in prickly or leafy trees, and the noisy miner is often recorded nesting in eucalypts, and also in wattles, Araucaria, Banksia, Bursaria, Hibiscus, mistletoe, Melaleuca, Pittosporum, Schinus, and jacaranda. It seems to prefer moderately dense foliage for nesting, often near the end of drooping horizontal branches. Support for the nest may be the primary criterion of a suitable nest site, rather than characteristics of the vegetation or location. The female alone builds the nest, which is deep and cup-shaped, woven of twigs and grasses with other plant material, animal hair and spider webs. Occasionally, the nest will include man-made materials such as twine, scraps of material, and tissue paper. It is lined with wool, hair, feathers, flowers or plant down, and padded with a circular mat woven from fibres pulled from the cocoons of the processional caterpillar. The female noisy miner walks around on the ground close to the nest site, picking up material. She gathers material from disused nests of other birds, or dismantles its most recent nest to build a new one. The female completes the nest in five or six days. On average, nests have an external diameter of and an external depth of . The internal depth of the nest is around . Eggs vary greatly in size, shape and markings, but are generally elongated ovals; white to cream or pinkish or buff coloured; freckled, spotted or blotched with reddish brown to chestnut or a purplish red, sometimes with underlying markings of violet or purplish grey. The clutch consists of two to four eggs. Incubation is by the female only, and the incubation period is around sixteen days. Hatching is asynchronous, with up to six days being recorded between the hatching of the first and last chicks in a clutch. Young are naked at hatching, and develop a cover of down within two to three days. The fledging period is around sixteen days, and young begin to find food for themselves between twenty-six and thirty days after fledging, but are still regularly fed by adults to thirty-five days. The young leave the nest before they are fully fledged, and only able to fly downwards, and scramble up. They do not go far from the nest, return to it at night, and take some weeks to completely leave the nest. Many fledglings are found on the ground and in low shrubs during this period, where they continue to be cared for until they can make their way up into the trees. These birds are often mistakenly 'rescued'. The fledglings seek out siblings if separated, and huddle together for up to three weeks after fledging. The noisy miner has some of the largest group sizes of any communally breeding bird, with up to twenty males and one female attending a single brood. Only males help with a nest, and while many birds may be associated with a particular brood, some males devote all their time to a single nest, while others spread their helping efforts across five or six nests. Behavioural evidence and genetic testing indicate that helpers are male offspring of the breeding pair, or full siblings of the male parent. Males nearly always bring food to the nestling singly, and if several arrive at once, one will pass food to a nestling while the others wait. The female leaves the nest quickly when a male bird arrives, and never takes food from one of the helpers. Communal feeding of the young increases after fledging, and the young beg for food with constant 'chip chip' calls and gaping mouths. The female rarely feeds the young birds after they have fledged. Nest predation Cooperative breeding has been described as a strategy for decreasing nest predation, although one study found no relationship between the number of helpers visiting a nest site and its success or failure. Noisy miners were seen to have a range of strategies to increase their breeding success, including multiple broods, laying eggs early in the season, nesting low in the canopy and group mobbing of predators; these measures did not guarantee against nest failure, due to the diversity of potential predators in the noisy miner's open woodland habitat. Feeding The noisy miner primarily eats nectar, fruit, and insects, and occasionally it feeds on small reptiles or amphibians. It is both arboreal and terrestrial, feeding in the canopy of trees, on trunks and branches, and on the ground. It forages within the colony's territory throughout the year, usually in groups of five to eight birds, although hundreds may gather at a stand of flowering trees, such as banksia. The noisy miner collects nectar directly from flowers, hanging upside down or straddling thin branches acrobatically to access the nectar; it takes fruit from trees or fallen on the ground; gleans or hawks for invertebrates; and picks through leaf litter for insects. It has been recorded turning over the dried droppings of emu (Dromaius novaehollandiae) and eastern grey kangaroo (Macropus giganteus), searching for insects. In a study of birds foraging in suburban gardens, the noisy miner was seen to spend more time in banksia, grevillea and eucalypt species, and when in flower, callistemon, than in other plants including exotics. Most time was spent gleaning the foliage of eucalypts, and noisy miners were significantly more abundant in sites where eucalypts were present. The noisy miner can meet most of its nutritional needs from manna, honeydew, and lerp gathered from the foliage of eucalypts. Lower numbers of noisy miner were recorded at banksias and grevilleas than other large honeyeaters, such as little wattlebird (Anthochaera chrysoptera) and red wattlebird (Anthochaera carunculata). Detailed studies of the diet of the noisy miner record it eating a range of foods including: spiders; insects (leaf beetles, ladybirds, stink bugs, ants, moth and butterfly larvae); nectar (from Jacaranda mimosifolia, Erythrina variegata, Lagunaria patersonia, Callistemon salignus, Callistemon viminalis, eucalypts Argyle apple, sugar gum, yellow gum, grey ironbark, and grey gum, Banksia ericifolia, B. integrifolia, B. serrata, Grevillea aspleniifolia, G. banksii, G. hookeriana, G. juniperina, G. rosmarinifolia, and flowering quince); seeds from oats, wheat and pepper tree; fruit from saltbush, mistletoe and crabapple; frogs and skinks; and other matter, such as bread, pieces of meat and cheese, and food scraps. In the first study to demonstrate different learning techniques in a single species, the noisy miner was found to employ different cognitive strategies, depending upon the resource it was foraging. When searching for nectar, which does not move but is readily depleted, the noisy miner uses a spatial memory-based strategy, identifying characteristics of the environment—a strategy that is efficient in new environments and is not affected by changes in the bird's activities. When searching for invertebrates, it appears to employ a different strategy based on learned rules of insect movement (they improve at finding invertebrates with practice). The two different strategies imply the existence of adapted cognitive mechanisms, capable of responding appropriately to different foraging contexts. Conservation status Abundant throughout its significant range, the noisy miner is considered of least concern for conservation, and its extreme population densities in some areas actually constitute a threat to other species. The strong correlation between the presence of noisy miners and the absence of avian diversity has been well documented. The role played by the noisy miner in the steep decline of many woodland birds, its impact on endangered species with similar foraging requirements, and the level of leaf damage leading to die-back that accompanies the exclusion of insectivorous birds from remnant woodlands, means that any strategy to restore avian diversity will need to take account of the management of noisy miner populations. Some habitat restoration and revegetation projects have inadvertently increased the problem of the noisy miner by establishing the open eucalypt habitat that they prefer. A focus of many regeneration projects has been the establishing of habitat corridors that connect patches of remnant forest, and the use of eucalypts as fast-growing nurse species. Both practices have sound ecological value, but allow the noisy miner to proliferate, so conservation efforts are being modified by planting a shrubby understory with the eucalypts, and avoiding the creation of narrow protrusions, corners or clumps of trees in vegetation corridors. A field study conducted in the Southern Highlands found that noisy miners tended to avoid areas dominated by wattles, species of which in the study area had bipinnate leaves. Hence the authors proposed that revegetation projects include at least 15% Acacia species with bipinnate leaves if possible, as well as shrubby understory plants. Translocation of noisy miners is unlikely to be a solution to their overabundance in remnant habitats. In a Victorian study where birds were banded and relocated, colonies moved into the now unpopulated area, but soon returned to their original territories. The translocated birds did not settle in a new territory. They were not assimilated into resident populations of miners, but instead wandered up to from the release point, moving through apparently suitable habitat occupied by other miners—at least for the first 50 days following translocation. Two birds with radio tracking devices travelled back to their site of capture. Although noisy miners are protected across Australia, and a permit is required to cull them, culling has been proposed as the most humane and practical method of reducing their impact, particularly where combined with rehabilitation of the habitat to suit a wider variety of bird life. An unsanctioned cull took place on private rural property over 1991 and 1992, which, combined with extensive and dense plantings of native trees, reportedly resulted in an increase in species diversity. References Bibliography External links Video of a Noisy Miner having a bath and puffing it's feathers out Xeno-canto: audio recordings of the noisy miner Photos, audio and video of noisy miner from Cornell Lab of Ornithology's Macaulay Library noisy miner Birds of Queensland Birds of New South Wales Birds of Victoria (Australia) Birds of Tasmania Birds of South Australia Endemic birds of Australia noisy miner noisy miner

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The economic policies of Bill Clinton administration, referred to by some as Clintonomics (a portmanteau of "Clinton" and "economics"), encapsulates the economic policies of United States President Bill Clinton that were implemented during his presidency, which lasted from January 1993 to January 2001. President Clinton oversaw a very robust economy during his tenure. The U.S. had strong economic growth (around 4% annually) and record job creation (22.7 million). He raised taxes on higher income taxpayers early in his first term and cut defense spending and welfare, which contributed to a rise in revenue and decline in spending relative to the size of the economy. These factors helped bring the United States federal budget into surplus from the fiscal year 1998 to 2001, the only surplus years after 1969. Debt held by the public, a primary measure of the national debt, fell relative to GDP throughout his two terms, from 47.8% in 1993 to 31.4% in 2001. Clinton signed North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) into law, along with many other free trade agreements. He also enacted significant welfare reform. His deregulation of finance (both tacit and overt through the Gramm–Leach–Bliley Act) has been criticized as a contributing factor to the Great Recession. Overview Clinton's presidency included a great period of economic growth in America's history. Clintonomics encompassed both a set of economic policies as well as governmental philosophy. Clinton's economic (clintonomics) approach entailed modernization of the federal government, making it more enterprise-friendly while dispensing greater authority to state and local governments. The ultimate goal involved rendering the American government smaller, less wasteful, and more agile in light of a newly globalized era. Clinton assumed office following the end of a recession, and the economic practices he implemented are held up by his supporters as having fostered a recovery and surplus, though some of the president's critics remained more skeptical of the cause-effect outcome of his initiatives. The Clintonomics policy focus could be encapsulated by the following four points: Establish fiscal discipline and eliminate the budget deficit Maintain low interest rates and encourage private-sector investment Eliminate protectionist tariffs Invest in human capital through education and research Prior to the 1992 presidential campaign, America had undergone twelve years of conservative policies implemented by Ronald Reagan and George H. W. Bush. Clinton ran on the economic platform of balancing the budget, lowering inflation, lowering unemployment, and continuing the traditionally conservative policies of free trade. David Greenberg, a professor of history and media studies at Rutgers University, opined that: Fiscal policy Tax reform In proposing a plan to cut the deficit, Clinton submitted a budget and corresponding tax legislation that would cut the deficit by $500 billion over five years by reducing $255 billion of spending and raising taxes on the wealthiest 1.2% of Americans. It also imposed a new energy tax on all Americans and subjected about a quarter of those receiving Social Security payments to higher taxes on their benefits. Republican Congressional leaders launched an aggressive opposition against the bill, claiming that the tax increase would only make matters worse. Republicans were united in this opposition, and every Republican in both houses of Congress voted against the proposal. In fact, it took Vice President Gore's tie-breaking vote in the Senate to pass the bill. After extensive lobbying by the Clinton Administration, the House narrowly voted in favor of the bill by a vote of 218 to 216. The budget package expanded the earned income tax credit (EITC) as relief to low-income families. It reduced the amount they paid in federal income and Federal Insurance Contributions Act tax (FICA), providing $21 billion in relief for 15 million low-income families. Clinton signed the Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1993 into law. This act created a 36 percent to 39.6 percent income tax for high-income individuals in the top 1.2% of wage earners. Businesses were given an income tax rate of 35%. The cap was repealed on Medicare. The taxes were raised 4.3 cents per gallon on transportation fuels and the taxable portion of Social Security benefits were increased. Clinton enacted Small Business Job Protection Act of 1996 which reduced taxes for many small business. Furthermore, he signed legislation that increased the tax deduction for self-employed business owners from 30% to 80% by 1997. The Taxpayer Relief Act reduced some federal taxes. The 28% rate for capital gains was lowered to 20%. The 15% rate was lowered to 10%. In 1980, a tax credit was put into place based on the number of individuals under the age of 17 in a household. In 1998, it was $400 per child and in 1999, it was raised to $500. This Act removed from taxation profits on the sale of a house of up to $500,000 for individuals who are married, and $250,000 for single individuals. Educational savings and retirement funds were given tax relief. Some of the expiring tax provisions were extended for selected businesses. Since 1998, an exemption could be taken out for those family farms and small businesses that qualified for it. In 1999, the correction of inflation on the $10,000 annual gift tax exclusion was accomplished. By the year 2006, the $600,000 estate tax exemption had risen to $1 million. The economy continued to grow, and in February 2000 it broke the record for the longest uninterrupted economic expansion in U.S. history. After Republicans won control of Congress in 1994, Clinton vehemently fought their proposed tax cuts, believing that they favored the wealthy and would weaken economic growth. In August 1997, however, Clinton and Congressional Republicans were finally able to reach a compromise on a bill that reduced capital gain and estate taxes and gave taxpayers a credit of $500 per child and tax credits for college tuition and expenses. The bill also called for a new individual retirement account (IRA) called the Roth IRA to allow people to invest taxed income for retirement without having to pay taxes upon withdrawal. Additionally, the law raised the national minimum for cigarette taxes. The next year, Congress approved Clinton's proposal to make college more affordable by expanding federal student financial aid through Pell Grants, and lowering interest rates on student loans. Clinton also battled Congress nearly every session on the federal budget, in an attempt to secure spending on education, government entitlements, the environment, and AmeriCorps–the national service program that was passed by the Democratic Congress in the early days of the Clinton administration. The two sides, however, could not find a compromise and the budget battle came to a stalemate in 1995 over proposed cuts in Medicare, Medicaid, education, and the environment. After Clinton vetoed numerous Republican spending bills, Republicans in Congress twice refused to pass temporary spending authorizations, forcing the federal government to partially shut down because agencies had no budget on which to operate. In April 1996, Clinton and Congress finally agreed on a budget that provided money for government agencies until the end of the fiscal year in October. The budget included some of the spending cuts that the Republicans supported (decreasing the cost of cultural, labor, and housing programs) but also preserved many programs that Clinton wanted, including educational and environmental ones. Deficits and debt Below are the budgetary results for President Clinton's two terms in office: He had budget surpluses for fiscal years 1998–2001, the only such years from 1970 to 2018. Clinton's final four budgets were balanced budgets with surpluses, beginning with the 1997 budget. The ratio of debt held by the public to GDP, a primary measure of U.S. federal debt, fell from 47.8% in 1993 to 33.6% by 2000. Debt held by the public was actually paid down by $453 billion over the 1998-2001 periods, the only time this happened between 1970 and 2018. Federal spending fell from 20.7% GDP in 1993 to 17.6% GDP in 2000, below the historical average (1966 to 2015) of 20.2% GDP. Tax revenues rose steadily from 17.0% GDP in 1993 to 20.0% GDP in 2000, well above the historical average of 17.4% GDP. Defense spending fell from 4.3% GDP in 1993 to 2.9% GDP by 2000, as the U.S. enjoyed a "peace dividend" in the wake of the fall of the Soviet Union. In dollar terms, defense spending fell from $292B in 1993 to $266B by 1996, then slowly rose to $295 billion by 2000. Non-defense discretionary spending fell from 3.6% GDP in 1993 to 3.2% GDP by 2000. In dollar terms, it grew from $248B in 1993 to $343B in 2000; robust economic growth still enabled the ratio to fall relative to GDP. These surpluses 1998-2001 were attributed to a strong economy generating high tax revenues, tax increases on upper-income taxpayers, spending restraint, and capital gains tax revenue from a stock market boom. This pattern of raising taxes and cutting spending (i.e., austerity) in an economic boom coincides precisely with the advice of John Maynard Keynes, who stated in 1937: "The boom, not the slump, is the right time for austerity at the Treasury." However, this remarkable success did not stop conservative pundits from trying to discredit this achievement. Their argument essentially goes like this: Although debt held by the public was reduced, the surplus funds paid into Social Security were used to pay those bondholders, in effect borrowing from one pocket (future Social Security program recipients) to pay down the other (current bondholders), such that total debt rose. However, while this is true, this is also how the proverbial "math works" for all the other modern Presidents as well. It is not accurate to discredit the exceptional fiscal austerity of the Clinton era relative to other modern Presidents, which nevertheless coincided with a booming economy by virtually any measure. It is also relevant to point out that this booming economy occurred despite Republican warnings that such tax increases on the highest income taxpayers would slow the economy and job creation. Perhaps the boom would have been even greater if larger deficits had been run, but this was not the argument made at the time. Welfare reform On taking office in early 1993, Clinton proposed a $16 billion stimulus package primarily to aid inner-city programs desired by liberals. However it was quickly defeated by a Republican filibuster in the Senate. Serious efforts at welfare reform required bipartisan support. With the Republican congressional landslide in 1994, Clinton was forced to triangulate policies, that is adopt largely conservative proposals supported by most Republicans, while claiming the major credit for them. The Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Act (PRWORA) of 1996 established the Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) program, which was funded by block grants to the states. This program replaced the Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC) program, which had open-ended funding for those who qualified and a federal match for state spending. To receive the full TANF grant amounts, states had to meet certain requirements related to their own spending, as well as the percentage of welfare recipients working or participating in training programs. This threshold could be reduced if welfare caseloads fell. The law also modified the eligibility rules for means-tested benefits programs such as food stamps and Supplemental Security Income (SSI). CBO estimated in March 1999 that the TANF basic block grant (authorization to spend) would total $16.5 billion annually through 2002, with the amount allocated to each state based on the state's spending history. These block grant amounts proved to be more than the states could initially spend, as AFDC and TANF caseloads dropped by 40% from 1994 to 1998 due to the booming economy. As a result, states had accumulated surpluses which could be spent in future years. States also had the flexibility to use these funds for child care and other programs. CBO also estimated that TANF outlays (actual spending) would total $12.6 billion in fiscal years 1999 and 2000, grow to $14.2 billion by 2002, and reach $19.4 billion by 2009. For scale, total spending in FY 2000 was approximately $2,000 billion, so this represents around 0.6%. Further, CBO estimated that unspent balances would grow from $7.1 billion in 2005 to $25.4 billion by 2008. The law's effect goes far beyond the minor budget impact, however. The Brookings Institution reported in 2006 that: "With its emphasis on work, time limits, and sanctions against states that did not place a large fraction of its caseload in work programs and against individuals who refused to meet state work requirements, TANF was a historic reversal of the entitlement welfare represented by AFDC. If the 1996 reforms had their intended effect of reducing welfare dependency, a leading indicator of success would be a declining welfare caseload. TANF administrative data reported by states to the federal government show that caseloads began declining in the spring of 1994 and fell even more rapidly after the federal legislation was enacted in 1996. Between 1994 and 2005, the caseload declined about 60 percent. The number of families receiving cash welfare is now the lowest it has been since 1969, and the percentage of children on welfare is lower than it has been since 1966." The effects were particularly significant on single mothers; the portion of employed single mothers grew from 58% in 1993 to 75% by 2000. Employment among never-married mothers increased from 44% to 66%. The report concluded that: "The pattern is clear: earnings up, welfare down. This is the very definition of reducing welfare dependency." Trade Clinton made it one of his goals as president to pass trade legislation that lowered the barriers to trade with other nations. He broke with many of his supporters, including labor unions, and those in his own party to support free-trade legislation. Opponents argued that lowering tariffs and relaxing rules on imports would cost American jobs because people would buy cheaper products from other countries. Clinton countered that free trade would help America because it would allow the U.S. to boost its exports and grow the economy. Clinton also believed that free trade could help move foreign nations to economic and political reform. The Clinton administration negotiated a total of about 300 trade agreements with other countries. Clinton's last treasury secretary, Lawrence Summers, stated that the lowered tariffs that resulted from Clinton's trade policies, which reduced prices to consumers and kept inflation low, were technically "the largest tax cut in the history of the world." NAFTA The three-nation NAFTA was signed by President George H. W. Bush during December 1992, pending its ratification by the legislatures of the three countries. Clinton did not alter the original agreement, but complemented it with the North American Agreement on Environmental Cooperation and the North American Agreement on Labor Cooperation, making NAFTA the first "green" trade treaty and the first trade treaty concerned with each country's labor laws, albeit with very weak sanctions. NAFTA provided for gradually reduced tariffs and the creation of a free-trade bloc of North American countries–the United States, Canada, and Mexico. Opponents of NAFTA, led by Ross Perot, claimed it would force American companies to move their workforces to Mexico, where they could produce goods with cheaper labor and ship them back to the United States at lower prices. Clinton, however, argued that NAFTA would increase U.S. exports and create new jobs. Clinton while signing the NAFTA bill stated: "...NAFTA means jobs. American jobs, and good-paying American jobs. If I didn't believe that, I wouldn't support this agreement." He convinced many Democrats to join most Republicans in supporting trade agreement and in 1993 the Congress passed the treaty. While economists generally view free trade as an overall positive for the nation's involved, certain groups may be adversely affected, such as manufacturing workers. For example: In a 2012 survey of leading economists, 95% supported the notion that on average, U.S. citizens benefited on NAFTA. A 2001 Journal of Economic Perspectives review found that NAFTA was a net benefit to the United States. A 2015 study found that US welfare increased by 0.08% as a result of the NAFTA tariff reductions, and that US intra-bloc trade increased by 41%. In 2015, the Congressional Research Service concluded that the "net overall effect of NAFTA on the U.S. economy appears to have been relatively modest, primarily because trade with Canada and Mexico accounts for a small percentage of U.S. GDP. However, there were worker and firm adjustment costs as the three countries adjusted to more open trade and investment among their economies." CRS also pointed out that NAFTA to a great extent set rules for behavior already underway (e.g., U.S. manufacturing companies were already moving some jobs to Mexico, thus avoiding U.S. employment regulation and unions, in efforts to maximize profits.) The U.S. Chamber of Commerce credits NAFTA with increasing U.S. trade in goods and services with Canada and Mexico from $337 billion in 1993 to $1.2 trillion in 2011, while the AFL-CIO blames the agreement for sending 700,000 American manufacturing jobs to Mexico over that time. World Trade Organization (WTO) Officials in the Clinton administration also participated in the final round of trade negotiations sponsored by the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), an international trade organization. The negotiations had been ongoing since 1986. In a rare move, Clinton convened Congress to ratify the trade agreement in the winter of 1994, during which the treaty was approved. As part of the GATT agreement, a new international trade body, the World Trade Organization (WTO), replaced GATT in 1995. The new WTO had stronger authority to enforce trade agreements and covered a wider range of trade than did GATT. Asia Clinton also held meetings with leaders of Pacific Rim nations to discuss lowering trade barriers. In November 1993, he hosted a meeting of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) in Seattle, Washington, which was attended by the leaders of 12 Pacific Rim nations. In 1994, Clinton arranged an agreement in Indonesia with Pacific Rim nations to gradually remove trade barriers and open their markets. Clinton faced his first defeat on trade legislation during his second term. In November 1997, the Republican-controlled Congress delayed voting on a bill to restore a presidential trade authority that had expired in 1994. The bill would have given the president the authority to negotiate trade agreements which the Congress was not authorized to modify–known as "fast-track negotiating" because it streamlines the treaty process. Clinton was unable to generate sufficient support for the legislation, even among the Democratic Party. Clinton faced yet another trade setback in December 1999, when the WTO met in Seattle for a new round of trade negotiations. Clinton hoped that new agreements on issues such as agriculture and intellectual property could be proposed at the meeting, but the talks fell through. Anti-WTO protesters in the streets of Seattle disrupted the meetings and the international delegates attending the meetings were unable to compromise mainly because delegates from smaller, poorer countries resisted Clinton's efforts to discuss labor and environmental standards. That same year, Clinton signed a landmark trade agreement with the People's Republic of China. The agreement–the result of more than a decade of negotiations–would lower many trade barriers between the two countries, making it easier to export U.S. products such as automobiles, banking services, and motion pictures. However, the agreement could only take effect if China was accepted into the WTO and was granted permanent "normal trade relations" status by the U.S. Congress. Under the pact, the United States would support China's membership in the WTO. Many Democrats as well as Republicans were reluctant to grant permanent status to China because they were concerned about human rights in the country and the impact of Chinese imports on U.S. industries and jobs. Congress, however, voted in 2000 to grant permanent normal trade relations with China. Several economic studies have since been released that indicate the increase in trade resulting lowered American prices and increased the U.S. GDP by 0.7% throughout the following decade. Agriculture Although Governor Clinton had a large farm base in Arkansas; as president he sharply cut support for farmers and raised taxes on tobacco. At one high level policy meeting budget expert Alice Rivlin told the president she had a new slogan for his reelection campaign: "I’m going to end welfare as we know it for farmers.” Clinton was annoyed and retorted, “Farmers are good people. I know we have to do these things. We’re going to make these cuts. But we don’t have to feel good about it.” With exports accounting for more than a fourth of farm output, farm organizations joined business interests to defeat human rights activists regarding Most Favored Nation (MFN) trade status for China They took the position that major tariff increases would hurt importers and consumers. They warned that China would retaliate to hurt American exporters. They wanted more liberal trade policies and less attention to internal Chinese human rights abuses. Environmentalists began taking a keen interest in agricultural policies. The feared that farming had a growing negative impact on the environment in terms of soil erosion and the destruction of wetlands. The expanding use of pesticides and fertilizers, polluted soil and water not just on each farm but downstream into rivers and lakes and urban areas as well. A major issue involved low fees charged ranchers who grazed cattle on public lands. The "animal unit month" (AUM) fee was only $1.35 and was far below the 1983 market value. The argument was that the federal government in effect was subsidizing ranchers, with a few major corporations controlling millions of acres of grazing land. Babbitt and Oklahoma Congressman Mike Synar tried to rally environmentalists and raise fees, but senators from the Western United States successfully blocked their proposals. Congress wrote a new farm bill in 1995. Clinton vetoed it on December 6, 1995 because it would "eliminate the safety net" and "provide windfall payments to producers when prices are high, but not protect family farm income would prices or low." Deregulation of banking Clinton signed the bipartisan Financial Services Modernization Act or GLBA in 1999. It allowed banks, insurance companies and investment houses to merge and thus repealed the Glass-Steagall Act which had been in place since 1932. It also prevented further regulation of risky financial derivatives. His deregulation of finance (both tacit and overt through GLBA) was criticized as a contributing factor to the Great Recession. While he disputes that claim, he expressed regret and conceded that in hindsight he would have vetoed the bill, mainly because it excluded risky financial derivatives from regulation, not because it removed the long-standing Glass-Steagall barrier between investment and depository banking. In his view, even if he had vetoed the bill, the Congress would have overridden the veto, as it had nearly unanimous support. Politifact in 2015 rated Clinton's claim that repeal of Glass-Steagall did not have "anything to do with the financial crash [of 2008]" as "Mostly True," with the caveat that his claim focused on removing the separation of investment and depository banking and not the broader exclusion of risky financial instruments (derivatives) from regulation. These derivatives, such as the credit default swaps at the core of the 2008 crisis, were basically used to insure mortgage-related securities, with AIG the major provider. This encouraged more mortgage-related lending, as AIG theoretically stood behind the mortgage securities used to finance the mortgage lending. However, AIG was not effectively regulated and did not have the financial resources to make good on its insurance promises when housing defaults began and investors began to claim the insurance payments on mortgage securities in default. AIG collapsed spectacularly in September 2008, and became a conduit for a large government bailout (over $100 billion) to many banks globally to which AIG owed money, one of the darkest episodes in the crisis. Economic results summary Overall Clinton presided over the following economic results, measured from January 1993 to December 2000, with alternate dates as indicated: Average real GDP growth of 3.8%, compared to average growth of 3.1% from 1970 to 1992. The economy grew every quarter. Real GDP per capita increased from about $36,000 in 1992 to $44,470 in 2000 (in 2009 dollars), about 23%, roughly the same as it did from 1981 to 1989 during the Reagan administration. Inflation averaged 2.6%, versus 6.1% from 1970 to 1992 and 3.0% in 1992. Labor market Non-farm payrolls increased by 22.7 million from February 1993 to January 2001 (236,000 per month average, the fastest on record for a Presidential tenure) while civilian employment increased by 18.5 million (193,000 per month average). The unemployment rate was 7.3% in January 1993, fell steadily to 3.8% by April 2000 and was 4.2% in January 2001 when his second term ended. It was below 5.0% after May 1997. Unemployment for African Americans fell from 14.1% in January 1993 to 7.0% in April 2000, the lowest rate on record. Unemployment for Hispanics fell from 11.3% in January 1993 to 5.1% in October 2000, the lowest rate on record up to that point. Households Real median household income increased from $50,725 in 1992 to $57,790 in 2000, a 13.9% increase. The poverty rate declined from 15.1% in 1993 to 11.3% in 2000, the largest six-year drop in poverty in nearly 30 years. The number in poverty fell from 39.2 million in 1993 to 31.58 million in 2000, a decline of 7.6 million. The homeownership rate reached 67.7% near the end of the Clinton administration, the highest rate on record. In contrast, the homeownership rate fell from 65.6% in the first quarter of 1981 to 63.7% in the first quarter of 1993. Clinton worked with the Republican-led Congress to enact welfare reform. As a result, welfare rolls dropped dramatically and were the lowest since 1969. Between January 1993 and September 1999, the number of welfare recipients dropped by 7.5 million (a 53% decline) to 6.6 million. In comparison, between 1981 and 1992, the number of welfare recipients increased by 2.5 million (a 22% increase) to 13.6 million people. Criticism Clinton has been heavily criticized for overseeing the creation of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), which made it more affordable for manufacturing companies to outsource jobs to foreign countries and then import their product back to the United States. Some liberals and progressives believe that Clinton did not do enough to reverse the trends toward widening income and wealth inequality that began in the late 1970s and 1980s. The top marginal income tax rate for high-income individuals (the top 1.2% of earners) was 70 percent in 1980, then lowered to 28 percent in 1986 by Reagan; Clinton raised it back to 39.6 percent, but it remained far below pre-Reagan levels. Clinton's administration also afforded no benefit to unionized labor and did not favor strengthening collective bargaining rights. Lower unemployment rates were another large part of Clinton's macroeconomic policies. Many argue that Clinton cost many Americans jobs because he supported free trade, which some argue caused the U.S. to lose jobs to countries like China (Burns and Taylor 390). Even if Clinton did cost Americans some jobs because of free trade support, he allowed for more jobs than were lost because the unemployment rate of his presidency, and especially his second term, were the lowest they had been in thirty years (Burns and Taylor 390). Others attribute this to sustained declines in interest rates, which fueled a booming stock market and job growth in a booming technology sector. As mentioned previously, Clinton has been criticized by some observers as having played a long-term role in leading to the Great Recession with the aforementioned Gramm–Leach–Bliley Act as well as the Commodity Futures Modernization Act of 2000. See also Presidency of Bill Clinton New Democrats Back to Work: Why We Need Smart Government for a Strong Economy George W. Bush administration economic policy Orbanomics Reaganomics Rubinomics U.S. economic performance under Democratic and Republican Party Presidents Notes References Anonymous. Taxpayer Relief Act of 1997. File Tax.Com. 8 Mar. 2008 Anonymous. "S&P 500." Standard & Poor's. 8 Mar. 2008 Midgley, James. "The United States: Welfare, Work, and Development." International Journal of Social Welfare 10:7 (2000): 284–293. Bartlett, Bruce. “Clinton Economics.” NRO NationalreviewONLINE 7 July 2004. 8 March 2008 "Bill Clinton’s Economic Legacy." BBC. 15 January 2001. British Broadcast Corporation. 8 March 2008 Bartlett, Bruce. "Those Were the Days." The New York Times. 1 July 2004. 4 March 2008 Burns, John W. and Andrew J. Taylor. "A New Democrat? The Economic Performance of the Clinton Presidency." The Independent Review V.3 (2001): 387-408. Further reading Congressional Quarterly. Congress and the Nation: IX 1993-1996 (1998) Congressional Quarterly. Congress and the Nation: X 1997-2000 (2002) Frankel, Jeffrey A. and Peter R. Orszag, eds. American Economic Policy in the 1990s (2002) introduction Stiglitz, Joseph E. The roaring nineties : a new history of the world's most prosperous decade (2003) online primary sources Economic Report of the President (annual) online External links The Clinton Presidency: Historic Growth Articles containing video clips Clintonomics Public policy of the Clinton administration Political terminology of the United States Clinton, Bill

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The England–Wales border (), sometimes referred to as the Wales–England border or the Anglo–Welsh border, runs for from the Dee estuary, in the north, to the Severn estuary in the south, separating England and Wales. It has followed broadly the same line since the 8th century, and in part that of Offa's Dyke; the modern boundary was fixed in 1536, when the former marcher lordships which occupied the border area were abolished and new county boundaries were created. The administrative boundary of Wales was confirmed in the Local Government Act 1972. Whether Monmouthshire was part of Wales, or an English county treated for most purposes as though it were Welsh, was also settled by the 1972 Act, which included it in Wales. Geography The modern boundary between Wales and England runs from the salt marshes of the Dee estuary adjoining the Wirral Peninsula, across reclaimed land to the River Dee at Saltney just west of Chester. It then loops south to include within England an area southwest of Chester, before rejoining the Dee, and then loops east of the river to include within Wales a large area known as Maelor, formerly an exclave of Flintshire, between Bangor-on-Dee (in Wales) and Whitchurch, Shropshire (in England). Returning to the River Dee as far as Chirk, the boundary then loops to the west, following Offa's Dyke itself for about , and including within England the town of Oswestry, before reaching the River Vyrnwy at Llanymynech. It follows the Vyrnwy to its confluence with the River Severn, and then continues southwards, rising over Long Mountain east of Welshpool. East of Montgomery, the boundary again follows the line of Offa's Dyke for about , before looping eastwards to include within Wales a large area near Churchstoke. It then runs westwards to the River Teme, and follows the river southeastwards through Knighton before turning south towards the River Lugg at Presteigne, which is within Wales. The boundary continues southwards across hills to the River Wye, and follows the river upstream for a short distance to Hay-on-Wye, on the Welsh side of the border. It continues southwards and rises through and across the Black Mountains, following the Hatterall Ridge past Llanthony on the Welsh side and Longtown, Herefordshire on the English side, to reach the River Monnow near Pandy. It then generally follows the river, past Pontrilas (in England) and Skenfrith (in Wales), towards Monmouth, looping eastwards to include the town itself and a surrounding area within Wales. At Redbrook, the boundary again reaches the Wye, and follows the river southwards, past Tintern and Chepstow on the Welsh side, to its confluence with the Severn at the Severn Bridge. The boundary then continues down the Severn estuary towards the Bristol Channel, with the small island of Flat Holm being administered as part of Wales and the neighbouring island of Steep Holm as part of England. Administrative boundary The boundary passes between Flintshire, Wrexham County Borough, Powys, and Monmouthshire in Wales and Cheshire, Shropshire, Herefordshire and Gloucestershire in England. There are several places where the border runs along the centre of a lane or street, resulting in properties on one side of the street being in Wales and those on the other side being in England. Notable examples include Boundary Lane in Saltney and the main street of Llanymynech. History Ancient Britain Before and during the Roman occupation of Britain, all the native inhabitants of the island (other than the Pictish/Caledonian tribes of what is now northern Scotland—and also excepting the Lloegyr of greater south-east Britain) spoke Brythonic languages, a sub-family of the Insular Celtic languages, and were regarded as Britons. The topographical contrast between the mountainous western areas and the generally lower-lying areas to the east is reflected in the nature of ancient settlements, with the majority of hillforts in Britain found in this western area. Roman era During the Roman occupation, the tribes of Wales (Ordovices, Deceangli, Demetae, and especially the Silures) were noted by Roman authors as fiercely resisting any occupation. As such the border area became a centre of military activity, with legions based at Deva (Chester), Viroconium (Wroxeter), and Isca Augusta (Caerleon). In most of Wales, the militaristic nature of the occupation was in stark contrast to that of southeast Britain. As such, by the end of Roman rule, there would have been a cultural border, between the highly Romanised Romano-British in the east, and the more independent and tribal kingdoms to the west. This western area was, however, largely Christian, and a number of successor states attempted to continue Roman practices. The most successful of these were the Kingdom of Gwynedd in the northwest, the Kingdom of Gwent and Glywysing in the southeast, the Kingdom of Dyfed in the southwest and the Kingdom of Powys in the east. Powys roughly coincided with the territory of the Celtic Cornovii tribe whose civitas or administrative centre during the Roman period was at Viroconium. Gwynedd, at the height of its power, extended as far east as the Dee estuary. Gradually, from the 5th century onwards, pagan tribes from the east, including the Angles and Saxons, conquered eastern and southern Britain, which later became England. In the south, the Welsh kingdom of Gwent broadly covered the same area as the pre-Roman Silures, traditionally the area between the rivers Usk, Wye and the Severn estuary. It was centred at different times on Venta (Caerwent), from which it derived its name, and Isca Augusta (Caerleon). Gwent generally allied with, and at various times was joined with, the smaller Welsh kingdom of Ergyng, centred in present-day southern Herefordshire west of the Wye (and deriving its name from the Roman town of Ariconium); and the larger kingdom of Glywysing in modern Glamorgan. The name Glywysing may indicate that it was founded by a British native of Glevum (Gloucester). Medieval era The Battle of Mons Badonicus, circa 500, could have been fought near Bath between the British, the victors, and Anglo-Saxons attempting to reach the Severn estuary, but its date and location are very uncertain and it may equally well have taken place in Somerset or Dorset. However, it is more certain that the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Wessex emerged in the 6th and 7th centuries in the upper Thames valley, Cotswolds and Hampshire areas. In 577, the Battle of Deorham in the southern Cotswolds was won by the Anglo-Saxons, and led to Wessex extending its control to the Severn estuary and the cities of Gloucester, Cirencester, and Bath. This severed the land link between the Britons of Wales and those of the south west peninsula. By about 600, however, the area of modern Gloucestershire east of the Severn, as well as most of Worcestershire, was controlled by another group, the Hwicce, who may have arisen from intermarriage between Anglo-Saxon and British leading families, possibly the successors to the pre-Roman Dobunni. The Hwicce came increasingly under Mercian hegemony. At the Battle of Chester in 616, the forces of Powys and other allied Brythonic kingdoms were defeated by the Northumbrians under Æthelfrith. This divided the Britons of Wales from those in Northern England, including Lancashire, Cumbria, and south west Scotland, an area which became known as "Yr Hen Ogledd" or "the Old North". Within a few decades, the Welsh became engaged in further defensive warfare against the increasingly powerful kingdom of Mercia, based at Tamworth in what became the West Midlands of England. The capital of Powys, Pengwern, at or near modern Shrewsbury, was conquered by Oswiu of Northumbria in 656 when he had become overlord of the Mercians. Powys then withdrew from the lowland areas now in southern Cheshire, Shropshire and Herefordshire, which became known to Welsh poets as "The Paradise of Powys". The areas were occupied by Anglo-Saxon groups who became sub-kingdoms of Mercia, the Wreocensǣte or Wrekinset in the northern part of what became Shropshire, and the Magonsæte in the southern part. Further south, the area north west of the Severn later known as the Forest of Dean seems to have remained in British (that is, Welsh) hands until about 760. Offa's Dyke After Ine of Wessex abdicated in 726, Æthelbald of Mercia established Mercia's hegemony over the Anglo-Saxons south of the Humber. However, campaigns by Powys against Mercia led to the building of Wat's Dyke, an earthwork boundary extending from the Severn valley near Oswestry to the Dee at Basingwerk in what became Flintshire, perhaps to protect recently acquired lands. After Æthelbald was killed in 757, a brief civil war in Mercia then ended in victory for his distant cousin, Offa. As king, he rebuilt Mercia's hegemony over the southern English through military campaigns, and also caused the construction of Offa's Dyke, around the years 770 and 780. Offa's Dyke is a massive linear earthwork, up to wide (including its surrounding ditch) and high. It is much larger and longer than Wat's Dyke, and runs roughly parallel to it. The earthwork was generally dug with the displaced soil piled into a bank on the Mercian (eastern) side, providing an open view into Wales and suggesting that it was built by Mercia to guard against attacks or raids from Powys. The late 9th-century writer Asser wrote that Offa "terrified all the neighbouring kings and provinces around him, and ... had a great dyke built between Wales and Mercia from sea to sea". In the mid-20th century, Sir Cyril Fox completed a major survey of the Dyke and stated that it ran from the Dee to the Severn, as Asser suggested, but with gaps, especially in the Herefordshire area, where natural barriers of strong rivers or dense forests provided sufficient defence. More recent research by David Hill and Margaret Worthington concluded that there is little evidence for the Dyke stretching "from sea to sea", but that the earthwork built by Offa stretched some between Rushock Hill near Kington in Herefordshire, and Treuddyn in Flintshire. Earthworks in the far north and south, including sections overlooking the Wye valley and east of the Wye at Beachley, may in their view have been built for different purposes at different times, although their conclusions are themselves disputed. Offa's Dyke largely remained the frontier between the Welsh and English in later centuries. By the 9th century, the expanding power of Mercia led to it gaining control over Ergyng and nearby Hereford. The system of shires which was later to form the basis of local administration throughout England and eventually Wales originated in Wessex, where it became established during the 8th century. Wessex and Mercia gradually established an occasionally unstable alliance, with Wessex gaining the upper hand. According to Asser, the southern Welsh kings, including Hywel ap Rhys of Glywysing, commended themselves to Alfred the Great of Wessex in about 885. Alfred's son Edward the Elder also secured homage from the Welsh, although sporadic border unrest continued. In the early 10th century, a document known as The Ordinance Concerning the Dunsaete records procedures for dealing with disputes between the English and the Welsh, and implies that areas west of the Wye in Archenfield were still culturally Welsh. It stated that the English should only cross into the Welsh side, and vice versa, in the presence of an appointed man who had the responsibility of making sure that the foreigner was safely escorted back to the crossing point. In 926, Edward's successor Athelstan, "King of the English", summoned the Welsh kings including Hywel Dda of Deheubarth to a meeting at Hereford, and according to William of Malmesbury laid down the boundary between England and Wales, particularly the disputed southern stretch where he specified that the eastern bank of the Wye should form the boundary. By the mid-eleventh century, most of Wales had become united under the king of Gwynedd, Gruffudd ap Llywelyn. In 1055, he marched on Hereford and sacked the city. He also seized Morgannwg and the Kingdom of Gwent, together with substantial territories east of Offa's Dyke, and raided as far as Chester and Leominster. He claimed sovereignty over the whole of Wales, a claim recognised by the English, and historian John Davies states that Gruffudd was "the only Welsh king ever to rule over the entire territory of Wales.". However, after his most powerful ally – Earl Elfgar of Mercia and East Anglia – died, Harold and Tostig Godwinson took advantage of the situation – Gruffudd being besieged in Snowdonia – and invaded Wales. In 1063, Gruffudd was killed by his own men. Harold returned many of the Welsh princes their lands, so that after Harold's death at the Battle of Hastings, Wales was again divided without a leader to resist the Normans. March of Wales Immediately after the Norman conquest of England, King William installed one of his most trusted confidants, William FitzOsbern, as Earl of Hereford. By 1071 he had started the building of Chepstow Castle, the first castle in Britain built of stone, near the mouth of the Wye. It served as a base from which the Normans continued to expand westward into south Wales, establishing a castle at Caerleon and extinguishing the Welsh kingdom of Gwent. William also installed Roger de Montgomerie at Shrewsbury, and Hugh d'Avranches at Chester, creating a new expansionist earldom in each case. In the Domesday Book of 1086, Norman lands are recorded west of the Wye at Chepstow and Caldicot in the Gwent Levels (); over the whole of north east Wales as far west as the River Clwyd, an area known to the Welsh as the Perfeddwlad; and west of Offa's Dyke, especially in Powys where a new castle was named, after its lord, Montgomery. Domesday Book no doubt records the extent of English penetration into Wales. This suggests that Offa's Dyke still approximately represented the boundary between England and Wales. However, during the anarchy of Stephen various Welsh princes were able to occupy lands beyond it, including Whittington, Shropshire (see Whittington Castle) and Maelor Saesneg, hitherto in England. These lands were brought under English lordship by Henry II of England, but became Marcher lordships, and so part of Wales. This involved a loss of direct rule by the English crown. Over the next four centuries, Norman lords established mostly small lordships, at times numbering over 150, between the Dee and Severn and further west. The precise dates and means of formation of the lordships varied, as did their size. Hundreds of small castles, mostly of the motte and bailey type, were built in the border area in the 12th and 13th centuries, predominantly by Norman lords as assertions of power as well as defences against Welsh raiders and rebels. Many new towns were established across the area, some such as Chepstow, Monmouth, Ludlow and Newtown becoming successful trading centres, and these tended to be a focus of English settlement. However, the Welsh continued to attack English soil and supported rebellions against the Normans. The Marches, or Marchia Wallia, were to a greater or lesser extent independent of both the English monarchy and the Principality of Wales, which remained based in Gwynedd in the north west of the country. By the early 12th century, they covered the areas which would later become Monmouthshire and much of Flintshire, Montgomeryshire, Radnorshire, Brecknockshire, Glamorgan, Carmarthenshire and Pembrokeshire. Some of the lordships, such as Oswestry, Whittington, Clun, and Wigmore had been part of England at the time of Domesday, while others such as the Lordship of Powys were Welsh principalities that passed by marriage into the hands of Norman barons. In ecclesiastical terms, the ancient dioceses of Bangor and St. Asaph in the north, and St. David's and Llandaff in the south, collectively defined an area which included both the Principality and the March, and coincided closely with later definitions of Wales. The Principality of Wales () covered the lands ruled by the Prince of Wales directly, and was formally founded in 1216, and later recognised by the 1218 Treaty of Worcester between Llywelyn ab Iorwerth, Prince of Gwynedd, and King John of England. Encompassing two-thirds of modern Wales, the principality operated as an effectively independent entity from the reign of Llywelyn until 1283 (though it underwent a period of contraction during the early part of the reign of Dafydd ap Llywelyn in the 1240s, and again for several years from the beginning of Llywelyn ap Gruffudd's rule in 1246). Its independence was characterised by a separate legal jurisprudence based on the well established laws of Cyfraith Hywel, and by the increasingly sophisticated court of the Aberffraw dynasty. The Statute of Rhuddlan in 1284 followed the conquest of the Principality by Edward I of England. It assumed the lands held by the Princes of Gwynedd under the title "Prince of Wales" as legally part of the lands of England, and established shire counties on the English model over those areas. The Council of Wales, based at Ludlow Castle, was also established in the 15th century to govern the area. Formation of "England and Wales" and county boundaries However, the Marches remained outside the shire system, and at least nominally outside the control of the English monarchy, until the first Laws in Wales Act was introduced in 1535 under Henry VIII. This, and a further Act in 1542, had the effect of annexing Wales to England and creating a single state and legal jurisdiction, commonly referred to as England and Wales. The powers of the marcher lordships were abolished, and their areas formed into new counties, or amalgamated into existing ones. At this point, the boundary between England and Wales, which has existed ever since, was effectively fixed. In the border areas, five new counties were created – Denbighshire, Montgomeryshire, Radnorshire, Brecknockshire and Monmouthshire – and Flintshire gained some additional territory. However, several of the marcher lordships were incorporated in whole or in part into English counties. The lordships of Ludlow, Clun, Caus and part of Montgomery were incorporated into Shropshire; and Wigmore, Huntington, Clifford and most of Ewyas were included in Herefordshire. According to John Davies: Thus was created the border between Wales and England, a border which has survived until today. It did not follow the old line of Offa's Dyke nor the eastern boundary of the Welsh dioceses; it excluded districts such as Oswestry and Ewias, where the Welsh language would continue to be spoken for centuries, districts which it would not be wholly fanciful to consider as Cambria irredenta. Yet, as the purpose of the statute was to incorporate Wales into England, the location of the Welsh border was irrelevant to the purposes of its framers. An 1844 Act of Parliament later abolished several enclaves. One of these, Welsh Bicknor, was an exclave of Monmouthshire between Gloucestershire and Herefordshire. Monmouthshire Although Monmouthshire was included in the 16th century legislation, it was treated anomalously, with the result that its legal status as a Welsh county fell into some ambiguity and doubt until the 20th century. It was omitted from the second Act of Union, which established the Court of Great Sessions, and like English shires it was given two Knights of the Shire, rather than one as elsewhere in Wales. However, in ecclesiastical terms, almost all of the county remained within the Diocese of Llandaff, and most of its residents at the time spoke Welsh. In the late 17th century under Charles II it was added to the Oxford circuit of the English Assizes, following which, according to the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica, it gradually "came to be regarded as an English county". Under that interpretation, the boundary between England and Wales passed down the Rhymney valley, along Monmouthshire's western borders with Brecknockshire and Glamorgan, so including Newport, and other industrialised parts of what would now generally be considered to be South Wales, within England. The 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica unambiguously described the county as part of England, but noted that "whenever an act [...] is intended to apply to [Wales] alone, then Wales is always coupled with Monmouthshire". Some legislation and UK government decisions, such as the establishment of a "Royal Commission on Ancient and Historical Monuments in Wales and Monmouthshire" in 1908, referred to "Wales and Monmouthshire", so that it was treated as one with Wales rather than as a legal part of Wales. The county's status continued to be a matter of debate in Parliament, especially as Welsh nationalism and devolution climbed the political agenda in the 20th century. In 1921 the area was included within the Church in Wales. The Welsh Office, established in 1965, included Monmouthshire within its remit, and in 1969 George Thomas, Secretary of State for Wales, proposed to fully incorporate Monmouthshire into Wales. The issue was finally clarified in law by the Local Government Act 1972, which provided that "in every act passed on or after 1 April 1974, and in every instrument made on or after that date under any enactment (whether before, on or after that date) "Wales", subject to any alterations of boundaries..." included "the administrative county of Monmouthshire and the county borough of Newport". The legal boundary between England and Wales therefore passes along Monmouthshire's eastern boundaries with Herefordshire and Gloucestershire, essentially along the River Monnow and River Wye. The border today English and Welsh boundaries The first legislation applying solely to Wales since the 16th century was passed in 1881. Subsequently, the border between England and Wales has taken on increasing legal and political significance. Until the Welsh Disestablishment in 1920, the Diocese of St Asaph covered parts of north-west Shropshire. The parishes transferred to the Diocese of Lichfield were: Criftins, Hengoed, Kinnerley, Knockin, Llanyblodwell, Llanymynech, Melverley, Morton, Oswestry, St Martins, Selattyn, Trefonen, Weston Rhyn and Whittington. In 1965, a separate department of state was established for Wales – the Welsh Office – which assumed an increasing range of administrative responsibilities from Whitehall. By 1992, the Welsh Office oversaw housing, local government, roads, historic buildings, health, education, economic development, agriculture, fisheries and urban regeneration, although the extent to which it was able to be autonomous from England in public policy is a matter of debate. The establishment of devolved government in Wales through the Welsh Assembly, set up in 1999, has led to a divergence between England and Wales on some government policies. One such is the fact that prescription charges were abolished in Wales in 2007. In 2008, residents of the village of Audlem, Cheshire, from the border, "voted" to become part of Wales in what was originally a joke ballot. Some residents sought to make a case for securing Welsh benefits such as free hospital parking and prescriptions. The modern border lies between the town of Knighton and its railway station, and divides the village of Llanymynech where a pub straddles the line. Knighton is the only town that can claim to be on the border as well as on Offa's Dyke. The postal and ecclesiastical borders are in places slightly different – for example the Shropshire village of Chirbury has Montgomery, as its post town, and the Welsh town of Presteigne is in the English Diocese of Hereford. National League North football club Chester F.C.'s ground at Deva Stadium straddles the border, with the car park and some of the offices in England but the pitch in Wales. In the 2021–22 season, the club were threatened with legal action for failing to apply the COVID-19 regulations applying in Wales and allowing crowds to attend matches at the ground. A competition was launched in 2005 to design one or more new iconic images, along the same lines as the "Angel of the North", to be placed at the borders of Wales. This became known as the "Landmark Wales" project, and a shortlist of 15 proposals was unveiled in 2007. However, the proposal was shelved after it failed to receive Lottery funding. The main road links over the border in the south are the M4 Second Severn Crossing and the M48 Severn Bridge. In July 2017, the Welsh Secretary, Alun Cairns, announced that tolls would be abolished at the end of 2018, claiming that this would boost the South Wales economy by around £100m a year. In September 2017, Cairns confirmed that tolls would be reduced in January 2018 when VAT was removed. All tolls ceased on 17 December 2018. Lost Lands of Wales The Lost Lands of Wales was a minor political idea of the mid-1960s which called into question the status of areas along the east side of the England–Wales border, which its proponents regarded as Welsh. The idea related to parts of the counties of Cheshire, Gloucestershire, Herefordshire and Shropshire. The Lost Lands Liberation League was reportedly a minor group in the 1960s claiming to recover the 'Lost Lands' for Wales. Some Welsh nationalist organisations have campaigned on the issue, although Plaid Cymru does not. The group is associated with Gethin ap Gruffydd. Place names In general, placenames of Welsh origin are found to the west of the border, and those of English origin to the east. However, many historically Welsh names are also found east of the border, particularly around Oswestry in northern Shropshire, such as Gobowen and Trefonen; in southern Shropshire, such as Clun; and in southern Herefordshire, such as Kilpeck and Pontrilas. Most of these areas were not incorporated fully into England until the 16th century, and native Welsh speakers still lived there until at least the 19th century. Equally, placenames of English origin can be found on the Welsh side of the border where there was Mercian and Norman settlement, particularly in the north east, such as Flint, Wrexham and Prestatyn; in English Maelor, such as Overton; in central Powys, such as Newtown and Knighton; and in southeastern Monmouthshire, including Chepstow and Shirenewton. See also Anglo–Scottish border Berwick upon Tweed Church of England border polls 1915–1916 Cross-border derby Cultural relationship between the Welsh and the English Debatable lands History of Wales List of Anglo-Welsh Wars Little England beyond Wales Lloegyr Monmouthshire (historic) Offa's Dyke Path Republic of Ireland–United Kingdom border Severnside derby Welsh Marches References Further reading 1536 establishments in England 1536 establishments in Wales English law Geographic history of the United Kingdom Irredentism Welsh nationalism History of Shropshire History of Cheshire History of Gloucestershire History of Herefordshire Territorial evolution

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Petrovsky (; masculine), Petrovskaya (; feminine), or Petrovskoye (; neuter) is the name of various inhabited localities in Russia. Modern localities Altai Krai As of 2012, two rural localities in Altai Krai bear this name: Petrovsky, Novichikhinsky District, Altai Krai, a settlement in Lobanikhinsky Selsoviet of Novichikhinsky District; Petrovsky, Pankrushikhinsky District, Altai Krai, a settlement in Lukovsky Selsoviet of Pankrushikhinsky District; Arkhangelsk Oblast As of 2012, three rural localities in Arkhangelsk Oblast bear this name: Petrovskaya, Kargopolsky District, Arkhangelsk Oblast, a village in Pechnikovsky Selsoviet of Kargopolsky District Petrovskaya, Kotlassky District, Arkhangelsk Oblast, a village in Revazhsky Selsoviet of Kotlassky District Petrovskaya, Shenkursky District, Arkhangelsk Oblast, a village in Nikolsky Selsoviet of Shenkursky District Astrakhan Oblast As of 2012, one rural locality in Astrakhan Oblast bears this name: Petrovsky, Astrakhan Oblast, a settlement in Sedlistinsky Selsoviet of Ikryaninsky District; Republic of Bashkortostan As of 2012, three rural localities in the Republic of Bashkortostan bear this name: Petrovsky, Republic of Bashkortostan, a khutor in Alexandrovsky Selsoviet of Meleuzovsky District Petrovskoye, Iglinsky District, Republic of Bashkortostan, a village in Kaltovsky Selsoviet of Iglinsky District Petrovskoye, Ishimbaysky District, Republic of Bashkortostan, a selo in Petrovsky Selsoviet of Ishimbaysky District Belgorod Oblast As of 2012, four rural localities in Belgorod Oblast bear this name: Petrovsky, Chernyansky District, Belgorod Oblast, a khutor in Chernyansky District Petrovsky, Prokhorovsky District, Belgorod Oblast, a khutor in Prokhorovsky District Petrovsky, Rakityansky District, Belgorod Oblast, a khutor under the administrative jurisdiction of Proletarsky Settlement Okrug in Rakityansky District Petrovsky, Starooskolsky District, Belgorod Oblast, a settlement in Starooskolsky District Bryansk Oblast As of 2012, three rural localities in Bryansk Oblast bear this name: Petrovsky, Klimovsky District, Bryansk Oblast, a settlement in Istopsky Rural Administrative Okrug of Klimovsky District; Petrovsky, Pochepsky District, Bryansk Oblast, a settlement in Krasnorogsky Rural Administrative Okrug of Pochepsky District; Petrovsky, Surazhsky District, Bryansk Oblast, a settlement in Ovchinsky Rural Administrative Okrug of Surazhsky District; Chelyabinsk Oblast As of 2012, four rural localities in Chelyabinsk Oblast bear this name: Petrovsky, Krasnoarmeysky District, Chelyabinsk Oblast, a settlement in Petrovsky Selsoviet of Krasnoarmeysky District Petrovsky, Nagaybaksky District, Chelyabinsk Oblast, a settlement in Nagaybaksky Selsoviet of Nagaybaksky District Petrovsky, Oktyabrsky District, Chelyabinsk Oblast, a settlement in Krutoyarsky Selsoviet of Oktyabrsky District Petrovskoye, Chelyabinsk Oblast, a selo in Petrovsky Selsoviet of Uvelsky District Ivanovo Oblast As of 2012, five inhabited localities in Ivanovo Oblast bear this name. Urban localities Petrovsky, Ivanovo Oblast, a settlement in Gavrilovo-Posadsky District Rural localities Petrovskoye, Ivanovsky District, Ivanovo Oblast, a village in Ivanovsky District Petrovskoye, Komsomolsky District, Ivanovo Oblast, a village in Komsomolsky District Petrovskoye, Lezhnevsky District, Ivanovo Oblast, a selo in Lezhnevsky District Petrovskoye, Privolzhsky District, Ivanovo Oblast, a village in Privolzhsky District Kaliningrad Oblast As of 2012, one rural locality in Kaliningrad Oblast bears this name: Petrovskoye, Kaliningrad Oblast, a settlement in Prigorodny Rural Okrug of Nesterovsky District Kaluga Oblast As of 2012, four rural localities in Kaluga Oblast bear this name: Petrovsky, Lyudinovsky District, Kaluga Oblast, a village in Lyudinovsky District Petrovsky, Meshchovsky District, Kaluga Oblast, a settlement in Meshchovsky District Petrovskoye, Kuybyshevsky District, Kaluga Oblast, a selo in Kuybyshevsky District Petrovskoye, Peremyshlsky District, Kaluga Oblast, a village in Peremyshlsky District Kemerovo Oblast As of 2012, two rural localities in Kemerovo Oblast bear this name: Petrovsky, Belovsky District, Kemerovo Oblast, a settlement in Vishnevskaya Rural Territory of Belovsky District; Petrovsky, Leninsk-Kuznetsky District, Kemerovo Oblast, a settlement in Dracheninskaya Rural Territory of Leninsk-Kuznetsky District; Kirov Oblast As of 2012, four rural localities in Kirov Oblast bear this name: Petrovskoye, Shabalinsky District, Kirov Oblast (or Petrovskaya), a village in Gostovsky Rural Okrug of Shabalinsky District; Petrovskoye, Urzhumsky District, Kirov Oblast (or Petrovsky), a selo in Petrovsky Rural Okrug of Urzhumsky District; Petrovskaya, Afanasyevsky District, Kirov Oblast, a village in Ichetovkinsky Rural Okrug of Afanasyevsky District; Petrovskaya, Oparinsky District, Kirov Oblast, a village in Vazyuksky Rural Okrug of Oparinsky District; Kostroma Oblast As of 2012, six rural localities in Kostroma Oblast bear this name: Petrovskoye, Chukhlomsky District, Kostroma Oblast (or Petrovskaya), a village in Petrovskoye Settlement of Chukhlomsky District; Petrovskoye, Galichsky District, Kostroma Oblast, a village in Dmitriyevskoye Settlement of Galichsky District; Petrovskoye, Nerekhtsky District, Kostroma Oblast, a village in Voskresenskoye Settlement of Nerekhtsky District; Petrovskoye, Susaninsky District, Kostroma Oblast, a village in Buyakovskoye Settlement of Susaninsky District; Petrovskaya, Oktyabrsky District, Kostroma Oblast, a village in Pokrovskoye Settlement of Oktyabrsky District; Petrovskaya, Vokhomsky District, Kostroma Oblast, a village in Lapshinskoye Settlement of Vokhomsky District; Krasnodar Krai As of 2012, three rural localities in Krasnodar Krai bear this name: Petrovsky, Krasnodar Krai, a khutor in Sokolovsky Rural Okrug of Gulkevichsky District; Petrovskoye, Krasnodar Krai, a selo in Blagodarnensky Rural Okrug of Otradnensky District; Petrovskaya, Krasnodar Krai, a stanitsa in Petrovsky Rural Okrug of Slavyansky District; Kurgan Oblast As of 2012, two rural localities in Kurgan Oblast bear this name: Petrovskoye, Shchuchansky District, Kurgan Oblast (or Petrovsky, Petrovskaya), a selo in Petrovsky Selsoviet of Shchuchansky District; Petrovskoye, Yurgamyshsky District, Kurgan Oblast, a selo in Krasnouralsky Selsoviet of Yurgamyshsky District; Kursk Oblast As of 2012, seven rural localities in Kursk Oblast bear this name: Petrovsky, Manturovsky District, Kursk Oblast, a khutor in Repetsky Selsoviet of Manturovsky District Petrovsky, Pristensky District, Kursk Oblast, a khutor in Rakitinsky Selsoviet of Pristensky District Petrovsky, Zolotukhinsky District, Kursk Oblast, a khutor in Revolyutsionny Selsoviet of Zolotukhinsky District Petrovskoye, Khomutovsky District, Kursk Oblast, a selo in Petrovsky Selsoviet of Khomutovsky District Petrovskoye, Korenevsky District, Kursk Oblast, a village in Plodosovkhozsky Selsoviet of Korenevsky District Petrovskoye, Kursky District, Kursk Oblast, a village in Troitsky Selsoviet of Kursky District Petrovskoye, Sovetsky District, Kursk Oblast, a selo in Krasnodolinsky Selsoviet of Sovetsky District Leningrad Oblast As of 2012, two rural localities in Leningrad Oblast bear this name: Petrovskoye, Lomonosovsky District, Leningrad Oblast (or Petrovskaya), a village in Orzhitskoye Settlement Municipal Formation of Lomonosovsky District; Petrovskoye, Priozersky District, Leningrad Oblast, a settlement in Petrovskoye Settlement Municipal Formation of Priozersky District; Lipetsk Oblast As of 2012, four rural localities in Lipetsk Oblast bear this name: Petrovsky, Lipetsk Oblast, a settlement in Speshnevo-Ivanovsky Selsoviet of Dankovsky District; Petrovskoye, Izmalkovsky District, Lipetsk Oblast, a selo in Petrovsky Selsoviet of Izmalkovsky District; Petrovskoye, Terbunsky District, Lipetsk Oblast, a village in Soldatsky Selsoviet of Terbunsky District; Petrovskoye, Volovsky District, Lipetsk Oblast (or Petrovskaya), a village in Zamaraysky Selsoviet of Volovsky District; Mari El Republic As of 2012, three rural localities in the Mari El Republic bear this name: Petrovskoye, Mari-Tureksky District, Mari El Republic, a village under the administrative jurisdiction of Mari-Turek Urban-Type Settlement in Mari-Tureksky District; Petrovskoye, Morkinsky District, Mari El Republic, a selo in Semisolinsky Rural Okrug of Morkinsky District; Petrovskoye, Yurinsky District, Mari El Republic, a village in Vasilyevsky Rural Okrug of Yurinsky District; Moscow Oblast As of 2012, thirteen rural localities in Moscow Oblast bear this name: Petrovskoye, Ivanovskoye Rural Settlement, Istrinsky District, Moscow Oblast (or Petrovskaya), a village in Ivanovskoye Rural Settlement of Istrinsky District; Petrovskoye, Snegiri, Istrinsky District, Moscow Oblast, a village under the administrative jurisdiction of Snegiri Suburban Settlement in Istrinsky District; Petrovskoye, Klinsky District, Moscow Oblast, a selo in Petrovskoye Rural Settlement of Klinsky District; Petrovskoye, Lotoshinsky District, Moscow Oblast (or Petrovskaya), a village in Mikulinskoye Rural Settlement of Lotoshinsky District; Petrovskoye, Veselevskoye Rural Settlement, Naro-Fominsky District, Moscow Oblast (or Petrovskaya), a village in Veselevskoye Rural Settlement of Naro-Fominsky District; Petrovskoye, Kalininets, Naro-Fominsky District, Moscow Oblast, a selo under the administrative jurisdiction of Kalininets Work Settlement in Naro-Fominsky District; Petrovskoye, Kuznetsovskoye Rural Settlement, Ramensky District, Moscow Oblast (or Petrovskaya), a village in Kuznetsovskoye Rural Settlement of Ramensky District; Petrovskoye, Sofyinskoye Rural Settlement, Ramensky District, Moscow Oblast, a selo in Sofyinskoye Rural Settlement of Ramensky District; Petrovskoye, Serpukhovsky District, Moscow Oblast (or Petrovskaya), a village in Vasilyevskoye Rural Settlement of Serpukhovsky District; Petrovskoye, Shatursky District, Moscow Oblast (or Petrovskaya), a selo under the administrative jurisdiction of the Town of Shatura in Shatursky District; Petrovskoye, Shchyolkovsky District, Moscow Oblast, a selo in Ogudnevskoye Rural Settlement of Shchyolkovsky District; Petrovskoye, Volokolamsky District, Moscow Oblast (or Petrovskaya), a village in Yaropoletskoye Rural Settlement of Volokolamsky District; Petrovskoye, Voskresensky District, Moscow Oblast, a selo in Fedinskoye Rural Settlement of Voskresensky District; Nizhny Novgorod Oblast As of 2012, one rural locality in Nizhny Novgorod Oblast bears this name: Petrovsky, Nizhny Novgorod Oblast, a settlement in Otarsky Selsoviet of Vorotynsky District; Novgorod Oblast As of 2012, four rural localities in Novgorod Oblast bear this name: Petrovskoye, Borovichsky District, Novgorod Oblast, a village in Travkovskoye Settlement of Borovichsky District Petrovskoye, Demyansky District, Novgorod Oblast, a village in Zhirkovskoye Settlement of Demyansky District Petrovskoye, Lyubytinsky District, Novgorod Oblast, a village under the administrative jurisdiction of Nebolchskoye Settlement in Lyubytinsky District Petrovskoye, Pestovsky District, Novgorod Oblast, a village in Bykovskoye Settlement of Pestovsky District Novosibirsk Oblast As of 2012, two rural localities in Novosibirsk Oblast bear this name: Petrovsky, Kargatsky District, Novosibirsk Oblast, a settlement in Kargatsky District Petrovsky, Ordynsky District, Novosibirsk Oblast, a settlement in Ordynsky District Orenburg Oblast As of 2012, two rural localities in Orenburg Oblast bear this name: Petrovskoye, Krasnogvardeysky District, Orenburg Oblast, a selo in Dmitriyevsky Selsoviet of Krasnogvardeysky District Petrovskoye, Saraktashsky District, Orenburg Oblast, a selo in Petrovsky Selsoviet of Saraktashsky District Oryol Oblast As of 2012, three rural localities in Oryol Oblast bear this name: Petrovsky, Dmitrovsky District, Oryol Oblast, a settlement in Berezovsky Selsoviet of Dmitrovsky District Petrovsky, Sverdlovsky District, Oryol Oblast, a settlement in Yakovlevsky Selsoviet of Sverdlovsky District Petrovskoye, Oryol Oblast, a village in Cheremoshensky Selsoviet of Mtsensky District Penza Oblast As of 2012, one rural locality in Penza Oblast bears this name: Petrovskoye, Penza Oblast, a selo in Vysokinsky Selsoviet of Bashmakovsky District Pskov Oblast As of 2012, four rural localities in Pskov Oblast bear this name: Petrovskoye, Loknyansky District, Pskov Oblast, a village in Loknyansky District Petrovskoye, Novorzhevsky District, Pskov Oblast, a village in Novorzhevsky District Petrovskoye, Pushkinogorsky District, Pskov Oblast, a village in Pushkinogorsky District Petrovskaya, Pskov Oblast, a village in Opochetsky District Rostov Oblast As of 2012, seven rural localities in Rostov Oblast bear this name: Petrovsky, Azovsky District, Rostov Oblast, a khutor in Kagalnitskoye Rural Settlement of Azovsky District Petrovsky, Chertkovsky District, Rostov Oblast, a khutor in Olkhovchanskoye Rural Settlement of Chertkovsky District Petrovsky, Krasnosulinsky District, Rostov Oblast, a khutor in Kiselevskoye Rural Settlement of Krasnosulinsky District Petrovsky, Millerovsky District, Rostov Oblast, a khutor in Voloshinskoye Rural Settlement of Millerovsky District Petrovsky, Milyutinsky District, Rostov Oblast, a khutor in Lukichevskoye Rural Settlement of Milyutinsky District Petrovsky, Neklinovsky District, Rostov Oblast, a khutor in Fedorovskoye Rural Settlement of Neklinovsky District Petrovsky, Zimovnikovsky District, Rostov Oblast, a khutor in Kuteynikovskoye Rural Settlement of Zimovnikovsky District Ryazan Oblast As of 2012, one rural locality in Ryazan Oblast bears this name: Petrovskoye, Ryazan Oblast, a village in Pionersky Rural Okrug of Rybnovsky District Samara Oblast As of 2012, two rural localities in Samara Oblast bear this name: Petrovsky, Bogatovsky District, Samara Oblast, a settlement in Bogatovsky District Petrovsky, Bolshechernigovsky District, Samara Oblast, a settlement in Bolshechernigovsky District Saratov Oblast As of 2012, two rural localities in Saratov Oblast bear this name: Petrovsky, Saratov Oblast, a settlement in Krasnopartizansky District Petrovskoye, Saratov Oblast, a selo in Pugachyovsky District Smolensk Oblast As of 2012, four rural localities in Smolensk Oblast bear this name: Petrovskoye, Baklanovskoye Rural Settlement, Demidovsky District, Smolensk Oblast, a village in Baklanovskoye Rural Settlement of Demidovsky District Petrovskoye, Zakustishchenskoye Rural Settlement, Demidovsky District, Smolensk Oblast, a village in Zakustishchenskoye Rural Settlement of Demidovsky District Petrovskoye, Novoduginsky District, Smolensk Oblast, a village in Izvekovskoye Rural Settlement of Novoduginsky District Petrovskoye, Roslavlsky District, Smolensk Oblast, a village in Ivanovskoye Rural Settlement of Roslavlsky District Stavropol Krai As of 2012, three rural localities in Stavropol Krai bear this name: Petrovsky, Kochubeyevsky District, Stavropol Krai, a khutor in Ivanovsky Selsoviet of Kochubeyevsky District Petrovsky, Novoalexandrovsky District, Stavropol Krai, a khutor in Razdolnensky Selsoviet of Novoalexandrovsky District Petrovsky, Sovetsky District, Stavropol Krai, a khutor in Soldato-Alexsandrovsky Selsoviet of Sovetsky District Tambov Oblast As of 2015, six rural localities in Tambov Oblast bear this name: Petrovskoye, Muchkapsky District, Tambov Oblast, a selo in Krasnokustovsky Selsoviet of Muchkapsky District Petrovskoye, Petrovsky District, Tambov Oblast, a selo in Petrovsky Selsoviet of Petrovsky District Petrovskoye, Pichayevsky District, Tambov Oblast, a village in Bolshelomovissky Selsoviet of Pichayevsky District Petrovskoye, Tokaryovsky District, Tambov Oblast, a village in Chicherinsky Selsoviet of Tokaryovsky District Petrovskoye, Zherdevsky District, Tambov Oblast, a selo in Tugolukovsky Selsoviet of Zherdevsky District Petrovskaya, Tambov Oblast, a village in Yurlovsky Selsoviet of Nikiforovsky District Republic of Tatarstan As of 2012, two rural localities in the Republic of Tatarstan bear this name: Petrovsky, Nurlatsky District, Republic of Tatarstan, a settlement in Nurlatsky District Petrovsky, Tyulyachinsky District, Republic of Tatarstan, a settlement in Tyulyachinsky District Tula Oblast As of 2012, nine rural localities in Tula Oblast bear this name: Petrovsky, Tula Oblast, a settlement in Inshinsky Rural Okrug of Leninsky District Petrovskoye, Luzhenskaya Rural Administration, Chernsky District, Tula Oblast, a village in Luzhenskaya Rural Administration of Chernsky District Petrovskoye, Turgenevskaya Rural Administration, Chernsky District, Tula Oblast, a village in Turgenevskaya Rural Administration of Chernsky District Petrovskoye, Kimovsky District, Tula Oblast, a village in Lvovsky Rural Okrug of Kimovsky District Petrovskoye, Odoyevsky District, Tula Oblast, a selo in Odoyevskaya Rural Administration of Odoyevsky District Petrovskoye, Shchyokinsky District, Tula Oblast, a village in Petrovskaya Rural Administration of Shchyokinsky District Petrovskoye, Tyoplo-Ogaryovsky District, Tula Oblast, a village in Gorkovsky Rural Okrug of Tyoplo-Ogaryovsky District Petrovskoye, Uzlovsky District, Tula Oblast, a village in Akimo-Ilyinskaya Rural Administration of Uzlovsky District Petrovskoye, Yefremovsky District, Tula Oblast, a village in Yandovsky Rural Okrug of Yefremovsky District Tver Oblast As of 2012, ten rural localities in Tver Oblast bear this name: Petrovskoye, Kalininsky District, Tver Oblast, a selo in Verkhnevolzhskoye Rural Settlement of Kalininsky District Petrovskoye, Kesovogorsky District, Tver Oblast, a village in Kesovskoye Rural Settlement of Kesovogorsky District Petrovskoye, Kimrsky District, Tver Oblast, a village in Pechetovskoye Rural Settlement of Kimrsky District Petrovskoye, Ostashkovsky District, Tver Oblast, a village in Zhdanovskoye Rural Settlement of Ostashkovsky District Petrovskoye, Rameshkovsky District, Tver Oblast, a village in Ilgoshchi Rural Settlement of Rameshkovsky District Petrovskoye, Bolshemalinskoye Rural Settlement, Sandovsky District, Tver Oblast, a village in Bolshemalinskoye Rural Settlement of Sandovsky District Petrovskoye, Lukinskoye Rural Settlement, Sandovsky District, Tver Oblast, a village in Lukinskoye Rural Settlement of Sandovsky District Petrovskoye, Sonkovsky District, Tver Oblast, a selo in Petrovskoye Rural Settlement of Sonkovsky District Petrovskoye, Vesyegonsky District, Tver Oblast, a village in Proninskoye Rural Settlement of Vesyegonsky District Petrovskoye, Zubtsovsky District, Tver Oblast, a village in Pogorelskoye Rural Settlement of Zubtsovsky District Ulyanovsk Oblast As of 2012, one rural locality in Ulyanovsk Oblast bears this name: Petrovskoye, Ulyanovsk Oblast, a selo in Bogdashkinsky Rural Okrug of Cherdaklinsky District Vladimir Oblast As of 2012, two rural localities in Vladimir Oblast bear this name: Petrovskoye, Kovrovsky District, Vladimir Oblast, a village in Kovrovsky District Petrovskoye, Selivanovsky District, Vladimir Oblast, a village in Selivanovsky District Volgograd Oblast As of 2012, one rural locality in Volgograd Oblast bears this name: Petrovsky, Volgograd Oblast, a khutor in Petrovsky Selsoviet of Uryupinsky District Vologda Oblast As of 2012, eight rural localities in Vologda Oblast bear this name: Petrovskoye, Cherepovetsky District, Vologda Oblast, a village in Ilyinsky Selsoviet of Cherepovetsky District Petrovskoye, Talitsky Selsoviet, Kirillovsky District, Vologda Oblast, a selo in Talitsky Selsoviet of Kirillovsky District Petrovskoye, Volokoslavinsky Selsoviet, Kirillovsky District, Vologda Oblast, a selo in Volokoslavinsky Selsoviet of Kirillovsky District Petrovskoye, Sokolsky District, Vologda Oblast, a village in Dvinitsky Selsoviet of Sokolsky District Petrovskoye, Vologodsky District, Vologda Oblast, a village in Spassky Selsoviet of Vologodsky District Petrovskaya, Velikoustyugsky District, Vologda Oblast, a village in Yudinsky Selsoviet of Velikoustyugsky District Petrovskaya, Verkhovazhsky District, Vologda Oblast, a village in Klimushinsky Selsoviet of Verkhovazhsky District Petrovskaya, Vozhegodsky District, Vologda Oblast, a village in Vozhegodsky Selsoviet of Vozhegodsky District Voronezh Oblast As of 2012, four rural localities in Voronezh Oblast bear this name: Petrovskoye, Borisoglebsky Urban Okrug, Voronezh Oblast, a selo under the administrative jurisdiction of Borisoglebsky Urban Okrug Petrovskoye, Liskinsky District, Voronezh Oblast, a selo in Petrovskoye Rural Settlement of Liskinsky District Petrovskoye, Paninsky District, Voronezh Oblast, a selo under the administrative jurisdiction of Pereleshinskoye Urban Settlement in Paninsky District Petrovskoye, Ramonsky District, Voronezh Oblast, a settlement in Komsomolskoye Rural Settlement of Ramonsky District Yaroslavl Oblast As of 2012, nine inhabited localities in Yaroslavl Oblast bear this name: Urban localities Petrovskoye, Rostovsky District, Yaroslavl Oblast, a work settlement in Rostovsky District Rural localities Petrovskoye, Bolsheselsky District, Yaroslavl Oblast, a village in Chudinovsky Rural Okrug of Bolsheselsky District Petrovskoye, Breytovsky District, Yaroslavl Oblast, a village in Prozorovsky Rural Okrug of Breytovsky District Petrovskoye, Danilovsky District, Yaroslavl Oblast, a village in Trofimovsky Rural Okrug of Danilovsky District Petrovskoye, Okhotinsky Rural Okrug, Myshkinsky District, Yaroslavl Oblast, a village in Okhotinsky Rural Okrug of Myshkinsky District Petrovskoye, Zarubinsky Rural Okrug, Myshkinsky District, Yaroslavl Oblast, a village in Zarubinsky Rural Okrug of Myshkinsky District Petrovskoye, Pereslavsky District, Yaroslavl Oblast, a selo in Skoblevsky Rural Okrug of Pereslavsky District Petrovskoye, Poshekhonsky District, Yaroslavl Oblast, a village in Krasnovsky Rural Okrug of Poshekhonsky District Petrovskoye, Yaroslavsky District, Yaroslavl Oblast, a village in Karabikhsky Rural Okrug of Yaroslavsky District Abolished localities Petrovsky, Pogarsky District, Bryansk Oblast, a khutor in Andreykovichsky Selsoviet of Pogarsky District in Bryansk Oblast; abolished in February 2009 Petrovskoye, Nizhny Novgorod Oblast, a village in Bolshekuverbsky Selsoviet of Tonshayevsky District in Nizhny Novgorod Oblast; abolished in August 2009 Petrovskoye (abolished), Tokaryovsky District, Tambov Oblast, a village in Chicherinsky Selsoviet of Tokaryovsky District in Tambov Oblast; merged into the selo of Lvovo in April 2015 Renamed localities Petrovskoye, name of Makhachkala, a city in the Republic of Dagestan, from 1844 to 1857 Petrovskaya, name of Petrovskaya 1-ya, a village in Ichetovkinsky Rural Okrug of Afanasyevsky District in Kirov Oblast, before November 2008; Alternative names Petrovskaya, alternative name of Petrovskaya 1-ya, a village in Ichetovkinsky Rural Okrug of Afanasyevsky District in Kirov Oblast; Petrovskaya, alternative name of Bolshoye Petrovskoye, a village in Stremilovskoye Rural Settlement of Chekhovsky District in Moscow Oblast; Petrovsky, alternative name of Petrovka, a village in Krasnoorlovskaya Rural Territory of Mariinsky District in Kemerovo Oblast; Petrovsky, alternative name of Petrovka, a selo in Breslavsky Selsoviet of Usmansky District in Lipetsk Oblast; Petrovskoye, alternative name of Petrovsk, a village in Semyachkovsky Rural Administrative Okrug of Trubchevsky District in Bryansk Oblast; Petrovskoye, alternative name of Petrovka, a village in Polovinsky Selsoviet of Polovinsky District in Kurgan Oblast; Petrovskoye, alternative name of Bolshoye Petrovskoye, a village in Teryayevskoye Rural Settlement of Volokolamsky District in Moscow Oblast; Petrovskoye, alternative name of Petrovka, a selo in Petrovsky Selsoviet of Troitsky District in Altai Krai; Petrovskoye, alternative name of Novopetrovka, a selo in Petrovsky Selsoviet of Dobrinsky District in Lipetsk Oblast; Petrovskoye, alternative name of Novopetrovskoye, a selo in Novopetrovskoye Rural Settlement of Istrinsky District in Moscow Oblast; Petrovskoye, alternative name of Petrovo-Dalneye, a selo in Ilyinskoye Rural Settlement of Krasnogorsky District in Moscow Oblast;

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The Red Skull is an alias used by several supervillains appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics and its predecessor Timely Comics. The first version, George Maxon, appeared in Captain America Comics #1 and #4. The main incarnation of the character, Johann Shmidt, was created by Joe Simon and Jack Kirby, and first appeared in Captain America Comics #7 in October 1941. Originally portrayed as a Nazi agent and protégé of Adolf Hitler during World War II, the Red Skull has endured as the archenemy of the superhero Captain America. Initially wearing a fearsome blood-red death skull mask that symbolizes carnage and chaos to intimidate, decades after the war he suffers a horrific disfigurement that matches his persona. The Red Skull was ranked number 21 on Wizard magazine's top 100 greatest villains ever list and ranked as IGN's 14th-greatest comic book villain of all time. The character has been adapted to a variety of other media platforms, including animated television series, video games and live-action feature films. He was portrayed by actor Scott Paulin in the 1990 direct-to-video film Captain America. In the Marvel Cinematic Universe, Hugo Weaving played the character in Captain America: The First Avenger (2011), and Ross Marquand voiced the character in Avengers: Infinity War (2018) and Avengers: Endgame (2019) as well as an alternate version in the Disney+ animated series What If...? (2021). Publication history The original Red Skull was introduced in Timely Comics' Captain America Comics #1 (cover-dated March 1941) which was written and drawn by the team of Joe Simon and Jack Kirby. On separate occasions, both Kirby and Simon claimed to have had the original idea for the character, and at the 1970 San Diego Comic Con, Kirby said the Red Skull was created by France Herron. Simon later credited both Kirby and Herron with having a role in creating Red Skull. The Skull was to appear again in issue #3 of Captain America Comics. As in issue #1, the Red Skull's secret identity is George Maxon, the owner of the Maxon Aircraft Company that makes airplanes for the US Army. Maxon wears a mask to create the look of the Red Skull and his face is often exposed. As the Red Skull, Maxon commandeers bank robberies in an effort to raise money to overthrow the US government, declaring, "Of course you realize the main item in overthrowing the government is money!" Stories published decades later established that the Red Skull appearing in Captain America #7 (October 1941) was the Nazi Johann Shmidt, and that the Red Skull appearing before that point was his pawn George Maxon. The Red Skull also appeared in Young Allies #1 and #4. He appeared maskless in both issues, including when getting up from bed in issue #1 and while in a fighter jet with one other ally in #4. After an absence from comics for many years, both Captain America and the Red Skull were brought back in 1954 in Young Men Comics #24, in a story entitled "Back From The Dead". Here the Red Skull, thinking Captain America was dead, has left politics and started a big criminal enterprise in the United States. In his next appearance, in issue #27, the Red Skull is once again left for dead. The character returned in new stories starting with Tales of Suspense #65 (May 1965) in a Captain America World War II-period story run. Red Skull was established as a contemporary villain in issue #79 (July 1966), with the explanation that he had been in suspended animation since World War II. For decades, the character's true face was hidden, but in Captain America #297 (September 1984) the Red Skull unmasks in front of Captain America and his face, albeit extremely aged, is fully revealed. In the next issue, the Red Skull retells his story with his face fully visible in his various ages. When the character is revealed to be alive in issue #350 (February 1989), in a story called "Resurrection", by Mark Gruenwald, the face of Johann Shmidt's original body is hidden again, but the Red Skull's face is fully visible, albeit in his cloned copy of Captain America's body. The character's origin was more fully illustrated in the miniseries Red Skull: Incarnate, with Shmidt's face fully visible again. Fictional character biography Johann Shmidt Johann Shmidt was a Nazi general officer and confidant of Adolf Hitler. He has been closely affiliated with HYDRA and is an enemy of S.H.I.E.L.D., the Avengers, and the interests of the United States and the free world in general. He was physically augmented by having his mind placed into the body of a clone of Captain America, the pinnacle of human perfection. He has been seemingly killed in the past, only to return time and time again to plague the world with schemes of world domination and genocide. World War II era Johann Shmidt was born in a village in Germany to Hermann Shmidt and Martha Shmidt. His mother died in childbirth, and his father blamed Johann for her death. Johann's father tried to drown the baby, only to be stopped by the attending doctor; he later committed suicide, leaving Johann an orphan. The doctor took Johann to an orphanage, where the child led a lonely existence. Johann ran away from the orphanage when he was 7 years old and lived on the streets as a beggar and thief. As he grew older, he worked at various menial jobs but spent most of his time in prison for crimes ranging from vagrancy to theft. The Skull's real name of Johann Shmidt was not revealed in his Golden Age and Silver Age appearances. As a young man, Shmidt was from time to time employed by a Jewish shopkeeper, whose daughter Esther was the only person who had treated Shmidt kindly up to that point. Seized with passion for Esther, Schmidt tried to force himself upon her, only for her to reject him. In unthinking fury, Schmidt murdered her. Shmidt fled the scene in terror but also felt ecstatic joy in committing his first murder. In killing Esther, he had given vent to the rage at the world that had been building up in him throughout his young life. According to the official version of the story told by the Red Skull and the Nazis, Shmidt met Hitler while working as a bellhop in a hotel. This occurred during his late teens, around the same time that the Nazi Party gained power in Germany. Shmidt wound up serving Hitler's rooms at the hotel. By chance, Shmidt was present by bringing refreshments when the Führer was furiously scolding an officer for letting a spy escape, during which Hitler declared that he could create a better National Socialist out of the bellhop. Looking closely at the youth and sensing his dark inner nature, Hitler decided to act on his words and recruited Shmidt. In the miniseries Red Skull: Incarnate, it has been revealed that Shmidt actually engineered his meeting with the Führer with himself disguised as a bellhop, tricking his fellow orphan Dieter into trying to kill Hitler and then taking this opportunity to save Hitler's life. Dissatisfied with the standard drill instruction his subordinates used to train Shmidt, Hitler took over personally, training Shmidt as his right-hand man after Heinrich Himmler. Upon completion, Hitler gave Shmidt a unique uniform with a grotesque red skull mask, and he emerged as the Red Skull (in literal German: Roter Totenkopf or Roter (Toten-)Schädel) for the first time. His role was the embodiment of Nazi intimidation, while Hitler could remain the popular leader of Germany. To that end, the Red Skull was appointed head of Nazi terrorist activities with an additional large role in external espionage and sabotage. He succeeded, wreaking havoc throughout Europe in the early stages of World War II. The propaganda effect was so great that the United States government decided to counter it by creating their own equivalent using the one recipient of the lost Project Rebirth: Steve Rogers, as the superhero/counterintelligence agent, Captain America. In Europe during the war, the Red Skull took personal command of many military actions and personally supervised the takeovers and lootings of many cities and towns. The Red Skull also organized a Wolf Pack of U-Boats which preyed upon shipping across the world, often under the Red Skull's personal command. At first, Hitler took great pride in his protégé's successes and let the Red Skull have anything he wanted. Hitler thus financed the construction of secret bases for the Red Skull in various locations throughout the world, many of which were equipped with highly advanced experimental weapons and devices developed by Nazi scientists. The Red Skull was particularly interested in procuring technological weapons that could be used for the purposes of subversion and warfare. During the war he stole plans for the nullatron, a device that could control human minds, adapted a space-warping device developed by the cyborg scientist code-named Brain Drain, and commissioned Nazi scientists to develop a projector which could encircle and suspend sections of cities within spheres of energy. But while the Red Skull always admired Hitler for his ideological vision, he was never fully content with being Hitler's subordinate. The Red Skull kidnapped and killed many of Hitler's closest advisers and eventually rose to become the second-most-powerful man in Nazi Germany. Now Hitler could no longer effectively control the Red Skull and came to fear him, especially since the Red Skull had made no secret of his ambition to supplant Hitler someday. Captain America, often with teenage partner Bucky Barnes, fought and thwarted the Red Skull many times during the war. The heroes also fought the Red Skull when they were members of the Invaders. On one occasion the Red Skull captured, drugged, and brainwashed Captain America. He sent the hero to kill a high-ranking officer, but with Bucky's help Captain America broke free. The Red Skull later temporarily brainwashed three of the Invaders into serving him. The Red Skull and Captain America continued to engage in a series of skirmishes throughout the war. After the renowned military officer Baron Wolfgang von Strucker had a falling-out with Hitler, the Red Skull sent Strucker to Japan to found an organization that would prepare the way for takeovers in the Far East under the Red Skull's leadership. In the Far East, Strucker joined a subversive organization that came to be known as HYDRA, severed his ties with the Red Skull, became head of HYDRA and made it into a major threat to world peace. As World War II raged on, Hitler vowed that if he could not conquer the world, he would destroy it. To achieve this end, the Red Skull proposed the construction of five gigantic war machines, to be called the Sleepers, which would be hidden in various locations while they generated and stored the power they would need, and then be released at a future date, "Der Tag" ("The Day" in German), to destroy the Earth if the Allies won the war. Hitler enthusiastically instructed the Red Skull to construct the Sleepers, unaware that the Red Skull intended to use them to conquer the world himself if Nazi Germany fell. In the closing days of the war in Europe, Allied intelligence received reports of a Nazi doomsday plan, code-named "Der Tag", to be implemented after Hitler's defeat. However, the Allies had no idea what the plan entailed. The Red Skull sent a number of his subordinates who became known as the Exiles, and a large contingent of loyal German soldiers and their wives to a secret island base ("Exile Island"), where they would organize an army for use in the future. Now that the German defeat was becoming a reality, the Red Skull was more determined than ever to obtain vengeance for his numerous personal defeats by Captain America and Bucky. The Red Skull assigned Baron Heinrich Zemo to go to England, and, under the cover of stealing an experimental Allied drone plane, to capture or kill Captain America and Bucky. However, the Red Skull was unaware that the Allies had just secretly parachuted Captain America into beleaguered Berlin to investigate "Der Tag". Finally, Captain America tracked the Red Skull down to his hidden bunker. The Red Skull was about to hurl an armed hand grenade at his nemesis when Captain America threw his shield at him. The grenade exploded, but the Red Skull was not killed, due to his body armor. He was, however, seriously hurt and partially buried in debris. Thinking he was dying, the Red Skull defiantly told Captain America that the Sleepers would avenge the Nazis' defeat. Then, suddenly, an Allied attack on Berlin began. An Allied plane dropped a huge blockbuster bomb on the bunker, causing a cave-in that Captain America barely escaped. Captain America was picked up by the Allies and returned to England only to fall into Zemo's trap, which led to Bucky's supposed death and Captain America's falling into suspended animation for decades. Support pillars that crisscrossed over the Red Skull when the bunker caved in saved him from being struck by tons of rubble when the bomb hit. The cave-in also released an experimental gas from canisters in the bunker which put the Red Skull into suspended animation, during which time his wounds slowly healed. Post-World War II era Modern era Johann Shmidt's legacy continued to cause trouble by way of the Sleepers which are activated by his agents as scheduled. Captain America neutralizes all the machines in turn. Johann Shmidt is eventually rescued and revived from suspended animation in modern times by the terrorist organization A.I.M. The Red Skull quickly subverts a cell to his own ambitions of world conquest and the death of Captain America. He steals the Cosmic Cube after taking control of its Keeper's mind with a device he planted while shaking hands, and reveals that he gave Baron Zemo the order to steal the bomb plane that led to Bucky Barnes's death. He had a rivalry with Zemo, and hoped to set his two foes against each other. Captain America learns, from the dying pilot of a plane that had been following the Keeper's plane, that the Cosmic Cube had been used to destroy the plane. Shmidt tells another A.I.M. member of his plans after getting a mind control device on him, then causes him to shoot himself. He fights Captain America again for the first time in years after getting the Cosmic Cube on an island. He begins sending Captain America to another dimension when Captain America offers to become his servant. The Red Skull encases himself in a golden suit of armor, and talks of creating a new order of knights. Captain America gets close to him while the Red Skull prepares to knight him. Captain America tries to get the Cosmic Cube, and in the fight the island splits apart from the Cosmic Cube's power, and the Red Skull falls off a cliff while trying to get the Cosmic Cube. When Johann reappears, he and Albert Malik start to antagonize each other while both claiming the Red Skull identity. Finally Malik is the victim of an assassination organized by the Red Skull, through a rogue agent of the Scourges of the Underworld. The Red Skull captures part of Manhattan Island, unleashes the fourth Sleeper, and captures Captain America on Exile Island. The Red Skull then regains the Cosmic Cube and temporarily switches bodies with Captain America. He also uses the Cube to alter the personality of Sam "Snap" Wilson. Some time later in his first appearance outside of a title featuring Captain America, he fights Doctor Doom. The Red Skull then foments racial hatred in New York, and is revealed as the true power behind a Las Vegas-based HYDRA fragment, and clashes with Kingpin. Some time later, the Red Skull kills Roscoe (another wearer of the Captain America mantle). He also revives the use of his "dust of death". The Red Skull later fights Doctor Doom on the moon, but is defeated. With Arnim Zola, the Red Skull seeks to transplant Hitler's brain into Captain America's body. He transforms a number of S.H.I.E.L.D. agents into his red skull-faced slaves. The Red Skull teams with the Hate-Monger (a clone of Hitler) and traps him in a flawed Cosmic Cube. The Red Skull leads the Nihilist Order for a brief time. Establishing a Nazi colony on a deserted island, the Red Skull fathers a daughter: Synthia Schmidt. The gas that placed the Red Skull in suspended animation wears off and his body rapidly ages to his actual years. Now physically weak and feeble in his mid-80s, the Red Skull plans a final showdown with his archrival. Kidnapping Captain America's closest allies, he forces Captain America to surrender himself to a medical treatment that ages his body to its rightful age. The two men, their bodies now ancient, fight a battle to the death. When Captain America refuses to kill him, the Red Skull dies in Captain America's arms, cursing his enemy as his elderly body shuts down. Resurrection Nazi geneticist Arnim Zola had obtained DNA samples of Captain America years earlier and arranged for the Red Skull's mind to be transplanted into a cloned body of Captain America at the moment of his death. Assuming the identity of "John Smith" (the English equivalent of his natural German name), the Red Skull decides to reinvent himself and his quest for absolute power as a means to celebrate his cheating death. The Red Skull abandons his longstanding beliefs in National Socialism and Hitler, on the belief that the Nazi philosophy made him look like a relic of the past, and turns towards American ideology. The Red Skull sees much potential in the American dream of capitalism and self-determination and sets about establishing his own foothold inside Washington, D.C., culminating in him gaining control over the Commission on Superhuman Activities, a government body in Washington that monitors and regulates superhero activities. The Red Skull also changes his mode of operations: rather than "living from one grand scheme to the next", he begins financing a score of evil organizations that report directly to him, such as the militia group the Watchdogs. He also employs one of the Scourges of the Underworld, an organization dedicated to killing supervillains. The Red Skull has the Commission remove Steve Rogers from the position of Captain America and replace him with jingoist John Walker. Although Walker attempts to live up to his predecessor's ideals, the Red Skull arranges for the murders of Walker's parents, driving him insane and into a downward spiral of murder as part of his plan to blacken the name of Captain America. The Red Skull kills his chief pawn in the Commission right in front of Captain America. About to be exposed, the Red Skull tries to manipulate Walker into killing Rogers. When Rogers defeats Walker, the Red Skull appears to gloat at what he had done to Rogers, Walker, and the reputation of Captain America. However, Rogers remains openly dubious of his claims to be his dead archenemy. The Red Skull tries to kill Rogers with a cigarette holding a lethal dose of the dust of death (the Red Skull's favorite poison), but Walker hits him from behind with his shield. The Red Skull inhales the dust of death and his face takes on the appearance of a living red skull; his head loses its hair and its skin shrivels, clinging tightly to his skull, and taking on a red discoloration. The Red Skull survives the exposure due to the effects of the Super-Soldier Formula. After this, the Red Skull masterminds a conflict between the United States and Symkaria. He joins the "Acts of Vengeance" conspiracy, but is attacked by the mutant terrorist Magneto, a Holocaust survivor who wants to punish him for his involvement in Hitler's regime. Magneto buries him alive with enough water to last a few months. The Red Skull remains imprisoned, close to death and beginning to see the error of his ways, until he is rescued by his henchman Crossbones. Feeling ready to die in peace, the Red Skull requests to be taken to his private estate's bed, and for Captain America to come see him. Upon seeing his archenemy's face, the Red Skull is surprised to feel a sudden burst of hatred that reignites his will to live. The Red Skull proposes an alliance with the Kingpin to bring a new designer drug to New York, but the Kingpin refuses to ally with the Nazi and the two engage in a drug war. He then defeats the Red Skull in hand-to-hand combat, sparing his life on the condition that he never come near the Kingpin's territory again. After the Red Skull's agents allow fellow Nazi Baron Wolfgang von Strucker to be reborn, the grateful Strucker allows the Red Skull the use of HYDRA resources. The Red Skull's tenure in Washington comes to an end when he is captured by Hauptmann Deutschland, and taken to Germany to stand trial for crimes against humanity, stemming from his days as a Nazi agent. The Red Skull narrowly escapes and is rescued by Arnim Zola, and forced to fake his death and go into hiding in a Rocky Mountain compound. He recruits the Viper, a move that alienates his minions and is further rocked when his chief henchman Crossbones kidnaps Captain America's girlfriend Diamondback, resulting in Captain America finding the Red Skull's new lair. The Red Skull fires Crossbones and goes into hiding while the Viper, using funds she plied from the Red Skull as part of a scheme to use televisions across America to blind TV viewers, is defeated by Captain America. The Red Skull discovers that he is facing the same permanent paralysis that Captain America was facing due to their exposure to the Super-Soldier Formula. When the evil scientist Superia offers Captain America a cure, Captain America refuses it because Superia said that Captain America would owe her. The Red Skull takes the cure and apparently kills Superia, then arranges for Captain America to be kidnapped by his remaining forces (including Sharon Carter, whom he found still alive and recruits), and given a blood transfusion that cures him. Captain America's recovery segues into a reluctant team-up with the Red Skull; a Nazi cult that worshiped Hitler as a god had discovered a Cosmic Cube that contained Hitler's soul, put there by the Red Skull himself. The two try to stop the cult from fully powering the Hitler Cosmic Cube, but the Red Skull opts instead to send Captain America (against his will) into the cube to kill Hitler, imprisoning Captain America in the cube while he uses its power to conquer humanity. Captain America escapes and uses his shield to sever one of the Red Skull's arms, causing him to drop the Cube. The Cube becomes unstable, destroying the Red Skull. Trapped in a hellish nightmare dimension and forced to serve as a bellhop to a world of non-European immigrants, the Red Skull's will ultimately is so great that he is able to escape his prison. As a result, the Red Skull now possesses limited reality-warping powers that make him a cosmic threat. He is further aided by Korvac, posing as Kang the Conqueror. He is sent to Galactus's ship to steal more power (particularly the power of omniscience), which would remove all limits to the Red Skull's reality-warping powers. The Red Skull is ambushed by Korvac, who steals his cosmic powers and banishes him back to Earth. The Red Skull later manipulates his way into the position in the form of US Secretary of Defense Dell Rusk (an anagram of "Red Skull") to develop a biological weapon he tested at Mount Rushmore. He is exposed and defeated by the Avengers. The Black Panther beats him so badly that he breaks the Red Skull's jaw in half. Possessing Aleksander Lukin The Red Skull was assassinated by the mysterious Winter Soldier, under orders from the renegade former Soviet general Aleksander Lukin wanting to possess the new Cosmic Cube the Red Skull had manufactured. When the Red Skull was shot, he attempted to use the Cosmic Cube to switch bodies with Lukin to survive, but as the Cosmic Cube was still weak he only managed to transfer his mind into Lukin's body, so that the two enemies are trapped together, waging a constant war for dominance which the Red Skull seems to be progressively winning. During a plot to lure out Captain America, the Red Skull/Lukin recruited several German skinheads and made them the successors to Master Man. He then had these soldiers, dubbed the "Master Race", launch an attack on London, which was thwarted by Captain America, Spitfire and Union Jack. Then, the Red Skull/Lukin activated a Sleeper, a robot programmed for mass destruction that was presumably created by Doctor Doom. The robot damaged a significant portion of the new London Kronas H.Q., and was ultimately destroyed by Captain America and Bucky. In the aftermath, the Red Skull sent a videotape, announcing to the world his return, followed by Lukin holding a press conference condemning the actions of both the Red Skull and Captain America, and supporting the Superhero Registration Act. Then, in his office, the Red Skull introduced Lukin to his old/new associates Crossbones and Sin. With America's superheroes divided over the act, the Red Skull manipulates events to his own ends, with the aid of Doctor Faustus, Doctor Doom and Arnim Zola. His plans involved the reunion of Captain America and his former lover Sharon Carter being manipulated by Faustus. In the immediate aftermath of the Civil War, the Red Skull puts his plans into action, arranging for Crossbones to shoot Captain America as he enters a courthouse in New York City; in the ensuing chaos, Carter, acting under Faustus's mental directive, assassinates Captain America. This is only the first phase of the Red Skull's plan. Upon the discovery of his identity as Lukin, the Red Skull fakes his death, and initiates the second phase of his plan: using the Kronas Corporation's vast holdings to economically cripple the United States, before having S.H.I.E.L.D. agents brainwashed by Doctor Faustus open fire on crowds of protesters in front of the White House. The Red Skull continues his assault by engineering a riot by placing Kronas security troops and drugged water in a protest on the Lincoln Monument. All of this has apparently been to elevate his puppet politician, Gordon Wright, elevated in the public's eye with being credited as "resolving" the situations, as well as surviving a (staged) attack by the Serpent Squad. Once elected, Wright will lead the country directly into a police state secretly controlled by the Red Skull. The Red Skull also plans to transfer his consciousness into Sharon's unborn child, apparently sired by Steve Rogers himself and potentially having inherited his Project: Rebirth enhancements. Both schemes fail because of the impatience and incompetence of the Red Skull's daughter—her near-fatal attack on Sharon causes her to lose the baby, and she intentionally botches her pseudo-assassination of Wright by attempting to kill him for real. As Faustus has surreptitiously tampered with Sharon's programming, she is able to rebel, and before escaping shoots Lukin to death. This is not the end of the Red Skull, since Zola had seconds earlier transferred his mind to one of the spare robotic bodies, but after having his current form damaged by the impostor Captain America, he is unable to return to the Red Skull, essentially trapping him in his current robotic form for the time being. Captain America: Reborn It has been revealed that the Red Skull did not actually kill Steve Rogers, but trapped his body in a fixed position in space and time. He was planning on using Sharon Carter and a machine created by Doctor Doom to return his body back to their time, but since Sharon destroyed the machine, his body is now drifting through time and space. Apparently, it is presumed that the Red Skull intended to transfer his mind into Rogers' body. Norman Osborn decides to assist in completing his plan, as a figurehead of Captain America leading his team of Avengers would increase popularity with as the Iron Patriot. Sin and Crossbones find him and take him to Latveria in order to place the Red Skull's mind in a living body. The Red Skull, Sin and Crossbones land in Latveria and Doctor Doom confronts them, saying that he would kill them if he was not a man of his word. Doctor Doom and Zola complete the machine and, after Victoria Hand brings Sharon to them, they strap her in. They activate the machine and soon Steve's body returns. When Steve opens his eyes, they are shown to be red, signifying that the Red Skull is now in control. Rogers still resides in the body and during the Red Skull's invasion of Washington, D.C., he and Steve battle in the mind of Steve's body. Steve eventually forces the Red Skull out, placing him back into his robot body. To prevent him from escaping the immediate area, Sharon hits the Red Skull with a shot of Pym particles, making him a massive robot who cannot elude any pursuer's attention. While Rogers and the Avengers keep the Red Skull occupied with a team attack, he is destroyed by a missile barrage fired by Sharon on a hijacked A.I.M. battleship. Return After Lukin was brought back from the dead by the Power Elite, a side effect has a fragment of the original Red Skull's mind also revived. Other identity users There had been other people who passed themselves off as the Red Skull: George John Maxon Created by Joe Simon and Jack Kirby, George John Maxon appeared as Red Skull in Captain America Comics #1 and #3 (March–May 1941). He faces Captain America during two of the latter's early missions. Maxon is an American businessman and Nazi agent who leads a ring of spies and saboteurs and serves as a stand-in of Johann Schmidt (the true Red Skull). Maxon is thought killed during the second encounter, though he would reappear for one last encounter with Captain America. Albert Malik After the disappearance of Johann Schmidt's in 1945, the reputation of the Red Skull was still formidable enough to prove useful. In 1953, Soviet Russian KGB agent Albert Malik set up his spy/criminal organization in Algeria and assumed the Red Skull identity (), pretending that he was the original, when he was actually serving Soviet interests, in Captain America Comics #61. During the 1950s, he faced the then-active version of Captain America, who was also pretending to be the original. While the Captain and Bucky (Jack Monroe) were placed into suspended animation when his flawed replicate of the Super-Soldier Formula seriously affected his and Bucky's minds, Malik continued his activities, and over time severed his links to the Soviet Union. He was also responsible for the deaths of Richard Parker and Mary Fitzpatrick-Parker, the parents of Peter Parker, tipped off by the supercriminal Gustav "the Gentleman" Fiers to their spy status. Malik was later killed by a Scourge of the Underworld, operating on behalf of the original Red Skull (Johann Schmidt) disguised as a pilot. Sinthea Shmidt Sinthea "Sin" Shmidt is the daughter of Johann Shmidt who briefly adopts the Red Skull moniker after being scarred like her father. Clone of Johann Shmidt Following the Avengers vs. X-Men storyline, the Red Skull mysteriously returns and assembles a team called the S-Men. The Red Skull's S-Men attack Rogue and the Scarlet Witch at Professor X's grave and steal the mutant's body. In his hideout, the Red Skull is then seen removing Professor X's brain in a plot to "eradicate the mutant menace". This Red Skull is revealed to be a clone of the original created by Arnim Zola in 1942 and held in cryogenic stasis in the event that Germany lost the war. Fusing part of Professor X's brain with his own, the Red Skull brainwashes the Scarlet Witch as part of a plot to wipe out the world's mutant population. Rogue attacks the Scarlet Witch and they fight until they both discover the lobotomized body of Professor X. The Red Skull arrives and reveals that he has fused his brain with Professor X's brain. Using Professor X's telepathy, the Red Skull provokes ordinary citizens of New York into a mass assault against even potential mutants, even managing to take control of Thor. However, his telepathy is still erratic, with the Red Skull being unable to completely control Captain America and an attack against him by Wolverine cutting off his right hand and disrupting his powers long enough for Rogue and the Scarlet Witch to break free. The team ultimately force the Red Skull to retreat after Rogue manages to temporarily disrupt his powers, Havok mockingly comparing the Red Skull to the jock who beats up gay kids to conceal his own homosexuality. During the AXIS storyline, Magneto finds out that the Red Skull has turned Genosha into a concentration camp for mutants and still has Professor X's brain inside him. Magneto attacks the Red Skull, but is quickly stopped by the S-Men. The Red Skull mind-tortures Magneto with visions of those closest to the mutant suffering while being unable to do anything to stop it. After being freed by the Scarlet Witch, Rogue and Havok, he bites down on a vial beneath his skin of Mutant Growth Hormone, giving himself enough power to fight. When the Scarlet Witch, Rogue and Havok want to leave the island and alert the rest of the Avengers and the X-Men of what the Red Skull is doing, Magneto wants to stay and fight. Before they can do anything, the Red Skull appears. The Red Skull now has the group mind-controlled. He plans on using the Scarlet Witch's power to shape reality in his image. He tells Magneto to bow if the Scarlet Witch were to remain alive, but Magneto performs a sneak attack enough to break the Red Skull's control over the others. After killing the S-Men, Magneto attacks the Red Skull, who then tells Magneto that Professor X's greatest fear was leading the X-Men. Magneto kills the Red Skull while the others look on in horror. Magneto believes everything is over, only for the Red Skull to appear as a giant called "Red Onslaught". In an attempt to defeat the new Red Onslaught and his army of Stark Sentinels—created from information acquired from Tony Stark during the time of the Superhuman Registration Act—Magneto gathers a team of villains to try to take the Red Skull's forces by surprise. The Scarlet Witch attempts to cast a spell that will 'invert' the Red Skull and bring out the part of Professor X that still exists in his brain. However, the plan backfires when the resulting spell causes the moral inversion of all heroes and villains in the area. With the villains now the only hope to defeat the corrupted heroes, Captain America is forced to protect the Red Skull (now calling himself the White Skull) from the evil Avengers while Spider-Man works with the inverted villains to fight off the various corrupted heroes. Doctor Doom is able to summon the spirit of Brother Voodoo to possess the Scarlet Witch and invert the spell, the Red Skull sacrificing his heroism and freedom to restore the heroes to normal. The Red Skull was later taken away by Doctor Doom. As part of the All-New, All-Different Marvel, it is revealed that the Red Skull is hiding in Avengers Mansion (now a themed hotel as the various Avengers teams have moved on to new bases) in a secret underground room along with Sin (whose original appearance has been restored) ever since he was defeated. He is nearly discovered when Quicksilver and Deadpool investigate the room, but uses a psychic suggestion to convince them that the room is empty, as well as planting a command in Quicksilver's subconscious that will be triggered later. During the Avengers: Standoff! storyline, the Red Skull infiltrates the S.H.I.E.L.D. facility Pleasant Hill by disguising himself as a priest named Father Patrick. As Patrick, the Red Skull secretly instigates an uprising of the facility's brainwashed inmates by manipulating Baron Helmut Zemo and the Fixer into restoring them to normal. In the aftermath of the battle with the villains at Pleasant Hill, the Red Skull founds his own version of HYDRA with Sin and Crossbones. Their first strike occurs when they use Kobik—a sentient Cosmic Cube that once belonged to the Red Skull, now 'educated' to perceive HYDRA as a great organization—to manipulate Steve Rogers's memories into believing of being a HYDRA sleeper agent since childhood, although the Red Skull is unaware that the HYDRA-converted soldier now intends to stage a coup of the organization for his own ends. The Red Skull eventually mounts an assault on the Avengers, using previously-planted commands to take control of the team, but Deadpool is able to resist him long enough to place Magneto's old helmet on Rogue's head, rendering Rogue immune to telepathy long enough to knock the Red Skull out and take him to be operated on by the Beast. The fragment of Professor X's brain is extracted from the Red Skull, but although Rogers attempts to take custody of the fragment for his own ends, Rogue and Johnny Storm fly up and incinerate the brain fragment, leaving the Red Skull to be taken into 'custody' by Rogers. Although he is rescued by Sin, Sin and Crossbones subsequently betray the Red Skull to prove loyalty to Rogers, who kills the clone for good by pushing him over the cliff outside the Red Skull's mansion with Rogers revealing never being loyal to the Red Skull from the beginning. During the Secret Empire storyline, the disheveled man in a torn World War II uniform that introduced himself as Steve Rogers, alongside people claiming to be "Bucky" and "Sam Wilson", encounters the Red Skull's clone who plans to taken them "home". As the other Steve Rogers is hanging from a rope tied to a tree, he finds himself next to a rambling man. As the Red Skull's clone takes the rambling man away, he tells the other Steve Rogers that his time will come soon. The other Steve Rogers asks the Red Skull's clone where he is and the Red Skull's clone claims that they are in "Hell". He also states that they are nothing but ghosts that are remnants fading into death. The Red Skull's clone then uses a barbed bat on the other Steve Rogers' chest, stating that the only path to peace is death. The Red Skull's clone is torturing the other Steve Rogers with a burning, thorn-wrapped piece of wood. The Red Skull's clone claims he is granting the other Steve Rogers "peace" and is about to deliver the killing blow to the other Steve Rogers. Before he can strike, the other Steve Rogers sees the beautiful blond girl he saw at the beginning of the series who was the same one that was poisoned and that he thought had died. He realizes there is still hope and evades the Red Skull's clone's attack. The other Steve Rogers then tackles the Red Skull's clone and they both plummet off the cliff into the water below. The Red Skull's clone calls the other Steve Rogers an idiot for his actions. Powers and abilities Although he has no superhuman abilities, the Red Skull possesses a high intellect and inventive genius and is a highly gifted subversive strategist and political operative. At one point, the Red Skull's mind inhabited a body cloned from Captain America's, which possessed the mutagenic alterations induced by the Super-Soldier Formula. He was thus endowed with a body that was in perfect physical condition, with strength, speed, durability, agility, dexterity, reflexes, coordination, balance and physical endurance that exceeded that of an Olympic athlete. Despite the scar tissue covering his face and head, his senses were still above-average. He has been shown as a superb martial artist, though he was never on par with Captain America himself; he was originally trained by German athletes appointed by Hitler. He is heavily trained as a skilled marksman with various forms of handguns and well-versed in the use of firearms and explosives. While sharing Alexander Lukin's body, he lost his superhuman abilities. Since then, he resides in one of the android bodies engineered by Arnim Zola, with enhanced endurance and resilience. He typically armed himself with a trick cigarette that could fire a fatal poison gas—his trademark "dust of death"—toward his victim. The "dust of death" is a red powder which kills a victim within seconds of skin contact. The powder causes the skin of the victim's head to shrivel, tighten and take on a red discoloration, while causing all of his hair to fall out; hence the victim's head resembles a "red skull". He also carries a large arsenal of conventional and advanced firearms and explosives. After fusing his own brain with that of Charles Xavier, the clone of the Red Skull gains powerful telepathic abilities. After being killed in a fight with Magneto, the Red Skull clone temporarily evolved into a psionic entity similar to Onslaught, vastly increasing his original powers while also giving him new ones, ranging from material astral projection, total control over his psionic state producing tendrils, changing size and such, energy projection in the form of optic blasts, on top of greatly enhanced control over his psychic abilities being able to effect minds the world over to initiate worldwide hate. After reverting to his original form, however, he later expressed frustration with this new power as it makes conquest too easy for him, realizing that he wants people to grovel before him of their own free will, rather than just making people mindlessly submit. The Red Skull eventually loses these abilities when he is captured by Rogue and taken to the Beast, who performs surgery on the Red Skull to extract the elements of Xavier's brain from his own. Other versions Earth X Sometime prior to the events of the limited series Earth X, the Red Skull killed Bernie Rosenthal and hailed Captain America as the realization of the Nazi dream. However, Captain America killed the Red Skull, who is later seen in the Land of the Dead and Mar-Vell's Paradise, waiting to live in his own personal version of Heaven. Despite his death, the Red Skull's legacy lived on in this universe. The son of Comet Man, Ben Beckley took on the identity of the Skull and set out to conquer the world. Using his ability to control people's cerebrums, he gathers an army of thousands, only to come into conflict with Captain America. The Skull spares him, calling him obsolete, and takes several of Captain America's allies as part of his army. After reaching New York City, the Skull is opposed by Captain America and other heroes, with Captain America killing the Skull in order to stop him. In the Land of the Dead, the Skull encounters Comet Man and goes on to help the heroes convince the dead that they are deceased. Elseworlds In the 1997 DC/Marvel Elseworlds special Batman and Captain America, the Red Skull hires the Joker to steal an atomic bomb during World War II. The Joker evades Batman, Captain America, Bucky Barnes, and Robin and delivers it to the Red Skull, but is horrified to learn that the Red Skull is a Nazi as he sees himself as an "American criminal lunatic!" When the Red Skull threatens to drop the bomb on Washington, D.C., the Joker fights him until Captain America and Batman take control of the plane. When they bring it over the ocean, the villains are dropped out with the bomb just before it explodes. Earth-110 On Earth-110, depicted in the miniseries Fantastic Four: Big Town, the Red Skull allies himself with Doctor Doom, the Hulk, Magneto, Namor, and Ultron to take over Manhattan. Heroes Reborn (1996) In an alternate reality depicted in the 1996 Heroes Reborn miniseries, the Red Skull is the banker of Master Man's World Party who is stopped by Nick Fury, Captain America, and the Falcon. Heroes Reborn (2021) In an alternate reality depicted in the 2021 "Heroes Reborn" miniseries, the Red Skull became possessed by a Symbiote that originally possessed Nighthawk and re-dubbed himself the Black Skull. Additionally, the Black Skull is the leader of Hydra and a member of the Masters of Doom. Black Skull later appears as a member of the Multiversal Masters of Evil. He accompanies Ghost Goblin in attacking Captain America and Captain Marvel. Both of them retreat when Star Brand matures and repels them. JLA/Avengers In the limited series JLA/Avengers, the Red Skull appears as one of the defenders of Krona's stronghold, only to be defeated by Jay Garrick. Marvel Zombies In the limited series Marvel Zombies, the Red Skull is an undead zombie with an unquenchable hunger for the flesh of the living. In issue #5, he kills Colonel America, but is decapitated by a zombified Spider-Man and his head crushed by Giant-Man. Old Man Logan In Old Man Logan's possible future, wherein Earth's villains defeated Earth's heroes in a final battle, the Red Skull is revealed to be the mastermind of the villains' conquest and made himself President of the United States. Living in a Nazi-redecorated White House, the Red Skull had taken to wearing Captain America's old bloodstained uniform and collecting gruesome trophies from fallen heroes. When his men bring in a wounded Wolverine, Logan and the Red Skull fight. Unwilling to unsheathe his claws during the fight, Wolverine decapitates the Red Skull with Captain America's shield, ending his rule. Ultimate Marvel The Ultimate Marvel equivalent of the Red Skull appears as Ian Rogers, the illegitimate son of Steve Rogers / Captain America and Gail Richards who wears simple khaki pants and a white tee shirt instead of the Nazi/military costume of his 616 counterpart. After his father's presumed death during World War II, Ian is taken from his mother and raised in an army base where he appears to be a well-adjusted, physically superior, and tactically brilliant young man who greatly resembles his father. However, his easygoing personality is a ruse. Around the age of 17, he kills over 200 men on the base and cuts off his own face in rejection of his father, leaving behind a "red skull". As a final symbol of his rebellion against the system that created him, he assassinates President John F. Kennedy. During his career, Ian forces Petra Laskov to choose between killing her husband or infant son. After Petra kills the former, the Red Skull kills the latter anyway and has his henchmen rape Petra. After decades of working as a professional assassin, the Red Skull joins A.I.M. so he and his men can steal the Cosmic Cube's blueprints. While on this quest, he encounters Captain America and beats him. Before throwing Captain America out of a helicopter, the Red Skull reveals his true identity. At A.I.M.'s Alaskan headquarters, the Red Skull kills the lead officer and takes charge of the operation. Now in control of the Cosmic Cube, he gains great power. As a sadistic display of his power, he has the entire Alaskan A.I.M. team cannibalize each other. When the Avengers arrive and attack, the Cosmic Cube imbues the Red Skull with nearly unlimited power, making him invulnerable. Captain America arrives later in a teleporting jet, but the Red Skull forces the jet to crash. Captain America survives the crash and teleports the jet to the Red Skull's exact coordinates, impaling him on one of the nosecone's rods. The Red Skull is taken to a hospital and kept alive long enough for his mother to say goodbye. The Red Skull explains to Nick Fury that all he wanted to do with the Cosmic Cube was to turn back time and prevent his father from being lost so that he could grow up with him and lead a normal life. The Red Skull is later killed by a disguised Petra. In other media Television The Red Skull appeared in the "Captain America" segment of The Marvel Super Heroes animated series, voiced by Paul Kligman. The Red Skull appeared in the 1981 Spider-Man animated series, voiced by Peter Cullen. The Red Skull appeared in the Spider-Man and His Amazing Friends animated series episode "Quest of the Red Skull", voiced again by Peter Cullen. The Red Skull appeared in a flashback in the X-Men animated series episode "Old Soldiers", voiced by Cedric Smith. The Red Skull appeared in the 1994 Spider-Man animated series, voiced by David Warner (in "The Cat") and Earl Boen (in "Six Forgotten Warriors" onward). He first makes a cameo appearance in the episode "The Cat", having manipulated John "The Cat" Hardesky from the shadows, before appearing as a central figure in the five-part episode "Six Forgotten Warriors". In the 1940s, after a battle with Captain America and his teammates, the former and the Red Skull were both trapped in suspended animation within an energy vortex. When the Red Skull's son Rheinholt Schmidt releases his father from the vortex 50 years later, Captain America is inadvertently released as well, resulting in the two foes clashing and eventually being trapped in the vortex once more. In the three-part episode "Secret Wars", the Red Skull appears as one of several supervillains that the Beyonder assembled and placed on an alien planet as part of an experiment. The former collaborates with Doctor Octopus before they are foiled by a group of heroes led by Spider-Man and sent back to Earth when Doctor Doom steals the Beyonder's powers. The Red Skull appears in The Super Hero Squad Show animated series episodes "Wrath of the Red Skull" and "World War Witch", voiced by Mark Hamill. The Red Skull and his Dell Rusk alias appear in The Avengers: Earth's Mightiest Heroes animated series, voiced by Steve Blum. During World War II, the Red Skull uses HYDRA's resources to abduct Nordic mythological beasts from the Nine Realms and subject them to his control. While Captain America and Bucky Barnes thwart his scheme, the Red Skull indirectly causes the former's suspended animation and the latter's demise while making his escape. In the present, he quietly returns as Dell Rusk, the Secretary of Defense and the leader of Code Red, consisting of the Falcon, Doc Samson, the Red Hulk, and the Winter Soldier. He releases a biological weapon in New York and frames the Avengers for it, sending Code Red to apprehend them. Winter Soldier captures Captain America and presents him to the Red Skull, but Captain America is able to defeat his old enemy and expose his identity to the public. The Red Skull is remanded to the Avengers' Hydro Base until his Sleepers break him out. He combines the Sleepers into a giant robot to attack Washington D.C. before Captain America and the Winter Soldier work together to defeat the Red Skull and destroy his Sleepers. The Red Skull appears in the Avengers Assemble animated series, voiced by Liam O'Brien. In season one, he captures Captain America in an attempt to switch bodies with the latter to grant himself a longer life. Though the Avengers reverse the process, the Red Skull steals Iron Man's armor and arc reactor and rechristens himself the Iron Skull before going on to form and lead the Cabal against the Avengers. However, the Iron Skull attempts to eliminate his allies until Iron Man reveals his intentions and turns the Cabal against him. Using the power of the Tesseract, the Iron Skull becomes the Cosmic Skull to destroy the Cabal and the Avengers, only to be defeated by both groups and separated from the Tesseract and his armor; returning him to his original Red Skull form. Despite this, he escapes with the Tesseract and attempts to form an alliance with Thanos. In season two, the latter tortures the Red Skull before returning him to Earth to be placed in the Avengers' custody. After surviving the Winter Soldier's kidnapping attempt, the Red Skull is restored to his former glory and escapes to Monster Island with the help of Dormammu's Mindless Ones. He creates an impenetrable magic-based force field around the island to protect himself from Thanos, but is expelled by Ant-Man and Fin Fang Foom. The Red Skull also makes sporadic appearances in seasons four and five Avengers: Secret Wars and Avengers: Black Panther's Quest respectively. A Battleworld pirate version of the Red Skull called the Dread Skull appears in the Avengers: Secret Wars episode "The Vibranium Coast". The Red Skull appears in the animated special Phineas and Ferb: Mission Marvel, voiced again by Liam O'Brien. The Red Skull appears in the Hulk and the Agents of S.M.A.S.H. animated series episode "Days of Future Smash, Part 4: The Hydra Years", voiced again by Liam O'Brien. While traveling through time to stop the Leader, the Hulk encounters Captain America during World War II before both heroes learn of the Leader's plot to turn the Red Skull into the Green Skull via the Hulk's gamma energy. With the Hulk weakened, the Green Skull overpowers and forces Captain America to surrender. In the resulting alternate timeline, the Leader controls HYDRA using a wheel-like device powered by the Green Skull. With the help of the agents of S.M.A.S.H. and an older Captain America, the Hulk is freed and regains his stolen gamma energy from the Green Skull, turning the latter back into the Red Skull while the Leader escapes, changing the timeline back to normal. An alternate timeline dinosaur version of the Red Skull called the Red Skullasaurus appears in "Days of Future Smash, Part 5: The Tomorrow Smashers". The Leader summons it, among other paradoxical creatures, to help him fight the agents of S.M.A.S.H. However, he is defeated and the creatures are returned to their respective timelines. The Red Skull appears in the Lego Marvel Super Heroes: Maximum Overload animated mini-series, voiced by Chi McBride. The Red Skull appears in the anime series Marvel Disk Wars: The Avengers, voiced by Motomu Kiyokawa in Japanese and Liam O'Brien in English. The Red Skull appears in the Marvel Future Avengers anime series, voiced again by Motomu Kiyokawa in Japanese and Liam O'Brien in English. Film A variation of the Red Skull appeared in the 1990 live-action film Captain America, portrayed by Scott Paulin. This version is an Italian officer, later Mafioso, named Tadzio de Santis. He was a prodigy whose family was killed by Axis soldiers who subjected him to the super-soldier formula, leaving him deformed and evil. With his memory erased to make him loyal to the Axis Powers, Red Skull launches a missile at Washington D.C., but Captain America attacks the Red Skull's base. The latter battles the former aboard a flying missile before the Red Skull cuts off his hand to avoid death. After Captain America is trapped in ice for decades, the Red Skull forms a criminal organization with his daughter Valentina Santis and attempts to brainwash the President, only to be stopped by a recording of his family's death. Lost in thought, Captain America uses his shield to throw the Red Skull off a cliff. The Red Skull appears in the 2014 animated film Heroes United: Iron Man and Captain America, voiced again by Liam O'Brien. Marvel Cinematic Universe Johann Schmidt / Red Skull appeared in media set in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU): He is introduced in the live-action film Captain America: The First Avenger, portrayed by Hugo Weaving. This version is the head of HYDRA, which originally served as the Nazis' deep-science division. Schmidt ordered Dr. Abraham Erskine to use an experimental formula on him, which physically enhanced him, but permanently disfigured him. As a result, Adolf Hitler nicknamed Schmidt the "Red Skull" and exiled him. While leading an incursion into Norway in 1942, Schmidt recovers the Tesseract and has his chief scientist Arnim Zola develop advanced weapons powered by the object. Disillusioned with the Nazis, Schmidt breaks away from their regime and establishes HYDRA as its own force against the Allies and Axis alike with aspirations of world dominion. However, Steve Rogers leads the Allies' fight against HYDRA, forcing the group to retreat to their final base in the Alps. In 1945, Schmidt launches his plan to destroy populated cities across the United States, only to be defeated by Rogers and seemingly disintegrated by the Tesseract while attempting to use it. Schmidt returns in the live-action film Avengers: Infinity War, portrayed by Ross Marquand. Following the events of The First Avenger, Schmidt was transported to the planet Vormir and forced to serve as a "stonekeeper", guiding those who seek the Soul Stone as punishment for his use of the Tesseract. As the Soul Stone required the sacrifice of a loved one, of which he had none, he was unable to claim it for himself. In 2018, Thanos and Gamora arrive on Vormir to claim the Soul Stone, which Schmidt directs them to, explaining its requirements and looking on as Thanos kills Gamora. Directors Joe and Anthony Russo stated that, after Thanos claimed the Soul Stone, Schmidt was freed from his curse and permitted to leave Vormir and pursue his own desires. A past version of Schmidt appears in the live-action film Avengers: Endgame, with Marquand reprising the role. He guides a time-traveling Natasha Romanoff and Clint Barton to the Soul Stone and watches as she sacrifices herself so Barton can bring the stone back to the present. An alternate timeline version of Schmidt appears in the Disney+ animated series What If...? episode "What If... Captain Carter Were the First Avenger?", voiced by Marquand. Similarly to the events of The First Avenger, he attempts to achieve world domination via the Tesseract, but faces opposition from Captain Carter instead. Schmidt's plans eventually culminate in him using the Tesseract to open a portal and summon an interdimensional creature, only for it to kill him. Video games The Red Skull appears as the penultimate boss of 1991's Captain America and The Avengers. The Red Skull appears in the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 versions of Marvel Super Hero Squad: The Infinity Gauntlet, voiced again by Mark Hamill. The Red Skull appears in Captain America: Super Soldier, voiced by Keith Ferguson. The Red Skull appears as a non-playable character in Marvel Super Hero Squad: Comic Combat, voiced again by Mark Hamill. The Red Skull appears in Lego Marvel Super Heroes, voiced again by Steven Blum. The Red Skull appears as playable character in Lego Marvel's Avengers, voiced again by Liam O'Brien. This version sports the "Iron Skull" armor from the Avengers Assemble animated television series. The Red Skull appears as a boss in Marvel Ultimate Alliance 3: The Black Order, voiced again by Liam O'Brien. Live performance The Red Skull appears in the Marvel Universe Live! arena show. This version sports the "Iron Skull" armor from the Avengers Assemble animated television series. The Red Skull appears in Disneyland Paris' "Marvel Season of Super Heroes". References External links Red Skull (disambiguation) at Marvel.com Red Skull (Johann Shmidt) at Marvel.com Red Skull (Albert Malik) at Marvel.com Action film villains Animated series villains Captain America characters Characters created by France Herron Characters created by Jack Kirby Characters created by Joe Simon Comics characters introduced in 1941 Fictional characters with disfigurements Fictional clones Fictional cryonically preserved characters in comics Fictional dictators Fictional German people Fictional mass murderers Fictional Nazi fugitives Fictional torturers Golden Age supervillains Hydra (comics) agents Male characters in film Marvel Comics film characters Marvel Comics male supervillains Marvel Comics martial artists Marvel Comics mutates Marvel Comics Nazis Marvel Comics orphans Timely Comics characters

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The Pennsylvania Interscholastic Athletic Association, Inc. (PIAA) is one of the governing bodies of high school and junior high school sports for the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, in the United States. The PIAA main office is located in the Harrisburg suburb of Mechanicsburg. History Beginning in Pittsburgh, on December 29, 1913, the PIAA was charged with serving its member schools and registered officials by establishing policies and adopting contest rules that emphasize the educational values of interscholastic athletics, promote safe and sportsmanlike competition, and provide uniform standards for all interscholastic levels of competition. As a result of the cooperative efforts of its membership, PIAA has assisted intermediate school, middle school, junior high school, and senior high school students in participating in interscholastic athletic programs on a fair and equitable basis, thus producing important education benefits. Initially, and until 1972, PIAA membership was limited to public schools within the Commonwealth. It was and remains a voluntary organization For example, until 2004, public schools in Philadelphia did not participate in the PIAA. Pennsylvania Catholic or other private schools were not eligible for PIAA membership. As a result, most Catholic schools belonged to another voluntary athletic organization the PCIAA (Pennsylvania Catholic Interscholastic Athletic Association). This organization was founded in 1943 and mirrored the PIAA. However, in 1972, the Pennsylvania State Legislature altered the role of the PIAA and passed Act 219 which stated, "Private schools shall be permitted, if otherwise qualified, to be members of the Pennsylvania Interscholastic Athletic Association." The General Assembly's action in 1972 thus established the legislature's right to intervene in the PIAA's affairs, a precursor to other later interventions. Although some predicted the legislation would lead to a merger of the PCIAA and PIAA, so many Catholic schools opted into the PIAA on their own that, two years later, after an abbreviated state basketball championship tournament in 1974, the PCIAA dissolved. In 2000, the legislature again intervened and created the Pennsylvania Athletic Oversight Committee (PAOC). The PAOC is a 17-member oversight committee consisting of administrators, coaches and legislators to review what some had seen as the PIAA's unrestricted authority. The new law also called for several reforms including switching to a competitive process for selecting sites for championship games, eliminating the restitution rule, which required school districts that lose court cases against the PIAA to pay the associations legal fees and that persons involved in interscholastic athletics be provided equality of opportunity and treatment without discrimination. Timeline 1913: PIAA established 1920: Pennsylvania basketball playoffs instituted (Class A Only) 1943: PCIAA established 1945: Basketball playoffs expand to Class A & B 1948: Basketball playoffs expand to Class A, B & C 1972: Act 219 signed into law, allows private schools to join PIAA 1973: Pennsylvania girls' basketball playoffs instituted (Class A only) 1974: PCIAA dissolved 1976: Girls' basketball playoffs expand to Class AA and AAA; Boys' basketball playoffs designated A, AA and AAA 1984: Basketball expands to 4 classes 1988: Football playoffs instituted (four classes) 1997: Pennsylvania passes charter school law 2000: Act 91 becomes law; PAOC established, PIAA cannot discriminate 2003: Philadelphia public league joins PIAA 2007: PIAA investigates separation of public and private classes 2008: Philadelphia Catholic League joins PIAA 2012: PIAA votes down separation for “Boundary” and “Non-boundary” schools 2015: PIAA approves expansion to six classes for football and basketball 2018: PIAA prohibits students who transfer during the 10th grade and after from participating in the postseason for one year unless given a waiver, effective for the 2018 school year; competitive balance rule also passed, effective in 2020, teams could be bumped up in classification depending on success or use of transfer athletes. A very controversial rule, as those moving from public school to public school are forced to abide by this rule. Districts The PIAA divides its member schools' counties into 12 geographical districts for the purpose of state championship competition. The following list is the district breakdown by county. District 1: Bucks, Chester, Delaware, and Montgomery District 2: Lackawanna, Luzerne, Pike, Susquehanna, Wayne and Wyoming District 3: Adams, Berks, Cumberland, Dauphin, Franklin, Juniata, Lancaster, Lebanon, Perry and York District 4: Bradford, Columbia, Lycoming, Montour, Northumberland, Snyder, Sullivan, Tioga and Union District 5: Bedford, Fulton and Somerset District 6: Blair, Cambria, Centre, Clearfield, Clinton, Huntingdon, Indiana and Mifflin District 7, better known as the WPIAL: Allegheny (except for City of Pittsburgh), Armstrong, Beaver, Butler, Fayette, Greene, Lawrence, Washington and Westmoreland. District 8: Pittsburgh Public Schools District 9: Cameron, Clarion, Elk, Jefferson, McKean and Potter District 10: Crawford, Erie, Forest, Mercer, Venango and Warren District 11: Carbon, Lehigh, Monroe, Northampton and Schuylkill District 12: Philadelphia Catholic League and the Public League While this is a general outline of the districts, there are some notable exceptions: Private schools within District 8 (City of Pittsburgh) compete in the WPIAL. Inter-Academic League and the Friends Schools League are not members of the PIAA, but compete independently as their own organizations. Other private schools in Philadelphia County compete in District 1. Philadelphia Catholic League schools previously competed independently as its own organization, but joined the PIAA for the 2007–2008 school year and began participating in playoffs by 2008–2009 within District 12. Boyertown Area Senior High School, in Berks County, is a member of District 1. Slippery Rock Area High School, in Butler County, is a member of District 10. Moniteau School District, also in Butler County, is a member of district 9. Galeton Area School District, in Potter County, competes in District 4 Indiana High School, in Indiana County, is a WPIAL member. Altoona High School is a member of District 6 but competes in the WPIAL for football only. Hollidaysburg Area High School is also a member of District 6 but competes as an independent in football only. Palisades High School, in Bucks County, is a member of District 11. Fannett-Metal High School, in Franklin County, is a member of District 5. Curwensville Area High School, DuBois Area Senior High School, DuBois Central Catholic, and Clearfield Area High School, in Clearfield County, are members of District 9. Ligonier Valley High School, in Westmoreland County, is a member of District 6 but it is expected to move to the WPIAL in 2020. Keystone Central School District is the only district entirely composed of Clinton County municipalities. The larger of the district's two high schools, Central Mountain, is a member of District 6, while the other, Bucktail High School, is a member of District 4. Sheffield Area Middle/High School, in Warren County, is the only member in the Warren County School District that is a member of District 9, rejoining in 2005 after several decades in District 10. The other WCSD schools (Warren, Youngsville, Eisenhower) are still in District 10. West Shamokin High School originally participated in the WPIAL, but moved to District 6 in 2016. Karns City High School, in Butler and Armstrong counties, is a member of District 9. East vs. West Traditionally for state championship competition for team sports, Pennsylvania is divided into Eastern and Western regions. Districts 1, 2, 3, 4, 11, and 12 usually make up the Eastern Region; Districts 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 usually comprise the Western Region. The winners of each region compete against each other for the state championship. However, since the creation of District 12 with the admission of the Philadelphia Public Schools into the PIAA, the East vs. West format has been abandoned for some sports in certain classifications, particularly at the Class AAAA level where there are more large schools in the East. For example, in PIAA football, District 3 schools compete in the early rounds of the state playoffs against Philadelphia schools in some classes, and against Pittsburgh schools in others. Sports The PIAA sponsors 16 boys' sports and 16 girls' sports. However, the PIAA only sponsors state championships for 12 boys' sports and 11 girls' sports. The following is a list of PIAA sponsored sports championships. Boys' sports: baseball, basketball, cross country, football, golf, lacrosse, soccer, swimming & diving, tennis, track & field, volleyball and wrestling Girls' sports: basketball, competitive spirit, cross country, field hockey, golf, lacrosse, soccer, softball, swimming & diving, tennis, track & field and volleyball There are Pennsylvania schools that offer sports not fully sponsored by the PIAA such as gymnastics, ice hockey, bowling, rifle, water polo and other Olympic sports. These sports are governed by other sport specific bodies that use similar PIAA rules for classification and eligibility, but are not officially recognized as state champions by the PIAA. The PIAA took over jurisdiction of both boys' and girls' lacrosse in July 2008. School classifications Every two years, the PIAA divides the member schools into two to six different classifications for each sport, depending on the number of male or female students enrolled in each school. The number of statewide member schools participating in a particular sport will determine how many different classifications there will be. For example, boys' volleyball, the sport with the smallest number of participating schools, only has a AA or AAA classification. By comparison, boys' basketball, which has the largest number of participating schools, has A, AA, AAA, AAAA, AAAAA, AAAAAA classifications. The number of A's signify how large or small the school is; Class A is the smallest classification while AAAAAA is the largest. The PIAA tries to place an equal number of schools in each classification. Football Enrollment Requirements School Classifications for Football Because the PIAA determines classifications separately for each gender in each sport, it is possible that a coeducational school may find its boys' and girls' teams in different classes in the same sport. Smaller schools can choose to compete at a higher classification—possible reasons are to maintain existing rivalries, or in rare cases to place their boys' and girls' teams in the same class—but larger schools can not choose to compete at a lower classification level. For purposes of all-star games and awards, the A and AA classes are referred to as small schools, AAA and AAAA are referred to as mid-sized schools, while AAAAA and AAAAAA referred as large schools. In 2016, there was a change, splitting the football tournament into six classifications, instead of the previous four. The PIAA made the decision to expand to six classes in Football, as well as Boys and Girls basketball, baseball and softball. Increasing to four classes is Boys and Girls Soccer, Girls volleyball. Field Hockey is expanded to three classes, and Boys and Girls Lacrosse to two. Football started using these classes with the 2016 season. Hershey, Pennsylvania While some sports' championship games have been held at various venues and cities across the state, no city is more associated with the PIAA than Hershey. Hershey's proximity to Harrisburg, as well as easy highway access via the Pennsylvania Turnpike and Interstates 81 and 83 for teams from across the state makes it an ideal location for the games. Hersheypark Stadium hosts the football, soccer, and lacrosse championships; the Parkview Cross Country Course, located across the street from Hershey Park and Chocolate World, hosts the cross country championships. The Giant Center hosts the basketball, wrestling, and competitive spirit championships. The Hershey Racquet Club hosts the tennis championships. In 2006, the PIAA announced that they had refused Hershey's application for a contract extension to host the basketball championships at Giant Center. Starting for the 2006–2007 season, the eight championship games will be played at Penn State's Bryce Jordan Center. The PIAA cited monetary reasons for the move. As of 2014 they had returned to the Giant Center. Even the non-PIAA sport of ice hockey hosted the 2005 Pennsylvania Cup championship at the historic Hersheypark Arena. The PIAA football championships have been contested since 1988, with the first games being held at various sites across the state. In 1992, the games were moved to Altoona's Mansion Park, in part because playing four games in two days would not affect the artificial turf playing surface on the field. The football championships were moved to Hershey in 1998 to add to the tradition of PIAA championship competition near the state capital. State College hosts the baseball and softball championships at Pennsylvania State University. Altoona previously hosted the baseball championships at Peoples Natural Gas Field, home of the Altoona Curve of the Class AA Eastern League. The track and field championships are contested at Seth Grove Stadium on the campus of Shippensburg University, 40 miles southwest of Harrisburg. Championship sites Fall Winter Spring Recent champions Football Class 6A 2021: Mt. Lebanon (District 7) over Saint Joseph's Prep (District 12) 35-17 2020: Saint Joseph's Prep (District 12) over Central York (District 3) 62-13 2019: Saint Joseph's Prep (District 12) over Central Dauphin (District 3) 35-13 2018: Saint Joseph's Prep (District 12) over Harrisburg (District 3) 40-20 2017: Pine-Richland (District 7) over Saint Joseph's Prep (District 12) 41-21 2016: Saint Joseph's Prep (District 12) over Pittsburgh Central Catholic (District 7) 49-7 Class 5A 2021: Penn-Trafford (District 7) over Imhotep Institute Charter High School (District 12) 17-14 2020: Pine-Richland (District 7) over Cathedral Prep (District 10) 48-7 2019: Archbishop Wood (District 12) over Cheltenham (District 1) 19-15 2018: Penn Hills (District 7) over Manheim Central (District 3) 36-31 2017: Archbishop Wood (District 12) over Gateway (District 7) 49-14 2016: Archbishop Wood (District 12) over Harrisburg (District 3) 37-10 Class 4A 2021: Aliquippa (District 7) over Bishop McDevitt (District 3) 34-27 2020: Thomas Jefferson (District 7) over Jersey Shore (District 4) 21-14 2019: Thomas Jefferson (District 7) over Dallas (District 2) 46-7 2018: Cathedral Prep (District 10) over Imhotep Charter (District 12) 38-7 2017: Cathedral Prep (District 10) over Imhotep Charter (District 12) 38-28 2016: Cathedral Prep (District 10) over Imhotep Charter (District 12) 27-20 2015: Pittsburgh Central Catholic (District 7) over Parkland (District 11) 21-18 2014: Saint Joseph's Prep (District 12) over Pine-Richland (District 7) 49-41 2013: Saint Joseph's Prep (District 12) over Pittsburgh Central Catholic (District 7) 35-10 2012: North Allegheny (District 7) over Coatesville (District 1) 63-28 2011: Central Dauphin (District 3) over North Penn (District 1) 14-7 2010: North Allegheny (District 7) over La Salle College (District 12) 21-0 2009: La Salle College (District 12) over State College (District 6) 24-7 2008: Liberty (District 11) over Bethel Park (District 7) 28-21 OT 2007: Pittsburgh Central Catholic (District 7) over Parkland (District 11) 35-21 2006: Upper St. Clair (District 7) over Liberty (District 11) 47-13 2005: McKeesport (District 7) over Liberty (District 11) 49-10 2004: Pittsburgh Central Catholic (District 7) over Neshaminy (District 1) 49-14 2003: North Penn (District 1) over Pittsburgh Central Catholic (District 7) 37-10 2002: Parkland (District 11) over Woodland Hills (District 7) 34-12 2001: Neshaminy (District 1) over Woodland Hills (District 7) 21-7 2000: Cathedral Prep (District 10) over Central Bucks West (District 1) 41-35 OT 1999: Central Bucks West (District 1) over Cathedral Prep (District 10) 14-13 1998: Central Bucks West (District 1) over New Castle (District 7) 56-7 1997: Central Bucks West (District 1) over Upper St. Clair (District 7) 44-20 1996: Downingtown (District 1) over Woodland Hills (District 7) 49-14 1995: Penn Hills (District 7) over Lower Dauphin (District 3) 35-14 1994: McKeesport (District 7) over Downingtown (District 1) 17-14 1993: North Hills (District 7) over Central Bucks West (District 1) 15-14 1992: Cumberland Valley (District 3) over Upper St. Clair (District 7) 28-12 1991: Central Bucks West (District 1) over Cathedral Prep (District 10) 26-14 1990: North Allegheny (District 7) over Ridley (District 1) 21-14 1989: Upper St. Clair (District 7) over Wilson (District 3) 12-7 1988: Pittsburgh Central Catholic (District 7) over Cedar Cliff (District 3) 14-7 Class 3A 2020: Central Valley (District 7) over Wyomissing (District 3) 35-21 2019: Wyoming (District 2) over Central Valley (District 7) 21-14 2018: Aliquippa (District 7) over Middletown (District 3) 35-0 2017: Quaker Valley (District 7) over Middletown (District 3) 41-24 2016: Beaver Falls (District 7) over Middletown (District 3) 30-13 2015: Imhotep Charter (District 12) over Cathedral Prep (District 10) 40-3 2014: Archbishop Wood (District 12) over Central Valley (District 7) 33-14 2013: Archbishop Wood (District 12) over Bishop McDevitt (District 3) 22-10 2012: Cathedral Prep (District 10) over Archbishop Wood (District 12) 24-14 2011: Archbishop Wood (District 12) over Bishop McDevitt (District 3) 52-0 2010: Allentown Central Catholic (District 11) over Bishop McDevitt (District 3) 28-27 2009: Selinsgrove (District 4) over Manheim Central (District 3) 10-7 2008: Thomas Jefferson (District 7) over Archbishop Wood (District 12) 34-7 2007: Thomas Jefferson (District 7) over Garnet Valley (District 1) 28-3 2006: General McLane (District 10) over Pottsville (District 11) 28-23 2005: Franklin Regional (District 7) over Pottsville (District 11) 23-13 2004: Thomas Jefferson (District 7) over Manheim Central (District 3) 56-20 2003: Manheim Central (District 3) over Pine-Richland (District 7) 39-38 2OT 2002: Hopewell (District 7) over Strath Haven (District 1) 21-10 2001: West Allegheny (District 7) over Strath Haven (District 1) 28-13 2000: Strath Haven (District 1) over West Allegheny (District 7) 31-28 1999: Strath Haven (District 1) over West Allegheny (District 7) 21-7 1998: Allentown Central Catholic (District 11) over Moon (District 7) 10-0 1997: Berwick (District 2) over Perry Traditional Academy (District 8) 17-14 1996: Berwick (District 2) over Blackhawk (District 7) 34-14 1995: Berwick (District 2) over Sharon (District 10) 43-6 1994: Berwick (District 2) over Sharon (District 10) 27-7 1993: Allentown Central Catholic (District 11) over Blackhawk (District 7) 40-0 1992: Berwick (District 2) over Blackhawk (District 7) 33-6 1991: Strong Vincent (District 10) over Conestoga Valley (District 3) 29-20 1990: Bethlehem Catholic (District 11) over Seton-La Salle (District 7) 43-7 1989: Perry Traditional Academy (District 8) over Berwick (District 2) 20-8 1988: Berwick (District 2) over Aliquippa (District 7) 13-0 Class 2A 2020: Southern Columbia (District 4) over Wilmington (District 10) 42-14 2019: Southern Columbia (District 4) over Avonworth (District 7) 74-7 2018: Southern Columbia (District 4) over Wilmington (District 10) 49-14 2017: Southern Columbia (District 4) over Wilmington (District 10) 48-0 2016: Steel Valley (District 7) over Southern Columbia (District 4) 49-7 2015: Southern Columbia (District 4) over Aliquippa (District 7) 49-14 2014: South Fayette (District 7) over Dunmore (District 2) 28-16 2013: South Fayette (District 7) over Imhotep Charter (District 12) 41-0 2012: Wyomissing (District 3) over Aliquippa (District 7) 17-14 2011: Lancaster Catholic (District 3) over Tyrone (District 6) 17-7 2010: West Catholic (District 12) over South Fayette (District 7) 50-14 2009: Lancaster Catholic (District 3) over Greensburg Central Catholic (District 7) 21-14 2008: Wilmington (District 10) over West Catholic (District 12) 35-34 2OT 2007: Jeannette (District 7) over Dunmore (District 2) 49-21 2006: Wilson (District 11) over Jeannette (District 7) 29-28 2005: South Park (District 7) over Wilson (District 11) 28-17 2004: Lansdale Catholic (District 1) Grove City (District 10) 40-17 2003: Aliquippa (District 7) over Northern Lehigh (District 11) 32-27 2002: Mount Carmel (District 4) over Seton-La Salle (District 7) 18-13 2001: Washington (District 7) over Pen Argyl (District 11) 19-12 2000: Mount Carmel (District 4) over Aliquippa (District 7) 26-6 1999: Tyrone (District 6) over Mount Carmel (District 4) 13-6 1998: Mount Carmel (District 4) over Shady Side Academy (District 7) 44-7 1997: South Park (District 7) over South Williamsport (District 4) 20-0 1996: Mount Carmel (District 4) over Tyrone (District 6) 25-6 1995: Bishop McDevitt (District 3) over Burrell (District 7) 29-0 1994: Mount Carmel (District 11) over Forest Hills (District 6) 20-14 2OT 1993: Dallas (District 2) over Washington (District 7) 31-7 1992: Valley View (District 2) over East Allegheny (District 7) 21-13 1991: Aliquippa (District 7) over Hanover (District 2) 27-0 1990: Hanover Area (District 2) over Bishop Canevin (District 7) 20-19 OT 1989: Hickory (District 10) over Montoursville (District 4) 30-22 1988: Bethlehem Catholic (District 11) over Wilmington (District 7) 26-11 Class 1A 2020: Steelton-Highspire (District 3) over Jeannette (District 7) 32-20 2019: Farrell (District 10) over Bishop Guilfoyle (District 6) 10-7 OT 2018: Farrell (District 10) over Lackawanna Trail (District 2) 55-20 2017: Jeannette (District 7) over Homer-Center (District 6) 42-12 2016: Bishop Guilfoyle (District 6) over Clairton (District 7) 17-0 2015: Bishop Guilfoyle (District 6) over Farrell (District 10) 35-0 2014: Bishop Guilfoyle (District 6) over Clairton (District 7) 19-18 2013: North Catholic (District 7) over Old Forge (District 2) 15-14 OT 2012: Clairton (District 7) over Dunmore (District 2) 20-0 2011: Clairton (District 7) over Southern Columbia (District 4) 35-19 2010: Clairton (District 7) over Riverside (District 2) 36-30 2009: Clairton (District 7) over Bishop McCort (District 6) 15-3 2008: Steelton-Highspire (District 3) over Clairton (District 7) 35-16 2007: Steelton-Highspire (District 3) over Serra Catholic (District 7) 34-15 2006: Southern Columbia (District 4) over West Middlesex (District 10) 56-14 2005: Southern Columbia (District 4) over Duquesne (District 7) 50-19 2004: Southern Columbia (District 4) over Rochester (District 7) 35-0 2003: Southern Columbia (District 4) over Bishop Carroll (District 6) 49-20 2002: Southern Columbia (District 4) over Rochester (District 7) 31-6 2001: Rochester (District 7) over Southern Columbia (District 4) 16-0 2000: Rochester (District 7) over Southern Columbia (District 4) 22-14 1999: South Side (District 7) over Southern Columbia (District 4) 27-21 1998: Rochester (District 7) over Southern Columbia (District 4) 18-0 1997: Sharpsville (District 10) over Riverside (District 2) 10-7 1996: Farrell (District 7) over Southern Columbia (District 4) 14-12 1995: Farrell (District 7) over Southern Columbia (District 4) 6-0 1994: Southern Columbia (District 4) over Western Beaver (District 7) 49-6 1993: Duquesne (District 7) over South Williamsport (District 4) 24-21 1992: Scotland School (District 3) over Smethport (District 9) 24-7 1991: Schuylkill Haven (District 11) over Rochester (District 7) 28-18 1990: Marian Catholic (District 11) over Farrell (District 10) 21-13 1989: Dunmore (District 2) over Keystone (District 9) 57-18 1988: Camp Hill (Division 3) over Cambridge Springs (District 10) 18-7 Basketball Boys' Basketball Class 6A 2019: Kennedy Catholic (District 10) over Pennridge (District 1) 64-62 (2OT) 2018: Roman Catholic (District 12) over Lincoln (District 12) 92-80 2017: Reading (District 3) over Pine-Richland (District 7) 64-60 Class 5A 2021: Cathedral Prep (District 10) over Archbishop Ryan (District 12) 69-49 2019: Moon Area (District 7) over Archbishop Wood (District 12) 74-64 2018: Abington Heights (District 2) over Mars (District 7) 67-55 2017: Archbishop Wood (District 12) over Meadville (District 10) 73-40 Class 4A 2019: Imhotep Charter (District 12) over Bonner-Prendergast (District 12) 67-56 2018: Imhotep Charter (District 12) over Sharon (District 10) 71-35 2017: Imhotep Charter (District 12) over Strong Vincent (District 10) 80-52 2016: Roman Catholic (District 12) over Taylor Allderdice (District 8) 73-62 2015: Roman Catholic (District 12) over Martin Luther King (District 12) 62-45 2014: New Castle (District 7) over LaSalle College (District 12) 52-39 2013: Lower Merion (District 1) over Chester (District 1) 63-47 2012: Chester (District 1) over Lower Merion (District 1) 59-33 2011: Chester (District 1) over Mount Lebanon (District 7) 72-60 (OT) 2010: Plymouth-Whitemarsh (District 1) over Penn Wood (District 1) 58-51 2009: Penn Wood (District 1) over William Penn (District 12) 72-53 2008: Chester (District 1) over Norristown (District 1) 81-77 2007: Schenley (District 8) over Chester (District 1) 78-71 2006: Lower Merion (District 1) over Schenley (District 8) 60-58 2005: Chester (District 1) over Lower Merion (District 1) 74-61 2004: Penn Hills (District 7) over Parkland (District 11) 57-48 2003: State College (District 6) over Chester (District 1) 76-71 2002: Harrisburg (District 3) over Uniontown (District 7) 69-62 2001: Coatesville (District 1) over Schenley (District 8) 70-57 2000: Chester (District 1) over Uniontown (District 7) 73-48 Class 3A 2019: Lincoln Park Charter (District 7) over Trinity (District 3) 73-72 2018: Neumann-Goretti (District 12) over Richland (District 6) 57-42 2017: Neumann-Goretti (District 12) over Lincoln Park Charter (District 7) 89-58 2016: Neumann-Goretti (District 12) over Mars (District 7) 99-66 2015: Neumann-Goretti (District 12) over Archbishop Carroll (District 12) 69-67 2014: Neumann-Goretti (District 12) over Susquehanna (District 3) 64-57 (OT) 2013: Imhotep Charter (District 12) over Archbishop Carroll (District 12) 54-45 2012: Neumann-Goretti (District 12) over Montour (District 7) 48-45 2011: Neumann-Goretti (District 12) over Montour (District 7) 55-45 2010: Neumann-Goretti (District 12) over Chartiers Valley (District 7) 65-63 2009: Archbishop Carroll (District 12) over Greensburg-Salem (District 7) 75-54 2008: Steelton-Highspire (District 3) over Susquehanna (District 3) 65-62 2007: General McLane (District 10) over Greencastle-Antrim (District 3) 57-55 2006: Franklin Area (District 10) Communications Tech (District 12) 74-63 2005: Steelton-Highspire (District 3) over Johnstown (District 6) 70-48 2004: Moon Area (District 7) over Holy Ghost Prep (District 1) 52-50 2003: Lancaster Catholic (District 3) over Perry Traditional Academy (District 8) 75-59 2002: Kennett (District 1) over West Mifflin (District 7) 72-51 2001: Franklin Area (District 10) over Allentown Central Catholic (District 11) 58-50 (OT) 2000: Steelton-Highspire (District 3) over Blackhawk (District 7) 68-56 Class 2A 2019: MCS Charter (District 12) over Bishop Guilfoyle (District 6) 54-52 2018: Constitution (District 12) over Our Lady of the Sacred Heart (District 7) 81-71 2017: Sewickley Academy (District 7) over Constitution (District 12) 68-63 (OT) 2016: Aliquippa (District 7) over Mastery Charter North (District 12) 68-49 2015: Conwell-Egan (District 12) over Aliquippa (District 7) 62-51 2014: Constitution (District 12) over Seton-La Salle (District 7) 61-59 2013: Beaver Falls (District 7) over Holy Cross (District 2) 69-63 2012: Imhotep Charter (District 12) over Beaver Falls (District 7) 56-54 2011: Imhotep Charter (District 12) over Greensburg Central Catholic (District 7) 67-34 2010: South Fayette (District 7) over Strawberry Mansion (District 12) 49-47 2009: Imhotep Charter (District 12) over North Catholic (District 7) 75-67 (2OT) 2008: Jeannette (District 7) over Strawberry Mansion (District 12) 76-72 2007: Prep Charter (District 12) over Aliquippa (District 7) 68-66 2006: Prep Charter (District 12) over Beaver Falls (District 7) 82-51 2005: Beaver Falls (District 7) over York Catholic (District 3) 71-59 2004: Sto-Rox (District 7) over Trinity (District 3) 62-53 2003: Trinity (District 3) over Sto-Rox (District 7) 66-49 2002: Bishop Hannan (District 2) over Sto-Rox (District 7) 70-68 2001: Trinity (District 3) over Aliquippa (District 7) 79-65 2000: Shady Side Academy (District 7) over Halifax (District 3) 79-65 Class 1A 2019: Sankofa Freedom Academy (District 12) over Vincentian Academy (District 7) 83-61 2018: Kennedy Catholic (District 10) over Lourdes Regional (District 4) 78-36 2017: Kennedy Catholic (District 10) over Girard College (District 1) 73-56 2016: Kennedy Catholic (District 10) over MCS Charter (District 12) 71-60 2015: Constitution (District 12) over Farrell (District 10) 85-53 2014: Lincoln Park Charter (District 7) over MCS Charter (District 12) 70-66 2013: Vaux (District 12) over Johnsonburg (District 9) 83-63 2012: Constitution (District 12) over Lincoln Park Charter (District 7) 68-46 2011: MCS Charter (District 12) over Lincoln Park Charter (District 7) 70-55 2010: Sewickley Academy (District 7) over Reading Central Catholic (District 3) 43-35 2009: Girard College (District 1) over Kennedy Catholic (District 10) 80-70 2008: Serra Catholic (District 7) over Friere Charter (District 12) 67-66 2007: Reading Central Catholic (District 3) over DuBois Central Catholic (District 9) 58-33 2006: Elk County Catholic (District 9) over Bishop Hannan (District 2) 71-61 2005: Bishop O'Reilly (District 2) over Kennedy Catholic (District 10) 65-61 2004: Bishop O'Reilly (District 2) over Sewickley Academy (District 7) 70-54 2003: Scotland School (District 3) over Union Area (District 7) 80-59 2002: Scotland School (District 3) over Kennedy Catholic (District 10) 69-50 2001: Kennedy Christian (District 10) over Fairfield (District 3) 87-45 2000: Kennedy Christian (District 10) over Bishop Hannan (District 2) 64-57 (OT) Girls' Basketball Class 6A 2019: Peters Township (District 7) over Garnet Valley (District 1) 62-49 2018: Upper Dublin (District 1) over Central Bucks South (District 1) 41-39 2017: Boyertown (District 1) over North Allegheny (District 7) 46-35 Class 5A 2019: Chartiers Valley (District 7) over Archbishop Carroll (District 12) 53-40 2018: Mars (District 7) over Archbishop Wood (District 12) 36-33 2017: Archbishop Wood (District 12) over Trinity (District 7) 34-26 Class 4A 2019: Bethlehem Catholic (District 11) over North Catholic High School (District 7) 60-49 2018: Lancaster Catholic (District 3) over Berks Catholic (District 3) 51-36 2017: Bethlehem Catholic (District 11) over Villa Maria (District 10) 46-27 2016: Cumberland Valley (District 3) over Cardinal O'Hara (District 12) 57-34 2015: Cumberland Valley (District 3) over Central Bucks West (District 1) 40-35 2014: Cumberland Valley (District 3) over Spring-Ford (District 1) 49-30 2013: Spring-Ford (District 1) over Cumberland Valley (District 3) 60-45 2012: Archbishop Carroll (District 12) over Oakland Catholic (District 7) 56-37 2011: Mount Lebanon (District 7) over Archbishop Carroll (District 12) 47-46 2010: Mount Lebanon (District 7) over Archbishop Ryan (District 12) 70-43 2009: Mount Lebanon (District 7) over Cardinal O'Hara (District 12) 67-58 2008: Central Dauphin (District 3) over Mount Lebanon (District 7) 56-49 Class 3A 2019: Delone Catholic (District 3) over Dunmore (District 2) 49-43 2018: Neumann-Goretti (District 12) over Bishop Canevin (District 7) 63-46 2017: Neumann-Goretti (District 12) over Bishop Canevin (District 7) 62-56 2016: Archbishop Wood (District 12) over Villa Maria (District 10) 46-29 2015: Blackhawk (District 7) over Archbishop Wood (District 12) 46-40 2014: Blackhawk (District 7) over Archbishop Wood (District 12) 51-43 2013: South Park (District 7) over Bethlehem Catholic (District 11) 53-38 2012: Archbishop Wood (District 12) over Lancaster Catholic (District 3) 52-33 2011: Archbishop Wood (District 12) over Mercyhurst Prep (District 10) 53-41 2010: Archbishop Wood (District 12) over Indiana (District 7) 49-39 2009: Archbishop Carroll (District 12) over Lampeter-Strasburg (District 3) 68-45 2008: Mount Saint Joseph Academy (District 1) over Mercyhurst Prep (District 10) 53-43 Class 2A 2019: Bellwood-Antis (District 6) over West Middlesex (District 10) 66-57 2018: Bellwood-Antis (District 6) over West Catholic (District 12) 45-42 2017: Minersville (District 11) over Bishop McCort (District 6) 63-49 2016: Neumann-Goretti (District 12) over North Star (District 5) 65-28 2015: Neumann-Goretti (District 12) over Seton-La Salle (District 7) 79-34 2014: Seton-La Salle (District 7) over Neumann-Goretti (District 12) 58-50 2013: Bishop Canevin (District 7) over York Catholic (District 3) 45-38 2012: Seton-La Salle (District 7) over York Catholic (District 3) 71-47 2011: Villa Maria (District 10) over Dunmore (District 2) 62-39 2010: Villa Maria (District 10) over York Catholic (District 3) 52-44 2009: Villa Maria (District 10) over York Catholic (District 3) 56-51 2008: York Catholic (District 3) over Northern Cambria (District 6) 52-40 Class 1A 2019: Berlin Brothersvalley (District 5) over Lourdes Regional (District 4) 41-32 2018: Jenkintown (District 1) over Juniata Valley (District 6) 51-46 (OT) 2017: Lebanon Catholic (District 3) over Juniata Valley (District 6) 55-43 2016: North Catholic (District 7) over Lourdes Regional (District 4) 56-33 2015: Vincentian Academy (District 7) over Old Forge (District 2) 86-38 2014: Vincentian Academy (District 7) over Old Forge (District 2) 58-34 2013: Tri-Valley (District 11) over Vincentian Academy (District 7) 59-42 2012: Steelton-Highspire (District 3) over North Catholic (District 7) 66-59 2011: Steelton-Highspire (District 3) over Bishop Guilfoyle (District 6) 73-60 2010: Bishop Guilfoyle (District 6) over Northern Cambria (District 6) 49-29 2009: Bishop Guilfoyle (District 6) over Nativity BVM (District 11) 49-27 2008: Marian Catholic (District 11) over Mount Alvernia (District 7) 40-34 See also PIAA football records PIAA Football Teams, Conferences and Leagues NFHS References External links PIAA Official Web Site. 2010–12 PIAA schools' classifications by sport at PIAA.org. High school sports associations in the United States Sports organizations established in 1913 High school sports in Pennsylvania 1913 establishments in Pennsylvania

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The USA Women’s World University Games Team is one of the teams under the auspices of the USA Basketball organization. The Universiade is an international, multi-sport event for university students, generally held every other year since 1959. It is second only to the Olympics in number of participants. The United States has participated in women's basketball since their first participation in 1973 at the VII Summer Universiade. USA Basketball has organized the participation except for 2003 and 2007. In 2003 an All-Star team selected from the Big 12 Conference represented the US in Daegu, South Korea. In 2007, the Charlotte 49ers, the basketball team at the University of North Carolina at Charlotte, represented the USA in Bangkok, Thailand. The 2015 World University Games were held in Seoul, South Korea July 5–13, 2015. The head coach of the USA team was Joe McKeown, while Holly Warlick and Tanya Warren were the assistant coaches. The USA won the gold medal. Record 1973 5-3 2nd 1975 Not Held 1977 6-2 2nd 1979 7-0 1st 1981 6-1 2nd 1983 5-1 1st 1985 5-1 2nd 1987 4-1 5th 1991 8-0 1st 1993 6-2 3rd 1995 6-1 2nd 1997 6-0 1st 1999 4-2 2nd 2001 7-1 1st 2003 3-4 6th † 2005 7-0 1st 2007 4-3 6th ‡ 2009 7-0 1st 2011 5–0 1st 2013 6–0 1st 2015 6–0 1st †USA represented by Big-12 All-Star team ‡USA Represented by UNC Charlotte 1973 Jill Upton was named the head coach, and Billie Jean Moore the assistant coach of the team representing the US at the World University Games held in Moscow, Soviet Union in August 1973. The event, also called the Universiade, is the eighth event to have women's basketball, but the first in which the USA participated. The USA team was assigned to the same preliminary round group as the Soviet team, and drew them as their first opponent. The game was not close, as the USSR defeated the USA 92–43. The USA went on to defeat France and Mexico. Their 2–1 record qualified them for the medal round, but the rules of the competition carried the preliminary round results into the medal round, so they could not afford another loss. They won their next three games, all by single digit margins, against Bulgaria, Romania and Cuba. That performance qualified the USA team for the gold medal game, but it matched them up against undefeated USSR. While the game was closer, the Soviets were much too strong and won 82–44 to claim the gold. The USA team earned a silver medal in their first ever World University Games competition. 1977 Lucille Kyvallos was named the head coach and Dixie Woodall the assistant coach of the team representing the US at the World University Games held in Sofia, Bulgaria in August 1977. The event is also called the Universiade. The team started out strongly, winning their first three games against West German, Mexico, and China, by more than 30 points each. The fourth game, against Hungary was closer, but led by Carol Blazejowski's 31 points, the USA won by ten points. Moving on to the medal rounds, the USA drew Romania. That game was quite close, butt he USA won the game 76–73. The next opponent was the USSR, who had defeated the US in the prior University Games. The beginning was reasonably close, with the USA down by seven points at halftime, but despite getting 25 points from Ann Meyers, the USSR opened up the lead and won 103–78. The next opponent was Bulgaria, which stayed close, but the USA team won by three points. That set up a rematch with the Soviets for the gold medal. This time, the Soviets started out strong and had a 24-point lead at the half. Although the USA team would outscore USSR in the second half, they did not close the gap enough, and fell 107–90. The USSR defended their gold medal, and the USA team again won the silver medal. Blazejowski led the team in scoring with over 20 points per game. Charlotte Lewis led the team in rebounding with over nine per game. 1979 Frances Garmon was named head coach and Kay Yow the assistant coach of the team representing the US at the World University Games held in Mexico City, Mexico in August 1979. The opening game was against Costa Rica, and the USA almost outscored them by triple digits, falling just shy at 132–34. The next three games were closer, but all margins were in double digits. The fifth game was against the USSR, who had won the event in 1973 and 1977. The Soviet team led at halftime, but the USA team outscored the USSR by three points in the second half to win 83–81, the first win by the USA over the USSR in a major competition in two decades. The next game was a rematch against Canada, them team they had beaten by 14 points a few days earlier. This time the Canadian team would take a nine-point lead at halftime, but the USA team came back and won 68–60. The final game of the competition was against Cuba, which the USA won 73–60 to claim their first gold medal in a World University Games event. 1981 Kay Yow was the head coach while Lorene Ramsey was the assistant coach of the team representing the US at the World University Games held in Bucharest, Romania in July 1981. The team started with a game against Finland and won easily, 68–49. They trailed at halftime in their next game against China, but came back to win a close game 76–74. After beating Poland, they played Czechoslovakia in a game that was close at the half, but the USA team went on to win 86–67. In the following game against Canada, the USA team was again behind at the half, but played a close match in the second half and pulled ahead to win 79–76. Despite being undefeated, they needed a win against Romania to advance to the gold medal came. They had only a one-point lead at halftime, but went on to win 75–64 to meet the undefeated USSR for the gold medal. The USA fell behind by sixteen and could not close the gap—the USSR team won 98–79 to claim the gold medal, leaving the US with the silver. Denise Curry was the leading scorer for the USA team with 18.1 points per game. Anne Donovan led the team in rebounds with 6.7 per game. 1983 Jill Hutchison was the head coach and Sylvia Hatchell was the assistant coach of the team representing the US at the World University Games held in Edmonton, Canada in July 1983. The first game against Hong Kong was a mismatch—the USA team would outscore their opponents by triple digits, 134–23. Joyce Walker's 26 points alone were more than the entire Hong Kong team. The next two games against France and West Germany were closer, but the USA still won by 16 and 15 points respectively. The USA team faced Romania and lost by 14 points 85–71. The next opponent was Yugoslavia, which the USA needed to win to stay in medal contention. The game was close, but the USA won by a single point 86–85 to head to a rematch with Romania for the gold medal. The Romanian team started out strong, and held a six-point lead at halftime. The USA team came back, out scoring their opponents 47–19 in the second half, and won the game, earning the gold medal as a result. Walker was the leading scorer for the US with 13.8 points per game, but Deborah Temple Lee was close behind with 13.5 points per game. 1985 C. Vivian Stringer was named the head coach while Hatchell repeated as the assistant coach of the team representing the US at the World University Games held in Kobe, Japan in July 1985. The team won their three preliminary games with ease, beating the People's Republic of Korea, Yugoslavia and Great Britain by more than 25 points each. Their next game, against China, was much closer, but the USA team had balanced scoring, with five players in double figures for points, and won 83–78. The USA team played Canada in the semifinal, and again had five players with double-digit scoring, winning 85–61 to advance to the gold medal game against the USSR. The USA fell behind by as much as 18 points in the second half. They attempted a comeback, and cut the margin, but the USSR hit almost 55% of their shots and went on to claim the gold medal 87–81. The USA received the silver medal. Katrina McClain was the leading scorer and rebounder for the USA team with 17.3 points and 7.7 rebounds per game. 1987 Linda Sharp was the head coach, with Colleen Riley serving as the assistant coach of the team representing the US at the World University Games held in Zagreb, Yugoslavia in July 1987. The team started out with a 35-point victory over Poland and followed that with a 41-point victory over Finland. In the third game, the USA faced the host team Yugoslavia. The USA hit a high percentage of their shots from the free throw line, 16 of 19, but the Yugoslav team earned 43 shots from the line, of which they made 34. With a home crowd behind them, the game came down to the wire, and was tied at the end of regulation. In overtime, Yugoslavia outscored the US and won the game 93–89. The USA still had a chance to make it to the medal round, but to do so had to win their next game against China, and do so by at least five points. The USA fell behind, and were down 16 points at halftime. They fell behind by 20 at one point, but made up the deficit and more in the second half. They went on to win the game, but by only a single point 84–83. They won their final game against Canada, but this left them in fifth place, the first time ever the USA team did not win a medal at the World University Games. 1989 The 1989 event did not include women's basketball. 1991 Tara VanDerveer was the head coach, with Charlene Curtis and Nancy Darsch serving as the assistant coaches of the team representing the US at the World University Games held in Sheffield, England in July 1991. The USA team started out with a very strong offense, scoring over 100 points in each of the first four games. The fourth game was against the USSR, a team often challenging the US for the top spot, but the USA won 106–80 this time. The team fell short of 100 points in the game against Canada, but still won by 18 points. In the quarterfinal game, the USA won easily against Romania 135–53, with Ruthie Bolton scoring 40 points. The game against China was more of a challenge. The USA team shot poorly, hitting only 36% of their shots, but the defense held China to 35% shooting, and won a three-point game, 79–76. The gold medal match was against Spain, but the USA had a 13-point lead at halftime and won 88–62. Bolton was the highest scorer for the USA team with 14 points per game, but Lisa Leslie and Carolyn Jones were close behind with 13 points per game. 1993 Joan Bonvicini was the head coach, with Dianne Nolan and Jane Albright serving as assistant coaches of the team representing the US at the World University Games held in Buffalo, New York in July 1993. The USA opened with double-digit margin victories over Israel, Taiwan, and the Ukraine. Their next game was against Russia, and they held a single-point lead with just over ten minutes to go ant he game, but they finished strong, and won 72–55. The next game was against Cuba, which included sixth players from their 1992 Olympic team. The USA pulled out to a 15-point lead at halftime, and extended to an 18-point lead at one time, but Cuba proved to be too strong, and came back to defeat the USA 88–80. After beating Japan, the USA faced China, whose team also featured many members of their silver medal-winning Olympic team. The USA fell behind; their comeback attempt fell two points shy of tying the game. The final score in favor of China was 75–73. The opponent in the bronze medal game was Lithuania. The USA team won 83–73 to earn the bronze medal. 1995 Sylvia Hatchell was the head coach, with assistants Jim Lewis, Kay James, and Clemette Haskins, of the team representing the US at the World University Games held in Fukuoka, Japan in August and September 1995. The USA team won their first five games with ease, with only the 18-point victory over Yugoslavia in a quarterfinal match falling short of a 20-point margin of victory. In the semifinal against Russia, the team was behind for much of the first half and held only a two-point lead with under ten minutes to go, but then went on a 25–4 run to take control of the game. The final game, for the gold medal, was against Italy. The Italians started with a 12–2 run to open the game. The USA cut the lead, but were behind by nine points at the half. The USA took a lead in the second half, but the Italians responded with ten consecutive points and then held on to win the gold medal, leaving the US with the silver medal. 1997 Jim Foster was named the head coach, with Ed Baldwin and Deb Patterson named assistant coaches of the USA representative to the World University Games, held in Marsala, Sicily, Italy. The USA team had not won gold in this biennial event since 1991. This year, the USA team would be dominant, with easy victories in all but one contest. After winning their first three contests by no fewer than 38 points, the USA team faced Russia. The game had five ties and 13 lead changes. Connecticut's Nykesha Sales led the scoring of the USA team with 17 points, hitting connective baskets in the second half to give the USA a lead it would not give up. The USA went on to win the game 78–70. The USA went on to win the two medal rounds games, with a 100–82 victory over Cuba to give the USA team the gold medal. Sales was the overall scoring leader of the team, with 18.3 points per game, while Kara Wolters led the team in rebounds, with 7.8 per game. 1999 Rene Portland served as the head coach, with Bonnie Henrickson and Britt King as an assistant coaches, of the USA representative to the 1999 World University Games. The event was held in Palma de Mallorca, Spain. The USA team won their opening two games easily, including a mismatch against South Africa with a final score of 140–32, but lost against Ukraine, 81–70. They earned a position in the medal rounds and defeated Lithuania in the quarterfinals. USA then took on undefeated Russia and won a close game 87–79, setting up the championship game between the US and host Spain. After falling behind early, the USA team kept the game close, and got within five points with under two minutes to go, but Spain held on to win the gold medal. The USA team received the silver medal. Katie Douglas was the leading scorer for the USA team, with 17.6 points per game, while Brooke Wyckoff was the leading rebounder, with seven rebounds per game. 2001 Debbie Ryan served as the head coach, while Lisa Bluder and Dee Stokes served as the assistant coaches of the USA representative to the 1999 World University Games. The event was held in Palma de Mallorca, Spain. The USA team opened with a 134–37 win over South Africa. The second game was against Canada, which the USA team lost in a close match 68–67. The USA could not afford to lose another game if they wished to win a medal, and won the next game against Japan 106–66. The USA next faced undefeated Russia, and fell behind by twelve points at halftime, but came back and won the game 79–68. The USA fell behind in their next game against undefeated China, but rallied and went on to win 89–78. The USA then beat Brazil to advance to the semi-final, where they faced Lithuania. The game was not close, with the USA winning 70–49. That set up a rematch with China, on their home court with 18,000 spectators. The USA only had a four-point lead at halftime, but did better in the second half, and won 87–69 to claim the gold medal. Ayana Walker set a World University Games record with 19 rebounds in the game. Walker was the leading scorer and rebounder for the USA team with 15.4 points and 8.6 rebounds per game. 2003 The USA Basketball organization did not assemble a team themselves, but decided to send a team of All-Stars from the Big 12 Conference. The team record was 4–4, with wins over Canada, Hungary, Thailand, the Czech Republic and losses to China, Italy and two losses to Serbia and Montenegro 2005 Kathy Delaney-Smith served as the head coach, with Pokey Chatman and Cathy Inglese as assistant coaches of the USA representative to the World University Games held in Izmir, Turkey in August 2005. The team won their first game against the Czech Republic 88–64; the 24-point margin in that contest would be the closest any team would come to beating the USA until the gold-medal final. After defeating South Africa, China, and Poland to move on to the quarterfinals, they then beat Taiwan and Russia – each by more than 50 points. This set up the championship game with Serbia & Montenegro which the USA won 79–63 to complete a 7–0 record and win the gold medal. Sylvia Fowles would lead the USA team in both points and rebounds, with fifteen points and 7.3 rebounds per game. 2007 The USA Basketball organization did not assemble a team themselves, but decided to send UNC Charlotte to represent the USA. The Charlotte 49ers finished 4–3, in sixth place. 2009 2009 roster Eligibility – The participants must be born between January 1, 1985 and December 31, 1991 2009 games The twelve-player squad started the official games in Belgrade, Serbia one player down. Maya Moore, the consensus player of the year, sprained a knee in a scrimmage with Australia. She was listed as day-to-day, but was never cleared to play. The first official game was against France. The USA won easily 115–30, behind double-digit scoring from five players – Tina Charles (18), Jantel Lavender (16), Jacinta Monroe (16), Tiffany Hayes(15), and Alexis Gray-Lawson (14). On July 2, 2009, the USA team played Great Britain. As with the previous game against France, this game was not in much doubt after the first few minutes; USA prevailed 93–59. The USA team's offense was led by three double-digit scorers – Jantel Lavender (17), Danielle McCray (15) and Ta'Shia Phillips (11) – but USA coach Charli Turner Thorne credited the win to defense. The third game was against the hosts, Serbia. The USA led at the end of the first quarter 20–14, the smallest lead at that point of the first three games. The USA team increased its lead, and ended with an 84–50 win. After a day off, USA would resume against Poland. The USA won 75–67 in their closest match so far. Tina Charles had double-digit scoring and double-digit rebounding (12 and 10), and Danielle McCray also scored 12 points. After defeating Poland by nine, the USA team faced the Czech Republic, undefeated, with a 13-point win over Poland. But the USA did not have any difficulty in dispatching the Czech team, winning 115–78. The USA team had five players in double figures, led by Tina Charles with 20 points. USA head coach Charli Turner Thorne credited the rebounding, noting that the USA team out-rebounded the Czech team by 30. Tiffany Hayes (16), Danielle McCray (15), Ashley Houts (13), and Jantel Lavender (10) were the other double-digit scorers. Early in the semifinal game against Australia, the USA team found itself behind 13–9. They went on a 25–0 run to open up a large lead, and went on to win 81–66 and headed to the gold medal game. In the gold medal game, the USA team faced a Russian team that had played together for years. The first quarter would be close, with the Russian team leading 22–20 at the end of the first quarter, the first time in the tournament the USA team had been behind at the end of any quarter. Russia continued to build upon its lead, scoring six straight points to open the second quarter, but the USA team would follow with a 19–3 run to recapture the lead. The USA team went into halftime with an eight-point lead, and started the third quarter with a 9–0 run. The team was led by Tina Charles, scoring 28 points with 18 rebounds, characterized as a "monster performance" by sportswriters. Jantel Lavender and Kayla Petersen also contributed double-digit scoring. 2009 statistics USA World University Games Team Statistics 2011 Although the USA representatives to the World University games had seven gold medals in prior events, no team had successfully defended a gold medal. The 2011 team went to China, following a 2009 gold medal performance, with a mission to be the first team to defend the title. The head coach was Bill Fennelly, the head coach of Iowa State, assisted by Suzie McConnell-Serio of Duquesne University and Terri Williams-Flournoy head coach of Georgetown University. The first game was against Brazil. The USA team opened strong, and led the game 25–6 by the end of the first quarter. Although Brazil tried to come back in the second quarter, the USA scored 17 consecutive points to put the game out of reach. Elena Delle Donne, playing in her first USA game, led all scorers with 17 points. Four other players scored in double digits, as the team rolled to a 112–53 victory. In the second game, against Slovakia, the USA team also shattered the 100 point mark, with six players in double-figures, led by Skylar Diggins, Nnemkadi Ogwumike and Devereaux Peters with 14 points each. The Slovakia team kept the game close through the first quarter, but the USA team started the second quarter on a 7–0 run and later went on a 15–0 run to extend the margin. The USA ended with a 114–63 win. The third game was the last game in the pool play, leading up to the medal round. The USA opponent was Great Britain. While the Great Britain team held the US to under 100 points for the first time in the competition, they only managed 33 points. Bill Fennelly felt it was the team's best defensive effort. The score was reasonably close early in the second quarter with the USA team only up by ten, but the team extended the lead to a 53–17 halftime score. The USA team held their opponents to 18% field goal shooting. The final score, in favor of the USA was 85–33. In the quarter-final game against Finland, the result was never really in doubt. The USA team scored 21 points before the team from Finland scored. Both Elena Delle Donne and Devereaux Peters scored 17 points to help lead the USA team to a 96–30 victory. The USA team faced Australia in the semi-final game. After not being seriously challenged in their first four games, the Australians put up a strong fight. They took the initial lead. The USA team came back, but held only a slim three-point lead at the end of the first quarter. The second quarter was close, with the USA extending the lead by one more point to lead 31–27 at the half. The USA started out the second half on a 9–0 run, but the Aussies did not quit. They responded with an 11–3 run of their own, and cut the lead to five points late in the third quarter. The USA lead was only seven points at the beginning of the final quarter, but Nnemkadi Ogwumike started a 9–0 run which put the USA into a more comfortable lead. The final score was 79–67, and the USA team would head to the gold medal game. The gold medal game was anti-climactic after their reasonably close call against Australia. Their opponent was Taiwan, who had never before won a medal at the World University Games. Elena Delle Donne scored 18 points, added 11 rebounds and had eight assists, while Nnemkadi Ogwumike poured in 24 points. The USA team had a nine-point lead at the end of the first quarter, quickly extended it to a double-digit lead, and won easily 101–66 to win the gold medal. Elena Delle Donne was the leading scorer and rebounder for the USA team, averaging almost 16 points per game and over 8 rebounds per game. 2013 The twelve players selected to represent the US at the 2013 World University Games have been named: Crystal Bradford—Central Michigan University Aaryn Ellenberg—University of Oklahoma Reshanda Gray—University of California Cassie Harberts—University of Southern California Bria Hartley—University of Connecticut Jordan Hooper—University of Nebraska Tricia Liston—Duke University Ariel Massengale—University of Tennessee Kaleena Mosqueda-Lewis—University of Connecticut Theresa Plaisance—Louisiana State University Shoni Schimmel—University of Louisville Odyssey Sims—Baylor University The coaches were: Head Coach: Sherri Coale, University of Oklahoma Assistant Coach: Brian Giorgis, Marist College Assistant Coach: Coquese Washington, Penn State University 2013 pool play The USA's first opponent in pool play was Mali, in an opening round game held on July 8, 2013. The game started with runs by each team. Mali scored five points before the USA team got on the board, but the USA responded with an 18–0 run. Mali then had a 7–0 run of their own, and the USA team ended the quarter with a 10–0 run. The USA would go on a 25–0 run, starting near the end of the half and extending into the third period. Despite a large lead, the USA was even more dominant in the fourth period, holding the opponents to just four points. Overall, the USA shot well, hitting almost two-thirds of their shot attempts. Six USA players scored in double digits, led by Bria Hartley with 17. Shoni Schimmel had nine assists as part of a team total of 34 assists, setting a USA basketball WUG record, previously 27 assist in a game. The second game of the pool play was against the Czech Republic. The USA team started out scoring the first eight points, a layup by Theresa Plaisance followed by three-pointers by Aaryn Ellenberg and Kaleena Mosqueda-Lewis before the Czech team scored. The USA team had a 13-point lead when Mosqueda-Lewis went on a 10–0 run of her own, scoring the last eight points of the first half and the first two points of the second half. Mosqueda-Lewis ended up as the team scoring leader with 19 points. The USA team went on to win by 40 points, 101–61. In the final game of pool play, the USA was matched against Brazil. The USA team jumped out to a 10–0 lead, and extended the lead to 24 points by halftime. Aaryn Ellenberg hit five of her nine three-point attempts, and scored 19 points, all in the first half. Odyssey Sims recorded ten assists, tying the World University Games record by a USA player set by Kamie Ethridge in 1985. The USA continued to shoot well, hitting almost 49% of their shots, but allowed Brazil to nit 47% of the shots, the highest percentage allowed by the US to date. The USA won the game 105–75 to advance to the quarter finals. 2013 medal rounds The USA faced Sweden in the quarterfinals. The USA team scored the first seven points of the game, but Sweden fought back to within two points at the end of the first quarter. The USA team extended the lead to double digits by halftime, then expanded the lead, winning the game 103–72. Odyssey Sims hit all nine of her free throw attempts and scored a total of 20 points to lead the USA team in scoring. The win advanced the USA team to the semifinals. The USA team faced Australia in the semifinals. The Australian team started strong, opening up a lead as large as nine points in the first half. The USA team fought back, and were within a single point 33–32 at halftime. The USA team appeared to cruise in the second half, opening up a 13-point lead by the end of the third quarter, and extending the lead to 17 points with just over seven minutes to go in the game. Then the Australian team scored ten consecutive points to cut the lead to seven. Bria Hartley made a three-point lead to push the lead back to double digits, but the team from Australia, led by Marianna Tolo, continued to chip away, and scored 14 of the next 16 points to take a two-point lead with just over a minute remaining. After hitting a free throw to cut the lead to a single point, the USA team forced a 24-second violation and got the ball back. Crystal Bradford missed a shot but put back her own rebound to give the USA a slim one-point lead. Tolo missed a shot which would have given the Aussies the lead, and Odyssey Sims wrested the rebound away from the Australians, but the refs signaled a held ball. The possession arrow was in favor of the Australians, so they had one more shot at a basket. Tolo missed, and this time Sims secured the rebound cleanly, and ran out the clock for a 79–78 win for the USA team. The win set up the gold medal match between the US and the host team, Russia. The Russians had a significant height advantage with a cumulative 2.5 feet of height over the USA team, led by 6' 7" center Natalia Vieru. The two teams had played each other on July 5 in an informal scrimmage, in which the Russian team had won 83–78. After trading opening baskets, the USA team pulled out to a ten-point lead after four minutes of play. The Russians cut the lead down to five points, but a three-pointer by Mosqueda-Lewis at the end of the quarter pushed the lead back to nine points. In the second period, the Russians cut the lead to as little as four points, but the USA responded, and extended the lead to 14 points at the half. The second half started even, but the Russians cut the lead back to single digits 50–42. Then Hartley, who would end up with a game-high 17 points, hit the next five points to extend the lead. The USA team closed the period with an 8–0 run to push the lead up to 21 points. After seeing the Australians eliminate a 17-point lead, even a 21-point lead did not seem secure, but this time the USA team held strong, and played roughly even though the period. The final score would be 90–71 in favor of the US, giving the USA team the gold medal. Odyssey Sims, along with Russia’s Tatiana Grigorveya, shared the MYP honors. 2015 The 2015 World University Games were held in Seoul, South Korea July 5–13, 2015. The twelve players selected to represent the US at the 2015 World University Games are: Jordin Canada—UCLA Nina Davis—Baylor Diamond DeShields—Tennessee Katie Hempen—Arizona State Chanise Jenkins—DePaul Brionna Jones—Maryland Erica McCall—Stanford Aerial Powers—Michigan State Courtney Range—University of California Mercedes Russell—Tennessee Sydney Wiese—Oregon State Courtney M. Williams—South Florida The coaching staff: Head Coach: Joe McKeown—Northwestern University Assistant Coach: Holly Warlick—University of Tennessee Assistant Coach: Tanya Warren—University of Northern Iowa Team Physician: Bill Kuprevich Trainer: Nicole Alexander—University of North Carolina 2015 pool play The USA team played Italy in the opening game. After the USA team took an initial lead, the Italian team started making three-pointers, and led by as many as six points. The lead was cut to a single point at the end of the first quarter. In the second quarter, led by Powers, the USA team retook the lead and led by nine points at halftime. In the third period, Italy outscored the US by a single point. The lead was cut to six points in the final period, but the USA held on, led by 22 points each from Powers and McCall, and won 80–68. In the second game the USA faced China. The Chinese team open strong, with a 9–2 lead early, but the USA put together a 14–0 run to take the lead. The score was tied at 23 all at the end of the first quarter. USA had a five-point lead at the half an increase that by points at the third quarter mark. The USA won the game with a score of 90–75. Williams was a high scorer with 18 points, while four other players also scored in double digits. Russell was the team leader in rebounds with 15. The USA team faced the Czech Republic in the final game of pool play. Both teams were undefeated going into the game. The game started out strongly in favor of the USA. The team hit 14 of the 15 field-goal attempts to open up a 30–15 lead at the end of the first quarter. The USA was successful in the post with Russell going nine for 11 and Jones going six for 11. Powers also had a solid game heading seven of her nine shots. Jones and Russell each had double doubles for the game. The USA won 92–54. 2015 medal rounds The USA faced Hungary in the quarterfinals. The USA started out slowly, with only a three-point lead on occasion in the first quarter. Wiese came in off the bench and hit a pair of three-pointers to help spark the US team, but they were only up by five at the end of the first quarter. The lead extended to double digits by the first half but the US a team really get going in the third quarter with both offense and defense. Hungary would only score 7 points in the third quarter, while the USA scored 16 consecutive points in five minutes. Jones was the leading scorer with 15 points, one of four USA players with double digit points. The team held Hungary to 27% field-goal shooting for the game. USA team won the game 84–43 to advance to the semifinal. The semifinal game featured USA versus Japan. In the first quarter Japan seemed unable to miss as they raced out to a 30–16 first-quarter lead, and led by as many as 15 points. The USA cut into the lead in the second, but Japan still held a seven-point lead at halftime. The USA even the score in the second half in the teens traded leads in the fourth quarter. The USA had a narrow lead late but Japan tied up the game with just over ten seconds to go in regulation. The USA had the ball and a play was set up for Russell but the shot was missed in the game went to overtime. The USA opened up a small five-point lead in overtime and held a four-point lead with 80 seconds left on the clock but they were unable to score again in the period. With the game tied Russell secured a rebound, missed a shot when McCall went for the rebound. She was fouled attempting to get the rebound and went to the line with no time left on the clock. She had two shots, either of which would end the game. Unfortunately, she missed both, and the game went to a second overtime. In the second overtime the USA scored early and built the lead to eight points but Japan did not quit, and cut the lead to two points with 10 seconds to go in the game. They were forced to foul; Williams hit two free throws to secure a 102–98 victory and a trip to the gold-medal game. Canada faced the US in the gold-medal game. The first three quarters the game were quite close with four ties and four lead changes. In the fourth quarter the USA exploded for 34 points to pull out to a large lead, and won the gold-medal with a score of 82–63. Powers was the scoring star for the US with 27 points. Williams recorded a double double with 15 points and 10 rebounds. See also USA Basketball Women's Basketball at the World University Games USA Women’s R. William Jones Cup Team USA Women's Pan American Team Notes External links Quotes from coach and players World University Games team

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"La balsa" (; Spanish for "the raft") is the debut single by the Argentine band Los Gatos, released on July 3, 1967 on Vik, a subsidiary of RCA Victor. Formed in 1967 after the disbandment of Los Gatos Salvajes, Los Gatos were the house band of the bar La Cueva, which became a popular meeting place for rock enthusiasts and the birthplace of Argentine rock—known locally as rock nacional (Spanish for "national rock"). During the mid-to-late 1960s, Buenos Aires was experiencing a cultural blossoming characterized by innovations in modern art, literature and cinema, largely driven by a burgeoning youth subculture that adhered to the countercultural phenomenon of the decade. The underground had its center in La Cueva, Plaza Francia and the Torcuato di Tella Institute, and identified with British Invasion music and the sexual revolution. "La balsa" was written by Litto Nebbia—lead vocalist of the band—and Tanguito (credited as Ramsés) on May 2, 1967, in the men's toilet of La Perla de Once, another bar frequented by the group. At the time, Argentina was under a military dictatorship led by Juan Carlos Onganía, which regularly imprisoned and persecuted these young bohemians. Released alongside the B-side "Ayer nomás"—written by Pipo Lernoud and Moris—"La balsa" became a major hit in Argentina and various Latin American countries, selling around 250,000 copies. It is a melodic, beat-influenced song, with prominent use of a Farfisa electronic organ and bossa nova elements attributed to Nebbia. Its sound—and commercial impact—reflected the loss of popularity of the nueva ola phenomenon and American rock 'n' roll, which began to be perceived as trivial. The success of "La balsa" was an unprecedented feat for Spanish-language rock (rock en español), as it established its commercial viability at a time when the use of Spanish lyrics was frowned upon. Its release is generally considered to be the origin of Argentine rock, paving the way for bands such as Almendra and Manal—along with Los Gatos, these bands are considered the founders of the style. The popularity of "La balsa" turned Argentine rock into a widespread youth culture phenomenon, and was followed by the appearance of the first magazines, independent record labels and music festivals of the movement. The song also became an anthem for the burgeoning Argentine hippie movement, which grew in size and influenced this first stage of rock nacional. The song has also been the subject of controversy, which prompted Nebbia to not perform it live until 2001. The 1973 release of Tango, Tanguito's only studio album, established a myth which suggested that he was the most important author behind the song, and that Nebbia had taken advantage of his fragile state of mind. The polemic was revived with the 1993 film Tango Feroz, which made Tanguito an icon but was criticized for its historical inaccuracies. The success of the single and the stardom of Los Gatos was also followed by a complex debate on "commercial music" and the negative implications that the creation of a mass market could have on the authenticity of rock acts. "La balsa" continues to be acclaimed in retrospective, being considered one of the most important and influential releases of Spanish-language rock music. In 2002, it was listed as the greatest song in the history of Argentine rock by MTV and the Argentine edition of Rolling Stone. In commemoration of the 40th anniversary of the single's release in 2007, Los Gatos reunited and underwent a Latin American tour. It was also performed by Nebbia joined by several artists in 2010, as part of the Argentina Bicentennial celebrations. Background Previous developments in Argentine rock Between 1955 and 1957, the porteño youth was introduced to rock 'n' roll music through films like Blackboard Jungle, Rock Around the Clock, Don't Knock the Rock and Rock, Rock Rock; becoming acquainted with American artists such as Bill Haley & His Comets, Little Richard, Jerry Lee Lewis and Elvis Presley. Mr. Roll y sus Rockers, a band led by Eddie Pequenino, recorded the first rock 'n' roll music of the country, covering various songs by Bill Haley and also writing original compositions in English. Like Billy Cafaro, another of the first Argentine rock 'n' roll musicians, Pequenino limited himself to imitating foreign artists. As it grew in popularity, rock 'n' roll music began to be embraced by young people, who began to veer away from tango, jazz, and the dance halls that until then they shared with their parents. According to Yanko González, "this initial rock represents, basically, a space of youthful fun that expresses itself through a dance with very provocative corporal movements for the time. There its transgression is established: in the audacity of its movements, in the expressive use of the body". In the early 1960s, Mexican band Los Teen Tops, originally led by singer Enrique Guzmán, gained popularity in Argentina and were influential in the development of an Argentine scene by introducing rock 'n' roll songs with Spanish lyrics. Other popular Mexican acts were Los Locos del Ritmo, Los Loud Jets, and the solo work of Enrique Guzmán. Until the release of "La balsa", singing rock music with Spanish lyrics was generally frowned upon, being considered "tacky" and "uncool", as the style was strongly associated with the English-speaking world. The early 1960s were also characterized by the emergence and success of the nueva ola, a phenomenon driven by the TV show, El club del clan that revolutionized the national youth music scene. Based on foreign music shows, each episode showed a group of friends that got together to perform various styles of music including rock 'n' roll (and the accompanying twist), bolero and cumbia. Highly popular, El club del clan turned its young cast—which included Palito Ortega, Billy Caffaro, Violeta Rivas, Lalo Fransen, Nicky Jones and Cachita Galán—into the first national teen idols. The show was cancelled in 1964, with the similar Sábados circulares being its successor. Over time, there was a repudiation of the nueva ola, as it began to be overshadowed by the popularity of British Invasion bands. A feeling nonconformity also grew among the youth, that saw nueva ola music as too carefree and lacking in ideology. More transgressive than the singers from El club del clan, Sandro rose to stardom with the debut of his band Los de Fuego in 1963, which covered foreign rock 'n' roll songs in Spanish. With obvious inspiration from Elvis Presley, his popular performances on television caused accusations of immorality. Sandro abandoned rock 'n' roll in 1967 and turned to romantic ballads, although he had already established himself as a pioneer of Argentine rock. By 1964, after The Beatles' performances in the United States, Beatlemania also reached Argentina, generating the appearance of several bands that imitated their sound and fashion. Local groups began to move away from the American and Mexican rock 'n' roll model in favour of a Beatlesque style and, gradually, Spanish-language songs. Billy Bond's band Los Guantes Negros, continuation of the Bobby Cats, is an example of this transition, featuring a new name and lyrics in Spanish and a sound inspired by the Beatles. However, the most successful band in using Beatles aesthetics were the Uruguayan Los Shakers, who were formed in 1963 and arrived to Buenos Aires two years later. Along with Los Mockers, they were part of the Uruguayan Invasion, a wave of bands from the neighboring country to find success in Argentina. They emerged as one of the first genuine rock products from the Río de la Plata, performing their own compositions. Although their decision to sing only in English prevented their popularity from extending beyond the decade, Los Shakers had a decisive influence so that rock music began to be produced in Argentina. Hugo Fattoruso of Los Shakers later stated: "It never occurred to us that we could make lyrics in Spanish. That was an Argentine invention." The TV show Escala musical "monopolized the whole beat music movement." It became the only program in the region to feature obscure local bands, and helped popularize the South American garage rock movement that had emerged in response to the Beatles, among them Los Gatos Salvajes, Los Larkins (predecessor of Almendra), and the Uruguayan Invasion bands. These groups could not find their place in El club del clan, which focused on a much more "sweetened and light" style than the new rock that emerged from London and the United States. Counterculture, La Cueva and La Perla In June 1966, the self-proclaimed Argentine Revolution overthrew Arturo Umberto Illia and established Juan Carlos Onganía as the de facto president. The military dictatorship aligned with the United States' National Security Doctrine, and began to control universities, trade unions and cultural events. In this context, the Argentine middle class youth was deeply impacted by Beatlemania, the international non-violence and anti-authoritarian movements, and the sexual revolution; symbolizing their identity with rock music and a unisex point of view, with long hair on men as one of its most prominent exteriorizations. The years leading to the 1960s had been characterized by an increase in the cultural activity of the city. For instance, the Buenos Aires Museum of Modern Art was founded in 1956; while 1958 saw the creation of the National Institute of Cinematography, the Fondo Nacional de las Artes and the Torcuato di Tella Institute, while the construction of the Teatro General San Martín advanced, which would be inaugurated in 1960. This, coupled with the high quality of university education at that time, left an enduring imprint on the artistic and intellectual development of the country during the following years. A generation gap begun to be evident, characterized by young people's rejection of tango and the double standards of their parents' traditional sexual morality. An underground youth subculture began to appear in Buenos Aires, with its epicenter in the triangle formed by a precarious musical bar called La Cueva in Avenida Pueyrredón, the Torcuato di Tella Institute in Florida Street, and Plaza Francia. Today considered the first hippies of the country (although they did not use that name themselves), they adhered to the youth-led counterculture of the decade, which was spreading throughout much of the Western world. Deemed immoral and suspicious, these people — especially long-haired young men — suffered frequent police detention, media criticism, and the rejection of the intelligentsia and the mostly conservative population. Pipo Lernoud stated in 1996: "That is the particular thing that Argentine rock has. Not only was it a musical style but it was a culture that always faced repression by the system." Under the direction of art critic Jorge Romero Brest, during the decade the Torcuato di Tella Institute became a leading center of avant-garde art production, with young artists venturing into pop art, happenings, installation art, and psychedelic art, as well as featuring folk and beat musical performances. It was a central part of the "manzana loca" (English: "crazy block"), which "[encompassed] nearby art galleries, book shops, and university buildings". The area also "served as a human showcase of the latest fashions and styles". On the other hand, the rock music scene mostly met in La Cueva or gathered in parks such as Plaza Francia to play their guitars, something musician Miguel Cantilo described as, "an act of affirmation and identification," because until then, traditional guitar-playing gatherings were reserved to folk music. In Víctor Pintos' biography of Tanguito, Rocky Rodriguez recalled: "La Cueva was totally like a Babel, it was like those biblical stories of the desert, where caravans come from various sides, and they all land in the same place." Among the group were musicians such as Los Gatos (led by Litto Nebbia), Moris (leader of Los Beatniks), Javier Martínez, Billy Bond (leader of Los Guantes Negros), Los Búhos, Las Sombras (which covered the instrumental rock of the Shadows), Tanguito, Miguel Abuelo, Pajarito Zaguri; writers like Miguel Grinberg, Juan Carlos Kreimer and Pipo Lernoud, and other bohemian artists and poets. In 1966, this generation created a new style of urban youth music, which tried to reflect an everyday reality absent from popular music since the tango era. It was initially known as "beat music" and later "progressive music", and is now considered the origin of rock nacional (Spanish for "national rock"). They mostly emulated the Beatles and the Rolling Stones, although there were also influences from Los Teen Tops, Bob Dylan, Joan Baez, Jimi Hendrix, Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young, and Frank Zappa. They were also influenced by the Beat Generation writers. La Cueva was very popular among porteño bohemians, and its existence even came to be known in Paris, prompting Juliette Gréco to visit the bar while in Buenos Aires. It has been compared to The Cavern Club of Liverpool, England. In 2005, Lernoud reflected: It was in La Cueva where rock nacional really started. Without La Cueva's ferment, that mixture of musical, literary and ideological influences, [Argentine] rock would have been one more on the continent, another pale reflection of English ideas. [...] There is no history of rock, poetry, and struggle in the continent, with the exception of Brazil, as in Argentina, nor in Europe outside England. Because the cultural isolation imposed by the successive dictatorships and the multiplicity of rock influences, produced an original hybrid that was born there, in the late 1965 and early 1966... As a quieter alternative to La Cueva, its musicians also began to go to La Perla de Once, a bar facing Plaza Miserere that remained open throughout the night. It was frequented by students and several members of the rock underground, and was a site of ideological and artistic discussion. Lernoud recalled in 2017: "We had no choice but to get together [in La Perla] because we were arrested in the street, for our long hair, for our clothes... And our parents did not want to know anything about those friends. Only in La Perla we could be calm, between equals." In addition to "La balsa", well known songs such as Manal's "Jugo de tomate" and Tanguito's "El hombre restante" were written in La Perla. Unlike what happened in North America or the United Kingdom, illegal drugs had a marginal place within the Argentine youth movement, which was more oriented towards the sexual revolution and the guidelines on personal presentation. Nevertheless, various rock musicians began to experiment with amphetamines, a drug that was frequently used by the students in La Perla. Tanguito was one of the first of the group to take drugs, and developed a serious drug dependence that would affect the rest of his life. Los Gatos were formed in Buenos Aires in 1967, deriving from the band Los Gatos Salvajes. Originally called The Wild Cats, they were formed in 1964 and eventually translated their name into Spanish and "began performing songs in their native tongue". Basilio "Turco" Adjaydie, Guillermo Romero and Juan Carlos "Chango" Pueblas had decided to leave the band and return to hometown Rosario, following the cancellation of TV show Escala musical in 1966, where the band performed, as well as the commercial failure of their 1965 debut album, which led to the record company going broke. In Rosario, Nebbia had become acquainted with foreign rock and pop through his admiration of the Beatles and Neil Sedaka. With Rosario being a port city, the group also had access to recordings by English bands such as the Kinks, the Zombies and the Hollies, as well as the magazine Melody Maker. Through his musician parents, Nebbia was also knowledgeable of jazz artists such as Chico Hamilton, Gerry Mulligan, Dave Brubeck and Eric Dolphy, and was aware of Brazilian bossa nova since its emergence. Mark Deming of AllMusic wrote that "[Los Gatos Salvajes'] music reflected their enthusiasm for the Beatles, the Rolling Stones, and the Yardbirds; the major British groups had a following in South America, but the few Argentine rock acts were older and had yet to embrace the new sounds in music, putting the young band ahead of the trends." Regarding the music of Los Gatos Salvajes, Nebbia recalled in 2006: In that time of adolescence, the music that got played in the radio was very commercial, a music that was not representative of what one wanted sound-wise. Neither the lyrics, they were European or American songs with a Spanish version that did not sound the way we spoke, plus they did not talk about the things we needed, that happened to us as teenagers. So when we started playing with Los Gatos Salvajes and I took my first compositions, those songs were very puerile because of the age that I had, but they did have a sound, a rhythm and a way to engage the lyrics that was totally different for the time. The point was the merseybeat, the beat we gave to the guitars. Only lead singer Litto Nebbia and organ player Ciro Fogliatta stayed in Buenos Aires, and slept for months in public squares while trying to put together a new group. Eventually, they were joined by guitar player Kay Galiffi and drummer Oscar Moro, who were also from Rosario. Alfredo Toth, from Avellaneda, became the final addition to the group after Nebbia taught him how to play the bass. Los Gatos became the house band of La Cueva, performing every night from ten in the evening until four in the morning, and receiving a small salary with which they could pay a crowded pension in Once and barely eat. "La balsa" co-writer Tanguito, born José Alberto Iglesias de Caseros, was one of the most influential figures within the La Cueva underground. He made his musical debut in the spring of 1963 as the fronmant of Los Dukes. After leaving the band and aborting a solo project under the stage name Ramsés VII, Tanguito came to know La Cueva through friend Horacio Martínez, and throughout the following years became a fixture of Buenos Aires' rock scene. Tanguito was an admirer of Donovan and Bob Dylan, and his musical style was rooted in Mexican artists like the Teen Tops and Enrique Guzmán. There was a strong mutual influence between Nebbia, Moris and Tanguito; the latter making an impact in the scene for his emotion-driven, less intellectual approach to music, as well as his uncompromising ideas and personal style. Besides rock music, the new generation "was [also] nurtured by and participated in" renovative musical movements such as tango nuevo and nueva canción. The city's cultural blossoming of the mid-1960s also extended to literature, as part of the Latin American Boom. It consisted of a blossoming of book publications, readership and literary criticism. The city also became a "cinephile capital". In particular, the Lorraine cinema became popular among college students for its art film cycles, which included French New Wave and Ingmar Bergman movies. Another place of interest for film culture was Núcleo film society, created in 1954 and led by Salvador Samaritano and Héctor Vena; they also published the film magazine Tiempo de cine since 1960. This diffusion of foreign cinema's new trends led to the emergence of the Generation of the 60s (Spanish: Generación del 60), a new wave of young directors who created Modernist films. The movement included Manuel Antín, Fernando Birri, Leopoldo Torre Nilsson and Rodolfo Kuhn. The latter's 1963 film Los inconstantes was filmed in Villa Gesell, and its depiction of young, modern people with a free lifestyle prompted many teenagers to go the coastal city. Several members of La Cueva headed to Villa Gesell, where Los Beatniks were formed and recorded their 1966 debut single, "Rebelde". The rebellious, antimilitarist song failed to make an impact, but became the first Argentine rock release. Writing and recording "La balsa" was composed in the early hours of May 2, 1967, in a corridor leading to the men's toilet at La Perla de Once. It was common for the musicians that frequented La Perla de Once to play their compositions for each other at the toilet, as it had better acoustics and the student environment of the bar did not allow them to make too much noise. The song was a joint effort between Litto Nebbia and Tanguito, the latter who came up with first verses and initial chords of the song, albeit with slightly different lyrics: "I'm very lonely and sad in this world of shit". Nebbia stated in 2005: "I got that out because I did not like it. Why, if we already know it's a world of shit, right? I do not like to say hijo de puta just because." Javier Martínez claims to have witnessed the writing of the song, stating that "[Tanguito] showed the first part to Litto, and the next day he brought the rest." In 2012, musician Juan "Gamba" Gentilini—traveling companion of Tanguito—claimed that the singer began to write the song while taking the Old Patagonian Express and finished it in Esquel, Chubut Province. The B-side "Ayer nomás" (Spanish for "Just yesterday") was written by Pipo Lernoud and Moris. Lernoud was an aspiring poet that became a regular at La Cueva, and gave Moris one of his poems for him to musicalize. Lernoud recalled in 2017: "When he picked it up, he changed the accents, put chords in and suddenly, in front of my eyes, that little lyric I had taken to him became a round song. I loved it. I did not know it was going to become a hit." Horacio Martínez, the band's manager and, according to Ciro Fogliatta, "practically one of [Los Gatos]", had connections with RCA Victor and linked the band to Mario Osmar Pizzurno, the label's artistic director. Los Gatos were given the opportunity to make a test for the record label, which consisted of the recording of a five-song demo. RCA Victor was displeased with the lyrics for "Ayer nomás", and suggested to Nebbia to change them. He approached Moris and Lernoud in La Cueva, and they gave him permission to modify them. As a result, what originally was a protest song—with lyrics such as "Just yesterday/At school I was taught/That this country/Is big and has freedom./Today I woke up/And I saw my bed and I saw my room/In this month I did not have much to eat"—became a romantic one. Lernoud said: "I told [Nebbia] to put the lyrics he wanted, to write them himself. The important thing was for [Los Gatos] to record. Because we had clear from the beginning that when the band recorded, with the quality of sound and professional level they had, they were going to cross the wall and make known what we proposed to the rest of society. And indeed it was." It is generally agreed that the test recording session took place on June 19, 1967, although Nebbia has conversely stated that it happened in late 1966, and "four or five months" before the release of the single. According to Todo Noticias, Tim Croatto was the producer of this session, while Salvador Barresi worked as the engineer. Los Gatos recorded the songs in two channels—one for the band and another one for the vocals and solos—for an hour at TNT Studios. RCA Victor agreed to sign the band and release "La balsa"/"Ayer nomás" the following month as a single, using the demo recordings. Music and lyrics "La balsa" is a beat-inspired song that, through Nebbia's characteristic melodies and harmonies, combines influences of bossa nova, tango and jazz. Described as a "mergence of simple melodies", the track also incorporates Tanguito's more straightforward and blues-inspired style, specifically at the beginning of the song. It is one of the first compositions of rock nacional, a style that has been described as "fusion music of various rhythms, completely identifiable as belonging to the urban areas of the country. It is a synthesis of the original [rock] with other expressions that, in the opinion of the foreigners, sometimes sounds like tango or [folk music]." "La balsa" was recorded in an echo chamber, without backing vocals and a few electric guitar phrases in counterpoint with the singing. The song's famous introduction features the chords of E major and F-sharp minor played on a guitar, followed by a Farfisa riff which marks a crescendo of three notes, in counterpoint with the electric guitar. Los Andes wrote: "[At the song's half,] Fogliatta performs an organ solo that takes the place that in the formal rock culture of that time used to assume the electric guitar". The bossa nova influence is mostly evident towards the end of the track, in a G-sharp minor and F-sharp minor combination that, according to Los Andes, "pre-dates part of the sound universe that Nebbia would cultivate with the years." An avid listener of this Brazilian genre, Nebbia incorporated a harmonic sequence from Antônio Carlos Jobim "The Girl from Ipanema" as the song's passing chords. Víctor Pintos wrote that "in 'La balsa', ideas and elements that would mark the DNA of Argentine rock come together: the bossa nova of Tom Jobin, the fusion of Piazzolla, the arid folk of Dylan and the merseybeat of the Beatles." Much of the impact of "La balsa" has been attributed to its lyrics, which differed from the cheerful and shallow efforts of the nueva ola phenomenon. The youth of the time identified with the song's themes of nonconformity and yearning for freedom. Juan Carlos Kreimer, author of Agarrate! (1970), the first book dedicated to rock nacional, felt that: "the poetic strength of 'La balsa' did not come from the words that rhymed but from the pain and desolation that many of us felt then." It has often been suggested that the lyrics refer to recreational drug use, specially the lines "I have to get a lot of wood,/I have to get it from where I can". However, in his 2004 book Una mirada, Nebbia wrote: "I want to clarify that the lyrics for this track speak, with the humble metaphors of my adolescence, exclusively about freedom." Nebbia opens the song with the verse: "I'm very lonely and sad here in this abandoned world/I have an idea, it is to go to the place that I most want/I need something to go, because I cannot walk/I will build a raft and go to shipwreck". Pablo Schanton of Clarín felt that "naufragar" (English: "shipwreck" or "to castaway") was the keyword of the track, and that it "sums up a generational program." The word was part of the "neo-lunfardo" that Buenos Aires' first rock scene spoke, and was a reference to their characteristic wandering through bars and plazas throughout the night. To "castaway" has been described as "one of the basic modalities of rock sociability in Buenos Aires during the late 1960s." Miguel Grinberg has said that naufragar was a way to "not be sucked into the trap of the struggle for prestige, the struggle for power, the struggle for money." According to Pipo Lernoud, the song's "idea of floating and drifting" resounds with The Beatles' "Tomorrow Never Knows", with its lyrics "Turn off your mind, relax and float downstream". Pajarito Zaguri, another regular performer from La Cueva, has said Tanguito was greatly influenced by José Feliciano's bolero, "La barca", both in its title and several parts of the lyrics. Feliciano's song contains the similar lyrics: "... Your boat has to go/To other seas of madness/Take care that it does not wreck your living". Researcher and writer Mario Antonelli reflected: As for the lyrics, Tanguito poses his current problem and Nebbia solves it, starting from "I am very alone here, and I want to go to that place of illusion, hope... To shipwreck, to be outside of all that is happening." Nebbia at that moment does not have a fixed place to sleep, he is in the streets of Buenos Aires. Then an idea of putting together a raft, of going out to another place, is generated. For this you have to work, you have to gather the wood, you have to do certain things, if not it is impossible to get to where you want to be. Release and reception "La balsa" was released on July 3, 1967 on Vik, a subsidiary of RCA Victor, with "Ayer nomás" as its B-side. The band chose to release those songs so that Tanguito, Moris and Lernoud could become members of the Argentine Society of Music Authors and Composers (SADAIC), since it was required to have a recorded work. Tanguito is credited under the stage name Ramsés; according to Nebbia, "he was ashamed of his monicker 'Tanguito', because it was a pejorative term that had been put to him in the neighborhood, he was looking for something more exotic. Then Ciro Fogliatta, who read much about the Egyptians and pharaohs, came up with [Ramsés] and Tango liked it." The music sheet for the song was first published by Fermata in August 1967. Some sources state the label first suggested that radio stations play "Ayer nomás", but after a positive response to "La balsa" from some Rosario stations, RCA Victor decided to put more effort into the promotion of the song. Upon release, Los Gatos promoted the record for several nights by walking to radio stations, "trying to convince" disc jockeys to play it. Initially sales were not high, but after a couple of months, the single grew in popularity by word of mouth and began to "peak" (Spanish: picar, a term used by the record industry). Seeing this, RCA Victor invested in an advertising campaign that boosted the record's sales. That spring, the increasingly high sales of "La balsa" led the band back to TNT Studios to record their first LP record. The self-titled album, released at the end of 1967, built on the popularity of the single and was also a commercial success. Recognized for including "La balsa" as its opening track, the LP has been reissued under the song's title in modern times. The popularity of "La balsa" continued through early 1968—being described as the summer hit of the year—and sold in total an approximate of 250,000 copies, an impressive number for that time that was unprecedented for Spanish-language rock music. The single got high airplay and was played on heavy rotation. It was also successful in several other Latin American countries. Nebbia has stated: "In all the countries that it came out it came first in sales. In Bolivia they sold stickers with our photos!" As a result, in 1968 Los Gatos became leading figures of Argentine popular music, making numerous performances throughout the country, releasing three more studio albums, and undergoing a tour of two and a half months through Paraguay, Bolivia, Uruguay and Brazil. In the latter, the band took part in Rio de Janeiro's Festival Internacional da Canção and performed in Roberto Carlos' TV show. Regarding the success following the release of "La balsa", drummer Oscar Moro recalled: "In all that time we worked a lot. For example, in carnivals we had 35 shows in 8 days! It was crazy!" Impact and aftermath Beginning of Argentine rock Although Los Beatniks had pioneered rock music sung in Spanish a year before with their song "Rebelde", the single was a commercial failure, selling only 200 copies. "La balsa", on the other hand, became an international hit, establishing the commercial viability of rock music sung in Spanish, and turning what originally was an underground scene into a widespread youth culture phenomenon. The high sales of the single were also impressive considering that up to that point, Buenos Aires had been characterized by its traditional and orthodox musical preferences, favoring tango and folk music. Journalist Juan Manuel Strassburger wrote in 2007: "The impact is even clearer when compared to what was offered by the young music market of the time. [...] These new rockers formed a different way of feeling young: accessible, but also countercultural." According to Iván Adaime of AllMusic, the song brought rock en español "to the wider audiences", and became one of the scene's most ubiquitous tracks. The success of "La balsa" turned Los Gatos into "the motor nerve of the movement," creating an audience for the emerging Argentine rock and paving the way for various new bands, the most notorious being Almendra and Manal. These two groups were also products of the countercultural environment of Buenos Aires, and divided the musical panorama by synthesizing two different sides of the city. Almendra made an impact for its surrealism and poetic sophistication, while Manal featured a blues style with urban themed lyrics. Los Gatos, Almendra and Manal are now considered the foundational trilogy of Argentine rock and, by extension, of rock in español in general, as they "communed an authentic, young, serious and artistic [Spanish-language] rock" that was unprecedented. Almendra leader Luis Alberto Spinetta told author Juan Carlos Diez in 2006: [Los Gatos] were a very good thing because they were the example that [Spanish-language rock] could be done. I believe that "La balsa" was a great inspiration for everyone. And also other tracks of Los Gatos. Each track contained a mystery that, at the same time, was a poetic motivation, a great incentive for us. I liked Litto's ideas and the concept that the group had for playing. They have been a constant influence, somehow. Litto Nebbia was an inspirer, an elementary motor of all this. When you approached him, you realized everything he knew and everything he was going to give. "La balsa" acted as the kick starter of the consolidation process of a national rock culture. Several record companies took note of the movement, and, beginning in the summer of 1968, "there was no label that did not want to have its own group of shipwrecked in the catalog." This so-called "beat music" (Spanish: "música beat") subsequently "flooded" the market between 1968 and 1970. According to Víctor Pintos, "Los Gatos changed the focus of attention to the artists that had passed through La Cueva." This "scouting race" generated the first professional circuit of Argentine rock, as specialized magazines, festivals and record labels emerged and fed the phenomenon. As a result, and in a matter of months, Tanguito and Miguel Abuelo signed with CBS, as did for other big labels artists that did not come from La Cueva but "shared a similar ethic and ways of feeling music", such as Alma y Vida, Arco Iris and Almendra. At the same time, the first publications dedicated to the movement appeared, including the magazines Pinap, Cronopios and later Pelo; while general interest magazines such as Gente, Primera Plana and Panorama wrote on the phenomenon as well. However, some of the protagonists of the movement saw the massification of Spanish-language rock as a "defeat". According to Kreimer, "society made room for young people who wanted to join the party of distraction, but not for content that reflected real questions and cravings"; noting that there was no awareness of "a larger collective, nor a countercultural spirit." Hippie movement "La balsa" became a hymn for the burgeoning Argentine hippie movement of Plaza Francia, with its adherents calling themselves "náufragos" (English: "the shipwrecked" or "castaways") in reference to the song. On September 21, 1967—the date of both Student Day and Spring Day in Argentina—Lernoud, Hernán Pujó and Mario Rabey organized a reunion at Plaza San Martín to evidence the arrival of the hippie movement in Buenos Aires, which gathered around 250 young porteños. Lernoud recalled in 2006: "We had to find a way to stop being arrested, because there were already many boys with long hair in Buenos Aires, we were not alone. Since "La balsa", the public began to be seen, and the fact that in the neighborhoods there were boys [like that]." He also described the event as "a publicity stunt of something that already existed, so that—for example—people would know that the long-haired boy they saw on the street was a hippie who wanted peace." The high attendance was sparked by the popularity of "La balsa" and "Ayer nomás", thus Tanguito had a leading role in these kind of gatherings. Much of the press focused on them, including La Razón, Gente, Siete Días and Así. The latter made a series of publications about the hippies of Buenos Aires, with one of the interviewees stating: "We are not hippies, but castaways. This is the current version of a sociological-literary movement founded by Allen Ginsberg and Jack Kerouac. I came to this after passing and overcoming other philosophical stages that would become the four paths to reach the Human Truth: yoga, Zen Buddhism, sabat (a fighting doctrine) and karate." Así was later closed in 1970 by the military dictatorship, declaring that it was "characterized by a sensationalism that does not stop to profit from the lowest instincts and passions", and a threat to "morality, modesty and good manners." In a contemporary article, Primera Plana reported that in October 1967, "the number of hippies was estimated at about 200, with preponderance of males: most were middle-class adolescents, who studied or had studied". By November, they "spread out in neighborhoods that had not yet known their customs and appearances". For instance, several bars on Avenida Corrientes became crowded with young, bohemian people. Unlike the United States, there was no police tolerance for the social phenomenon, and by early 1968, police persecution and anti-hippie sentiment had also grown. The press denounced hippies as a "metropolitan plague" and reported on an "anti-hippie war", with the Argentine Federation of Anti-Communist Democratic Entities (FAEDA) becoming the visible head of the campaign. FAEDA had few members, but relied on subsidies from the U.S. embassy and related entities that had contact with the Secretariat of Intelligence. At the end of January 1968, Primera Plana convened young representatives of FAEDA and the hippie movement of Buenos Aires—among them Tanguito—to debate. FAEDA's Amadeo Tedesco asked Tanguito: "You say that you do not form a group. Why then it is heard about a Tanguito group?", to which he replied: "Suddenly you are in a square, with a guitar, as I have been. There are 20 people, grouped or not, but they are there. I never said that the group is mine; I only now find out about that." During the debate, the hippies were accused of promoting the "destruction of the family, morals, feelings and tradition"; and corruption of minors through the drug Dexamyl. The police extended the persecution to barrios such as Retiro, Palermo and Floresta, and FAEDA declared that the number of hippies was between 2,500 and 2,800. The persecution in Buenos Aires caused the dispersion of the movement, most notably to the beaches of Buenos Aires Province—where anti-hippie attacks were even more serious—and El Bolsón in Patagonia; the latter was particularly populated by the sector of the movement that championed a communal, environmentally friendly life. Hippyism remained popular in the early 1970s, as the American movement gained much visibility through various mainstream and underground media, like the documentary Woodstock. The most notable hippie communes that appeared in Greater Buenos Aires in the late 1960s are the bands Arco Iris and La Cofradía de la Flor Solar, psychedelic bands that shaped Argentine rock's second generation. Authorship controversy There has been much discussion over who wrote "La balsa" and, "for those who the answer is that it was coauthored between Nebbia and Tanguito, the question lies in who was the fundamental mind of such a creation." Santiago Montiveros of MDZ Online described it as "the most widespread and controversial debate that the history of rock nacional has given." The controversy began after the 1973 post-mortem release of Tanguito's only studio album, Tango, which compiled songs he recorded for Mandioca Records between 1969 and 1971, including a version of "La balsa". In the track, before starting to perform, Tanguito can be heard jokingly stating "Let's play a commercial song", followed by Javier Martínez urging him to play "La balsa", alleging that "[it] is yours". The phrase "In the bathroom of La Perla de Once you composed 'La balsa'", said by Martínez in a "sinister and sententious" way, is looped until Tanguito starts playing. Clarín felt that the song's lyrics "are heard differently when it is known that the one who sings them ended up under a train, gripped by hard drugs and the effects of electroshock." Mariano del Mazo of Página/12 wrote: "Thus was born—with that record and that phrase, more than with his death—the first martyr of Argentine rock: a modest martyr, corresponding to a ghetto, a marginal music." The repeated statement spoken by Martínez established the iconic status of La Perla, and installed the myth that Nebbia stole the song from Tanguito, taking advantage of his "madness and ingenuity". As a result, Nebbia earned the hatred of many suburban rock fans during the 1970s. After the disbandment of Los Gatos in 1970, Nebbia refused to perform the song live because he did not want to "develop [his] career based on hits, clichés or labels." This decision became stronger after the authorship controversy, and he did not perform the song until 2001. Martínez denied the myth in 2007, on the occasion of the single's 40th anniversary, stating: Journalism and show business work with controversy, and that is why that phrase I said in Tango's album was misunderstood. In the bathroom of La Perla de Once you composed "La balsa". I did not mean that he was the only author, that is a myth. The truth of the matter is that both of them wrote it, Nebbia and Tango, and I was an eyewitness at a table in La Perla. Tango showed the first part to Litto, and the next day he brought the rest. This is how "La balsa" was born. The polemic was revived in 1993, after the release of Tango Feroz, a biopic by Marcelo Piñeyro that focused on Tanguito. The film suggested that Tanguito had written the entirety of the song, and that Nebbia only embellished it. In a particular scene, Tanguito's character is shown listening to his song on a shopping gallery and, heavily shocked by the changes, breaks everything around him. The box office success of the film attracted the attention of the media, which focused extensively on Tanguito's myth. In his 2004 book Una mirada: reflexiones & anécdotas de vida, Nebbia criticised the historical inaccuracy and "[ruthlessness]" of the film, writing: "They never really wanted to know how things were like, nor did they want to accept what kind of character Tanguito was. Simply because this was against the image they needed to make the film a commercial success. The old trick of the movies about rock singers who died in a tragic and strange way." In an article for Página/12 regarding the 2013 musical theatre adaptation of Tango Feroz, Pipo Lernoud was highly critical of the film, writing that "it is a pity that once again the legend of the Christ-like and solitary saint hides the collective creative work and turns a wonderful experience into a product for the capitalist market". Both Nebbia and Lernoud felt that the film's plot was the filmmakers' revenge for not having allowed them to use their songs in the soundtrack. Lernoud further wrote: Where are Tanguito's songs in Tango Feroz? Where is Tanguito? Where are the friends of Tanguito, initiators of rock nacional? [...] What saddens me the most is that in this fraudulent story the spirit of collective creation that gave origin to rock nacional is lost. [...] The rock from here is the product of a shared creation in long discussions about books and films, science fiction and accursed literature, jazz and bossa nova, tango and blues, scientists and poets. [...] Part of the painful corporatization of rock is this fraudulent story, intentionally distorted, that the media celebrates as they celebrate the rock opera Evita. Not everything is sold, but the legend of Tanguito is. In 2011, when asked about the controversy, Nebbia replied: "[Tanguito] began writing 'I'm very lonely and sad in this world of shit'. He didn't know how to follow the song. He played everything in one tone, in E, because he didn't know how to play. All the rest of the song, the lyrics and the music, I did it. Then we both registered it, because we actually were two co-authors, it does not matter that one has made 90 percent." Regarding Javier Martínez' phrase in Tanguito's version of the song, Nebbia replied: "They are the follies of some people who don't like me. The one that put it is Jorge Álvarez (director of the Mandioca label), a producer who is a lout. I never went to ask them anything." Legacy "La balsa" is recognized as one of the most important and influential releases of rock en español, with some authors considering it to be its founder. The web radio NoFm stated in 2015: "If we think of rock made in Spanish as a specific movement within the vast world of rock, we would undoubtedly find its origin in Argentina. It was there where, for the first time, being contemporaries to those now considered 'founding fathers', Spanish-speaking youths developed their own sound identity, with a rock clearly differentiated from that of England or the United States." The release of the single is generally considered to be the origin of Argentine rock (known locally as rock nacional), and its history has since attained a legendary status within Argentine popular culture. The emergence of Argentine rock was fundamental for the development of a Latin American rock scene. The success of "La balsa" "installed forever in the country the idea that rock music could be composed in Spanish." J.C. Maraddón of Diario Alfil wrote in 2016: Until then, those who committed the folly of singing [rock music] in our language had bad press. They were considered cheesy and were syndicated as a bad copy of the original, which would always prevail. But the feat of Los Gatos changed that concept and reversed the terms of the equation: the songs of the Argentine rockers were adding prestige, until two decades later those interpreters became the most respected and most heard of all the music produced in the country. The song has been covered by several artists in various languages—according to Nebbia himself, over a hundred—including Catalan, German and Portuguese. Some musicians that have covered "La balsa" include Charly García, Los Corvets, Gervasio, Miguel Abuelo, Andrés Calamaro, Los Manolos, Juanse (of Ratones Paranoicos), Gato Pérez, Los Iracundos, Moris, Sonora Borinquen, Los Encargados, Los Zorros (featuring Pity Álvarez), Las Cuatro Monedas, Hilda Lizarazu and Jairo (in a French version titled "Le train du sud"). Charly García references "La balsa" in the song "Peluca telefónica", included in his 1982 debut solo album Yendo de la cama al living. In an Encuentro documentary TV episode focused on the song, Nebbia stated: I think that song appeared at a time that harmoniously coincided with a need that had, first of all our generation, and also with a thing that transcended borders because a lot of stuff was happening in the world with these generations. Stuff was happening in Brazil, the United States, Mexico, France... with politics, New Journalism, Cinema Novo, the hippie movement, Woodstock. There was a lot of things happening that said: Well, this is the moment when you have to present a letter of "I do something different standing in front of life." And this song appeared, also with the personal sound that we achieved with the group, with a different way of singing, with different images to talk about a theme that is eternal: freedom. And I think that's what happened with the song. And while the time has passed, the song is becoming more and more of a legend, so... Saving the distances, if you ask someone which is their favorite Beethoven composition he tells you the Fifth Symphony. It's not like that, but the diffusion that that work has is incredible. Well, humbly, "La balsa" is the song that, as each year passes, is better known all over the world as something that happened here and that happens. According to writer Carlos Polimeni, the song's organ introduction is as well known in the Southern Cone as the guitar riff that starts the Rolling Stones' "(I Can't Get No) Satisfaction". Polimeni also argued that, "to a large extent, "La balsa" was for rock in Spanish what "Blowin' in the Wind" was for American and British rock." Likewise, Rock.com.ar wrote that, "Ciro Fogliatta's organ contribution in this track is as important as Al Kooper's in the original version of "Like a Rolling Stone" by Bob Dylan." In a July 1985 survey by journalist Carlos Polimeni for Clarín, "La balsa" was selected as one of the greatest records of Argentine rock by respondents León Gieco, Daniel Grinbank, Jorge Brunelli and Raúl Porchetto. In 2002, MTV and the Argentine edition of Rolling Stone listed "La balsa" as the greatest song in the history of Argentine rock. The song also reached the 40th spot in Al Bordes list of The 500 Most Important Songs of Ibero-American Rock; and the 5th spot in Rock.com.ar's 2005 list of the Top 100 Argentinean Songs of the Last 40 Years. In 1994, the Government of Buenos Aires declared the La Perla del Once bar a Site of Cultural Interest, with its plaque reading: "Place frequented by young musicians in the 1960s who gestated the first compositions of national rock." In a tribute concert to rock nacional, which inaugurated the Argentine Bicentennial celebrations on May 21, 2010, "La balsa" was performed as the closing song by Nebbia and Fito Páez, joined by all the artists that had performed that evening. Personnel Credits adapted from the liner notes of the band's debut album. Alfredo Toth – bass Ciro Fogliatta – keyboard Kay Galifi – guitar Oscar Moro – drums Litto Nebbia – vocals, guitar See also Cultural impact of the Beatles – overview of the cultural influence of the band during the 1960s. Psychedelic rock in Latin America – overview of the regional scene of psychedelic rock that emerged during the 1960s. Latin rock – musical style that combines Latin American music with rock, and should not be confused with rock en español. Latin music – catch-all term to describe any music that is sung in Spanish or Portuguese from the Hispanophone and Lusophone world. La Onda – countercultural movement of the late 1960s and early 1970s that took place in Mexico, led by the so-called "jipitecas". Tropicália – concurring countercultural movement that developed in the Southeast Region of Brazil. La Noche de los Bastones Largos – emblematic event of Argentine student activism and military repression of July 29, 1966. Notes References Bibliography External links "" statistics, tagging and previews at Last.fm "" at Rate Your Music 1967 songs 1967 singles Argentine rock songs Argentine pop songs Spanish-language songs RCA Victor singles Songs about loneliness

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Alexandra Elene MacLean Denny (6 January 1947 – 21 April 1978) was an English singer-songwriter who was lead singer of the British folk rock band Fairport Convention. She has been described as "the pre-eminent British folk rock singer". After briefly working with the Strawbs, Denny joined Fairport Convention in 1968, remaining with them until 1969. She formed the short-lived band Fotheringay in 1970, before focusing on a solo career. Between 1971 and 1977, Denny released four solo albums: The North Star Grassman and the Ravens, Sandy, Like an Old Fashioned Waltz and Rendezvous. She also duetted with Robert Plant on "The Battle of Evermore" for Led Zeppelin's album Led Zeppelin IV in 1971. Denny died in 1978 at the age of 31 due to injuries and health issues related to alcohol abuse. Music publications Uncut and Mojo have described Denny as Britain's finest female singer-songwriter. Her composition "Who Knows Where the Time Goes?" has been recorded by Judy Collins, Eva Cassidy, Nina Simone, 10,000 Maniacs and Cat Power. Her recorded work has been the subject of numerous reissues, along with a wealth of previously unreleased material which has appeared over the more than 40 years since her death, including a 19-CD box set released in November 2010. Childhood Denny was born on 6 January 1947 at Nelson Hospital, Kingston Road, Merton Park, London, to Neil and Edna Denny. She studied classical piano as a child. Her paternal grandfather was from Dundee, and her paternal grandmother was a Scots Gaelic speaker and singer of traditional songs. At an early age Denny showed an interest in singing, although her strict parents were reluctant to believe there was a living to be made from it. She attended Coombe Girls' School in New Malden; after leaving school she began training as a nurse at the Royal Brompton Hospital. Early career Denny's nursing career proved short-lived. In the meantime she had secured a place on a foundation course at Kingston College of Art, which she took up in September 1965, becoming involved with the folk club on campus. Her contemporaries at the college included guitarist and future member of Pentangle, John Renbourn. After her first public appearance at the Barge in Kingston upon Thames, Denny began working the folk club circuit in the evenings with an American-influenced repertoire, including songs by Tom Paxton, together with traditional folk songs. Denny made the first of many appearances for the BBC at Cecil Sharp House on 2 December 1966 on the Folk Song Cellar programme where she accompanied herself on two traditional songs: "Fir a Bhata" and "Green Grow the Laurels". Her earliest professional recordings were made a few months later in mid-1967 for the Saga label, featuring traditional songs and covers of folk contemporaries including her boyfriend of this period, the American singer-songwriter Jackson C. Frank. They were released on the albums Alex Campbell and His Friends and Sandy and Johnny with Johnny Silvo. These songs were collected on the 1970 album It's Sandy Denny where the tracks from Sandy and Johnny had been re-recorded with more accomplished vocals and guitar playing. The complete Saga studio recordings were issued on the 2005 compilation Where The Time Goes. By this time, she had abandoned her studies at art college and was devoting herself full-time to music. While she was performing at The Troubadour folk club, a member of the Strawbs heard her, and in 1967, she was invited to join the band. She recorded one album with them in Denmark, which was released belatedly in 1973, credited to Sandy Denny and the Strawbs: All Our Own Work. The album includes an early solo version of her best-known (and widely recorded) composition, "Who Knows Where the Time Goes?" A demo of that song found its way into the hands of American singer Judy Collins, who chose to cover it as the title track of an album of her own, released in November 1968, thus giving Denny international exposure as a songwriter before she had become widely known as a singer. From Fairport to Fotheringay After making the Saga albums with Alex Campbell and Johnny Silvo, Denny looked for a band that would allow her to stretch herself as a vocalist, reach a wider audience, and have the opportunity to display her songwriting. She said, "I wanted to do something more with my voice." After working briefly with the Strawbs, Denny remained unconvinced that they could provide that opportunity, and so she ended her relationship with the band. Fairport Convention conducted auditions in May 1968 for a replacement singer following the departure of Judy Dyble after their debut album, and Denny became the obvious choice. According to group member Simon Nicol, her personality and musicianship made her stand out from the other auditionees "like a clean glass in a sink full of dirty dishes". Beginning with What We Did on Our Holidays, the first of three albums she made with the band in the late 1960s, Denny is credited with encouraging Fairport Convention to explore the traditional British folk repertoire, and is thus regarded as a key figure in the development of British folk rock. She brought with her the traditional repertoire she had refined in the clubs, including "A Sailor's Life" featured on their second album together Unhalfbricking. Framing Denny's performance of this song with their own electric improvisations, her bandmates discovered what then proved to be the inspiration for an entire album, the influential Liege & Lief (1969). Denny left Fairport Convention in December 1969 to develop her own songwriting more fully. To this end, she formed her own band, Fotheringay, which included her future husband, Australian Trevor Lucas, formerly of the group Eclection. They created one self-titled album, which included an eight-minute version of the traditional "Banks of the Nile", and several Denny originals, among them "The Sea" and "Nothing More". The latter marked her first composition on the piano, which was to become her primary instrument from then on. Fotheringay started to record a second album in late 1970, but it remained unfinished after Denny announced that she was leaving the group and producer Joe Boyd left to take up a job at Warner Brothers in California. Denny would later blame Boyd's hostility towards the group for its demise. Solo career and final years She then turned to recording her first solo album, The North Star Grassman and the Ravens. Released in 1971, it is distinguished by its elusive lyrics and unconventional harmonies. Highlights included "Late November", inspired by a dream and the death of Fairport band member Martin Lamble, and "Next Time Around" a cryptogram about Jackson C. Frank, one of her many portraits in song. Sandy, with a cover photograph by David Bailey, followed in 1972 and was the first of her albums to be produced by Trevor Lucas. As well as introducing eight new original compositions, the album marked her last recording of a traditional song, "The Quiet Joys of Brotherhood" (words by Richard Fariña), with Denny's ambitious multi-tracked vocal arrangement inspired by the Ensemble of the Bulgarian Republic. Melody Maker readers twice voted her the "Best British Female Singer", in 1970 and 1971 and, together with contemporaries including Richard Thompson and Ashley Hutchings, she participated in a one-off project called the Bunch to record a collection of rock and roll era standards released under the title of Rock On. In 1971, Denny duetted with Robert Plant on "The Battle of Evermore", which was included on Led Zeppelin's 1971 album (Led Zeppelin IV); she was the only guest vocalist ever to appear on a Led Zeppelin album. In 1972 Denny had a small cameo on Lou Reizner's symphonic arrangement of the Who's rock opera Tommy. Her brief appearance was at the end of the track "It's a Boy", which also featured vocals from Pete Townshend. In 1973, she married long-term boyfriend and producer Trevor Lucas and recorded a third solo album, Like an Old Fashioned Waltz. The songs continued to detail many of her personal preoccupations: loss, loneliness, fear of the dark, the passing of time and the changing seasons. The album contained one of her best loved compositions, "Solo", and featured a cover image by Gered Mankowitz. In 1974, she returned to Fairport Convention (of which her husband was by then a member) for a world tour (captured on the 1974 album Fairport Live Convention) and a studio album, Rising for the Moon in 1975. Although her development as a soloist and songwriter had taken her further away from the folk roots direction that the band had pursued since Liege & Lief, seven of the eleven tracks on Rising for the Moon were either written or co-written by her. Denny and Lucas left Fairport Convention at the end of 1975 and embarked on what was to become her final album Rendezvous. Released in 1977, the album sold poorly and Denny was subsequently dropped by Island Records. Having relocated to the village of Byfield in Northamptonshire in the mid-seventies, Denny gave birth to her only child, a daughter named Georgia, in July 1977. A UK tour to promote Rendezvous in autumn 1977 marked her final public appearances. The closing night at the Royalty Theatre in London on 27 November 1977 was recorded for a live album, Gold Dust, which, because of technical problems in the recording of the electric guitar, was belatedly released in 1998 after most of the guitars had been re-recorded by Jerry Donahue. Death Linda Thompson would later note that Denny "really started going downhill in 1976" and demonstrated increasing levels of both manic and depressive behaviour. Learning that she was pregnant did little to mellow Denny's reckless lifestyle, which was heightened by increasing depression, mood swings and the unravelling of her "tumultuous" marriage to Trevor Lucas. She abused drugs and alcohol while pregnant with her daughter, Georgia, who was born prematurely in July 1977. Much like her moods, Denny's interest towards her daughter appeared to oscillate between obsessive and unconcerned; friends recalled both frantic, middle-of-the-night phone calls about teething, as well as Denny "crashing the car and leaving the baby in the pub and all sorts of stuff". Friends would later note that Denny had a history of purposely throwing herself off bar stools and down flights of stairs in order to get a reaction. Several remembered this behaviour as "Sandy's party trick", while Dave Pegg's wife Chris stated, "She certainly did it in my house and it could be a very dramatic gesture, like self-harming. She could do it without hurting herself usually but I had a feeling there would be one time too many." Those who knew Denny said that her increasing level of alcohol abuse in the last years of her life led to an increasing number of falls (both accidental and deliberate), resulting in a growing number of injuries. In late March 1978, while on holiday with her parents and baby Georgia in Cornwall, Denny was injured when she fell down a staircase and hit her head on concrete. Following the incident, she suffered from intense headaches; a doctor prescribed her the painkiller dextropropoxyphene, a drug known to have fatal side effects when mixed with alcohol. On 1 April, several days after the fall in Cornwall, Denny performed a charity concert at Byfield. The final song she performed was "Who Knows Where the Time Goes?" At some unknown point during the first half of April 1978, Denny suffered yet another major fall at her home in Byfield. On 13 April, concerned about his wife's erratic behaviour and fearing for his daughter's safety, Trevor Lucas left the UK and returned to his native Australia with their child, leaving Denny without telling her. He sold their Austin Princess car in order to raise funds for the journey. On discovering Lucas' departure, Denny went to stay at the home of her friend Miranda Ward. During this time, Denny apparently set up an appointment to speak with a doctor about her headaches, and also intended to get advice about her alcohol addiction. At some point after 8 am on 17 April, Denny fell into a coma. Ward was out of the house at the time, and had asked her friend Jon Cole (of the band The Movies) to check in on Denny. Cole entered the home at 3 pm, and found Denny unconscious at the foot of the staircase which led to the second floor of the house. She was rushed by ambulance to Queen Mary's Hospital in nearby Roehampton. On 19 April, she was transferred to Atkinson Morley Hospital in Wimbledon. After receiving news that Denny was in a coma, Lucas returned from Australia. Upon his arrival at the hospital, doctors informed him that Denny was effectively brain-dead and her condition would not improve. He granted their recommendation to turn off life-support machines; however, just ten minutes before this was to take place, at 7:50 pm on 21 April 1978, Sandy Denny died, without regaining consciousness. Her death was ruled to be the result of a traumatic mid-brain haemorrhage and blunt force trauma to her head. She was 31 years old. The funeral took place on 27 April 1978 at Putney Vale Cemetery. After the vicar had read Denny's favourite psalm, Psalm 23, a piper played "Flowers of the Forest", a traditional song commemorating the fallen of Flodden Field and one which had appeared on the 1970 Fairport album Full House. The inscription on her headstone reads: Posthumous releases Official releases Although Denny had a devoted following in her lifetime, she did not achieve mass market success. In the years since her death, her reputation has grown. A four-album box set entitled Who Knows Where the Time Goes? (1985) was produced by her widower Trevor Lucas and Joe Boyd and included a number of rare and previously unreleased tracks by Denny, either solo or with Fairport Convention (1968, 1969, 1974) and Fotheringay (1970). This was the first public indication that a large cache of unreleased material existed. A one-disc subset of these recordings was subsequently issued on CD by Island in 1987 entitled The Best Of Sandy Denny. In 1987, a compilation of previously unreleased tracks recorded for the BBC by incarnations of Fairport including Denny was released on LP under the title Heyday, which was subsequently released on CD in 2001 and again, with extra tracks, in 2002; all tracks were later included, with others, on the 2007 4-CD box set Fairport Convention Live at the BBC (see below). The initial purpose of this compilation was to document the more "American" material performed live by the What We Did on Our Holidays lineup of the band that never made it to vinyl, while the re-releases added additional songs as performed by the Unhalfbricking and Liege and Lief lineups. Also in 1987, a VHS documentary, It All Comes 'Round Again, on Fairport Convention was released which contained excerpts of several audio recordings featuring Denny, plus a single poor-quality video recording of her singing her song "Solo" during her second stint with Fairport in 1974, as filmed by the University of Birmingham's "Guild TV" amateur organisation. The original tape of this recording has apparently been lost; however, "Like an Old Fashioned Waltz" does appear on the DVD documentary Sandy Denny Under Review (see below) and other tracks have been made available via YouTube in very poor quality. Over the period 1988–1994, the Australian "Friends of Fairport" issued a series of subscriber-only cassette compilations drawing in the main on previously unreleased tapes from Trevor Lucas' collection (as stored in his attic in fact). Attic Tracks (AT) 1 (1988) contained out-takes from Sandy as well as some Fairport material and a few bizarre extras; AT 2 (1989) contained only Trevor Lucas material, no Denny; AT 3 (1989) entitled First and Last Tracks comprised 1966–1967 home demos and rare radio tracks, as well as 9 "pre-overdub" songs from Denny's last concert at the Royalty Theatre, London, on 27 November 1977 (a partial alternative to the later, overdubbed CD release Gold Dust), and AT 4 (1994): Together Again comprised one side of Lucas and the other of Denny in the form of more home demos, studio outtakes, and 4 tracks from a 1973 BBC radio concert. A cut-down version of these tracks (18 songs) was subsequently compiled for CD release by the Australian label Raven Records in 1995 called Sandy Denny, Trevor Lucas and Friends: The Attic Tracks 1972–1984. In 1991, Joe Boyd issued a new version of Denny's All Our Own Work album with the Strawbs, called Sandy Denny and the Strawbs, on his Hannibal Records label. The album had strings added to some tracks, including "Who Knows Where the Time Goes?" and further tracks with Denny on lead vocal. In 1997, a one-disc compilation of Denny's solo BBC recordings was released as The BBC Sessions 1971–1973 on Strange Fruit Records. Due to rights issues it was withdrawn on the day of release, thereby creating a highly collectible disc (up until the release of the comprehensive Live at the BBC box set in 2007). This release was followed in 1998 when Denny's final performance at the Royalty Theatre, entitled Gold Dust, was issued on CD, following a degree of re-recording and overdubbing of selected backing parts to replace reportedly unsatisfactory originals. In 1999, a single-disc compilation, Listen Listen – An Introduction to Sandy Denny, was released on Island Records comprising 17 previously released tracks taken from her four Island solo albums. No More Sad Refrains: The Anthology was released by Universal Records in 2000. When first released, this compilation had several rare tracks, including "The Ballad of Easy Rider" from the Liege and Lief sessions, "Learning the Game" and "When Will I Be Loved" from the Bunch album Rock On, "Here in Silence" and "Man of Iron" from the Pass of Arms soundtrack, and a previously unissued demo of "Stranger to Himself". In 2002, a previously unreleased, 2-CD live US concert recording by Fairport Convention from 1974 featuring Denny was released on the Burning Airlines label. Entitled Before The Moon, it originated from a radio broadcast from Ebbets Field in Denver, Colorado, on 23/24 May 1974. The second disc was a limited release bonus with the original release comprising the second set from the same concert. This recording was re-released in shortened form as a single disc in 2011 on the It's About Music label entitled Fairport Convention with Sandy Denny: Ebbets Field 1974. Also in 2002, the American A&M Records issued a budget-price "20th Century Masters" compilation called The Best of Sandy Denny with 10 tracks all available on Denny's studio albums. In 2004 a second comprehensive five-CD box set was released on the Fledg'ling record label called A Boxful of Treasures that included many unreleased recordings, in particular a whole disc of acoustic demos, many recorded at her home in Byfield that was highly prized amongst fans and critics alike, who had long asserted that her solo performances showed her work in its best light, revealing the true quality of her vocal style and compositions. Also in 2004, the Spectrum label issued a 16-track compilation of previously released material entitled The Collection: Chronological Covers & Concert Classics, including a mix of studio recordings and live excerpts from the Gold Dust Royalty concert. In 2005, remastered versions of all Denny's solo albums came out with bonus tracks. Also in 2005, a single CD compilation entitled Where the Time Goes: Sandy '67 was released on Castle Music containing all of Saga's Denny album tracks (including the alternative recordings on It's Sandy Denny), together with two self accompanied tracks from Denny's recordings with the Strawbs. A DVD documentary entitled Sandy Denny Under Review was released on the Sexy Intellectual label in 2006 which contained interviews with her contemporaries plus brief excerpts from her audio recordings, plus some short video clips including two of the poor quality video recordings with Fairport from Birmingham University (details given above), two with Fotheringay from German TV's Beat-Club (further details given below), and three solo excerpts from the only surviving BBC footage on One In Ten (details as given in the next item). A 4-disc box set, Sandy Denny Live at the BBC, came out in September 2007 containing (virtually) all of the known solo recordings made by Denny for that UK broadcaster including two complete concerts, one at the Paris Theatre in 1972 and one recorded for Sounds on Sunday in 1973, plus a range of other material spanning the years 1966–1973. Disc 3 of this set was a DVD containing surviving TV footage from a 1971 BBC One in Ten session comprising solo performances by Denny of "The North Star Grassman and the Ravens", "Crazy Lady Blues" and "Late November", along with digitised excerpts from her diaries, rare photos and a discography. A 1-disc subset of this box set entitled The Best of the BBC Recordings was subsequently released in 2008. A companion box set, Fairport Convention Live at the BBC, also came out in 2007 and covered equivalent live recordings by Fairport over the period 1968–1974, of which the first two discs (1968–1970) contain examples from Denny's time with that group. In 2008, Jerry Donahue completed the unfinished second Fotheringay album begun in the autumn of 1970. It was released to general acclaim as Fotheringay 2 and contained some notable Denny performances, in particular earlier versions of two Denny compositions, "Late November" and "John the Gun", and performances of the traditional songs "Gypsy Davey" and "Wild Mountain Thyme". Also in 2008, Island Remasters issued a double CD entitled The Music Weaver (Sandy Denny Remembered) which contained a mix of better known tracks and less well known demos and live recordings, previously released but not in companion with studio sessions. This compilation is also one of the very few to contain the Led Zeppelin track "The Battle Of Evermore" which features a rare guest appearance by Denny. In 2010, a large 19-CD retrospective box set, simply titled Sandy Denny, was released by Universal/Island Records in a limited edition of 3,000. It contained Denny's entire catalogue of studio recordings, including her work with the Strawbs, Fairport Convention, Fotheringay and as a solo artist. The compilation also included a large number of outtakes, demos, live recordings, radio sessions and interviews. The box set was released to good reviews, including a 5-star review in Uncut and a 4-star review in The Guardian. In late 2010, Thea Gilmore was commissioned by Denny's estate, in conjunction with Island Records, to write melodies to unrecorded lyrics found in Denny's papers. The resulting album, Don't Stop Singing, was released in November 2011 to generally good notices, including 4-star reviews in The Independent and The Guardian among others. On 21 April 2012, the single "London" was released as an exclusive Record Store Day 7″ single. Further recordings were released in 2011, including a German recording of Fotheringay in concert released as Essen 1970 on the Garden of Delights label. The performance was remastered by original band member Jerry Donahue. This release was followed by 19 Rupert Street, a home recording of a rehearsal featuring Sandy and Alex Campbell recorded at his flat in August 1967. This release is notable for the fact that Sandy performs a number of tracks that are not available in any other versions, including a cover of "Fairytale Lullaby" by John Martyn. This CD was put out by Sandy's former Strawbs bandmate Dave Cousins on his Witchwood label. Two-disc "Deluxe Editions" of Denny's album reissues appeared in 2011–2012 with additional tracks; the 2012 Deluxe Edition of Sandy included a previously unreleased eight-song solo set from her 1973 U.S. tour recorded at Ebbet's Field in Denver, Colorado. A similar two-disc reissue of Fairport Convention's Rising for the Moon also included, for the first time, the complete 1974 L.A. Troubadour performance of Fairport with Denny back on board, prior to the official announcement of her re-joining the group. On account of unprecedented demand for, and exhaustion of supply of the limited edition 19-CD set cited above, in October 2012 a limited edition 4-CD version was released entitled The Notes and The Words: A Collection of Demos and Rarities, containing "75 songs that represent the cream of the rarities, demos and outtakes from the box set". Limited to 3,500 copies, this compilation is also now out-of-print. In 2013, Spectrum records issued a single-disc CD entitled The Lady – The Essential Sandy Denny that comprised 15 previously issued tracks, generally from Denny's well known albums. 2014 saw the release of another Fairport live U.S. radio broadcast from their 1974 tour with Denny, on RockBeat Records, entitled Live 1974 (My Father's Place), comprising 11 live tracks, most featuring Denny, recorded at the New York rock club My Father's Place. A four-disc Fotheringay retrospective, Nothing More: The Collected Fotheringay, was released on 30 March 2015. This is the most comprehensive compilation of the group's recordings, and contains, in addition to all the tracks on Fotheringay and Fotheringay 2 as both final studio versions and demos/alternate takes, the complete live concert set from Rotterdam in 1970 (including several previously unreleased tracks), seven Fotheringay tracks recorded in session for BBC radio (which had previously circulated only as bootlegs), plus a DVD disc containing four performances by Fotheringay recorded for the German Beat-Club TV series in 1970, which considerably augment the otherwise sparse known TV footage of Denny in particular. May 2016 saw the release of a 2-CD compilation, I've Always Kept A Unicorn – The Acoustic Sandy Denny which collected together many previously released, but dispersed, acoustic and/or demo versions of songs better known from their album counterparts, as well as three previously unreleased demos (with Linda Thompson, at the time Linda Peters) from 1972's Rock On sessions by one-off band The Bunch. A 7-CD box set by Fairport Convention entitled Come All Ye – The First 10 Years was released in July 2017 and contains a small number of additional, previously unreleased demos and alternate takes featuring Denny during her first tenure with the band over the period 1968–1969. Tracks not previously available include versions of Joni Mitchell's Eastern Rain, an a capella version of Nottamun Town, alternative takes of Autopsy and Who Knows Where the Time Goes, and a rehearsal version of The Deserter. Unofficial releases and audience tapes In addition to the authorised material listed above, a number unofficial/unauthorised compilations exist plus a range of audience recordings of varying quality, none of which would likely see the light of day as commercial issues but are of interest to a sector of Denny's audience on either historic or aesthetic grounds, often providing alternative views of songs known otherwise only from their commercially released versions. The first available unauthorised/bootleg CDs available in the 1980s and 1990s comprised principally off-air and other obscure material under such titles as Borrowed Thyme, Poems from Alexandra, Dark the Night, Wild Mountain Thyme and One Last Sad Refrain; such compilations are now largely superseded by the subsequent availability of most of the off-air material in much better quality as official releases as described above. Of more enduring interest are audience tapes of shows of which no "official" tapes survive. These include some early shows by Fairport Convention; a performance by Fotheringay at the 1970 Tenth National Jazz and Blues Festival, held at Plumpton Race Track, Streat, East Sussex, England; "solo" shows by Denny (on occasion with a small band including, among others, Richard Thompson) at the 1971 Lincoln Folk Festival and at the Eltham Well Hall Open Theatre in 1972; performances from York University and Guildhall, Newcastle upon Tyne, also in 1972; an early 1972 U.S. performance from The Bitter End in New York; and several sets (Birmingham and Croydon) from her final 1977 tour in addition to the officially released Gold Dust album; plus quite a large number of recordings strongly featuring Denny as part of the re-formed Fairport Convention over the period 1974–1975. The majority of these can be fairly easily located via relevant internet searches and, in addition, can be readily downloaded from archival music servers such as Sugarmegs (Sandy Denny concerts listed under "S": SugarMegs Streaming Server, Fairport and Fotheringay under "F": SugarMegs Streaming Server). A provisional list of such recordings as are known to exist, with details on where each can be accessed, is available here. Legacy Estate and family After relocating to Australia and remarrying, Trevor Lucas died of a heart attack in 1989. Denny's estate is now managed by Lucas' widow, Elizabeth Hurtt-Lucas. A number of otherwise unreleased recordings of Sandy Denny from his collection have subsequently been the basis for posthumous releases of Denny's work including those on The Attic Tracks and elsewhere. Sandy Denny's daughter, Georgia, has rarely spoken about her mother in a public forum and in the mid-2000s declined an invitation to write the liner notes for Sandy Denny Live at the BBC. However, in 2006 she flew to Britain from Australia to accept on her mother's behalf the BBC Radio 2 Folk Awards award for Most Influential Folk Album of All Time, which was given for Fairport Convention's Liege and Lief. Georgia gave birth to twin daughters on 29 April 1997, and a tribute album, Georgia on Our Mind, featuring many of Sandy Denny's former bandmates and friends, was compiled in the children's honour. She also administers a Facebook page "Sandy Denny and Family" dedicated to her mother's memory and more recently, under the name Georgia Katt, has released some of her own DJ-based music. Tributes Since her death, many tributes have been made to Denny, both in music and elsewhere. Dave Pegg of Fairport Convention recorded the tribute "Song for Sandy" on his 1983 solo album The Cocktail Cowboy Goes It Alone. Dave Cousins of the Strawbs wrote "Ringing Down the Years" in memory of Denny shortly after her death. Songs more specific to the death were Bert Jansch's "Where Did My Life Go" and Richard Thompson's "Did She Jump or Was She Pushed?" Fellow Brit folk pioneers Spriguns changed the title of their 1978 album to Magic Lady after hearing of Denny's death while recording. In 1998, a variety of Daylily was named after her. Denny's songs have been covered by numerous artists in the years since her death. Some of the notable acts to have covered her music include Yo La Tengo, former Marillion frontman Fish, who covered "Solo" on his album Songs from the Mirror, Cat Power, Judy Collins, Nanci Griffith and Nina Simone. Kate Bush mentioned Denny in the lyric of "Blow Away (For Bill)", as one of the musicians to greet Bill in Heaven. "Blow Away (For Bill)" is the third track on Bush's 1980 album Never for Ever. In 1984, Clann Eadair released the single "A tribute to Sandy Denny", featuring Phil Lynott on vocals. Several radio specials have been produced about Denny's life and music, including BBC Radio 2's The Sandy Denny Story: Who Knows Where the Time Goes. In 2007, Denny's song "Who Knows Where the Time Goes?" also received BBC Radio 2's 2007 Folk Award for "Favourite Folk Track of All Time". In 2010, she was recognized by NPR in their 50 Great Voices special series. In April 2008, a tribute concert was held at The Troubadour in London, to mark the thirtieth anniversary of Denny's death. Those taking part included Martin Carthy, Linda Thompson and Joe Boyd. A more extensive tribute was given later that year in December at the Southbank in the Queen Elizabeth Hall called The Lady: A Tribute to Sandy Denny with a band composed of members of Bellowhead, the evening featured a mix of young folk acts like Jim Moray and Lisa Knapp alongside those that had known and worked with Denny such as Dave Swarbrick and Jerry Donahue. These acts were joined by performers from outside the world of folk like PP Arnold and Marc Almond. The concert, which primarily featured songs written by Denny, received a four-star review in The Guardian. In May 2012 the Southbank concert was expanded into an eight date UK tour called The Lady: A Homage to Sandy Denny. The tour showcased Sandy's entire songbook taking in her work with Fairport Convention, Fotheringay, her solo career and the new songs completed by Thea Gilmore on her album Don't Stop Singing. The band was, once again, composed of members of Bellowhead. Other acts performing included the aforementioned Thea Gilmore and up-and-coming folk acts Lavinia Blackwall of Trembling Bells, Blair Dunlop and Sam Carter, alongside more established folk stars Maddy Prior, Dave Swarbrick and Jerry Donahue. The line-up was completed with performers not normally associated with the folk scene; Green Gartside, Joan Wasser (also known as Joan As Police Woman), and PP Arnold. The tour was well received, obtaining a four-star review in The Times. The London concert at the Barbican was filmed for BBC4, and broadcast in a 90-minute programme titled The Songs of Sandy Denny in November 2012. In the 2012 Irish film Silence (Harvest Films & South Wind Blows), "Who Knows Where the Time Goes" is used during the film and final credits. In April 2016 Denny was inducted into the BBC Radio 2 Folk Awards Hall of Fame. Alela Diane recorded the tribute "Song for Sandy" on her album Cusp, released in February 2018. The song reflects on Denny's final tragic days and her orphaned baby daughter. Discography Solo studio albums The North Star Grassman and the Ravens (1971) Sandy (1972) Like an Old Fashioned Waltz (1974) Rendezvous (1977) Solo live albums The BBC Sessions 1971–1973 (1997) Gold Dust (1998) (live recording from final tour, 1977) Live at the BBC (2007 4-disc compilation) Sandy – Deluxe edition, 2012 – includes "Live at Ebbetts Field" (previously unreleased concert on disc 2) With others Denny's collaborations with other artists, including with Alex Campbell, The Strawbs, Fairport Convention, Fotheringay, and The Bunch, together with numerous posthumous releases and compilation albums, are detailed further on the Sandy Denny discography page. References and notes General Further reading Mick Houghton. I've Always Kept a Unicorn – The Biography of Sandy Denny. Faber & Faber, 2015; Clinton Heylin. No More Sad Refrains – The Life and Times of Sandy Denny. London: Helter Skelter, 2002; Clinton Heylin. Gypsy Love Songs & Sad Refrains – The Recordings of Richard Thompson and Sandy Denny. Labour of Love Productions, 1989. Colin Larkin. The Guinness Who's Who of Folk Music. Guinness Publishing Ltd; Jim Irvin. Angel of Avalon. MOJO Magazine, August 1998. Colin Harper, Trevor Hodgett. Irish Folk, Traditional & Blues: A Secret History. Cherry Red, 2005; Pamela Murray Winters. No Thought of Leaving: A life of Sandy Denny. 2000. (Unpublished). Brian Hinton, Geoff Wall. Ashley Hutchings: The Guv'nor & the Rise of Folk Rock. London: Helter Skelter, 2002; Patrick Humphries. Meet On The Ledge: The Classic Years 1967–1975. Virgin Books, 1997; Patrick Humphries. Richard Thompson: Strange Affair – The Biography. Virgin Books, 1996; Philip Ward, "Sandy Denny: A Thirtieth Anniversary", R2 (Rock'n'Reel) 2(9), May/June 2008. Philip Ward, Sandy Denny: Reflections on Her Music''. Matador, 2011; External links Official website Homage to Sandy Denny Dedicated to the memory of Sandy Denny Sandy Denny website 1947 births 1978 deaths 20th-century English singers 20th-century English women singers A&M Records artists Accidental deaths from falls Accidental deaths in London Deaths by intracerebral hemorrhage Alumni of Kingston College (England) British folk rock musicians Burials at Putney Vale Cemetery English folk singers English people of Scottish descent English women singer-songwriters Fairport Convention members Women rock singers Fotheringay members Island Records artists People from Byfield, Northamptonshire People from Wimbledon, London Singers from London Strawbs members The Bunch members

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Many factors directly and indirectly serve as the causes of the Great Recession that started in 2008 with the US subprime mortgage crisis. The major causes of the initial subprime mortgage crisis and the following recession include lax lending standards contributing to the real-estate bubbles that have since burst; U.S. government housing policies; and limited regulation of non-depository financial institutions. Once the recession began, various responses were attempted with different degrees of success. These included fiscal policies of governments; monetary policies of central banks; measures designed to help indebted consumers refinance their mortgage debt; and inconsistent approaches used by nations to bail out troubled banking industries and private bondholders, assuming private debt burdens or socializing losses. Overview The immediate or proximate cause of the crisis in 2008 was the failure or risk of failure at major financial institutions globally, starting with the rescue of investment bank Bear Stearns in March 2008 and the failure of Lehman Brothers in September 2008. Many of these institutions had invested in risky securities that lost much or all of their value when U.S. and European housing bubbles began to deflate during the 2007-2009 period, depending on the country. Further, many institutions had become dependent on short-term (overnight) funding markets subject to disruption. Many institutions lowered credit standards to continue feeding the global demand for mortgage securities, generating huge profits that their investors shared. They also shared the risk. When the bubbles developed, household debt levels rose sharply after the year 2000 globally. Households became dependent on being able to refinance their mortgages. Further, U.S. households often had adjustable rate mortgages, which had lower initial interest rates and payments that later rose. When global credit markets essentially stopped funding mortgage-related investments in the 2007-2008 period, U.S. homeowners were no longer able to refinance and defaulted in record numbers, leading to the collapse of securities backed by these mortgages that now pervaded the system. The fall in asset prices (such as subprime mortgage-backed securities) during 2007 and 2008 caused the equivalent of a bank run on the U.S., which includes investment banks and other non-depository financial entities. This system had grown to rival the depository system in scale yet was not subject to the same regulatory safeguards. Struggling banks in the U.S. and Europe cut back lending causing a credit crunch. Consumers and some governments were no longer able to borrow and spend at pre-crisis levels. Businesses also cut back their investments as demand faltered and reduced their workforces. Higher unemployment due to the recession made it more difficult for consumers and countries to honor their obligations. This caused financial institution losses to surge, deepening the credit crunch, thereby creating an adverse feedback loop. Federal Reserve Chair Ben Bernanke testified in September 2010 regarding the causes of the crisis. He wrote that there were shocks or triggers (i.e., particular events that touched off the crisis) and vulnerabilities (i.e., structural weaknesses in the financial system, regulation and supervision) that amplified the shocks. Examples of triggers included: losses on subprime mortgage securities that began in 2007 and a run on the shadow banking system that began in mid-2007, which adversely affected the functioning of money markets. Examples of vulnerabilities in the private sector included: financial institution dependence on unstable sources of short-term funding such as repurchase agreements or Repos; deficiencies in corporate risk management; excessive use of leverage (borrowing to invest); and inappropriate usage of derivatives as a tool for taking excessive risks. Examples of vulnerabilities in the public sector included: statutory gaps and conflicts between regulators; ineffective use of regulatory authority; and ineffective crisis management capabilities. Bernanke also discussed "Too big to fail" institutions, monetary policy, and trade deficits. Economists surveyed by the University of Chicago rated the factors that caused the crisis in order of importance. The results included: 1) Flawed financial sector regulation and supervision; 2) Underestimating risks in financial engineering (e.g., CDOs); 3) Mortgage fraud and bad incentives; 4) Short-term funding decisions and corresponding runs in those markets (e.g., repo); and 5) Credit rating agency failures. Narratives There are several "narratives" attempting to place the causes of the crisis into context, with overlapping elements. Five such narratives include: There was the equivalent of a bank run on the shadow banking system, which includes investment banks and other non-depository financial entities. This system had grown to rival the depository system in scale yet was not subject to the same regulatory safeguards. The economy was being driven by a housing bubble. When it burst, private residential investment (i.e., housing construction) fell by nearly 4%. GDP and consumption enabled by bubble-generated housing wealth also slowed. This created a gap in annual demand (GDP) of nearly $1 trillion. Government was unwilling to make up for this private sector shortfall. Record levels of household debt accumulated in the decades preceding the crisis resulted in a "balance sheet recession" once housing prices began falling in 2006. Consumers began paying down debt, which reduces their consumption, slowing down the economy for an extended period while debt levels are reduced. Government policies that encouraged home ownership even for those who could not afford it, contributing to lax lending standards, unsustainable housing price increases, and indebtedness. The financial turmoil induced an increase in money demand (precautionary hoarding). This increase in money demand triggered a corresponding decline in commodity demand. One narrative describing the causes of the crisis begins with the significant increase in savings available for investment during the 2000–2007 period when the global pool of fixed-income securities increased from approximately $36 trillion in 2000 to $80 trillion by 2007. This "Giant Pool of Money" increased as savings from high-growth developing nations entered global capital markets. Investors searching for higher yields than those offered by U.S. Treasury bonds sought alternatives globally. The temptation offered by such readily available savings overwhelmed the policy and regulatory control mechanisms in country after country, as lenders and borrowers put these savings to use, generating bubble after bubble across the globe. When these bubbles burst, causing asset prices (e.g., housing and commercial property) to decline, the liabilities owed to global investors remained at full price, generating questions regarding the solvency of consumers, governments, and banking systems. The effect of this debt overhang is to slow consumption and therefore economic growth and is referred to as a "balance sheet recession" or debt-deflation. Housing market The U.S. housing bubble and foreclosures Between 1997 and 2006, the price of the typical American house increased by 124%. During the two decades ending in 2001, the national median home price ranged from 2.9 to 3.1 times median household income. This ratio rose to 4.0 in 2004, and 4.6 in 2006. This housing bubble resulted in quite a few homeowners refinancing their homes at lower interest rates, or financing consumer spending by taking out second mortgages secured by the price appreciation. By September 2008, average U.S. housing prices had declined by over 20% from their mid-2006 peak. Easy credit, and a belief that house prices would continue to appreciate, had encouraged many subprime borrowers to obtain adjustable-rate mortgages. These mortgages enticed borrowers with a below market interest rate for some predetermined period, followed by market interest rates for the remainder of the mortgage's term. Borrowers who could not make the higher payments once the initial grace period ended would try to refinance their mortgages. Refinancing became more difficult, once house prices began to decline in many parts of the US. Borrowers who found themselves unable to escape higher monthly payments by refinancing began to default. During 2007, lenders had begun foreclosure proceedings on nearly 1.3 million properties, a 79% increase over 2006. This increased to 2.3 million in 2008, an 81% increase vs. 2007. As of August 2008, 9.2% of all mortgages outstanding were either delinquent or in foreclosure. The Economist described the issue this way: "No part of the financial crisis has received so much attention, with so little to show for it, as the tidal wave of home foreclosures sweeping over America. Government programmes have been ineffectual, and private efforts not much better." Up to 9 million homes were at risk of entering foreclosure over the 2009-2011 period, versus one million in a typical year. At roughly U.S. $50,000 per foreclosure according to a 2006 study by the Chicago Federal Reserve Bank, 9 million foreclosures represents $450 billion in losses. Subprime lending In addition to easy credit conditions, there is evidence that both competitive pressures and some government regulations contributed to an increase in the amount of subprime lending during the years preceding the crisis. Major U.S. investment banks and, to a lesser extent, government-sponsored enterprises like Fannie Mae played an important role in the expansion of higher-risk lending. The term subprime refers to the credit quality of particular borrowers, who have weakened credit histories at a greater risk of loan default than prime borrowers. The value of U.S. subprime mortgages was estimated at $1.3 trillion as of March 2007, with over 7.5 million first-lien subprime mortgages outstanding. Subprime mortgages remained below 10% of all mortgage originations until 2004, when they spiked to nearly 20% and remained there through the 2005-2006 peak of the United States housing bubble. A proximate event to this increase was the April 2004 decision by the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) to relax the net capital rule, which encouraged the largest five investment banks to dramatically increase their financial leverage and aggressively expand their issuance of mortgage-backed securities. Subprime mortgage payment delinquency rates remained in the 10-15% range from 1998 to 2006, then began to increase rapidly, rising to 25% by early 2008. Mortgage underwriting In addition to considering higher-risk borrowers, lenders offered increasingly risky loan options and borrowing incentives. Mortgage underwriting standards declined gradually during the boom period, particularly from 2004 to 2007. The use of automated loan approvals let loans be made without appropriate review and documentation. In 2007, 40% of all subprime loans resulted from automated underwriting. The chairman of the Mortgage Bankers Association claimed that mortgage brokers, while profiting from the home loan boom, did not do enough to examine whether borrowers could repay. Mortgage fraud by lenders and borrowers increased enormously. Adverse selection in low-to-no documentation loans can account for a substantial fraction of losses on home foreclosures between 2007 and 2012. A study by analysts at the Federal Reserve Bank of Cleveland found that the average difference between subprime and prime mortgage interest rates (the "subprime markup") declined significantly between 2001 and 2007. The quality of loans originated also worsened gradually during that period. The combination of declining risk premia and credit standards is common to boom and bust credit cycles. The authors also concluded that the decline in underwriting standards did not directly trigger the crisis, because the gradual changes in standards did not statistically account for the large difference in default rates for subprime mortgages issued between 2001-2005 (which had a 10% default rate within one year of origination) and 2006-2007 (which had a 20% rate). In other words, standards gradually declined but defaults suddenly jumped. Furthermore, the authors argued that the trend in worsening loan quality was harder to detect with rising housing prices, as more refinancing options were available, keeping the default rate lower. Mortgage fraud In 2004, the Federal Bureau of Investigation warned of an "epidemic" in mortgage fraud, an important credit risk of non-prime mortgage lending, which, they said, could lead to "a problem that could have as much impact as the S&L crisis". Down payments and negative equity A down payment refers to the cash paid to the lender for the home and represents the initial homeowners' equity or financial interest in the home. A low down payment means that a home represents a highly leveraged investment for the homeowner, with little equity relative to debt. In such circumstances, only small declines in the value of the home result in negative equity, a situation in which the value of the home is less than the mortgage amount owed. In 2005, the median down payment for first-time home buyers was 2%, with 43% of those buyers making no down payment whatsoever. By comparison, China has down payment requirements that exceed 20%, with higher amounts for non-primary residences. Economist Nouriel Roubini wrote in Forbes in July 2009 that: "Home prices have already fallen from their peak by about 30%. Based on my analysis, they are going to fall by at least 40% from their peak, and more likely 45%, before they bottom out. They are still falling at an annualized rate of over 18%. That fall of at least 40%-45% percent of home prices from their peak is going to imply that about half of all households that have a mortgage—about 25 million of the 51 million that have mortgages—are going to be underwater with negative equity and will have a significant incentive to walk away from their homes." Economist Stan Leibowitz argued in The Wall Street Journal that the extent of equity in the home was the key factor in foreclosure, rather than the type of loan, credit worthiness of the borrower, or ability to pay. Although only 12% of homes had negative equity (meaning the property was worth less than the mortgage obligation), they comprised 47% of foreclosures during the second half of 2008. Homeowners with negative equity have less financial incentive to stay in the home. The L.A. Times reported the results of a study that found homeowners with high credit scores at the time of entering a mortgage are 50% more likely to "strategically default" - abruptly and intentionally pull the plug and abandon the mortgage — compared with lower-scoring borrowers. Such strategic defaults were heavily concentrated in markets with the highest price declines. An estimated 588,000 strategic defaults occurred nationwide during 2008, more than double the total in 2007. They represented 18% of all serious delinquencies that extended for more than 60 days in the fourth quarter of 2008. Predatory lending Predatory lending refers to the practice of unscrupulous lenders, to enter into "unsafe" or "unsound" secured loans for inappropriate purposes. A classic bait-and-switch method was used by Countrywide, advertising low interest rates for home refinancing. Such loans were written into mind-numbingly detailed contracts and then swapped for more expensive loan products on the day of closing. Whereas the advertisement might have stated that 1% or 1.5% interest would be charged, the consumer would be put into an adjustable rate mortgage (ARM) in which the interest charged would be greater than the amount of interest paid. This created negative amortization, which the credit consumer might not notice until long after the loan transaction had been consummated. Countrywide, sued by California Attorney General Jerry Brown for "Unfair Business Practices" and "False Advertising" was making high cost mortgages "to homeowners with weak credit, adjustable rate mortgages (ARMs) that allowed homeowners to make interest-only payments.". When housing prices decreased, homeowners in ARMs then had little incentive to pay their monthly payments, since their home equity had disappeared. This caused Countrywide's financial condition to deteriorate, ultimately resulting in a decision by the Office of Thrift Supervision to seize the lender. Countrywide, according to Republican Lawmakers, had involved itself in making low-cost loans to politicians, for purposes of gaining political favors. Former employees from Ameriquest, which was United States's leading wholesale lender, described a system in which they were pushed to falsify mortgage documents and then sell the mortgages to Wall Street banks eager to make fast profits. There is growing evidence that such mortgage frauds may be a large cause of the crisis. Others have pointed to the passage of the Gramm–Leach–Bliley Act by the 106th Congress, and over-leveraging by banks and investors eager to achieve high returns on capital. Risk-taking behavior In a June 2009 speech, U.S. President Barack Obama argued that a "culture of irresponsibility" was an important cause of the crisis. He criticized executive compensation that "rewarded recklessness rather than responsibility" and Americans who bought homes "without accepting the responsibilities." He continued that there "was far too much debt and not nearly enough capital in the system. And a growing economy bred complacency." Excessive consumer housing debt was in turn caused by the mortgage-backed security, credit default swap, and collateralized debt obligation sub-sectors of the finance industry, which were offering irrationally low interest rates and irrationally high levels of approval to subprime mortgage consumers. Formulas for calculating aggregate risk were based on the gaussian copula which wrongly assumed that individual components of mortgages were independent. In fact the credit-worthiness of almost every new subprime mortgage was highly correlated with that of any other, due to linkages through consumer spending levels which fell sharply when property values began to fall during the initial wave of mortgage defaults. Debt consumers were acting in their rational self-interest, because they were unable to audit the finance industry's opaque faulty risk pricing methodology. A key theme of the crisis is that many large financial institutions did not have a sufficient financial cushion to absorb the losses they sustained or to support the commitments made to others. Using technical terms, these firms were highly leveraged (i.e., they maintained a high ratio of debt to equity) or had insufficient capital to post as collateral for their borrowing. A key to a stable financial system is that firms have the financial capacity to support their commitments. Michael Lewis and David Einhorn argued: "The most critical role for regulation is to make sure that the sellers of risk have the capital to support their bets." Consumer and household borrowing U.S. households and financial institutions became increasingly indebted or overleveraged during the years preceding the crisis. This increased their vulnerability to the collapse of the housing bubble and worsened the ensuing economic downturn. USA household debt as a percentage of annual disposable personal income was 127% at the end of 2007, versus 77% in 1990. U.S. home mortgage debt relative to gross domestic product (GDP) increased from an average of 46% during the 1990s to 73% during 2008, reaching $10.5 trillion. In 1981, U.S. private debt was 123% of GDP; by the third quarter of 2008, it was 290%. Several economists and think tanks have argued that income inequality is one of the reasons for this over-leveraging. Research by Raghuram Rajan indicated that: "Starting in the early 1970s, advanced economies found it increasingly difficult to grow...the shortsighted political response to the anxieties of those falling behind was to ease their access to credit. Faced with little regulatory restraint, banks overdosed on risky loans." Excessive private debt levels To counter the 2000 Stock Market Crash and subsequent economic slowdown, the Federal Reserve eased credit availability and drove interest rates down to lows not seen in many decades. These low interest rates facilitated the growth of debt at all levels of the economy, chief among them private debt to purchase more expensive housing. High levels of debt have long been recognized as a causative factor for recessions. Any debt default has the possibility of causing the lender to also default, if the lender is itself in a weak financial condition and has too much debt. This second default in turn can lead to still further defaults through a domino effect. The chances of these follow-up defaults is increased at high levels of debt. Attempts to prevent this domino effect by bailing out Wall Street lenders such as AIG, Fannie Mae, and Freddie Mac have had mixed success. The takeover is another example of attempts to stop the dominoes from falling.There was a real irony in the recent intervention by the Federal Reserve System to provide the money that enabled the firm of JPMorgan Chase to buy Bear Stearns before it went bankrupt. The point was to try to prevent a domino effect of panic in the financial markets that could lead to a downturn in the economy. Excessive consumer housing debt was in turn caused by the mortgage-backed security, credit default swap, and collateralized debt obligation sub-sectors of the finance industry, which were offering irrationally low interest rates and irrationally high levels of approval to subprime mortgage consumers because they were calculating aggregate risk using gaussian copula formulas that strictly assumed the independence of individual component mortgages, when in fact the credit-worthiness almost every new subprime mortgage was highly correlated with that of any other because of linkages through consumer spending levels which fell sharply when property values began to fall during the initial wave of mortgage defaults. Debt consumers were acting in their rational self-interest, because they were unable to audit the finance industry's opaque faulty risk pricing methodology. According to M.S. Eccles, who was appointed chairman of the Federal Reserve by FDR and held that position until 1948, excessive debt levels were not a source cause of the Great Depression. Increasing debt levels were caused by a concentration of wealth during the 1920s, causing the middle and poorer classes, which saw a relative and/or actual decrease in wealth, to go increasingly into debt in an attempt to maintain or improve their living standards. According to Eccles this concentration of wealth was the source cause of the Great Depression. The ever-increasing debt levels eventually became unpayable, and therefore unsustainable, leading to debt defaults and the financial panics of the 1930s. The concentration of wealth in the modern era parallels that of the 1920s and has had similar effects. Some of the causes of wealth concentration in the modern era are lower tax rates for the rich, such as Warren Buffett paying taxes at a lower rate than the people working for him, policies such as propping up the stock market, which benefit the stock owning rich more than the middle or poorer classes who own little or no stock, and bailouts which funnel tax money collected largely from the middle class to bail out large corporations largely owned by the rich. The International Monetary Fund (IMF) reported in April 2012: "Household debt soared in the years leading up to the Great Recession. In advanced economies, during the five years preceding 2007, the ratio of household debt to income rose by an average of 39 percentage points, to 138 percent. In Denmark, Iceland, Ireland, the Netherlands, and Norway, debt peaked at more than 200 percent of household income. A surge in household debt to historic highs also occurred in emerging economies such as Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, and Lithuania. The concurrent boom in both house prices and the stock market meant that household debt relative to assets held broadly stable, which masked households’ growing exposure to a sharp fall in asset prices. When house prices declined, ushering in the global financial crisis, many households saw their wealth shrink relative to their debt, and, with less income and more unemployment, found it harder to meet mortgage payments. By the end of 2011, real house prices had fallen from their peak by about 41% in Ireland, 29% in Iceland, 23% in Spain and the United States, and 21% in Denmark. Household defaults, underwater mortgages (where the loan balance exceeds the house value), foreclosures, and fire sales are now endemic to a number of economies. Household deleveraging by paying off debts or defaulting on them has begun in some countries. It has been most pronounced in the United States, where about two-thirds of the debt reduction reflects defaults." Home equity extraction This refers to homeowners borrowing and spending against the value of their homes, typically via a home equity loan or when selling the home. Free cash used by consumers from home equity extraction doubled from $627 billion in 2001 to $1,428 billion in 2005 as the housing bubble built, a total of nearly $5 trillion over the period, contributing to economic growth worldwide. U.S. home mortgage debt relative to GDP increased from an average of 46% during the 1990s to 73% during 2008, reaching $10.5 trillion. Economist Tyler Cowen explained that the economy was highly dependent on this home equity extraction: "In the 1993-1997 period, home owners extracted an amount of equity from their homes equivalent to 2.3% to 3.8% GDP. By 2005, this figure had increased to 11.5% GDP." Housing speculation Speculative borrowing in residential real estate has been cited as a contributing factor to the subprime mortgage crisis. During 2006, 22% of homes purchased (1.65 million units) were for investment purposes, with an additional 14% (1.07 million units) purchased as vacation homes. During 2005, these figures were 28% and 12%, respectively. In other words, a record level of nearly 40% of homes purchases were not intended as primary residences. David Lereah, NAR's chief economist at the time, stated that the 2006 decline in investment buying was expected: "Speculators left the market in 2006, which caused investment sales to fall much faster than the primary market." Housing prices nearly doubled between 2000 and 2006, a vastly different trend from the historical appreciation at roughly the rate of inflation. While homes had not traditionally been treated as investments subject to speculation, this behavior changed during the housing boom. Media widely reported condominiums being purchased while under construction, then being "flipped" (sold) for a profit without the seller ever having lived in them. Some mortgage companies identified risks inherent in this activity as early as 2005, after identifying investors assuming highly leveraged positions in multiple properties. One 2017 NBER study argued that real estate investors (i.e., those owning 2+ homes) were more to blame for the crisis than subprime borrowers: "The rise in mortgage defaults during the crisis was concentrated in the middle of the credit score distribution, and mostly attributable to real estate investors" and that "credit growth between 2001 and 2007 was concentrated in the prime segment, and debt to high-risk [subprime] borrowers was virtually constant for all debt categories during this period." The authors argued that this investor-driven narrative was more accurate than blaming the crisis on lower-income, subprime borrowers. A 2011 Fed study had a similar finding: "In states that experienced the largest housing booms and busts, at the peak of the market almost half of purchase mortgage originations were associated with investors. In part by apparently misreporting their intentions to occupy the property, investors took on more leverage, contributing to higher rates of default." The Fed study reported that mortgage originations to investors rose from 25% in 2000 to 45% in 2006, for Arizona, California, Florida, and Nevada overall, where housing price increases during the bubble (and declines in the bust) were most pronounced. In these states, investor delinquency rose from around 15% in 2000 to over 35% in 2007 and 2008. Nicole Gelinas of the Manhattan Institute described the negative consequences of not adjusting tax and mortgage policies to the shifting treatment of a home from conservative inflation hedge to speculative investment. Economist Robert Shiller argued that speculative bubbles are fueled by "contagious optimism, seemingly impervious to facts, that often takes hold when prices are rising. Bubbles are primarily social phenomena; until we understand and address the psychology that fuels them, they're going to keep forming." Mortgage risks were underestimated by every institution in the chain from originator to investor by underweighting the possibility of falling housing prices given historical trends of rising prices. Misplaced confidence in innovation and excessive optimism led to miscalculations by both public and private institutions. Pro-cyclical human nature Keynesian economist Hyman Minsky described how speculative borrowing contributed to rising debt and an eventual collapse of asset values. Economist Paul McCulley described how Minsky's hypothesis translates to the current crisis, using Minsky's words: "...from time to time, capitalist economies exhibit inflations and debt deflations which seem to have the potential to spin out of control. In such processes, the economic system's reactions to a movement of the economy amplify the movement--inflation feeds upon inflation and debt-deflation feeds upon debt deflation." In other words, people are momentum investors by nature, not value investors. People naturally take actions that expand the apex and nadir of cycles. One implication for policymakers and regulators is the implementation of counter-cyclical policies, such as contingent capital requirements for banks that increase during boom periods and are reduced during busts. Corporate risk-taking and leverage The former CEO of Citigroup Charles O. Prince said in November 2007: "As long as the music is playing, you've got to get up and dance." This metaphor summarized how financial institutions took advantage of easy credit conditions, by borrowing and investing large sums of money, a practice called leveraged lending. Debt taken on by financial institutions increased from 63.8% of U.S. gross domestic product in 1997 to 113.8% in 2007. Net capital rule A 2004 SEC decision related to the net capital rule allowed USA investment banks to issue substantially more debt, which was then used to help fund the housing bubble through purchases of mortgage-backed securities. The change in regulation left the capital adequacy requirement at the same level but added a risk weighting that lowered capital requirements on AAA rated bonds and tranches. This led to a shift from first loss tranches to highly rated less risky tranches and was seen as an improvement in risk management in the spirit of the European Basel accords. From 2004-07, the top five U.S. investment banks each significantly increased their financial leverage (see diagram), which increased their vulnerability to a financial shock. These five institutions reported over $4.1 trillion in debt for fiscal year 2007, about 30% of USA nominal GDP for 2007. Lehman Brothers was liquidated, Bear Stearns and Merrill Lynch were sold at fire-sale prices, and Goldman Sachs and Morgan Stanley became commercial banks, subjecting themselves to more stringent regulation. With the exception of Lehman, these companies required or received government support. Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac, two U.S. government-sponsored enterprises, owned or guaranteed nearly $5 trillion in mortgage obligations at the time they were placed into conservatorship by the U.S. government in September 2008. These seven entities were highly leveraged and had $9 trillion in debt or guarantee obligations, an enormous concentration of risk, yet were not subject to the same regulation as depository banks. In a May 2008 speech, Ben Bernanke quoted Walter Bagehot: "A good banker will have accumulated in ordinary times the reserve he is to make use of in extraordinary times." However, this advice was not heeded by these institutions, which had used the boom times to increase their leverage ratio instead. Financial market factors In its "Declaration of the Summit on Financial Markets and the World Economy," dated 15 November 2008, leaders of the Group of 20 cited the following causes related to features of the modern financial markets: Financial product innovation The term financial innovation refers to the ongoing development of financial products designed to achieve particular client objectives, such as offsetting a particular risk exposure (such as the default of a borrower) or to assist with obtaining financing. Examples pertinent to this crisis included: the adjustable-rate mortgage; the bundling of subprime mortgages into mortgage-backed securities (MBS) or collateralized debt obligations (CDO) for sale to investors, a type of securitization; and a form of credit insurance called credit default swaps(CDS). The usage of these products expanded dramatically in the years leading up to the crisis. These products vary in complexity and the ease with which they can be valued on the books of financial institutions. The CDO in particular enabled financial institutions to obtain investor funds to finance subprime and other lending, extending or increasing the housing bubble and generating large fees. Approximately $1.6 trillion in CDO's were originated between 2003-2007. A CDO essentially places cash payments from multiple mortgages or other debt obligations into a single pool, from which the cash is allocated to specific securities in a priority sequence. Those securities obtaining cash first received investment-grade ratings from rating agencies. Lower priority securities received cash thereafter, with lower credit ratings but theoretically a higher rate of return on the amount invested. A sample of 735 CDO deals originated between 1999 and 2007 showed that subprime and other less-than-prime mortgages represented an increasing percentage of CDO assets, rising from 5% in 2000 to 36% in 2007. For a variety of reasons, market participants did not accurately measure the risk inherent with this innovation or understand its impact on the overall stability of the financial system. For example, the pricing model for CDOs clearly did not reflect the level of risk they introduced into the system. The average recovery rate for "high quality" CDOs has been approximately 32 cents on the dollar, while the recovery rate for mezzanine CDO's has been approximately five cents for every dollar. These massive, practically unthinkable, losses have dramatically impacted the balance sheets of banks across the globe, leaving them with very little capital to continue operations. Others have pointed out that there were not enough of these loans made to cause a crisis of this magnitude. In an article in Portfolio Magazine, Michael Lewis spoke with one trader who noted that "There weren’t enough Americans with [bad] credit taking out [bad loans] to satisfy investors’ appetite for the end product." Essentially, investment banks and hedge funds used financial innovation to synthesize more loans using derivatives. "They were creating [loans] out of whole cloth. One hundred times over! That’s why the losses are so much greater than the loans." Princeton professor Harold James wrote that one of the byproducts of this innovation was that MBS and other financial assets were "repackaged so thoroughly and resold so often that it became impossible to clearly connect the thing being traded to its underlying value." He called this a "...profound flaw at the core of the U.S. financial system..." Another example relates to AIG, which insured obligations of various financial institutions through the usage of credit default swaps. The basic CDS transaction involved AIG receiving a premium in exchange for a promise to pay money to party A in the event party B defaulted. However, AIG did not have the financial strength to support its many CDS commitments as the crisis progressed and was taken over by the government in September 2008. U.S. taxpayers provided over $180 billion in government support to AIG during 2008 and early 2009, through which the money flowed to various counterparties to CDS transactions, including many large global financial institutions. Author Michael Lewis wrote that CDS enabled speculators to stack bets on the same mortgage bonds and CDO's. This is analogous to allowing many persons to buy insurance on the same house. Speculators that bought CDS insurance were betting that significant defaults would occur, while the sellers (such as AIG) bet they would not. In addition, Chicago Public Radio and the Huffington Post reported in April 2010 that market participants, including a hedge fund called Magnetar Capital, encouraged the creation of CDO's containing low quality mortgages, so they could bet against them using CDS. NPR reported that Magnetar encouraged investors to purchase CDO's while simultaneously betting against them, without disclosing the latter bet. Inaccurate credit ratings Credit rating agencies are under scrutiny for having given investment-grade ratings to MBSs based on risky subprime mortgage loans. These high ratings enabled these MBS to be sold to investors, thereby financing the housing boom. These ratings were believed justified because of risk reducing practices, such as credit default insurance and equity investors willing to bear the first losses. However, there are also indications that some involved in rating subprime-related securities knew at the time that the rating process was faulty. An estimated $3.2 trillion in loans were made to homeowners with bad credit and undocumented incomes (e.g., subprime or Alt-A mortgages) between 2002 and 2007. Economist Joseph Stiglitz stated: "I view the rating agencies as one of the key culprits...They were the party that performed the alchemy that converted the securities from F-rated to A-rated. The banks could not have done what they did without the complicity of the rating agencies." Without the AAA ratings, demand for these securities would have been considerably less. Bank writedowns and losses on these investments totaled $523 billion as of September 2008. The ratings of these securities was a lucrative business for the rating agencies, accounting for just under half of Moody's total ratings revenue in 2007. Through 2007, ratings companies enjoyed record revenue, profits and share prices. The rating companies earned as much as three times more for grading these complex products than corporate bonds, their traditional business. Rating agencies also competed with each other to rate particular MBS and CDO securities issued by investment banks, which critics argued contributed to lower rating standards. Interviews with rating agency senior managers indicate the competitive pressure to rate the CDO's favorably was strong within the firms. This rating business was their "golden goose" (which laid the proverbial golden egg or wealth) in the words of one manager. Author Upton Sinclair (1878–1968) famously stated: "It is difficult to get a man to understand something when his job depends on not understanding it." From 2000-2006, structured finance (which includes CDO's) accounted for 40% of the revenues of the credit rating agencies. During that time, one major rating agency had its stock increase six-fold and its earnings grew by 900%. Critics allege that the rating agencies suffered from conflicts of interest, as they were paid by investment banks and other firms that organize and sell structured securities to investors. On 11 June 2008, the SEC proposed rules designed to mitigate perceived conflicts of interest between rating agencies and issuers of structured securities. On 3 December 2008, the SEC approved measures to strengthen oversight of credit rating agencies, following a ten-month investigation that found "significant weaknesses in ratings practices," including conflicts of interest. Between Q3 2007 and Q2 2008, rating agencies lowered the credit ratings on $1.9 trillion in mortgage-backed securities. Financial institutions felt they had to lower the value of their MBS and acquire additional capital so as to maintain capital ratios. If this involved the sale of new shares of stock, the value of the existing shares was reduced. Thus ratings downgrades lowered the stock prices of many financial firms. Lack of transparency in the system and independence in financial modeling The limitations of many, widely used financial models also were not properly understood. Li's Gaussian copula formula assumed that the price of CDS was correlated with and could predict the correct price of mortgage backed securities. Because it was highly tractable, it rapidly came to be used by a huge percentage of CDO and CDS investors, issuers, and rating agencies. According to one wired.com article: "Then the model fell apart. Cracks started appearing early on, when financial markets began behaving in ways that users of Li's formula hadn't expected. The cracks became full-fledged canyons in 2008—when ruptures in the financial system's foundation swallowed up trillions of dollars and put the survival of the global banking system in serious peril... Li's Gaussian copula formula will go down in history as instrumental in causing the unfathomable losses that brought the world financial system to its knees." George Soros commented that "The super-boom got out of hand when the new products became so complicated that the authorities could no longer calculate the risks and started relying on the risk management methods of the banks themselves. Similarly, the rating agencies relied on the information provided by the originators of synthetic products. It was a shocking abdication of responsibility." Off-balance-sheet financing Complex financing structures called structured investment vehicles (SIV) or conduits enabled banks to move significant amounts of assets and liabilities, including unsold CDO's, off their books. This had the effect of helping the banks maintain regulatory minimum capital ratios. They were then able to lend anew, earning additional fees. Author Robin Blackburn explained how they worked: Off balance sheet financing also made firms look less leveraged and enabled them to borrow at cheaper rates. Banks had established automatic lines of credit to these SIV and conduits. When the cash flow into the SIV's began to decline as subprime defaults mounted, banks were contractually obligated to provide cash to these structures and their investors. This "conduit-related balance sheet pressure" placed strain on the banks' ability to lend, both raising interbank lending rates and reducing the availability of funds. In the years leading up to the crisis, the top four U.S. depository banks moved an estimated $5.2 trillion in assets and liabilities off-balance sheet into these SIV's and conduits. This enabled them to essentially bypass existing regulations regarding minimum capital ratios, thereby increasing leverage and profits during the boom but increasing losses during the crisis. Accounting guidance was changed in 2009 that will require them to put some of these assets back onto their books, which significantly reduces their capital ratios. One news agency estimated this amount at between $500 billion and $1 trillion. This effect was considered as part of the stress tests performed by the government during 2009. During March 2010, the bankruptcy court examiner released a report on Lehman Brothers, which had failed spectacularly in September 2008. The report indicated that up to $50 billion was moved off-balance sheet in a questionable manner by management during 2008, with the effect of making its debt level (leverage ratio) appear smaller. Analysis by the Federal Reserve Bank of New York indicated big banks mask their risk levels just prior to reporting data quarterly to the public. Regulatory avoidance Certain financial innovation may also have the effect of circumventing regulations, such as off-balance sheet financing that affects the leverage or capital cushion reported by major banks. For example, Martin Wolf wrote in June 2009: "...an enormous part of what banks did in the early part of this decade – the off-balance-sheet vehicles, the derivatives and the 'shadow banking system' itself – was to find a way round regulation." Financial sector concentration Niall Ferguson wrote that the financial sector became increasingly concentrated in the years leading up to the crisis, which made the stability of the financial system more reliant on just a few firms, which were also highly leveraged: By contrast, some scholars have argued that fragmentation in the mortgage securitization market led to increased risk taking and a deterioration in underwriting standards. Governmental policies Failure to regulate non-depository banking The Shadow banking system grew to exceed the size of the depository system, but was not subject to the same requirements and protections. Nobel laureate Paul Krugman described the run on the shadow banking system as the "core of what happened" to cause the crisis. "As the shadow banking system expanded to rival or even surpass conventional banking in importance, politicians and government officials should have realized that they were re-creating the kind of financial vulnerability that made the Great Depression possible – and they should have responded by extending regulations and the financial safety net to cover these new institutions. Influential figures should have proclaimed a simple rule: anything that does what a bank does, anything that has to be rescued in crises the way banks are, should be regulated like a bank." He referred to this lack of controls as "malign neglect." Affordable housing policies Critics of government policy argued that government lending programs were the main cause of the crisis. The Financial Crisis Inquiry Commission (report of the Democratic party majority) stated that Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac, government affordable housing policies, and the Community Reinvestment Act were not primary causes of the crisis. The Republican members of the commission disagreed. Government deregulation as a cause In 1992, the Democratic-controlled 102nd Congress under the George H. W. Bush administration weakened regulation of Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac with the goal of making available more money for the issuance of home loans. The Washington Post wrote: "Congress also wanted to free up money for Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac to buy mortgage loans and specified that the pair would be required to keep a much smaller share of their funds on hand than other financial institutions. Whereas banks that held $100 could spend $90 buying mortgage loans, Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac could spend $97.50 buying loans. Finally, Congress ordered that the companies be required to keep more capital as a cushion against losses if they invested in riskier securities. But the rule was never set during the Clinton administration, which came to office that winter, and was only put in place nine years later." Some economists have pointed to deregulation efforts as contributing to the collapse. In 1999, the Republican-controlled 106th Congress U.S. Congress under the Clinton administration passed the Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act, which repealed part of the Glass–Steagall Act of 1933. This repeal has been criticized by some for having contributed to the proliferation of the complex and opaque financial instruments at the heart of the crisis. However, some economists object to singling out the repeal of Glass–Steagall for criticism. Brad DeLong, a former advisor to President Clinton and economist at the University of California, Berkeley and Tyler Cowen of George Mason University have both argued that the Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act softened the impact of the crisis by allowing for mergers and acquisitions of collapsing banks as the crisis unfolded in late 2008. Capital market pressures Private capital and the search for yield In a Peabody Award winning program, NPR correspondents argued that a "Giant Pool of Money" (represented by $70 trillion in worldwide fixed income investments) sought higher yields than those offered by U.S. Treasury bonds early in the decade, which were low due to low interest rates and trade deficits discussed above. Further, this pool of money had roughly doubled in size from 2000 to 2007, yet the supply of relatively safe, income generating investments had not grown as fast. Investment banks on Wall Street answered this demand with the mortgage-backed security (MBS) and collateralized debt obligation (CDO), which were assigned safe ratings by the credit rating agencies. In effect, Wall Street connected this pool of money to the mortgage market in the U.S., with enormous fees accruing to those throughout the mortgage supply chain, from the mortgage broker selling the loans, to small banks that funded the brokers, to the giant investment banks behind them. By approximately 2003, the supply of mortgages originated at traditional lending standards had been exhausted. However, continued strong demand for MBS and CDO began to drive down lending standards, as long as mortgages could still be sold along the supply chain. Eventually, this speculative bubble proved unsustainable. Boom and collapse of the shadow banking system Significance of the parallel banking system In a June 2008 speech, U.S. Treasury Secretary Timothy Geithner, then President and CEO of the NY Federal Reserve Bank, placed significant blame for the freezing of credit markets on a "run" on the entities in the "parallel" banking system, also called the shadow banking system. These entities became critical to the credit markets underpinning the financial system, but were not subject to the same regulatory controls. Further, these entities were vulnerable because they borrowed short-term in liquid markets to purchase long-term, illiquid and risky assets. This meant that disruptions in credit markets would make them subject to rapid deleveraging, selling their long-term assets at depressed prices. He described the significance of these entities: "In early 2007, asset-backed commercial paper conduits, in structured investment vehicles, in auction-rate preferred securities, tender option bonds and variable rate demand notes, had a combined asset size of roughly $2.2 trillion. Assets financed overnight in triparty repo grew to $2.5 trillion. Assets held in hedge funds grew to roughly $1.8 trillion. The combined balance sheets of the then five major investment banks totaled $4 trillion. In comparison, the total assets of the top five bank holding companies in the United States at that point were just over $6 trillion, and total assets of the entire banking system were about $10 trillion." He stated that the "combined effect of these factors was a financial system vulnerable to self-reinforcing asset price and credit cycles." Run on the shadow banking system Nobel laureate and liberal political columnist Paul Krugman described the run on the shadow banking system as the "core of what happened" to cause the crisis. "As the shadow banking system expanded to rival or even surpass conventional banking in importance, politicians and government officials should have realized that they were re-creating the kind of financial vulnerability that made the Great Depression possible—and they should have responded by extending regulations and the financial safety net to cover these new institutions. Influential figures should have proclaimed a simple rule: anything that does what a bank does, anything that has to be rescued in crises the way banks are, should be regulated like a bank." He referred to this lack of controls as "malign neglect." Some researchers have suggested that competition between GSEs and the shadow banking system led to a deterioration in underwriting standards. For example, investment bank Bear Stearns was required to replenish much of its funding in overnight markets, making the firm vulnerable to credit market disruptions. When concerns arose regarding its financial strength, its ability to secure funds in these short-term markets was compromised, leading to the equivalent of a bank run. Over four days, its available cash declined from $18 billion to $3 billion as investors pulled funding from the firm. It collapsed and was sold at a fire-sale price to bank JP Morgan Chase March 16, 2008. More than a third of the private credit markets thus became unavailable as a source of funds. In February 2009, Ben Bernanke stated that securitization markets remained effectively shut, with the exception of conforming mortgages, which could be sold to Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac. The Economist reported in March 2010: "Bear Stearns and Lehman Brothers were non-banks that were crippled by a silent run among panicky overnight "repo" lenders, many of them money market funds uncertain about the quality of securitized collateral they were holding. Mass redemptions from these funds after Lehman's failure froze short-term funding for big firms." Mortgage compensation model, executive pay and bonuses During the boom period, enormous fees were paid to those throughout the mortgage supply chain, from the mortgage broker selling the loans, to small banks that funded the brokers, to the giant investment banks behind them. Those originating loans were paid fees for selling them, regardless of how the loans performed. Default or credit risk was passed from mortgage originators to investors using various types of financial innovation. This became known as the "originate to distribute" model, as opposed to the traditional model where the bank originating the mortgage retained the credit risk. In effect, the mortgage originators were left with nothing at risk, giving rise to a moral hazard that separated behavior and consequence. Economist Mark Zandi described moral hazard as a root cause of the subprime mortgage crisis. He wrote: "...the risks inherent in mortgage lending became so widely dispersed that no one was forced to worry about the quality of any single loan. As shaky mortgages were combined, diluting any problems into a larger pool, the incentive for responsibility was undermined." He also wrote: "Finance companies weren't subject to the same regulatory oversight as banks. Taxpayers weren't on the hook if they went belly up [pre-crisis], only their shareholders and other creditors were. Finance companies thus had little to discourage them from growing as aggressively as possible, even if that meant lowering or winking at traditional lending standards." The New York State Comptroller's Office has said that in 2006, Wall Street executives took home bonuses totaling $23.9 billion. "Wall Street traders were thinking of the bonus at the end of the year, not the long-term health of their firm. The whole system—from mortgage brokers to Wall Street risk managers—seemed tilted toward taking short-term risks while ignoring long-term obligations. The most damning evidence is that most of the people at the top of the banks didn't really understand how those [investments] worked." Investment banker incentive compensation was focused on fees generated from assembling financial products, rather than the performance of those products and profits generated over time. Their bonuses were heavily skewed towards cash rather than stock and not subject to "claw-back" (recovery of the bonus from the employee by the firm) in the event the MBS or CDO created did not perform. In addition, the increased risk (in the form of financial leverage) taken by the major investment banks was not adequately factored into the compensation of senior executives. Bank CEO Jamie Dimon argued: "Rewards have to track real, sustained, risk-adjusted performance. Golden parachutes, special contracts, and unreasonable perks must disappear. There must be a relentless focus on risk management that starts at the top of the organization and permeates down to the entire firm. This should be business-as-usual, but at too many places, it wasn't." Regulation and deregulation Critics have argued that the regulatory framework did not keep pace with financial innovation, such as the increasing importance of the shadow banking system, derivatives and off-balance sheet financing. In other cases, laws were changed or enforcement weakened in parts of the financial system. Several critics have argued that the most critical role for regulation is to make sure that financial institutions have the ability or capital to deliver on their commitments. Critics have also noted de facto deregulation through a shift in market share toward the least regulated portions of the mortgage market. Key examples of regulatory failures include: In 1999, the Republican controlled 106th Congress U.S. Congress under the Clinton administration passed the Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act, which repealed part of the Glass–Steagall Act of 1933. This repeal has been criticized for reducing the separation between commercial banks (which traditionally had a conservative culture) and investment banks (which had a more risk-taking culture). In 2004, the Securities and Exchange Commission relaxed the net capital rule, which enabled investment banks to substantially increase the level of debt they were taking on, fueling the growth in mortgage-backed securities supporting subprime mortgages. The SEC has conceded that self-regulation of investment banks contributed to the crisis. Financial institutions in the shadow banking system are not subject to the same regulation as depository banks, allowing them to assume additional debt obligations relative to their financial cushion or capital base. This was the case despite the Long-Term Capital Management debacle in 1998, where a highly leveraged shadow institution failed with systemic implications. Regulators and accounting standard-setters allowed depository banks such as Citigroup to move significant amounts of assets and liabilities off-balance sheet into complex legal entities called structured investment vehicles, masking the weakness of the capital base of the firm or degree of leverage or risk taken. One news agency estimated that the top four U.S. banks will have to return between $500 billion and $1 trillion to their balance sheets during 2009. This increased uncertainty during the crisis regarding the financial position of the major banks. Off-balance sheet entities were also used by Enron as part of the scandal that brought down that company in 2001. The U.S. Congress allowed the self-regulation of the derivatives market when it passed the Commodity Futures Modernization Act of 2000. Derivatives such as credit default swaps (CDS) can be used to hedge or speculate against particular credit risks. The volume of CDS outstanding increased 100-fold from 1998 to 2008, with estimates of the debt covered by CDS contracts, as of November 2008, ranging from US$33 to $47 trillion. Total over-the-counter (OTC) derivative notional value rose to $683 trillion by June 2008. Warren Buffett famously referred to derivatives as "financial weapons of mass destruction" in early 2003. Author Roger Lowenstein summarized some of the regulatory problems that caused the crisis in November 2009: "1) Mortgage regulation was too lax and in some cases nonexistent; 2) Capital requirements for banks were too low; 3) Trading in derivatives such as credit default swaps posed giant, unseen risks; 4) Credit ratings on structured securities such as collateralized-debt obligations were deeply flawed; 5) Bankers were moved to take on risk by excessive pay packages; 6) The government’s response to the crash also created, or exacerbated, moral hazard. Markets now expect that big banks won’t be allowed to fail, weakening the incentives of investors to discipline big banks and keep them from piling up too many risky assets again." A 2011 documentary film, Heist: Who Stole the American Dream? argues that deregulation led to the crisis, and is geared towards a general audience. Conflicts of interest and lobbying A variety of conflicts of interest have been argued as contributing to this crisis: Credit rating agencies are compensated for rating debt securities by those issuing the securities, who have an interest in seeing the most positive ratings applied. Further, changing the debt rating on a company that insures multiple debt securities such as AIG or MBIA, requires the re-rating of many other securities, creating significant costs. Despite taking on significantly more risk, AIG and MBIA retained the highest credit ratings until well into the crisis. There is a "revolving door" between major financial institutions, the Treasury Department, and Treasury bailout programs. For example, the former CEO of Goldman Sachs was Henry Paulson, who became President George W. Bush's Treasury Secretary. Although three of Goldman's key competitors either failed or were allowed to fail, it received $10 billion in Troubled Asset Relief Program (TARP) funds (which it has since paid back) and $12.9 billion in payments via AIG, while remaining highly profitable and paying enormous bonuses. The first two officials in charge of the TARP bailout program were also from Goldman. There is a "revolving door" between major financial institutions and the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC), which is supposed to monitor them. For example, as of January 2009, the SEC's two most recent Directors of Enforcement had taken positions at powerful banks directly after leaving the role. The route into lucrative positions with banks places a financial incentive on regulators to maintain good relationships with those they monitor. This is sometimes referred to as regulatory capture. Banks in the U.S. lobby politicians extensively. A November 2009 report from economists of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) writing independently of that organization indicated that: Thirty-three legislative proposals that would have increased regulatory scrutiny over banks were the targets of intense and successful lobbying; The study concluded that: "the prevention of future crises might require weakening political influence of the financial industry or closer monitoring of lobbying activities to understand better the incentives behind it." The Boston Globe reported during that during January–June 2009, the largest four U.S. banks spent these amounts ($ millions) on lobbying, despite receiving taxpayer bailouts: Citigroup $3.1; JP Morgan Chase $3.1; Bank of America $1.5; and Wells Fargo $1.4. The New York Times reported in April 2010: "An analysis by Public Citizen found that at least 70 former members of Congress were lobbying for Wall Street and the financial services sector last year, including two former Senate majority leaders (Trent Lott and Bob Dole), two former House majority leaders (Richard A. Gephardt and Dick Armey) and a former House speaker (J. Dennis Hastert). In addition to the lawmakers, data from the Center for Responsive Politics counted 56 former Congressional aides on the Senate or House banking committees who went on to use their expertise to lobby for the financial sector." The Financial Crisis Inquiry Commission reported in January 2011 that "...from 1998 to 2008, the financial sector expended $2.7 billion in reported federal lobbying expenses; individuals and political action committees in the sector made more than $1 billion in campaign contributions." Role of business leaders A 2012 book by Hedrick Smith, Who Stole the American Dream?, suggests that the Powell Memo was instrumental in setting a new political direction for US business leaders that led to "America’s contemporary economic malaise." Other factors Commodity price volatility A commodity price bubble was created following the collapse in the housing bubble. The price of oil nearly tripled from $50 to $140 from early 2007 to 2008, before plunging as the financial crisis began to take hold in late 2008. Experts debate the causes, which include the flow of money from housing and other investments into commodities to speculation and monetary policy. An increase in oil prices tends to divert a larger share of consumer spending into gasoline, which creates downward pressure on economic growth in oil importing countries, as wealth flows to oil-producing states. Spiking instability in the price of oil over the decade leading up to the price high of 2008 has also been proposed as a causal factor in the financial crisis. Inaccurate economic forecasting A cover story in BusinessWeek magazine claims that economists mostly failed to predict the worst international economic crisis since the Great Depression of the 1930s. The Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania online business journal examines why economists failed to predict a major global financial crisis. An article in The New York Times informs that economist Nouriel Roubini warned of such crisis as early as September 2006, and the article goes on to state that the profession of economics is bad at predicting recessions. According to The Guardian, Roubini was ridiculed for predicting a collapse of the housing market and worldwide recession, while The New York Times labelled him "Dr. Doom". However, there are examples of other experts who gave indications of a financial crisis. The failure to forecast the "Great Recession" has caused a lot of soul searching in the economics profession. The Queen of the United Kingdom asked why had nobody noticed that the credit crunch was on its way, and a group of economists—experts from business, the City, its regulators, academia, and government—tried to explain in a letter. Over-leveraging, credit default swaps and collateralized debt obligations as causes Another probable cause of the crisis—and a factor that unquestionably amplified its magnitude—was widespread miscalculation by banks and investors of the level of risk inherent in the unregulated collateralized debt obligation and credit default swap markets. Under this theory, banks and investors systematized the risk by taking advantage of low interest rates to borrow tremendous sums of money that they could only pay back if the housing market continued to increase in value. According to an article published in Wired, the risk was further systematized by the use of David X. Li's Gaussian copula model function to rapidly price collateralized debt obligations based on the price of related credit default swaps. Because it was highly tractable, it rapidly came to be used by a huge percentage of CDO and CDS investors, issuers, and rating agencies. According to one wired.com article: "Then the model fell apart. Cracks started appearing early on, when financial markets began behaving in ways that users of Li's formula hadn't expected. The cracks became full-fledged canyons in 2008—when ruptures in the financial system's foundation swallowed up trillions of dollars and put the survival of the global banking system in serious peril...Li's Gaussian copula formula will go down in history as instrumental in causing the unfathomable losses that brought the world financial system to its knees." The pricing model for CDOs clearly did not reflect the level of risk they introduced into the system. It has been estimated that the "from late 2005 to the middle of 2007, around $450bn of CDO of ABS were issued, of which about one third were created from risky mortgage-backed bonds...[o]ut of that pile, around $305bn of the CDOs are now in a formal state of default, with the CDOs underwritten by Merrill Lynch accounting for the biggest pile of defaulted assets, followed by UBS and Citi." The average recovery rate for high quality CDOs has been approximately 32 cents on the dollar, while the recovery rate for mezzanine CDO's has been approximately five cents for every dollar. These massive, practically unthinkable, losses have dramatically impacted the balance sheets of banks across the globe, leaving them with very little capital to continue operations. Oil prices Economist James D. Hamilton has argued that the increase in oil prices in the period of 2007 through 2008 was a significant cause of the recession. He evaluated several different approaches to estimating the impact of oil price shocks on the economy, including some methods that had previously shown a decline in the relationship between oil price shocks and the overall economy. All of these methods "support a common conclusion; had there been no increase in oil prices between 2007:Q3 and 2008:Q2, the US economy would not have been in a recession over the period 2007:Q4 through 2008:Q3." Hamilton's own model, a time-series econometric forecast based on data up to 2003, showed that the decline in GDP could have been successfully predicted to almost its full extent given knowledge of the price of oil. The results imply that oil prices were entirely responsible for the recession. Hamilton acknowledged that this was probably not the entire cause but maintained that it showed that oil price increases made a significant contribution to the downturn in economic growth. Overproduction It has also been debated that the root cause of the crisis is overproduction of goods caused by globalization. Overproduction tends to cause deflation and signs of deflation were evident in October and November 2008, as commodity prices tumbled and the Federal Reserve was lowering its target rate to an all-time-low 0.25%. On the other hand, ecological economist Herman Daly suggests that it is not actually an economic crisis, but rather a crisis of exceeding growth beyond sustainable ecological limits. This reflects a claim made in the 1972 book Limits to Growth, which stated that without major deviation from the policies followed in the 20th century, a permanent end of economic growth could be reached sometime in the first two decades of the 21st century, due to gradual depletion of natural resources. References Sources External links Financial Crisis Inquiry Commission Homepage CNBC-David Faber-The House of Cards-Video PBS Frontline -Inside the Meltdown-Video New Left Review-The Subprime Mortgage Crisis-Robin Blackburn Leveraged Losses Paper-Greenlaw Hatzius Kashyap Shin Reinhart and Rogoff - Is the U.S. 2007 Subprime Financial Crisis So Different? Feb 2008 Paper 2000s economic history Great Recession September 2008 events in North America 2007 beginnings

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In music, an electronic tuner is a device that detects and displays the pitch of musical notes played on a musical instrument. "Pitch" is the perceived fundamental frequency of a musical note, which is typically measured in Hertz. Simple tuners indicate—typically with an analog needle-dial, LEDs, or an LCD screen—whether a pitch is lower, higher, or equal to the desired pitch. Since the early 2010s, software applications can turn a smartphone, tablet, or personal computer into a tuner. More complex and expensive tuners indicate pitch more precisely. Tuners vary in size from units that fit in a pocket to 19" rack-mount units. Instrument technicians and piano tuners typically use more expensive, accurate tuners. The simplest tuners detect and display tuning only for a single pitch—often "A" or "E"—or for a small number of pitches, such as the six used in the standard tuning of a guitar (E,A,D,G,B,E). More complex tuners offer chromatic tuning for all 12 pitches of the equally tempered octave. Some electronic tuners offer additional features, such as pitch calibration, temperament options, the sounding of a desired pitch through an amplifier plus speaker, and adjustable "read-time" settings that affect how long the tuner takes to measure the pitch of the note. Among the most accurate tuning devices, strobe tuners work differently than regular electronic tuners. They are stroboscopes that flicker a light at the same frequency as the note. The light shines on a wheel that spins at a precise speed. The interaction of the light and regularly-spaced marks on the wheel creates a stroboscopic effect that makes the marks for a particular pitch appear to stand still when the pitch is in tune. These can tune instruments and audio devices more accurately than most non-strobe tuners. However, mechanical strobe units are expensive and delicate, and their moving parts require periodic servicing, so they are used mainly in applications that require higher precision, such as by professional instrument makers and repair experts. Regular types Regular electronic tuners contain either an input jack for electric instruments (usually a -inch patch cord input), a microphone, or a clip-on sensor (e.g., a piezoelectric pickup) or some combination of these inputs. Pitch detection circuitry drives some type of display (an analog needle, an LCD simulated image of a needle, LED lights, or a spinning translucent disk illuminated by a strobing backlight). Some tuners have an output, or through-put, so the tuner can connect 'in-line' from an electric instrument to an instrument amplifier or mixing console. Small tuners are usually battery powered. Many battery-powered tuners also have a jack for an optional AC power supply. Most musical instruments generate a fairly complex waveform. It contains a number of harmonic partials, including the fundamental frequency (which a typical listener perceives as the pitch of the note) and additional "harmonics" (also called "partials" or "overtones"). Each instrument produces different ratios of harmonics, which is what makes notes of the same pitch played on different instruments (e.g., an A 440 Hz note played on oboe, violin or electric guitar) sound different. As well, this waveform constantly changes. This means that for non-strobe tuners to be accurate, the tuner must process a number of cycles and use the pitch average to drive its display. Background noise from other musicians or harmonic overtones from the musical instrument can impede the electronic tuner from "locking" onto the input frequency. This is why the needle or display on regular electronic tuners tends to waver when a pitch is played. Small movements of the needle, or LED, usually represent a tuning error of 1 cent. The typical accuracy of these types of tuners is around ±3 cents. Some inexpensive LED tuners may drift by as much as ±9 cents. "Clip-on" tuners typically attach to instruments with a spring-loaded clip that has a built-in contact microphone. Clipped onto a guitar headstock or violin scroll, these sense pitch even in loud environments, for example when other people are tuning. Some guitar tuners fit into the instrument itself. Typical of these are the Sabine AX3000 and the "NTune" device. The NTune consists of a switching potentiometer, a wiring harness, illuminated plastic display disc, a circuit board and a battery holder. The unit installs in place of an electric guitar's existing volume knob control. The unit functions as a regular volume knob when not in tuner mode. To operate the tuner, the player pulls the volume knob up. The tuner disconnects the guitar's output so the tuning process is not amplified. The lights on the illuminated ring, under the volume knob, indicate the note being tuned. When the note is in tune a green "in tune" indicator light illuminates. After tuning is complete the musician pushes the volume knob back down, disconnecting the tuner from the circuit and re-connecting the pickups to the output jack. Gibson guitars released a guitar model in 2008 called the Robot Guitar—a customized version of either the Les Paul or SG model. The guitar is fitted with a special tailpiece with in-built sensors that pick up the frequency of the strings. An illuminated control knob selects different tunings. Motorized tuning machines on the headstock automatically tune the guitar. In "intonation" mode, the device displays how much adjustment the bridge requires with a system of flashing LEDs on the control knob. Regular needle, LCD and LED display tuners A needle, LCD or regular LED type tuner uses a microprocessor to measure the average period of the waveform. It uses that information to drive the needle or array of lights. When the musician plays a single note, the tuner senses the pitch. The tuner then displays the pitch in relation to the desired pitch, and indicates whether the input pitch is lower, higher, or equal to the desired pitch. With needle displays, the note is in tune when the needle is in a 90° vertical position, with leftward or rightward deviations indicating that the note is flat or sharp, respectively. Tuners with a needle are often supplied with a backlight, so that the display can be read on a darkened stage. For block LED or LCD display tuners, markings on the readout drift left if the note is flat and right if the note is sharp from the desired pitch. If the input frequency is matched to the desired pitch frequency the LEDs are steady in the middle and an 'in tune' reading is given. Some LCDs mimic needle tuners with a needle graphic that moves in the same way as a genuine needle tuner. Somewhat misleadingly, many LED displays have a 'strobe mode' that mimics strobe tuners by scrolling the flashing of the LEDs cyclically to simulate the display of a true strobe. However, these are all just display options. The way a regular tuner 'hears' and compares the input note to a desired pitch is exactly the same, with no change in accuracy. For more on how strobe tuners work see the dedicated section. The least expensive models only detect and display a small number of pitches, often those pitches that are required to tune a given instrument (e.g., E, A, D, G, B, E of standard guitar tuning). While this type of tuner is useful for bands that only use stringed instruments such as guitar and electric bass, it is not that useful for tuning brass or woodwind instruments. Tuners at the next price point offer chromatic tuning, the ability to detect and assess all the pitches in the chromatic scale (e.g., C, C, D, D, etc.). Chromatic tuners can be used for B and E brass instruments, such as saxophones and horns. Many models have circuitry that automatically detects which pitch is being played, and then compares it against the correct pitch. Less expensive models require the musician to specify the target pitch via a switch or slider. Most low- and mid-priced electronic tuners only allow tuning to an equal temperament scale. Electric guitar and electric bass players who perform concerts may use electronic tuners built into an effects pedal, often called a stomp box. These tuners have a rugged metal or heavy-duty plastic housing and a foot-operated switch to toggle between the tuner and a bypass mode. Professional guitarists may use a more expensive version of the LED tuner mounted in a rack-mount case with a larger range of LEDs for more accurate pitch display. Many models let the user select reference pitches other than A440. On many electronic tuners, the user can select a different note—useful for, for example, dropping a guitar's tuning to a lower pitch (e.g., Dropped tuning). Some models are adjustable standards other than A=440. This is useful to some Baroque musicians who play period instruments at lower reference pitches—such as A=435. Some higher-priced electronic tuners support tuning to a range of different temperaments—a feature useful to some guitarists and harpsichord players. Some expensive tuners also include an on-board speaker that can sound notes, either to facilitate tuning by ear or to act as a pitch reference point for intonation practice. Some expensive tuners provide an adjustable read time that controls at what time interval the circuitry assesses pitch. The combination of all the above features makes some tuners preferable for tuning instruments in an orchestra. These are sometimes called "orchestral tuners". Clip-on A clip-on tuner clips onto an instrument—such as onto the headstock of a guitar or the bell of a trombone. A vibration sensor built into the clip transmits the instrument vibrations to the tuning circuitry. The absence of a microphone makes these tuners immune to background noise, so musicians can tune in noisy environments, including while other musicians are tuning. The clip-on tuner was invented in 1995 by Mark Wilson of OnBoard Research Corporation, which marketed it as The Intellitouch Tuner Model PT1. Apps Since the early 2010s, many chromatic and guitar tuner apps are available for Android and iOS smartphones. Many are free to download and install. Strobe tuners Strobe tuners (the popular term for stroboscopic tuners) are the most accurate type of tuner. There are three types of strobe tuners: the mechanical rotating disk strobe tuner, an LED array strobe in place of the rotating disk, and "virtual strobe" tuners with LCDs or ones that work on personal computers. A strobe tuner shows the difference between a reference frequency and the musical note being played. Even the slightest difference between the two shows up as a rotating motion in the strobe display. The accuracy of the tuner is only limited by the internal frequency generator. The strobe tuner detects the pitch either from a TRS input jack or a built-in or external microphone connected to the tuner. The first strobe tuner dates back to 1936 and was originally made by the Conn company; it was called the Stroboconn and was produced for approximately 40 years. However, these strobes are now mainly collector pieces. They had 12 strobe discs, driven by one motor. The gearing between discs was a very close approximation to the 12th root of two ratio. This tuner had an electrically driven temperature-compensated tuning fork; the electrical output of this fork was amplified to run the motor. The fork had sliding weights, an adjustment knob, and a dial to show the position of the weights. These weights permitted setting it to different reference frequencies (such as A4 = 435 Hz), although over a relatively narrow range, perhaps a whole tone. When set at A4 = 440 Hz the tuning fork produced a 55 Hz signal, which drove the four-pole 1650 RPM synchronous motor to which the A disc was mounted. (The other discs were all gear-driven off of this one.) Incoming audio was amplified to feed a long neon tube common to all 12 discs. Wind instrument players and repair people liked this tuner because it needed no adjustment to show different notes. Anyone who had to move this tuner around was less inclined to like it because of its size and weight: two record-player-sized cases of 30-40 pounds each. The best-known brand in strobe tuner technology is Peterson Tuners who in 1967 marketed their first strobe tuner, the Model 400. Other companies, such as Sonic Research, TC Electronic, and Planet Waves, sell highly accurate LED-based true strobe tuners. Other LED tuners have a 'strobe mode' that emulates the appearance of a strobe. However, the accuracy of these tuners in strobe mode, while sufficient for most tuning, is no better than in any other mode, as they use the same technique as any basic tuner to measure frequency, only displaying it in a way that imitates a strobe tuner. How it works Mechanical strobe tuners have a series of lamps or LEDs powered by amplified audio from the instrument; they flash (or strobe) at the same frequency as the input signal. For instance, an 'A' played on a guitar's 6th string at the 5th fret has the frequency of 110 Hz when in tune. An 'A' played on the 1st string at the 5th fret vibrates at 440 Hz. As such, the lamps would flash either 110 or 440 times per second in the above examples. In front of these flashing lights is a motor-driven, translucent printed disc with rings of alternating transparent and opaque sectors. This disc rotates at a fixed specific speed, set by the user. Each disc rotation speed is set to a particular frequency of the desired note. If the note being played (and making the lamps behind the disc flash) is at exactly the same frequency as the spinning of the disc, then the disc appears to be static (due to the persistence of vision) from the strobing effect. If the note is out of tune then the pattern appears to be moving as the light flashing and the disc rotation are out of sync from each other. The more out of tune the played note is, the faster the pattern seems to be moving, although in reality it always spins at the same speed for a given note. Many good turntables for vinyl disc records have stroboscopic patterns lit by the incoming AC power (mains). The power frequency, either 50 or 60 Hz, serves as the reference, although commercial power frequency sometimes changes slightly (a few tenths of a percent) with varying load. Unless reference and measured quantity are interchanged, the operating principle is the same; the turntable speed is adjusted to stop drifting of the pattern. As the disc has multiple bands, each with different spacings, each band can be read for different partials within one note. As such, extremely fine tuning can be obtained, because the user can tune to a particular partial within a given note. This is impossible on regular needle, LCD or LED tuners. The strobe system is about 30 times more accurate than a quality electronic tuner, being accurate to of a cent. Advertisements for the Sonic Research LED strobe claim that it is calibrated to ± 0.0017 cents and guaranteed to maintain an accuracy of ± 0.02 cents or of a cent. Strobe units can often be calibrated for many tunings and preset temperaments and allow for custom temperament programming, stretched tuning, "sweetened" temperament tunings and Buzz Feiten tuning modifications. Due to their accuracy and ability to display partials even on instruments with a very short "voice" (e.g., notes of short duration), strobe tuners can perform tuning tasks that would be very difficult, if not impossible, for needle-type tuners. For instance, needle/LED display type tuners cannot track the signal to identify a tone of the Caribbean steelpan (often nicknamed the "steeldrum") due to its very short "voice". A tuner needs to be able to detect the first few partials for tuning such an instrument, which means that only a strobe tuner can be used for steelpan tuning. This is also true of the comb teeth used in mechanical musical instruments like Music Boxes and the like. In such cases, a technician has to physically remove metal from the tooth to reach the desired note. The metal teeth only resonate briefly when plucked. Great accuracy is required as once the metal is cut or filed away, the lost material cannot be replaced. As such, the strobe-type tuners are the unit of choice for such tasks. Tuners with an accuracy of better than 0.2 cent are required for guitar intonation tuning. One of the most expensive strobe tuners is the Peterson Strobe Center, which has twelve separate mechanical strobe displays; one for each pitch of the equally tempered octave. This unit (about US$3,500) can tune multiple notes of a sound or chord, displaying each note's overtone sub-structure simultaneously. This gives an overall picture of tuning within a sound, note or chord that is not possible with most other tuning devices. (The TC Electronic Polytune can display the pitch accuracy of up to six pre-selected notes.) It is often used for tuning complex instruments and sound sources, or difficult-to-tune instruments where the technician requires a very accurate and complete aural picture of an instrument's output. For instance, when tuning musical bells, this model displays several of the bell's partials (hum, second partial, tierce, quint and nominal/naming note) as well as the prime, and each of their partials, on separate displays. The unit is heavy and fragile, and requires a regular maintenance schedule. Each of the twelve displays requires periodic re-calibration. It can be used to teach students about note substructures, which show on the separate strobing displays. Strobe developments Mechanical disc strobe tuners are expensive, bulky, delicate, and require periodic maintenance (keeping the motor that spins the disc at the correct speed, replacing the strobing LED backlight, etc.). For many, a mechanical strobe tuner is simply not practical for one or all of the above reasons. To address these issues, in 2001 Peterson Tuners added a line of non-mechanical electronic strobe tuners that have LCD dot-matrix displays mimicking a mechanical strobe disc display, giving a stroboscopic effect. In 2004 Peterson made a model of LCD strobe in a sturdy floor based "stomp box" for live on-stage use. Virtual strobe tuners are as accurate as standard mechanical disc strobe tuners. However, there are limitations to the virtual system compared to the disc strobes. Virtual strobes display fewer bands to read note information, and do not pick up harmonic partials like a disc strobe. Rather, each band on a virtual strobe represents octaves of the fundamental. A disc strobe provides "one band correspondence"—each band displays a particular frequency of the note being played. On the virtual strobe system, each band combines a few close frequencies for easier reading on the LCD. This is still extremely accurate for intoning and tuning most instruments—but, as of this writing, no virtual strobe tuner provides detailed information on partials. Sonic Research and Planet Waves both released a true-strobe with a bank of LEDs arranged in a circle that gives a strobing effect based upon the frequency of the input note. Both LCD and LED display true strobes do not require mechanical servicing and are much cheaper than the mechanical types. As such, they are a popular option for musicians who want the accuracy of a strobe without the high cost and the maintenance requirements. However, LED strobe displays offer no information about the harmonic structure of a note, unlike LCD types, which do offer four bands of consolidated information. Peterson released a PC-based virtual strobe tuner in 2008 called "StroboSoft". This computer software package has all the features of a virtual strobe, such as user-programmable temperaments and tunings. To use this tuner, a musician must have a computer next to the instrument to be tuned. An alternative is the PC-based strobe tuner TB Strobe Tuner with fewer functions. In 2009 Peterson Tuners released a VirtualStrobe tuner as an application add-on for Apple's iPhone and iPod Touch. As both mechanical and electronic strobes are still more expensive and arguably more difficult to use in order to achieve the desired results than ordinary tuners, their use is usually limited to those whose business it is accurately to intone and tune pianos, harps, and early instruments (such as harpsichords) on a regular basis: luthiers, instrument restorers and technicians – and instrument enthusiasts. These tuners make the intonation process more precise. Uses Classical music In classical music, there is a longstanding tradition to tune "by ear", by adjusting the pitch of instruments to a reference pitch. In an orchestra, the oboe player gives a 440 Hz "A", and the different instrument sections tune to this note. In chamber music, either one of the woodwind players gives an "A", or if none is present, one of the string players, usually the first violinist, bows his or her open "A" string. If an orchestra is accompanying a piano concerto, the first oboist takes the "A" from the piano and then plays this pitch for the rest of the orchestra. Despite this tradition of tuning by ear, electronic tuners are still widely used in classical music. In orchestras the oboist often uses a high-end electronic tuner to ensure that their "A" is correct. As well, other brass or woodwind players may use electronic tuners to ensure that their instruments are correctly tuned. Classical performers also use tuners off-stage for practice purposes or to check their tuning (or, with the further aid of a speaker, to practice ear training). Electronic tuners are also used in opera orchestras for offstage trumpet effects. In offstage trumpet effects, trumpet players performs a melody from the backstage or from a hallway behind the stage, creating a haunting, muted effect. Since trumpet players cannot hear the orchestra, they cannot know whether or not their notes are in tune with the rest of the ensemble; to resolve this problem, some trumpet players use a high-end, sensitive tuner so that they can monitor the pitch of their notes. Piano tuners, harp makers and the builders and restorers of early instruments, e.g. harpsichords, use high-end tuners to assist with their tuning and instrument building. Even piano tuners who work mostly "by ear" may use an electronic tuner to tune just a first key on the piano, e. g. the a' to 440 Hz, after which they proceed by means of octaves, approximate fifths and approximate fourths to tune the others. (In the twelve-tone equal temperament system dominant in classical and Western music, all intervals except the octave are slightly "mistuned" or compromised compared to more consonant just intervals.) They may also use electronic tuners to get a very out-of-tune piano roughly in pitch, after which point they tune by ear. Electronic tuning devices for keyboard instruments are for various reasons generally much more complex and therefore expensive than in the case of other widely used instruments. Popular and folk music In popular music, amateur and professional bands from styles as varied as country and heavy metal use electronic tuners to ensure that the guitars and electric bass are correctly tuned. In popular music genres such as rock music, there is a great deal of stage volume due to the use of drums and guitar amplifiers, so it can be difficult to tune "by ear". Electronic tuners are helpful aids at jam sessions where a number of players are sharing the stage, because it helps all of the players to have their instruments tuned to the same pitch, even if they have come to the session halfway through. Tuners are helpful with acoustic instruments, because they are more affected by temperature and humidity changes. An acoustic guitar or upright bass that is perfectly in tune backstage can change in pitch under the heat of the stage lights and from the humidity from thousands of audience members. Tuners are used by guitar technicians who are hired by rock and pop bands to ensure that all of the band's instruments are ready to play at all times. Guitar technicians (often called guitar techs) tune all of the instruments (electric guitars, electric basses, acoustic guitars, mandolins, etc.) before the show, after they are played, and before they are used onstage. Guitar techs also retune instruments throughout the show. Whereas amateur musicians typically use a relatively inexpensive quartz tuner, guitar technicians typically use expensive, high-end tuners such as strobe tuners. Most strobe tuners, counter-intuitively, also use quartz crystal oscillators as time references, although the responses are processed differently by the different units. Bell tuning Strobe tuners are used in the tuning of bells, which require accurate tuning of many partials. The removal of metal from various parts of the bell shape is by a tuning lathe, and once too much metal has been removed it cannot be reversed. Hence accurate approach to the desired tuning partial is essential to prevent overshoot. See also Microtuner Synchronization Tuning fork Autotune References Consumer electronics Musical instrument parts and accessories

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The United States Merchant Marine Academy (USMMA or Kings Point) is a United States service academy in Kings Point, New York. It trains cadets to serve as officers in the United States Merchant Marine, branches of the military, and the transportation industry. Midshipmen (as students at the academy are called) are trained in different fields such as marine engineering, navigation, ship's administration, maritime law, personnel management, international law, customs, and many other subjects important to the task of running a large ship. History Between 1874 and 1936, diverse federal legislation supported maritime training through school ships, internships at sea, and other methods. A disastrous fire in 1934 aboard the passenger ship SS Morro Castle, in which 134 lives were lost, convinced the U.S. Congress that direct federal involvement in efficient and standardized training was needed. Originally—and in cooperation with the State of New York (which donated the land)—the U.S. government planned to establish a large-scale Merchant Marine Academy at Fort Schuyler, New York; nothing came of these plans. Fort Schuyler would later be used as the grounds for SUNY (State University of New York) Maritime. Congress passed the landmark Merchant Marine Act in 1936, and two years later, the U.S. Merchant Marine Cadet Corps was established. In that year, the USTS Nantucket (ex-USS Ranger) was transferred from the Massachusetts Maritime Academy to Kings Point and renamed the USTS Emory Rice. The first training was given at temporary facilities until the academy's permanent site in Kings Point, New York was acquired in early 1942. The Kings Point campus was originally Walter Chrysler's twelve-acre waterfront estate, named "Forker House" (now known as the USMMA's Wiley Hall). Construction of the academy began immediately, and 15 months later the task was virtually completed. The academy was dedicated on 30 September 1943, by President Franklin D. Roosevelt, who noted "the Academy serves the Merchant Marine as West Point serves the Army and Annapolis the Navy." World War II required the academy to forgo its normal operation and to devote all of its resources toward meeting the emergency need for Merchant Marine officers. Its enrollment rose to 2,700 men, and the planned course of instruction was reduced in length from four years to 18 months. To meet the wartime needs for qualified merchant marine officers two additional merchant marine cadet training school sites were established, one located in Pass Christian, Mississippi, and the other in San Mateo, California. (The San Mateo location was closed in September 1947, and the students transferred to Kings Point. The location in Pass Christian was similarly closed in 1950.) In spite of the war, shipboard training continued to be an integral part of the academy curriculum, and midshipmen served at sea in combat zones the world over. One hundred and forty-two midshipmen gave their lives in service to their country, and many others survived torpedo and aerial attacks. From 1942 to 1945, the academy graduated 6,895 officers. As the war drew to a close, plans were made to convert the academy's wartime curriculum to a four-year, college-level program to meet the peacetime requirements of the merchant marine. In 1948, such a course was instituted. Authorization for awarding the degree of Bachelor of Science to graduates was granted by Congress in 1949. The academy became fully accredited as a degree-granting institution in the same year. It was made a permanent institution by an Act of Congress in 1956. The academy accelerated graduating classes during the Korean War and the Vietnam War. It was involved in such programs as training U.S. officers for the nuclear-powered merchant ship, the NS Savannah. Admission requirements were amended in 1974, and this academy became the first federal service academy to enroll female students, two years before the Military, Naval, Air Force, and Coast Guard academies. During the Persian Gulf War in early 1991, and for many months prior to the war, both academy graduates and midshipmen played important roles in the large sealift of military supplies to the Middle East. Midshipmen training at sea also participated in the humanitarian sealift to Somalia during Operation Restore Hope. In 1992, the academy acquired its largest campus-based training vessel, the T/V Kings Pointer. After 20 years at the academy, MARAD transferred the ship to the Texas Maritime Academy in Galveston to serve as its new primary training vessel. This was followed by an announcement on 21 August 2012, that the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) agreed to transfer the MV Liberty Star to the U.S. Department of Transportation for use as the new training vessel at the academy. Before being redesigned to serve as a training vessel for students, the former MV Liberty Star served as a solid rocket booster recovery vessel for NASA retrieving solid rocket boosters following space shuttle launches. In June 2014, the vessel was rechristened the T/V Kings Pointer, the fifth vessel of the academy to carry that name. The rechristening followed the earlier dedication of the academy's newly replaced Mallory Pier. In the 1990s, the academy's future came into question when it was included in the National Performance Review, chaired by Vice President Al Gore. The report recommended halving the federal subsidy and requiring students to pay half of tuition to reduce costs. Congress, however, soundly rejected the recommendation and voted to continue the prohibitions on charging tuition to students. Between 2009 and 2014, the Obama Administration invested more than $450 million at the academy, including almost $100 million for capital improvements—the most funding ever secured for physical improvements at the academy. During the attacks of 11 September 2001, the Merchant Marine Academy assisted in the evacuation of civilians from Lower Manhattan as well as the transportation of first responders and supplies to and from Ground Zero. Midshipman, faculty, and staff from the academy, within hours of the attack, were using boats from the waterfront and sending them to the city. Members of the Merchant Marine Academy participated in the relief efforts for nine days. Merchant Marine Academy midshipmen and graduates have been involved in many facets of the war in Iraq. Many graduates were involved in the transportation of supplies during the buildup to the war in 2003. Many graduates in the U.S. Navy Reserve have been called to active duty to serve supporting naval roles in ports in Iraq and Kuwait. Graduates who have entered other branches of the service have had more direct roles in Iraq. Aaron Seesan, a 2003 graduate and U.S. Army first lieutenant, was the first Academy graduate since the Vietnam War to be killed by enemy action. Since that time, two additional graduates, LTJG Francis L. Toner, IV, USN (class of 2006) and 1st Lt. William N. Donnelly, IV, USMC (class of 2008) have both given their lives while serving their country in Afghanistan. Because of the service of midshipmen in every major conflict the country has been involved in since World War II, the regiment is privileged to carry a regimental battle standard. The Merchant Marine Academy is the only federal service academy granted the right to do so, and the standard is carried with the colors at all times. Campaign ribbons from all the conflicts in which midshipmen have taken part help to dress the battle standard. On 19 June 2006, President George W. Bush gave the commencement address at the academy, the first sitting president to visit the academy. Since 2016 the academy has come under public scrutiny and sharp criticism from lawmakers for alleged sexual assault and harassment within its "Sea Year" program. The program, which places students on commercial vessels, was temporarily suspended in 2016 and again in 2021 for multiple allegations of sexual assault in the program. Following both suspensions, the Department of Transportation and the Maritime Administration implemented new safety standards and reforms. Admissions In addition to requiring strong GPA and SAT/ACT scores, to be eligible to enter the academy a candidate must: Be of good moral character. Be at least 17 years of age and must not have passed his or her 25th birthday before July 1 in the year of entrance. Be a citizen of the United States either by birth or naturalization, except for a limited number of international midshipmen specially authorized by Congress. Meet the physical, security and character requirements necessary for appointment as midshipman in the U.S. Navy. Obtain a Congressional nomination to the academy from a member of Congress. Submit a completed application; and Qualify academically. Medical/Physical Clearance – Candidates are required to pass a DoDMERB (Department of Defense Medical Examination Review Board) physical, and take the Candidate Fitness Assessment (CFA) to assess physical fitness. Security Clearance – In order to receive a commission at graduation as an officer in the U.S. armed forces, candidates are required to complete a security clearance upon enrollment at the academy. Organization The academy is administered by the U.S. Maritime Administration, and has a budget of $82.3 million (FY20) from the United States Department of Transportation. The entire student body is referred to as the Regiment of Midshipmen and is subdivided into three battalions and six companies (as of 2017). The 1st and 2nd Companies form the 1st Battalion, the 3rd and Band Companies make up the 2nd Battalion, while the 4th and 5th Company make the 3rd Battalion. Company assignment is random, although candidates with experience of playing a musical instrument are highly considered for joining the Band Company. The United States Merchant Marine Academy Regimental Band serves a dual purpose as both the Academy's Marching Band as well as the official band of the United States Merchant Marine, often playing in official events alongside the other bands of the Armed Forces as well as representing the U.S. Merchant Marine at official events around the country and overseas. Department of Public Safety The USMMA Department of Public Safety is a full-service law enforcement agency responsible for campus safety and security. The Academy has mutual-aid agreements with multiple agencies in both Great Neck and Nassau County, including the Kings Point Police Department, Great Neck Alert Fire Department (fire and rescue coverage), Great Neck Vigilant Fire Department (EMS coverage), and the Nassau County Police Department, as well as investigative support from the Federal Bureau of Investigation. The Department Head is assisted by two federal police officers and two federal guards, with contract security guards utilized to meet minimum manning requirements. Federal police officers, federal guards, and contract guards wear distinct uniforms and perform access control, foot and motor patrols, respond to transmitted fire and security alarms, address safety and security matters, direct traffic, and enforce parking and traffic regulations. The police officers have full arrest authority under federal law (Title 40 United States Code Section 1315), and may also issue federal and New York state summonses, protect persons and property, prevent breaches of the peace, and enforce rules and regulations for the protection of property at the academy. The guards have no arrest authority other than that of an ordinary citizen. Curriculum Admitted appointees enter as "candidates" in early July, and begin a two-and-a-half-week indoctrination period, or "indoc", run by upperclass instructors and supervised by United States Maritime Service officers of the Commandant of Midshipman's staff. It is a high-stress, intensive introduction to regimental life at the academy including physical training, history, customs and courtesies, and drill and ceremony. After indoc, the candidates earn the title of "plebe candidates". The academic year begins in late July, and on Acceptance Day in September, plebe candidates are sworn into the U.S. Navy Reserve and join the regiment as plebes. As plebes they are subject to stringent rules that govern daily life until the following spring, when they are recognized as midshipmen, fourth class, with eased restrictions and additional privileges. The following academic programs (Bachelor of Science 4-year degree programs) are offered at USMMA: Marine Transportation Maritime Logistics and Security Marine Engineering Marine Engineering Systems Marine Engineering and Shipyard Management These five majors can be grouped as follows: The two "Deck Majors" are Marine Transportation and Maritime Logistics and Security. Marine transportation students learn about ship navigation, cargo handling, navigation rules and maritime law. These majors grant midshipman a Third Mate license for work on steam or motor vessels of unlimited tonnage. The three "Engine Majors" are Marine Engineering, Marine Engineering Systems, and Marine Engineering and Shipyard Management. Marine engineering students learn about the function of the ship's engines and its supporting systems. These majors lead to the issuance of Third Assistant Engineer (3 A/E – Engineering Officer) licenses for steam and motor vessel of any horsepower. Marine Engineering Systems, and Marine Engineering and Shipyard Management, graduates are also qualified to sit for the Engineer in Training (EIT) examination administered by the National Council of Examiners for Engineering and Surveying (NCEES). For portions of their sophomore (third-class) and junior (second-class) years, midshipmen serve as cadets on U.S. merchant ships. Midshipmen are typically assigned as pairs to a ship, an engineering cadet and a deck cadet, and operate as part of the crew, gaining hands-on experience as well as the opportunity to travel abroad to foreign ports; the average midshipman travels to eighteen countries during the three-hundred-day training period. This practical training results in an extended academic year that runs from late July to mid-June. A note on titles - Are they called "midshipmen" or "cadets"? The title "midshipman" is a naval rank and refers to the four classes (or grades) of student at the Academy. Midshipmen 4th Class are freshmen, 3rd Class are sophomores, etc. The title "cadet" refers to a student officer/apprentice billet on a merchant ship in either the Deck or Engineering Departments. To place this in context - "Midshipman 2nd Class Smith is sailing as Engine Cadet on the USNS MERCY for the next two months." Toward the end of 1st class (senior) year, midshipmen prepare for U.S. Coast Guard exams for a mandatory license as Third Assistant Engineer (steam and motor unlimited HP) or Third Mate (any gross tons, oceans). Athletics The USMMA Mariners compete in Division III of the NCAA, as a member of the Skyline Conference in all sports (men's sports include baseball, basketball, cross country, lacrosse, soccer, swimming & diving, tennis, and track & field; women's sports include basketball, cross country, lacrosse, swimming & diving, track & field, and volleyball) except in football, where they are an associate member of the New England Women's and Men's Athletic Conference, and collegiate wrestling, where they are a member of the Centennial Conference. The USMMA was a member of the Skyline Conference until the 2006–07 season; the USMMA returned to the Skyline Conference for the 2016–17 academic year. The academy was also a charter member in the Landmark Conference from 2007 until 2016. Distinguished midshipmen The Merchant Marine Distinguished Service Medal is the highest award which can be bestowed upon members of the United States Merchant Marine and is the service's equivalent of the Medal of Honor. Since mariners serving in the U.S. Merchant Marine are not directly employed by the Department of Defense, they are not eligible for the Medal of Honor. Since USMMA opened in 1943, eight midshipmen have been awarded the Merchant Marine Distinguished Service Medal. Midshipman Francis A. Dales, Midshipman Elmer C. Donnelly, Midshipman Carl M. Medved – Awarded posthumously, Midshipman Edwin Joseph O'Hara – Awarded posthumously, Midshipman Walter G. Sittmann, Midshipman William M. Thomas, Jr., Midshipman Phil Cox Vannais, and Midshipman Frederick R. Zito. Post-graduation service obligations Midshipmen at Kings Point have a wide variety of options upon graduation. Unlike the nation's other federal service academies, graduates of USMMA are required to fulfill their service obligation on their own by providing annual proof of employment in a wide variety of occupations as approved by MARAD for a specified period of time. Graduates may elect to fulfill their service obligation by working as licensed officers on U.S.-flagged merchant vessels, as civilians in the maritime industry, or as active duty officers in any branch of the military or the uniformed services of the United States, including Public Health Service, and the National Oceanic Atmospheric Administration. Regardless, graduates are required to maintain their U.S. Coast Guard-issued merchant marine officer's license for a period of at least 6 years. Those graduates electing to enter the civilian work force in the maritime industry, and those sailing in the Merchant Marine, are also required to maintain their Navy Reserve commission (or another reserve component commission in the Army National Guard or Reserve, Marine Corps Reserve, Air Force National Guard or Reserve, or Coast Guard Reserve) for a period of at least 8 years after their commissioning as officers, and are required to serve in the maritime industry for at least 5 years following graduation. On average about 1/3 of each graduating class goes to sea working in the Merchant Marine serving with the Military Sealift Command (part of the U.S. Navy) and the National Defense Reserve Fleet or on various US-Flagged ships in international trade, inland & near-coastal transportation, research vessels, and other types of vessels. Another 1/3 generally go to work in the U.S. maritime industry ashore working in commercial shipping, ship broking, ship repair, intermodal logistics, marine engineering, maritime law, maritime insurance, or defense contracting. About 1/3 enter the military as active duty commissioned officers in the Uniformed Services. Of those going on active duty, most enter the Navy as naval aviators, naval flight officers, surface warfare officers, submarine officers, or occasionally even as SEALs. Many midshipmen enter the Coast Guard, while others enter the Marine Corps, Army, Air Force, United States Space Force, and their Reserve or National Guard components. Midshipmen may also apply for National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) with the NOAA Commissioned Corps. Those graduates who sail in the U.S. Merchant Marine or work ashore in the U.S. Maritime Industry will receive a Navy reserve commission as Strategic Sealift Officers. A graduate from USMMA receives upon graduation: A Bachelor of Science degree, An Unlimited USCG License as a Merchant Marine Officer, either 3rd Mate or 3rd Assistant Engineer, and A Commission as an ensign in the U.S. Navy Reserve Strategic Sealift Officer Program (see: Navy Reserve Merchant Marine Insignia), or if accepted on Active Duty, as an ensign in the U.S. Navy, U.S. Coast Guard, or National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, or as a 2nd lieutenant in the U.S. Marine Corps, U.S. Army, U.S. Air Force, or U.S. Space Force. Graduates who choose military service must serve at least five years in the active duty force of their respective service. American Merchant Marine Museum The USMMA in Kings Point, New York is the home of the American Merchant Marine Museum. The museum houses: A learning center which is open to the regiment and the public The academy's collection of maritime art and artifacts Exhibits, including: The only known back-acting engine still in existence, that of the former gunboat The National Maritime Hall of Fame (the only permanent exhibit of its kind in the nation), which honors people and ships important to American oceanic, coastal, inland waterways, and Great Lakes shipping. Inductees into the Hall of Fame must be deceased, or sunk or scrapped, for at least five years. Only one person and one ship are inducted into the Hall of Fame each year. The Hall inducted its first set of members in or about 1982. Among the museum's many items are the world's largest collection of navigation and nautical instruments, and the only extensive selection of ship's china, on display anywhere in the world. In addition, one of the five surrender swords presented by the Japanese to General of the Army Douglas MacArthur at the conclusion of World War II is housed there. Images from the museum and from the academy can be seen at the Photographic Catalog of the U.S. Merchant Marine Academy website. Superintendents . Captain James Harvey Tomb, USN 1942–1943 . Rear Admiral Giles C. Stedman, USNR 1943–1946 . Rear Admiral Richard R. McNulty, USNR 1946–1948 . Vice Admiral Gordon McLintock, USMS 1948–1970 . Rear Admiral Arthur B. Engel, USCG 1970–1980 . Rear Admiral Thomas A. King, USMS 1980–1987 . Rear Admiral Paul L. Krinsky, USMS 1987–1993 . Rear Admiral Thomas T. Matteson, USMS 1993–1998 . Vice Admiral Joseph D. Stewart, USMS 1998–2008 . Rear Admiral Allen B. Worley, USMS 2009–2010 . Rear Admiral Philip H. Greene, Jr., USN 2010–2011 . Rear Admiral James A. Helis, USMS 2012–2018 . Vice Admiral Jack Buono, USMS 2018–present Above right is the academy photograph of Rear Admiral Richard Robert McNulty. As commodore of the U.S. Merchant Marine Cadet Corps of the U.S. Maritime Commission from 1938 to 1948 and for decades prior, he advocated for creation of the academy. The USMMA community considers McNulty to be the academy's "father". He was the academy's third superintendent. The letter appearing right is from the academy's early history and accompanied the photograph. The letter from the United States Merchant Marine Academy explains how, as the academy's third superintendent, Rear Admiral McNulty, strongly supported cadet sports, especially, baseball. The Academic Dean, Dr. Shashi Kumar, Master Mariner served as acting superintendent between Admirals Worley and Greene and again between Greene and Helis. Congressional Board of Visitors In accordance with 46 USC § 51312, The Board of Visitors to the United States Merchant Marine Academy provides independent advice and recommendations on matters relating to the United States Merchant Marine Academy to the President of the United States and the United States Congress. The 19-member board is composed of members of Congress, academy alumni, and stakeholders from the federal government and the maritime industry. Specifically: 2 Senators appointed by the chair of the Senate Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation; 1 Senator appointed by the Vice President of the United States from the Senate Appropriations Committee; 3 members of the House of Representatives appointed by the chair of the United States House Committee on Armed Services; 2 members of the House of Representatives appointed by the Speaker of the House of Representatives, at least 1 of whom shall be a member of the House Appropriations Committee; 5 individuals appointed by the President, at least 2 of which shall be graduates of the academy, at least 1 shall be a senior corporate officer from a United States maritime shipping company, and 1 or more may be a Senate-confirmed presidential appointee, a member of the Senior Executive Service, or any officer of flag-rank who from the U.S. Coast Guard, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), or any of the military services that commission graduates of the academy; and 6 ex officio members: the commander of the U.S. Navy Military Sealift Command; the Deputy Commandant for Operations of the U.S. Coast Guard; the chair of the Senate Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation; the chair of the United States House Committee on Armed Services; the chair of the USMMA Academic Advisory Board; and—the member of the House of Representatives for the congressional district in which the academy is located, as a nonvoting member—Chairmanship is rotated on a biannual basis between a member of the House of Representatives and a member of the Senate. Meetings of the board The board is required to meet at least quarterly, in accordance with their charter, including at least 1 meeting held at the academy on a date selected by the board in consultation with the Secretary of Transportation and the Superintendent of the academy. However, board members, in cooperation with the Superintendent, may make other visits to the academy in connection with the duties of the board. While visiting the academy under this subsection, members of the board shall have reasonable access to the grounds, facilities, midshipmen, faculty, staff, and other personnel of the academy for the purpose of carrying out the duties of the board. Responsibility of the board The board shall inquire into the state of morale and discipline, the curriculum, instruction, physical equipment, fiscal affairs, and academic methods of the academy, and other matters relating to the academy that the board decides to consider. Not later than 60 days after each annual visit to the academy, the board shall submit to the President of the United States, a written report of its actions, views, and recommendations pertaining to the academy. If the members of the board make other visits to the academy, the board may prepare a report on such visit; and if approved by a majority of the members of the board, submit such report to the President not later than 60 days after the date of the approval. Any report submitted to the President will be concurrently submitted to the Secretary of Transportation, the Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation of the Senate, and the Committee on Armed Services of the House of Representatives. (Pub. L. 109–304, §8(b), Oct. 6, 2006, 120 Stat. 1575; Pub. L. 113–291, div. C, title XXXV, §3504(a), Dec. 19, 2014, 128 Stat. 3905.) Notable alumni Christopher D. Thayer (1983) Director, Maritime Operations at Military Sealift Command (MSC), 1986–Present Edward S.G. Dennis (1967) Assistant U.S. Attorney General, Criminal Division (1988-1990) Lane Kirkland (1942) U.S. labor union leader who served as President of the AFL-CIO for over 16 years. Robert H. Scarborough (1944) First graduate to become a vice admiral in the United States Coast Guard; Vice Commandant of the United States Coast Guard; inducted into USMMA Hall of Distinguished Graduates in 1997. Theodore "Ted" Taylor (1944) author of over 50 fiction and non-fiction books; best known for his 1969 novel The Cay. Russell B. Cummings (1945) Texas state representative from Harris County (1963–1967). Dean White (1945) Chairman and CEO of Whiteco Industries, Inc, Hotel/display sign magnate, Member of Fortune 500; philanthropist; the Dean and Barbara White Admissions Center at USMMA is named in his honor; inducted into USMMA Hall of Distinguished Graduates in 2006. John Diebold (1946) Author of the book Automation (1954); established DieBold Group in 1961 designed and installed the first electronic banking network. Inducted into USMMA Hall of Distinguished Graduates in 2003. Thomas William McNamara (1948) United States Navy rear admiral Elliot See (1949) Project Gemini astronaut; killed in training; inducted into USMMA Hall of Distinguished Graduates in 1999. William B. Morgan (1950) Distinguished naval architect and marine engineer who revolutionized propeller design; 50-year career with the U.S. Navy David Taylor Model Basin; inducted into USMMA Hall of Distinguished Graduates in 2008. Romulo Espaldon (1950) First rear admiral of the Philippine Navy; First commander of the Philippine Southern Command; First governor of Tawi-Tawi province; First congressman of Tawi-Tawi; First regional commissioner of Western Mindanao; First minister of Muslim Affairs; Ambassador to Egypt and Saudi Arabia; Inducted into USMMA Hall of Distinguished Graduates in 1995. Albert J. Herberger (1955) First graduate to become a vice admiral in the United States Navy; Administrator, U.S. Maritime Administration under President Bill Clinton; inducted into USMMA Hall of Distinguished Graduates in 2000. George Oster (1961) Professor mathematical biology, University of California; MacArthur Fellow; member National Academy of Science. Robert Kiyosaki (1969) Author of the Rich Dad, Poor Dad books; Marine Corps helicopter gunship pilot during the Vietnam War. Skip Prosser (1972) Men's basketball coach at Loyola (Md.), Xavier University and Wake Forest University. Joe Rizzo (1973) "Orange Crush" Denver Broncos linebacker; starting Broncos linebacker in Super Bowl XII. Mark H. Buzby (1979) Rear admiral, U.S. Navy; Administrator, U.S. Maritime Administration (2017–2021); Commander, Military Sealift Command; former Deputy Director Expeditionary Warfare; Commander, Joint Task Force, Guantanamo; Commanding Officer, USS Carney (DDG-64) and DESRON-31. Sean Connaughton (1983) Administrator, U.S. Maritime Administration (2006–2009), Virginia Secretary of Transportation (2010–2013). Morgan Reeser (1984) Silver medalist, 1992 Olympics - Sailing, 470 Class; National Champion Multiple Times; Two-time College Sailor of the Year (1983, 1984). Mark E. Kelly (1986) U.S. Senator; Captain, U.S. Navy; pilot, STS-108 Space Shuttle Endeavour, STS-121 Space Shuttle Discovery, STS-124 Space Shuttle Discovery. Sean Marshall (1987) Former child actor, star of Disney's Pete's Dragon. David "Dubs" Wright (2004) Laser sailor, 2002 National Champion. All American 2003. Represented Canada in 2012 London Olympic Games. Jennifer Boykin - President of Newport News Shipbuilding, Vice President of Huntington Ingalls Industries. Non-graduate alumi Andrew Card – Former White House Chief-of Staff Henry Way Kendall – Nobel Laureate in Physics (1990) Gray H. Miller – Senior United States District Judge of the United States District Court for the Southern District of Texas Carroll O'Connor – Actor – portrayed Archie Bunker on All in the Family Martin Lewis Perl – Nobel Laureate in Physics (1995) Notable faculty Clark G. Reynolds – Historian; professor of history and head of the USMMA Department of Humanities (1976–1978) See also Vice Admiral Emory S. Land, USN. Instrumental in overseeing founding of Academy United States Merchant Marine United States Maritime Service U.S. Department of Transportation U.S. Department of Defense U.S. Maritime Administration List of maritime museums in the United States Navy Reserve Merchant Marine Insignia The Olmsted Scholar Program United States Merchant Marine Academy Regimental Band U.S. Military Academy U.S. Naval Academy U.S. Air Force Academy U.S. Coast Guard Academy Notes While "cadet" and "midshipman" are frequently used interchangeably to refer to students at USMMA, to do so is incorrect. The terms serve two different purposes—the term "midshipman" refers to a military rank, whereas the term "cadet" refers to a job description, much the same way the term "captain" is used for any officer in command of a ship regardless of actual rank. Examples: Midshipman Smith is the deck cadet on the SS Kauai, Midshipman Jones is the engine cadet. References External links Official website USMMA Athletics website Military academies of the United States Maritime colleges in the United States Universities and colleges in New York (state) Town of North Hempstead, New York Educational institutions established in 1942 Long Island Sound Great Neck Peninsula United States Merchant Marine Universities and colleges on Long Island Universities and colleges in Nassau County, New York United States military service academies 1942 establishments in New York (state)

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Béla III (, , ; 114823 April 1196) was King of Hungary and Croatia between 1172 and 1196. He was the second son of King Géza II and Géza's wife, Euphrosyne of Kiev. Around 1161, Géza granted Béla a duchy, which included Croatia, central Dalmatia and possibly Sirmium. In accordance with a peace treaty between his elder brother, Stephen III, who succeeded their father in 1162, and the Byzantine Emperor Manuel I Komnenos, Béla moved to Constantinople in 1163. He was renamed to Alexios, and the emperor granted him the newly created senior court title of despotes. He was betrothed to the Emperor's daughter, Maria. Béla's patrimony caused armed conflicts between the Byzantine Empire and the Kingdom of Hungary between 1164 and 1167, because Stephen III attempted to hinder the Byzantines from taking control of Croatia, Dalmatia and Sirmium. Béla-Alexios, who was designated as Emperor Manuel's heir in 1165, took part in three Byzantine campaigns against Hungary. His betrothal to the emperor's daughter was dissolved after her brother, Alexios, was born in 1169. The emperor deprived Béla of his high title, granting him the inferior rank of kaisar. Stephen III died on 4 March 1172, and Béla decided to return to Hungary. Before his departure, he pledged that he would never make war against the Byzantine Empire. Although the Hungarian prelates and lords unanimously proclaimed Béla king, Lucas, Archbishop of Esztergom opposed his coronation because of Béla's alleged simony. Finally, the Archbishop of Kalocsa crowned him king on 18 January 1173, with Pope Alexander III's approval. Béla fought with his younger brother, Géza, whom he held in captivity for more than a decade. Taking advantage of the internal conflicts in the Byzantine Empire after Emperor Manuel's death, Béla reoccupied Croatia, Dalmatia and Sirmium between 1180 and 1181. He occupied the Principality of Halych in 1188, but it was lost within two years. Béla promoted the use of written records during his reign. Hungarian chronicles from the 14th century even state that he was responsible for the establishment of the Royal Chancery. The royal palace built in Esztergom during his reign was the first example of Gothic architecture in Central Europe. He was the wealthiest European monarch of his time, according to a list of his revenues, but the reliability of the list is questioned. Early life Childhood ( 1148–1163) Béla was the second son of Géza II of Hungary and Géza's wife, Euphrosyne of Kiev. The date of his birth was not recorded. Studies of his bones show that Béla died in 1196 at around 49 years old, so he must have been born around 1148. The contemporaneous John Kinnamos's reference to "the territory which his father, while still alive, had apportioned" to Béla shows that Géza II granted a distinct territory as an appanage to his younger son. Béla's patrimony certainly included the central parts of Dalmatia, (which included Šibenik, Split, and Trogir, which had accepted the suzerainty of the Kings of Hungary for decades), because Kinnamos mentioned the province "as Béla's heritage". Historians Ferenc Makk and Gyula Moravcsik agree that Béla also received Croatia from his father. Whether Syrmium was also part of Béla's patrimony, or if he only acquired it after his father's death is subject to scholarly debates. According to historian Warren Treadgold, Béla's patrimony also included Bosnia. The exact date of Géza II's grant cannot be determined, but according to Makk, Béla seems to have received his duchy around 1161. Géza II, who died on 31 May 1162, was succeeded by his first-born son, Stephen III. Stephen III seems to have confirmed Béla's possession of the duchy, because Kinnamos referred to the land which was "long before granted" to Béla by Géza and Stephen. Shortly after his ascension to the throne, Stephen III was expelled by his uncles, Ladislaus II and Stephen IV. The Byzantine Emperor, Manuel I Komnenos, supported the uncles' takeover, but Stephen III returned to Hungary and regained his crown by force in the middle of 1163. Béla probably remained neutral during his brother's conflict with their uncles, because there is no report of Béla's activities in 1162 and 1163. In 1163, Emperor Manuel signed a peace treaty with Stephen III, in which he renounced his support of Stephen's opponents. In exchange, Stephen III agreed to send Béla to Constantinople, and to allow the Byzantines to take possession of Béla's duchy. The Emperor also promised that he would betroth his daughter, Maria, to Béla. Despotes Alexios (1163–1169) Emperor Manuel dispatched sebastos George Palaiologos to escort Béla to the Byzantine Empire. Béla arrived in Constantinople around the end of 1163. He was renamed to Alexios, and received the title of despotes ("lord"), which only emperors had used before that time. Béla's betrothal to the emperor's daughter was also officially announced. Stephen III invaded Syrmium in the summer of 1164. Emperor Manuel led his armies against Stephen, stating that he arrived "not to wage war on the Hungarians but to recover his land for Béla", according to Kinnamos. Béla-Alexiosalong with his uncle, Stephen IV, and their distant relative, Stephanos Kalamanosaccompanied the emperor during the campaign. Before long, a new peace treaty was signed, once again forcing Stephen III to renounce Béla's duchy. A Byzantine army occupied Syrmium, which was organized into a Byzantine theme, or district. Stephen III launched a new invasion against Syrmium in the spring of 1165. Emperor Manuel directed the counter-attack, and Béla accompanied him again. After the imperial army recaptured Zimony (now Zemun in Serbia), Béla persuaded the emperor to prohibit the execution of the Hungarian soldiers who were captured in the fortress. A Byzantine army also occupied Dalmatia. A new peace treaty between Stephen III and Emperor Manuel followed, which confirmed the emperor's suzerainty in Béla's former duchy. Dalmatia and Bosnia were soon converted into Byzantine themes. Emperor Manuel ceremoniously made his daughter and Béla-Alexios his heirs, and forced the Byzantine notables to swear an oath of fidelity to them in the autumn of 1165. Only the emperor's cousin, Andronikos Komnenos, dared to condemn this act, asking, "What madness is this of the emperor to deem every Roman male unworthy of his daughter's nuptial bed, to choose before all others this foreigner and interloper to be an emperor of the Romans and to sit above all as master?", according to the nearly contemporaneous Niketas Choniates. Béla-Alexios participated in the 1166 Council of Blachernae, together with Emperor Manuel and the Ecumenical Patriarch Luke Chrysoberges. In the spring of 1166, Béla-Alexios accompanied protostrator Alexios Axouch, who led a Byzantine army against Hungary in retaliation for a new Hungarian invasion of Syrmium. On 11 April 1166, although Béla-Alexios and his bride were related to each other, Emperor Manuel confirmed a decision of the Ecumenical Patriarch, which stated that marriages between kin to the seventh degree were void. Manuel even proposed a marriage between his daughter (Béla-Alexios's fiancée) and the new King of Sicily, William II, in the autumn of 1166. A new war broke out between Hungary and the Byzantine Empire in 1167, because Béla-Alexios "claimed the kingdom" of his brother, according to the contemporaneous Rahewin. Henry of Mügeln also wrote that many Hungarians joined and served the army of Béla-Alexios, stating that "the Kingdom of Hungary belonged to him [Béla-Alexios] by right". On 8 July 1167, the Byzantine army annihilated the Hungarian troops in the Battle of Sirmium. A peace treaty was signed, which put an end to the period of wars between Hungary and the Byzantine Empire, and confirmed the dominion of the Byzantine Empire over central Dalmatia, Bosnia and Syrmium. Kaisar Alexios (1169–1172) Emperor Manuel's wife, Maria of Antioch, gave birth to a son named Alexios on 14 September 1169. The emperor dissolved his daughter's betrothal to Béla-Alexios. The emperor also removed Béla-Alexios's title of despotes, but granted him the inferior rank of kaisar. In the spring of 1170, Béla-Alexios married the emperor's sister-in-law, Agnes of Antioch. The couple went on a pilgrimage to the Holy Land. In Jerusalem, they donated 10,000 bezants to the Knights Hospitaller in compensation for their hospitality. In the charter of grant, Béla-Alexios styled himself "Lord A., Duke of Hungary, Dalmatia and Croatia", ignoring the title that the emperor had recently bestowed upon him. Reign Coronation (1172–1173) Béla's brother, Stephen III, died on 4 March 1172. Arnold of Lübeck, who was staying in Esztergom, recorded a rumor suggesting that Stephen had been poisoned by Béla's supporters, but no other source verifies this hearsay. Stephen III's widow, Agnes, left Hungary, although she was pregnant when her husband died. A Hungarian delegation visited Emperor Manuel and Béla in Sardica (now Sophia in Bulgaria). They demanded that "Béla be dispatched to them as king", because "the principle of justice looked toward him" after his brother's death, according to Kinnamos. Kinnamos also said that Emperor Manuel made Béla king after Béla "promised an oath to observe for the whole course of his life whatever would be beneficial" to the emperor and the Byzantines. A letter written by the Byzantine Emperor Isaac II Angelos in 1196 says that on the same occasion, Béla pledged that he would never support the Serbians if they fought against the Byzantine Empire. Béla and his wife arrived in Székesfehérvár in late April or early May. Béla was unanimously elected king by the "dignitaries of the Hungarian kingdom", according to a letter written by Pope Alexander III in 1179. However, Béla's coronation was delayed, because Lucas, Archbishop of Esztergom, refused to perform it. The archbishop accused the king of simony, because Béla had given a precious cloak to his delegate. According to a scholarly theory, Archbishop Lucas also feared that the influence of "schismatics" would increase under Béla's rule. Nevertheless, the majority of the barons and prelates remained loyal to Béla. Béla sought the assistance of the Holy See against the Archbishop Lucas. Upon Béla's request, Pope Alexander III authorized the Archbishop of Kalocsa to anoint Béla king and "place the crown on his head". Béla's coronation took place on 18 January 1173. He issued a charter confirming the right of the archbishops of Esztergom to crown the Hungarian monarchs. The unification of the so-called "Greek" and "Latin" crowns into the Holy Crown of Hungary seems to have occurred during his reign. Conflicts (1173–1178) Archbishop Lucas fell out of favor with Béla, and was ignored by him in the first years of his reign. Instead of Lucas, the Archbishop of Kalocsa baptized Béla's first-born son, Emeric, in 1174. However, administering sacraments to members of the royal family had always been the archbishops of Esztergom's job. According to a Bohemian chronicle (Continuatio Gerlaci abbatis Milovicensis), Béla imprisoned his younger brother, Géza, but Géza escaped from prison and fled to Austria in 1174 or 1175. Stephen III's judge royal, Lawrence, accompanied Géza. When Henry Jasomirgott, Duke of Austria, refused to extradite Géza, Béla launched plundering raids into Austria, together with Soběslav II, Duke of Bohemia. Meanwhile, Béla sent reinforcements to Emperor Manuel to help him fight against the Seljuks, but their united forces suffered defeat in the Battle of Myriokephalon on 17 September 1176. Géza tried to persuade Soběslav II of Bohemia to help him meet Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor, but Soběslav seized Géza and handed him over to Béla in 1177. Béla once again imprisoned his brother, and he also put their mother, Euphrosyne, in confinement. In retaliation for Soběslav's role in Géza's capture, Emperor Frederick dethroned Soběslav and appointed another member of the Přemyslid dynasty, Frederick, to the position of duke. The Holy Roman Emperor ordered the new Duke of Austria, Leopold V, to storm Bohemia. Béla soon intervened, threatening Leopold V with an invasion, which forced Leopold to leave Bohemia. Expansion and reforms (1178–1194) Béla's long-time favorite, Andrew, Archbishop of Kalocsa, insulted him around 1178. Béla soon deprived him and his supporter, the Provost of Székesfehérvár Chapter, of their offices and seized the Archbishop's revenues. Pope Alexander III punished Béla with ecclesiastic sanctions, but Béla reconciled with Archbishop Lucas of Esztergom, who absolved him and excommunicated Andrew of Kalocsa. The conflict ended with a compromise mediated by the Holy See: Andrew asked Béla to pardon him, and Béla restored him to his position of archbishop. Upon Béla's invitation, Cistercian monks came from France and set up new Cistercian abbeys at Egres, Zirc, Szentgotthárd and Pilis between 1179 and 1184. In the 1180s, Béla initiated the building of a lofty royal castle and a new cathedral in Esztergom. Nevertheless, he was almost always wandering around the country. According to an inscription on a brick found in Bulkeszi (now Maglić in Serbia), Béla sponsored the baptism of a German "guest settler" in that village. In the imperial court of Constantinople, Béla learnt the importance of a well-organized administration. According to the Illuminated Chronicle, Béla "introduced the same form of addressing petitions as was customary in the Roman and imperial court", which suggests that the Royal Chancery began functioning as a separate office during his reign. He emphasized the importance of written records, ordering in 1181 that a charter was to be issued for all transactions proceeding in his presence. Emperor Manuel I died on 24 September 1180. Within six months, Béla had restored his suzerainty in Dalmatia, but no detailed contemporaneous accounts of the events exist. The citizens of Split "returned to Hungarian lordship" soon after Manuel's death, according to the 13th-century Thomas the Archdeacon. Zadar also accepted Béla's suzerainty in early 1181. Historian John V. A. Fine writes that Béla retook suzerainty of Dalmatia "seemingly without bloodshed and with imperial consent", because the Byzantine authorities preferred that Béla rule the province rather than the Republic of Venice. The details of the reconquest of Syrmium are also obscure. Andronikos Komnenos accused the mother of the young Byzantine Emperor, Alexios II, of inciting Bélaher brother-in-lawto ravage the region of Belgrade and Barancs (now Braničevo in Serbia) in May 1182, implying that Béla had by that time occupied Syrmium. In the same month, Andronikos Komnenos captured the Dowager Empress and had her murdered by the end of the year. Taking advantage of the emerging anarchy in the Byzantine Empire, Béla advanced as far as Niš and Serdica in the first half of 1183. In Sardica, he seized the casket containing the relics of Saint Ivan of Rila, and ordered it "to be transported with great honors to his land and to be laid down with honor in the church" of Esztergom, according to the saint's Life from the Sofia Prologue. Makk writes that Béla withdrew from the regions south of the Danube, but historian Paul Stephenson says that Béla preserved these lands. Andronikos Komnenos murdered Emperor Alexios II in late 1183. The contemporaneous Eustathius of Thessalonica writes that Andronikos's opponents sent letters to many monarchs, including Béla III, urging them to attack Andronikos. According to Ansbert and other Western European chroniclers, Béla invaded the Byzantine Empire in early 1185. After Andronikos I fell in September, Béla signed a peace treaty with the new emperor, Isaac II Angelos. Isaac married Béla's daughter, Margaret, and Béla granted the region of Niš and Barancs to Isaac as his daughter's dowry. The relics of Saint Ivan of Rila were also returned to Sardica on this occasion. Béla married Margaret of France, a sister of Philip II of France, in the summer of 1186. Orio Mastropiero, Doge of Venice, laid siege to Zadar in 1187, but the Venetian fleet could not seize the well-fortified town. Vladimir Yaroslavich, Prince of Halych, fled to Hungary at the end of 1188, because his boyars had rebelled. Roman Mstyslavych, Prince of Vladimir-in-Volhynia, soon occupied Halych, but Béla invaded the principality and expelled him. Instead of restoring Vladimir Yaroslavich to his former position, Béla imprisoned him and granted control of Halych to Andrew, who was Béla's younger son. As a token of his conquest, Béla styled himself as King of Galicia. . In the summer of 1189, German crusaders marched through Hungary under the command of Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor. Béla welcomed Frederick, and dispatched a troop to escort the crusaders across the Balkan Peninsula. At Frederick's request, Béla released his imprisoned brother, Géza, who joined the crusaders and left Hungary. Béla mediated a peace treaty between Frederick I and Isaac II, whose mutual distrust had almost caused war between the German crusaders and the Byzantines. Vladimir Yaroslavich escaped from captivity in early 1189 or 1190. With the assistance of Casimir II of Poland, he expelled Andrew from Halych, and regained control of the principality. In 1191, Béla met his son-in-law, Isaac II, in Philippopolis (now Plovdiv in Bulgaria) and Syrmium, but the results of their negotiations remained unknown. Upon Béla's request, the Holy See approved the canonization of Ladislaus I of Hungary in 1192. Béla invaded Serbia at the beginning of 1193. Isaac II demanded the withdrawal of his troops, and threatened Béla with war. At the same time, Doge Enrico Dandolo attempted to occupy Zadar, but failed. In 1193, Béla granted Modruš County in Croatia to Bartholomew of Krk, a member of the Frankopan family. This is the earliest certain example of an office being granted as a hereditary dignity in the Kingdom of Hungary. Last years (1194–1196) In 1194, Béla appointed his eldest son, Emeric, who had already been crowned as the future king, to administer Croatia and Dalmatia. After a united Bulgarian, Cumanian and Vlach army defeated the Byzantines in the Battle of Arcadiopolis in 1194, Béla was willing to assist the Byzantine Empire. However, his campaign was cancelled, because Béla's son-in-law, Emperor Isaac II, was dethroned by Alexios III Angelos in April 1195. Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor, was planning to launch a campaign against the Byzantine Empire on behalf of the dethroned emperor, but Béla prohibited his subjects from joining Henry. Béla took the cross as a token of his desire to lead a crusade to the Holy Land. However, he could not fulfill his oath, because he fell ill and died on 23 April 1196. He was buried in the Székesfehérvár Cathedral. His remains were confidently identified by archeologists during 19th-century excavations, because a contemporaneous sourceRichard of Londonwrote of Béla's exceptional height. Béla's skeleton shows that he was tall. Béla's remains were reinterred at the Matthias Church in Budapest. The DNA from skeletal remains of Béla and of another presumed member of the Árpád dynasty, scholars propose that the dynasty belonged to Y-haplogroup R1a subclade R-SUR51 > R-ARP. Family Béla's first wife, Agnes, was the daughter of Raynald of Châtillon, Prince of Antioch, and Raynald's wife, Constance of Antioch. Agnes was born around 1149 and died around 1184. At the time of her marriage in 1170, she was renamed Anna in Constantinople. Béla's and Agnes-Anna's first child, Emeric, was born in 1174. Emeric's sister, Margaret, who was renamed Maria in Constantinople, was born in 1175. At the age of nine or ten, she was given in marriage to the Byzantine Emperor Isaac II Angelos, who was about 30 at the time. Maria's husband died in 1204, before the Sack of Constantinople during the Fourth Crusade. Margaret–Maria married one of the leaders of the Crusade, Boniface of Montferrat, who seized Thessaloniki after the fall of the Byzantine Empire. Historian Makk writes that in about 1210, Maria married Nicholas I of Saint Omer after the death of Boniface, but scholar Peter Lock says that Saint Omer's wife and Margaret–Maria were not identical. The second son of Béla and Agnes-Anna, Andrew, was born around 1177. His two younger brothers, Solomon and Stephen, did not survive infancy. Their younger sister, Constance, married King Ottokar I of Bohemia in about 1198. A third daughter of Béla and Agnes-Anna, whose name is unknown, died in infancy. After the death of Agnes-Anna, Béla proposed to Theodora, a granddaughter of Emperor Manuel I's sister, Theodora Komnene. However, a synod of the Byzantine Church forbade the marriage in 1185, because Theodora had entered a nunnery. In late 1185 or at the beginning of 1186, Béla asked for the hand of Matilda of Saxony, a daughter of Henry the Lion, Duke of Saxony, but Henry II of England, Matilda's grandfather, hindered this marriage. Finally, Béla married Henry II's widowed daughter-in-law, Margaret of France, in the summer of 1186. She was the daughter of Louis VII of France. Queen Margaret outlived Béla, and moved to the Holy Land after his death. Legacy Béla was one of the most eminent medieval monarchs of Hungary. His "rule not only represented the apogee of the kingdom of the Árpádians, but also marked the end of an epoch", according to historian Pál Engel. His establishment of the Royal Chancery contributed to the "expansion of written records" in Hungary; the first charters issued by barons appeared in the 1190s. According to a contemporaneous list of Béla's revenues, his yearly income amounted to almost 170,000 marks (about 23 tonnes of pure silver). If the list is reliable, his income surpassed the revenues of the contemporaneous Kings of France and England, but the reliability of the list has been questioned by many historians, including Pál Engel. In about 1190, after a fire destroyed Esztergom, Béla invited French masons to rebuild the royal palace and the cathedral. The masons introduced new architectural forms; the new royal palace and cathedral were the earliest examples of Gothic architecture in Central Europe. Coins depicting a two-barred cross, which was primarily used in the Church of the Byzantine Empire, were minted from around 1190, suggesting that the so-called "double cross" became part of the Hungarian royal heraldry under Béla III. Notes Sources Primary sources Archdeacon Thomas of Split: History of the Bishops of Salona and Split (Latin text by Olga Perić, edited, translated and annotated by Damir Karbić, Mirjana Matijević Sokol and James Ross Sweeney) (2006). CEU Press. . Deeds of John and Manuel Comnenus by John Kinnamos (Translated by Charles M. Brand) (1976). Columbia University Press. . "Life of John of Rila from the Stishen (Sofia) Prologue". In Petkov, Kiril (2008). The Voices of Medieval Bulgaria, Seventh-Fifteenth Century: The Records of a Bygone Culture. Brill. pp. 265–268. . O City of Byzantium, Annals of Niketas Choniatēs (Translated by Harry J. Magoulias) (1984). Wayne State University Press. . The Deeds of Frederick Barbarossa by Otto of Freising and his Continuator, Rahewin (Translated and annotated with an introduction by Charles Christopher Mierow with the collaboration of Richard Emery) (2004). Columbia University Press. . The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle: Chronica de Gestis Hungarorum (Edited by Dezső Dercsényi) (1970). Corvina, Taplinger Publishing. . Secondary sources Further reading |- |- 1140s births 1196 deaths Hungarian people of Serbian descent House of Árpád Kings of Hungary Kings of Croatia Despots (court title) Burials at the Basilica of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary Manuel I Komnenos 12th-century Hungarian people

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Stars Dance is the debut solo studio album by American singer Selena Gomez. It was released on July 23, 2013, by Hollywood Records. Gomez began planning the project in 2012, at which time she announced that her band Selena Gomez & the Scene would be taking an indefinite hiatus, and continued work into 2013. With Britney Spears, Taylor Swift and Skrillex as influences on the record, Stars Dance is an EDM and electropop album, incorporating elements of dubstep, techno, disco, electro house and worldbeat. Gomez worked with producers such as Rock Mafia and The Cataracs (now known as KSHMR) on the album. Upon its release, Stars Dance received generally mixed reviews from music critics, many of whom complimented Gomez's maturing image and the album's content both lyrically and vocally, but criticized the album's electronic-heavy production style. It marked her first album to debut at number one on the Billboard 200. The album sold 97,000 copies in its first week of release in the country, making it her highest-selling debut to that point. This was later surpassed by its successor, Revival (2015), which sold 117,000 units in its first week. It became her fourth top twenty entry in the United Kingdom, peaking at number fourteen. Elsewhere, Stars Dance topped the charts in Canada, Brazil, Greece, Hungary, Norway, and China. As of 2017, the album has sold an estimated over 410,000 copies in the United States, making it her lowest selling studio album to date in the country. The album's lead single, "Come & Get It" featured heavy electronic and worldbeat themes, became Gomez's first top 10 entry in the United States, and entered the top ten in countries such as the United Kingdom, Ireland, and Canada, among others. It was also successful on pop radio, reaching number-two on the Mainstream Top 40 chart. The second single, "Slow Down", failed to match the success of its predecessor, though did peak inside the top 30 in the United States. It was met with success on pop radio, reaching the top ten of the Mainstream Top 40 chart. Gomez promoted the album through a number of high-profile performances, such as the 2013 Billboard Music Awards. Gomez embarked on the Stars Dance Tour (2013) to further promote the release. Selena also having been uplifted in the music industry after having released “Come & Get it” Background Selena Gomez & the Scene's third studio album, When the Sun Goes Down (2011), was musically rooted in electropop and dance-pop, similar to the group's sophomore album, A Year Without Rain (2010). Although reviews from contemporary music critics were mixed, the album was a commercial success. In January 2012, Gomez announced that she would put her music career on hold in order to focus on her acting career, and that the band would be taking a hiatus: "my band and I are going our separate ways for a while. This year is all about films and acting and I want my band to play music wherever with whoever. We will be back but, it will be a good while." Despite her earlier statements, Gomez first confirmed in October 2012 that work had begun on an upcoming album, and later said it would be her solo debut album, rather than her band's fourth album. Gomez announced in March that the album's lead single would be released the following month, and that the album would follow that Summer. On April 15, Gomez revealed plans of her first world tour, known as the Stars Dance Tour. Gomez officially confirmed on June 3 that the album would be titled Stars Dance, and also revealed the album's track listing and cover art. On her return to music, Gomez stated "I miss it. I want to be able to write about things I've never talked about before and tell a story with this album, because I've never actually had time to go in and do that." For the album, Gomez made it with production team The Cataracs, as well as the Norwegian Stargate. Gomez also worked with Rock Mafia on numerous tracks on the album, having previously worked with them on previous singles with The Scene. For Stars Dance, Gomez attempted to have more creative control over her music, stating "It's definitely the hardest I have ever worked on a record, that's for sure. I wanted to have more creative control over the album's direction." Jason Evigan, who worked with Gomez on the album, said "She's not a little girl anymore. She wants to be like that and be respected like the great pop artists out there [...] And I think she is. I think this album is really gonna blossom her into a new realm of electronic pop dance artist." Prior to the album's release, Gomez announced she would be taking a musical hiatus after Stars Dance, commenting "I've been saying that I worked really hard on this record and I feel like it might be my last one for a while [...] I definitely love acting and I love film and I don't feel like I've done enough of that." Following the album's announcement, numerous sources began claiming that the majority of the album was written about Gomez's relationship with Bieber. These rumors continued to rise in popularity following the release of "Come & Get It", and prompted Gomez to confirm that the song was not about Bieber. She later said, however, that the song "Love Will Remember" is about her relationship with Bieber. She revealed the song was "the most personal track on the record", and added "I think it's a sweet way of releasing it. It's not an aggressive approach to what people are probably expecting. I'm sure he'll love mikey too." The song "Birthday" was the first song recorded for the album. Gomez has listed "Forget Forever" as one of her favorite tracks on the album saying, "It's a really beautiful song. It has meaning behind it and it was a really special time in the studio. I got to be with the writers and just enjoy being in that moment. That was a really fun emotional song for me to sing but then I just kind of wanted to dance after I released it because it felt like I got to release this feeling that I had and it's a beautiful song." She later spoke of "Forget Forever" by stating "It's forgetting all the troubles, about the past, just enjoying everything else." Recording artist Jennifer Lopez wanted to record the song "Save the Day" for her 2013 album, but failed to get it from Gomez. "Come & Get It" was initially recorded by Barbadian recording artist Rihanna for her sixth studio album. However, she decided against using the song. Musical style and themes Musically, Stars Dance is an album rooted stylistically in EDM and pop, this later specifically showcased as electropop while also containing strong elements of dubstep, techno, disco and worldbeat. Jocelyn Vena of MTV News described the music on Stars Dance as "dance-song-heavy" dubstep, that contains "wobbly synths, loopy vocals, fist-pumping beats and crunchy breakdowns". The album contains a highly diverse musical composition, highlighted by Caroline Sullivan of The Guardian as "darting efficiently from EDM to Bollywood". The majority of the album contains dubstep breakdowns, requisite stabs of synths, and according to Jim Farber of New York Daily News, "features a frisson of sex previously absent from this good-girl singer's work." Jason Evigan said of the album's musical style, "She's got some really cool like ethnic influence, kind of tribally dance drums and stuff like that", stating that it was similar to music by Jennifer Lopez. August Brown of the Los Angeles Times called Stars Dance a "sassy" pop-EDM album, noting its composition included "oxygen-sucking" sub-bass, trap snares. Brown noted the influence of Spring Breakers on the album, saying that Gomez wasn't ready to leave the "neon-splattered emotional hellscape of Spring Breakers just yet". He further went on to say: "Stars Dance is exactly the kind of album one makes in 2013 if you want to keep the pop sugar of the Disney tween cabal but mix in some broken glass and a club bathroom nosebleed. Its productions are rooted in today's pop-EDM default mode, but as that stuff goes, 'Slow Down' is pretty capable, and the bhangra-appropriating 'Come & Get It' is guilelessly silly enough to work." The album's title track was described by Gomez as being "kind of sensual", while "Like a Champion" is said to feature Jamaican and reggae influences. When talking about the song "Save the Day", Gomez stated "Do you ever have moments where you don't ever want them to end? I've had those moments. It's about saving those moments and never wanting it to go away." The song "Write Your Name" is about the feeling of falling in love. Gomez described B.E.A.T. by saying "The song is cool and the lyrics are great, but it was more, 'I can't wait to perform this song onstage because I love the way I feel when I hear this song.' It's just dope." Gomez later stated that "Undercover" was her favorite song on the album, commenting "I've never had the confidence to do different licks and melody changes. I messed up a lot [while recording] that one." The album's lead single, "Come & Get It", has been described as featuring "Bollywood" influences, as well as tribal music. On-air personality Peter Dee noted that the song featured various electropop elements. "Slow Down" is noted as featuring various dubstep influences, while the song's lyrics speak of taking a relationship slowly rather than rushing into things. Gomez has listed Britney Spears and Janet Jackson as some of the album's biggest influences, and later cited Skrillex, Taylor Swift, and Christina Aguilera as major influences on the record. She listed dubstep producer Skrillex as an influence to the album, with him having previously worked on the soundtrack for Gomez's film Spring Breakers. She later stated "Doing Spring Breakers was really fun, because Skrillex and Cliff Martinez did the soundtrack, and [Skrillex] kind of inspired me with a baby dubstep, because I have a few songs that have that." Jim Farber of New York Daily News noted influences of Spears, Jennifer Lopez, and Janet Jackson, although going on to say "Gomez's writer and producers have aped other stars' tricks gamely enough to create a pretty good time. It helps that Gomez boasts a far richer voice than her idols, Britney, J.Lo and Janet." Songs and lyrical content The album opens with "Birthday", an electropunk song which contains sparse drums, trap snares and vocal chants and has been described by Julia Rubin of Headlines and Global News as a "candy-coated, clap-happy club anthem with plenty of girl power and sex appeal, much like a bubblegum version of Rihanna's 'Cockiness (Love It)'." "Slow Down" is a high-octane, uptempo dance-pop and EDM song, that has been described as "wobbly club thumper" by Robert Copsey of Digital Spy. It features a dubstep chorus, funk guitars, a four on the floor beat, and a spoken word outro. Lyrically, the song speaks of "slowing down the song" so the party doesn't end. "Stars Dance", the album's title track, is a "breathy and sultry" dubstep song, which contains an orchestral-dubstep beat. According to Rubin, "Gomez's soft voice takes center stage over sexy synth-beats, icy choruses and wallowing melodies." "Stars Dance" has also received comparisons to the works of Britney Spears. "Like a Champion" is a dancehall song, with influences of funk, reggae, and soca music, and features Gomez singing the song in a Bajan accent. The song has received heavy comparisons to the works of Rihanna, with critics noting the song's breezy and carefree vocal delivery. "Come & Get It" is a tribal electropop and popstep song, which contains a Bhangra beat, sonic drops, and influences of Indian music. Lyrically, the song is about female lover's attempts to rekindle a previously ended romance. "Forget Forever" is a dance-pop and synthpop song which contains an EDM beat and house music breakdowns. Lyrically, the song is about a breakup. Sam Lansky of Idolator said the song is an "electrifying dance-pop banger with a monolithically great chorus and a storming, anthemic beat, plus a big house break." Nate Jones of Popdust called the song "bright and expansive", going onto say that Gomez's vocals "fly over an EDM beat that can't help getting us ready for summer." "Save the Day" is a "thumping" Latin pop and house music song "B.E.A.T." is a "sexy" urban hip hop song who samples the chorus of Dev single Bass Down Low, described by Jon O'Brien of Yahoo! Music as "minimal spoken word electro". Christina Drill of Popdust said the song was "infectious and definitely racier than usual for Selena (the chorus: 'It's a big bad world but I'm not ashamed / I like the lights in my hand and the beat in my face')". "Write Your Name" has been described as an "exotic" sounding electronic dance and house music song. The song contains elements of dubstep. O'Brien of Yahoo! Music said that: "Forget Forever' and 'Write Your Name' both manage to tiptoe into 'hands in the air' territory without succumbing to the usual Guetta-style bombast." Promotion Gomez promoted the album through a number of interviews and televised live performances. She appeared on On Air with Ryan Seacrest on April 8, 2013 to promote "Come & Get It". She gave her first televised performance of the song at the 2013 MTV Movie Awards on April 14, 2013. The appearance saw Gomez in an "all-red, 'earthy'" outfit, and received a generally positive reception. She appeared on Dancing with the Stars on April 16 to perform "Come & Get It". On April 18, she performed the song again on The Ellen Degeneres Show. Gomez donned a bindi for these performances, and later came under fire by the Universal Society of Hinduism for her use of the religious symbol. Gomez appeared on The Late Show with David Letterman on April 25, where she performed "Come & Get It". On April 27, she performed the song yet again at the 2013 Radio Disney Music Awards. She did not perform the song again until May 19, when she performed at the 2013 Billboard Music Awards. Days later, she performed "Come & Get It" on The Graham Norton Show. Gomez appeared at the MuchMusic Headquarters on May 30, where she performed "Slow Down" for the first time. On July 4, Gomez performed both "Come & Get It" and "Slow Down" at the Macy's 4th of July Celebration. Gomez appeared on This Morning in the United Kingdom to perform "Come & Get It". To coincide with the release of Stars Dance, Gomez performed "Come & Get It", "Slow Down", and "Birthday" on Good Morning America. In September, Gomez appeared on Live! With Kelly and Michael to perform "Birthday". Following the release of "Slow Down", Gomez appeared on The View to perform the song. She performed the song again on The Late Show with David Letterman. She performed "Slow Down" on The X Factor in the United States. Gomez was selected to be the halftime performer during the Dallas Cowboys vs. Oakland Raiders game held on Thanksgiving. For the show, Gomez performed a medley of "Like a Champion", "Slow Down", and "Come & Get It". The tour was further promoted through her worldwide Stars Dance Tour (2013), which visited countries such as the United States and Asia. The tour became making over $36 million at the box office. Originally meant to feature dates in Australia and Japan, the tour was cancelled due to personal issues. Singles "Come & Get It", was released as the lead single from the album on April 7, 2013. As of July 2013, the song became Gomez's most successful single to date, peaking at number 6 of the US Billboard Hot 100 and the Canadian Hot 100 as well as being certified 3x Platinum by the RIAA. The music video premiered on MTV on May 7, 2013 and was directed by Anthony Mandler. "Slow Down", was released as a promomotinal single on June 3, 2013. via an instant digital download with the pre-order of the album on iTunes, and was co-produced by The Cataracs and David Kuncio. It was later released as the album's official second single on August 13, 2013. It peaked at number 27 on the Billboard Hot 100. The official video was uploaded to YouTube on July 19, 2013. Critical reception Stars Dance received mixed reviews from music critics. Positive remarks went toward the overall production of the album, as well as its lyrics and Gomez's vocals. Mixed reviews went towards her inability to create her own musical identity; she was compared to singer Rihanna on several occasions. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from critics, the album received an average score of 59, which indicates "mixed or average reviews". Tim Sendra from Allmusic awarded the album three-and-a-half stars out of five. As he pointed out "Slow Down", "Save the Day" and "Undercover" as highlights, he said "Selena's reliably strong vocals and the variety of sounds, it adds up to be another fine entry in her catalog and just another example of why Selena Gomez is one of the best pop stars making music in 2013." Stephen Unwin from Express.co.uk compared the new effort to Vanessa Hudgens and said "Both [Gomez and Hudgens] have now turned their attention to themes of a more adult nature, this new album of Selena's being one of them and she's just about pulled it off." Two Guardian reviews were issued. The first, observed by Kitty Empire, awarded the album three stars out of five. Conversely, the second Guardian review, observed by Hermione Hoby, was mixed and awarded it two stars out of five. She clarified that "if she really wants to be considered a grown-up pop star, Selena Gomez is going to have to find some better hit-makers." She compared the work, including "Like a Champion", to Rihanna. August Brown from the Los Angeles Times found that the album was "the kind of album one makes in 2013 if you want to keep the pop sugar of the Disney tween cabal but mix in some broken glass and a club bathroom nosebleed. Its productions are rooted in today's pop-EDM default mode [...]" Natalie Palmer from Entertainmentwise took perspective of other critics and commentators, saying the album should have been praised for "trying something new". She discussed "'Stars Dance' isn't what you would expect from a girl who was once a Disney princess. Many often go for the bubblegum pop or the angry rock chick but the 21-year-old has opted for an edgier genre and a unique sound." Matthew Horton from Virgin Media awarded the album two stars. He criticized her "lack of personality" in most songs and felt her vocal abilities on the album "doesn't help". He concluded saying "It's all too identikit, [and] could be anyone with a grasp of average dance-pop". Simon Price from The Independent awarded one star out of the five, criticizing the lack of effort saying that "Even given these facts, it's a pop record, which means one killer track would redeem everything. Predictably enough, it never comes." Ron Harris from The Huffington Post felt the album did not live up to expectations, citing Gomez as a "vibrant young woman of Disney pedigree [who] simply punched the clock and worked through an already cooked musical plot foisted upon her. Gomez might be an incredibly talented and interesting person with much to offer artistically, but we'll never find out at this rate." He also found the album to have less personality than her previous records with The Scene. Commercial performance Stars Dance debuted at number one on the Billboard 200, selling 97,000 copies in its first week of release. This made it Gomez's first album to reach the top of the chart, as well as her highest first sales week for an album, until surpassed by her second release Revival, which sold 117,000 its first week. The album fell to number eight on the chart during its second week, selling an additional 31,000 copies. These sales were a 68% drop from the previous week's sales. In its third week, the album fell to number thirteen. The album continued to decline on the chart the following week, landing at number eighteen. In its fifth week, the album fell to number twenty-five. The album rose to number twenty-four on the chart following this. Following this rise, the album had a 23% increase in sales, selling 17,213 copies and reaching number twenty-one. Despite this, the album dropped to number thirty-three the following week, selling just over 7,000 copies. Stars Dance spent a total of twenty-five weeks on the Billboard 200, with its last appearance being on the week ending January 25, 2014. It is her lowest selling album and first one to fail to receive a gold certification. The album debuted at number one on the Canadian Albums Chart, with sales of 16,500 copies in its first week. It was her first number one in the country, and sold more than 5,000 in its first week than her previous effort. On August 27, 2013 the album received a Gold certification from the CRIA, for sales exceeding 40,000. Stars Dance had its first chart entry on the New Zealand Albums Chart, entering in the top five at number five itself. In the United Kingdom, the album debuted and peaked at number fourteen; it spent a total of four weeks on the chart. It peaked at number nine in Ireland, and spent a total of six weeks on the chart. The record peaked at number eight in Australia. The album was more successful in international territories. In Mexico, the album debuted at number one on the Mexican Albums Chart, and later went on to be certified Gold in the country for selling 30,000 copies. Stars Dance also reached number one in Portugal, and was certified Platinum in the country. The album peaked at number eight in Brazil, and also received a Platinum certification in the country. Track listing Credits adapted from the album's liner notes Notes signifies a producer and vocal producer signifies a vocal producer signifies a co-producer signifies an additional producer signifies an executive producer signifies an additional vocal producer signifies a remixer Sampling credits "Like a Champion" samples the composition entitled "Champion" by Buju Banton. "Come & Get It" samples "Dachee" by Bollywood Sounds. "Nobody Does It Like You" samples elements of "Hello" by Martin Solveig. Personnel Selena Gomez – lead vocals (all tracks) John Hanes – mix engineering (tracks 1, 2, 4, 6–10) Serban Ghenea – mixing (tracks 1, 2, 4, 6–10) Rock Mafia – production (tracks 3, 11), mixing (track 3), guitar, piano, percussion & background vocals (track 11) Dreamlab – production (tracks 4, 9, 13, 14), vocal production (tracks 4, 5), vocal engineering (track 8) Rob Ghost – engineering assistance (tracks 4, 9), mixing (tracks 13, 14), production (track 13) Matt Beckley – vocal production (tracks 1, 15), engineering & mixing (track 15) Simon French – engineering assistance (tracks 4, 13, 14), studio assistance (track 9) Joe Pringle – engineering assistance (tracks 9, 13, 14), studio assistance (track 4) Mike Del Rio – production, programming & additional vocals (track 1) Steve Hammons – engineering (tracks 3, 11), additional production (track 3) Freddy Wexler – production, vocal production & background vocals (track 8) Toby Gad – production, programming & mixing (track 12) Ammo – production, programming & instruments (track 15) A.C. – additional production, programming & instruments (track 15) Jonathan Sher – engineering (tracks 1, 15) The Cataracs – production (tracks 2, 10) Niles Hollowell-Dhar – vocal production (tracks 2, 10) Adam Comstock – engineering (tracks 3, 11) Dubkiller – additional production (tracks 3, 11) Phil Tan – mixing (tracks 5, 11) Daniela Rivera – additional engineering assistance (tracks 5, 11) Jason Evigan – production (tracks 6, 7) Afsheen – additional production & additional arrangement (track 12) Crista Russo – additional vocals (track 1) David Kuncio – co-production (track 2) Cameron Stone – cello (track 3) Peter Thomas – co-production (track 4) Stargate – production (track 5) Danny D – executive production (track 5) Tim Blacksmith – executive production (track 5) Aubry "Big Juice" Delaine – engineering (track 5) Ester Dean – vocal production (track 5) Mikkel S. Eriksen – instruments (track 5) Tor Erik Hermansen – instruments (track 5) Jorge Velasco – engineering assistance (track 5) Ian Nicol – engineering assistance (track 5) The Monsters & Strangerz – production (track 6) Dan Book – additional vocal production (track 6) Mitch Allan – production (track 7) Livvi Franc – background vocals (track 7) Jai Marlon – production (track 8) Daniel Glashausser – engineering (track 8) Partha Ray – additional drum programming (track 8) Rome Ramirez – guitar (track 10) Aaron Dudley – guitar (track 11) JMike – production (track 13) Brian Lee – production (track 14) Daniel James – mixing (track 14) Credits Chris Gehringer – mastering Dave Snow – creative direction Jeri Heiden – art direction Nick Steinhardt – design Diego Uchitel – photography Charts Weekly charts Year-end charts Certifications and sales Release history See also List of Billboard 200 number-one albums of 2013 References 2013 debut albums Albums produced by Dreamlab Albums produced by Rock Mafia Albums produced by Stargate Albums produced by the Cataracs Albums produced by Toby Gad Hollywood Records albums Selena Gomez albums Albums produced by Jason Evigan

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The literature of al-Andalus, also known as Andalusi literature (, ), was produced in Al-Andalus, or Islamic Iberia, from the Muslim conquest in 711 to either the Catholic conquest of Granada in 1492 or the Expulsion of the Moors ending in 1614. Andalusi literature was written primarily in Arabic, but also in Hebrew, Judeo-Arabic, Aljamiado, and Mozarabic. Abdellah Hilaat's World Literature Encyclopedia divides the history of Al-Andalus into two periods: the period of expansion, starting with the conquest of Hispania up to the first Taifa period, and the period of recession in which Al-Andalus was ruled by two major African empires: the Almoravid and the Almohad. Conquest Arabic literature in al-Andalus began with the Umayyad conquest of Hispania starting in the year 711. The 20th century Moroccan scholar of literature Abdellah Guennoun cites the Friday sermon of the Amazigh general Tariq ibn Ziyad to his soldiers upon landing in Iberia as a first example. The literature of the Muslim conquerors of Iberia, aside from the Quran, was limited to eastern strophic poetry that was popular in the early 7th century. The content of the conquerors' poetry was often boasting about noble heritage, celebrating courage in war, expressing nostalgia for homeland, or elegy for those lost in battle, though all that remains from this period is mentions and descriptions. In contrast with the circumstances in the Visigothic invasion of Iberia, the Arabic that came with the Muslim invasion had the status of "a vehicle for a higher culture, a literate and literary civilization." From the eighth to the thirteenth century, the non-Latin forms of intellectual expression were dominant in the area. Umayyad period (756–1031) In his History of Arabic Literature, Hanna Al-Fakhoury cites two main factors as shaping Andalusi society in the early Umayyad period: the mixing of the Arabs with other peoples and the desire to replicate the Mashriq. The bustling economy of al-Andalus allowed Al-Hakam I to invest in education and literacy; he built 27 madrasas in Cordoba and sent missions to the east to procure books to be brought back to his library. Al-Fakhoury cites Reinhart Dozy in his 1881 : "Almost all of Muslim Spain could read and write, while the upper class of Christian Europe could not, with the exception of the clergy." Cities—such as Córdoba, Seville, Granada, and Toledo—were the most important centers of knowledge in al-Andalus. On religion The east was determined to spread Islam and protect it in distant Iberia, sending religious scholars, or ulamaa. Religious study grew and spread, and the Iberian Umayyads, for political reasons, adopted the Maliki school of jurisprudence, named after the Imam Malik ibn Anas and promoted by Abd al-Rahman al-Awza'i. A religious school was established, which published Malik's Muwatta. This school produced a number of notable scholars, prominent among whom was Ibn 'Abd al-Barr. Al-Andalus witnessed great deliberation in Quranic exegesis, or tafsir, from competing schools of jurisprudence, or fiqh. Upon his return from the east, (817-889) unsuccessfully attempted to introduce the Shafi‘i school of fiqh, though Ibn Hazm (994-1064) considered Makhlad's exegesis favorable to Tafsir al-Tabari. The Zahiri school was, however, introduced by Ibn Qasim al-Qaysi, and further supported by Mundhir ibn Sa'īd al-Ballūṭī. It was also heralded by Ibn Hazm, a polymath at the forefront of all kinds of literary production in the 11th century, widely acknowledged as the father of comparative religious studies, and who wrote (The Separator Concerning Religions, Heresies, and Sects). The Muʿtazila school and philosophy also developed in al-Andalus, as attested to in the book of Ibn Mura (931). On language The study of language spread and was invigorated by the migration of the linguist (967), who migrated from Baghdad to Cordoba and wrote a two-volume work entitled based on his teachings at the Mosque of Córdoba. He also authored a 5000-page compendium on language and an-Nawādir. Some of his contemporaries were (968), (992), and Ibn al-Qūṭiyya (977). Ibn Sidah (1066) wrote and . On history At first, Andalusi writers mixed history with legend, as did. The so-called "Syrian chronicle", a history of events in the latter half of the 8th century, probably written around 800, is the earliest Arabic history of al-Andalus. It is known today, however, only as the larger part of the 11th-century Akhbār majmūʿa. The author of the Syrian chronicle is unknown, but may have been Abu Ghalib Tammam ibn Alkama, who came to al-Andalus with the Syrian army in 741. Tammam's descendant, Tammam ibn Alkama al-Wazir (d. 896), wrote poetry, including a lost urjūza on the history of al-Andalus. They later wrote annals in the format of Al-Tabari's text History of the Prophets and Kings, which (980) complemented with contemporary annals. Most historians were interested in the history of Hispania, tracing the chronology of its history by kings and princes. Encyclopedias of people also became popular, such as encyclopedias of judges, doctors, and writers. The most important of these was told the history of al-Andalus from the Islamic conquest to the time of the author, as seen in the work of the Umayyad court historian and genealogist Ahmed ar-Razi (955) News of the Kings of al-Andalus () and that of his son Isa, who continued his father's work and whom Ibn al-Qūṭiyya cited. ar-Razi was also cited by Ibn Hayyan in . The most important historical work of this period was Said al-Andalusi's Tabaqat ul-Umam, which chronicled the history of the Greeks and the Romans as well. On geography Among the prominent writers in geography—besides Aḥmad ibn Muḥammad ibn Mūsa al-Rāzī, who described al-Andalus with great skill—there was Abū ʿUbayd al-Bakri (1094). On math and astronomy Writing in math and astronomy flourished in this period with the influence of Maslama al-Majriti (1007), who developed the work of Ptolemy and al-Khwarizmi. Ibn al-Saffar wrote about the astrolabe and influenced European science into the 15th century. Ibn al-Samh was a mathematician who also wrote about astrolabes. On medicine and agriculture Works in medicine and agriculture also flourished under Abd al-Rahman III. Among writers in these topics there were Al-Zahrawi (1013). Ibn al-Kattani, also known as al-Mutatabbib, wrote about medicine, philosophy, and logic. Literature The collection Al-ʿIqd al-Farīd by Ibn Abd Rabbih (940) could be considered the first Andalusi literary work, though its contents relate to the Mashriq. Muhammad ibn Hani al-Andalusi al-Azdi, a North African poet, studied in al-Andalus. The poet al-Ghazal of Jaén served as a diplomat in 840 and 845. His poetry is quoted extensively by Ibn Dihya. Muwashshah From around the 9th century, the Arab and Hispanic elements of al-Andalus began to coalesce, giving birth to a new Arab literature, evident in the new poetic form: the muwashshah. In the beginning, muwashshah represented a variety of poetic meters and schemes, ending with a verse in Ibero-Romance. It marked the first instance of language mixing in Arab poetry as well as the syncretism of Arab and Hispanic cultures. The muwashshah remained sung in Standard Arabic although its scheme and meter changed and the Ibero-Romance ending was added. Some famous examples include "Lamma Bada Yatathanna" and "". In spite of its widespread popularity and its favorability among Mashreqi critics, the muwashshah remained a form inferior to classical Arabic forms that varied only minimally in the courts of the Islamic west, due to the folksy nature of the muwashshah. The muwashshah would typically end with a closing stanza, or a kharja, in a Romance language or Arabic vernacular—except in praise poems, in which the closing stanza would also be in Standard Arabic. The muwashshah has gained importance recently among Orientalists because of its connection to early Spanish and European folk poetry and the troubadour tradition. Eastern influence Andalusi literature was heavily influenced by Eastern styles, with court literature often replicating eastern forms. Under Abd al-Rahman II, came Ziryab (857)—the mythic poet, artist, musician and teacher—from the Abbasid Empire in the East. He gave Andalusi society Baghdadi influence. The qiyān were a social class of non-free women trained as entertainers. The qiyān brought from the Abbasid East were conduits of art, literature, and culture. Among the Mashreqi poets most influential in the Maghreb was Al-Mutanabbi (965), whose poetry was commented on by , , and Ibn Sidah. The court poets of Cordoba followed his footsteps in varying and mastering their craft. The maqamas of the Persian poet Badi' al-Zaman al-Hamadani were also embraced in al-Andalus, and influenced Ibn Malik, Ibn Sharaf, and . The maqama known as al-Maqama al-Qurtubiya, attributed to Al-Fath ibn Khaqan, is notable as it is a poem of invective satirizing . According to Jaakko Hämeen-Anttila, the use of the maqama form for invective appears to be an Andalusi innovation. Court poetry followed tradition until the 11th century, when it took a bold new form: the Umayyad caliphs sponsored literature and worked to gather texts, as evidenced in the library of Al-Hakam II. As a result, a new school of court poets appeared, most important of whom was (982). However, urban Andalusi poetry started with Ibn Darraj al-Qastalli (1030), under Caliph al-Mansur, who burned the library of Al-Hakam fearing that science and philosophy were a threat to religion. and were among the most prominent of this style and period. led a movement of poets of the aristocracy opposed to the folksy muwashshah and fanatical about eloquent poetry and orthodox Classical Arabic. He outlined his ideas in his book at-Tawabi' waz-Zawabi''' (), a fictional story about a journey through the world of the Jinn. Ibn Hazm, in his analysis of in The Ring of the Dove, is considered a member of this school, though his poetry is of a lower grade. Judeo-Andalusi literature Jewish writers in al-Andalus were sponsored by courtiers such as Hasdai ibn Shaprut (905-975) Samuel ibn Naghrillah (993-1056). Jonah ibn Janah (990-1055) wrote a book of Hebrew. Samuel ibn Naghrillah, Joseph ibn Naghrela, and Ibn Sahl al-Isra'ili wrote poetry in Arabic, but most Jewish writers in al-Andalus—while incorporating elements such as rhyme, meter, and themes of classical Arabic poetry—created poetry in Hebrew. In addition to a highly regarded corpus of religious poetry, poets such as Dunash ben Labrat, Moses ibn Ezra, and Solomon ibn Gabirol wrote about praise poetry about their Jewish patrons, as well and on topics traditionally considered non-Jewish, such as "carousing, nature, and love" as well as poems with "homoerotic themes.Qasmuna Bint Ismā'īl was mentioned in Ahmed Mohammed al-Maqqari's as well as Al-Suyuti's 15th century anthology of female poets. Bahya ibn Paquda wrote Duties of the Heart in Judeo-Arabic in Hebrew script around 1080, and Judah ha-Levi wrote the Book of Refutation and Proof on Behalf of the Despised Religion in Arabic around 1140.Petrus Alphonsi was an Andalusi Jew who converted to Christianity under Alfonso I of Aragon in the year 1106. He wrote Dialogi contra Iudaeos, an imaginary conversation between a Christian and a Jew, and Disciplina Clericalis, a collection of Eastern sayings and fables in a frame-tale format present in Arabic literature such as Kalīla wa-Dimna. He also translated Al-Khawarizmi's tables and advocated for Arabic sciences, serving as a bridge between cultures at a time when Christian Europe was opening up to "Arabic philosophical, scientific, medical, astronomical, and literary cultures." Maimonides (1135-1204), who fled al-Andalus in the Almohad period, addressed his Guide for the Perplexed to Joseph ben Judah of Ceuta. Joseph ben Judah ibn Aknin (c. 1150 – c. 1220) was polymath and prolific writer born in Barcelona and moved to North Africa under the Almohads, settling in Fes.Piyyut was a form of poetry in Hebrew performed musically with Arabic scales and meters. First Taifa period (1031–1086) The collapse of the caliphate and the beginning of the Taifa period, did not have a negative impact on poetic production. In fact, poetry in al-Andalus reached its apex at this time. Ibn Zaydun of Cordoba, author of the , was famously in love with Wallada bint al-Mustakfi, who inspired the poets of al-Andalus as well as those of the Emirate of Sicily, such as Ibn Hamdis. Ibn Sharaf of Qairawan and Ibn Hamdün (1139) became famous in the court of of Almería, while Abū Isḥāq al-Ilbirī and Abd al-Majid ibn Abdun stood out in Granada. Abu al-Hakam al-Kirmani was a doctor, mathematician, and philosopher from Cordoba; he is also credited with first bringing Brethren of Purity to al-Andalus. Al-Mu'tamid ibn Abbad, poet king of the Abbadid Taifa of Seville, was known as a generous sponsor of the arts. Ibn Hamdis of Sicily joined al-Mu'tamid's court. Almoravid period (1086–1150) Literature flourished in the Almoravid period. The political unification of Morocco and al-Andalus under the Almoravid dynasty rapidly accelerated the cultural interchange between the two continents, beginning when Yusuf Bin Tashfiin sent al-Mu'tamid Bin Abbad into exile in Tangier and ultimately Aghmat. In the Almoravid period two writers stand out: the religious scholar and judge Ayyad ben Moussa and the polymath Ibn Bajja (Avempace). Ayyad is known for having authored Kitāb al-Shifāʾ bīTaʾrif Ḥuqūq al-Muṣṭafá. Scholars and theologians such as Ibn Barrajan were summoned to the Almoravid capital in Marrakesh where they underwent tests. Poetry Ibn Zaydun, al-Mu'tamid, and Muhammad ibn Ammar were among the more innovative poets of al-Andalus, breaking away from traditional Eastern styles. The muwashshah was an important form of poetry and music in the Almoravid period. Great poets from the period are mentioned in anthologies such as , Al Mutrib, and Mu'jam as-Sifr. In the Almoravid period, in which the fragmented taifas were united, poetry faded as they were mostly interested in religion. Only in Valencia could free poetry of the sort that spread in the Taifa period be found, while the rulers in other areas imposed traditional praise poetry on their subjects. In Valencia, there was poetry of nature and ghazal by Ibn Khafaja and poetry of nature and wine by Ibn az-Zaqqaq. History The historians Ibn Alqama, Ibn Hayyan, Al-Bakri, Ibn Bassam, and al-Fath ibn Khaqan all lived in the Almoravid period. Almohad period (1150–1230) The Almohads worked to suppress the influence of Maliki fiqh—even publicly burning copies of Muwatta Imam Malik and Maliki commentaries. They sought to disseminate the doctrine of Ibn Tumart, author of E'az Ma Yutlab ( The Most Noble Calling), Muhadhi al-Muwatta' ( Counterpart of the Muwatta), and Talkhis Sahih Muslim ( Compendium of Sahih Muslim). Almohad reforms Literary production continued despite the devastating effect the Almohad reforms had on cultural life in their domain. Almohad universities continued the knowledge of preceding Andalusi scholars as well as ancient Greco-Roman writers; contemporary literary figures included Ibn Rushd (Averroes), Hafsa bint al-Hajj al-Rukuniyya, Ibn Tufail, Ibn Zuhr, Ibn al-Abbar, Ibn Amira and many more poets, philosophers, and scholars. The abolishment of the dhimmi status further stifled the once flourishing Jewish Andalusi cultural scene; Maimonides went east and many Jews moved to Castillian-controlled Toledo. In the Almohad period, the poets Ibn Sahl of Seville and (1177) appeared. Ibn Tufail and Ibn Rushd (Averroes) were considered the main philosophers of the Almohad Caliphate and were patronized by the court. Ibn Tufail wrote the philosophical novel Hayy ibn Yaqdhan, which would later influence Robinson Crusoe. Ibn Rushd wrote his landmark work The Incoherence of the Incoherence responding directly to Al-Ghazali's work The Incoherence of the Philosophers. Sufism With the continents united under empire, the development and institutionalization of Sufism was a bi-continental phenomenon taking place on both sides of the Strait of Gibraltar. Abu Madyan, described as "the most influential figure of the developmental period of North African Sufism," lived in the Almohad period. Ibn Arabi, venerated by many Sufis as ash-Sheikh al-Akbar, was born in Murcia and studied in Seville. His works, such as the Meccan Revelations, were highly influential. Ibn Saʿāda, also a native of Murcia, was an influential traditionist who studied in the East. He wrote a Sufi treatise, Tree of the Imagination by Which One Ascends to the Path of Intellection, in Murcia. When literary figures sensed the decline of Andalusi poetry, they began to gather and anthologize: Ibn Bassam wrote , Al-Fath ibn Khaqan wrote " Qalā'id al-'Iqyān" (), Ibn Sa'id al-Maghribi wrote al-Mughrib fī ḥulā l-Maghrib and Rayat al-mubarrizin wa-ghayat al-mumayyazin. Up until the departure of the Muslims from al-Andalus, there were those who carried the standard of the muwashshah, such as Al-Tutili (1126) and Ibn Baqi (1145), as well as those such as Ibn Quzman (1159) who elevated zajal to the highest of artistic heights. The zajal form experienced a rebirth thanks to Ibn Quzman. Ibn Sab'in was a Sufi scholar from Ricote who wrote the Sicilian Questions in response to the inquiries of Frederick II of Sicily. Female poets Hamda bint Ziyad al-Muaddib was a 12th-century poet from Guadix known as the "Al-Khansa of al-Andalus." Hafsa bint al-Hajj al-Rukuniyya was a poet from Granada. She later worked for the Almohad caliph Abu Yusuf Yaqub al-Mansur, educating members of his family. Biography Biographical books spread after Qadi Ayyad, and among the famous biographers there were Ibn Bashkuwāl, Abu Ja'far Ahmad ibn Yahya al-Dabbi, Ibn al-Abbar, and Ibn Zubayr al-Gharnati. Ṣafwān ibn Idrīs (d. 1202) of Murcia wrote a biographical dictionary of recent poets, Zād al-musāfir wa-ghurrat muḥayyā ʾl-adab al-sāfir. On history Ibn Sa'id al-Maghribi wrote Al-Mughrib fī ḥulā l-Maghrib citing much of what was published in the field beforehand. On geography and travel writing Muhammad al-Idrisi stood out in geography and in travel writing: , Ibn Jubayr, and Mohammed al-Abdari al-Hihi. Poetry Abu Ishaq Ibrahim al-Kanemi, an Afro-Arab poet from Kanem, was active in Seville writing panegyric qasidas for Caliph Yaqub al-Mansur. Although he spent more time in Morocco, it was his stay in Seville that has preserved his name, since he was included in the Andalusi biographical dictionaries. Third Taifa period Abu al-Baqa ar-Rundi wrote the qasida Elegy for al-Andalus in 1267. In the 12th and 13th centuries, the sciences—such as mathematics, astronomy, pharmacology, botany, and medicine—flourished. Hadith Bayad wa Riyad is a 13th-century love story and one of 3 surviving illuminated manuscripts from al-Andalus. Arabic influenced Spanish and permeated its vernacular forms. New dialects formed with their own folk literature that is studied for its effects on European poetry in the Middle Ages, and for its role in Renaissance poetry. Ramon Llull drew extensively from Arabic sciences, and first wrote his apologetic Book of the Gentile and the Three Wise Men in Arabic before Catalan and Latin. The agriculturalist Ibn al-'Awwam, active in Seville in the late 12th century, wrote , considered the most comprehensive medieval book in Arabic on agriculture. Ibn Khaldun considered it a revision of Ibn Wahshiyya's Nabataean Agriculture. Nasrid period (1238–1492) According to Salah Jarrar, the "bulk of [literature in the Nasrid period] dealt and was closely involved with the political life of the state. The conflict between the last Muslim state in Spain and the Spanish states seems to have dominated every aspect of life in Granada." The polymath and statesman Lisān ad-Dīn Ibn al-Khatīb is regarded as one of the most significant writers of the Nasrid period, covering subject such as "history, biography, the art of government, politics, geography, poetics, theology, fiqh, Sufism, grammar, medicine, veterinary medicine, agriculture, music, and falconry." The last of the poets of al-Andalus before the fall of Granada was Ibn Zamrak. As for prose, which began in al-Andalus with Ibn Shahid and Ibn Hazm, it quickly leaned toward replicating the prose of the Mashreq. Siraj al-Muluk by Abu Bakr al-Turtushi, as well as the Al-Balawi Encyclopedia and the list of maqamat that replicated those of Al-Hariri of Basra, such as those of Ahmed bin Abd el-Mu'min of Jerez (1222). The Almohads encouraged religious and scientific composition: in the religious sciences, (1426) wrote at-Tuhfa () and wrote about language. The works of some writers, such as the grammarian Ibn Malik and Abu Hayyan al-Gharnati, reached the Mashreq and had an influence there. Andalusi literature after Catholic conquest Suppression After the Fall of Granada, Cardinal Francisco Jiménez de Cisneros oversaw the forced mass conversion of the population in the Spanish Inquisition and the burning of Andalusi manuscripts in Granada. In 1526, Charles V (Charles I of Spain)—issued an edict against "heresy" (e.g. Muslim practices by "New Christians"), including the use of Arabic. The Moriscos managed to get this suspended for forty years by the payment of a large sum (80,000 ducados). King Philip II of Spain's Pragmatica of 1 January 1567 finally banned the use of Arabic throughout Spain, leading directly to the Rebellion of the Alpujarras (1568–71). Resistance After Catholic conquest, Muslims in Castile, Aragon and Catalonia often used Castilian, Aragonese and Catalan dialects instead of the Andalusi Arabic dialect. Mudéjar texts were then written in Castilian and Aragonese, but in Arabic script. One example is the anonymous Poema de Yuçuf'', written in Aragonese but with Aljamiado Arabic script. Most of this literature consisted of religious essays, poems, and epic, imaginary narratives. Often, popular texts were translated into this Castilian-Arabic hybrid. Much of the literature of the Moriscos focused on affirming the place of Arabic-speaking Spaniards in Spanish history and that their culture was integral to Spain. A famous example is by . References Arabic literature European literature Islamic literature Jewish literature Medieval literature

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This is a list of the bird species recorded in New Caledonia. The avifauna of New Caledonia include a total of 223 species, of which 27 are endemic, and 13 have been introduced by humans. This list's taxonomic treatment (designation and sequence of orders, families and species) and nomenclature (common and scientific names) follow the conventions of The Clements Checklist of Birds of the World, 2021 edition. The family accounts at the beginning of each heading reflect this taxonomy, as do the species counts found in each family account. Introduced and accidental species are included in the total counts for New Caledonia. The following tags have been used to highlight several categories. The commonly occurring native species do not fall into any of these categories. (A) Accidental - a species that rarely or accidentally occurs in New Caledonia (E) Endemic - a species endemic to New Caledonia (I) Introduced - a species introduced to New Caledonia as a consequence, direct or indirect, of human actions (Ex) Extirpated - a species that no longer occurs in New Caledonia although populations exist elsewhere (Ext) Extinct - a species formerly endemic or native to New Caledonia, that is now extinct Ducks, geese, and waterfowl Order: AnseriformesFamily: Anatidae Anatidae includes the ducks and most duck-like waterfowl, such as geese and swans. These birds are adapted to an aquatic existence with webbed feet, flattened bills, and feathers that are excellent at shedding water due to an oily coating. Wandering whistling-duck, Dendrocygna arcuata (A) Canada goose, Branta canadensis (A) Australian shoveler, Spatula rhynchotis (A) Pacific black duck, Anas superciliosa Mallard, Anas platyrhynchos (I) Gray teal, Anas gracilis (A) Auckland Islands teal, Anas aucklandica (Ex) Brown teal, Anas chlorotis (A) Hardhead, Aythya australis Megapodes Order: Galliformes Family: Megapodiidae Megapodes or scrubfowl are grouse-like birds that live on the forest floor. They have stocky proportions and large feet('Megapode' means 'large foot' in Latin). They usually lay their eggs in a mound of warm compost or in a geothermally active area to incubate them, from which the chicks hatch fully developed and independent. Three extinct species are known from New Caledonia-one also known from Tonga, and the other two, one from Ile des Pins and the other from the Loyalty Islands, are both undescribed. Pile-builder megapode, Megapodius molistructor (Ext) Loyalty Islands megapode, Megapodius species (Ext) Il des Pins megapode, Megapodius species (Ext) Sylviornithids Order: Pangalliformes Family: Sylviornithidae The Sylviornithidae are an extinct group of stem-galliform birds that includes Sylviornis and Megavitiornis. They are sometimes erroneously called giant scrubfowl or giant megapodes. New Caledonian giant scrubfowl, Sylviornis neocaledoniae (Ext) Pheasants, grouse, and allies Order: GalliformesFamily: Phasianidae The Phasianidae are a family of terrestrial birds. In general, they are plump (although they vary in size) and have broad, relatively short wings. Indian peafowl, Pavo cristatus (I) Red junglefowl, Gallus gallus (I) Ring-necked pheasant, Phasianus colchicus (I) Wild turkey, Meleagris gallopavo (I) Grebes Order: PodicipediformesFamily: Podicipedidae Grebes are small to medium-large freshwater diving birds. They have lobed toes and are excellent swimmers and divers. However, they have their feet placed far back on the body, making them quite ungainly on land. Australasian grebe, Tachybaptus novaehollandiae Pigeons and doves Order: ColumbiformesFamily: Columbidae Pigeons and doves are stout-bodied birds with short necks and short slender bills with a fleshy cere. Rock pigeon, Columba livia (I) Metallic pigeon, Columba vitiensis Spotted dove, Streptopelia chinensis (I) Pacific emerald dove, Chalcophaps longirostris Zebra dove, Geopelia striata (I) Red-bellied fruit-dove, Ptilinopus greyi Cloven-feathered dove, Drepanoptila holosericea (E) Pacific imperial-pigeon, Ducula pacifica New Caledonian imperial-pigeon, Ducula goliath (E) Kanaka pigeon, Caloenas canacorum (Ext) New Caledonian ground dove, Pampusana longitarsus (Ext) Cuckoos Order: CuculiformesFamily: Cuculidae The family Cuculidae includes cuckoos, roadrunners and anis. These birds are of variable size with slender bodies, long tails and strong legs. The Old World cuckoos are brood parasites. Long-tailed koel, Urodynamis taitensis Channel-billed cuckoo, Scythrops novaehollandiae (A) Shining bronze-cuckoo, Chrysococcyx lucidus Fan-tailed cuckoo, Cacomantis flabelliformis Nightjars and allies Order: CaprimulgiformesFamily: Caprimulgidae Nightjars are medium-sized nocturnal birds that usually nest on the ground. They have long wings, short legs and very short bills. Most have small feet, of little use for walking, and long pointed wings. Their soft plumage is camouflaged to resemble bark or leaves. New Caledonian nightjar, Eurostopodus exul White-throated nightjar, Eurostopodus mystacalis Owlet-nightjars Order: CaprimulgiformesFamily: Aegothelidae The owlet-nightjars are small nocturnal birds related to the nightjars and frogmouths. They are insectivores which hunt mostly in the air. Their soft plumage is a mixture of browns and paler shades. New Caledonian owlet-nightjar, Aegotheles savesi (E) Swifts Order: CaprimulgiformesFamily: Apodidae Swifts are small birds which spend the majority of their lives flying. These birds have very short legs and never settle voluntarily on the ground, perching instead only on vertical surfaces. Many swifts have long swept-back wings which resemble a crescent or boomerang. White-throated needletail, Hirundapus caudacutus (A) Glossy swiftlet, Collocalia esculenta Satin swiftlet, Collocalia uropygialis White-rumped swiftlet, Aerodramus spodiopygius Australian swiftlet, Aerodramus terraereginae Uniform swiftlet, Aerodramus vanikorensis (A) Rails, gallinules, and coots Order: GruiformesFamily: Rallidae Rallidae is a large family of small to medium-sized birds which includes the rails, crakes, coots and gallinules. Typically they inhabit dense vegetation in damp environments near lakes, swamps or rivers. In general they are shy and secretive birds, making them difficult to observe. Most species have strong legs and long toes which are well adapted to soft uneven surfaces. They tend to have short, rounded wings and to be weak fliers. New Caledonian rail, Gallirallus lafresnayanus (E)-possibly extinct Buff-banded rail, Gallirallus philippensis Dusky moorhen, Gallinula tenebrosa New Caledonian gallinule, Porphyrio kukwiedei (E) (Ext) Australasian swamphen, Porphyrio melanotus White-browed crake, Poliolimnas cinereus (A) Baillon's crake, Zapornia pusilla (A) Spotless crake, Zapornia tabuensis Thick-knees Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Burhinidae The thick-knees are a group of largely tropical waders in the family Burhinidae. They are found worldwide within the tropical zone, with some species also breeding in temperate Europe and Australia. They are medium to large waders with strong black or yellow-black bills, large yellow eyes and cryptic plumage. Despite being classed as waders, most species have a preference for arid or semi-arid habitats. Beach thick-knee, Esacus magnirostris Oystercatchers Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Haematopodidae The oystercatchers are large and noisy plover-like birds, with strong bills used for smashing or prising open molluscs. South Island oystercatcher, Haematopus finschi (A) Plovers and lapwings Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Charadriidae The family Charadriidae includes the plovers, dotterels and lapwings. They are small to medium-sized birds with compact bodies, short, thick necks and long, usually pointed, wings. They are found in open country worldwide, mostly in habitats near water. Black-bellied plover, Pluvialis squatarola Pacific golden-plover, Pluvialis fulva Masked lapwing, Vanellus miles Lesser sand-plover, Charadrius mongolus Greater sand-plover, Charadrius leschenaultii (A) Double-banded plover, Charadrius bicinctus (A) Semipalmated plover, Charadrius semipalmatus (A) Oriental plover, Charadrius veredus (A) Hooded plover, Thinornis cucullatus Sandpipers and allies Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Scolopacidae Scolopacidae is a large diverse family of small to medium-sized shorebirds including the sandpipers, curlews, godwits, shanks, tattlers, woodcocks, snipes, dowitchers and phalaropes. The majority of these species eat small invertebrates picked out of the mud or soil. Variation in length of legs and bills enables multiple species to feed in the same habitat, particularly on the coast, without direct competition for food. Whimbrel, Numenius phaeopus Little curlew, Numenius minutus (A) Far Eastern curlew, Numenius madagascariensis (A) Bar-tailed godwit, Limosa lapponica Black-tailed godwit, Limosa limosa (A) Ruddy turnstone, Arenaria interpres Great knot, Calidris tenuirostris (A) Red knot, Calidris canutus (A) Sharp-tailed sandpiper, Calidris acuminata Curlew sandpiper, Calidris ferruginea (A) Red-necked stint, Calidris ruficollis Sanderling, Calidris alba Latham's snipe, Gallinago hardwickii (A) New Caledonian snipe, Coenocorypha neocaledonica (Ext) Terek sandpiper, Xenus cinereus Common sandpiper, Actitis hypoleucos Gray-tailed tattler, Tringa brevipes Wandering tattler, Tringa incana Common greenshank, Tringa nebularia Marsh sandpiper, Tringa stagnatilis (A) Buttonquail Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Turnicidae The buttonquail are small, drab, running birds which resemble the true quails. The female is the brighter of the sexes and initiates courtship. The male incubates the eggs and tends the young. Painted buttonquail, Turnix varius (Ex) Pratincoles and coursers Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Glareolidae Glareolidae is a family of wading birds comprising the pratincoles, which have short legs, long pointed wings and long forked tails, and the coursers, which have long legs, short wings and long, pointed bills which curve downwards. Australian pratincole, Stiltia isabella (A) Skuas and jaegers Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Stercorariidae The family Stercorariidae are, in general, medium to large birds, typically with grey or brown plumage, often with white markings on the wings. They nest on the ground in temperate and arctic regions and are long-distance migrants. South polar skua, Stercorarius maccormicki (A) Brown skua, Stercorarius antarcticus Pomarine jaeger, Stercorarius pomarinus (A) Parasitic jaeger, Stercorarius parasiticus (A) Long-tailed jaeger, Stercorarius longicaudus Gulls, terns, and skimmers Order: CharadriiformesFamily: Laridae Laridae is a family of medium to large seabirds, the gulls, terns, and skimmers. Gulls are typically grey or white, often with black markings on the head or wings. They have stout, longish bills and webbed feet. Terns are a group of generally medium to large seabirds typically with grey or white plumage, often with black markings on the head. Most terns hunt fish by diving but some pick insects off the surface of fresh water. Terns are generally long-lived birds, with several species known to live in excess of 30 years. Silver gull, Chroicocephalus novaehollandiae Brown noddy, Anous stolidus Black noddy, Anous minutus Gray noddy, Anous albivitta White tern, Gygis alba Sooty tern, Onychoprion fuscatus Bridled tern, Onychoprion anaethetus Little tern, Sternula albifrons Australian fairy tern, Sternula nereis White-winged tern, Chlidonias leucopterus (A) Whiskered tern, Chlidonias hybrida Roseate tern, Sterna dougallii Black-naped tern, Sterna sumatrana Great crested tern, Thalasseus bergii Lesser crested tern, Thalasseus bengalensis (A) Kagus Order: EurypygiformesFamily: Rhynochetidae The kagu or cagou is a long-legged grey bird found only in the dense mountain forests of New Caledonia. It is almost flightless. It builds a ground nest of sticks and lays a single egg. It is vulnerable to rats and cats which are introduced species on the island, hence it is now threatened with extinction. The remote habitat and rarity of this species mean that little is known of its habits. It formerly had a relative, the lowland kagu, which was about 15% larger. This died out after the first human contact with the island. Kagu, Rhynochetos jubatus (E) Lowland kagu, Rhynochetos orarius (Ext) Tropicbirds Order: PhaethontiformesFamily: Phaethontidae Tropicbirds are slender white birds of tropical oceans, with exceptionally long central tail feathers. Their heads and long wings have black markings. White-tailed tropicbird, Phaethon lepturus Red-tailed tropicbird, Phaethon rubricauda Albatrosses Order: ProcellariiformesFamily: Diomedeidae The albatrosses are among the largest of flying birds, and the great albatrosses from the genus Diomedea have the largest wingspans of any extant birds. Buller's albatross, Thalassarche bulleri (A) Black-browed albatross, Thalassarche melanophris (A) Light-mantled albatross, Phoebetria palpebrata (A) Royal albatross, Diomedea epomophora (A) Wandering albatross, Diomedea exulans (A) Southern storm-petrels Order: ProcellariiformesFamily: Oceanitidae The southern storm-petrels are relatives of the petrels and are the smallest seabirds. They feed on planktonic crustaceans and small fish picked from the surface, typically while hovering. The flight is fluttering and sometimes bat-like. Wilson's storm-petrel, Oceanites oceanicus (A) White-faced storm-petrel, Pelagodroma marina (A) White-bellied storm-petrel, Fregetta grallaria (A) Black-bellied storm-petrel, Fregetta tropica (A) Polynesian storm-petrel, Nesofregetta fuliginosa Northern storm-petrels Order: ProcellariiformesFamily: Hydrobatidae The northern storm-petrels are relatives of the petrels and are the smallest seabirds. They feed on planktonic crustaceans and small fish picked from the surface, typically while hovering. The flight is fluttering and sometimes bat-like. Band-rumped storm-petrel, Hydrobates castro (A) Shearwaters and petrels Order: ProcellariiformesFamily: Procellariidae The procellariids are the main group of medium-sized "true petrels", characterised by united nostrils with medium septum and a long outer functional primary. Southern giant-petrel, Macronectes giganteus (A) Northern giant-petrel, Macronectes halli (A) Cape petrel, Daption capense (A) Kermadec petrel, Pterodroma neglecta (A) Herald petrel, Pterodroma heraldica Providence petrel, Pterodroma solandri (A) Mottled petrel, Pterodroma inexpectata White-necked petrel, Pterodroma cervicalis (A) Bonin petrel, Pterodroma hypoleuca Black-winged petrel, Pterodroma nigripennis Cook's petrel, Pterodroma cookii (A) Gould's petrel, Pterodroma leucoptera Collared petrel, Pterodroma brevipes Fairy prion, Pachyptila turtur (A) Antarctic prion, Pachyptila desolata (A) Bulwer's petrel, Bulweria bulwerii (A) Tahiti petrel, Pseudobulweria rostrata Gray petrel, Procellaria cinerea (A) Parkinson's petrel, Procellaria parkinsoni (A) Streaked shearwater, Calonectris leucomelas (A) Flesh-footed shearwater, Ardenna carneipes (A) Wedge-tailed shearwater, Ardenna pacificus Buller's shearwater, Ardenna bulleri (A) Sooty shearwater, Ardenna griseus Short-tailed shearwater, Ardenna tenuirostris Fluttering shearwater, Puffinus gavia Little shearwater, Puffinus assimilis Tropical shearwater, Puffinus bailloni Frigatebirds Order: SuliformesFamily: Fregatidae Frigatebirds are large seabirds usually found over tropical oceans. They are large, black-and-white or completely black, with long wings and deeply forked tails. The males have coloured inflatable throat pouches. They do not swim or walk and cannot take off from a flat surface. Having the largest wingspan-to-body-weight ratio of any bird, they are essentially aerial, able to stay aloft for more than a week. Lesser frigatebird, Fregata ariel Great frigatebird, Fregata minor Boobies and gannets Order: SuliformesFamily: Sulidae The sulids comprise the gannets and boobies. Both groups are medium to large coastal seabirds that plunge-dive for fish. Masked booby, Sula dactylatra Brown booby, Sula leucogaster Red-footed booby, Sula sula Australasian gannet, Morus serrator Cormorants and shags Order: SuliformesFamily: Phalacrocoracidae Phalacrocoracidae is a family of medium to large coastal, fish-eating seabirds that includes cormorants and shags. Plumage colouration varies, with the majority having mainly dark plumage, some species being black-and-white and a few being colourful. Little pied cormorant, Microcarbo melanoleucos Great cormorant, Phalacrocorax carbo Little black cormorant, Phalacrocorax sulcirostris Pelicans Order: PelecaniformesFamily: Pelecanidae Pelicans are large water birds with a distinctive pouch under their beak. As with other members of the order Pelecaniformes, they have webbed feet with four toes. Australian pelican, Pelecanus conspicillatus (A) Herons, egrets, and bitterns Order: PelecaniformesFamily: Ardeidae The family Ardeidae contains the bitterns, herons and egrets. Herons and egrets are medium to large wading birds with long necks and legs. Bitterns tend to be shorter necked and more wary. Members of Ardeidae fly with their necks retracted, unlike other long-necked birds such as storks, ibises and spoonbills. Australasian bittern, Botaurus poiciloptilus (Ex) Black-backed bittern, Ixobrychus dubius Great egret, Ardea alba (A) Intermediate egret, Ardea intermedia White-faced heron, Egretta novaehollandiae Little egret, Egretta garzetta Pacific reef-heron, Egretta sacra Pied heron, Egretta picata (A) Cattle egret, Bubulcus ibis (A) Striated heron, Butorides striata (A) Nankeen night-heron, Nycticorax caledonicus Ibises and spoonbills Order: PelecaniformesFamily: Threskiornithidae Threskiornithidae is a family of large terrestrial and wading birds which includes the ibises and spoonbills. They have long, broad wings with 11 primary and about 20 secondary feathers. They are strong fliers and despite their size and weight, very capable soarers. Glossy ibis, Plegadis falcinellus Royal spoonbill, Platalea regia (A) Osprey Order: AccipitriformesFamily: Pandionidae The family Pandionidae contains only one species, the osprey. The osprey is a medium-large raptor which is a specialist fish-eater with a worldwide distribution. Osprey, Pandion haliaetus Hawks, eagles, and kites Order: AccipitriformesFamily: Accipitridae Accipitridae is a family of birds of prey, which includes hawks, eagles, kites, harriers and Old World vultures. These birds have powerful hooked beaks for tearing flesh from their prey, strong legs, powerful talons and keen eyesight. Swamp harrier, Circus approximans Brown goshawk, Accipiter fasciatus New Caledonia goshawk, Accipiter haplochrous (E) Black kite, Milvus migrans Whistling kite, Haliastur sphenurus White-bellied sea-eagle, Haliaeetus leucogaster (A) Barn-owls Order: StrigiformesFamily: Tytonidae Barn-owls are medium to large owls with large heads and characteristic heart-shaped faces. They have long strong legs with powerful talons. Australasian grass-owl, Tyto longimembris Barn owl, Tyto alba New Caledonian barn owl, Tyto letocarti (Ext) Owls Order: StrigiformesFamily: Strigidae The typical owls are small to large solitary nocturnal birds of prey. They have large forward-facing eyes and ears, a hawk-like beak and a conspicuous circle of feathers around each eye called a facial disk. New Caledonian boobook, Ninox cf. novaeseelandiae (Ext) Hornbills Order: BucerotiformesFamily: Bucerotidae An extinct hornbill from the genus Rhyticeros has been found on Lifou Island in the Loyalty Islands. The fossil is about 30,000 years old. The species has not been described yet and it is unclear whether it was found only on the Loyalty Islands or on them and New Caledonia proper. Lifou hornbill, Rhyticeros species Kingfishers Order: CoraciiformesFamily: Alcedinidae Kingfishers are medium-sized birds with large heads, long, pointed bills, short legs and stubby tails. Sacred kingfisher, Todirhamphus sanctus Bee-eaters Order: CoraciiformesFamily: Meropidae The bee-eaters are a group of near passerine birds in the family Meropidae. Most species are found in Africa but others occur in southern Europe, Madagascar, Australia and New Guinea. They are characterised by richly coloured plumage, slender bodies and usually elongated central tail feathers. All are colourful and have long downturned bills and pointed wings, which give them a swallow-like appearance when seen from afar. Rainbow bee-eater, Merops ornatus Falcons and caracaras Order: FalconiformesFamily: Falconidae Falconidae is a family of diurnal birds of prey. They differ from hawks, eagles and kites in that they kill with their beaks instead of their talons. Nankeen kestrel, Falco cenchroides (A) Peregrine falcon, Falco peregrinus Cockatoos Order: PsittaciformesFamily: Cacatuidae Cockatoos are large parrots that are usually white and often have colorful crests. They are distributed over Australia, Papua New Guinea and parts of Indonesia, the Solomon Islands and the Philippines. A fossil of a cockatoo has recently been discovered in New Caledonia, but is yet to be described. New Caledonian cockatoo, Cacatua sp. (Ext) Old World parrots Order: PsittaciformesFamily: Psittaculidae Characteristic features of parrots include a strong curved bill, an upright stance, strong legs, and clawed zygodactyl feet. Many parrots are vividly colored, and some are multi-colored. In size they range from to in length. Old World parrots are found from Africa east across south and southeast Asia and Oceania to Australia and New Zealand. Horned parakeet, Eunymphicus cornutus (E) Ouvea parakeet, Eunymphicus uvaeensis (E) New Caledonian parakeet, Cyanoramphus saissetti (E) New Caledonian lorikeet, Vini diadema (E)-probably extinct Coconut lorikeet, Trichoglossus haematodus Rainbow lorikeet, Trichoglossus moluccanus Honeyeaters Order: PasseriformesFamily: Meliphagidae The honeyeaters are a large and diverse family of small to medium-sized birds most common in Australia and New Guinea. They are nectar feeders and closely resemble other nectar-feeding passerines. New Caledonian myzomela, Myzomela caledonica (E) Cardinal myzomela, Myzomela cardinalis Barred honeyeater, Gliciphila undulata (E) Dark-brown honeyeater, Lichmera incana Crow honeyeater, Gymnomyza aubryana (E) New Caledonian friarbird, Philemon diemenensis (E) Thornbills and allies Order: PasseriformesFamily: Acanthizidae Thornbills are small passerine birds, similar in habits to the tits. Fan-tailed gerygone, Gerygone flavolateralis Cuckooshrikes Order: PasseriformesFamily: Campephagidae The cuckooshrikes are small to medium-sized passerine birds. They are predominantly greyish with white and black, although some species are brightly coloured. Black-faced cuckooshrike, Coracina novaehollandiae (A) South Melanesian cuckooshrike, Coracina caledonica Polynesian triller, Lalage maculosa (A) Long-tailed triller, Lalage leucopyga White-rumped triller, Lalage leucopygialis New Caledonian cuckooshrike, Analisoma analis (E) Whistlers and allies Order: PasseriformesFamily: Pachycephalidae The family Pachycephalidae includes the whistlers, shrikethrushes, and some of the pitohuis. Vanuatu whistler, Pachycephala chlorura New Caledonian whistler, Pachycephala caledonica (E) Golden whistler, Pachycephala pectoralis Rufous whistler, Pachycephala rufiventris Woodswallows, bellmagpies, and allies Order: PasseriformesFamily: Artamidae The woodswallows are soft-plumaged, somber-coloured passerine birds. They are smooth, agile flyers with moderately large, semi-triangular wings. White-breasted woodswallow, Artamus leucorynchus Dusky woodswallow, Artamus cyanopterus (A) Fantails Order: PasseriformesFamily: Rhipiduridae The fantails are small insectivorous birds which are specialist aerial feeders. Streaked fantail, Rhipidura verreauxi Gray fantail, Rhipidura fuliginosa Monarch flycatchers Order: PasseriformesFamily: Monarchidae The monarch flycatchers are small to medium-sized insectivorous passerines which hunt by flycatching. Southern shrikebill, Clytorhynchus pachycephaloides Melanesian flycatcher, Myiagra caledonica Crows, jays, and magpies Order: PasseriformesFamily: Corvidae The family Corvidae includes crows, ravens, jays, choughs, magpies, treepies, nutcrackers and ground jays. Corvids are above average in size among the Passeriformes, and some of the larger species show high levels of intelligence. New Caledonian crow, Corvus moneduloides (E) Australasian robins Order: PasseriformesFamily: Petroicidae Most species of Petroicidae have a stocky build with a large rounded head, a short straight bill and rounded wingtips. They occupy a wide range of wooded habitats, from subalpine to tropical rainforest, and mangrove swamp to semi-arid scrubland. All are primarily insectivores, although a few supplement their diet with seeds. Yellow-bellied robin, Eopsaltria flaviventris (E) Grassbirds and allies Order: PasseriformesFamily: Locustellidae The family Locustellidae is a group of small insectivorous passerine birds. Most are of generally undistinguished appearance, but many have distinctive songs. New Caledonian thicketbird, Megalurulus mariei (E) Swallows Order: PasseriformesFamily: Hirundinidae The family Hirundinidae is adapted to aerial feeding. They have a slender streamlined body, long pointed wings and a short bill with a wide gape. The feet are adapted to perching rather than walking, and the front toes are partially joined at the base. Pacific swallow, Hirundo tahitica Welcome swallow, Hirundo neoxena Tree martin, Petrochelidon nigricans (A) Bulbuls Order: PasseriformesFamily: Pycnonotidae Bulbuls are medium-sized songbirds. Some are colourful with yellow, red or orange vents, cheeks, throats or supercilia, but most are drab, with uniform olive-brown to black plumage. Some species have distinct crests. Red-vented bulbul, Pycnonotus cafer (I) White-eyes, yuhinas, and allies Order: PasseriformesFamily: Zosteropidae The white-eyes are small and mostly undistinguished, their plumage above being generally some dull colour like greenish-olive, but some species have a white or bright yellow throat, breast or lower parts, and several have buff flanks. As their name suggests, many species have a white ring around each eye. Large Lifou white-eye, Zosterops inornatus (E) Green-backed white-eye, Zosterops xanthochrous (E) Small Lifou white-eye, Zosterops minutus (E) Silvereye, Zosterops lateralis Starlings Order: PasseriformesFamily: Sturnidae Starlings are small to medium-sized passerine birds. Their flight is strong and direct and they are very gregarious. Their preferred habitat is fairly open country. They eat insects and fruit. Plumage is typically dark with a metallic sheen. Striated starling, Aplonis striata (E) European starling, Sturnus vulgaris (A) Common myna, Acridotheres tristis (I) Thrushes and allies Order: PasseriformesFamily: Turdidae The thrushes are a group of passerine birds that occur mainly in the Old World. They are plump, soft plumaged, small to medium-sized insectivores or sometimes omnivores, often feeding on the ground. Many have attractive songs. Island thrush, Turdus poliocephalus Waxbills and allies Order: PasseriformesFamily: Estrildidae The estrildid finches are small passerine birds of the Old World tropics and Australasia. They are gregarious and often colonial seed eaters with short thick but pointed bills. They are all similar in structure and habits, but have wide variation in plumage colours and patterns. Common waxbill, Estrilda astrild (I) Blue-faced parrotfinch, Erythrura trichroa (A) Red-throated parrotfinch, Erythrura psittacea (E) Chestnut-breasted munia, Lonchura castaneothorax (I) Java sparrow, Padda oryzivora (Ex) Old World sparrows Order: PasseriformesFamily: Passeridae Old World sparrows are small passerine birds. In general, sparrows tend to be small, plump, brown or grey birds with short tails and short powerful beaks. Sparrows are seed eaters, but they also consume small insects. House sparrow, Passer domesticus (I) See also List of birds Lists of birds by region References New Caledonia New Caledonia-related lists

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A green party is a formally organized political party based on the principles of green politics, such as social justice, environmentalism and nonviolence. Greens believe that these issues are inherently related to one another as a foundation for world peace. Green party platforms typically embrace social-democratic economic policies and form coalitions with other left-wing parties. Green parties exist in nearly 90 countries around the world; many are members of Global Greens. Definitions There are distinctions between "green" parties and "Green" parties. Any party, faction, or politician may be labeled "green" if it emphasizes environmental causes. In contrast, formally organized Green parties may follow a coherent ideology that includes not only environmentalism, but often also other concerns such as social justice, consensus decision-making and nonviolence. Greens believe that these issues are inherently related to one another as a foundation for world peace. The best-known statement of the above Green values is the Four Pillars of the Green Party, adopted by the German Greens in 1979–1980 (but forsaken since). The Global Greens Charter lists six guiding principles which are ecological wisdom, social justice, participatory democracy, nonviolence, sustainability and respect for diversity. History Political parties campaigning on a predominantly environmental platform arose in the early 1970s in various parts of the world. The world's first political parties to campaign on a predominantly environmental platform were the United Tasmania Group contested the April 1972 state election in Tasmania, Australia, and the Values Party of New Zealand, which contested the November 1972 New Zealand general election. Their use of the name 'Green' derived from the 'Green Bans': an Australian movement of building workers who refused to build on sites of cultural and environmental significance. The first green party in Europe was the Popular Movement for the Environment, founded in 1972 in the Swiss canton of Neuchâtel. The first national green party in Europe was PEOPLE, founded in Britain in February 1973, which eventually turned into the Ecology Party, and then the Green Party. Several other local political groups were founded in beginning of the 1970s and Fons Sprangers was probably the first Green mayor in the world, elected in 1970 in Meer, and active until 2020 for the Flemish Greens. The first political party to use the name "Green" seems to have been the Lower Saxon "Green List for Environmental Protection", founded on 1 September 1977. The first Green Party to achieve national prominence was the German Green Party, famous for their opposition to nuclear power, as well as an expression of anti-centralist and pacifist values traditional to greens. They were founded in 1980 and have been in coalition governments at state level for some years. They were in federal government with the Social Democratic Party of Germany in a so-called Red-Green alliance from 1998 to 2005. In 2001, they reached an agreement to end reliance on nuclear power in Germany, and agreed to remain in coalition and support the government of Chancellor Gerhard Schröder in the 2001 Afghan War. This put them at odds with many Greens worldwide. In Finland, in 1995, the Finnish Green Party was the first European Green party to be part of a national Cabinet. Other Green parties that have participated in government at national level include the Groen! (formerly Agalev) and Ecolo in Belgium, The Greens in France and the Green Party in Ireland. In the Netherlands GroenLinks ("GreenLeft") was founded in 1990 from four small left-wing parties and is now a stable faction in the Dutch parliament. The Australian Greens supported a Labor minority government from 2010 to 2013, and have participated in several state governments. In 2022 Denmark, the Green Party The Alternative has only one Parliament member, having dropped from the previous nine, and five local parliaments members. In 2022 Portugal, the Green Party People-Animals-Nature also has only one Parliament member, having dropped from the previous four, and another in the Madeira Regional Parliament, while its two other Green parties, Partido da Terra and Partido Ecologista "Os Verdes", only have, respectively, two councilpeople and one mayor. Around the world, individuals have formed many Green parties over the last thirty years. Green parties now exist in most countries with democratic systems: from Canada to Peru; from Norway to South Africa; from Ireland to Mongolia. There is Green representation at national, regional and local levels in many countries around the world. Most of the Green parties are formed to win elections, and so organize themselves by the presented electoral or political districts. But that does not apply universally: The Green Party of Alaska is organized along bioregional lines to practice bioregional democracy. Support Academic research has uncovered striking international consistency in the typical demographic and attitudinal profile of Green party supporters. In particular, Green voters tend to be young, highly educated, disproportionately female, and employed in the social and cultural services (healthcare, teaching, the arts, etc.), whilst also displaying above-average levels of environmentalism and social liberalism, as well as being left-leaning. Additionally, Green parties also tend to attract greater levels of support in countries defined by high levels of economic development and low levels of unemployment, as well as the presence of tangible environmental disputes (such as nuclear power production) and active major party competition on the environmental issue. The former two factors are believed to generate cohorts of voters with enough material security to devote their attention to 'higher' goals such as environmentalism; the latter two help raise the profile of the Green's own policy positions and statements (providing that the major parties do not act so quickly to the rising salience of environmentalism as to usurp the issue entirely and completely preempt the development of a separate ecological party). Their supporters sometimes blame the economical system for the environmental issues neglecting any green free-market liberal capitalist alternatives. Alliances Depending on local conditions or issues, platforms and alliances may vary. In line with the goal of democracy, neighboring ecoregions may require different policies or protections. Green parties are often formed in a given jurisdiction by a coalition of scientific ecologists, community environmentalists, and local (or national) leftist groups or groups concerned with peace or citizens rights. A Red-Green alliance is an alliance between Green parties and social democratic parties. Such alliances are typically formed for the purpose of elections (mostly in first-past-the-post election systems), or, after elections, for the purpose of forming a government. Some Greens, such as those in Hawaii, find more effective alliances with more conservative groups (Blue-Green alliance) or indigenous peoples - who seek to prevent disruption of traditional ways of life or to save ecological resources they depend on. Although Greens find much to support in fostering these types of alliances with groups of historically different backgrounds, they also feel strongly about forming diverse communities through encouragement of diversity in social and economic demographics in communities, especially in the United States. Alliances often highlight strategic differences between participating in parties and advancing the values of the Green movement. For example, Greens became allied with centre-right parties to oust the centre-left ruling Institutional Revolutionary Party of Mexico. Ralph Nader, the 2000 presidential nominee of the U.S. Greens, campaigned with ultra-conservative Pat Buchanan on joint issues such as farm policy and bans on corporate funding of election campaigns, although this "alliance" between Nader and Buchanan was very specifically limited to the purpose of showing that there was broad support for certain specific issues, across the political spectrum. U.S. Greens grew dramatically throughout 2001. However, stable coalitions (such as that in Germany) tend to be formed between elections with left-wing parties on social issues, and 'the grassroots right' on such issues as irresponsible corporate subsidies and public ethics. On 13 June 2007, the Irish Green Party, represented by six members of parliament or TDs, agreed to go into a coalition government for the first time in their history, with Fianna Fáil and the Progressive Democrats (the Progressive Democrats later dissolved as a party, though their members remained in parliament). The Green Party held two Cabinet seats, as well as two junior ministries, until their withdrawal from government in January 2011. They lost all of their six seats in the following month's general election, but won two in the 2016 general election, and twelve seats in the 2020 general election, and entered government again in June 2020. In the Czech Republic, the Green Party was part of the governing coalition, together with the conservative Civic Democratic Party (ODS) and the Christian Democrats (KDU–ČSL) from January 2007 until the government collapsed in March 2009. Green parties Africa Some national Green parties began forming in Africa in the 1980s and 1990s, but they often struggled to gain influence. Wangari Maathai was perhaps the most prominent and successful member of a Green party in Africa: after founding the Green Belt Movement and the Mazingira Green Party of Kenya, she was elected to the Kenyan Parliament in 2002, became an assistant minister for Environmental and Natural Resources, and won the Nobel Peace Prize in 2004. Other African Green parties that have achieved parliamentary representation include Les Verts Fraternels of Mauritius, and Frank Habineza's Democratic Green Party of Rwanda. In Senegal, Green party leader Haïdar el Ali was appointed Minister for Ecology in 2012. Asia and Oceania Australia, Fiji, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Vanuatu Green parties have achieved national or state parliamentary representation in New Zealand, Australia and Vanuatu. In New Zealand the Green Party of Aotearoa New Zealand currently holds 10 seats in the New Zealand House of Representatives after the 2020 general election. The Australian Greens hold 10 seats in the Australian Senate and one seat in the Australian House of Representatives. Since 2004, they have received more votes than any other third party in every federal election. They also have representation in the upper and lower houses of state parliaments of five states and in the unicameral chamber of one territory. Greens also hold representative positions in local government across New Zealand and Australia (where a number of local government authorities are controlled by Green councilors). The Greens took the seat of Melbourne from the Australian Labor Party in 2010 with candidate Adam Bandt. This is the first time the Greens have won a Lower House seat at a general election (although they have previously won two seats at by-elections). Proportional representation in the Australian Senate and in New Zealand has strengthened the position of the Australian Greens and the Green Party of New Zealand and enabled them to participate directly in legislatures and policy-making committees. In countries following British-style 'first past the post' electoral rules, Green parties face barriers to gaining federal or provincial/regional/state seats. The Australian Labor Party's practice of allocating a portion of ALP ticket votes to Australian Greens has helped bring AG candidates into parliament. In the 2008 ACT election in Australia, the Greens won 15.6% of the vote, winning 4 out of 17 seats. Shane Rattenbury was elected the speaker of the assembly, the first time a Green party member had held such a position in any parliament or assembly in Australia. However, they retained only one seat at the 2012 election in the same territory. The Green Confederation (Confédération Verte) in Vanuatu won 3 out of 52 seats in the last general election in October 2012. Its most prominent member is Moana Carcasses Kalosil, who became prime minister in March 2013. Carcasses, a Green liberal, does not lead a Green government, but a broad coalition government in which he is the only Green minister. There is a Papua New Guinea Greens Party, but it does not have any members in Parliament. There was briefly a Green Party in Fiji from 2008 to 2013; as Parliament was suspended by the military regime during this time, the party was not able to take part in any election before all parties were deregistered in 2013. Lebanon The Green Party of Lebanon was founded in 2008 as a secular party. Its first president was Philippe Skaff, CEO of Grey Advertising. The party debuted with the May 2010 municipal elections. In 2011, the party became the first political party in Lebanon to elect a female leader when Nada Zaarour was elected its president. Pakistan, Saudi Arabia The Green Party of Pakistan was founded in 2002, and the Green Party of Saudi Arabia emerged 2010. However, due to political repression, some South and Southwest Asian Green parties are underground organizations. Taiwan The Green Party Taiwan was founded in 1996. It is a small party which have often associated with Democratic Progressive Party, a major political party in Taiwan. Europe Belgian and German roots The first green parties in Europe were founded in the late 1970s, following the rise of environmental awareness and the development of new social movements. Green parties in Belgium first made a breakthrough. Belgium had Green members of parliament elected first in the 1970s, and with seats on the local council, held the balance of power in the city of Liege, so were the first to go into coalition with the ruling party on that council. In 1979 political campaigns and dissident groups feeling underrepresented in west German politics formed a coalition to contest the 1979 elections to the European Parliament. Although they did not win any seats, the groups in this association formally agreed to become a party and won a breakthrough in the German national elections of 1983. They were not the first Green Party in Europe to have members elected nationally but the impression was created that they had been, because they attracted the most media attention. This was partly due to their charismatic leader Petra Kelly, a German who was of interest to the American media because she had an American step-father. Since its foundation in 1980 and merger with Alliance 90 after the German reunification, Kelly's party, now named Alliance '90/The Greens, has become one of Europe's most important Green parties. It played an important role in the formation of national-level Green parties in other countries such as Spain as well. The forerunner of the Green Party in the United Kingdom was the PEOPLE Party, formed in Coventry in 1972. It changed its name to the Ecology Party in 1973 and the Green Party in 1985. 1984–1989: A new political force In 1984 Greens agreed a common platform for the European Parliament Elections and the first Green Members of the European Parliament were elected here. Germany, a stronghold of the Green movement, elected seven MEPs; two more came from Belgium and two from the Netherlands. As those eleven MEPs did not entitle the Greens to form a parliamentary group on their own, they concluded an alliance with MEPs from Italy, Denmark, and regionalists from Flanders and Ireland to form the GRAEL (Green Alternative European Link) group, also known as the Rainbow Group. Politically they engaged in the fight against environmental pollution, nuclear energy (1986 saw the Chernobyl disaster), the promotion of animal protection and the campaign against the demolition of Brussels by speculation fuelled by the presence of the European institutions. Since the 1990s After years of co-operation between the national Green parties, they formed a pan-European alliance that unites most European Green parties. The Greens are a party within the European parliament with 46 seats, as of June 2009. It has a long-standing alliance with the European Free Alliance (EFA), an alliance of "stateless nations", such as the Welsh nationalist Plaid Cymru and Scottish National Party. Together European Green Party/EFA have 58 seats and they are the fourth largest party in the European Parliament. While on many issues European Greens practice the same policies, one issue divides European Green parties: the European Union. Some Green parties, like the Dutch GreenLeft, the Green Party of England and Wales, the Swiss Green Party, the Irish Green Party and the German Alliance '90/The Greens, are pro-European while some, like the Green party in Sweden, are moderately eurosceptic. Some Green parties have been part of governing coalitions. The first one was the Finnish Green League that entered government in 1995. The Italian Federation of the Greens, the French Greens, the German Alliance '90/The Greens and both Belgian Green parties, the French-speaking Ecolo and the Dutch-speaking Agalev were part of government during the late 1990s. Most successful was the Latvian Green Party, who supplied the Prime Minister of Latvia in 2004. The Swedish Green Party was a long term supporter of the social-democratic minority government until the election 2006 when the social-democratic party lost. The Irish Green Party is currently in government, having entered a coalition with Fianna Fáil and Fine Gael in June 2020, with three cabinet positions. It was previously in a coalition government with Fianna Fáil from 2007 until January 2011 when the party withdrew their support for the ruling coalition. In Scandinavia, left-wing socialist parties have formed the Nordic Green Left Alliance. These parties have the same ideals as European Greens. However, they do not cooperate with the Global Greens or European Greens, but instead form a combined parliamentary group with the Party of the European Left, which unites communists and post-communists. There is one exception, in 2004 the MEP for Danish Socialist People's Party has left the Nordic Green Left parliamentary group and has joined the Green parliamentary group in the European parliament. The Socialist People's Party is currently an observer at the European Green Party and the Global Greens. Outside of Scandinavia, in 2004, Latvia became the first country in the world to have a Green politician become Head of Government, but in 2006 the Green Party received only 16.71 percent of the vote. In the Estonia 2007 parliamentary elections, the Estonian Greens won 7.1 percent of the vote, and a mandate for six seats in the country's parliament, the Riigikogu. Other significant electoral results for European green parties include Germany's Alliance '90/The Greens in the 2002 federal election and France's Europe Ecology – The Greens in the 2012 legislative election, in which they both won more seats than any other third party. In some countries Greens have found it difficult to win any representation in the national parliament. Three reasons can be found for this. It includes countries with a first past the post electoral system, such as the United Kingdom. However, despite the first past the post system in the United Kingdom, the Green Party of England and Wales won their first seat in the House of Commons when Caroline Lucas won the seat of Brighton Pavilion in 2010. The Scottish Greens have had success in the devolved Scottish Parliament having recently signed a deal to enter a governing coalition, whilst the Green Party Northern Ireland has had success in the devolved Northern Ireland Assembly and local elections where the first-past-the-post system is not used. In countries where a party with similar ideals is stronger, such as Norway and Denmark, Green parties tend to perform worse. In some Eastern European countries, like Romania, Green parties are still in the process of formation and have therefore not gained enough support. In Poland the Green Party, registered in 2004, won their first three seats in the Sejm in 2019. The Green Party of Bulgaria is a part of the left-wing Coalition for Bulgaria, currently in opposition. It has no parliamentary representation but it did supply one Deputy Minister in the government of Prime Minister Sergey Stanishev from 2005 to 2009. The European Green Party has worked to support weak Green parties in European countries. Until recently, they were giving support to Green parties in the Mediterranean countries. These Green parties are now making electoral gains, e.g. in Spain, Greece and Republic of Cyprus, or getting organized to do so, e.g. in Malta. Therefore, the EGP is now turning its attention to Eastern Europe – all these countries have Green parties, but in materially poor Eastern Europe the success of Green Parties is patchy except for Hungary, where the local Green party, Politics Can Be Different (LMP), has been elected to parliament and many city councils. In 2021 Croatian local elections We can! party became the largest political party in the Zagreb Assembly, winning 23 seats in total. Their mayoral candidate Tomislav Tomašević won a landslide victory on 31 May. Turkey Greens and the Left Party of the Future is a left-libertarian and green party in Turkey. It was founded on 25 November 2012 as a merger of the Greens Party and the Equality and Democracy Party. Prominent members include Murat Belge, left-liberal political author and columnist for Taraf; Kutluğ Ataman, filmmaker and contemporary artist; and Ufuk Uras, former Istanbul deputy and president of the Freedom and Solidarity Party. The party is one of the participants in the Peoples' Democratic Congress, a political initiative instrumental in founding the Peoples' Democratic Party in 2012. The Greens, along with feminists, left YSGP en masse in 2016, citing its lack of democratic decision making practices. They and a new generation of activists reestablished the Green Party (Yeşiller) in 2020. North America As of the 41st general election in Canada, held on May 2, 2011, there was only one federally elected member of the Green Party of Canada in the House of Commons of Canada, its leader Elizabeth May. However, at the dissolution of the 41st Parliament on August 2, 2015, the Green Party of Canada held two seats in the House of Commons, the second seat belonging to formerly Independent MP Bruce Hyer who was elected to the House of Commons as a member of the NDP in 2011. Only May won re-election to the 42nd parliament. There remains no federal representation by the Green Party of the United States in the U.S. Congress. Accordingly, in these countries, Green parties focus on electoral reform. In Mexico, however, the Partido Verde Ecologista, often abbreviated as PVEM, has 17 deputies and four senators in Congress as a result of the 2006 elections. Nevertheless, some of its political practices such as plead in favor of the death penalty in Mexico, led to the European Green Party's withdrawal of recognition of the PVEM as a legitimate green party. Canada The first Green parties in Canada (both federal and provincial) were founded in 1983. The strongest provincial Green parties are the Green Party of British Columbia, the Green Party of Ontario, the Green Party of New Brunswick, and the Green Party of Prince Edward Island which was elected the Official Opposition in the 2019 election. The first ever BC Green MLA was elected in 2013, and in 2017 they helped the minority NDP form government. In 2014 a Green MLA was elected to the New Brunswick legislature, in 2015 a Green MLA was elected to the Prince Edward Island Legislature, and in 2018 Mike Schreiner became the first Green MPP elected to the Ontario provincial legislature. Federally, the Green Party of Canada received 6.49% of the popular vote and a record three seats in Parliament during the 2019 federal election, breaking ground in Atlantic Canada with the election of Jenica Atwin as the first federal Green from outside of British Columbia. This is up from one seat (later two) and 3.91% won in the 2015 federal election. Although Elizabeth May (the leader of the GPC from 2006-2019) was the first elected Member of Parliament, the first seat was gained in the House of Commons on August 30, 2008 when sitting Independent MP Blair Wilson joined the party. As of September 2020, May continues to sit as a Member of Parliament for Saanich-Gulf Islands and has exerted a considerable amount of legislative influence on a number of issues ranging from denying unanimous consent for military intervention in Libya, playing a central role in exposing changes to environmental legislation hidden in the omnibus Budget Bill C-38, to introducing a private member's bill to develop a national strategy on Lyme disease. In the 2008 Vancouver municipal election, Stuart Mackinnon, a member of the Vancouver Green Party, was elected to the Vancouver Parks Board. Since that time former Green Party of British Columbia leader, and deputy-leader of the federal Green party, Adriane Carr won the Greens' first seat on Vancouver City Council, in 2011 municipal elections. United States In the United States, Greens first ran for public office in 1985. Since then, the Green Party of the United States has claimed electoral victories at the municipal, county and state levels. The first U.S. Greens to be elected were David Conley and Frank Koehn in Wisconsin 1986. Each was elected to a position on the County Board of Supervisors in Douglas and Bayfield counties respectively. Keiko Bonk was first elected in 1992 in Hawaii County, becoming Official Chairwoman in 1995. The first Green Party mayor was Kelly Weaverling, elected in Cordova, AK in 1991. As of April 2018, 156 Greens held elective office across the US in 19 states. The states with the largest numbers of Green elected officials are California (68), Connecticut (15), and Pennsylvania (15). Titles of offices held include: Alderman, Auditor, Board of Appeals, Board of Finance, Board of Selectmen, Borough Council, Budget Committee, Circuit Court Judge, City Council, Common Council, Community College District Board of Trustees, Community Service Board, Conservation Congress, Constable, County Board of Supervisors, County Supervisor, Fire Commission, Fire District Board, Inspector of Elections, Judge of Elections, Mayor, Neighborhood Council Board, Park District, Parks and Recreation District Board, Library Board, Planning Board, Public Housing Authority Resident Advisory Board, Public Service District, Rent Stabilization Board, Sanitary District Board, School Board, Soil and Water Conservation Board, State Representative, Town Council, Transit District Board, Village Trustee, Water District Board, and Zoning Board of Appeals As of October 2016, 100 Greens held elected office across the US. The first US Green elected to a state legislature was Audie Bock in 1999, to the California State Assembly, followed by John Eder to the Maine House of Representatives in 2002 and 2004 and Richard Carroll to the Arkansas House of Representatives in 2008. While in office in 2003 in the New Jersey General Assembly, incumbent Matt Ahearn made a party switch to Green for the remainder of his term. The Green Party has contested six U.S.A. presidential elections: in 1996 and 2000 with Ralph Nader for president and Winona LaDuke as vice president, in 2004 with David Cobb for president and Pat LaMarche for vice president, and in 2008 with Cynthia McKinney for president and Rosa Clemente for vice president. In 2000, Nader received more votes for president than any Green Party candidate before or since. Jill Stein ran for president on the Green ticket in 2012 and 2016; the vice-presidential candidates were Cheri Honkala in 2012 and Ajamu Baraka in 2016. Stein, who received over one million votes in the 2016 race, led unsuccessful attempts toward 2016 election recounts in three states: Michigan, Pennsylvania, and Wisconsin. South America Brazil The Brazilian Green Party was constituted after the military dictatorship period and, like other Green Parties around the world, is committed to establishing a set of policies on ensuring social-equity and sustainable development. One of the party's founding members was the journalist and former anti-dictatorship revolutionary Fernando Gabeira, Alfredo Sirkis and Carlos Minc. Among the main items on the Green Party's agenda are federalism, environmentalism, human rights, a form of direct democracy, parliamentarism, welfare, civil liberties, pacifism and marijuana legalization under specific conditions. Green Party's candidate Marina Silva won 19.33% of the vote in the first round of the 2010 Brazilian presidential election (more than any other third party), taking enough votes from Dilma Rousseff of the incumbent PT to prevent her from achieving the majority of the vote needed to avoid a second round. Success in the legislature amounted to winning 2 more seats for a total of 15 in the Chamber of Deputies and the loss of their only senate seat. Marina Silva left the party the following year. In the 2014 presidential election the Green Party's candidate Eduardo Jorge received 0,61% of the vote. He garnered attention for campaigning on a progressive platform supporting policies such as cannabis legalization and the decriminalization of abortion. Because of his perceived eccentricity and spontaneity while participating in the televised debates, Jorge became the subject of several memes on the internet. The party elected 6 federal deputies and 1 senator. In 2016, the Greens in Congress voted in favour of the impeachment of Dilma Roussef. The party later went on to support president Michel Temer who succeeded her. For the 2018 presidential election the party formed the coalition United to transform Brazil with the Sustainability Network (REDE), in support of the candidacy of Marina Silva in her third run for the presidency. Eduardo Jorge was chosen as her running mate. Despite faring well in the initial polls, Silva ultimately received 1% of the vote. The party elected 4 federal deputies. Colombia In the 1990s, the Oxygen Green Party was created under the leadership of Ingrid Betancourt but dissolved after her infamous kidnapping. Later, the Visionaries Party was created by Antanas Mockus whose ideals earned him the Bogotá Mayoral Office twice. In the 2010 Colombian presidential election a green party has been created under the name Colombian Green Party, with former Bogotá mayor Antanas Mockus being the leader. See also Green and chartreuse – colors associated with the Green movement List of green political parties Outline of green politics References Epstein, David A. (2012). Left, Right, Out: The History of Third Parties in America. Arts and Letters Imperium Publications. . External links Global Greens – The official global organization of Green parties worldwide of Green parties

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Mark Simon Cavendish (born 21 May 1985) is a Manx/British professional road racing cyclist who currently rides for UCI WorldTeam . As a track cyclist he specialises in the madison, points race, and scratch race disciplines; as a road racer he is a sprinter. He is widely considered one of the greatest road sprinters of all time, and in 2021 was called "the greatest sprinter in the history of the Tour and of cycling" by Christian Prudhomme, director of the Tour de France. In his first years as an elite track rider, Cavendish won gold in the madison at the 2005 and 2008 UCI Track Cycling World Championships riding for Great Britain, with Rob Hayles and Bradley Wiggins respectively, and in the scratch race at the 2006 Commonwealth Games riding for Isle of Man. After failing to win a medal at the 2008 Summer Olympics he did not compete on track again until 2015, subsequently winning his third UCI Track Cycling World Championships title with Wiggins in the madison in 2016, and an individual silver medal in the omnium at the 2016 Summer Olympics. As a road cyclist, Cavendish turned professional in 2005, and achieved eleven wins in his first professional season. Cavendish has won 34 Tour de France stages, putting him equal first on the all-time list, contributing to a third-highest total of fifty-two Grand Tour stage victories. He won the Men's road race at the 2011 road world championships, becoming the second male British rider to do so after Tom Simpson. Cavendish has also won the points classification in all three of the grand tours: the 2010 Vuelta a España, the 2011, and 2021 Tours de France and the 2013 Giro d'Italia. In 2012, he became the first person to win the final Champs-Élysées stage in the Tour de France in four consecutive years. He won seven Grand Tour stages in 2013, one in 2015 and four in 2016. This included a win on stage one of the 2016 Tour de France, claiming him his first Tour de France yellow jersey of his career. Cavendish crashed with Peter Sagan on stage four of the 2017 Tour de France, forcing him out of the race. Cavendish continued producing good results until August 2018, when he was diagnosed with Epstein–Barr virus. Before his diagnosis, Cavendish was able to compete in the 2018 Tour de France but was disqualified after not making the cut-off time on stage eleven. He returned to the Tour de France at the 2021 edition, winning stage four, stage six, and stage ten to take his total to 33 stage wins, one off the overall stage victory record. Three days later, on 9 July, he won the stage from Nîmes to Carcassonne to equal the record. He also won the points classification ahead of Michael Matthews and Sonny Colbrelli. In the 2011 Queen's Birthday Honours, Cavendish was appointed a Member of the Order of the British Empire (MBE) "for services to British Cycling." He also won the 2011 BBC Sports Personality of the Year Award with nearly half of the votes going to him out of a field of ten nominations. Early life and amateur career Cavendish was born in Douglas, Isle of Man, the son of David also from the Isle and Adele from Yorkshire, England. He began riding Bicycle motocross (BMX) at an early age, racing at the National Sports Centre in Douglas. He joined his local club in Douglas at the age of nine - his determination soon becoming apparent. "He didn't like losing," said Dot Tilbury, his former coach; "He started to win and often he would lap the other riders in the field". He said: "I was always riding a bike, getting dropped in little races." "My mum would laugh at me, and I said it was because all my mates had mountain bikes, so I asked for a mountain bike for my thirteenth birthday and got one. The very next day I went out and beat everyone." It was at that time that Cavendish met British cyclist David Millar at a race on the Isle of Man, who was an inspiration to him. Cavendish worked in a bank for two years after leaving school to earn enough money for an attempt at a professional career. He gained a place as one of the first six riders selected for British Cycling's Olympic Academy for junior riders in 2003 having almost been rejected because of his relatively poor performance in stationary bike tests. Coaches Rod Ellingworth, John Herety and Simon Lillistone lobbied British Cycling Performance Director Peter Keen to include him because of his potential. Although he initially struggled because of a lack of fitness, he recorded his first win in senior competition in March 2004; in the Girvan Three Day race he managed to latch back onto the lead group after being dropped over a climb before winning the finishing sprint ahead of Julian Winn. Whilst at the academy, he won two gold medals at the 2003 Island Games. Cavendish progressed well at the academy. Ellingworth said, "Cav kind of liked it" when asked about the rigid rules and "dictatorship style" of the academy. The junior riders lived on £58 a week and financial management became a part of life at the academy as well as cooking and cleaning. Cycling Weekly described the academy as "a boot camp style training regime" controlled by Ellingworth, who, after finding out they had skipped a three-hour training ride, made the juniors complete four hours hard training at night. He won gold in the madison with Rob Hayles at the 2005 track world championships in Los Angeles. They had not raced together before as Hayles' usual partner, Geraint Thomas, had crashed during training a few weeks earlier—but finished one lap ahead of the field to claim the gold medal, followed by the Dutch and Belgian teams, Cavendish's first world title. Cavendish also won the European championship points race. Professional career 2005–2007 Cavendish turned professional in 2005 with Team Sparkasse. During this time, he rode the Tour de Berlin and Tour of Britain. He began 2006 with the Continental team, Team Sparkasse, a feeder squad for the . In June, he won two stages and the points and sprint competitions in the Tour de Berlin. He rode for the Isle of Man on the track at the 2006 Commonwealth Games in Melbourne, riding the scratch race. He lapped the field with three others: England’s Rob Hayles; Ashley Hutchinson of Australia; and James McCallum of Scotland. Hayles then led him out for the sprint to win gold for the Isle of Man. The race time was 23.05, an average . His success at the Tour de Berlin led to a post as a stagiaire with the from August until the end of the season. His best result on the road was in the 2006 Tour of Britain where he came second twice and third once and won the points classification. His breakthrough came at the 2007 Scheldeprijs race in Belgium, which he won. He went on to win stages at the Four Days of Dunkirk and the Volta a Catalunya leading to his selection for the Tour de France. He crashed in stages one and two and abandoned the race at stage eight as it reached the Alps. Although he had taken two top-ten placings he was unhappy not to have had a top-five placing. His début season continued with ten stage wins, one behind Alessandro Petacchi's record eleven for a début season. Cavendish took his eleventh win in early October—the Circuit Franco-Belge—to equal Petacchi's record. Among the wins were three in UCI ProTour events—two in the Volta a Catalunya and one in the Eneco Tour. 2008 In 2008, Cavendish returned to the track for the world championships in Manchester. Cavendish was brought in to partner Bradley Wiggins in the madison, as Hayles failed a routine blood test, and was subsequently banned. At around halfway through the race they appeared to be out of contention, with their closest rivals all gaining a lap. With thirty-five laps left to race, however, Wiggins launched an attack which helped them reach the field ten laps later. They took the lead due to the superior points they had collected in the sprints. They held on to win the gold medal, finishing with nineteen points, ahead of Germany on thirteen. On the road, Cavendish won his first stages of a Grand Tour with two victories in the Giro d'Italia and four stages in the Tour de France, the first of which was on stage five. He won also stages eight, twelve and thirteen. After stage fourteen, Cavendish abandoned the Tour to concentrate on the Olympics in Beijing. He paired with Wiggins in the madison, and as the reigning world champions, they were favourites for the gold medal but finished ninth. Cavendish felt Wiggins had not performed to the best of his ability in the madison. The rest of his season was successful, with a total of eleven further race wins, including three each at the Tour of Ireland and the Tour of Missouri where he won his only points classification of the season. At the Tour de Romandie, he won the opening time trial, beating compatriot Wiggins and emphasising his short-distance time-trial abilities. 2009 Cavendish's 2009 season began at the Tour of Qatar, where he renewed his rivalry with 's Tom Boonen. Boonen won the race and one stage, though Cavendish took two stages. He also won two stages at the Tour of California, again beating Boonen in the sprint finishes. The Tour of California also saw him win his first points of classification of the 2009 season. He was a surprise inclusion on the British squad for the 2009 UCI Track Cycling World Championships, where he competed in the scratch race and the madison, failing to pick up medals in either. He took up the European season at Tirreno–Adriatico, the Italian one-week stage race, winning one stage. He then entered his first classic race, Milan–San Remo, where he tracked down rider Heinrich Haussler in the last narrowly winning the sprint and the race—Cavendish's first victory in a race known as one of the five monuments of cycling. Cavendish repeated his 2008 two-stage victory at the Three Days of De Panne, also winning the points classification. At the start of the Giro d'Italia Team Columbia-High Road won the team time trial and Cavendish was given the pink leader's jersey, becoming the first Manx rider to wear it. The first two road stages, however, were fruitless for Cavendish, who was beaten to the line by Petacchi in the first stage. He was caught behind a crash and failed to make it back for the sprint the next day. Cavendish soon asserted his sprinting dominance on the race, however, gaining three stage wins before abandoning it after stage thirteen, citing a need to rest in preparation for the Tour de France. He continued his preparation by racing the Tour de Suisse where he won stage three and stage six. During the season, Cavendish developed a remarkable partnership with his lead out man, Mark Renshaw. Continuing his run of success, he won stages two, three, ten, eleven, nineteen and twenty-one of the Tour de France. In winning the third stage, he became the first Briton to hold the green jersey two days in a row. Cavendish's stage eleven win enabled him to reclaim the green jersey from rival Thor Hushovd of Cervélo TestTeam. It also equalled Barry Hoban's British record of eight stage wins. Winning stage nineteen, Cavendish set a new record for Tour de France stage wins by a British rider. In winning the last stage, he led home a one–two for his team, when his team-mate and lead out man, Renshaw, finished second on the Champs-Élysées. Following on from the Tour de France, Cavendish won the Sparkassen Giro Bochum and took part in the Tour of Ireland, winning stage two. In September he recorded the fiftieth win of his road racing career in a sprint finish in the opening stage of the Tour of Missouri. Before the race he confirmed he would remain with in 2010, ending speculation that he was moving to the newly created British team, . Cavendish retained the leader's jersey by sprinting to victory in stage two but finished fifth in stage three, losing the overall lead to Hushovd. A lung infection forced him to withdraw from the race before stage four. Although selected for the British team for the road race at the 2009 UCI Road World Championships, his illness prevented him from taking part. 2010 After a dental problem, Cavendish delayed the start of his 2010 season until the Vuelta a Andalucía in mid-February. Following the lay off his form was poor, and he failed to defend his victory at the Milan–San Remo, coming in six minutes behind the winner in eighty-ninth place. His pre-season goals were to win the green jersey in the Tour de France and win the road race at the UCI Road World Championships. Cavendish raced in the Tour of Flanders but only to work for a teammate and gain experience. He was involved in a crash and did not finish. Following a poor start to the season, he found form at the Volta a Catalunya, finishing seventh in the time-trial and winning stage two. His team withdrew Cavendish from the Tour de Romandie for making an offensive gesture after winning the second stage. Missing the Giro d'Italia, he chose instead to compete at the Tour of California starting in May, where he won stage one—only his third victory of the season. In June, Cavendish crashed heavily whilst sprinting in the closing metres of stage four of the Tour de Suisse. He appeared to veer off line and brought down Haussler and several other riders, raising criticism from other teams regarding his riding style. Cavendish entered the Tour de France. During stage one, he crashed out of the final sprint, with just under remaining in the stage. Overhead camera footage showed him failing to negotiate a corner after entering too fast and turning too late. He then leaned his shoulder into a fellow rider as he travelled away from the racing line. Cavendish returned to form by winning the stage five, six, eleven, eighteen and twenty, bringing his career total to fifteen tour stage wins. He ended up second in the points classification, eleven points behind Petacchi. Cavendish's next race was the Vuelta a España. His team won the team time trial with Cavendish finishing first, taking the leader's jersey. He could place only second or third in the subsequent sprint stages but returned to form later in the race winning stage twelve, thirteen, eighteen and the points classification. 2011 Cavendish had a slow start to 2011 failing to win a race until late February when he won stage six of the Tour of Oman. His second victory of the season came in the Scheldeprijs—his third in this event following his wins in 2007 and 2008—bringing him to the record tied with Piet Oellibrandt. He failed to finish at the Paris–Roubaix. He came second in the second stage of the Giro d'Italia in contentious circumstances (Cavendish gestured at winner Petacchi for appearing to move across his path in the final sprint) to take the pink jersey into stage three. Cavendish got his first grand tour victory of the year by winning stage ten of the Giro, denying claims that he had illegally held on to his team car when climbing Mount Etna on stage nine. He won his second Giro victory of 2011 on stage twelve before leaving the race. On 11 June, it was announced that Cavendish was appointed a Member of the Order of the British Empire (MBE) in the Queen's Birthday Honours. He won stage five, seven, eleven, fifteen and twenty-one of the Tour de France — bringing his total to twenty career Tour de France stage wins. He also became the first person to win the final stage three years in succession. Cavendish was docked twenty points for finishing outside the time limit after stage nine and again after eighteen. He went on to win the points classification—the first British cyclist to do so. Over the following weeks, Cavendish took part in the post-Tour criteriums. He won the Stiphout Criterium in The Netherlands, beating brothers Andy and Fränk Schleck of to the line. He then won the Profcriterium Wolvertem-Meise, followed by the Wateringse Wielerdag. In August, Cavendish's team HTC-Highroad announced they would fold at the end of the season, fuelling speculation that Cavendish would move to Team Sky. The following week, racing for team Great Britain, he won the London–Surrey Cycle Classic, the official test event for the road race at the 2012 Summer Olympics and part of the London Prepares series. Less than a week later, Cavendish started the Vuelta a España, but abandoned it during stage four due to the searing heat. After withdrawing from the Vuelta Cavendish was allowed to be a late addition to the line up of the Tour of Britain. Cavendish won stage one in Dumfries to take the leader's jersey, and the final stage in London. At the end of September, Cavendish went to the UCI Road World Championships in Copenhagen taking part in the road race with an eight-strong British team. After the team controlled the whole race it came down to a sprint finish with Cavendish crossing the line in first place taking the rainbow jersey. He became the second British male UCI world champion after Tom Simpson in 1965. Amid much speculation, it was announced Cavendish would join for the 2012 season. His HTC-Highroad team-mate Bernhard Eisel joined him. In November, Cavendish made a cameo return to the track, competing in the Revolution event at Manchester Velodrome. He won the scratch race, his first win on the track of any kind since 2008. He announced he was starting his training for the 2012 season earlier than in previous years, with the aim of being more competitive in the Classics. In November, he won the 2011 Most Inspirational Sportsman of the Year Award at the Jaguar Academy of Sport Annual Awards at The Savoy Hotel in London. In December, Cavendish won the BBC Sports Personality of the Year Award with 169,152 (49.47%) of the votes cast, ahead of Mo Farah and Darren Clarke. 2012 Cavendish began his 2012 season at the Tour of Qatar. After recovering from illness, he won stage three—his first victory for Team Sky. He won stage five later in the week, moving back into the top ten of the overall classification. He finished the race in sixth place, despite crashing on the final stage. Although he did not win any stages at the Tour of Oman, having suffered an injury in the first stage, he returned to win the Kuurne–Brussels–Kuurne. Cavendish targeted a second victory in Milan–San Remo in March, but was dropped on Le Manie, from the finish. He did not manage to finish high up in the remaining 2012 Classics. In the Tour de Romandie, he showed his ability in short time trials by finishing third in the prologue but did not take any stage wins. A week later, Cavendish took his season victories to five by winning the sprint on stage two of the Giro d'Italia. The following day, he was again in contention for victory on stage three, but in the sprint, 's Roberto Ferrari aggressively switched lanes, clipping Cavendish and sending him to the ground, causing other riders to fall including overall leader Taylor Phinney (). Cavendish later tweeted that Ferrari should be "ashamed to take out Pink, Red & World Champ jerseys". He recovered from minor injuries to win stages five and thirteen. Cavendish completed the Giro, but lost the points classification to 's Joaquim Rodríguez by a single point. He did win the minor Azzurri d'Italia and stage combativeness classifications. Cavendish competed in the Ster ZLM Toer GP Jan van Heeswijk, in mid-June. Despite failing to win any of the four, mostly flat, stages, Cavendish's consistency ensured that he won the overall general classification—the first of his professional career—by eight seconds. In July, Cavendish won stage two of the Tour de France, his twenty-first tour stage win. Cavendish was in contention for another stage victory on stage four, but was taken out in a large crash in the final . He then took on a supporting role as Team Sky attempted to win the overall race overall with Wiggins. He was seen carrying bottles for team-mates and even setting the pace on a Pyrenean climb. The team repaid Cavendish for his hard work by helping chase down a breakaway on stage eighteen, although Cavendish alone had to chase down rider Luis León Sánchez and Nicolas Roche of in the last to take his 22nd Tour stage win, equalling André Darrigade. Cavendish won the final stage of the Tour de France on the Champs-Elysée for a record fourth successive year—the most successful sprinter in Tour history with twenty-three stage wins. He also became the first person to win on the Champs-Élysées in the rainbow jersey. During the Tour, French newspaper L'Equipe named Cavendish the Tour de France's best sprinter of all time. Cavendish's main target for the season was the road race at the Olympics, which was held six days after the final stage of the Tour de France. A strong British squad of Wiggins, Chris Froome, Ian Stannard and Millar was assembled around Cavendish. The team aimed to control the race and allow him to take a sprint victory on The Mall. However, the team were forced to set the pace for the majority of the race, with few nations offering any support, and on the final climb of the Box Hill circuit, a large breakaway group of over thirty riders formed. Despite the best efforts of Stannard, Wiggins, Millar, Froome and Sky team-mate Bernhard Eisel, the breakaway could not be brought back leaving Cavendish to finish twenty-ninth, forty seconds behind the winner, Alexander Vinokurov of Kazakhstan. Cavendish won three stages of the Tour of Britain, crossing the line first in Dumfries, Blackpool and Guildford. On 18 October, he signed a three-year contract with Belgian team Omega Pharma–Quick-Step for the 2013 season. 2013 He started the 2013 season by winning the opening stage of the Tour de San Luis in Argentina on his début for . He then went on to win the Tour of Qatar, with four consecutive stage victories out of six. In March, he won the second stage of the Three Days of De Panne. In April he finished in second place to defending champion Marcel Kittel of at the Scheldeprijs; he faded in the final kilometre, but recovered to launch his sprint from around twenty riders back with remaining. In May, Cavendish won the opening stage of the Giro d'Italia, taking the pink jersey for the third time in his career. He went on to win stage six from a bunch sprint after a pan-flat stage. This victory moved him above Robert Millar to the top of Cycling Weeklys all-time ranking of British professional riders. He also won stage twelve, claiming his 100th professional victory and reclaiming the lead in the points classification. The next day, he timed his finish perfectly to win stage thirteen, his fourth victory of the 2013 race. His fifth victory of the Giro came on the final stage, wrapping up the points classification which he had led for much of the race. By doing so, Cavendish became only the fifth rider to win the points classification in all three Grand Tours. On 23 June, Cavendish won the British national road race championship, around the street circuit in Glasgow. He overtook David Millar on the home straight and held off a challenge by Ian Stannard, who recovered from a puncture in the penultimate lap to claim silver. In July, he won stage five of the Tour de France, giving him twenty-four career Tour stage wins. He was greeted on the line by André Darrigade, the previous record holder for most Tour stages won by a sprinter. In the eleventh stage, a individual time trial, a spectator doused Cavendish with urine. On the thirteenth stage from Tours to Saint-Amand-Montrond, he rode with a fourteen-man breakaway with to go and out-sprinted Peter Sagan to win the stage—his 25th Tour de France stage win. Later that month Cavendish decided to ride the Danmark Rundt winning the race's final stage. In September, he returned to the track for the first time since the 2008 Olympic Games in Beijing, competing at the velodrome in Ghent for the International Belgian Open. Finishing second in the scratch race and third in the madison with Owain Doull, Cavendish had not ruled out the prospect of competing in the 2016 Olympics in Rio de Janeiro having earned enough points to qualify for the UCI Track Cycling World Cup Classics. On 18 September, Cavendish won stage four of the Tour of Britain, outsprinting Elia Viviani in Llanberis in the Snowdonia national park. He repeated the win three days later to take stage seven—again out-sprinting Italy's Elia Viviani to the finish on Guildford High Street. He also won the final stage in London the next day. 2014 A quiet start to the year, Cavendish decided not to compete in the Giro d'Italia. His best Classics result was a fifth place in the Milan-San Remo. He won four stages and the points classification at the Tour of Turkey. In the first stage of the 2014 Tour de France, which started in Yorkshire, England, from Leeds to Harrogate, Cavendish crashed out during a collision he caused in the final few seconds of the sprint finish. He suffered a separated right shoulder and did not start the next stage. He came back to competition at the Tour de l'Ain, where he was winless. He then showed some form at the Tour du Poitou-Charentes, winning the first two stages. Cavendish competed in the Tour of Britain in September, coming third in the first stage in Liverpool and second in the final stage in London. Overall, his 2014 season proved to be one of his least successful, winning eleven races but gaining no Grand Tour stage wins. Cavendish ended 2014 competing on the track, taking second place at the Six Days of Ghent and winning the Six Days of Zurich, both with Iljo Keisse. He later ruled out an attempt to enter the track cycling competitions at the 2016 Summer Olympics due to his road commitments. 2015 In contrast to the previous year, he had a successful start to the 2015 season. He won five races by mid-February, including two stages, the points classification and the general classification at the Dubai Tour. In March, Cavendish won Kuurne–Brussels–Kuurne, for the second time in his career. He then participated in the Tirreno–Adriatico, where he was involved in a large crash on stage two due to Elia Viviani clipping his back wheel and causing his chain to drop. Cavendish next raced at the Tour of Turkey, where he won three stages and the points classification ahead of Daniele Ratto. Cavendish then participated in the Tour of California, showing good form by winning four stages and the points classification ahead of overall winner Sagan. His Tour de Suisse was unsuccessful; the best place he managed was sixth on stage six. At the Tour de France, Cavendish won stage seven by taking André Greipel's wheel before passing him in a sprint finish in Fougères. This was his 26th Tour de France win and the first since 2014.On 16 August, Cavendish returned to the track, winning the madison with Bradley Wiggins in the first round of the Revolution cycling series at the newly opened Derby Velodrome. It was the first time the pair had ridden the event together since the 2008 Olympics. On 29 September, it was announced that Cavendish had signed for —to be renamed as —for the 2016 season, along with his Etixx-Quick Step teammates Renshaw and Eisel, his former teammate from HTC and Sky. The team principal, Doug Ryder, described the move as "a big step forward for the team." 2016 In February, Cavendish rode the Tour of Qatar, taking the opening stage and the general classification for the second time. Cavendish wanted to win a medal at the Olympics in the omnium. In preparation he competed at the UCI track world championships; he placed sixth in the omnium. Partnered with Wiggins he won the madison. In April he rode the Tour of Croatia, winning stage two. On 2 July, he won the opening stage of the Tour de France in a sprint finish at Utah Beach, taking his twenty-seventh stage win, and donning the yellow jersey for the first time. He lost the jersey the following day when Sagan won stage two. Cavendish won stage three in a photo finish with André Greipel in Angers, taking his twenty-eighth win and equalling Bernard Hinault's tally. This win put him in the lead of points classification. He won stage six in a bunch sprint at Montauban, ahead of Marcel Kittel and Dan McLay, to increase his lead. Sagan retook the green jersey from Cavendish on the tenth stage, where the Slovakian was part of a breakaway that led the race until the end. He finished second to Michael Matthews at the finish line in Revel and won the stage's intermediate sprint. Cavendish went on to take his fourth stage of the 2016 Tour, and his thirtieth Tour stage victory on stage fourteen, passing Alexander Kristoff and Sagan at the finish in Villars-les-Dombes Parc des Oiseaux. He quit the Tour on the second rest day before the mountainous stages citing his need to prepare for the Olympics. Having competed in two previous Olympics, Cavendish finally won his first medal, finishing second in the men's omnium. After the Olympics, he returned to track racing, teaming up with Bradley Wiggins to race the Six Day London. The pair narrowly lost to Kenny De Ketele and Moreno De Pauw in the final moments of the sixth day, finishing in second position overall. The pair went on to race at the Six Days of Ghent, this time beating De Ketele and De Pauw to take the overall victory. 2017 After not winning any stages in his opening race, the 2017 Dubai Tour, he won the opening stage of the third event of the 2017 UCI World Tour, the Abu Dhabi Tour. In April, he was diagnosed with Epstein–Barr virus, preventing him from racing until the 2017 British National Championships. In a 2021 interview, Cavendish stated that his health was compromised by being told by doctors that he was fit to train again when Epstein-Barr was still in his system, leading to him reducing his intake of food to make his racing weight and eventually to a deterioration in his mental health and clinical depression. Cavendish was back to form by the 2017 Tour de France, but reigning World Champion Peter Sagan reportedly forced Cavendish into the barriers in the final sprint at the finish of stage four. Cavendish suffered a fractured shoulder blade, after landing on his right shoulder which he had dislocated three years earlier and withdrew from the race. Sagan was later disqualified as it appeared he had struck Cavendish with an elbow. In response, Cavendish said he was friendly with Sagan but he wasn't "a fan of him putting his elbow in". Rob Hayles, a former professional cyclist, said Cavendish was already heading into the barriers before Sagan put his elbow out. He also claimed no contact occurred between the two cyclists. Others shared Hayles' opinion, stating it was more Cavendish's fault for attempting to squeeze through a small gap than Sagan's. Race officials, however, said Sagan "endangered some of his colleagues seriously" in the sprint. Cavendish returned to race at the madison in the Six Day London. Following Bradley Wiggins' retirement, he teamed up with Peter Kennaugh, and finished second overall. 2018 Cavendish began his 2018 season at the Dubai Tour, winning stage three. He then raced the Tour of Oman, placing second on the opening stage. He then went on to start the Abu Dhabi Tour, only to crash in the neutralised zone of the first stage. He fell on the shoulder he fractured at the previous year's Tour de France and was forced to abandon the race. He returned to action at Tirreno–Adriatico, but suffered another crash during the opening team time trial. He fractured a rib, and despite getting back on his bike missed the time cut, and was unable to continue in the race. Cavendish was fit to start the Milan–San Remo, but crashed heavily into a bollard in the final as the peloton approached the crucial Poggio di San Remo climb. He suffered another fractured rib, bruising and abrasions, as well as a possible ankle ligament injury. His hopes of winning a Tour de France stage ended after failing to make the time cut on the stage eleven. He crossed the line one hour five minutes and 33 seconds after stage winner Geraint Thomas, well outside the time limit that had been set at 31:27. Cavendish was due to start the European Road Championships. However, he pulled out on the advice of his medical team, due to a number of injuries earlier in the season. Cavendish said that it was "incredibly disappointing". 2019 Cavendish returned to racing at the Vuelta a San Juan in Argentina, after not having raced since August 2018. He finished eighth and later said it was "nice to be back in the peloton". He was not selected for the Tour de France because of strained relations with Team Dimension Data principal and owner Douglas Ryder and other health issues since 2017. In response, Cavendish said he was "absolutely heart-broken" to be missing the tour in which he had competed each year since 2007. Douglas Ryder said it "was multiple people who made that decision" and that "there was a whole team involved". Team performance director, Rolf Aldag, however, said the decision had been made by Ryder alone. Aldag had made his intentions clear of selecting Cavendish for the tour, but later accepted it was ultimately the team owner's decision of who would be on the team. Aldag announced his departure from the team at the end of the season in a statement in early September. Cavendish crashed on stage one of the Tour de Pologne after a touch of wheels around a slow and sharp corner at roughly from the finish; he finished in last place. He was able to finish sixth on stage three, however. He eventually abandoned the race on stage six of the tour to focus on the European Road Championships, where he finished 31st. He was selected by Team Dimension Data to lead the team at the Deutschland Tour and to ride in the Tour of Britain. In late October, Cavendish signed with for the 2020 season alongside Mikel Landa, Wout Poels, and Dylan Teuns. The announcement was followed by success in the 2019 Six Days of London where Cavendish, along with Owain Doull, finished second to Elia Viviani & Simone Consonni. 2020 At the beginning of 2020 Cavendish had his hopes of competing in the madison at the 2020 Olympics dashed when he was not selected in the British squads for the final round of the 2019-20 Track Cycling World Cup in Milton, Canada or the 2020 Track Cycling World Championships in Berlin, rendering him ineligible to be selected for the Games. He made his debut for Bahrain-McLaren at the Tour of Saudi Arabia in February 2020, where he helped team-mate Phil Bauhaus to two stage wins and the overall win, after Cavendish crashed twice on the second stage of the race. During the season he alternated between riding as a sprinter and as a lead-out man for team-mates, however Cavendish's racing programme was disrupted by the COVID-19 pandemic. After he was not selected for the delayed 2020 Tour de France, Cavendish said that he felt that he was not ready for the Tour, due to a lack of racing and the race's particularly tough, mountainous route, and backed team-mate Mikel Landa's bid for the yellow jersey. He rode in the delayed cobbled classics in the autumn, making a number of early breakaways. At Gent–Wevelgem he stated in an interview with Sporza that the race might be his last: He subsequently clarified that the comment related to rumours about subsequent Flemish classic races being cancelled, which turned out not to be the case: after riding in Scheldeprijs, the Tour of Flanders and the Three Days of Brugge-De Panne he declared in an interview with Het Nieuwsblad that he had had "(his) best racing month for a long time" and indicated that he wanted to continue racing "for a few more seasons". 2021 Following reports that he was due to retire due to difficulty in securing a world tour contract, in December 2020, Cavendish announced his return to Deceuninck-Quick Step for the 2021 season. His contract was for the UCI WorldTeam minimum salary of €40,000, and he had to bring his own sponsor to the team. In April he took his first four professional victories since 2018, winning stages 2, 3, 4 and 8 of the Tour of Turkey. In June he took another win in the fifth and final stage of the Tour of Belgium, triumphing over a field which included such names as Caleb Ewan, Tim Merlier, Pascal Ackermann, Dylan Groenewegen and Nacer Bouhanni. Cavendish's teammate, Sam Bennett had an increasingly strained relationship with the team's management, and when Bennett was ruled out of the 2021 Tour de France following a training injury, Cavendish was drafted in as the team's lead sprinter. He won stages four, six, ten and thirteen of the Tour, bringing his total of Tour de France stage victories to 34, making him the joint record holder for Tour stage wins along with Eddy Merckx. On the race's final stage to the Champs-Élysées, Cavendish missed out on the win, finishing third behind Wout van Aert and Jasper Philipsen, however he won the points classification for the second time in his career, ten years after he first achieved this in 2011. Cavendish was backed by the "strongest sprint train in the race" with Michael Mørkøv as his lead-out man. Cavendish’s 2021 season was abruptly ended by a crash in the final Madison session of the Six Days of Ghent track event. Cavendish was closely following world Madison champion Lasse Norman Hansen, behind Gerben Thijssen and Kenny De Ketele. Thijssen slipped on a damp patch on the track sending De Ketele up the banking to sweep away Hansen’s front wheel, bringing off both Hansen and Cavendish. Cavendish was taken to the intensive care unit of Ghent hospital suffering from broken ribs and a punctured lung. In December, Cavendish extended his contract at Quick-Step-Alpha Vinyl for another year. 2022 Cavendish opened his season with the Quick-Step Alpha Vinyl Team at the 2022 Tour of Oman by taking second place to Fernando Gaviria in stage 1. The following day he won the sprint for stage 2, taking the lead in both the general and points classifications. He finished the six day event with only fourth place in the points classification following a points deduction after stage 5 and being blocked by Maximiliano Richeze in the sprint for stage 6. On February 21st, Cavendish won stage 2 of the 2022 UAE Tour. Riding style and incidents Cavendish has an aggressive riding style that has been compared to a sprinter pushing on the starting blocks. At the 2009 Tour de France, the points he gained in the intermediate sprint in stage fourteen were removed after he was judged to have driven Thor Hushovd too close to barriers on the course. After stage nineteen, he said he was "embarrassed" for his comments about "deserving" green jersey wearer Hushovd. After stage four of the 2010 Tour de Suisse, Cavendish was found to be at fault for a crash involving himself and Heinrich Haussler during the end of the sprint stage. The crash caused Haussler, Arnaud Coyot and Lloyd Mondory to quit the race because of their injuries, though Cavendish was able to continue. Cavendish received a thirty-second penalty and a CHF200 fine (£159 or €186 as of January 2020). The start of the next stage was disrupted by fellow riders protesting Cavendish's riding and style, and what they claimed was a lack of respect from him. His riding style resulted in organisers of the 2013 Boxmeer Criterium in the Netherlands to announce he was not welcome due to an incident during stage ten of the 2013 Tour de France, when he bumped Dutch rider Tom Veelers in a sprint finish, sending the Argos-Shimano rider tumbling. Another instance of dubious safety concerns while riding was witnessed on the opening stage of the 2014 Tour de France as Cavendish caused Simon Gerrans to crash while trying to push him out of the way during the sprint. In 2016, Cavendish accepted responsibility and apologised for the crash of South Korean cyclist Park Sang-hoon at the men's omnium event at the Olympics when an incident between them led to Park being thrown from his bike. After the crash, Park appeared unconscious and did not move while paramedics administered first aid; he was eventually taken away on a stretcher. Cavendish has been described as confident, even arrogant. In 2008 he said, "When journalists at the Tour de France ask me if I am the best sprinter, I answer 'Yes', and that's seen as arrogance, but if they don't ask me, I don't say I'm the best sprinter in the world." Cavendish has a "photographic" memory for the details of race routes. In a 2013 interview with Jonathan Liew, he said, "If I do a circuit then after three laps I could tell you where all the potholes were." As a test Jonathan asked him to recount the close of his win in San Remo five years earlier. It took him five minutes to recite every detail of the last . This is an obvious asset to Cavendish in planning and timing his races. Personal life On 5 October 2013, Cavendish married model Peta Todd in London, making him stepfather to her son Finnbar (born 2006) from a previous relationship. Cavendish and Todd have three children together: Delilah, Frey and Casper. He has three homes: one on the Isle of Man, which he said will always be his real home; one in Essex, and a training base in Quarrata, Tuscany, Italy. In January 2015 Cavendish announced the creation of the Rise Above Sportive, a cyclosportive to be held in Chester and North Wales in August 2015. In November 2015, he was awarded an honorary doctorate in science by the University of Chester for his contribution to cycling. He was diagnosed with Epstein–Barr virus in April 2017 and spent months out of action before returning to race the 2017 Tour de France. In August 2018 he was diagnosed with the virus a second time and withdrew from training and racing to recuperate. Boy Racer In June 2009, his autobiography Boy Racer, which covered his career up to that year, was published by Ebury Press. At a press conference in London ahead of the 2009 Tour de France, Cavendish explained the book was "more a biography of last year's Tour stage wins" than an autobiography. His "biggest motivation for writing it had been to explain himself better", to counter the way he came across during interviews immediately after races. In an interview with Cyclingnews.com, Cavendish said the book would "cause some controversy" before stating it is positive in respect to others. The book addresses many events including an offer of more money from elsewhere to leave Team Columbia–High Road in 2008, which Cavendish declined; relationships with teams and riders; and significant moments for him of some races. Each chapter describes a stage from the 2008 Tour de France stages one to fourteen, using other autobiographical moments from Cavendish's life. Tour de Force In November 2021 Ebury Press published Tour de Force: My history-making Tour de France, which detailed Cavendish's return to success at the 2021 Tour. Career achievements See also Chasing Legends List of British cyclists List of British cyclists who have led the Tour de France general classification List of Giro d'Italia classification winners List of Manx people List of Tour de France secondary classification winners List of Vuelta a España classification winners References Bibliography Further reading External links 1985 births Living people People from Douglas, Isle of Man British Tour de France stage winners Commonwealth Games gold medallists for the Isle of Man Cyclists at the 2006 Commonwealth Games Cyclists at the 2008 Summer Olympics Cyclists at the 2012 Summer Olympics Cyclists at the 2016 Summer Olympics British Giro d'Italia stage winners Manx male cyclists Members of the Order of the British Empire Olympic cyclists of Great Britain Tour de France Champs Elysées stage winners Tour de Suisse stage winners UCI Road World Champions (elite men) British Vuelta a España stage winners BBC Sports Personality of the Year winners Cyclists at the 2010 Commonwealth Games British cycling road race champions Presidential Cycling Tour of Turkey stage winners 2013 Tour de France stage winners 2012 Tour de France stage winners 2011 Tour de France stage winners 2010 Tour de France stage winners UCI Track Cycling World Champions (men) Olympic silver medallists for Great Britain Medalists at the 2016 Summer Olympics Olympic medalists in cycling Commonwealth Games medallists in cycling Manx people British track cyclists British male cyclists

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Nusaybin (; ; ; ), historically known as Nisibis () or Nesbin, is a city in Mardin Province, Turkey. The population of the city is 83,832 as of 2009 and is predominantly Kurdish. Nusaybin is separated from the larger Kurdish-majority city of Qamishli by the Syria–Turkey border. The city is at the foot of the Mount Izla escarpment at the southern edge of the Tur Abdin hills, standing on the banks of the Jaghjagh River (), the ancient Mygdonius (). The city existed in the Assyrian Empire and is recorded in inscriptions as . Having been part of the Achaemenid Empire, in the Hellenistic period the settlement was re-founded as a polis named "Antioch on the Mygdonius" by the Seleucid dynasty after the conquests of Alexander the Great. A part of first the Roman Republic and then the Roman Empire, the city (; ) was mainly Syriac-speaking, and control of it was contested between the Kingdom of Armenia, the Romans, and the Parthian Empire. After a peace treaty contracted between the Sasanian Empire and the Romans in 298 and enduring until 337, Nisibis was capital of Roman Mesopotamia and the seat of its governor (). Jacob of Nisibis, the city's first known bishop, constructed its first cathedral between 313 and 320. Nisibis was a focus of international trade, and according to the Greek history of Peter the Patrician, the primary point of contact between Roman and Persian empires. Nisibis was besieged three times by the Sasanian army under Shapur II () in the first half of the 4th century; each time, the city's fortifications held. The Syriac poet Ephrem the Syrian witnessed all three sieges, and praised Nisibis's successive bishops for their contributions to the defences in his , while the Roman caesar Julian () described the third siege in his panegyric to his senior co-emperor, the augustus Constantius II (). The Roman soldier and Latin historian Ammianus Marcellinus described Nisibis, fortified with walls, towers, and a citadel, as "the strongest bulwark of the Orient". After the defeat of the Romans in Julian's Persian War, Julian's successor Jovian () was forced to cede the five Transtigritine provinces to the Persians, including Nisibis. The city was evacuated and its citizens forced to migrate to Amida (Diyarbakır) – which was expanded to accommodate them – and to Edessa (Urfa). According to the Latin historian Eutropius, the cession of Nisibis was supposed to last 120 years. Nisibis remained a major entrepôt; one of only three such cities of commercial exchange allowed by Roman law promulgated in 408/9. However, despite several Roman attempts to recapture Nisibis through the remainder of the Roman–Persian Wars and the construction of nearby Dara to defend against Persian attack, Nisibis was not returned to Roman control before it was conquered in 639 by the Rashidun Caliphate during the Muslim conquest of the Levant. Under Sasanian rule and after, Nisibis was a major centre of the Christian Church, and the bishop of Nisibis attended the Council of Seleucia-Ctesiphon convened in 410 by the emperor Yazdegerd I (). As a result of this council, the Church of the East was set up, and the bishop of Nisibis became the metropolitan bishop of the five erstwhile Transtigritine provinces. Narsai, formerly a theologian at the School of Edessa, founded the famous School of Nisibis with the bishop, Barsauma, in the 470s. When the Roman emperor Zeno () closed the School of Edessa in 489, the scholars migrated to Nisibis's school and established the city as the foremost centre of Christian thought in the Church of the East. According to the Damascene monk John Moschus, the city's cathedral had five doors in the 7th century, and the monastic and later bishop of Harran, Symeon of the Olives, was recorded as having renewed several ecclesiastical buildings in the early period of Arab rule. The monasteries of the nearby Tur Abdin, led by the reforms of Abraham the Great of Kashkar, founder of the "Great Monastery" of Mount Izla, underwent substantial revival in the years after the Muslim conquest. However, besides the baptistery known as the Church of Saint Jacob (Mar Ya‘qub) and built in 359 by bishop Vologeses, little remains of ancient Nisibis, probably because of ruinous earthquake in 717. Archaeological excavations were conducted in the vicinity of the 4th-century baptistery in the early 21st century, revealing various buildings including the 4th-century cathedral. History Antiquity First mentioned in 901 BCE, Naşibīna was an Aramean kingdom captured by the Assyrian king Adad-Nirari II in 896. By 852 BCE, Naṣibina had been fully annexed to the Neo-Assyrian Empire and appeared in the Assyrian Eponym List as the seat of an Assyrian provincial governor named Shamash-Abua. It remained part of the Assyrian Empire until its collapse in 608 BCE. It was under Babylonian control until 536 BCE, when it fell to the Achaemenid Persians, and remained so until taken by Alexander the Great in 332 BCE. Hellenistic period The Seleucids re-founded the city as Antiochia Mygdonia (), mentioned for the first time in Polybius' description of the march of Antiochus III the Great against Molon (Polybius, V, 51). The Greek historian Plutarch suggested that the city was populated by descendants of Spartans. Around the 1st century CE, Nisibis () was the home of Judah ben Bethera, who founded a famous yeshiva there. In 67 BCE, during Rome's first war with Armenia, the Roman general Lucullus took Nisibis () from the brother of Tigranes. Like many other cities in the marches where Roman and Parthian powers confronted one another, Nisibis was often taken and retaken. In 115 CE, it was captured by the Roman Emperor Trajan, for which he gained the name of Parthicus, then lost to and regained from the Jews during the Kitos War. After the Romans again lost the city in 194, it was once more conquered by Septimius Severus, who made it his headquarters and re-established a colony there. The last battle between Rome and Parthia was fought in the vicinity of the city in 217. Late Antiquity With the fresh energy of the new Sassanid dynasty, Shapur I conquered Nisibis, was driven out, and returned in the 260s. In 298, by a treaty with Narseh, the province of Nisibis was acquired by the Roman Empire. During the Roman–Persian Wars (337–363 CE) Nisibis was unsuccessfully besieged by the Sassanid Empire thrice, in 337, 346 and 350. According to the Expositio totius mundi et gentium bronze and iron were forbidden to be exported to the Persians, but for other goods, Nisibis was the site of substantial trade across the Roman–Persian frontier. Upon the death of Constantine the Great in 337 CE, the Sassanid Shah Shapur II marched against Roman held Nisibis with a vast army composed of cavalry, infantry and elephants. His combat engineers raised siege works, including towers, so his archers could rain down arrows at the defenders. They also undermined the walls, dammed the Mygdonius River and constructed dikes to direct the river against the walls. On the seventieth day of the siege, the water was released and the torrent struck the walls; entire sections of the city walls collapsed. The water passed through the city and knocked down a section of the opposite wall as well. The Persians were unable to assault the city because the approaches to the breaches were impassable due to floodwater, mud and debris. The soldiers and citizens inside the city worked all night and by dawn the breaches were closed with makeshift barriers. Shapur's assault troops attacked the breaches, but their assault was repulsed. A few days later the Persian lifted the siege. Nisibis was besieged a second time in 346 CE. The details of the second siege have not survived. Shapur besieged the city for seventy-eight days and then lifted the siege. In 350 CE, while the Roman Emperor Constantius II was engaged in a civil war against the usurper Magnentius in the West, the Persians invaded and laid siege to Nisibis for the third time. The siege lasted between 100 and 160 days. The Persian engineers tried several innovative siege technics; using the River Mygdonius to bring down a section of the walls, and creating a lake around the city and using boats with siege engines to bring down another section. Unlike the first siege, as the walls fell, Persian assault troops immediately entered the breaches supported by war elephants. Despite all this they failed to break through the breaches and the attack stalled. The Romans, experts at close-quarter combat, and supported by arrows and bolts from the walls and towers checked the assault and a sortie from one of the gates forced the Persians to withdraw. Shortly after the Persian Army, suffering heavy casualties from combat and disease, lifted the siege and withdrew. The Roman historian of the 4th century, Ammianus Marcellinus, gained his first practical experience of warfare as a young man at Nisibis under the magister equitum, Ursicinus. From 360 to 363, Nisibis was the camp of Legio I Parthica. Because of its strategic importance on the Persian border, Nisibis was heavily fortified. Ammianus lovingly calls Nisibis the "impregnable city" (urbs inexpugnabilis) and "bulwark of the provinces" (murus provinciarum). Sozomen writes that when the inhabitants of Nisibis asked for help because the Persians were about to invade the Roman territories and attack them, Emperor Julian refused to assist them because they were Christianized, and he told them that he would not help them if they did not return to paganism. In 363 Nisibis was ceded to the Sassanian Empire after the defeat of Julian. Before that time the population of the town was forced by the Roman authorities to leave Nisibis and move to Amida. Emperor Jovian allowed them only three days for the evacuation. Historian Ammianus Marcellinus was again an eyewitness and condemns Emperor Jovian for giving up the fortified town without a fight. Marcellinus' point-of-view is certainly in line with contemporary Roman public opinion. According to Al-Tabari, some 12,000 Persians of good lineage from Istakhr, Isfahan, and other regions settled at Nisibis in the fourth century, and their descendants were still there at the beginning of the seventh century. The School of Nisibis, founded at the introduction of Christianity into the city by ethnic Assyrians of the Assyrian Church of the East, was closed when the province was ceded to the Persians. Ephrem the Syrian, an Assyrian poet, commentator, preacher and defender of orthodoxy, joined the general exodus of Christians and re-established the school on more securely Roman soil at Edessa. In the fifth century, the school became a center of Nestorian Christianity, and was closed down by Archbishop Cyrus in 489. The expelled masters and pupils withdrew once more, back to Nisibis, under the care of Barsauma, who had been trained at Edessa, under the patronage of Narses, who established the statutes of the new school. Those that have been discovered and published belong to Osee, the successor of Barsauma in the See of Nisibis, and bear the date 496; they must be substantially the same as those of 489. In 590, they were again modified. The monastery school was under a superior called Rabban ("master"), a title also given to the instructors. The administration was confided to a major-domo, who was steward, prefect of discipline and librarian, but under the supervision of a council. Unlike the Jacobite schools, devoted chiefly to profane studies, the School of Nisibis was above all a school of theology. The two chief masters were the instructors in reading and in the interpretation of Holy Scripture, explained chiefly with the aid of Theodore of Mopsuestia. The free course of studies lasted three years, the students providing for their own support. During their sojourn at the university, masters and students led a monastic life under somewhat special conditions. The school had a tribunal and enjoyed the right of acquiring all sorts of property. Its rich library possessed a most beautiful collection of Nestorian works; from its remains Ebed-Jesus, Bishop of Nisibis in the 14th century, composed his celebrated catalogue of ecclesiastical writers. The disorders and dissensions, which arose in the sixth century in the school of Nisibis, favoured the development of its rivals, especially that of Seleucia; however, it did not really begin to decline until after the foundation of the School of Baghdad (832). Notable people associated with the school include its founder Narses; Abraham, his nephew and successor; Abraham of Kashgar, the restorer of monastic life; and ArchbishopElijah of Nisibis. As a fortified frontier city, Nisibis played a major role in the Roman-Persian Wars. It became the capital of the newly created province of Mesopotamia after Diocletian's organization of the eastern Roman frontier. It became known as the "Shield of the Empire" after a successful resistance in 337–350. The city changed hands several times, and once in Sasanian hands, Nisibis was the base of operations against the Romans. The city was also one of the main crossing points for merchants, although elaborate counter-espionage safeguards were also in place. Islamic period The city was taken without resistance by the forces of the Rashidun Caliphate under Umar in 639 or 640. Under early Islamic rule, the city served as a local administrative centre. In 717, it was struck by an earthquake and in 927 it was raided by the Qarmatians. Nisibis was captured in 942 by the Byzantine Empire but was subsequently recaptured by the Hamdanid dynasty. It was attacked by the Byzantines once again in 972. Following the Hamdanids, the city was administered by the Marwanids and the Uqaylids. From the middle of the 11th century onwards, it was subjected to Turkish raids and being threatened by the County of Edessa, being attacked and damaged by Seljuq forces under Tughril in 1043. The city nevertheless remained an important centre of commerce and transport. In 1120, it was captured by the Artuqids under Necmeddin Ilgazi, followed by the Zengids and Ayyubids. The city is described as a very prosperous one by the period's Arab geographers and historians, with imposing baths, walls, lavish houses, a bridge and a hospital. In 1230, the city was invaded by the Mongol Empire. Mongol sovereignty was followed by that of the Ag Qoyunlu, Kara Koyunlu and Safavids. In 1515, it was taken by the Ottoman Empire under Selim I thanks to the efforts of Idris Bitlisi. Modern history On the eve of World War I, Nusaybin had a Christian community of 2000, along with a Jewish population of 600. A massacre of Christians took place in August 1915, after which the Christian community of Nusaybin diminished to 1200. Syrian Jacobites, Chaldean Catholics, Protestants, and Armenians were targeted. As agreed upon by the governments of France and the new Republic of Turkey in the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne, the Turkey-Syria border would follow the line of the Baghdad Railway until Nusaybin, after which it would follow the path of a Roman road leading to Cizre. Nusaybin was a place on the transit routes of Syrian Jews leaving the country after the 1948 formation of Israel and the subsequent Jewish exodus from Arab and Muslim countries. Upon reaching Turkey, after a route that took them through Aleppo and the Jazira sometimes with the help of Bedouin smugglers, most headed for Israel. There had been a large Jewish community in Nisbis since antiquity, many of whom moved to Qamishli in the early 20th century for economic reasons. A synagogue in Jerusalem practises the Nisibis and Qamishli rites today. 21st century Nusaybin made headlines in 2006 when villagers near Kuru uncovered a mass grave, suspected of belonging to Ottoman Armenians and Assyrians killed during the Armenian and Assyrian genocides. Swedish historian David Gaunt visited the site to investigate its origins, but left after finding evidence of tampering. Gaunt, who has studied 150 massacres carried out in the summer of 1915 in Mardin, said that the Committee of Union and Progress's governor for Mardin, Halil Edip, had likely ordered the massacre on 14 June 1915, leaving 150 Armenians and 120 Assyrians dead. The settlement was then known as Dara (now Oğuz). Gaunt added that the death squad, named El-Hamşin (meaning "fifty men"), was headed by officer Refik Nizamettin Kaddur. The president of the Turkish Historical Society, Yusuf Halaçoğlu, following the Turkish government's policy of Armenian genocide denial, said that the remains dated back to Roman times. Özgür Gündem reported that the Turkish military and police pressed the Turkish media not to report the discovery. The Turkish Interior Ministry looked into dissolving Nusaybin city council in 2012 after it decided to use Arabic, Armenian, Aramaic, and Kurmanji on signposts in the town, in addition to the Turkish language. Tensions and violence In November 2013, Nusaybin's mayor, Ayşe Gökkan, commenced a hunger strike to protest against the construction of a wall between Nusaybin and the neighboring Kurdish-majority city of Qamishli in Syria. Construction of the wall stopped as a result of this and other protests. On 13 November 2015, the town was placed under a curfew by the Turkish government, and Ali Atalan and Gülser Yıldırım, two elected members of the Grand National Assembly from the pro-Kurdish Peoples' Democratic Party (HDP), began a hunger strike in protest. Two civilians and ten PKK fighters were killed by security forces in the ensuing unrest. By March 2016, PKK forces controlled about half of Nusaybin according to Al-Masdar News and the YPS controlled "much" of it, according to The Independent. The Turkish state imposed eight successive curfews over several months and employed the use of heavy weapons in defeating the Kurdish militants, resulting in large swathes of Nusaybin being destroyed. 61 members of the security forces had been killed by May 2016. By 9 April, 60,000 residents of the city had been displaced, yet 30,000 civilians remained in the city, including in the six neighborhoods where fighting continued. YPS reportedly had 700–800 militants in the city, of which the Turkish army claimed that 325 were "neutralised" by 4 May. A curfew was in place between 14 March and 25 July in the majority of the town. After the fighting ended in a Turkish Army victory, in late September 2016 the Turkish government began demolishing a quarter of the city's residential buildings. This rendered 30,000 citizens homeless and caused a mass evacuation of tens of thousands of residents to neighboring towns and villages. Over 6,000 houses were bulldozed. After demolition was completed in March 2017, over one hundred apartment towers were built. The Turkish government offered to compensate homeowners at 12% of the value of their destroyed houses if they agreed to certain relocation conditions. Economy As a result of Turkish government policy to close all border crossings with the Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria, the city's border with Syria (i.e. the large Syrian city of Qamishli) has been closed, with claims that the cessation in smuggling has led to a 90% rise in unemployment in the city. Transportation Nusaybin is served by the E90 roadway and other roads to surrounding towns. The Nusaybin Railway Station is served by two daily trains. The closest airport is Qamishli Airport five kilometers to the south, in Qamishli in Syria. The closest Turkish airport is Mardin Airport, 55 kilometers northwest of Nusaybin. Geography Nusaybin is on the north side of the Syria-Turkey border, which divides it from the city of Qamishli. The Jaghjagh River flows through both cities. The Nusaybin side of the border has a minefield, with a total of some 600,000 landmines having been set by the Turkish Armed Forces since the 1950s. Located to the east is Mount Judi, which people (including Muslims) consider to be the place where the ark of Nuh or Noah (who is regarded as a Nabi or Prophet in Abrahamic religions) came to rest. In fact, some people from Nusaybin are reported to have gone to the mountain, in search of the ark. Climate Nusaybin has a semi-arid climate with extremely hot summers and cool winters. Rainfall is generally sparse. Demographics Nusaybin is predominantly ethnically Kurdish. The city's people have historically close ties with those of neighboring Qamishli, and cross-border marriages are a common practice. The city has also a minority Arab population. A very small Assyrian population remains in the city; what remained of the Assyrian population emigrated during the height of the Kurdish-Turkish conflict in the 1990s and as a result of the resumption of the conflict in 2016, only one Assyrian family reportedly remained in the city. Religion Sunni Islam is the religion of the majority of Nusaybin's population. Christianity Nisibis (, Nṣibin, later Syriac , Ṣōbā) had an Assyrian Christian bishop from 300, founded by Babu (died 309). Shapur II besieged the city in 338, 346, and 350, when St Jacob or James of Nisibis, Babu's successor, was its bishop. Nisibis was the home of Ephrem the Syrian, who remained until its surrender to the Sassanid Persians by Roman Emperor Jovian in 363. The bishop of Nisibis was the Metropolitan Archbishop of the Ecclesiastical province of Bit-Arbaye. By 410, it had six suffragan sees and as early as the middle of the 5th century was the most important episcopal see of the Church of the East after Seleucia-Ctesiphon. Many of its Nestorian or Assyrian Church of the East and Jacobite bishops were renowned for their writings, including Barsumas, Osee, Narses, Jesusyab and Ebed-Jesus. The Roman Catholic Church has defined titular archbishoprics of Nisibis, for various rites – one Latin and four Eastern Catholic for particular churches sui iuris, notably the Chaldean Catholic Church and the Maronite Catholic Church. When the Syriac Catholic Eparchy of Hassaké was promoted to archiepiscopal rank, it added Nisibi to its name, becoming the Syriac Catholic Archeparchy of Hassaké-Nisibi (not Metropolitan, directly dependent on the Syriac Catholic Patriarch of Antioch). Latin titular see Established in the 18th century as Titular Archiepiscopal see of Nisibis (informally Nisibis of the Romans). It has been vacant for several decades, having previously had the following incumbents, all of the (intermediary) archiepiscopal rank: Giambattista Braschi (1724.12.20 – 1736.11.24) José Calzado López (Bolaños de Calatrava, 17/04/1680 – Madrid, 7/04/1761) Discalced Franciscans (O.F.M. Disc.) (1738.11.24 – 1761.04.07) Cesare Brancadoro (1789.10.20 – 1800.08.11) (later Cardinal)* Lorenzo Caleppi (1801.02.23 – 1816.03.08) (later Cardinal)* Vincenzo Macchi (1818.10.02 – 1826.10.02)(later Cardinal)* Carlo Luigi Morichini (1845.04.21 – 1852.03.15) (later Cardinal)* Vincenzo Tizzani, C.R.L. (1855.03.26 – 1886.01.15) (later Patriarch)* Johann Gabriel Léon Louis Meurin, Jesuits (S.J.) (1887.09.15 – 1887.09.27) Giuseppe Giusti (1891.12.14 – 1897.03.31) Federico Pizza (1897.04.19 – 1909.03.28) Francis McCormack (1909.06.21 – 1909.11.14) Joseph Petrelli (1915.03.30 – 1962.04.29) José de la Cruz Turcios y Barahona, Salesians (S.D.B.) (1962.05.18 – 1968.07.18) Armenian Catholic titular see Established as Titular Archiepiscopal see of Nisibis (informally Nisibis of the Armenians) in circa 1910. It was suppressed in 1933, having had a single incumbent, of the (intermediary) archiepiscopal rank : Gregorio Govrik, Mechitarists (C.A.M.) (1910.05.07 – 1931.01.26) Chaldean Catholic titular see: Established as Titular Archiepiscopal see of Nisibis (informally Nisibis of the Chaldeans) in the late 19th century, suppressed in 1927, restored in 1970. It has had the following incumbents, all of the (intermediary) archiepiscopal rank : Giuseppe Elis Khayatt (1895.04.22 – 1900.07.13) Hormisdas Etienne Djibri (1902.11.30 – 1917.08.31) Thomas Michel Bidawid (1970.08.24 – 1971.03.29) Gabriel Koda (1977.12.14 – 1992.03) Jacques Ishaq (2005.12.21 – ...), Bishop of Curia emeritus of the Chaldean Catholic Patriarchate of Babylon Maronite titular see Established as Titular Archiepiscopal see of Nisibis (informally Nisibis of the Maronites) in 1960. It is vacant, having had a single incumbent of the (intermediary) archiepiscopal rank: Pietro Sfair (1960.03.11 – 1974.05.18) Notable people Ephraim the Syrian (4th century), Christian Saint was native of Nisibis (modern Nusaybin) Musa Anter (1920-1992), Kurdish writer, journalist and intellectual Gülser Yıldırım (1963*), Politician Mithat Sancar (1963*), professor of public and constitutional law, columnist and translator Sara Kaya (1970*), Politician Ferhad Ayaz (1994*), Footballer See also Febronia of Nisibis Mor Yakup Church Nisibis (East Syrian Ecclesiastical Province) Thamanin Zeynel Abidin Mosque Complex References Sources and external links Nisibis, Catholic Encyclopedia GCatholic, Armenian Catholic titular see GCatholic, Chaldean Catholic titular see GCatholic, Latin Catholic titular see GCatholic, Maronite titular see Turkish News - Latest News from Turkey, Hürriyet Daily News and Economic Review The Battle of Nisibis, AD 217 Archaeological sites in Southeastern Anatolia Ancient Greek archaeological sites in Turkey Seleucid colonies in Anatolia Roman legionary fortresses in Turkey Sasanian cities Nisibis Towns in Turkey Assyrian communities in Turkey Populated places in Mardin Province Divided cities on the Turkish-Syrian border Syria–Turkey border crossings Districts of Mardin Province Mesopotamia (Roman province) Roman towns and cities in Turkey Kurdish settlements in Turkey

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The Center for Policy Studies (CPS) is an academic unit within Central European University, dedicated to improving the quality of governance in Central and Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union by the provision of independent public policy analysis and advice. CPS profile The center believes that the experiences of post-socialist transition can be usefully shared with countries enduring great social transformation, but that the translation of these local experiences requires a sound appreciation of policy contexts. The center is committed to strengthen local capacity for critical policy analysis and to pursue research projects and publication that draw on its existing multi-disciplinary resources from law, economics, political science and sociology but also from its connections with open society driven partners. The center conduct interdisciplinary research projects in cooperation with both Central European University and external partners from Europe and beyond on a wide range of topics within four broad research programs (see following). Each program benefits from expertise of CPS staff and a network of external researchers, and usually includes several ongoing research projects. Its research is comparative, methodologically diverse and policy oriented, and provides critical perspectives on the formulation, production and implementation of public policy. Areas of research Equality and Social Justice. Since its launch, CPS has been active in the broader field of social diversity and policy responses to status based inequalities. Research and capacity building efforts within the center have mainly concerned gender, disability, ethnicity and race and multiple disadvantages resulting from the intersection of these inequality grounds. The activities within the unit focus on a series of topics such as educational segregation, policy responses to intersecting inequalities and violence against women including domestic violence and trafficking, theory and practice of gender mainstreaming, the impact of the economic crisis on equality policies, radical right ideologies and their implications for equality policies. The center addresses these topics both as research themes and as subjects for policy analysis and capacity building. Since 2003, the center carried out various research projects under the research field. As of 2019, there are four ongoing research projects: Gender Equality Academy (GE Academy), Future Challenges to Education Systems in Central Eastern European Context (EDUC), Building Resilience Against Violent Extremism and Polarisation (BRaVE) and Employment of non-local temporary workers and its impact on local industrial relations in the Hungarian automotive industry.https://cps.ceu.edu/research/local-industrial-relations The details and related publications are available and updated on the CPS website. Governance and Participation. CPS advocates that good governance needs to address contemporary forms of representation and participation which are pertinent to the responsiveness of state and private institutions but also the institutional basis for vulnerable people to claim rights and services. The unit's research examines how non-traditional policy actors shape policy processes, how implementation agencies consultative bodies combine state and non-state actors, and offer voice for vulnerable groups and how transnational advocacy networks influence policy development. Social Policy and Welfare Regimes. The CPS applies its cross-sectoral and multi-actor approaches to address outstanding issues of social policy development in European and post-socialist contexts, often embedding those issues in wider global debates. The Center has developed expertise and gained recognition in investigating interethnic relations in educational systems and policies. It has engaged in larger comparative research projects on European labor markets with special attention to labor market integration of different vulnerable and often discriminated social groups, such as the Roma, migrants, and refugees. Inter-ethnic relations, gender equality, and intergenerational justice issues are investigated in the context of shifting care regimes in Europe. The CPS is also engaged in studying the transformation of labor relations, labor representation, and the governance structure of multinational companies and their subsidiaries in Central and Eastern Europe. Territory and Development Policy. CPS believes that uneven economic development is a cross-cutting field which analyses processes which create major spatial inequalities within between countries. With a special focus on urban/rural divides and the creation of left behind zones, this field of research offers a comparative study of domestic, national and European policy responses. Publications CPS Books The book collection of institutional publications of the Center for Policy Studies include the volumes edited and published by the Center for Policy Studies. Gendering Democratic Backsliding in Central and Eastern Europe. A comparative agenda, 2019: This book aims to map gendered aspects of the decline in democracy in four countries in the Central and Eastern European region: Croatia, Hungary, Poland and Romania. It adopts a dual focus. First, it looks at how processes of de-democratization affect previously established gender equality rights and what forms gender policy backsliding takes in the region. It scrutinizes how governments operate to block or reverse gender equality policies and what specific policy fields or issues are most under attack. Are policies actively removed or do we see more subtle dismantling strategies? Also, it explores if these dynamics and mechanisms are country specific or whether similar patterns across countries could be found? Second, it examines how these developments affect defenders and promoters of gender rights. How do women movements respond to these attacks? Do they change strategies? Do they falter in hostile conditions or we see resistance, maturing, diversifying coalition capacities? What do the anti-gender attacks and hostile states mean for movement capacities and strategies? Introduction provides a conceptual framework for the analysis. Separate chapters discuss gendered dynamics of de-democratization in the four countries. Challenging the Political Across Borders: Migrants’ and Solidarity Struggles, 2019: The book examines the practices, structures, and meanings of solidarity with and by migrants and refugees in Europe and beyond. Bringing together empirical, conceptual and historical insights, the volume interrogates struggles unfolding on the ground and situates them within a critical analysis of historical and current mobility regimes, and how these have been resisted. Child Trafficking in Hungary: Sexual Exploitation, Forced Begging and Pickpocketing, 2015: This study explores the mechanisms of three forms of child trafficking in Hungary – begging, pickpocketing and sexual exploitation of children – by focusing on Roma victims. It presents available statistical data on human trafficking and sheds light on some of the major difficulties of data collection regarding human trafficking and child trafficking in particular. It gives an overview of the anti-human trafficking and anti-child trafficking policy frameworks, and it tries to reveal what factors lead to victimisation and how recruitment and exploitation of children actually take place. The study then looks into how the identification of victims, the referral mechanism, and the victim assistance systems all work. Finally, it identifies shortcomings in the criminal processes and the judicial system that undermine effective countering of child trafficking. Mobilizing for Policy Change: Women's Movements in Central and Eastern European Domestic Violence Policy Struggles, 2015: The aim of this edited volume is to explore and understand the influence of women's movement mobilization on domestic violence policy change in Central and Eastern Europe. his volume addresses a series of questions: what are the dynamics that led to movement successes in the region? Which movements and the strategies they adopt are successful in promoting progressive policy change? Why do some movements manage to secure policy change that is women's rights friendly, while others lose control beyond setting the agenda? How do alliances, institutionalization and framing make a difference? And how patterns of achieving policy influence resemble or differ from patterns found in Western post-industrialized states? Are Central and Eastern European domestic violence policy processes any different? The book develops a theoretical framework explaining the links between mobilization and change, followed by the portrayal of in-depth case studies on Bulgaria, Croatia, Poland, and Romania. Different Horizons: Aid, Trade and Official Development Assistance in Hungary, 2014: The book focuses on the constantly changing nature of state development assistance through Turkey, Brazil and Venezuela and the central and eastern members of the European Union. It posits that some of these new donors were themselves recipients of grant, cheap loans and technical assistance. Their status as emerging democracies or transition countries gives them an alternative perspective on development co-operation and external support, and for some of the more established international development organizations, this can translate into a different kind of solidarity, less tinged with ambivalent post-colonial relations. In this context, the book explores who are these new development actors and how far are they working to traditional models of development assistance and support? What is the actual meaning of partnership within countries and between countries? How does one country get to be a priority partner and what does the general public think of all these efforts to improve living standards abroad? Faces and Causes of Roma Marginalization in Local Contexts: Hungary, Romania, Serbia, 2014: The research endeavor explored the key factors perpetuating Roma marginalization at the municipal and community level in three countries of Central and Eastern Europe: Hungary, Romania and Serbia. It sought to analyze the economic, political, demographic, and social forces at local level which shape practices and consequences of social exclusion and potential pathways to inclusion. A multi-layered approach was designed to implement this research idea: the locality (municipality) of ethnically mixed communities composed the first level; the Roma communities, neighborhoods or segments of selected localities were examined as the second level; and inter-ethnic relations within the selected localities were identified as the third level of the research approach. This volume presents the country studies and a comparative analysis about local communities that mobilize a variety of means and actions to either maintain clear-cut ethnic distinctions or to move toward a certain degree of inclusion. Facing the Far-Right. Ethnographic portrayals of local civil resistance, 2014: Interethnic relations of Roma and non-Roma in Hungary are marked by a long history of local (ethnic) conflicts since the regime change of 1989. Conflicts persist to this day, although they are changing in nature. From the mid-2000s, Hungary has seen a political crisis leading to the rise of the extreme right, accompanied by a ‘racial turn’ in mainstream discourses and in certain policy areas. Political changes, in turn, have also shaped the nature of local ethnic conflicts. The usual scenario is that the far right, through its unofficial paramilitary organizations, has been organizing hate marches in local communities with ethnically mixed populations to mobilize locals and instigate hatred against the Roma in order to win the political support of the majority. With the two anthropological case studies presented in this volume the book offers some insight into this issue through the analysis and portrayal of some ‘best practices’ of Roma self-mobilization and local civil resistance to the far-right. In addition, it explores how local communities where the far-right had organized demonstrations and hate marches have been subverted, how social ties were torn and, in general, what social, moral and symbolic damages have been done within the communities following these events. Roma Migration to and from Canada: The Czech, Hungarian and Slovak Case, 2013: Unlike most research initiatives on Roma migration that focus on Roma migrating from non-EU to EU or EU-to-EU countries, this research aimed to look at another sub-component of the migration process: transatlantic, Canadian migration from the Czech Republic, Hungary and Slovakia. The premise was that 'Canadian Roma migration' should be understood as a process motivated by a mixed set of factors and, from an analytical point of view, it should be studied as neither refugee nor labor migration but as a compound of both. The first two studies in the volume investigate the legal and the political components to the push and pull of Roma migration, while the rest of the papers are based on qualitative, empirical studies that were conducted in three CEE countries – the Czech Republic, Hungary, and Slovakia – as well as in Canada. The country case studies were designed to consider Roma migration from a micro perspective using the same methodology and the same conceptual framework. Researchers in the three countries did fieldwork in villages and towns in which there had been a significant out-migration of Roma, presently or in the past. Policy Briefs RESLEU European Policy Brief, 2017 IR-Multiling Project Recommendations / IR-Multiling Eredmények és Ajánlások, 2016 Vulnerability of Roma' and Anti-Human Trafficking Policies in Serbia: Recommendations to the National Policy Network, 2015 Challenges to Preliminary Identification of "Victims" of Forced Marriage and Forced Begging in Serbia: Recommendations to Anti-Trafficking Policy Actors, 2015 Human Trafficking and Online Networks, 2014 Patterns of Roma Employment in Europe, 2014 Women on the European Labour Market, 2014 Applying Tolerance Indicators: Roma School Segregation, 2013 New Knowledge about Hungary, 2013 The Rise of the Extreme Right in Hungary and the Roma Question: The Radicalization of Media Discourse, 2012 Ethnic Differences in Education and Diverging Prospects for Urban Youth in an Enlarged Europe, 2011 Friendly Neighbours: Increasing the Potential of European Neighbourhood Policy Cross-Border Cooperation Initiatives, 2011 Interactions between the Ethnic Composition in School and Students' Performance, Self-esteem and Future Aspirations, 2010 How Do Schools in Old and New Member States of the EU Treat Minority Ethnic Youth and Shape Their Performance?, 2009 Ethnic Differences in Compulsory Education, 2008 DIOSCURI Policy Recommendations, 2007 Women, Integration and Prison; Policy Recommendations for Hungary, 2005 Working Papers and Reports The connotations of collaboration: European linguistic and scholarly perspectives on collaborative governance, 2019' Counter-Islamophobia Kit: Key National Messages – Hungary // A projekt legfőbb megállapításai - Magyarország, 2018 Post-crisis politics, social resistance, and equality policy paths: New social movements and forms of citizens’ cooperation for solidarity, 2018 Programmatic Europeanization revisited: The role of EP election proximity, EU support and Eastern European patterns, 2018 Counter-Islamophobia Kit: Dominant Counter - Narratives to Islamophobia – Hungary, 2018 Communicating Cohesion in Eastern Europe. The Cases of Romania, Hungary and Slovenia, 2018 The politics of refugee solidarity in Greece: Bordered identities and political mobilization, 2018 Involving Others: Assessing efforts to improve the schooling experience of Hungarian Roma children through focused teacher training and afternoon schooling programs, 2017 Cohesion Policy and Perceptions of the European Union in Hungary. A Cultural Political Economy Approach, 2017 Backsliding in area of constitutional safeguards and independent institutions, corruption control, and general equality and minorities, 2017 Solidarity in the treatment of mental illness in Hungary: A case study of the Awakenings Foundation as a vehicle for change, 2017 Counter-Islamophobia Kit: Dominant Islamophobic Narratives - Hungary, 2017 Invisible Denizens: Migrant Night Shift Workers’ Fragile Possibilities for Solidarity in the Post-Circadian Capitalist Era, 2017 The Hungarian border spectacle: Migration, repression and solidarity in two Hungarian border cities, 2017' Solidarity in the housing sector: Civic responses to homelessness and housing poverty in Hungary, 2017 Roma employment and the potentials of state and business actors in labor market inclusion, 2017 Contested forms of solidarity: An overview of civil society organisations in Hungary and their impact on policy and the social economy, 2017 Solidarity at the border: The organization of spontaneous support for transiting refugees in two Hungarian towns in the summer of 2015, 2017 Industrial Relations in Car-manufacturing Industry: a Comparative Case Study of Audi Hungaria, Gyor and Mercedes Benz, Kecskemet, 2016 Union Organizing in the Automotive Industry in Slovakia in Times of Crisis: Do They Help Workers or Protect Themselves?, 2016 Tensions in the Periphery: Dependence and the Trajectory of a Low-Cost Productive Model in the Central and Eastern European Automotive Industry, 2016 Trade Union Strategies in a Time of Economic Crisis: the Case of a Car Assembly Plant in Poland, 2016 Feet of Clay? The Political Economy of Adopting and Abolishing Private Pensions, 2016 Every word has its special weight'. A qualitative case study of multilingual realities at Siemens, Hungary, 2016 In a corporate environment, we need to be inclusive'. Toward understanding multinational companies' practices of multilingualism and cultural diversity, 2016 Industrial Relations in Multilingual Environments at Work, 2016 Mapping Backsliding in the European Union, 2016 Multilingualism in Hungary: Practices and Perspectives, 2016 Report of Case Studies on Gender Equality as a Focus Point of National and Nativist Discourses, 2016 State, Crisis and Politicization of Economic Policymaking: Reflections from Hungary and Turkey, 2015 Challenges to Preliminary Identification of Romani 'Victims of Trafficking': The Serbian Case, 2015 What Really is a Pension Crisis? A Theoretical Argument on the Link Between Ageing, Productivity, and Retirement, 2015 Evaluating the Evaluators: When and How Does the World Bank Evaluate Its Projects in the Western Balkans, 2015 Vulnerability of Roma' in Policy Discourse on Combatting Trafficking in Human Beings in Serbia: Perspectives of the National Policy Actors, 2015 Intersections of Gender, Ethnicity, and Class: History and Future of the Romani Women's Movement, 2015 Leaving 'Roma' Behind. Notes on the Impact of Housing and (Forced) Mobility on Education, 2015 Decentralization, Union Power and Contention Episodes: the Case of Dacia Workers, 2015 Integration of Vulnerable Migrants: Women, Children and Victims of Trafficking (Hungary), 2015 IR-Multiling National Report: Hungary, 2015 Understanding Public Knowledge and Attitudes towards Trafficking in Human Beings. Part 2, 2015 Gender equality and care choices in the light of population ageing, 2014 Migrant domestic care workers: state and market-based policy mix, 2014 The role of migrant labour in meeting European care demand, 2014 Half-in, Half-out: Roma and Non-Roma Romanians with Limited Rights Working and Travelling in the European Union, 2014 Early School Leaving in the Context of Policy-making in Hungary, 2014 Europe In Crisis: Addressing Changing Patterns Through Innovation, 2014 Review of Existing Monitoring Mechanisms for the Integration of Migrants in Hungary, 2014 Understanding Public Knowledge and Attitudes towards Trafficking in Human Beings. Part 1, 2014 Gender dimension of the labour markets over the past two decades, 2013 Overview of the Labor Market Situation of Low-Educated and Roma Population and Regulations Affecting their Employment, 2013 Pushed to the Edge. Research Report on the Representation of Roma Communities in the Hungarian Majority Media, 2011, 2013 From benefits to brooms. Case study reports on the implementation of active labour market policies for Roma at local level, 2013 Active Labor Market Policies with an Impact Potential on Roma Employment in Five Countries of the EU, 2013 Critical Frame Analysis: A Comparative Methodology for the 'Quality in Gender+ Equality Policies' (QUING) project, 2012 The Radicalization of Media Discourse. The Rise of the Extreme Right in Hungary and the Roma Question, 2012 Derangement or Development? Political Economy of EU Structural Funds Allocation in New Member States - Insights from the Hungarian Case, 2011 Dynamics of European migration. A comparative assessment of Croatia, Bulgaria and Hungary, 2011 Multinational Corporations and National Business Systems: Integration or Separation, 2011 Rural Out Migration and Land Use in Moldova, 2011 The Embodiment of (in)Tolerance in Discourses and Practices Addressing Cultural Diversity in Schools in Hungary. The Case of Roma, 2011 Tolerance and Cultural Diversity Discourses in Hungary, 2011 Being ‘Visibly Different’: Experiences of Second-generation Migrant and Roma Youths at School, 2010 Bread baskets, fuel supplies and bio tech crops: Will the Central and Eastern European countries take part in the second Green Revolution?, 2010 Ethnic and Social Differences in Education in a Comparative Perspective, 2010 Interactions Between the Ethnic Composition in School and Students’ Performance, Self-esteem and Future Aspirations, 2010 Franchizing Frenchness: What Social Models Do French-dominated Multinational Companies Bring to Hungary?, 2010 Immigration and Health Care: A Case Study of the Spanish Experience, 2010 Inheritance Matters. Changing Land Use Trends Amongst the Elderly in Rural Hungary, 2010 Italian Immigration Policy: Access to Health Care and the Foreign Workforce, 2010 Return to Europe. Reflections after 20 Years of Democratic Renewal, 2010 The Political Background of Structural Changes in the Educational System of Hungary, 1985-1994, 2010 Comparative Report on Education, 2009 Comparative Report on Educational Policies for Inclusion, 2009 Comparative Report on Ethnic Relations, 2009 Missing Intersectionality: Race/Ethnicity, Gender, and Class in Current Research and Policies on Romani Women in Europe, 2009 Fostering Civic Participation in The Policy Process in Hungary: a Short Review of Policy and Practice, 2008 Promoting Social Capital Through Public Policy in Hungary; the 2004 National Development Plan, 2008 The Impact of Civic Engagement on The Quality of Life in Hungary, 2008 Social Capital, Diversity and Trust in Hungary: Two Case Studies, 2008 Monitoring Social Capital in Hungary: A Short Review of Recent Research, 2008 Controlled Decentralization. Local, Regional, and Central Power in the Making of Hungarian Regional Development Policy, 2008 Monitoring EU Spending in Hungary, 2008 Social Capital and the Delivery of Social Services in Hungary: Review of Recent Research and Practice, 2008 Social Capital and the Integration of Minorities and Immigrants in Hungary, 2008 DIOSCURI Final Project Report, 2007 Quality in Gender+ Equality Policies: State of the Art and Mapping of Competences Report: Bulgaria, 2007 Quality in Gender+ Equality Policies: State of the Art and Mapping of Competences Report: Hungary, 2007 Quality in Gender+ Equality Policies: State of the Art and Mapping of Competences Report: Latvia, 2007 Quality in Gender+ Equality Policies: State of the Art and Mapping of Competences Report: Lithuania, 2007 Quality in Gender+ Equality Policies: State of the Art and Mapping of Competences Report: Poland, 2007 Quality in Gender+ Equality Policies: State of the Art and Mapping of Competences Report: Romania, 2007 Social Network Analysis of Regional Policy Making in South Transdanubia, Hungary, 2007 Social Network Analysis of Regional Policy Making in the Northern Great Plain Region of Hungary, 2007 Social Capital, Regional Development, and Europeanization in Hungary. A Literature Review, 2006 The European Future of Turkey and Ukraine: The Policy Debate in Hungary, 2006 The Roma in Hungary: Socio-economic Status, Human Rights Protection and Migratory Dynamics. An Annotated Bibliography of Recent Research, 2006 Anti-Americanism and International Security: Indications in International Public Opinion, 2005 Anti-Americanism and Popular Culture, 2005 Anti-Americanism and Regionalism in East Asia, 2005 Anti-Americanism in Canada, 2005 Roma Women's Unemployment in Hungary, 2005 Transferring Expertise and Methodologies: A Case Study of the Development of ‘Quarterly Economic Indicators’ and Forecasting Skills in Moldova and Kazakhstan, 2005 US-Latin American Trade Relations: Path to the Future or Dead End Street?, 2005 Women, Integration and Prison; Comparative Report - Full Version, 2005 From the Ground Up. Assessing the Record of Anticorruption Assistance in Southeastern Europe, 2004 Past and present: Is there anything new with anti-Americanism today?, 2004 Selling Americanism, Combatting Anti-Americanism: The Historical Role of American Foundations, 2004 Social Capital in Central and Eastern Europe. A Critical Assessment and Literature Review, 2004 Social Capital Research in Central and Eastern Europe and the Former Soviet Union. An Annotated Bibliography, 2004 Terror and Governance, 2004 The Trans-Atlantic Relationship in the Post-Cold War International Relations, 2004 In Search of Responsive Government. State Building and Economic Growth in the Balkans, 2003 Social Capital in the Balkans: The Missing Link?, 2003 Xenophobia in Hungary: A Regional Comparison. Systemic Sources and Possible Solutions, 2003 Ethnic Violence and Justice, 2002 Nation-building Versus State-building in the Balkans. Lessons Learned, 2002 Understanding Xenophobia in Eastern Europe, 2002 Reshaping Globalization: Multilateral Dialogues and New Policy Initiatives, 2002 Books from Other Publishers CPS academic staff also publish books through renown publishers, and here they take a very active role in the preparation of volumes, in editing, and in the overall preparation of the manuscript for publication. Policy Experiments, Failures and Innovations: Beyond Accession in Central and Eastern Europe, 2018 The Gender Politics of Domestic Violence: Feminists Engaging the State in Central and Eastern Europe, 2018 The Romani Women's Movement: Struggles and Debates in Central and Eastern Europe, 2018 Migrant, Roma and Post-Colonial Youth in Education across Europe. Being 'Visibly Different', 2014 Developing Open, Rule-based, Predictable, Non-discriminatory Trade Relations with Priority ODA Recipients, 2013 The Role of Civil Society in Development Assistance and Aid Effectiveness, 2013 The Role of the Private Sector in Development Assistance and Effectiveness, 2013 Capitalism from Outside? Economic Cultures in Eastern Europe after 1989, 2012 Democracy's New Champions. European Democracy Assistance after EU Enlargement, 2008 Finding the Money: Public Accountability and Service Efficiency through Fiscal Transparency, 2008 Multiple Meanings of Gender Equality: A Critical Frame Analysis of Gender Policies in Europe, 2007 EU Accession Prospect for Turkey and Ukraine. Debates in New Member States, 2006 The World Bank and Governance. A Decade of Reform and Reaction, 2006 Global Knowledge Networks and International Development, 2005 SAPARD Review in Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Poland and Romania, 2005 Women Integration & Prison, 2005 Follow the Money: A Guide to Monitoring Budgets and Oil and Gas Revenues, 2004 Included in Society, 2004 Nationalism after Communism: Lessons Learned, 2004 Ethnic Violence and Justice: The Debate over Responsibility, Accountability, Intervention, Complicity, Tribunals and Truth Commissions, 2003 Reinventing Media: Media Policy Reform in East Central Europe, 2003 Reshaping Globalization: Multilateral Dialogues and New Policy Initiatives, 2003 Society and Genetic Information: Codes and Laws in the Genetic Era, 2003 Ethnic Monitoring and Data Protection: The European Context, 2001 The Policy Documentation Center This database of public policy documents from Central and Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union is the largest of its kind, with over 1500 papers from over 60 institutes from over 25 countries. The PDC covers a wide range of public policy topics. The majority of papers are produced by think tanks and research institutes although the PDC also includes studies and proposals from several international programs. References External links The Center for Policy Studies The Policy Documentation Center The Department of Public Policy, Central European University Central European University 2000 establishments in Hungary Central European University

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The Symphony No. 6 in A major, WAB 106, by Austrian composer Anton Bruckner (1824–1896) is a work in four movements composed between September 24, 1879 and September 3, 1881 and dedicated to his landlord, Anton van Ölzelt-Newin. Only two movements from it were performed in public in the composer's lifetime. Though it possesses many characteristic features of a Bruckner symphony, it differs the most from the rest of his symphonic repertory. Redlich went so far as to cite the lack of hallmarks of Bruckner's symphonic compositional style in the Sixth Symphony for the somewhat bewildered reaction of supporters and critics alike. According to Robert Simpson, though not commonly performed and often thought of as the ugly duckling of Bruckner's symphonic body of work, the symphony nonetheless makes an immediate impression of rich and individual expressiveness: "Its themes are exceptionally beautiful, its harmony has moments of both boldness and subtlety, its instrumentation is the most imaginative he had yet achieved, and it possesses a mastery of classical form that might even have impressed Brahms." Historical context By the time Bruckner began composing his Symphony No. 6, only three of his symphonies had been performed. The recent premiere of his Third Symphony had been nothing short of disastrous, receiving an extremely negative, though not surprising review from Eduard Hanslick, given Hanslick's predilection for the works of Brahms. ...his artistic intentions are honest, however oddly he employs them. Instead of a critique, therefore, we would rather simply confess that we have not understood his gigantic symphony. Neither were his poetic intentions clear to us...nor could we grasp the purely musical coherence. The composer...was greeted with cheering and was consoled with lively applause at the close by a fraction of the audience that stayed to the end...the Finale, which exceeded all its predecessors in oddities, was only experienced to the last extreme by a little host of hardy adventurers. The composition of his Symphony No. 4 marked the beginning of what some refer to as the "Major Tetralogy", Bruckner's four symphonies composed in major keys. In fact, this tetralogy was part of an entire decade in Bruckner's compositional history devoted to large-scale works written in major keys, a fact of note considering that all of his previous symphonies and foremost choral works were composed in minor keys. The composition of his String Quintet and the Sixth Symphony marked the beginning of a new compositional period for Bruckner within the realm of the "Major Tetralogy". However, the Sixth Symphony has extensive ties to the Fourth and Fifth Symphonies and is considered to have been composed as a reflective, humanistic response to its two direct symphonic predecessors. It has even been dubbed the Philosophical symphony by critics for this reason. Compositional hallmarks Bruckner's symphonies encompass many techniques but the one unwavering hallmark of his symphonic compositions is a singular formal pattern that underwent very little variation over the course of his symphonic repertory. In fact, their four extended movements are indebted to the structure and thematic treatment in the late works of Beethoven. The only large-scale diversion from this formal scheme in the Sixth Symphony is Bruckner's use of sonata form in the second movement instead of his usual large-scale ternary form. Thematically speaking, there are two distinct varieties of themes in Bruckner's symphonies. First, there are themes that are clearly defined in shape and then there are the themes that operate more as motives with a shorter length and a more open-ended shape, as is typical of the Sixth Symphony. Another characteristic thematic feature of Bruckner's symphonies is the intimate relationship between the outer two movements, though there is typically more of an emphasis on thematic contrast within the first movement. Specifically, the amplification of the exposition of the first movement consists of two subsidiary themes as well as the primary theme, which are subsequently developed, a technique that is considered uniquely Brucknerian. Other characteristics that are found in Bruckner's symphonies (especially the Sixth) include the extensive treatment of the dominant seventh chord as a German sixth chord in a new key, usage of cadences as a decisive factor in daring modulations, the treatment of organ points as pivotal to the harmony and structure, chains of harmonic sequences, and, most notably, extensive use of rhythmic motives, especially the characteristic Bruckner rhythm, a rhythm consisting of two fourths and three quarter notes, or vice versa. This rhythm dominated most of the Fourth Symphony and was practically nonexistent in the Fifth Symphony, but becomes nothing short of a driving force in the Sixth Symphony; the metric complexities generated by this unique rhythmic grouping are more pronounced in the first movement of the Sixth Symphony than in any of Bruckner's other compositions. Orchestration The orchestration of the Sixth Symphony complies with Bruckner's customary, albeit peculiar, techniques. Just as in his other symphonic works, there are no marks of extreme virtuosity apparent in the score and the lines are straightforward. The Sixth Symphony is scored for 2 flutes, 2 oboes, 2 clarinets, 2 bassoons, 4 horns, 3 trumpets, 3 trombones, bass tuba, timpani, and string section. Bruckner commonly alternates between solo and tutti sections, as well as layering instruments to provide texture and show different subject groups. Forms, themes, and analysis The symphony has four movements: I. Majestoso Bruckner labels this movement "Majestoso", not the conventional "Maestoso", probably from his Latin (from "Maiestas" – sovereign power). The movement, in obvious sonata form, opens with the characteristic 'Bruckner rhythm' played in the violins, though Bruckner is careful to maintain the enigmatic atmosphere by indicating a bowing that keeps the bow on the string and therefore prohibits the rhythmic figure from becoming too lively. One then hears the quietly intense main theme, a paraphrase of the main theme of Bruckner's own Symphony No. 4, stated in the low strings and juxtaposed against the pulsating rhythm in the violins: The key is A major when the first theme enters; however, the mystery is heightened by notes outside the realm of A major tonality that appear in the melodic line, namely the pitches G, B and F, Neapolitan inflections that will have large-scale tonal effects that come to fruition later in the symphony. The counterstatement of the theme appears (bar 25) in fortissimo, a long-established classical technique that Bruckner had yet to use at the beginning of a symphony. The second theme group is more complex than the primary theme. The first theme of this group is a confident melody in the violins in which Bruckner employs mixed rhythms: The second theme in this group, an expressive, lyrical motif (bar 69) is first heard in D major, closely followed by a statement in F major and a richly orchestrated statement in E major, the dominant of the movement's original A major. The third theme group, beginning with a militaristic statement of the Bruckner rhythm, now appears, followed by modulations ending in the dominant (E major) and segueing into the development section: The development is shorter and less complex than one usually finds in Bruckner's symphonic first movements; however, it plays a substantial role in the overall harmonic structure of the movement. From the outset (bar 159), the violins play an inversion of the main theme, though the Bruckner rhythm that accompanied it in the exposition is absent. Instead, the development is propelled throughout by the triplet motif that first appeared in the third subject of the exposition. Harmonically, the development encompasses a myriad of modulations, abruptly traversing between E and A major, seemingly signaling the beginning of the recapitulation. The beginning of the recapitulation is, in fact, a climax, serving as both the end of the development and the beginning of the recapitulation, marking the first time in symphonic literature that this has occurred. If not for this climactic moment, one could have trouble identifying the exact moment of recapitulation as the return of the tonic and the return of the primary theme do not coincide (in fact, there are 15 bars in between the two events). In true Bruckner form, it encompasses a complete restatement of the theme groups from the exposition and is otherwise uneventful, setting the stage for the coda which Donald Tovey described as one of Bruckner's greatest passages. In the Coda, Bruckner passes through the entire spectrum of tonality, leaving no key unsuggested; however, he establishes no tonal center except for A major. The opening phrase of the first theme appears throughout, joined (bar 345) by the rhythmic motive from the beginning. An exultant final statement of that theme and the completion of a massive plagal cadence signal the end of the first movement. II. Adagio: Sehr feierlich (Very solemnly) The second movement is in obvious sonata form, the only example of a sonata structure Adagio in Bruckner's symphonies, apart from that of the "nullified" Symphony in D minor and the early draft of the Adagio of the First Symphony, dating from 1865. Simpson went so far as to describe the movement as the most perfectly realized slow sonata design since the Adagio of Beethoven's Hammerklavier sonata The movement opens with a theme in the strings, a yearning love song that is joined (bar 5) by a mournful lament on the oboe: Simpson points out that the frequent Neapolitan inflections of the first movement are expanded here, beginning with the B and F in the primary melodic line that make it natural that the movement should be in F major, though the opening initially ambiguously suggests B minor. After a brief transitional passage, there is a modulation to E major that marks the introduction of the second theme, a soaring, untroubled love song (bar 25): The third theme (bar 53) is characteristic of a funeral march, combining C minor and A major and providing a somber contrast to the preceding love song: The dotted rhythm in its first bar calls to mind the oboe lament from the beginning of the movement. Doernberg described this sad turn to A major as the kind of music Gustav Mahler always wished to achieve, citing Bruckner as anticipatory to Mahler in this respect. There is a brief developmental section (bar 69) that includes modulation on the primary theme as well as inversions of the oboe lament. There is a recapitulation of all three themes (bar 93) though the orchestration is different, with the former violin theme (primary theme) now appearing in the horn and subsequently in the woodwinds. The second theme is recapitulated in its entirety in the tonic followed by a very short reappearance of the third theme. Finally, a transition over a dominant pedal (a Bruckner hallmark) leads to the Coda that Simpson referred to as the fine-drawn consolatory coda that is one of Bruckner's best. At bar 157 one hears the last statement of the primary theme with the movement ending in its tonic, F major, in a state of "perfect serenity." III. Scherzo: Nicht schnell (Not fast) — Trio: Langsam (Slowly) The A minor third movement is unlike any other composed by Bruckner; it is slower than usual and the tense character often associated with his Scherzi is often shadowed and muted, although there are movements of brilliance. However, the most prominent feature is the lack of a striking Scherzo theme; instead one finds three contrasting rhythmical motives juxtaposed from the very beginning and united throughout the majority of the movement. Its steady time is pervaded, once again, by triplets throughout, often giving the impression of and creating a broader sense of movement that is extremely deliberate, especially for a scherzo movement: There is a certain degree of harmonic ambiguity throughout, but nothing that compares to the opening of the first movement. One of the most fascinating features of the harmonic structure is Bruckner's avoidance of a root position tonic chord for much of the movement. The first twenty bars of the movement once again rest on a dominant pedal and when the bass finally moves to the tonic pitch (A), it is not a root position tonic chord; instead, it acts as the bottom of a first inversion chord of F major (bar 21). In the development, one sees the addition of a new motif and harmonically, the section centers around D major, G major, and B minor, all closely related keys but ones that are isolated from the tonic (A minor). The dominant of A minor is reached (bar 75) and here, the recapitulation begins, once again over a dominant pedal. It is important to note that there has still not been a root chord of A minor. This elusive A minor root chord finally appears at the end of the recapitulation leading into the C major Trio section. The slow trio is in the style of a Ländler, an Austrian folk dance and, according to Williamson, confirms that in Bruckner's works, it [the trio] is a place for construction in tone color as in the moment when horn and pizzicato strings compete on the same rhythmic figure: In fact, this dialogue between pizzicato strings, horn and woodwinds is central to the texture of the whole Trio section. Although the key is C major, there are moments of harmonic ambiguity, as in the preceding movements. At one point (bar 5), the strings point towards D major while the woodwinds attempt to assert A major by quoting the inversion of the main theme of Symphony No. 5 that is in A major. The scherzo returns in its entirety at the end of the trio, adhering to a typical large-scale ternary structure. IV. Finale: Bewegt, doch nicht zu schnell (With motion, but not too fast) Watson characterized the Finale as a steady, organic assertion of A major against its Neapolitan relatives. However, this sonata form movement begins with a theme in Phrygian A minor that once again stresses Neapolitan relationships with the obvious presence of the flat sixth (the pitch being F): The horns and trumpets interrupt with statements in A major (bar 22) but the theme is undeterred; four bars later they once again interrupt the theme and this time succeed in establishing A major (bar 29). A second theme in C major eventually appears: This is followed by a third theme (bar 125) that is derived from the oboe lament of the second movement: During the development section the music continues to modulate through a variety of major keys, including F major, E major and E major until finally returning to the tonic A major (bar 245), regarded as the start of the recapitulation. The Coda once again encompasses a broad range of keys and juxtaposes the primary theme with the main theme from the first movement. A final massive statement of A major asserts itself (bar 397) seemingly out of nowhere, embodying Bruckner's amazing ability to establish the tonic without a doubt and without the kind of preparation one would normally expect. This movement does not, nor was it intended to have the vast impact of the Finale of the Fifth Symphony, but it is infinitely more refined than the Finale of his Fourth Symphony. According to Watson, the victorious conclusion of Bruckner's quest for a new and ideal finale form will be celebrated in his Eighth Symphony, but the Sixth Symphony's development is an eminent and profoundly satisfying landmark on that triumphant march. Revisions and editions This is the only Bruckner symphony exempt from any revisions by the composer. (The Fifth, Sixth and Seventh represent Bruckner's period of confidence as a composer and, along with the unfinished Ninth, are as a group the symphonies he did not extensively revise.) The Sixth was first published in 1899, a task overseen by former Bruckner pupil Cyrill Hynais. This edition did encompass a few minute changes from Bruckner's original, including the repetition of the second half of the Trio in the third movement. The next edition appeared only in 1935, from Robert Haas under Internationale Bruckner-Gesellschaft auspices. In 1952 Leopold Nowak, who took over Haas's job, published an edition that was a replicate of Bruckner's 1881 original score. In 1986 the IBG issued an “audit” of the efforts of Hynais, Haas and Nowak, and in 1997 it republished the Nowak. The version of the Sixth performed under the direction of Mahler for the 1899 premiere was never published; Mahler had made substantial changes to the whole score before that performance, of course unsanctioned by the deceased Bruckner. There exists also an inauthentic edition by Franz Schalk. Critical and cultural reception Criticism of Bruckner's Symphony No. 6 is similar to the critical response that his preceding symphonies had received. Whereas Bruckner considered his Sixth Symphony to be his "boldest symphony," it was not generally held in high regard. In terms of interpretation, the Sixth Symphony has also been the unluckiest, with the vast majority of conductors ignoring Bruckner's specific tempo markings and throwing off the carefully planned balance of the movements. One 2004 reviewer for The Musical Times referred to the inner movements of this symphony as "flawed but attractive enough" and dubbed the outer movements "burdensome." Hanslick, as usual, was without a doubt the harshest critic of them all. He was once quoted as saying, "whom I wish to destroy shall be destroyed," and Bruckner seems to have been a prime target. After hearing the 1883 performance of the middle movements of the Sixth Symphony, Hanslick wrote: It has become ever harder for me personally to achieve a proper relationship with these peculiar compositions in which clever, original, and even inspired moments alternate frequently without recognizable connection with barely understandable platitudes, empty and dull patches, stretched out over such unsparing length as to threaten to run players as well as listeners out of breath. Here, Hanslick touched on the most common complaint about Bruckner's symphonic writing: the seemingly endless journey to a conclusion of musical thought. Dyneley Hussey critiqued the Sixth Symphony in a 1957 review for The Musical Times and reached the same conclusions half a century later, writing: His most tiresome habit is his way of pulling up dead at frequent intervals, and then starting the argument all over again...One has the impression...that we are traversing a town with innumerable traffic lights, all of which turn red as we approach them. Harsh critical reception of the Sixth Symphony, as well as his entire body of work, can also be attributed to critical reception of Bruckner as a person. He was a devout Catholic whose religious fervor often had a negative effect on those he encountered. One of his pupils, Franz Schalk, commented that it was the age of moral and spiritual liberalism...but also in which he [Bruckner] intruded...with his medieval, monasterial concept of humankind and life. Regardless of the criticisms, both musical and personal, there were some who attempted to find the beauty in Bruckner's Sixth Symphony. Donald Tovey wrote, "...if one clears their mind, not only of prejudice but of wrong points of view, and treats Bruckner's Sixth Symphony as a kind of music we have never heard before, there is no doubt that its high quality will strike us at every moment". Still others marvel over the rarity of performances of the Sixth Symphony, citing its bright character and key and its plethora of tender, memorable themes as grounds for more widespread acceptance. Carl Hruby wrote that Bruckner once said that if he were to speak to Beethoven about bad critiques Beethoven would say, "My dear Bruckner, don't bother yourself about it. It was no better for me, and the same gentlemen who use me as a stick to beat you with still don't understand my last quartets, however much they may pretend to." In saying this, Bruckner both acknowledged his bad critiques and maintained hope that his own compositions might one day garner the same type of positive reaction that Beethoven's music received from his contemporaries. Performance and recording history The first performance of Bruckner's Symphony No. 6 was by the Vienna Philharmonic conducted by Wilhelm Jahn on February 11, 1883, making it the only performance of the piece that Bruckner heard in his lifetime. However, only the two middle movements were performed. The first complete performance of the Sixth Symphony occurred in 1899 conducted by Gustav Mahler who made substantial changes to the score. The first full performance of the original score took place in Stuttgart in 1901, conducted by Karl Pohlig. Since that first full performance, the Sixth Symphony has become part of the symphonic repertory, but is the least performed of Bruckner's symphonies, never overcoming its original status as a symphonic "stepchild". The oldest surviving recorded performance is of Wilhelm Furtwängler conducting the Berlin Philharmonic in 1943; however, the first movement is missing. The oldest surviving complete recorded performance is of Georg Ludwig Jochum with the Bruckner Orchestra Linz from 1944. The first commercial recording is from 1950 and features Henry Swoboda and the Vienna Symphony Orchestra. Selected discography Joseph Keilberth and Berlin Philharmonic 1963 Telefunken Otto Klemperer and New Philharmonia Orchestra 2003 EMI Records Ltd (recorded November 1964) Eugen Jochum and Symphonie-Orchester des Bayerischen Rundfunks 1966 Deutsche Grammophon William Steinberg and Boston Symphony Orchestra 1972 RCA Horst Stein and Vienna Philharmonic Orchestra 1974 Decca Daniel Barenboim and Chicago Symphony Orchestra 1977 Deutsche Grammophon Herbert von Karajan and Berliner Philharmoniker 1979 Deutsche Grammophon Sir Georg Solti and Chicago Symphony Orchestra 1979 Decca Wolfgang Sawallisch and Bayerisches Staatsorchester 1982 Orfeo Ferdinand Leitner and SWR Sinfonieorchester Baden-Baden und Freiburg 1982 Hänssler Classic Riccardo Muti and Berliner Philharmoniker 1988 EMI Eliahu Inbal and Radio-Sinfonie-Orchester Frankfurt 1989 Teldec Herbert Blomstedt and San Francisco Symphony Orchestra 1990 London Jesus Lopez-Cobos and Cincinnati Symphony Orchestra 1991 Telarc Bernard Haitink and Royal Concertgebouw Orchestra 1994 Universal International Music B.V. Christoph von Dohnanyi and the Cleveland Orchestra 1994 London Gunter Wand and NDR-Sinfonieorchester 1996 RCA Victor Eugen Jochum and Staatskapelle Dresden 1998 EMI Records Ltd. Sergiu Celibidache and Münchner Philharmoniker 1999 EMI Records, Ltd. Riccardo Chailly and Royal Concertgebouw Orchestra 1999 Decca Christoph Eschenbach and Houston Symphony Orchestra 2000 Koch Int. Eugen Jochum and Staatskapelle Dresden 2000 EMI Records Ltd. Sir Colin Davis and London Symphony Orchestra 2002 London Symphony Orchestra Ltd. Michael Gielen and SWR Sinfonieorchester Baden-Baden und Freiburg 2002 Hänssler Classic Eugen Jochum and Berliner Philharmoniker 2002 Deutsche Grammophon Kurt Masur and Gewandhausorchester Leipzig 2004 BMG Music "Alberto Lizzio" and "South German Philharmonic Orchestra" 2005 Point Classics. For details on this dubious attribution, see Alberto Lizzio. Kent Nagano and Deutsches-Symphonie-Orchester Berlin 2005 Harmonia Mundi Bernard Haitink and Staatskapelle Dresden 2006 Profil Andrew Delfs and Milwaukee Symphony Orchestra 2007 Milwaukee Symphony Orchestra Roberto Paternostro and Wurttembergische Philharmonie 2007 Bella Musica Roger Norrington and Radio-Sinfonieorchester Stuttgart des SWR 2008 Hänssler Classic Guennadi Rosdhestvenski and USSR Ministry of Culture Symphonic Orchestra 2008 SLG, LLC Hans Zanotelli and "Süddeutsche Philharmonie" 2008 SLG, LLC. Note: The "Süddeutsche Philharmonie" is the group referred to above as the "South German Philharmonic", and "Hans Zanotelli" (the name of a real conductor) is another pseudonym used on Alfred Scholz's records (see above). Herbert Blomstedt and Gewandhausorchester Leipzig 2009 Questand Daniel Barenboim and Staatskapelle Berlin 2014 ACCENTUS Music, ACC202176 Mariss Jansons and Royal Concertgebouw Orchestra 2015 RCO Live Simone Young and Hamburg Philharmonic, 2015 Oehms Footnotes References Further reading Anton Bruckner, Sämtliche Werke, Kritische Gesamtausgabe – Band 6: VI. Symphonie A-Dur (Originalfassung), Musikwissenschaftlicher Verlag der internationalen Bruckner-Gesellschaft, Robert Haas (editor), Vienna, 1935 Anton Bruckner: Sämtliche Werke: Band VI: VI. Symphonie A-Dur 1881, Musikwissenschaftlicher Verlag der Internationalen Bruckner-Gesellschaft, Leopold Nowak (editor), 1952, Vienna External links Bruckner's Symphony No. 6 – Timing analysis by William Carragan Symphony No. 6 in A major, Anton Bruckner Critical Complete Edition Bruckner symphony versions by David Griegel Complete discography by John Berky Symphony 06 Compositions in A major 1881 compositions Music with dedications

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Alice Bradley Sheldon (born Alice Hastings Bradley; August 24, 1915 – May 19, 1987) was an American science fiction and fantasy author better known as James Tiptree Jr., a pen name she used from 1967 to her death. It was not publicly known until 1977 that James Tiptree Jr. was a woman. From 1974 to 1985 she also used the pen name Raccoona Sheldon. Tiptree was inducted into the Science Fiction Hall of Fame in 2012. Tiptree's debut story collection, Ten Thousand Light-Years from Home, was published in 1973 and her first novel, Up the Walls of the World, was published in 1978. Her other works include 1973 novelette "The Women Men Don't See", 1974 novella "The Girl Who Was Plugged In", 1976 novella "Houston, Houston, Do You Read?", 1985 novel Brightness Falls from the Air, and 1990 short story "Her Smoke Rose Up Forever". Early life, family and education Alice Hastings Bradley came from a family in the intellectual enclave of Hyde Park, a university neighborhood in Chicago. Her father was Herbert Edwin Bradley, a lawyer and naturalist, and her mother was Mary Hastings Bradley, a prolific writer of fiction and travel books. From an early age she traveled with her parents, and in 1921–22, the family made their first trip to central Africa. During these trips, she played the role of the "perfect daughter, willing to be carried across Africa like a parcel, always neatly dressed and well behaved, a credit to her mother." This later contributed to her short story, "The Women Men Don't See." Between trips to Africa, Bradley attended school in Chicago. At the age of ten, she went to the University of Chicago Laboratory Schools, which was an experimental teaching workshop with small classes and loose structure. When she was fourteen, she was sent to finishing school in Lausanne in Switzerland, before returning to the US to attend boarding school in Tarrytown in New York. Adulthood and early career: 1934–1967 Bradley was encouraged by her mother to seek a career, but her mother also hoped that she would get married and settle down. In 1934, at age 19, she met William (Bill) Davey and eloped to marry him. She dropped out of Sarah Lawrence College, which did not allow married students to attend. They moved to Berkeley, California, where they took classes and Bill encouraged her to pursue art. The marriage was not a success; he was an alcoholic and irresponsible with money and she disliked keeping house. The couple divorced in 1940. Later on, she became a graphic artist, a painter, and—still under the name "Alice Bradley Davey"—an art critic for the Chicago Sun between 1941 and 1942. After the divorce, Bradley joined the Women's Army Auxiliary Corps where she became a supply officer. In 1942 she joined the United States Army Air Forces and worked in the Army Air Forces photo-intelligence group. She later was promoted to major, a high rank for women at the time. In the army, she "felt she was among free women for the first time." As an intelligence officer, she became an expert in reading aerial intelligence photographs. In 1945, at the close of the war, while she was on assignment in Paris, she married her second husband, Huntington D. Sheldon, known as "Ting." She was discharged from the military in 1946, at which time she set up a small business in partnership with her husband. The same year her first story ("The Lucky Ones") was published in the November 16, 1946 issue of The New Yorker, and credited to "Alice Bradley" in the magazine. In 1952 she and her husband were invited to join the CIA, which she accepted. At the CIA, she worked as an intelligence officer, but she did not enjoy the work. She resigned her position in 1955 and returned to college. She studied for her bachelor of arts degree at American University (1957–1959). She received a doctorate from George Washington University in Experimental Psychology in 1967. She wrote her doctoral dissertation on the responses of animals to novel stimuli in differing environments. During this time, she wrote and submitted a few science fiction stories under the name James Tiptree Jr., in order to protect her academic reputation. Art career Bradley began illustrating when she was nine years old, contributing to her mother's book, Alice in Elephantland, a children's book about the family's second trip to Africa, appearing in it as herself. She later had an exhibit of her drawings of Africa at the Chicago Gallery, arranged by her parents. Although she illustrated several of her mother's books, she only sold one illustration during her lifetime, in 1931, to The New Yorker, with help from Harold Ober, a New York agent who worked with her mother. The illustration, of a horse rearing and throwing off its rider, sold for ten dollars. In 1936, Bradley participated in a group show at the Art Institute of Chicago, to which she had connections through her family, featuring new American work. This was an important step forward for her painting career. During this time she also took private art lessons from John Sloan. Sheldon disliked prudery in painting. While examining an anatomy book for an art class, she noticed that the genitals were blurred, so she restored the genitals of the figures with a pencil. In 1939, her nude self-portrait titled Portrait in the Country was accepted for the "All-American" biennial show at the Corcoran Gallery in Washington D.C., where it was displayed for six weeks. While these two shows were considered big breaks, she disparaged these accomplishments, saying that "only second rate painters sold" and she preferred to keep her works at home. By 1940, Bradley felt she had mastered all the techniques she needed and was ready to choose her subject matter. However, she began to doubt whether she should paint. She kept working at her painting techniques, fascinated with the questions of form, and read books on aesthetics in order to know what scientifically made a painting "good." She stopped painting in 1941. As she was in need of a way to support herself, her parents helped her find a job as an art critic for the Chicago Sun. Science fiction career: 1967-1987 Bradley discovered science fiction in 1924, when she read her first issue of Weird Tales, but she wouldn't write any herself until years later. Unsure what to do with her new degrees and her new/old careers, she began to write science fiction. She adopted the pseudonym of James Tiptree Jr. in 1967. The name "Tiptree" came from a branded jar of marmalade, and the "Jr." was her husband's idea. In an interview, she said: "A male name seemed like good camouflage. I had the feeling that a man would slip by less observed. I've had too many experiences in my life of being the first woman in some damned occupation." She also made the choice to start writing science fiction she, herself, was interested in and "was surprised to find that her stories were immediately accepted for publication and quickly became popular." Her first published short story was "Birth of a Salesman" in the March 1968 issue of Analog Science Fact & Fiction, edited by John W. Campbell. Three more followed that year in If and Fantastic. Other pen names that she used included "Alice Hastings Bradley", "Major Alice Davey", "Alli B. Sheldon", "Dr. Alice B. Sheldon", and "Raccoona Sheldon". Writing under the pseudonym Raccoona, she was not very successful getting published until her other alter ego, Tiptree, wrote to publishers to intervene. The pseudonym was successfully maintained until late 1977, partly because, although "Tiptree" was widely known to be a pseudonym, it was generally understood that its use was intended to protect the professional reputation of an intelligence community official. Readers, editors and correspondents were permitted to assume gender, and generally, but not invariably, they assumed "male". There was speculation, based partially on the themes in her stories, that Tiptree might be female. In 1975, in the introduction to Warm Worlds and Otherwise, a collection of Tiptree's short stories, Robert Silverberg wrote: "[i]t has been suggested that Tiptree is female, a theory that I find absurd, for there is to me something ineluctably masculine about Tiptree's writing." Silverberg also likened Tiptree's writing to Ernest Hemingway's, arguing there was a "prevailing masculinity about both of them -- that preoccupation with questions of courage, with absolute values, with the mysteries and passions of life and death as revealed by extreme physical tests, by pain and suffering and loss.""Tiptree" never made any public appearances, but she did correspond regularly with fans and other science fiction authors through the mail. When asked for biographical details, Tiptree/Sheldon was forthcoming in everything but her gender. According to her biographer, Julie Phillips, "No one had ever seen or spoken to the owner of this voice. He wrote letters, warm, frank, funny letters, to other writers, editors, and science fiction fans". In her letters to fellow writers such as Ursula K. Le Guin and Joanna Russ, she would present herself as a feminist man; however, Sheldon did not present herself as male in person. Writing was a way to escape a male-dominated society, themes Tiptree explored in the short stories later collected in Her Smoke Rose Up Forever. One story in particular offers an excellent illustration of these themes. "Houston, Houston, Do You Read?" follows a group of astronauts who discover a future Earth whose male population has been wiped out; the remaining females have learned to get along just fine in their absence. In 1976, "Tiptree" mentioned in a letter that "his" mother, also a writer, had died in Chicago—details that led inquiring fans to find the obituary, with its reference to Alice Sheldon; soon all was revealed. Once the initial shock was over, Sheldon wrote to Le Guin, one of her closest friends, confessing her identity. She wrote, "I never wrote you anything but the exact truth, there was no calculation or intent to deceive, other than the signature which over 8 years became just another nickname; everything else is just plain me. The thing is, I am a 61-year-old woman named Alice Sheldon — nickname Alli – solitary by nature but married for 37 years to a very nice man considerably older [Huntington was 12 years her senior], who doesn't read my stuff but is glad I like writing". After Sheldon's identity was revealed, several prominent science fiction writers suffered some embarrassment. Robert Silverberg, who had argued that Tiptree could not be a woman from the evidence of her stories, added a postscript to his introduction to the second edition of Tiptree's Warm Worlds and Otherwise, published in 1979. Harlan Ellison had introduced Tiptree's story in the anthology Again, Dangerous Visions with the opinion that "[Kate] Wilhelm is the woman to beat this year, but Tiptree is the man". Only then did she complete her first full-length novel, Up the Walls of the World, which was a Doubleday Science Fiction Book Club selection. Before that she had worked on and built a reputation only in the field of short stories. Themes A constant theme in Sheldon's work is feminism. In "The Women Men Don't See" Sheldon gives the tale a unique feminist spin by making the narrator, Don Fenton, a male. Fenton judges the Parsons, the mother and daughter who are searching for alien life, based on their attractiveness and is agitated when they do not "fulfill stereotypical female roles," according to Anne Cranny-Francis. In addition, Fenton's inability to understand both the plight of woman and Ruth Parsons' feelings of alienation further illustrate the differences of men and women in society. The theme of feminism is emphasized by "the feminist ideology espoused by Ruth Parsons and the contrasting sexism of Fenton". The title of the short story itself reflects the idea that women are invisible during Sheldon's time. As Francis states, "'The Women Men Don't See' is an outstanding example … of the subversive use of genre fiction to produce an unconventional discursive position, the feminist subject." Death and legacy Sheldon continued writing under the Tiptree pen name for another decade. In the last years of her life she suffered from depression and heart trouble, while her husband began to lose his eyesight, becoming almost completely blind in 1986. In 1976, then 61-year-old Sheldon wrote Silverberg expressing her desire to end her own life while she was still able-bodied and active, but saying that she was reluctant to act upon this intention, as she didn't want to leave her husband behind and couldn't bring herself to kill him. Later she suggested to her husband that they make a suicide pact when their health began to fail. On July 21, 1977, she wrote in her diary: “Ting agreed to consider suicide in 4–5 years.” Ten years later, on May 19, 1987, Sheldon shot her husband and then herself; she telephoned her attorney after the first shooting to announce her actions. They were found dead, hand-in-hand in bed, in their Virginia home. According to biographer Julie Phillips, the suicide note Sheldon left was written in September 1979 and saved until needed. Although the circumstances surrounding the Sheldons' deaths are not clear enough to rule out murder-suicide, testimony of those closest to them suggests a suicide pact. Sexual orientation In her personal life, Bradley had a complex sexual orientation, and she described her sexuality in different terms over many years. For example, she explained it at one point: "I like some men a lot, but from the start, before I knew anything, it was always girls and women who lit me up." James Tiptree Jr. Award The James Tiptree Jr. Award, honoring works of science fiction or fantasy that expand or explore our understanding of gender, was named in her honor. The award-winning science fiction authors Karen Joy Fowler and Pat Murphy created the award in February 1991. Works of fiction such as Half Life by Shelley Jackson and Light by M. John Harrison have received the award. Due to controversy over the circumstances of her and her husband's deaths, the name of the award was changed to the Otherwise Award in 2019. Works Short story collections Ten Thousand Light-Years from Home (1973) Warm Worlds and Otherwise (1975) Star Songs of an Old Primate (1978) Out of the Everywhere and Other Extraordinary Visions (1981) Byte Beautiful: Eight Science Fiction Stories (1985) The Starry Rift (1986) (linked stories) Tales of the Quintana Roo (1986) (linked stories) Crown of Stars (1988) (linked stories) Her Smoke Rose Up Forever (omnibus collection) (1990) The abbreviation(s) after each title indicate its appearance in one or more of the following collections: 1968 "The Mother Ship" (later retitled "Mamma Come Home") (novelette): LYFH "Pupa Knows Best" (later retitled "Help"; novelette): LYFH "Birth of a Salesman" (short story): LYFH "Fault" (short story): WWO "Happiness Is a Warm Spaceship" (short story): MM "Please Don't Play With the Time Machine" (very short story): MM "A Day Like Any Other' (very short story): MM 1969 "Beam Us Home" (short story): LYFH, BB "The Last Flight of Doctor Ain" (short story): WWO, SRU "Your Haploid Heart" (novelette): SSOP "The Snows Are Melted, The Snows Are Gone" (novelette): LYFH "Parimutuel Planet" (later retitled "Faithful to Thee, Terra, in Our Fashion") (novelette): LYFH 1970 "The Man Doors Said Hello To" (short story): LYFH "I'm Too Big But I Love to Play" (novelette): LYFH "The Nightblooming Saurian" (short story): WWO "Last Night and Every Night" (short story): CS 1971 "The Peacefulness of Vivyan" (short story): LYFH, BB "I'll Be Waiting for You When the Swimming Pool Is Empty" (short story): LYFH, BB "And So On, and So On" (short story): SSOP, SRU "Mother in the Sky with Diamonds" (novelette): LYFH 1972 "The Man Who Walked Home" (short story): LYFH, BB, SRU "And I Have Come Upon This Place by Lost Ways" (novelette): WWO, SRU "And I Awoke and Found Me Here on the Cold Hill's Side" (short story): LYFH, SRU On the Last Afternoon (novella): WWO, SRU "Painwise" (novelette): LYFH "Forever to a Hudson Bay Blanket" (short story): LYFH "Filomena & Greg & Rikki-Tikki & Barlow & the Alien" (later retitled "All the Kinds of Yes") (novelette): WWO "The Milk of Paradise" (short story): WWO "Amberjack" (short story): WWO "Through a Lass Darkly" (short story): WWO "The Trouble Is Not in Your Set" (short story): MM (previously unpublished) "Press Until the Bleeding Stops" (short story): MM 1973 "Love Is the Plan the Plan Is Death" (short story): WWO, BB, SRU "The Women Men Don't See" (novelette): WWO, SRU "The Girl Who Was Plugged In" (novelette): WWO, SRU 1974 "Her Smoke Rose Up Forever" (novelette): SSOP, SRU "Angel Fix" (novelette, under the name "Raccoona Sheldon"): OE 1975 A Momentary Taste of Being (novella): SSOP, SRU 1976 "Your Faces, O My Sisters! Your Faces Filled of Light!" (short story, under the name Raccoona Sheldon): OE, BB, SRU "Beaver Tears" (short story, under the name Raccoona Sheldon): OE "She Waits for All Men Born" (short story): SSOP, SRU Houston, Houston, Do You Read? (novella): SSOP, SRU (Hugo award winner; Nebula award winner) "The Psychologist Who Wouldn't Do Awful Things to Rats" (novelette): SSOP 1977 "The Screwfly Solution" (novelette, under the name Raccoona Sheldon): OE, SRU "Time-Sharing Angel" (short story): OE 1978 "We Who Stole the Dream" (novelette): OE, SRU 1980 Slow Music (novella): OE, SRU "A Source of Innocent Merriment" (short story): OE 1981 "Excursion Fare" (novelette): BB "Lirios: A Tale of the Quintana Roo" (later retitled "What Came Ashore at Lirios") (novelette): QR "Out of the Everywhere" (novelette): OE With Delicate Mad Hands (novella): OE, BB, SRU 1982 "The Boy Who Waterskied to Forever" (short story): QR 1983 "Beyond the Dead Reef" (novelette): QR 1985 "Morality Meat" (novelette, under the name Racoona Sheldon): CS The Only Neat Thing to Do (novella): SR "All This and Heaven Too" (novelette): CS "Trey of Hearts" (short story): MM (previously unpublished) 1986 "Our Resident Djinn" (short story): CS "In the Great Central Library of Deneb University" (short story): SR Good Night, Sweethearts (novella): SR Collision (novella): SR The Color of Neanderthal Eyes (novella): MM 1987 "Second Going" (novelette): CS "Yanqui Doodle" (novelette): CS "In Midst of Life" (novelette): CS 1988 "Come Live with Me" (novelette): CS Backward, Turn Backward (novella): CS "The Earth Doth Like a Snake Renew" (novellette): CS [written in 1973] Novels Up the Walls of the World (1978) Brightness Falls from the Air (1985) Other collections Neat Sheets: The Poetry of James Tiptree Jr. (Tachyon Publications, 1996) Meet Me at Infinity (a collection of previously uncollected and unpublished fiction, essays and other non-fiction, with much biographical information, edited by Tiptree's friend Jeffrey D. Smith) (2000) Adaptations "The Man Who Walked Home" (1977): comic book adaptation in Canadian underground comic Andromeda Vol. 2, No. 1; September; Silver Snail Comics, Ltd.; Toronto; pp. 6–28. Pencils by John Allison, inks by Tony Meers. "Houston, Houston, Do You Read?" (1990): radio drama for the National Public Radio series Sci-Fi Radio. Originally aired as two half-hour shows, February 4 and 11. "Yanqui Doodle" (1990): half-hour radio drama for the National Public Radio series Sci-Fi Radio. Aired March 18. Weird Romance (1992): Off-Broadway musical by Alan Menken. Act 1 is based on "The Girl Who Was Plugged In". "The Girl Who Was Plugged In" (1998): television film: episode 5 of the series Welcome to Paradox The Screwfly Solution (2006): television film: season 2, episode 7 of the series Masters of Horror Xenophilia (2011) – based on the lives and works of Tiptree and Connie Converse; arranged and choreographed by Maia Ramnath; produced by the aerial dance and theater troupe Constellation Moving Company, performed at the Theater for the New City, presented November 10–13, 2011. Reviewer Jen Gunnels writes, "The performance juxtaposed some of Tiptree's short stories with Converse's songs, mixing in biographical elements of both women while kinesthetically exploring both through dance and aerial work on trapeze, lyra (an aerial ring), and silks (two lengths of fabric which the artist manipulates to perform aerial acrobatics). The result was elegant, eerie, and deeply moving." Awards and honors The Science Fiction Hall of Fame inducted Tiptree in 2012. She also won several annual awards for particular works of fiction (typically the preceding calendar year's best): Hugo Awards: 1974 novella, The Girl Who Was Plugged In; 1977 novella, Houston, Houston, Do You Read? Nebula Awards: 1973 short story, "Love Is the Plan the Plan Is Death"; 1976 novella, Houston, Houston, Do You Read?; 1977 novelette, "The Screwfly Solution" (published as by Raccoona Sheldon) World Fantasy Award: 1987 collection, Tales of the Quintana Roo Locus Award: 1984 short story, "Beyond the Dead Reef"; 1986 novella, The Only Neat Thing to Do Science Fiction Chronicle Award: 1986 novella, The Only Neat Thing to Do Jupiter Award: 1977 novella, Houston, Houston, Do You Read? Japanese-language translations of her fiction also won two Hayakawa Awards and three Seiun Awards as the year's best under changing designations (foreign, overseas, translated). The awards are voted by magazine readers and annual convention participants respectively: Hayakawa's S-F Magazine Reader's Award, short fiction: 1993, "With Delicate Mad Hands" (1981); 1997, "Come Live with Me" (1988) Seiun Award, short and long fiction: 1988, "The Only Neat Thing to Do" (1985); 2000, "Out of the Everywhere" (1981); 2008, Brightness Falls from the Air (1985) See also References Citations General bibliography Cranny-Francis, Anne. Feminist Fiction. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1990. Elms, A.C. "Painwise in space: The psychology of isolation in Cordwainer Smith and James Tiptree Jr." in G. Westfahl (Ed.), Space and Beyond: The Frontier Theme in Science Fiction. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2000. . Fowler, Karen Joy with Pat Murphy, Debbie Notkin and Jeffrey D. Smith (eds.). The James Tiptree Award Anthology 1: Sex, the Future, and Chocolate Chip Cookies. San Francisco, CA: Tachyon Publications, 2004. . Fowler, Karen Joy with Pat Murphy, Debbie Notkin and Jeffrey D. Smith (eds.). The James Tiptree Award Anthology 2. San Francisco, CA: Tachyon Publications, 2005. . Fowler, Karen Joy with Pat Murphy, Debbie Notkin and Jeffrey D. Smith (eds.). The James Tiptree Award Anthology 3: Subversive Stories about Sex and Gender. San Francisco, CA: Tachyon Publications, 2007. . Notkin, Debbie and The Secret Feminist Cabal (eds.). Flying Cups and Saucers: Gender Explorations in Science Fiction and Fantasy. Covina, CA: Edgewood Press, 1998 (2nd edition Lulu.com, 2008). . Phillips, Julie. "Dear Starbear: Letters Between Ursula K. Le Guin and James Tiptree Jr." The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction, September 2006. A thorough biography, with insight into Sheldon's life and work. Extensive quotation from her correspondence, journals, and other papers. Times Literary Supplement review The Times & The Sunday Times Phillips, Julie. "James Tiptree Jr.: The Double Life of Alice B. Sheldon" (jamestiptreejr.com).: the biographer's website dedicated to Tiptree/Sheldon External links References James Tiptree Jr. World Wide Website (unofficial, archived March 3, 2016) Overview of Alice B. Sheldon, pen name James Tiptree, Jr., papers at the University of Oregon New York Times review of James Tiptree Jr.: The Double Life of Alice B. Sheldon by Julie Phillips Website for Julie Phillips's biography of Tiptree Online fiction Text of the short story Text of the short story Text of the short story Text of the short story Text of the short story "Two Stories by James Tiptree, Jr.: The Last Flight of Doctor Ain and The Screwfly Solution" PDF file containing both short stories Online radio "Houston, Houston, Do You Read?" (Selection 17) from the NPR series Sci-Fi Radio (20 & 21), February 4 & 11, 1990 (55:32) "Yanqui Doodle" (Selection 21) from the NPR series Sci-Fi Radio (26), March 18, 1990 (27:49) 1915 births 1987 deaths 20th-century American novelists 20th-century American women writers American LGBT military personnel United States Army Air Forces personnel of World War II American science fiction writers American University alumni American women novelists American women short story writers Bisexual women Bisexual writers Columbian College of Arts and Sciences alumni Hugo Award-winning writers American LGBT novelists Mariticides Military personnel from Illinois American military personnel who committed suicide Murder–suicides in Virginia Nebula Award winners Postmodern writers Pseudonymous women writers Sarah Lawrence College alumni Science Fiction Hall of Fame inductees Suicides by firearm in Virginia United States Army Air Forces officers Women's Army Corps soldiers Women science fiction and fantasy writers World Fantasy Award-winning writers Writers from Chicago 20th-century American short story writers LGBT people from Illinois LGBT people from Virginia Novelists from Illinois American feminist writers 1987 suicides 20th-century pseudonymous writers

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The persecution of Falun Gong is the antireligious campaign initiated in 1999 by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) to eliminate the spiritual practice of Falun Gong in China, maintaining a doctrine of state atheism. It is characterized by a multifaceted propaganda campaign, a program of enforced ideological conversion and re-education and reportedly a variety of extralegal coercive measures such as arbitrary arrests, forced labor and physical torture, sometimes resulting in death. Falun Gong is a modern qigong discipline combining slow-moving exercises and meditation with a moral philosophy. It was founded by Li Hongzhi, who introduced it to the public in May 1992 in Changchun, Jilin. Following a period of rapid growth in the 1990s, the CCP launched a campaign to "eradicate" Falun Gong on 20 July 1999. An extra-constitutional body called the 6-10 Office was created to lead the persecution of Falun Gong. The authorities mobilized the state media apparatus, judiciary, police, army, the education system, families and workplaces against the group. The campaign was driven by large-scale propaganda through television, newspaper, radio and the Internet. There are reports of systematic torture, illegal imprisonment, forced labor, organ harvesting and abusive psychiatric measures, with the apparent aim of forcing practitioners to recant their belief in Falun Gong. Foreign observers estimate that hundreds of thousands and perhaps millions of Falun Gong practitioners have been detained in "re-education through labor" camps, prisons and other detention facilities for refusing to renounce the spiritual practice. Former prisoners have reported that Falun Gong practitioners consistently received "the longest sentences and worst treatment" in labor camps, and in some facilities Falun Gong practitioners formed the substantial majority of detainees. , at least 2,000 Falun Gong practitioners had been reportedly tortured to death in the persecution campaign. Some international observers and judicial authorities have described the campaign against Falun Gong as a genocide. In 2009, courts in Spain and Argentina indicted senior Chinese officials for genocide and crimes against humanity for their role in orchestrating the suppression of Falun Gong. In 2006, allegations emerged that many Falun Gong practitioners had been killed to supply China's organ transplant industry. An initial investigation found that "the source of 41,500 transplants for the six year period 2000 to 2005 is unexplained" and concluded that "there has been and continues today to be large scale organ seizures from unwilling Falun Gong practitioners". Ethan Gutmann estimates 65,000 Falun Gong practitioners were killed for their organs from 2000 to 2008. Following additional analysis, the researchers significantly raised the estimates on the number of Falun Gong practitioners who may have been targeted for organ harvesting. In 2008 United Nations Special Rapporteurs reiterated their requests for "the Chinese government to fully explain the allegation of taking vital organs from Falun Gong practitioners and the source of organs for the sudden increase in organ transplants that has been going on in China since the year 2000". Background Falun Gong, also known as Falun Dafa, is a form of spiritual qigong practice that involves meditation, energy exercises, and a set of moral principles that guide practitioners' daily lives. The principles they espouse—"truthfulness, compassion, forbearance"—have been repeated by Falun Gong members. However, according to James Lewis, Falun Gong founder Li Hongzhi instructs his followers to deflect from fact when talking to outsiders, contradictory to his teachings about "Truthfulness". The practice of Falun Gong was first taught publicly by Li in Northeast China in the spring of 1992, towards the end of China's "qigong boom." Falun Gong initially enjoyed considerable official support during the early years of its development. It was promoted by the state-run Qigong Association and other government agencies. By the mid-1990s, however, Chinese authorities sought to rein in the influence of qigong practices and enacted more stringent requirements on the country's various qigong denominations. In 1995 authorities mandated that all qigong groups establish Communist Party branches. The government also sought to formalize ties with Falun Gong and exercise greater control over the practice. Falun Gong resisted co-optation, and instead filed to withdraw altogether from the state-run qigong association. Following this severance of ties to the state, the group came under increasing criticism and surveillance from the country's security apparatus and propaganda department. Falun Gong books were banned from further publication in July 1996, and official news outlets began criticizing the group as a form of "feudal superstition," whose "theistic" orientation was at odds with the official ideology and national agenda. Tensions continued to escalate through the late 1990s. By 1999, surveys estimated as many as 70 million people were practicing Falun Gong in China. Although some government agencies and senior officials continued expressing support for the practices, others grew increasingly wary of its size and capacity for independent organization. On 22 April 1999, several dozen Falun Gong practitioners were beaten and arrested in the city of Tianjin while staging a peaceful sit-in. The practitioners were told that the arrest order came from the Ministry of Public Security, and that those arrested could be released only with the approval of Beijing authorities. On 25 April, upwards of 10,000 Falun Gong practitioners assembled peacefully near the Zhongnanhai government compound in Beijing to request the release of the Tianjin practitioners and an end to the escalating harassment against them. It was Falun Gong practitioners' attempt to seek redress from the leadership by going to them and, "albeit very quietly and politely, making it clear that they would not be treated so shabbily." It was the first mass demonstration at the Zhongnanhai compound in the PRC's history, and the largest protest in Beijing since 1989. Several Falun Gong representatives met with then-premier Zhu Rongji, who assured them that the government was not against Falun Gong, and promised that the Tianjin practitioners would be released. The crowd outside dispersed peacefully, apparently believing that their demonstration had been a success. Security czar and politburo member Luo Gan was less conciliatory, and called on Jiang Zemin, the General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party to find a decisive solution to the Falun Gong problem. Statewide persecution On the night of 25 April 1999, then-Communist Party General Secretary Jiang Zemin issued a letter indicating his desire to see Falun Gong defeated. The letter expressed alarm at Falun Gong's popularity, particularly among Communist Party members. He reportedly called the Zhongnanhai protest "the most serious political incident since the '4 June' political disturbance in 1989." At a meeting of the Politburo on 7 June 1999, Jiang described Falun Gong as a grave threat to Communist Party authority—"something unprecedented in the country since its founding 50 years ago"—and ordered the creation of a high-level committee to "get fully prepared for the work of disintegrating [Falun Gong]." Rumors of an impending crackdown began circulating throughout China, prompting demonstrations and petitions. The government publicly denied the reports, calling them "completely baseless" and offering assurances that it had never banned qigong activities. Just after midnight on 20 July 1999, public security officers seized hundreds of Falun Gong practitioners from their homes in cities across China. Estimates on the number of arrests vary from several hundred to over 5,600. A Hong Kong newspaper reported that 50,000 individuals were detained in the first week of the crackdown. Four Falun Gong coordinators in Beijing were arrested and quickly tried on charges of "leaking state secrets". The Public Security Bureau ordered churches, temples, mosques, newspapers, media, courts and police to suppress Falun Gong. Three days of massive demonstrations by practitioners in some thirty cities followed. In Beijing and other cities, protesters were detained in sports stadiums. Editorials in state-run newspapers urged people to give up Falun Gong practice, and Communist Party members in particular were reminded that they were atheists and must not allow themselves to "become superstitious by continuing to practice Falun Gong." Li Hongzhi responded with a "Brief Statement of Mine" on 22 July: Rationale Foreign observers have attempted to explain the Party's rationale for banning Falun Gong as stemming from a variety of factors. These include Falun Gong's popularity, its independence from the state and refusal to toe the Party line, internal power politics within the Communist Party, and Falun Gong's moral and spiritual content, which put it at odds with the Party's Marxist–Leninist atheist ideology. A World Journal report suggested that certain high-level Party officials wanted to crack down on the practice for years, but lacked sufficient pretext until the protest at Zhongnanhai, which they claim was partly orchestrated by Luo Gan, a long-time opponent of Falun Gong. There were also reportedly rifts in the Politburo at the time of the incident. Willy Wo-Lap Lam writes that Jiang's campaign against Falun Gong may have been used to promote allegiance to himself; Lam quotes one party veteran as saying, "By unleashing a Mao-style movement [against Falun Gong], Jiang is forcing senior cadres to pledge allegiance to his line." Jiang is held by Falun Gong to be personally responsible for the final decision, and sources cited by The Washington Post state that, "Jiang Zemin alone decided that Falun Gong must be eliminated," and "picked what he thought was an easy target." Peerman cited reasons such as suspected personal jealousy of Li Hongzhi; Saich postulates that party leaders' anger at Falun Gong's widespread appeal, and ideological struggle. The Washington Post reported that members of the Politburo Standing Committee did not unanimously support the crackdown, and that "Jiang Zemin alone decided that Falun Gong must be eliminated." The size and reach of Jiang's anti–Falun Gong campaign surpassed that of many previous mass-movements. Human Rights Watch notes that the crackdown on Falun Gong reflects historical efforts by the Chinese Communist Party to eradicate religion, which the government believed was inherently subversive. Some journalists believe that Beijing's reaction exposes its authoritarian nature and its intolerance for competing loyalty. The Globe and Mail wrote : "...any group that does not come under the control of the Party is a threat"; secondly, the 1989 protests may have heightened the leaders' sense of losing their grip on power, making them live in "mortal fear" of popular demonstrations. Craig Smith of the Wall Street Journal suggests that the government which has by definition no view of spirituality, lacks moral credibility with which to fight an expressly spiritual foe; the party feels increasingly threatened by any belief system that challenges its ideology and has an ability to organize itself. That Falun Gong, whose belief system represented a revival of traditional Chinese religion, was being practiced by many Communist Party members and members of the military was seen as particularly disturbing to Jiang Zemin. "Jiang accepts the threat of Falun Gong as an ideological one: spiritual beliefs against militant atheism and historical materialism. He [wished] to purge the government and the military of such beliefs". Legal and political mechanisms 610 Office On 10 June the Party established the 610 Office, a Communist Party-led security agency responsible for coordinating the elimination of Falun Gong. The office was not created with any legislation, and there are no provisions describing its precise mandate. Because of this, it is sometimes described as an extralegal organization. Nonetheless, its tasks were "to deal with central and local, party and state agencies, which were called upon to act in close coordination with that office," according to UCLA professor James Tong. The leaders of the 610 Office are "able to call on top government and party officials...and draw on their institutional resources", and have personal access to the Communist Party General Secretary and the Premier. The office is headed by a high-ranking member of the Communist Party's Politburo or Politburo Standing Committee. It is closely associated with the powerful Political and Legislative Affairs Committee of the Chinese Communist Party. Soon after the creation of the central 610 Office, local branches were established at each administrative level wherever populations of Falun Gong practitioners were present, including the provincial, district, municipal, and sometimes neighborhood levels. In some instances, 610 Offices have been established within large corporations and universities. The main functions of the 610 Offices include coordinating anti–Falun Gong propaganda, surveillance and intelligence collection, and the punishment and "reeducation" of Falun Gong practitioners. The office is reportedly involved in the extrajudicial sentencing, coercive reeducation, torture, and sometimes death of Falun Gong practitioners. Journalist Ian Johnson, whose coverage of the crackdown on Falun Gong earned him a Pulitzer Prize, wrote that the job of the 610 Office was "to mobilize the country's pliant social organizations. Under orders from the Public Security Bureau, churches, temples, mosques, newspapers, media, courts and police all quickly lined up behind the government's simple plan: to crush Falun Gong, no measures too excessive." Official documents and circulars Beginning in July 1999 Chinese authorities issued a number of notices and circulars prescribing measures to crack down on the Falun Gong and placing restrictions on the practice and expression of religious belief: On 22 July 1999, the Ministry of Civil Affairs issued a circular proclaiming that the Falun Dafa Research Society was an unregistered (and therefore illegal) organization. On 22 July 1999 the Ministry of Public Security released a circular forbidding the practice or propagation of Falun Gong, as well as prohibiting any attempts to petition against the ban or oppose the government's decision. In July 1999 the Ministry of Personnel issued a circular stating that all government employees were prohibited from practising Falun Gong. Subsequent documents instructed local government departments to "deal with civil servants who have practiced Falun Gong." On 26 July 1999 the Ministry of Public Security called for the confiscation and destruction of all publications related to Falun Gong. Falun Gong books were then shredded, burned and bulldozed for TV cameras. Millions of publications were destroyed—crushed, shredded, or incinerated for TV cameras. On 29 July 1999 the Beijing Judicial Bureau issued a notice forbidding lawyers from defending Falun Gong practitioners. The Ministry of Justice also issued instructions that lawyers were not to represent Falun Gong without permission. On 30 October 1999 the National People's Congress amended a statute (article 300 of the Criminal Code) to suppress "heterodox religions" across China. The legislation was used to retroactively legitimize the persecution of spiritual groups deemed "dangerous to the state." It prohibited any large-scale public assemblies, and also prohibited religious or qigong organizations from organizing themselves across multiple provinces or coordinating with groups overseas. The NPC decision stated "all corners of society shall be mobilized in preventing and fighting heretical organizations activities, and a comprehensive management system shall be put in place." The same day, the Supreme People's Court issued a judicial interpretation prescribing measures to punish individuals found in defiance of the law. On 5 November 1999 the Supreme People's Court issued a notice giving instructions to local courts on handling cases of people charged with crimes for "organising or using heretical organisations, particularly Falun Gong." It called for Falun Gong practitioners to be prosecuted for such offenses as "instigating activities of splitting China, endangering national unity or subverting the socialist system." Human rights experts and legal observers have stated that the official directives and legal documents issued for the purge fall short of international legal standards and violate provisions in China's own constitution. Implications for the rule of law The Ministry of Justice required that lawyers seek permission before taking on Falun Gong cases, and called on them to "interpret the law in such a way as to conform to the spirit of the government's decrees." Additionally, on 5 November 1999 the Supreme People's Court issued a notice to all lower courts stating that it was their "political duty" to "resolutely impose severe punishment" against groups considered heretical, especially Falun Gong. It also required the courts at all levels to handle Falun Gong cases by following the direction of the CCP committees, thereby ensuring that Falun Gong cases would be judged based on political considerations, rather than evidence. Brian Edelman and James Richardson wrote that the SPC notice "does not comport well with a defendant's constitutional right to a defense, and it appears to assume guilt before a trial has taken place." The CCP's campaign against Falun Gong was a turning point in the development of China's legal system, representing a "significant backward step" in the development of rule of law, according to Ian Dominson. In the 1990s the legal system was gradually becoming more professionalized, and a series of reforms in 1996–97 affirmed the principle that all punishments must be based on the rule of law. However, the campaign against Falun Gong would not have been possible if carried out within the narrow confines of China's existing criminal law. In order to persecute the group, in 1999 the judicial system reverted to being used as a political instrument, with laws being applied flexibly to advance the CCP's policy objectives. Edelman and Richardson write that "the Party and government's response to the Falun Gong movement violates citizens' right to a legal defense, freedom of religion, speech and assembly enshrined in the Constitution...the Party will do whatever is necessary to crush any perceived threat to its supreme control. This represents a move away from the rule of law and toward this historical Mao policy of 'rule by man.'" Propaganda Onset of the campaign One of the key elements of the anti–Falun Gong campaign was a propaganda campaign that sought to discredit and demonize Falun Gong and its teachings. Within the first month of the crackdown, 300–400 articles attacking Falun Gong appeared in the main state-run papers, while primetime television replayed alleged exposés on the group, with no divergent views aired in the media. The propaganda campaign focused on allegations that Falun Gong jeopardized social stability, was deceiving and dangerous, was "anti-science" and threatened progress, and argued that Falun Gong's moral philosophy was incompatible with a Marxist social ethic. For several months China Central Television's evening news contained little but anti–Falun Gong rhetoric. China scholars Daniel Wright and Joseph Fewsmith described it as "a study in all-out demonization", they wrote. Falun Gong was compared to "a rat crossing the street that everyone shouts out to squash" by Beijing Daily; other officials said it would be a "long-term, complex and serious" struggle to "eradicate" Falun Gong. State propaganda initially used the appeal of scientific rationalism to argue that Falun Gong's worldview was in "complete opposition to science" and communism. For example, the People's Daily newspaper asserted on 27 July 1999 that the fight against Falun Gong "was a struggle between theism and atheism, superstition and science, idealism and materialism." Other editorials declared that Falun Gong's "idealism and theism" are "absolutely contradictory to the fundamental theories and principles of Marxism," and that the "'truth, kindness and forbearance' principle preached by [Falun Gong] has nothing in common with the socialist ethical and cultural progress we are striving to achieve." Suppressing Falun Gong was presented as a necessary step to maintaining the "vanguard role" of the Communist Party in Chinese society. At the early stages of the crackdown, the evening news also would broadcast images of large piles of Falun Gong materials being crushed or incinerated. By 30 July, ten days into the campaign, Xinhua had reported confiscations of over one million Falun Gong books and other materials, hundreds of thousands burned and destroyed. The tenor of the official rhetoric against Falun Gong continued to escalate in the months following July 1999, and broadened to include charges that Falun Gong was colluding with foreign "anti-China" forces. Media reports portrayed Falun Gong as a harm to society, an "abnormal" religious activity, and a dangerous form of "superstition" that led to madness, death, and suicide. These messages were relayed through all state-run—and many non-state-run media channels—as well as through work units and the Communist Party's own structure of cells that penetrate society. Elizabeth Perry, a Harvard historian, writes that the basic pattern of the offensive was similar to "the anti-rightist campaign of the 1950s [and] the anti-spiritual pollution campaigns of the 1980s." As it did during the Cultural Revolution, the Communist Party organised rallies in the streets and stop-work meetings in remote western provinces by government agencies such as the weather bureau to denounce the practice. Local government authorities have carried out "study and education" programmes throughout China, and official cadres have visited villagers and farmers at home to explain "in simple terms the harm of Falun Gong to them". Use of the 'cult' label Despite Party efforts, initial charges leveled against Falun Gong failed to elicit widespread popular support for the persecution of the group. In October 1999, three months after the persecution began, the Supreme People's Court issued a judicial interpretation classifying Falun Gong as a xiejiao. A broad translation of that term is "heretical teaching" or "heterodox teaching", but during the anti–Falun Gong propaganda campaign it was rendered as "cult" or "evil cult" in English. In the context of imperial China, the term "xiejiao" was used to refer to non-Confucian religions, though in the context of Communist China, it has been used to target religious organizations that do not submit to the authority of the Communist Party. Julia Ching writes that the "evil cult" label was defined by an atheist government "on political premises, not by any religious authority", and was used by the authorities to make previous arrests and imprisonments constitutional. Ian Johnson argued that by applying the 'cult' label, the government put Falun Gong on the defensive, and "cloaked [its] crackdown with the legitimacy of the West's anticult movement." David Ownby similarly wrote that "the entire issue of the supposed cultic nature of Falun Gong was a red herring from the beginning, cleverly exploited by the Chinese state to blunt the appeal of Falun Gong.". According to John Powers and Meg Y. M. Lee, because the Falun Gong was categorized in the popular perception as an "apolitical, qigong exercise club," it was not seen as a threat to the government. The most critical strategy in the Falun Gong persecution campaign, therefore, was to convince people to reclassify the Falun Gong into a number of "negatively charged religious labels" like "evil cult", "sect", or "superstition". In this process of relabelling, the government was attempting to tap into a "deep reservoir of negative feelings related to the historical role of quasi-religious cults as a destabilising force in Chinese political history." Overseas Chinese propaganda using this label has been censured by Western governments. The Canadian Radio-television Telecommunications Commission in 2006 took issue with anti–Falun Gong broadcasts from Chinese Central Television (CCTV), noting "they are expressions of extreme ill will against Falun Gong and its founder, Li Hongzhi. The derision, hostility and abuse encouraged by such comments could expose the targeted group or individual to hatred or contempt and...could incite violence and threaten the physical security of Falun Gong practitioners." Tiananmen Square self-immolation incident A turning point in the government's campaign against Falun Gong occurred on 23 January 2001, when five people set themselves on fire in Tiananmen Square. Chinese government sources declared immediately they were Falun Gong practitioners driven to suicide by the practice, and filled the nation's media outlets with graphic images and fresh denunciations of the practice. The self-immolation was held up as evidence of the "dangers" of Falun Gong, and was used to legitimize the government's crackdown against the group. Falun Gong sources disputed the accuracy of the government's narrative, noting that their teachings explicitly forbid violence or suicide. Several Western journalists and scholars also noted inconsistencies in the official account of events, leading many to believe the self-immolation may have been staged to discredit Falun Gong. The government did not permit independent investigations and denied Western journalists or human rights groups access to the victims. However, two weeks after the self-immolation incident, The Washington Post published an investigation into the identity of two of the victims, and found that "no one ever saw [them] practice Falun Gong." The campaign of state propaganda that followed the event eroded public sympathy for Falun Gong. As noted by Time magazine, many Chinese had previously felt that Falun Gong posed no real threat, and that the state's crackdown against it had gone too far. After the self-immolation, however, the media campaign against the group gained significant traction. Posters, leaflets and videos were produced detailing the supposed detrimental effects of Falun Gong practice, and regular anti–Falun Gong classes were scheduled in schools. CNN compared the government's propaganda initiative to past political movements such as the Korean War and the Cultural Revolution. Later, as public opinion turned against the group, the Chinese authorities began sanctioning the "systematic use of violence" to eliminate Falun Gong. In the year following the incident, the imprisonment, torture, and deaths of Falun Gong practitioners in custody increased significantly. Censorship Interference with foreign correspondents The Foreign Correspondents' Club of China has complained about their members being "followed, detained, interrogated and threatened" for reporting on the crackdown on Falun Gong. Foreign journalists covering a clandestine Falun Gong news conference in October 1999 were accused by the Chinese authorities of "illegal reporting". Journalists from Reuters, the New York Times, the Associated Press and a number of other organisations were interrogated by police, forced to sign confessions, and had their work and residence papers temporarily confiscated. Correspondents also complained that television satellite transmissions were interfered with while being routed through China Central Television. Amnesty International states that "a number of people have received prison sentences or long terms of administrative detention for speaking out about the repression or giving information over the Internet." The 2002 Reporters Without Borders' report on China states that photographers and cameramen working with foreign media were prevented from working in and around Tiananmen Square where hundreds of Falun Gong practitioners had been demonstrating in recent years. It estimates that "at least 50 representatives of the international press have been arrested since July 1999, and some of them were beaten by police; several Falun Gong followers have been imprisoned for talking with foreign journalists." Ian Johnson, The Wall Street Journal correspondent in Beijing, wrote a series of articles which won him the 2001 Pulitzer Prize. Johnson left Beijing after writing his articles, stating that "the Chinese police would have made my life in Beijing impossible" after he received the Pulitzer. Entire news organizations have not been immune to press restrictions concerning Falun Gong. In March 2001, Time Asia ran a story about Falun Gong in Hong Kong. The magazine was pulled from the shelves in Mainland China, and threatened that it would never again be sold in the country. Partly as a result of the difficult reporting environment, by 2002, Western news coverage of the persecution within China had all but completely ceased, even as the number of Falun Gong deaths in custody was on the rise. Internet censorship Terms related to Falun Gong are among the most heavily censored topics on the Chinese Internet, and individuals found downloading or circulating information online about Falun Gong risk imprisonment. Chinese authorities began filtering and blocking overseas websites as early as the mid-1990s, and in 1998 the Ministry of Public Security developed plans for the "Golden Shield Project" to monitor and control online communications. The campaign against Falun Gong in 1999 provided authorities with added incentive to develop more rigorous censorship and surveillance techniques. The government also moved to criminalize various forms of online speech. China's first integrated regulation on Internet content, passed in 2000, made it illegal to disseminate information that "undermines social stability," harms the "honor and interests of the state," or that "undermines the state's policy for religions" or preaches "feudal" beliefs—a veiled reference to Falun Gong. The same year, the Chinese government sought out Western corporations to develop surveillance and censorship tools that would let them track Falun Gong practitioners and block access to news and information on the subject. North American companies such as Cisco and Nortel marketed their services to the Chinese government by touting their efficacy in catching Falun Gong. In addition to censoring the Internet within its borders, the Chinese government and military use cyber-warfare to attack Falun Gong websites in the United States, Australia, Canada and Europe. According to Chinese Internet researcher Ethan Gutmann, the first sustained denial of service attacks launched by China were against overseas Falun Gong websites. In 2005, researchers from Harvard and Cambridge found that terms related to Falun Gong were the most intensively censored on the Chinese Internet. Other studies of Chinese censorship and monitoring practices produced similar conclusions. A 2012 study examining rates of censorship on Chinese social media websites found Falun Gong-related terms were among the most stringently censored. Among the top 20 terms most likely to be deleted on Chinese social media websites, three are variations on the word "Falun Gong" or "Falun Dafa". In response to censorship of the Chinese Internet, Falun Gong practitioners in North America developed a suite of software tools that could be used by bypass online censorship and surveillance. Torture and extrajudicial killing Reeducation A key component of the Communist Party's campaign is the reeducation or "transformation" of Falun Gong practitioners. Transformation is described as "a process of ideological reprogramming whereby practitioners are subjected to various methods of physical and psychological coercion until they recant their belief in Falun Gong." The transformation process usually occurs in prisons, labor camps, reeducation centers and other detention facilities. In 2001 Chinese authorities ordered that no Falun Gong practitioner was to be spared from the coercive measures used to make them renounce their faith. The most active were sent directly to labor camps, "where they are first 'broken' by beatings and other torture." Former prisoners report being told by the guards that "no measures are too excessive" to elicit renunciation statements, and practitioners who refuse to renounce Falun Gong are sometimes killed in custody. The transformation is considered successful once the Falun Gong practitioner signs five documents: a "guarantee" to stop practicing Falun Gong; a promise to sever all ties to the practice; two self-criticism documents critiquing their own behaviour and thinking; and criticisms of Falun Gong doctrine. In order to demonstrate the sincerity of their renunciations, practitioners are made to vilify Falun Gong in front of an audience or on videotape. These recordings may then be used by state-run media as part of a propaganda effort. In some camps the newly reeducated must partake in the transformation of other practitioners—including by inflicting physical abuse on others—as proof that they have fully renounced Falun Gong's teachings. An account of the transformation process was published by The Washington Post in 2001: The transformation efforts are driven by incentives and directives issued from central Communist Party authorities via the 610 Office. Local governments and officials in charge of detention facilities are given quotas stipulating how many Falun Gong practitioners must be successfully transformed. Fulfillment of these quotas is tied to promotions and financial compensation, with "generous bonuses" going to officials who meet the targets set by the government, and possible demotions for those who do not. The central 610 Office periodically launches new transformation campaigns to revise the quotas and disseminate new methods. In 2010, it initiated a nationwide, three-year campaign to transform large numbers of Falun Gong practitioners. Documents posted on Party and local government websites refer to concrete transformation targets and set limits on acceptable rates of "relapse." A similar three-year campaign was launched in 2013. Torture and abuse in custody In order to reach transformation targets, the government sanctioned the systematic use of torture and violence against Falun Gong practitioners, including shocks with electric truncheons and beatings. Amnesty International writes that "detainees who do not cooperate with the 're-education' process will be subjected to methods of torture and other ill-treatment … with increasing severity." The "soft" methods include sleep deprivation, threatening family members, and denial of access to sanitation or bathrooms. The ill-treatment escalates to beatings, 24-hour surveillance, solitary confinement, shocks with electric batons, abusive forced feedings, "rack" torture and the "tiger bench," wherein the person is bound to a board and their legs are made to bend backwards. Since 2000, the U.N. Special Rapporteur on Torture documented 314 cases of torture in China, representing more than 1,160 individuals. Falun Gong comprised 66% of the reported torture cases. The Special Rapporteur referred to the torture allegations as "harrowing" and asked the Chinese government to "take immediate steps to protect the lives and integrity of its detainees in accordance with the Standard Minimum Rules for the Treatment of Prisoners". Numerous forms of torture are purported to be used, including electric shocks, suspension by the arms, shackling in painful positions, sleep and food deprivation, force-feeding, and sexual abuse, with many variations on each type. Extrajudicial killing The Falun Dafa Information Center reports that over 3,700 named Falun Gong practitioners have died as a result of torture and abuse in custody, typically after they refused to recant their beliefs. Amnesty International notes that this figure may be "only a small portion of the actual number of deaths in custody, as many families do not seek legal redress for these deaths or systematically inform overseas sources." Among the first torture deaths reported in the Western press was that of Chen Zixiu, a retired factory worker from Shandong Province. In his Pulitzer Prize-winning article on the persecution of Falun Gong, Ian Johnson reported that labor camp guards shocked her with cattle prods in an attempt to force her to renounce Falun Gong. When she refused, "[Officials] ordered Chen to run barefoot in the snow. Two days of torture had left her legs bruised and her short black hair matted with pus and blood...She crawled outside, vomited, and collapsed. She never regained consciousness." Chen died on 21 February 2000. On 16 June 2005, 37-year-old Gao Rongrong, an accountant from Liaoning Province, was tortured to death in custody. Two years before her death, Gao had been imprisoned at the Longshan forced labor camp, where she was badly disfigured with electric shock batons. Gao escaped the labor camp by jumping from a second-floor window, and after pictures of her burned visage were made public, she became a target for recapture by authorities. She was taken back into custody on 6 March 2005 and killed just over three months later. On 26 January 2008, security agents in Beijing stopped popular folk musician Yu Zhou and his wife Xu Na while they were on their way home from a concert. The 42-year-old Yu Zhou was taken into custody, where authorities attempted to force him to renounce Falun Gong. He was tortured to death within 11 days. Government authorities deny that Falun Gong practitioners are killed in custody. They attribute deaths to suicide, illness, or other accidents. Organ harvesting In 2006, allegations emerged that many Falun Gong practitioners had been killed to supply China's organ transplant industry. These allegations prompted an investigation by former Canadian Secretary of State David Kilgour and human rights lawyer David Matas. In July 2006, the Kilgour-Matas report found that "the source of 41,500 transplants for the six year period 2000 to 2005 is unexplained" and concluded that "the government of China and its agencies in numerous parts of the country, in particular hospitals but also detention centres and 'people's courts', since 1999 have put to death a large but unknown number of Falun Gong prisoners of conscience". The Kilgour-Matas report called attention to the extremely short wait times for organs in China—one to two weeks for a liver compared with 32.5 months in Canada—indicating that organs were being procured on demand. A significant increase in the number of annual organ transplants in China beginning in 1999, corresponded with the onset of the persecution of Falun Gong. Despite very low levels of voluntary organ donation, China performs the second-highest number of transplants per year. Kilgour and Matas also presented incriminating material from Chinese transplant center web sites advertising the immediate availability of organs from living donors, as well as transcripts of telephone interviews in which hospitals told prospective transplant recipients that they could obtain Falun Gong organs. An updated version of their report was published as a book in 2009. Kilgour followed up on this investigation in a 680-page 2016 report. In 2014, investigative journalist Ethan Gutmann published the results of his own investigation. Gutmann conducted extensive interviews with former detainees in Chinese labor camps and prisons, as well as former security officers and medical professionals with knowledge of China's transplant practices. He reported that organ harvesting from political prisoners likely began in Xinjiang province in the 1990s, and then spread nationwide. Gutmann estimates that some 64,000 Falun Gong prisoners may have been killed for their organs between the years 2000 and 2008. In 2016, the researchers published a joint update to their findings showing that the number of organ transplants conducted in China is much higher than previously believed, and that the death from illicit organ harvesting could be as high as 1,500,000. The 789-page report is based on an analysis of records from hundreds of Chinese transplant hospitals. In December 2005 and November 2006, China's Deputy Health Minister acknowledged that the practice of removing organs from executed prisoners for transplants was widespread. However, Chinese officials deny that Falun Gong practitioners' organs are being harvested, and insist that China abides by World Health Organization principles that prohibit the sale of human organs without written consent from donors. In May 2008, two United Nations Special Rapporteurs reiterated their requests for the Chinese authorities to adequately respond to the allegations, and to provide a source for the organs that would account for the sudden increase in organ transplants in China since 2000. In June 2019, an independent tribunal sitting in London named the China Tribunal, established to inquire into forced organ harvesting from and among prisoners of conscience in China, stated that the members of the Falun Gong spiritual group continued to be murdered by China for their organs. The tribunal said it had clear evidence that forced organ harvesting has been taking place in China from over at least 20 years. China has repeatedly denied the accusations, claiming to have stopped using organs from executed prisoners in 2015. However, the lawyers and experts at the China Tribunal are convinced that the practice was still taking place with the imprisoned Falun Gong members "probably the principal source" of organs for forced harvesting. Arbitrary arrests and imprisonment Foreign observers estimate that hundreds of thousands—and perhaps millions—of Falun Gong practitioners have been held extralegally in reeducation-through-labor camps, prisons, and other detention facilities. Large-scale arrests are conducted periodically and often coincide with important anniversaries or major events. The first wave of arrests occurred on the evening of 20 July, when several thousand practitioners were taken from their homes into police custody. In November 1999—four months after the onset of the campaign—Vice Premier Li Lanqing announced that 35,000 Falun Gong practitioners had been arrested or detained. The Washington Post wrote that "the number of detained people...in the operation against Falun Gong dwarfs every political campaign in recent years in China." By April 2000 over 30,000 people had been arrested for protesting in defense of Falun Gong in Tiananmen Square. Seven hundred Falun Gong followers were arrested during a demonstration in the Square on 1 January 2001. In advance of the 2008 Olympics in Beijing over 8,000 Falun Gong practitioners were taken from their homes and workplaces in provinces across China. Two years later authorities in Shanghai detained over 100 practitioners ahead of the 2010 World Expo. Those who refused to disavow Falun Gong were subjected to torture and sent to reeducation through labor facilities. Reeducation through labor From 1999 to 2013, the vast majority of detained Falun Gong practitioners were held in reeducation through labor (RTL) camps—a system of administrative detention where people can be imprisoned without trial for up to four years. The RTL system was established during the Maoist era to punish and reprogram "reactionaries" and other individuals deemed enemies of the Communist cause. In more recent years, it has been used to incarcerate petty criminals, drug addicts and prostitutes, as well as petitioners and dissidents. RTL sentences can be arbitrarily extended by police, and outside access is not permitted. Prisoners are forced to do heavy work in mines, brick manufacturing centers, agricultural fields, and many different types of factories. Physical torture, beatings, interrogations, and other human rights abuses take place in the camps, according to former prisoners and human rights organizations. China's network of RTL centers expanded significantly after 1999 to accommodate an influx of Falun Gong detainees, and authorities used the camps to try to "transform" Falun Gong practitioners. Amnesty International reports that "The RTL system has played a key role in the anti–Falun Gong campaign, absorbing large numbers of practitioners over the years... Evidence suggests that Falun Gong constituted on average from one third to, in some cases, 100 percent of the total population of certain RTL camps." International observers estimated that Falun Gong practitioners accounted for at least half of the total RTL population, amounting to several hundred thousand people. A 2005 report by Human Rights Watch found that Falun Gong practitioners made up the majority of the detainee population in the camps studied, and received the "longest sentences and worst treatment." "The government's campaign against the group has been so thorough that even long-time Chinese activists are afraid to say the group's name aloud." In 2012 and early 2013, a series of news reports and exposés focused attention on human rights abuses at the Masanjia Forced Labor Camp, where approximately half of the inmates were Falun Gong practitioners. The exposure helped galvanize calls to end the reeducation-through-labor system. In early 2013, CPC General Secretary Xi Jinping announced that RTL would be abolished, resulting in the closure of the camps. However, human rights groups found that many RTL facilities have simply been renamed as prisons or rehabilitation centers, and that the use of extrajudicial imprisonment of dissidents and Falun Gong practitioners has continued. The system is often called Laogai, the abbreviation for láodòng gǎizào (), which means "reform through labor," and is a slogan of the Chinese criminal justice system. Black jails and re-education centers In addition to prisons and RTL facilities, the 610 Office created a nationwide network of extrajudicial reeducation centers to "transform the minds" of Falun Gong practitioners. The centers are run extrajudicially, and the government officially denies their existence. They are known as "black jails," "brainwashing centers," "transformation through reeducation centers," or "legal education centers." Some are temporary programs established in schools, hotels, military compounds or work units. Others are permanent facilities that operate as private jails. If a Falun Gong practitioner refuses to be "transformed" in prison or RTL camps, they can be sent directly to transformation centers upon completion of their sentence. The Congressional-Executive Commission on China writes that the facilities "are used specifically to detain Falun Gong practitioners who have completed terms in reeducation through labor (RTL) camps but whom authorities refuse to release." Practitioners who are involuntarily detained in the transformation centers must pay tuition fees amounting to hundreds of dollars. The fees are extorted from family members as well as from practitioners' work units and employers. The government's use of "brainwashing sessions" began in 1999, but the network of transformation centers expanded nationwide in January 2001 when the central 610 Office mandated that all government bodies, work units, and corporations use them. The Washington Post reported "neighborhood officials have compelled even the elderly, people with disabilities and the ill to attend the classes. Universities have sent staff to find students who had dropped out or been expelled for practicing Falun Gong, and brought them back for the sessions. Other members have been forced to leave sick relatives" to attend the reeducation sessions. After the closure of the RTL system in 2013, authorities leaned more heavily on the transformation centers to detain Falun Gong practitioners. After the Nanchong RTL center in Sichuan province was closed, for example, at least a dozen of the Falun Gong practitioners detained there were sent directly to a local transformation center. Some former RTL camps have simply been renamed and converted into transformation centers. Psychiatric abuse Falun Gong practitioners who refuse to recant their beliefs are sometimes sent involuntarily to psychiatric hospitals, where they may be subject to beatings, sleep deprivation, torture by electrocution, and injections with sedatives or anti-psychotic drugs. Some are sent to the hospitals (known as ankang facilities) because their prison or RTL sentences have expired and they had not yet been successfully "transformed" in the brainwashing classes. Others were told that they were admitted because they had a "political problem"—that is, because they appealed to the government to lift the ban of Falun Gong. Robin Munro, former Director of the Hong Kong Office of Human Rights Watch and now deputy director with China Labour Bulletin, drew attention to the abuses of forensic psychiatry in China in general, and of Falun Gong practitioners in particular. In 2001, Munro alleged that forensic psychiatrists in China have been active since the days of Mao Zedong, and have been involved in the systematic misuse of psychiatry for political purposes. He says that large-scale psychiatric abuses are the most distinctive aspect of the government's protracted campaign to "crush the Falun Gong," and he found a very sizable increase in Falun Gong admissions to mental hospitals since the onset of the government's persecution campaign. Munro claimed that detained Falun Gong practitioners are tortured and subject to electroconvulsive therapy, painful forms of electrical acupuncture treatment, prolonged deprivation of light, food and water, and restricted access to toilet facilities in order to force "confessions" or "renunciations" as a condition of release. Fines of several thousand yuan may follow. Lu and Galli write that dosages of medication up to five or six times the usual level are administered through a nasogastric tube as a form of torture or punishment, and that physical torture is common, including binding tightly with ropes in very painful positions. This treatment may result in chemical toxicity, migraines, extreme weakness, protrusion of the tongue, rigidity, loss of consciousness, vomiting, nausea, seizures and loss of memory. Dr. Alan Stone, a professor of law and psychiatry at Harvard, found that a significant number of the Falun Gong practitioners held in psychiatric hospitals had been sent there from labor camps, writing "[They] may well have been tortured and then dumped in psychiatric hospitals as an expedient disposition." He agreed that Falun Gong practitioners sent to psychiatric hospitals had been "misdiagnosed and mistreated", but did not find definitive evidence that the use of psychiatric facilities was part of a uniform government policy, noting instead that patterns of institutionalization varied from province to province. Prisons Since 1999, several thousand Falun Gong practitioners have been sentenced to prisons through the criminal justice system. Most of the charges against Falun Gong practitioners are for political offenses such as "disturbing social order," "leaking state secrets," "subverting the socialist system," or "using a heretical organization to undermine the implementation of the law"—a vaguely worded provision used to prosecute, for instance, individuals who used the Internet to disseminate information about Falun Gong. According to a report by Amnesty International, trials against Falun Gong practitioners are "Grossly unfair – the judicial process was biased against the defendants at the outset and the trials were a mere formality...None of the accusations against the defendants relate to activities which would legitimately be regarded as crimes under international standards." Chinese human rights lawyers who have attempted to defend Falun Gong clients have faced varying degrees of persecution themselves, including disbarment, detention, and in some cases, torture and disappearance. Societal discrimination Since July 1999, civil servants and Communist Party members have been forbidden from practicing Falun Gong. Workplaces and schools were enjoined to participate in the struggle against Falun Gong by pressuring recalcitrant Falun Gong believers to renounce their beliefs, sometimes sending them to special reeducation classes to be "transformed". Failure to do so has results in lost wages, pensions, expulsion, or termination from jobs. Writing in 2015, Noakes and Ford noted that "Post-secondary institutions across the country – from agricultural universities to law schools to fine arts programmes – require students to prove that they have adopted the "correct attitude" on Falun Gong as a condition of admission." For example, students at many universities are required to obtain a certificate from the public security ministry certifying that they have no affiliation with Falun Gong. The same is true in employment, with job postings frequently specifying that prospective candidates must have no record of participation in Falun Gong. In some cases, even changing one's address requires proving the correct political attitude toward Falun Gong. Outside China The Communist Party's campaign against Falun Gong has extended to diaspora communities, including through the use of media, espionage and monitoring of Falun Gong practitioners, harassment and violence against practitioners, diplomatic pressure applied to foreign governments, and hacking of overseas websites. According to a defector from the Chinese consulate in Sydney, Australia, "The war against Falun Gong is one of the main tasks of the Chinese mission overseas." In 2004 the U.S. House of Representatives unanimously passed a resolution condemning the attacks on Falun Gong practitioners in the United States by agents of the Communist Party. The resolution reported that party affiliates have "pressured local elected officials in the United States to refuse or withdraw support for the Falun Gong spiritual group," that Falun Gong spokespeople have had their houses broken into, and individuals engaged in peaceful protest actions outside embassies and consulates have been physically assaulted. The overseas campaign against Falun Gong is described in documents issued by China's Overseas Chinese Affairs Office (OCAO). In a report from a 2007 meeting of OCAO directors at the national, provincial, and municipal level, the office stated that it "coordinates the launching of anti-'Falun Gong' struggles overseas." OCAO exhorts overseas Chinese citizens to participate in "resolutely implementing and executing the Party line, the Party's guiding principles, and the Party's policies," and to "aggressively expand the struggle" against Falun Gong, ethnic separatists, and Taiwanese independence activists abroad. Other party and state organizations believed to be involved in the overseas campaign include the Ministry of State Security 610 Office and People's Liberation Army among others. International response The persecution of Falun Gong has attracted a large amount of international attention from governments and non-government organizations. Human rights organizations, such as Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch, have raised acute concerns over reports of torture and ill-treatment of practitioners in China and have also urged the UN and international governments to intervene to bring an end to the persecution. The United States Congress has passed multiple resolutions calling for an immediate end to the campaign against Falun Gong practitioners both in China and abroad. At a rally on 12 July 2012, U.S. Rep. Ileana Ros-Lehtinen (R-FL), Chairman of the House Committee on Foreign Affairs, called on the Obama Administration to confront the Chinese leadership on its human rights record, including its oppression of Falun Gong practitioners. "It is essential that friends and supporters of democracy and human rights continue to show their solidarity and support, by speaking out against these abuses", she said. In 2012, Professor of Bioethics Arthur Caplan stated, Look, I think you can make the connections that...they are using prisoners, and they need prisoners who are relatively healthy, they need prisoners who are relatively younger. It doesn't take a great stretch of the imagination that some Falun Gong [practitioners] are going to be among those who are going to be killed for parts. It just follows, because remember you can't take very old people as sources of organs and you can't take people who are very sick. They, Falun Gong, are in part younger, and by lifestyle, healthier. I would be astounded if they weren't using some of those prisoners as sources of organs. In 2008 Israel passed a law banning the sale and brokerage of organs. The law also ended funding, through the health insurance system, of transplants in China for Israeli nationals. Response from Falun Gong practitioners Falun Gong's response to the persecution in China began in July 1999 with appeals to local, provincial, and central petitioning offices in Beijing. It soon progressed to larger demonstrations, with hundreds of Falun Gong practitioners traveling daily to Tiananmen Square to perform Falun Gong exercises or raise banners in defense of the practice. These demonstrations were invariably broken up by security forces, and the practitioners involved were arrested—sometimes violently—and detained. By 25 April 2000, a total of more than 30,000 practitioners had been arrested on the square; seven hundred Falun Gong followers were arrested during a demonstration in the square on 1 January 2001. Public protests continued well into 2001. Writing for The Wall Street Journal, Ian Johnson wrote that "Falun Gong faithful have mustered what is arguably the most sustained challenge to authority in 50 years of Communist rule." By late 2001, demonstrations in Tiananmen Square had become less frequent, and the practice was driven deeper underground. As public protest fell out of favor, practitioners established underground "material sites", which would produce literature and DVDs to counter the portrayal of Falun Gong in the official media. Practitioners then distribute these materials, often door-to-door. The production, possession, or distribution of these materials is frequently grounds for security agents to incarcerate or sentence Falun Gong adherents. In 2002, Falun Gong activists in China tapped into television broadcasts, replacing regular state-run programming with their own content. One of the more notable instances occurred in March 2002, when Falun Gong practitioners in Changchun intercepted eight cable television networks in Jilin Province, and for nearly an hour, televised a program titled Self-Immolation or a Staged Act?. All six of the Falun Gong practitioners involved were captured over the next few months. Two were killed immediately, while the other four were all dead by 2010 as a result of injuries sustained while imprisoned. Outside China, Falun Gong practitioners established international media organizations to gain wider exposure for their cause and challenge narratives of the Chinese state-run media. These include the Epoch Times newspaper, New Tang Dynasty Television, and Sound of Hope radio station. According to Zhao, through the Epoch Times it can be discerned how Falun Gong is building a "de facto media alliance" with China's democracy movements in exile, as demonstrated by its frequent printing of articles by prominent overseas Chinese critics of the PRC government. In 2004, the Epoch Times published "The Nine Commentaries", a collection of nine editorials which presented a critical history of Communist Party rule. This catalyzed the Tuidang movement, which encourages Chinese citizens to renounce their affiliations to the Chinese Communist Party, including ex post facto renunciations of the Communist Youth League and Young Pioneers. The Epoch Times claims that tens of millions have renounced the Communist Party as part of the movement, though these numbers have not been independently verified. In 2007, Falun Gong practitioners in the United States formed Shen Yun Performing Arts, a dance and music company that tours internationally. Falun Gong software developers in the United States are also responsible for the creation of several popular censorship-circumvention tools employed by internet users in China. Falun Gong Practitioners outside China have filed dozens of lawsuits against Jiang Zemin, Luo Gan, Bo Xilai, and other Chinese officials alleging genocide and crimes against humanity. According to International Advocates for Justice, Falun Gong has filed the largest number of human rights lawsuits in the 21st century and the charges are among the most severe international crimes defined by international criminal laws. , 54 civil and criminal lawsuits were under way in 33 countries. In many instances, courts have refused to adjudicate the cases on the grounds of sovereign immunity. In late 2009, however, separate courts in Spain and Argentina indicted Jiang Zemin and Luo Gan on charges of "crimes of humanity" and genocide, and asked for their arrest—the ruling is acknowledged to be largely symbolic and unlikely to be carried out. The court in Spain also indicted Bo Xilai, Jia Qinglin and Wu Guanzheng. Falun Gong practitioners and their supporters also filed a lawsuit in May 2011 against the technology company Cisco Systems, alleging that the company helped design and implement a surveillance system for the Chinese government to suppress Falun Gong. Cisco denied customizing their technology for this purpose. See also Antireligious campaigns in China Human rights in China Religious freedom in China Uyghur genocide References Further reading 1999 establishments in China Falun Gong Political repression in China Religious persecution by communists Political abuses of psychiatry Campaigns of the Chinese Communist Party Communist repression Torture Torture in China Human rights abuses in China Organ transplantation Organ trade Antireligion

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Polyrhythm is the simultaneous use of two or more rhythms that are not readily perceived as deriving from one another, or as simple manifestations of the same meter. The rhythmic layers may be the basis of an entire piece of music (cross-rhythm), or a momentary section. Polyrhythms can be distinguished from irrational rhythms, which can occur within the context of a single part; polyrhythms require at least two rhythms to be played concurrently, one of which is typically an irrational rhythm. Concurrently in this context means within the same rhythmic cycle. The underlying pulse, whether explicit or implicit can be considered one of the concurrent rhythms. For example, the son clave is poly-rhythmic because its 3 section suggests a different meter from the pulse of the entire pattern. In western art music In some European art music, polyrhythm periodically contradicts the prevailing meter. For example, in Mozart's opera Don Giovanni, two orchestras are heard playing together in different metres ( and ): They are later joined by a third band, playing in time. Polyrhythm is heard near the opening of Beethoven's Symphony No. 3. (See also syncopation.) It is a particularly common feature of the music of Brahms. Writing about the Violin Sonata in G major, Op. 78, Jan Swafford (1997, p. 456) says "In the first movement Brahms plays elaborate games with the phrasing, switching the stresses of the meter back and forth between and , or superimposing both in violin and piano. These ideas gather at the climax at measure 235, with the layering of phrases making an effect that perhaps during the 19th century only Brahms could have conceived." In "The Snow Is Dancing" from his Children's Corner suite, Debussy introduces a melody "on a static, repeated B-flat, cast in triplet-division cross rhythms which offset this stratum independently of the sixteenth notes comprising the two dancing-snowflake lines below it." "In this section great attention to the exactitude of rhythms is demanded by the polyrhythmic superposition of pedals, ostinato, and melody." Hemiola Concerning the use of a two-over-three (2:3) hemiola in Beethoven's String Quartet No. 6, Ernest Walker states, "The vigorously effective Scherzo is in time, but with a curiously persistent cross-rhythm that does its best to persuade us that it is really in ." Polyrhythm, not polymeter The illusion of simultaneous and , suggests polymeter: triple meter combined with compound duple meter. However, the two beat schemes interact within a metric hierarchy (a single meter). The triple beats are primary and the duple beats are secondary; the duple beats are cross-beats within a triple beat scheme. Composite hemiola The four-note ostinato pattern of Mykola Leontovych's "Carol of the Bells" (the first measure below) is the composite of the two-against-three hemiola (the second measure). Another example of polyrhythm can be found in measures 64 and 65 of the first movement of Mozart's Piano Sonata No. 12. Three evenly-spaced sets of three attack-points span two measures. Cross-rhythm Cross-rhythm refers to systemic polyrhythm. The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Music defines it as “The Regular shift of some beats in a metric pattern to points ahead of or behind their normal positions.” The finale of Brahms Symphony No. 2 features a powerful passage where the prevailing metre of four beats to the bar becomes disrupted. Here is the passage as notated in the score: Here is the same passage re-barred to clarify how the ear may actually experience the changing metres: “Polyrhythms run through Brahms’s music like an obsessive-compulsive streak...For Brahms, subdividing a measure of time into different units and layering different patterns on top of one another seemed to be almost a compulsion — as well as a compositional device and an engine of expression. ” Another straightforward example of a cross-rhythm is 3 evenly spaced notes against 2 (3:2), also known as a hemiola. Two simple and common ways to express this pattern in standard western musical notation would be 3 quarter notes over 2 dotted quarter notes within one bar of time, quarter note triplets over 2 quarter notes within one bar of time. Other cross-rhythms are 4:3 (with 4 dotted eight notes over 3 quarter notes within a bar of time as an example in standard western musical notation), 5:2, 5:3, 5:4, etc. In auditory processing, rhythms are perceived as pitches once they have been sufficiently sped up. Furthermore, intervals of rhythms are perceived as intervals of pitch once sufficiently sped up. As such, there is a parallel between cross-rhythms and musical intervals: in an audible frequency range, the 2:3 ratio produces the musical interval of a perfect fifth, the 3:4 ratio produces a perfect fourth, and the 4:5 ratio produces a major third. All these interval ratios are found in the harmonic series. These are called harmonic polyrhythms. Sub-Saharan African music traditions Comparing European and Sub-Saharan African meter In traditional European ("Western") rhythms, the most fundamental parts typically emphasize the primary beats. By contrast, in rhythms of sub-Saharan African origin, the most fundamental parts typically emphasize the secondary beats. This often causes the uninitiated ear to misinterpret the secondary beats as the primary beats, and to hear the true primary beats as cross-beats. In other words, the musical "background" and "foreground" may mistakenly be heard and felt in reverse—Peñalosa (2009: 21) The generating principle In non-Saharan African music traditions, cross-rhythm is the generating principle; the meter is in a permanent state of contradiction. Cross-rhythm was first explained as the basis of non-Saharan rhythm in lectures by C.K. Ladzekpo and the writings of David Locke. From the philosophical perspective of the African musician, cross-beats can symbolize the challenging moments or emotional stress we all encounter. Playing cross-beats while fully grounded in the main beats, prepares one for maintaining a life-purpose while dealing with life's challenges. Many non-Saharan languages do not have a word for rhythm, or even music. From the African viewpoint, the rhythms represent the very fabric of life itself; they are an embodiment of the people, symbolizing interdependence in human relationships—Peñalosa (2009: 21). At the center of a core of rhythmic traditions within which the composer conveys his ideas is the technique of cross-rhythm. The technique of cross-rhythm is a simultaneous use of contrasting rhythmic patterns within the same scheme of accents or meter... By the very nature of the desired resultant rhythm, the main beat scheme cannot be separated from the secondary beat scheme. It is the interplay of the two elements that produces the cross-rhythmic texture—Ladzekpo (1995). Eugene Novotney observes: "The 3:2 relationship (and [its] permutations) is the foundation of most typical polyrhythmic textures found in West African musics." 3:2 is the generative or theoretic form of non-Saharan rhythmic principles. Victor Kofi Agawu succinctly states, "[The] resultant [3:2] rhythm holds the key to understanding... there is no independence here, because 2 and 3 belong to a single Gestalt." The two beat schemes interact within the hierarchy of a single meter. The duple beats are primary and the triple beats are secondary. The example below shows the African 3:2 cross-rhythm within its proper metric structure. The music of African xylophones, such as the balafon and gyil, is often based on cross-rhythm. In the following example, a Ghanaian gyil sounds a 3:2-based ostinato melody. The left hand (lower notes) sounds the two main beats, while the right hand (upper notes) sounds the three cross-beats. The cross-beats are written as quarter-notes for visual emphasis. The following notated example is from the kushaura part of the traditional mbira piece "Nhema Mussasa". The mbira is a lamellophone. The left hand plays the ostinato bass line while the right hand plays the upper melody. The composite melody is an embellishment of the 3:2 cross-rhythm. Adaptive instruments Sub-Saharan instruments are constructed in a variety of ways to generate polyrhythmic melodies. Some instruments organize the pitches in a uniquely divided alternate array, not in the straight linear bass to treble structure that is so common to many western instruments such as the piano, harp, or marimba. Lamellophones including mbira, mbila, mbira huru, mbira njari, mbira nyunga, marimba, karimba, kalimba, likembe, and okeme. This family of instruments are found in several forms indigenous to different regions of Africa and most often have equal tonal ranges for right and left hands. The kalimba is a modern version of these instruments originated by the pioneer ethnomusicologist Hugh Tracey in the early 20th century which has over the years gained worldwide popularity. Chordophones, such as the West African kora, and doussn'gouni, part of the harp-lute family of instruments, also have this African separated double tonal array structure.Another instrument, the Marovany from Madagascar is a double sided box zither which also employs this divided tonal structure. Trough zithers also have the ability to play polyrhythms. The Gravikord is a new American instrument closely related to both the African kora and the kalimba was created in the latter 20th century to also exploit this adaptive principle in a modern electro-acoustic instrument. On these instruments, one hand of the musician is not primarily in the bass nor the other primarily in the treble, but both hands can play freely across the entire tonal range of the instrument. Also, the fingers of each hand can play separate independent rhythmic patterns, and these can easily cross over each other from treble to bass and back, either smoothly or with varying amounts of syncopation. This can all be done within the same tight tonal range, without the left and right hand fingers ever physically encountering each other. These simple rhythms will interact musically to produce complex cross rhythms including repeating on beat/off beat pattern shifts that would be very difficult to create by any other means. This characteristically African structure allows often simple playing techniques to combine with each other to produce polyrhythmic music. Jazz 3:2 cross-rhythm Polyrhythm is a staple of modern jazz. Although not as common, use of systemic cross-rhythm is also found in jazz. In 1959, Mongo Santamaria recorded "Afro Blue", the first jazz standard built upon a typical African 6:4 cross-rhythm (two cycles of 3:2). The song begins with the bass repeatedly playing 6 cross-beats per each measure of (6:4). The following example shows the original ostinato "Afro Blue" bass line. The cross noteheads indicate the main beats. 2:3 cross-rhythm The famous jazz drummer Elvin Jones took the opposite approach, superimposing two cross-beats over every measure of a jazz waltz (2:3). This swung is perhaps the most common example of overt cross-rhythm in jazz. In 1963 John Coltrane recorded "Afro Blue" with Elvin Jones on drums. Coltrane reversed the metric hierarchy of Santamaria's composition, performing it instead in swing (2:3). In popular music Nigerian percussion master Babatunde Olatunji arrived on the American music scene in 1959 with his album Drums of Passion, which was a collection of traditional Nigerian music for percussion and chanting. The album stayed on the charts for two years and had a profound impact on jazz and American popular music. Trained in the Yoruba sakara style of drumming, Olatunji would have a major impact on Western popular music. He went on to teach, collaborate and record with numerous jazz and rock artists, including Airto Moreira, Carlos Santana and Mickey Hart of the Grateful Dead. Olatunji reached his greatest popularity during the height of the Black Arts Movement of the 1960s and 1970s. Afro-Cuban music makes extensive use of polyrhythms. Cuban Rumba uses 3-based and 2-based rhythms at the same time. For example, the lead drummer (playing the quinto) might play in , while the rest of the ensemble keeps playing . Afro-Cuban conguero, or conga player, Mongo Santamaría was another percussionist whose polyrhythmic virtuosity helped transform both jazz and popular music. Santamaria fused Afro-Latin rhythms with R&B and jazz as a bandleader in the 1950s, and was featured in the 1994 album Buena Vista Social Club, which was the inspiration for the like-titled documentary released five years later. Another form of polyrhythmic music is south Indian classical Carnatic music. A kind of rhythmic solfege called konnakol is used as a tool to construct highly complex polyrhythms and to divide each beat of a pulse into various subdivisions, with the emphasised beat shifting from beat cycle to beat cycle. Common polyrhythms found in jazz are 3:2, which manifests as the quarter-note triplet; 2:3, usually in the form of dotted-quarter notes against quarter notes; 4:3, played as dotted-eighth notes against quarter notes (this one demands some technical proficiency to perform accurately, and was not at all common in jazz before Tony Williams used it when playing with Miles Davis); and finally time against , which along with 2:3 was used famously by Elvin Jones and McCoy Tyner playing with John Coltrane. Frank Zappa, especially towards the end of his career, experimented with complex polyrhythms, such as 11:17, and even nested polyrhythms (see "The Black Page" for an example). The metal bands Mudvayne, Nothingface, Threat Signal, Lamb of God, also use polyrhythms in their music. Contemporary progressive metal bands such as Meshuggah, Gojira, Periphery, Textures, TesseracT, Tool, Animals as Leaders, Between the Buried and Me and Dream Theater also incorporate polyrhythms in their music, and polyrhythms have also been increasingly heard in technical metal bands such as Ion Dissonance, The Dillinger Escape Plan, Necrophagist, Candiria, The Contortionist and Textures. Much minimalist and totalist music makes extensive use of polyrhythms. Henry Cowell and Conlon Nancarrow created music with yet more complex polytempo and using irrational numbers like :e. Peter Magadini's album Polyrhythm, with musicians Peter Magadini, George Duke, David Young, and Don Menza, features different polyrhythmic themes on each of the six songs. Doin' Time and a Half: Has the polyrhythmic theme of 6 over 4. Five For Barbara: Has the polyrhythmic theme of 5 over 4. The Modulator: The beginning tempo modulates to two times faster and then modulates back to two times slower. Seventy Fourth Ave: Has the polyrhythmic theme of 7 over 4. Samba de Rollins: Includes a drum solo based on 3 over 4. Midnight Bolero: In , has a continuous interlude of 2 over 3 and then 4 over 3. King Crimson used polyrhythms extensively in their 1981 album Discipline. Above all Bill Bruford used polyrhythmic drumming throughout his career. The band Queen used polyrhythm in their 1974 song "The March of the Black Queen" with and time signatures. Talking Heads' Remain in Light used dense polyrhythms throughout the album, most notably on the song "The Great Curve". Megadeth frequently tends to use polyrhythm in its drumming, notably from songs such as "Sleepwalker" or the ending of "My Last Words", which are both played in 2:3. Carbon Based Lifeforms have a song named "Polyrytmi", Finnish for "polyrhythm", on their album Interloper. This song indeed does use polyrhythms in its melody. Aphex Twin makes extensive use of polyrhythms in his electronic compositions. Japanese girl group Perfume made use of the technique in their single, appropriately titled "Polyrhythm", included on their second album Game. The bridge of the song incorporates , in the vocals, common time () and in the drums. The Britney Spears single "Till the World Ends" (released March 2011) uses a 4:3 cross-rhythm in its hook. The outro of the song "Animals" from the album The 2nd Law by the band Muse uses and time signatures for the guitar and drums respectively. The Aaliyah song "Quit Hatin" uses against in the chorus. The Japanese idol group 3776 makes use of polyrhythm in a number of their songs, most notably on their 2014 mini-album "Love Letter", which features five songs that all include several rhythmic references to the number 3776. A secret track on the album has the group's leader, Ide Chiyono, explain some of the uses of polyrhythm to the listener. The National song "Fake Empire" uses a 4 over 3 polyrhythm. The Cars' song "Touch and Go" has a rhythm in the drum and bass and a rhythm in the keys and vocals. Harpist and pop folk musician Joanna Newsom is known for the use of polyrhythms on her albums The Milk-Eyed Mender and Ys. King Gizzard used polyrhythms extensively in their album Polygondwanaland and throughout their discography. Examples The following is an example of a 3 against 2 polyrhythm, given in time unit box system (TUBS) notation; each box represents a fixed unit of time; time progresses from the left of the diagram to the right. It is in bad form to teach a student to play 3:2 polyrhythms as simply quarter note, eighth note, eighth note, quarter note. The proper way is to establish sound bases for both the quarter-notes, and the triplet-quarters, and then to layer them upon each other, forming multiple rhythms. Beats are indicated with an X; rests are indicated with a blank. {| class="wikitable" |+ 3 against 2 polyrhythm |- style="text-align:center;" | 3-beat rhythm | style="width:20px; background:silver;" | X | style="width:20px; background:silver;" |   | style="width:20px; background:silver;" | X | style="width:20px; background:silver;" |   | style="width:20px; background:silver;" | X | style="width:20px; background:silver;" |   | style="width:20px;" | X | style="width:20px;" |   | style="width:20px;" | X | style="width:20px;" |   | style="width:20px;" | X | style="width:20px;" |   | style="width:20px; background:silver;" | X | style="width:20px; background:silver;" |   | style="width:20px; background:silver;" | X | style="width:20px; background:silver;" |   | style="width:20px; background:silver;" | X | style="width:20px; background:silver;" |   | style="width:20px;" | X | style="width:20px;" |   | style="width:20px;" | X | style="width:20px;" |   | style="width:20px;" | X | style="width:20px;" |   |- style="text-align:center;" | 2-beat rhythm | style="width:20px; background:silver;" | X | style="width:20px; background:silver;" |   | style="width:20px; background:silver;" |   | style="width:20px; background:silver;" | X | style="width:20px; background:silver;" |   | style="width:20px; background:silver;" |   | style="width:20px;" | X | style="width:20px;" |   | style="width:20px;" |   | style="width:20px;" | X | style="width:20px;" |   | style="width:20px;" |   | style="width:20px; background:silver;" | X | style="width:20px; background:silver;" |   | style="width:20px; background:silver;" |   | style="width:20px; background:silver;" | X | style="width:20px; background:silver;" |   | style="width:20px; background:silver;" |   | style="width:20px;" | X | style="width:20px;" |   | style="width:20px;" |   | style="width:20px;" | X | style="width:20px;" |   | style="width:20px;" |   |} A common memory aid to help with the 3 against 2 polyrhythm is that it has the same rhythm as the phrase "not difficult"; the simultaneous beats occur on the word "not"; the second and third of the triple beat land on "dif" and "cult", respectively. The second 2-beat lands on the "fi" in "difficult". Try saying "not difficult" over and over in time with the sound file above. This will emphasize the "3 side" of the 3 against 2 feel. Now try saying the phrase "not a problem", stressing the syllables "not" and "prob-". This will emphasize the "2 side" of the 3 against 2 feel. More phrases with the same rhythm are "cold cup of tea", "four funny frogs", "come, if you please", and "ring, Christmas bells". Similar phrases for the 4 against 3 polyrhythm are "pass the golden butter" or "pass the goddamn butter" and "what atrocious weather" (or "what a load of rubbish" in British English); the 4 against 3 polyrhythm is shown below. {| class="wikitable" |+ 4 against 3 polyrhythm |- style="text-align:center;" | 4-beat rhythm | style="width:20px; background:silver;" | X | style="width:20px; background:silver;" |   | style="width:20px; background:silver;" |   | style="width:20px; background:silver;" | X | style="width:20px; background:silver;" |   | style="width:20px; background:silver;" |   | style="width:20px; background:silver;" | X | style="width:20px; background:silver;" |   | style="width:20px; background:silver;" |   | style="width:20px; background:silver;" | X | style="width:20px; background:silver;" |   | style="width:20px; background:silver;" |   | style="width:20px;" | X | style="width:20px;" |   | style="width:20px;" |   | style="width:20px;" | X | style="width:20px;" |   | style="width:20px;" |   | style="width:20px;" | X | style="width:20px;" |   | style="width:20px;" |   | style="width:20px;" | X | style="width:20px;" |   | style="width:20px;" |   |- style="text-align:center;" | 3-beat rhythm | style="width:20px; background:silver;" | X | style="width:20px; background:silver;" |   | style="width:20px; background:silver;" |   | style="width:20px; background:silver;" |   | style="width:20px; background:silver;" | X | style="width:20px; background:silver;" |   | style="width:20px; background:silver;" |   | style="width:20px; background:silver;" |   | style="width:20px; background:silver;" | X | style="width:20px; background:silver;" |   | style="width:20px; background:silver;" |   | style="width:20px; background:silver;" |   | style="width:20px;" | X | style="width:20px;" |   | style="width:20px;" |   | style="width:20px;" |   | style="width:20px;" | X | style="width:20px;" |   | style="width:20px;" |   | style="width:20px;" |   | style="width:20px;" | X | style="width:20px;" |   | style="width:20px;" |   | style="width:20px;" |   |} As can be seen from above, the counting for polyrhythms is determined by the lowest common multiple, so if one wishes to count 2 against 3, one needs to count a total of 6 beats, as lcm(2,3) = 6 (123456 and 123456). However this is only useful for very simple polyrhythms, or for getting a feel for more complex ones, as the total number of beats rises quickly. To count 4 against 5, for example, requires a total of 20 beats, and counting thus slows the tempo considerably. However some players, such as classical Indian musicians, can intuitively play high polyrhythms such as 7 against 8. Polyrhythms are quite common in late Romantic Music and 20th-century classical music. Works for keyboard often set odd rhythms against one another in separate hands. A good example is in the soloist's cadenza in Grieg's Concerto in A Minor; the left hand plays arpeggios of seven notes to a beat; the right hand plays an ostinato of eight notes per beat while also playing the melody in octaves, which uses whole notes, dotted eighth notes, and triplets. Other instances occur often in Rachmaninoff's Piano Concerto No. 2. The piano arpeggios that constitute much of the soloist's material in the first movement often have anywhere from four to eleven notes per beat. In the last movement, the piano's opening run, marked 'quasi glissando', fits 52 notes into the space of one measure, making for a glissando-like effect while keeping the mood of the music. Other instances in this movement include a scale that juxtaposes ten notes in the right hand against four in the left, and one of the main themes in the piano, which imposes an eighth-note melody on a triplet harmony. List of basic polyrhythms See also Beat (acoustics) – another example of the same effect (mathematically), but with two continuous waves rather than a hit of the instrument only at every peak and trough of either wave. Euclidean rhythm Ewe music References Sources Further reading Peter Magadini (1993). Polyrhythms for the Drumset. . [Study in polymetric independence for drummers.] Peter Magadini (2001). The Musician's Guide to Polyrhythms. . [Polyrhythm reference book.] External links Superimposed Subdivisions (Polyrhythm Hell) – An article by Heikki Malmberg C.K. Ladzekpo's Foundation Course in African Dance-Drumming Novotney, Eugene D. (1998) "The Three Against Two Relationship as the Foundation of Timelines in West African Musics", PhD thesis. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois. African Music Encyclopedia: Babatunde Olatunji "Africano, the mother of groove", an article on polyrhythms and the African drumming tradition Tempo Mental – Article by Steve Vai on polyrhythms Drums Database- More polyrhythms polyPulse An athenaCL netTool for on-line, web-based MIDI polyrhythm generation polygnome A polyrhythmic metronome application for Linux Polyrhythm experiments using Improvisor and AudioCubes polymath Another on-line, web-based MIDI polyrhythm generation tool which uses symbolic input Polyrhythm Lessons- Information on applying polyrhythms on the guitar How many tuplets- Post on triplets and duplets in West African music Metronome for Rhythms and Multi-Beat Polyrhythms Audio clips of many polyrhythms How to Play Polyrhythms – Videos Video clips of many polyrhythms like the ones used to illustrate this article 4 different time signatures polymeter, example of 4 layer time signatures (2:4, 3:8, 5:16 & 7:8) played by Denny AJD simultaneously on a drumset. Polyrhythms ...an Introduction Peter Magadini via YouTube Drum Solo with Metric Modulations – Peter Magadini (2006) from the Hal Leonard DVD Jazz Drums The 26 Official Polyrhythm Rudiments (2012) Modern Drummer Magazine – Pete Magadini Jazz techniques Modernism (music) Rhythm and meter Articles containing video clips Jazz terminology

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This is a list of notable events in music that took place in the year 2004. Specific locations 2004 in British music 2004 in Irish music 2004 in Norwegian music 2004 in South Korean Music Specific genres 2004 in classical music 2004 in country music 2004 in heavy metal music 2004 in hip hop music 2004 in Latin music 2004 in jazz Events January–February January 1 The Vienna New Year's Concert is conducted by Riccardo Muti. Kurt Nilsen wins World Idol. January 3 – Britney Spears marries Jason Allen Alexander, a childhood friend, in Las Vegas. The marriage is annulled 55 hours later. January 15 – Rapper Mystikal is sentenced to six years in prison for sexual battery. January 16–February 1 – The Big Day Out festival takes place in Australia and New Zealand, headlined by Metallica. A Perfect Circle is originally named in the lineup but later withdraw, with Fear Factory appearing as a mystery artist in place of all of A Perfect Circle's scheduled slots. February 1 Janet Jackson and Justin Timberlake perform onstage at Super Bowl XXXVIII. The performance concludes with Jackson's right breast being exposed to the audience. The phrase "wardrobe malfunction" is coined during the ensuing controversy. Daron Hagen is appointed President of the Lotte Lehmann Foundation in New York City. February 8 – The 46th Annual Grammy Awards are held at the Staples Center in Los Angeles, California. Outkast's Speakerboxxx/The Love Below becomes the first rap album to win Album of the Year. Beyoncé wins five awards. Coldplay's "Clocks" wins Record of the Year, while Luther Vandross' "Dance with My Father" wins Song of the Year. Evanescence win Best New Artist. February 9 – Blink-182 release single "I Miss You" from the album Blink-182. The song will reach number one on the Billboard Modern Rock chart. February 10 – Paulina Rubio releases her seventh studio "Pau-Latina" under Universal Music Mexico. The album charted at #1 on the Billboard Latin Pop Albums and at #105 on the Billboard 200. The album also got certified 2× Platinum (Latin) by the RIAA. February 13 – Elton John begins The Red Piano concert residency at The Colosseum at Caesars Palace in Las Vegas. Originally scheduled for 75 performances, it would run for 248 shows over five years, including twenty-four tour dates in Europe. February 17 BRIT Awards are held in London. The Darkness, Dido, Busted, Justin Timberlake and KRS-One are among the winners. Smashing Pumpkins frontman Billy Corgan posts a bitter message on his personal blog calling D'arcy Wretzky a "mean spirited drug addict" and blaming James Iha for the breakup of the band. March–April March 2 – Britney Spears embarks on The Onyx Hotel Tour, her first tour in 2 years to support her fourth studio album, In The Zone. March 9 – Westlife member Brian McFadden leaves the band. March 10 – George Michael announces that Patience will be his last commercially released record. Future releases will be available from his web site in return for donations to his favourite charities. March 13 – Luciano Pavarotti gives his last performance in an opera, in Tosca at the New York Metropolitan Opera. March 23 – Usher releases his Confessions album selling 1.1 million copies its first week, making him the first R&B artist to ever accomplish that. The album would be the top seller of the year with four number one singles. April 6 A previously unreleased Johnny Cash album called My Mother's Hymn Book is released less than a year after his death on September 12, 2003. Modest Mouse, an American indie rock band releases Good News for People Who Love Bad News. April 20 – Fear Factory returns after their 2002 breakup with the new album Archetype. April 26 Deborah Voigt, sacked by Covent Garden for being too fat for an opera role, makes her recital debut to a rapturous reception at Carnegie Hall. Dream Theater performs at the Nippon Budokan Hall in Tokyo, Japan. May–June May 1-2 – The annual Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival takes place in California. Headlined by Radiohead and The Cure, the lineup also features Pixies, The Flaming Lips, Belle and Sebastian, Muse, MF Doom, Basement Jaxx, Death Cab for Cutie, Black Rebel Motorcycle Club, Kraftwerk and Kool Keith. May 10 Blender magazine's May issue includes a "50 Worst Songs Ever!" list. "We Built This City," by Starship, is rated worst. Peter Tägtgren replaces Mikael Åkerfeldt In Bloodbath. Keane release Hopes and Fears which becomes the 16th best selling album of the millennium in the UK. It went 8x platinum and was nominated for the Mercury Prize and the BRIT award for best album. May 12–15 – The 49th Eurovision Song Contest, held at Abdi İpekçi Arena in Istanbul, Turkey, is won by Ukrainian singer Ruslana with the song "Wild Dances". It is the first contest to take place as a multi-date event. May 18-23 – The European Festival of Youth Choirs (EJCF) is held in Basel. May 24 – Madonna starts The Re-Invention Tour in 20 cities with a total of 56 shows and making it the most successful concert tour of the year with a gross of $124.5 million. May 25 Phish announces that after 21 years they will break up following the Summer 2004 Tour. Skinny Puppy releases their first studio album since disbanding in 1996, called The Greater Wrong of the Right. May 26 – Fantasia Barrino wins the third season of American Idol, defeating Diana DeGarmo. May 28 – June 6 – The Rock in Rio concert festival is staged in Lisbon, Portugal under the name Rock in Rio Lisboa. Paul McCartney, Peter Gabriel, Foo Fighters, Metallica, Britney Spears and Sting headline each of the six days. June 4 Karl Jenkins signs a 10-year recording deal with EMI. Creed dissolved. Guitarist Mark Tremonti, Drummer Scott Phillips and Brian Marshall (ex Bassist of Creed) were working on side project Alter Bridge along with Myles Kennedy of The Mayfield Four Their first album is One Day Remains, which was scheduled to be released on August 10. June 5-6 – The annual Download Festival takes place at Donington Park in Leicestershire, England, with Linkin Park and Metallica headlining the main stage. Pennywise and HIM headline the Snickers "Game On" stage, while the Barfly stage is headlined by Peaches and SuicideGirls. June 7 – The Killers released their first album Hot Fuss. June 8 – Velvet Revolver released their first album Contraband. June 10 – Ray Charles dies at the age of 73 from acute liver disease. June 11 – The Van Halen Summer Tour 2004 kicks off in Greensboro, North Carolina, marking the return of Sammy Hagar on vocals for the first time since his acrimonious departure from the band in 1996. June 12 – The Los Angeles, California radio station KROQ-FM airs the 12th Annual KROQ Weenie Roast show with Bad Religion, Beastie Boys, Cypress Hill, The Hives, Hoobastank, The Killers, Modest Mouse, New Found Glory, Story of the Year, The Strokes, Velvet Revolver, Yeah Yeah Yeahs and Yellowcard. June 22 – 14th annual Lollapalooza festival, scheduled for July 17, is cancelled. Organizers cite "poor ticket sales". (See: Lollapalooza 2004 lineup.) June 23 – UK DJ Tony Blackburn is suspended by radio station Classic Gold Digital for playing songs by Cliff Richard, against station policy. June 25 Eric Clapton sells his famous guitar "Blackie" at a Christie's auction, raising $959,000 to benefit the Crossroads drug rehabilitation center that he founded in 1998. While in Scheeßel, Germany for his A Reality tour, David Bowie suffers a heart attack onstage and is subsequently rushed to the emergency room for an angioplasty. The incident brings an abrupt end to the tour and prompts Bowie to move away from both musicianship and public life in the following years, with his next album coming out nearly nine years later. July–August July 10 – Ex-S Club star Rachel Stevens sets a world record for completing the fastest promotional circuit in just 24 hours- including a run for the charity Sport Relief. American Idol winner Fantasia becomes the first artist in history to debut at number-one on the Hot 100 with a first record. July 11 – McFly debut at #1 on the UK album charts with Room On The 3rd Floor. They break the record set by The Beatles as the youngest group ever to debut at #1 on the album charts. July 20 – Van Halen releases The Best of Both Worlds, a 36-song compilation album featuring three new recordings with Sammy Hagar on vocals. July 24 – The Robert Smith organized Curiosa Festival kicks off with a concert in West Palm Beach, Florida. Performing along with The Cure are Interpol, The Rapture, Mogwai, Cursive, Muse, Head Automatica, Thursday, Scarling., The Cooper Temple Clause, and Melissa Auf der Maur. July 24–25 – The Splendour in the Grass music festival is held in Byron Bay, Australia, headlined by PJ Harvey & Jurassic 5. July 25 – The Doobie Brothers record and perform Live at Wolf Trap at Wolf Trap National Park for the Performing Arts in Vienna, Virginia. The live album was released two months later, on October 26. July 31 Simon & Garfunkel perform a free concert in front of the Colosseum in Rome for an audience of 600,000 people. Dispatch performs their last live show at the DCR Hatchshell in Boston, Massachusetts. August 8 – Dave Matthews Band's tour bus dumps 800 lb (360 kg) of human feces from a Chicago bridge, intending to unload it in the river, but it lands on an architecture tour boat. The bus driver and the band are sued by the state of Illinois. August 15 – Phish performs their final concert at a two-day festival in Coventry, Vermont. August 23 – The Prodigy release their much anticipated and postponed first full-length album Always Outnumbered Never Outgunned, 7 years after 1997's The Fat Of The Land. September–October September 7 - Senses Fail release their debut studio album Let It Enfold You September 18 – Britney Spears marries Kevin Federline. September 20 – Green Day release their seventh studio album American Idiot, making a comeback for the band, following disappointing sales of their 2000 album Warning. American Idiot eventually receives the award for Best Rock Album at the 47th Grammy Awards on February 13, 2005. September 26 – Avril Lavigne begins her Bonez Tour. September 28 Brian Wilson releases Brian Wilson Presents Smile, the first official interpretation of the Smile sessions since their shelving in 1967. On the same day, young Filipino singer Christian Bautista unveiled his first self-titled debut album. October – Jazz at Lincoln Center performance venue opens in New York City. October 2 – Billy Joel marries for the third time, to the food critic and chef Katie Lee. October 11 The original lineup of Duran Duran release their new album Astronaut, which is preceded by the single "(Reach Up For The) Sunrise". Melissa Etheridge undergoes surgery for breast cancer. October 23 – Ashlee Simpson is accused of lip synching after an abortive live performance on the television show Saturday Night Live. October 25 – Indian singer Hariharan is awarded the Swaralaya Kairali Yesudas Award for his outstanding contribution to Indian film music. November–December November 4 – Three members of the band RAM, who all lived in a neighborhood known for its support of the recently deposed former President Jean-Bertrand Aristide, are detained by Haitian police during a concert performance in Port-au-Prince; no charges are ever filed or official explanation for the detentions given. November 9 – Britney Spears releases her first compilation album titled Greatest Hits: My Prerogative. November 11 – Eric Clapton receives a CBE at Buckingham Palace. November 12 – Eminem's fourth major studio album, Encore is released four days before schedule to combat Internet bootleggers. The album sells 710,000 copies in only three days and becomes Eminem's third consecutive album to debut at #1 on the Billboard charts. November 16 – Destiny's Child released their fourth and final studio album Destiny Fulfilled by Columbia Records in North America. November 17 – Within Temptation release the single "Stand My Ground". November 21 – Casey Donovan is crowned winner of the second season of Australian Idol. Anthony Callea was named runner-up. November 24 – Brian & Eric Hoffman leave Deicide after a royalties dispute. November 30 – Jay-Z and Linkin Park's album "Collision Course" debuts at number #01 in the Billboard 200, later becoming the best-selling CD/DVD of that year. December 7 – Lindsay Lohan releases her début album, Speak. December 8 – Dimebag Darrell is murdered on stage while performing in Columbus, Ohio, by a deranged fan, who shoots the guitarist three times in the head with a 9mm Beretta handgun. The gunman kills three other people and wounds a further three before being shot dead by police. December 11 – Steve Brookstein is crowned winner of the first series of The X Factor. G4 are named the runner-ups, while Tabby Callaghan and Rowetta Satchell finish in third and fourth place respectively. December 11–12 – The Los Angeles, California radio station KROQ-FM airs the 15th Annual of the Acoustic Christmas with Chevelle, Franz Ferdinand, Good Charlotte, Green Day, Hoobastank, Incubus, Interpol, Jimmy Eat World, Keane, The Killers, Modest Mouse, Muse, The Music, My Chemical Romance, Papa Roach, Snow Patrol, Social Distortion, Sum 41, Taking Back Sunday, The Shins, The Used, and Velvet Revolver. December 14 – Clint Lowery leaves Sevendust due to fights with band about gaining control of the band and doubts of the band's future after being released from their label TVT Records. Bands formedSee Musical groups established in 2004Bands on hiatus Spineshank (reformed in 2008) Timo Rautiainen & Trio Niskalaukaus (disbanded in 2006) Matchbox Twenty (reformed in 2007) Bands disbandedSee Musical groups disestablished in 2004Bands re-formed Megadeth Restless Heart Destiny's Child Vaya Con Dios The Shadows (till 2015) New York Dolls Albums released January–March April–June July–September October–December Unknown release dates3rd Strike – 3 Feet Smaller5 Stories EP – Manchester Orchestra9Live – Angie AparoBombs Below – Living ThingsCrwth – Cass Meurig (first CD release of crwth music)Field Rexx – Blitzen TrapperForThemAsses – OPM Gathering Speed – Big Big TrainGet Saved – Pilot to Gunner Golden (compilation) – FailureGuerilla Disco – QuarashiLeaving Town Tonight (EP) – Hit the LightsLife Story (compilation) – The ShadowsNegatives 2 – Phantom PlanetOceanic Remixes/Reinterpretations – Isis The Pink Spiders Are Taking Over! – The Pink SpidersPoint of Origin – There for TomorrowThe Red Jumpsuit Apparatus – The Red Jumpsuit ApparatusSafely From the City – LocksleySet Your Goals (Demo EP) – Set Your GoalsSherwood (EP) – SherwoodSmoking Weed in the President's Face – HockeyTripped Into Divine – Dexter FreebishWatching the Snow – Michael Franks (United States release)We (Don't) Care – The Management (MGMT)Welcome to Woody Creek - Nitty Gritty Dirt Band Popular songs Top 10 selling albums of the year in the US Confessions – Usher ~ 7,979,000 Feels like Home – Norah Jones ~ 3,843,000 Encore – Eminem ~ 3,517,000 When the Sun Goes Down – Kenny Chesney ~ 3,072,000 Under My Skin – Avril Lavigne ~ 2,970,000 Live Like You Were Dying – Tim McGraw ~ 2,787,000 Songs About Jane – Maroon 5 ~ 2,708,000 Fallen – Evanescence ~ 2,614,000 Autobiography – Ashlee Simpson ~ 2,577,000 Now That's What I Call Music! 16 – Various ~ 2,560,000 Top 15 selling albums of the year globally Confessions – Usher Feels Like Home – Norah Jones Encore – Eminem How to Dismantle an Atomic Bomb – U2 Under My Skin – Avril Lavigne Love. Angel. Music. Baby. – Gwen Stefani Greatest Hits – Robbie Williams Greatest Hits – Shania Twain Destiny Fulfilled – Destiny's Child Greatest Hits – Guns N' Roses Songs About Jane – Maroon 5 American Idiot – Green Day Elephunk – The Black Eyed Peas Greatest Hits: My Prerogative – Britney Spears Anastacia – Anastacia Classical music Michel van der Aa – Second selfLouis Andriessen – Racconto dall'InfernoCornelis de Bondt – Madame DaufineElliott Carter – RéflexionsGeorge Crumb – Winds of Destiny for soprano, percussion quartet and piano Mario Davidovsky – Sefarad: Four Spanish-Ladino Folkscenes, baritone voice, flute (piccolo, alto flute), clarinet (bass clarinet), percussion, violin and cello Joël-François Durand – Ombre/Miroir for flute and 14 instruments Ross Edwards – Concerto for Guitar and Strings Ivan Fedele – OdosLorenzo Ferrero – Guarini, the Master for violin and strings Philip Glass – Symphony No. 7 ToltecGeorg Friedrich Haas – HaikuHans Werner Henze – Sebastian im TraumAlun Hoddinott – Trombone Concerto York Höller – Ex TemporeGuus JanssenMemory Protect ExtendedWankelingKarl Jenkins – In These Stones Horizons SingJan Klusák – Axis TemporumRolands Kronlaks – PaionHanna Kulenty – RunTheo Loevendie – De 5 DriftenFrederik Magle – Souffle le vent, 1st symphonic poem from the suite Cantabile. Roderik de Man – Mensa SaPeter Maxwell Davies Naxos Quartet No. 4 Children's GamesNaxos Quartet No. 5 Marijn Simons Symphony No 1, Opus 26 String Quartet No. 3, Opus 27 Dobrinka Tabakova Concerto for Viola and Strings Schubert Arpeggione, arrangement for string orchestraSuite in Old Style for viola, strings and harpsichordWhispered Lullaby for viola and piano Opera Thomas Adès – The TempestHarrison Birtwistle – The Io PassionWilliam Bolcom – A WeddingJazz Musical theaterAssassins – Broadway production opened at Studio 54 and ran for 101 performancesBombay Dreams – Broadway production opened at The Broadway Theatre and ran for 284 performancesFiddler On The Roof – Broadway revivalThe Woman in White, music by Andrew Lloyd Webber, lyrics by David Zippel and book by Charlotte Jones, freely adapted from the novel by Wilkie Collins – London production opened on September 15 at the Palace Theatre, London.People Are Wrong! – Off-Broadway production Musical filmsAlt for Egil, starring Kristoffer JonerBeyond the Sea, starring Kevin Spacey as Bobby DarinBride and Prejudice, starring Aishwarya RaiDe-Lovely released June 13, starring Kevin Kline as Cole Porter and Ashley JuddHome on the Range, a Disney animated featureRay, starring Jamie Foxx as Ray Charles Red Riding HoodPixel Perfect, a Disney Channel Original Movie that is also a musical.The Phantom of the Opera, starring Emmy Rossum as Christine and Gerard Butler as the PhantomMetallica: Some Kind of MonsterWhere's Firuze?, starring Haluk Bilginer and Demet Akbağ Births January 4 – Alexa Curtis, Australian singer, Winner of The Voice Kids Australia, Coach was Delta Goodrem January 10 – Kaitlyn Maher, American child singer and actress January 15 – Grace VanderWaal, American musician, singer/songwriter, ukulele player June 4 – Mackenzie Ziegler, American dancer, singer, actress and model August 31 – Jang Won-young, South Korean singer Deaths January–February January 3 – Ronald Smith, 82, British pianist January 6 – Jimmy Hassell, 62, Guitarist/co-lead singer in The First Edition from 1972 to 1976 January 12 – Randy VanWarmer, 48, songwriter and guitarist January 15 – Terje Bakken, 25, also known as Valfar, lead singer and founder of Norwegian black/folk metal band Windir (died of hypothermia in a blizzard) January 16 – John Siomos, 56, drummer January 17 Czeslaw Niemen, 65, Polish rock singer Tom Rowe, 53, musician January 22 Billy May, 87, US big band & pop music arranger Ann Miller, 80, actress, singer and dancer January 30 – Julius Dixson, 90, songwriter and record company executive February 3 – Cornelius Bumpus, 58, musician (The Doobie Brothers, Steely Dan) February 6 – Jørgen Jersild, 90, Danish composer and music educator February 8 – Cem Karaca, 58, Turkish singer and composer February 16 – Doris Troy, 67, R&B singer February 21 Les Gray, 57, English singer (Mud) Bart Howard, 88, composer and pianist February 23 Don Cornell, 84, US singer Alvino Rey, 95, US bandleader and guitarist February 24 – A.C. Reed, 77, blues saxophonist March–April March 4 – John McGeoch, 48, British guitarist with Magazine, Siouxsie and the Banshees and PiLMarch 6 – Peggy DeCastro, 82, US singer born in the Dominican Republic, eldest of the DeCastro Sisters March 9 – Rust Epique, 36, guitarist (Crazy Town) March 10 – Dave Schulthise, 47, punk bassist (The Dead Milkmen) March 11 – Edmund Sylvers, 47, lead singer of The Sylvers March 13 – Vilayat Khan, 75, sitar player March 15 – Eva Likova, 84, operatic soprano March 16 – Vilém Tauský, 93, Czech conductor and composer March 18 Vytas Brenner, 57, musician, keyboardist and composer Erna Spoorenberg, 78, Dutch operatic soprano March 21 – Johnny Bristol, 65, singer, songwriter and record producer March 26 – Jan Berry, 62, US singer of Jan and Dean March 30 – Timi Yuro, 63, soul and R&B singer and songwriter April 1 – Paul Atkinson, 58, guitarist for The Zombies April 3 – Gabriella Ferri, 62, Italian singer April 6 – Niki Sullivan, 66, guitarist for The Crickets April 9 – Harry Babbitt, 90, US singer with Kay Kyser & his Orchestra April 10 – Jacek Kaczmarski, 47, Polish poet and singer, the bard of Solidarity April 15 Ray Condo, 53, Canadian rockabilly musician Hans Gmür, 77, Swiss theatre author, director, composer and producer May–June May 1 – Felix Haug, 52, Swiss pop musician (Double) May 5 Coxsone Dodd, 72, Jamaican record producer Ritsuko Okazaki, 44, Japanese songwriter May 6 – Barney Kessel, 80, jazz guitarist May 11 – John Whitehead, 55, R&B artist (shot dead) May 12 – John LaPorta, 84, Jazz clarinetist, composer and educator May 17 Gunnar Graps, 52, Estonian singer (Magnetic Band and Gunnar Graps Group) Elvin Jones, 76, Jazz Drummer, notably with the John Coltrane Quartet of the 1960s May 19 – Arnold Moore, 90, blues artist May 23 – Gundars Mauševics, 29, Latvian guitarist of Brainstorm May 31 – Robert Quine, 61, guitarist June 2 – Billboard, 25, rapper, The Game's best friend June 4 – Irene Manning, 91, US actress, singer and dancer June 6 – Iona Brown, 63, conductor and violinist June 7 – Quorthon, 38, Swedish multi-instrumentalist, founder and songwriter of Bathory June 10 – Ray Charles, 73, US singer and pianist June 15 – James F. Arnold, 72, first tenor with the Four Lads June 17 – Jackie Paris, 77, US jazz singer June 27 – Sis Cunningham, 95, folk musician July–August July 6 – Syreeta Wright, 57, singer (congestive heart failure, a side effect of cancer treatment) July 13 Arthur Kane, 55, bassist (New York Dolls) Carlos Kleiber, 74, conductor July 21 – Jerry Goldsmith, 75, US composer, Academy Award winner July 22 Illinois Jacquet, 81, US jazz saxophonist Sacha Distel, 71, French singer August 2 – Don Tosti, 81, American composer August 6 Rick James, 56, US funk singer Argentino Ledesma, 75, Argentinian singer Tony Mottola, 86, US Guitarist August 9 – David Raksin, 92, US composer August 15 – William Herbert York, 85, bassist for Drifting Cowboys August 17 – Bernard Odum, 72, bass player for James Brown August 18 – Elmer Bernstein, 82, US composer August 20 – María Antonieta Pons, 82, Cuban Rumbera August 26 – Laura Branigan, 47, US singer (brain aneurysm) August 31 – Carl Wayne, 61, vocalist (The Move) September–October September 2 Michael Connor, 54, American country rock keyboardist (Pure Prairie League) Billy Davis September 11 – Juraj Beneš, 64, Slovak composer September 12 John Buller, 77, British composer Kenny Buttrey, 59, Nashville session drummer Fred Ebb, 72, US lyricist September 15 – Johnny Ramone, 55, US guitarist and founding member of The Ramones'' (prostate cancer) September 16 – Izora Armstead, 62, member of The Weather Girls September 29 – Heinz Wallberg, 81, German conductor September 30 – Jacques Levy, 69, songwriter and theatre director October 1 – Bruce Palmer, 58, bassist of Buffalo Springfield October 7 – Miki Matsubara, 44, Japanese composer and singer October 19 – Greg Shaw, 55, music historian and record label owner October 25 – John Peel, 65, British DJ and broadcaster (heart attack) October 28 – Gil Melle, 72, film and television music composer November–December November 1 Mac Dre, 34, Bay Area rapper (highway shooting) Terry Knight, 61, lead singer of Terry Knight and the Pack and manager-producer of Grand Funk Railroad(stabbed in domestic dispute) November 12 – Usko Meriläinen, 74, Finnish composer November 13 John Balance, 42, British musician from Coil Ol' Dirty Bastard, 35, African American rapper (drug overdose) Carlo Rustichelli, 87, Italian film composer November 14 – Michel Colombier, 65, composer November 18 – Cy Coleman, 75, US composer November 19 – Terry Melcher, 62, musician and producer December 2 – Kevin Coyne, 60, singer, composer and guitarist December 8 – Dimebag Darrell, 38, former Pantera guitarist (shot to death in Ohio) December 13 – Alex Soria, 39, guitarist for The Nils (suicide) December 14 – Sidonie Goossens, 105, harpist December 16 -Freddie Perren, 61, songwriter, producer, arranger and conductor December 19 – Renata Tebaldi, 82, operatic soprano December 20 – Son Seals, 62, blues musician December 26 – Sigurd Køhn, 45, Norwegian jazz saxophonist (tsunami) December 27 – Hank Garland, 74, Nashville session guitarist December 30 – Artie Shaw, 94, Swing Era Clarinetist and Bandleader Awards The following artists were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame: Jackson Browne, The Dells, George Harrison, Prince, Bob Seger, Traffic, Z Z Top ARIA Music Awards ARIA Music Awards of 2004 BRIT Awards 2004 BRIT Awards Country Music Association Awards Eurovision Song Contest Eurovision Song Contest 2004 Junior Eurovision Song Contest 2004 Grammy Awards Grammy Awards of 2004 Juno Awards Juno Awards of 2004 MTV Video Music Awards 2004 MTV Video Music Awards Charts Triple J Hottest 100 Triple J Hottest 100, 2004 See also 2004 in music (UK) Record labels established in 2004 References External links For a more detailed list of hits or albums by month, see: KATS-FM New Rock 94.7 The Zone – WZZN-FM – Chicago Pause & Play's On The CD Front VH1 MTV Rolling Stone 2004-related lists Music-related lists Music by year

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is a fictional character and one of two main protagonists from the 2011 anime series Puella Magi Madoka Magica. A mysterious magical girl who first appears as a vision in one of Madoka Kaname's nightmares, Homura tries her best to prevent Madoka from making a contract with the messenger of magic, Kyubey. As the story progresses, it is revealed that Homura is a time traveler and has seen Madoka die countless times whenever she makes a contract with Kyubey. Homura becomes the main protagonist of the 2013 sequel film Puella Magi Madoka Magica the Movie: Rebellion, where she fights with her fellow magical girls against surreal monsters called Nightmares, but after some time, she realizes something is wrong with her memories and then tries to investigate. Homura has appeared in most Puella Magi Madoka Magica related media, including manga, novel adaptations of the series and video games. Writer Gen Urobuchi created Homura to contrast with the series' titular character, Madoka Kaname. He developed her role as a mysterious character who would reveal the truth about magical girls' fate as the series progresses. Urobuchi expanded Homura's character in Rebellion, where he said the film is about the character growing and struggling with internal conflict. Ume Aoki, who designed her, wanted to express Homura's dark beauty through her design. She is voiced in Japanese by Chiwa Saitō and in English by Cristina Vee. Homura has garnered acclaim from critics, who praised the depth and complexity of her character as well as her relationship with Madoka. Her backstory revealed in episode 10 was also highly commended. Homura's role in Rebellion has also earned praise from critics, who enjoyed the focus on her character and development, though having the character turn into a demon at the end of the film received some mixed reviews. Homura has also been the subject of studies by scholars. She has ranked highly on various polls for best female anime character conducted by several publications such as Newtype, NHK and GooRanking. Merchandise based on her such as figures, plush dolls and replicas of her ear cuff has also been created. Conception and creation Development Series' writer Gen Urobuchi created Homura as a contrast to the series' titular character, Madoka Kaname. While Madoka is a character who could move forward at the beginning of the series, she started moving as the series progresses. Homura is a character who stops at one place and is unable to move forward because of her time-loop, where she constantly turns back time to save Madoka from her fate. Urobuchi noted that Homura has repeated nearly 100 timelines to save Madoka from her fate. He avoided portraying Homura's family, as he felt that depicting them would not affect the story, and they were "unnecessary" compared to Madoka's family who play an important part in the story, particularly her mother, Junko Kaname. Although the series is named after the titular protagonist Madoka and the story is about her growth and her wish to become a magical girl, Urobuchi said that Homura feels like the real protagonist of the series. He described Homura's role at the end of the series as that of an "evangelist", the only person in the world who understands Madoka's existence and importance. Urobuchi said he developed Homura's role as another "veteran magical girl aside from Mami Tomoe", saying that she holds the answers to various mysteries in the series, and as it progresses, she will be the one to reveal the truth about magical girl's fate with Kyubey. While developing her time-manipulation power, Urobuchi explained that Homura's magic shield contains a sand timer that can manipulate time for at least one month, and if the sand on the shield disappears, she cannot manipulate time anymore, but can still travel back in time. He admitted that he did not think enough about how her shield works, making the nature of her shield magic a mystery. Urobuchi was not fond of giving her the shield as her only weapon, but he came to like it after seeing the storyboard where Homura pulled multiple guns and explosives from the shield. He also regarded Homura as the strongest magical girl "as long as no one discovers how she uses her powers". Homura's character was expanded in the 2013 sequel film, Puella Magi Madoka Magica the Movie: Rebellion, where she becomes the film's main protagonist. Urobuchi originally planned to end the film with Homura reuniting with Madoka and ascending to heaven. Director Akiyuki Shinbo and producer Atsuhiro Iwakami rejected that ending since they wanted to expand the franchise. This made it difficult for Urobuchi to come up with an ending. Urobuchi was also worried about ending with Homura ascending along Madoka, saying it would not be a happy one for Homura's character since she would disappear instantly. He also wanted to create an ending where Madoka escapes from her fate as a God, since a middle-school girl becoming a God is too much to bear. Urobuchi said it was difficult to write an ending for the film until Shinbo came to him and suggested the idea of Homura "confronting Madoka as an enemy", which motivated Urobuchi to write and develop the film's ending. He said he agreed with this idea because he believes Homura might be "plausible as Madoka’s equal opposite". Another theme Urobuchi wanted to convey was Homura's growth. He said Homura has thrown her confusion away in the movie and by doing this she grows up like a strong heroine. Urobuchi said the film is about Homura growing and changing, and feared whether people would accept her evolved character or reject it and call her out-of character. Urobuchi said he would be happy if people accepted Madoka Magica as a series where characters grow and change, though that is up to the viewers to decide. In an interview with mangaka Kazuo Koike, Urobuchi said after developing the Rebellion film he had a stronger impression of Homura in the movie than he imagined before. Describing her as "rebellious", he said that although Homura proclaims herself as a Demon, she is undergoing an internal conflict. Design Ume Aoki designed Homura. Urobuchi chose the character's purple color motif, and Aoki designed it according to him. Aoki tried to let Homura "shine through in her design", and said that her "silky long hair" is the most distinguishing part of her design. When designing the character for her magical girl outfit, Aoki kept Homura's "personality and combat style in mind" and immediately found her a fascinating character. She described Homura's magical girl design as "rather monochromatic". For the school uniform, she had Homura wear black tights that provide the same feeling as her magical girl outfit, and said the character "gives off the air of a silent beauty". The anime staff designed Homura's weapons, while her bow, used in the final episode, is based on an illustration drawn by Ume Aoki. Urobuchi did not originally write the pair of black wings Homura sprouts in the series' final episode in the script. Production designers Gekidan Inu Curry added this detail. Urobuchi was happy with the addition as it added more "mystery and depth" to the character. For Puella Magi Madoka Magica the Movie: Rebellion, Junichiro Taniguchi, the film's character designer and the animation supervisor, said that it was difficult to create the designs for Homura's devil outfit because the character wears pierced earrings that were not included in the initial design. Hiroki Yamamura, who also serves as the animation supervisor, described the difficulty in drawing Homura, saying it was hard for him to add emotions to her stoic face, acknowledging he would make mistakes drawing Homura's face to the point that he gave himself a headache. Voice actresses In the Japanese version, Chiwa Saitō voices Homura. Saitō was originally considered as the voice for Kyubey, but she felt she "sounded too stupid" when trying to voice him. She then tried voicing Kyosuke Kamijo until Urobuchi suggested she try to voice Homura. Saitō said she felt very honored to undertake the role for Homura. Saitō said it was "tough" to share the character's pain and loneliness, and she found it "very difficult" to demonstrate these emotions. She also said it made the acting worthy, and called Homura an adorable character. Urobuchi liked Saitō's voicing for Homura because she gives the character a feeling of a "Dark Beauty" style. Saitō also identified with Homura's character explaining, "I can’t speak about my worries and often keep them to myself which most of the time leads to me thinking negatively, this part I think is quite similar to Homura". Before the audition, Shinbo was worried about Saitō taking on the role of Homura because when he listened to her voice, the image of another character, Hitagi Senjogahara, from Bakemonogatari, who is also voiced by Saitō, and which he directed, comes to mind. He commented: "I had this concern that no matter what, I still get the impression that Homura and Hitagi look similar". He thought it would be better to bring in another actress for the character. However, after hearing Saitō voicing Homura during the audition, Shinbo was finally convinced of the choice and said, "This is it". He praised Saitō's acting in episode 10, saying it was "beyond expectation"; praising her for portraying the character's scream and strong emotions. For Puella Magi Madoka Magica the Movie: Rebellion, Saitō recalls that she was very tired when she first read the film's script, saying that the number of details overwhelmed her. Saitō said that whenever she's involved in a Madoka Magica project, she feels she does not want to lose and while listening to her recording as Homura in the film, Saito sometimes feels she has "to fix [her voice] more". Saitō described Homura as "a human person who has a conflict [within herself]". She said Homura is a person who finds answers "with a lot of conflict", and expressed that she sympathized with Homura's path. According to Saitō, Homura's feelings "are stronger in giving than in getting ". Homura is voiced by Cristina Vee in the English dub. At the beginning, when Vee tried to voice Homura, she knew nothing about her character. She thought Homura would be a "monotone" character like Yuki Nagato from Haruhi Suzumiya. Vee said she wanted to play her "monotone" but after learning about Homura's character said she is "not monotone at all and she has a lot going on under the surface so trying to find that and keep the voice but at the same time she's very controlled"; this was the most difficult part of "finding her character". In 2012, Vee said Homura is the most "complex" character she has voiced. In 2019, Vee said Homura was her "most challenging role". She said it was one of her "first very meaty roles" and that she was still "very young" when she voiced the character, and continues saying "it was like the Olympics of acting, because of all the changes and transitions, and all the emotions that are shown, but not really, because she plays it cool". Vee believes her role as Homura is "going to live on for a very long time", explaining "this franchise ... it's so powerful, and in a lot of ways very real, if that makes sense". Appearances In Puella Magi Madoka Magica Homura Akemi first appears as a vision in one of Madoka Kaname’s nightmares. She transfers into her school as a mysterious teenage girl the day after the dream. Homura has long, silky, dark-raven hair, violet eyes and is said to be an attractive person by her classmates. She is impeccably great at everything she does whether it is academics or sports, making her instantly popular despite her cold behavior. After Madoka and her friend Sayaka Miki come into contact with magical girl Mami Tomoe and extraterrestrial being Kyubey, Homura is revealed to be a rival magical girl with a deep hatred towards Kyubey. It is revealed that Homura is a time traveler; she was originally a meek, timid, shy second-year student with low self-esteem, suffered from heart disease and did not have any friends. Madoka then befriends her. Eventually Madoka and Mami reveal they are magical girls and save her from a witch (a surreal monster). When Mami dies in the fight with the rampaging witch Walpurgis Night, Madoka sacrifices her life to stop it. Homura, overcome by grief and uselessness, contracts with Kyubey to become a person who can protect Madoka, just as Madoka protected her. Her wish is to be able to return to her original meeting with Madoka, leading Homura to receive the power to manipulate time to a certain extent. Her magical weapon is a shield filled with sand that allows her to freeze time. However, this power becomes useless if she is physically restrained as she cannot turn her shield to activate it. She can also use the shield to block projectiles and store the infinite variety of weapons she carries. Since her shield and magic have no offensive capability, she attacks instead using stolen firearms and homemade explosives while time is stopped. None of the girls actually know what weapons she has, since she only uses them while time is stopped. Caught up in a predestination paradox, she tries again and again to prevent Madoka from being killed or making a contract, but time after time fails to save her. After a timeline reset, Homura always returns to the hospital room she lived in before. After failing for so many times, she begins changing, growing colder and distant with people around her. After Madoka makes her wish and transcends into a cosmic phenomenon called , that appears to all magical girls at the moment before they become witches, she rescues them by taking them to a heavenly paradise. She creates a new reality in which Homura is the only one who remembers her. Homura continues to fight in the new world against the wraiths, despite believing the world is irredeemably full of tragedies. It is a world that Madoka once tried to protect, and she vows never to forget Madoka's resolve. She inherits Madoka's bow—now a sleek ebony bow with a purple diamond setting—and arrows, along with a set of white wings. In The Rebellion Story In Puella Magi Madoka Magica: Rebellion, Homura fights with her fellow magical girls against new monsters called . However, after some time, Homura realizes something is strange about her memories and starts to investigate. She finds out eventually the Mitakihara city is an idealized world created by her subconscious while she is on the verge of becoming a witch and is being experimented on by Kyubey who wants to observe that has become a concept. Homura chooses to become a witch without being guided by Ultimate Madoka to destroy Kyubey's scheme. Ultimate Madoka appears to take Homura to heaven. However, Homura starts upsurping and becomes , splitting her and her god form, sealing her powers and rewriting the universe. Unlike Ultimate Madoka, Demon Homura can take human form in the new world and does not exist as a concept. She manages to enslave the Incubator race, who now work under her to take on the curses of the new world. Demon Homura's powers are sealed within her earring, which can change to and from a lizard form, and walk around on its own. Despite proclaiming herself as the devil, Madoka, Sayaka, Kyoko, Mami and Nagisa are all given happy lives in her new world. A post-credits scene shows a weary Homura seated in a chair watching over Mitakihara with a badly beaten and mentally scarred Kyubey nearby before she leans over a cliff and falls. In Magia Record Homura appears with her personality being that of a shy, timid, magical girl rather than her cold and strong personality. In the game, it is said that a time paradox caused the events of Magia Record that never happened in the anime series. The Homura in the game and main anime series are the same person but are walking different paths, with the former never going through the experience of Mami killing Kyoko, and Madoka asking Homura to kill her after promising to prevent her from contracting with Kyubey. In the game's story, after Mami disappears, Homura goes to Kamihama city with Madoka searching for her. They encounter the magical girl Alina Gray, who reveals she defeated Mami and fed her to one of her "grand masterpiece witch[es]", angering Homura and Madoka. They investigate an abandoned museum. Sayaka joins them but parts ways with them after a group called Wings of Magius attacks them. After meeting Sayaka, she reveals to Homura and Madoka that the Masgius brainwashed Mami, and they decide to search for her to rescue her. However, they meet Mami at Mitakihara city. She has become the "Saint of Kamihama", and traps them in a barrier with Alina's help. Kyoko comes and breaks the barrier and rescues them. However, when Homura is informed that Walpurgisnacht will be heading to Kamihama city due to the guidance of Magius, she thinks it would be better to stay at Mitakihara as she is afraid of facing it with Madoka. Madoka and her friends are determined to go to Kamihama city, so Homura decides to help them. After arriving in Kamihama, they meet with Mami, whose brainwash had been broken by Yachiyo Nanami, and they join her. Together, they face the Magius at Hotel Fenthope to stop them from sacrificing innocent people to achieve their goals in liberating magical girls. In the final battle, Homura fights against Walpurgisnacht with the magical girls in Kamihama city, and finally succeeds in defeating it; her final words in the battle are, "Goodbye, Walpurgisnacht". For the stage play adaptation of Magia Record, Hina Kawata of Keyakizaka46 idol girl group portrayed Homura. She also appears in the manga adaptation of the game featured on the cover of the manga's second volume with Yachiyo Nanami. Appearances in other media A drama CD written by Gen Urobuchi that explores other aspects of Homura's character was released along with the anime series' Blu-ray disc. On the drama CD, Memories of You, it was revealed that Homura was the target of a bully in school due to her low self-esteem and fragile personality. Because of her weak psyche, she was easily bullied into depression and feels worthless to everyone. The drama CD also goes into more details about Homura and Madoka's relationship and their strong bond, and Madoka saving Homura from both Isabella (witch) and from her bully, as well as supporting Homura whenever she feels down. Besides the main series, Homura has appeared in several manga's related to Puella Magi Madoka Magica media. She is a supporting character in the manga spin-off Puella Magi Madoka Magica: The Different Story, with her role being very much the same as that in the anime series, preventing Madoka from making a contract with Kyubey while also trying to negotiate with other magical girls to fight against the powerful witch Walpurgisnacht. In Puella Magi Oriko Magica, Homura kills the manga's main character, Oriko Mikune, because Oriko wants to kill Madoka to prevent her from becoming the worst witch. However, before she dies, Oriko manages to kill Madoka using the last power of her magic. Homura is shocked and in terror on seeing Madoka's body. She then resets the timeline again. In 2015, two spin-off manga series featuring Homura as the main character were announced: a four-panel fantasy slice-of-life comic titled Puella Magi Homura Tamura and Puella Magi Madoka Magica: Homura's Revenge, an alternate universe story where Madoka joined Homura in her time traveling. Homura also appears as the main heroine in the Puella Magi Madoka Magica: Wraith Arc manga, that takes place between the second film Eternal and the third film Rebellion. It is revealed that after Madoka rewrote the universe, Homura gained the ability to manipulate memories at her own will. She appears in a novel adaptation of the original series written by Hajime Ninomae, illustrated by Yūpon and published by Nitroplus, as well as appearing in a manga adaptation of the anime series, written and illustrated by Honakogae, and published by Houbunsha. Homura is a playable character in most Puella Magi Madoka Magica video games, such as the PlayStation Portable action video game developed by Namco Bandai Games, Puella Magi Madoka Magica Portable (2012), and the PlayStation Vita titled Puella Magi Madoka Magica: The Battle Pentagram (2013). Homura is the player character of Puella Magi Madoka Magica TPS featuring Homura Akemi, a third-person shooter video game for Android released in 2011. Homura also appears in several pachinko games related to the series, including Slot Puella Magi Madoka Magica (2013), Slot Puella Magi Madoka Magica 2 (2016), CR Pachinko Puella Magi Madoka Magica (2017), SLOT Puella Magi Madoka Magica A (2017), and the 2019 Slot Puella Magi Madoka Magica the Movie: Rebellion. Homura is also a playable character in numerous games outside the Puella Magi Madoka Magica video games, such as Phantom of the Kill, Chain Chronicle, Million Arthur, and the rhythm game Girl Friend Note. Homura's magical girl costume appears as an alternative for the main character Milla from Tales of Xillia 2, though the character does not appear. Her costume and weapons also appear in the game Phantasy Star Online 2, as well as the PSP game Gods Eater Burst, being available as downloadable content (DLC). Homura and her devil form as well as a costume of her magical girl also appear in the mobile game Unison League. Characterization and themes Homura appears initially as an ambiguous and mysterious figure, with little known about her story or motivations. She is calm and quiet and gave up being understood by others as a result of her repeated time loops. Homura was originally a weak, shy and timid girl who suffered from heart disease; she did not have any friends after being constantly in the hospital and has very low self-esteem. When Madoka saves her and forms a friendship with her, but then dies after fighting Walpurgis Night, Homura becomes obsessed and desperate to save her, but fails every time, and becomes cold and distant to the people around her. According to Chiwa Saitō and Aoi Yūki, Homura's love for Madoka is a feeling of dependence rather than attraction. When asked if Homura is in love with Madoka, Gen Urobuchi replied, "probably". He commented further on their relationship, explaining that "a really strong friendship turns into a lovelike-relationship without the sexual attraction." Akiyuki Shinbo also commented on Homura's love for Madoka in the Rebellion film, saying that Homura's love for Madoka is greater than romance—a feeling of friendship. Despite appearing as a cold person with a strong personality, Saitō notes that Homura is actually quite fragile. According to Saitō, Homura's heart was quite shaken when she tried to kill Sayaka, and then showed her hysterical performance. Writer Jed A. Blue also observed that despite Homura's cold behavior and her determination to save Madoka at any cost, she "usually avoids hurting humans or magical girls and instead focuses on fighting witches and Kyubey", and is shown to care about people around her, such as Mami and Kyoko, "whom she ultimately trusts to kill Homulilly, come to respect and possibly even like them, as well". Urobuchi said that the dream world in Rebellion in which Homura dreamed up in her barrier represents the deepest part of her psyche, where she wanted to play and fight with her friends against the new monster called "Nightmares". Homura also created this because of her "wistful" thinking that fighting "Nightmares" is better than "Witches". In Japanese Aesthetics and Anime: The Influence of Tradition, Dani Cavallaro writes that Homura's initial persona is "one of the most unusual twist to the norm proposed" by the series; and although she appears initially to be "Madoka's adversary or even a witch", the reason behind her effort "is not enmity but rather a selfless desire to protect [Madoka] from a destiny which [Homura] knows to be tantamount not to a supreme bonus but rather to a poisoned chalice". Urobuchi and Shinbo defended Homura turning to a devil. Shinbo said that had Homura ascended with Madoka to heaven, the Incubators (Kyubey) would try to steal Madoka's power by experimenting on other magical girls, which would result in a bad ending. Urobuchi said Homura did not deny Madoka's wish. In 2019, Saito stated she liked "the purity of Homura's character", referring to it as her favorite moment in Rebellion. Cultural impact Popularity Homura has been popular in Japan. She won the 2011 Newtype Anime Award for best female character. In the 2013 and 2014 Newtype anime awards, she was voted the fourth-best female character. Homura won the Animage Grand Prix Editors Choice award for the best female character of Animage in 2011. Japanese voice actress Sumire Uesaka cosplayed as Homura at the Comiket 85. BIGLOBE users voted Homura the most popular female black-haired heroine in 2013. In another BIGLOBE poll, Homura ranked first in the category Anime Girl that Attracts the Most Desperate Fanboys. In 2014, Nippon Telegraph and Telephone (NTT) customers ranked Homura as their fifth-favorite black haired female anime character. Homura is also one of SHAFT's most popular heroines; she took second place for "Top 10 Shaft Heroines in 2016, three years after her debut in The Rebellion Story. A reader poll conducted by NHK also determined that Homura is one of the best heroines, having garnered 14% of the votes. Additionally, in a 2016 Charapedia poll, Homura ranked first in the category of Most Alluring Transfer Students. In another Charapedia poll, Homura placed second for the most enchanting magical girl character, with the site's writer stating that Homura is "definitely one of the representative characters of magical girls in Japanese animation". In an Anime News Network poll—Which anime villain is most deserving of redemption—Homura ranked sixth for her role in Rebellion, with four percent of the votes. In a Japanese TV special from August 2017, Homura was voted as the 19th Most Splendid Heroine from the Heisei Era. In 2019, GooRanking voted Homura the best anime heroine of Heisei Era. In a 2020 Ani Trending News poll, Homura was voted as the best female anime character of Winter 2011, and the third best female character of the year (2011) overall. The same year, Homura was also voted the third best-magical girl character in a poll by Anime! Anime!. Both Homura and Madoka were referenced in the HBO series Euphoria. Critical response Homura has garnered critical acclaim. Her backstory revealed in episode 10 was highly lauded because of how it portrays her pain and struggle as well as explains her cold personality; multiple critics have also said it is the series' best episode. Critics also commended the character's complexity and tragedy, and have seen her as a sympathetic character. Critics have described her backstory as "outstanding", "compelling", and "haunting". Zac Bertschy of Anime News Network described Homura as the series' "most crucial" character, while Dan Barnett of UK Anime Network regarded her as the tragic heroine of the story. Ryotaro Aoki of Otaku USA also characterized her as "a stoic, justice-seeking righteous" character. THEM Anime reviewer Jacob Churosh said Homura's "mask of cool aloofness and brutal indifference crumbles in spectacular fashion [..] as we probe the depths of her history and begin to discover what tragedies caused Homura to don such a mask in the first place". Richard Eisenbeis of Kotaku said that after rewatching the series, "all the plot twists and character motivations [...] almost becomes a new story—not about Madoka but about Homura". He added "the story can be looked at as Homura being the only sane person in an insane world" and noted that "many of her lines have double meanings that can only be appreciated" with a second viewing. Hideaki Anno liked her backstory and the way she was depicted. Japanese critic Minori Ishida called Homura one of the "most complex" and "compelling" character in anime. Her self-sacrifice for Madoka and their tragic relationship has also been commended. Some critics have also commended Homura's "dark beauty" and "luxurious hair". Homura's character in the Rebellion movie earned positive critical response. Writers enjoyed the focus of her character as well as her development. Chris Beveridge of The Fandom Post enjoyed watching Homura as the main character of the film and said that she "has always been the key character" for him, and "she owns this movie well". Writer Jed A. Blue stated Homura had "extensive character development" and called her a "very complex character". Critics noted that Homura's rebellion against Madoka was consistent. They sympathized with her actions as Homura never had her wish granted and was the only person to remember Madoka as well as having memories of failing to save her. Richard Eisenbeis said "it must have been hell for her" to experience all of this, and Toshi Nakamura also pointed out the character's "psychological state" and the "Incubators using Homura as a lab rat" leading her to become a witch. Conversely, Jacob Chapmam of Anime News Network was harshly critical toward her character at the end of the film, calling her "out-of-character". He also felt that, "Devil Homura's victory feels tragic and hollow". Lynzee Loveridge of the same website stated she enjoyed having the film focus on Homura's character but hated Rebellion as an ending. Reviewers commended Homura's battle with Mami; Geoff Berkshire of Variety described the battle as "an epic, gravity-defying gun" that "would make the Wachowskis jealous"; Richard Eisenbeis described it as a "pretty epic" battle. Critics have also enjoyed Chiwa Saitō's performance. Hailing the series' cast as "uniformly impressive", Jacob Churosh highlighted Saitō's as a standout, while David Cabrera of Anime News Network wrote, "[The cast's] performances, particularly Chiwa Saitō as Homura, are frequently heart-wrenching." Her portrayal of Homura won Saitō the 2011 Newtype Anime Award for Best Supporting Actress. Cristina Vee was also praised, with Kory Cerjak of The Fandom Post saying that Vee "works really well" as Homura, and that she "truly shines", while also commenting on the "slight changes in her intonation that designates her change in demeanor," that he calls "brilliant". Zac Bertschy states that Vee "turns in a better performance" as the character "which is a good thing since so much of the series rests on her shoulders". Cristina Vee was also nominated for Best Female Lead Vocal Performance in Television at the 1st BTVA Voice Acting Awards. Lynzee Loveridge ranked Homura first in her article "8 Essential Time-Travelling Heroines", writing: "Homura relives tragedy after tragedy in hopes of saving her best friend, and ultimately the world, from destruction. If Homura can be faulted for inadvertently creating the situation she hopes to prevent, she can also be credited for destroying the system of despair magical girls were trapped in." She also included Homura second in her article "7 Cruel Gods" list, comparing the character's selfishness and her rebellion against Madoka to that of Paradise Losts Lucifer. In June 2018, Crunchyroll ranked Homura third in "Most Unlucky Characters in All of Anime", with writer Nicole Mejias writing that Homura has "re-lived the same tragic events nearly 100 times" that "is perhaps one of the worst fates someone could have", noting she lived "alone and trapped in a cycle that never ends". Analysis Homura has been analyzed by several writers who have explored and commented on the character's psyche and mental state. Some writers have surmised Homura suffers from several mental illnesses. Jed A. Blue wrote that Homura is the epitome of functional depression or dysthymia, and that "while she is functional, she is also depressed, and all it takes is a slight push downward to make her collapse". He also says she suffers from self-guilt, self-hatred in addition to being suicidal. Writer Bryan J. McAfee also shared a similar opinion and found Homura suffers from post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) because of her failed attempts to save Madoka as well as killing her to prevent her from becoming a witch and for experiencing cruel realities in her time loops. Homura's rebellion against Madoka has also been the subject of analysis. Blue said, "Homura's choice to become a 'demon' devoted to keeping Madoka in the world costs her the only thing she values, the chance to be together with Madoka in the end; now they must eventually be enemies. Isn't it therefore Homura who is selfless?" The writer also says that the film's title, Rebellion, is referring to Homura rebelling against her fate and Kyubey. Blue also noted that, "Homura is nowhere near as evil as she considers herself to be." Homura has also been compared to Goethe's character Faust, and Nutcracker from The Nutcracker and the Mouse King by E. T. A. Hoffmann's. Noting Homura's complexity and multifaceted personality, Blue highlights how Homura becomes the demiurge of the new universe and yet she "chooses to make a world where she is alone" and isolates herself from everyone, only to give Madoka a normal, happy life with her family. He adds Homura "remains a morally ambiguous figure" by the end of the film. Jed also observed how "If the other magical girls had simply killed her [Homulilly], she would be beyond further punishment, and her suffering would have ended. But they, in their cruel mercy, forced her to go on, forced her to find another way to keep protecting Madoka and punishing herself. She hates them for that, for failing to hate her as she hates herself." Homura's time loop is said to be a response to trauma. However, Blue says that Homura actually suffered from trauma before even becoming a magical girl, having been hospitalized for heart disease for half a year.She has spent six months helpless, afraid for her life, probably in a great deal of pain, being subjected to who knows how many invasive, frightening tests and procedures. That’s a lot for anyone to handle, let alone a 14-year-old girl, so it is unsurprising that Homura already shows a number of trauma symptoms from the start: she is anxious and shy, socially withdrawn, and struggles with self-worth issues, which morph quickly into suicidal ideation when she wanders into a Witch’s labyrinth. She clings hard to Madoka as her savior and friend thereafter, only to see Madoka die in battle with Walpurgisnacht. When Madoka makes her wish, Blue notes that she saves all the magical girls except Homura. "[S]ince her trauma predates becoming a magical girl, Madoka cannot simply absorb it from her Soul Gem as she does with the others; instead, Homura carries her memories of both her failure to rescue Madoka and, buried beneath, her helplessness in the hospital." And when Homura turns into a demon and rewrites the world, she "serves only to deepen her suffering: where once, in the grip of a Witch, she contemplated suicide, in the stinger of Rebellion she actually attempts it, throwing herself off a cliff". The writer observed that Homura's world is superior to Madoka's pure land since the characters are much happier in her world. Reiji Yamada asserts Homura suffers from loneliness, saying that her time magic is the equivalent of lonely magic. Writing for A Cycle, Not a Phase: Love Between Magical Girls Amidst the Trauma of Puella Magi Madoka Magica, Kevin Cooley argues that Homura's powers are not merely a "metaphor for love between magical girls," but "literally are the love between magical girls" and that Madoka's actions create a world "where love between women can prosper free from Kyubey’s policing." Merchandising Because of Homura's popularity, merchandise related to the character such as Nendoroids and figurines have been created. In 2012, a talking alarm clock with Homura's voice, recorded by Chiwa Saitō, was auctioned with a winning bid of 112,000 yen on the Yahoo! Japan site. A replica set of Homura's Rebellion ear cuffs that sold for 21,600 yen was also released in 2015 and was sold out immediately. Other merchandise based on Homura has been released that includes plush dolls, perfumes, mugs, posters, headphones, keychains, clothing items such as T-shirts, high heels and shoes, Lingerie and glasses. Homura was featured on a MasterCard credit card, and has also appeared on a body wrap for Mercedes-Benz cars for test driving, as well as appearing on vending machines in the form of a doll. Homura appeared on a Japanese guide dog-training organization poster. Japanese toy company Bandai produced a replica of Homura's grief seed. The Homura Magica book that explores Homura's character depth, including her personality, relationships, and features an interview with Saitō, was released in December 2018. References External links CHARACTER｜魔法少女まどか☆マギカ Official Homura Magia Record Homura Akemi on IMDb Homura Akemi on Goodreads Puella Magi Madoka Magica characters Television characters introduced in 2011 Anime and manga characters who use magic Fictional characters with post-traumatic stress disorder Fictional demons and devils Fictional shield fighters Fictional archers Fictional witches Fictional attempted suicides Magical girl characters in anime and manga Fictional Japanese people in anime and manga Time travelers Teenage characters in anime and manga Teenage characters in television Fictional characters who have made pacts with devils Fictional characters with healing abilities Fictional characters who can manipulate time Fictional gunfighters Fictional marksmen and snipers Anime and manga telepaths

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Thomas Harper Ince (November 16, 1880 – November 19, 1924) was an American silent film producer, director, screenwriter, and actor. Ince was known as the "Father of the Western" and was responsible for making over 800 films. He revolutionized the motion picture industry by creating the first major Hollywood studio facility and invented movie production by introducing the "assembly line" system of filmmaking. He was the first mogul to build his own film studio dubbed "Inceville" in Palisades Highlands. Ince was also instrumental in developing the role of the producer in motion pictures. Two of his films, The Italian (1915), for which he wrote the screenplay, and Civilization (1916), which he directed, were selected for preservation by the National Film Registry. He later entered into a partnership with D. W. Griffith and Mack Sennett to form the Triangle Motion Picture Company, whose studios are the present-day site of Sony Pictures. He then built a new studio about a mile from Triangle, which is now the site of Culver Studios. Ince's untimely death at the height of his career, after he became severely ill aboard the private yacht of media tycoon William Randolph Hearst, has caused much speculation, although the official cause of his death was heart failure. Life and career Thomas Harper Ince was born on November 16, 1880 in Newport, Rhode Island, the middle of three sons and a daughter raised by English immigrants, John E. and Emma Ince. His father was born in Wigan, Lancashire in 1841, and was the youngest of nine boys who enlisted in the British Navy as a "powder monkey". He later disembarked at San Francisco, and found work as a reporter and coal miner. Around 1887, when Ince was about seven, the family moved to Manhattan to pursue theater work. Ince's father worked as both an actor and musical agent and his mother, Ince himself, sister Bertha and brothers, John and Ralph all worked as actors. Ince made his Broadway debut at 15 in a small role of a revival 1893 play, Shore Acres by James A. Herne. He appeared with several stock companies as a child and was later an office boy for theatrical manager Daniel Frohman. He later formed an unsuccessful vaudeville company known as "Thomas H. Ince and His Comedians" in Atlantic Highlands, New Jersey. In 1907, Ince met actress Elinor Kershaw ("Nell") and they were married on October 19 of that year. They had three children. Ince's directing career began in 1910 through a chance encounter in New York City with an employee from his old acting troupe, William S. Hart. Ince found his first film work as an actor for the Biograph Company, directed by his future partner, D.W. Griffith. Griffith was impressed enough with Ince to hire him as a production coordinator at Biograph. This led to more work coordinating productions at Carl Laemmle's Independent Motion Pictures Co. (IMP). That same year, a director at IMP was unable to complete work on a small feature film, so in moment of bravado, Ince suggested that Laemmle hire him as a full-time director to complete the film. Impressed with the young man, Laemmle sent him to Cuba to make one-reel shorts with his new stars, Mary Pickford and Owen Moore, out of the reach of Thomas Edison's Motion Picture Patents Company-—the trust that was attempting to crush all independent production companies and corner the market on film production. Ince's output, however, was small. Although he tackled many different subjects, he was strongly drawn to westerns and American Civil War dramas. Clashes between the trust and independent films became exacerbated, so Ince moved to California to escape these pressures. He hoped to achieve the effects accomplished with minimal facilities like Griffith, which he believed, could only be accomplished in Hollywood. After only a year with IMP, Ince quit. In September 1911, Ince walked into the offices of actor-financier Charles O. Baumann (1874–1931) who co-owned the New York Motion Picture Company (NYMP) with actor-writer Adam Kessel, Jr. (1866–1946). Ince had found out that NYMPC had recently established a West Coast studio named Bison Studios at 1719 Alessandro (now known as Glendale Blvd.) in Edendale (present-day Echo Park) to make westerns and he wanted to direct those pictures. The offer came as a distinct shock, but I kept cool and concealed my excitement. I tried to convey the impression that he would have to raise the ante a trifle if he wanted me. That also worked, and I signed a contract for three months at $150 a week. Very soon after that, with Mrs. Ince, my cameraman, property man and Ethel Grandin, my leading woman, I turned my face westward. Together with his young wife and a small entourage, Ince moved to Bison Studios to begin work immediately. He was shocked, however, to discover that the studio was nothing more than a "tract of land graced only by a four-room bungalow and a barn." Inceville Ince's aspirations soon led him to leave the narrow confines of Edendale and find a location that would give him greater scope and variety. He settled upon a tract of land called Bison Ranch located at Sunset Blvd. and Pacific Coast Highway in the Santa Monica Mountains, (the present-day location of the Self-Realization Fellowship Lake Shrine) which he rented by the day. By 1912, he had earned enough money to purchase the ranch and was granted permission by NYMP to lease another in the Palisades Highlands stretching up Santa Ynez Canyon between Santa Monica and Malibu where Universal Studios was eventually established, which was owned by The Miller Bros of Ponca City, Oklahoma. And it was here Ince built his first movie studio. The "Miller 101 Bison Ranch Studio", which the Millers dubbed "Inceville" (and was later re-christened "Triangle Ranch") was the first of its kind in that it featured silent stages, production offices, printing labs, a commissary large enough to serve lunch to hundreds of workers, dressing rooms, props houses, elaborate sets, and other necessities – all in one location. While the site was under construction, Ince also leased the 101 Ranch and Wild West Show from the Miller Bros., bringing the whole troupe from Oklahoma out to California via train. The show consisted of 300 cowboys and cowgirls; 600 horses, cattle and other livestock (including steers and bison) and a whole Sioux tribe (200 of them in all) who set up their teepees on the property. They were then renamed "The Bison-101 Ranch Co.", and specialized in making westerns released under the name World Famous Features. When construction was completed, the streets were lined with many types of structures, from humble cottages to mansions, mimicking the style and architecture of different countries. Extensive outdoor western sets were built and used on the site for several years. According to Katherine La Hue in her book, Pacific Palisades: Where the Mountains Meet the Sea: Ince invested $35,000 in building, stages and sets ... a bit of Switzerland, a Puritan settlement, a Japanese village ... beyond the breakers, an ancient brigantine weighed anchor, cutlassed men swarming over the sides of the ship, while on the shore performing cowboys galloped about, twirling their lassos in pursuit of errant cattle ... The main herds were kept in the hills, where Ince also raised feed and garden produce. Supplies of every sort were needed to house and feed a veritable army of actors, directors and subordinates. While the cowboys, Native Americans and assorted workmen lived at "Inceville", the main actors came from Los Angeles and other communities as needed, taking the red trolley cars to the Long Wharf at Temescal Canyon, where buckboards conveyed them to the set. Ince lived in a house overlooking the vast studio, later the location of Marquez Knolls. Here he functioned as the central authority over multiple production units, changing the way films were made by organizing production methods into a disciplined system of filmmaking. Indeed, "Inceville" became a prototype for Hollywood film studios of the future, with a studio head (Ince), producers, directors, production managers, production staff, and writers all working together under one organization (the unit system) and under the supervision of a General Manager, Fred J. Balshofer. Before this, the director and cameraman controlled the production of the picture, but Ince put the producer in charge of the film from inception to final product. He defined the producer's role in both a creative and industrial sense. He was also one of the first to hire a separate screenwriter, director, and editor (instead of the director doing everything themselves). By 1913, the concept of the production manager had been created. With the aid of George Stout, an accountant for NYMP, Ince re-organized how films were outputted to bring discipline to the process. After this adjustment the studio's weekly output increased from one to two, and later three two-reel pictures per week, released under such names as "Kay-Bee" (Kessel-Baumann), "Domino" (comedy), and "Broncho" (western) productions. These were written, produced, cut, and assembled, with the finished product delivered within a week. By enabling more than one film to be made at a time, Ince decentralized the process of movie production to meet the increased demand from theaters. This was the dawning of the assembly-line system that all studios eventually adopted. With this model, developed between 1913 and 1918, Ince gradually exercised even more control over the film production process as a director-general. In 1913 alone, he made over 150 two-reeler movies, mostly Westerns, thereby anchoring the popularity of the genre for decades. While many of Ince's films were praised in Europe, many American critics did not share this high opinion. One such picture was The Battle of Gettysburg (1913) which was five reels long. The picture helped bring into vogue the idea of the feature-length film. Another important early movie for Ince was The Italian (1915), which depicted immigrant life in Manhattan. Two of his most successful films were among his first, War on the Plains (1912) and Custer's Last Fight (1912), which featured many Native Americans who had actually been in the battle. Even though he was the first producer-director and directed most of his early productions, by 1913 Ince eventually ceased full-time directing to concentrate on producing, transferring this responsibility to such proteges as Francis Ford and his brother John Ford, Jack Conway, William Desmond Taylor, Reginald Barker, Fred Niblo, Henry King and Frank Borzage. The story was the preeminent aspect of Ince's pictures. Films such as The Italian, The Gangsters and the Girl (1914), and The Clodhopper (1917) are excellent examples of the dramatic structure that resulted from his masterful editing. Film preservationist David Shepard said of Ince in The American Film Heritage: Ince also discovered many talents, including his old actor friend, William S. Hart, who made some of the best early westerns, beginning in 1914. Later, a rift developed between the two over sharing of profits. Portentously, on January 16, 1916, a few days after the opening of his first Culver City studio, a fire broke out at "Inceville", the first of many that eventually destroyed all of the buildings. Ince later gave up on the studio and sold it to Hart, who renamed it "Hartville." Three years later, Hart sold the lot to Robertson-Cole Pictures Corporation, which continued filming there until 1922. La Hue writes that "the place was virtually a ghost town when the last remnants of "Inceville" were burned on July 4, 1922, leaving only a "weatherworn old church, which stood sentinel over the charred ruins." Ince-Triangle Studios By 1915, Ince was considered one of the best-known producer-directors. Around this time, real estate mogul Harry Culver noticed Ince shooting a western in Ballona Creek. Impressed with his talents, Culver convinced Ince to move from Inceville and re-locate to what was to become Culver City. Taking Culver's advice, Ince left NYMP and on July 19 partnered with D.W. Griffith and Mack Sennett to form The Triangle Motion Picture Company based on their prestige as producers. Triangle (so named because from an aerial point of view the property had a triangular shape) was built at 10202 West Washington Boulevard (which became the Ince/Triangle Studios, before becoming Lot 1 of the prestigious MGM Studios, and is now Sony Pictures Studios]] as a result the aftermath of Griffith's The Birth of a Nation. Although a box-office success, the film led to riots in major northern cities due to its controversial content. Triangle was one of the first vertically integrated film companies. By combining production, distribution, and theater operations under one roof, the partners created the most dynamic studio in Hollywood. They attracted directors and stars of the day, including Pickford, Lillian Gish, Roscoe "Fatty" Arbuckle, and Douglas Fairbanks, Sr. They also produced some of the most enduring films of the silent era, including the Keystone Kops comedy franchise. Originally a distributor of films produced by NYMP, the Reliance Motion Picture Corp., Majestic Motion Picture Co., and The Keystone Film Co., by November 1916 the company's distribution was handled by Triangle Distributing Corporation. Though Ince had many credits as a director at Triangle, he only supervised the production of most pictures, working primarily as executive producer. One of his important pictures as a director was Civilization (1916), an epic plea for peace and American neutrality set in a mythical country and dedicated to the mothers of those who died in World War I. The film competed with Griffith's famous epic, Intolerance and beat it at the box office. Civilization was selected for preservation in the National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant". Ince added a few stages and an administration building to Triangle Studios before selling his shares to Griffith and Sennett in 1918. Three years later, the studios were acquired by Goldwyn Pictures, and in 1924 the facility became Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer studios. Although many believe that such classics as Gone with the Wind and King Kong were later filmed on that same lot, those movies in fact had been shot at 9336 West Washington Blvd at the Thomas H. Ince Studios. Thomas H. Ince Studios For a while, Ince joined competitor Adolph Zukor to form Paramount-Artcraft Pictures (later Paramount Pictures). However, he yearned to go back to running his own studio. On July 19, 1918, following Samuel Goldwyn's acquisition of the Triangle lot, he purchased a 14-acre (57,000 m2) property at 9336 West Washington Blvd. on an option basis from Culver along with a $132,000 loan. Thus was formed Thomas H. Ince Studios, which operated from 1919 to 1924. (The area later known as RKO Forty Acres was southeast of the studio.) Ince Studios was to be another Culver City historic landmark. When Ince conceived the idea of building his own studio, he was determined to have it different from the others. Plans submitted to him by architects Meyer & Holler, included having whole front administrative building made a replica of George Washington's home at Mount Vernon. The resulting administration building, known as "The Mansion", was the first building on the lot. In back of the impressive office building were approximately 40 buildings, most of which were designed in the Colonial Revival style. A small group of bungalows, built for various movie stars and designed in styles popular in the 1920s and '30s, were constructed on the west side of the lot. By 1920, two glass stages, a hospital, fire department, reservoir/swimming pool, and the back lot were completed. That same year, President Woodrow Wilson took a tour of the studios as did the King and Queen of Belgium, along with their son, Prince Leopold, among much pomp and ceremony. Ince had two or three companies working continuously on the lot at any given time. According to film historian Marc Wanamaker, Ince worked with a team of eight directors but "he retained creative control of his films, developing the shooting scripts" and personally assembling each of his films. By now, Ince had drifted away from westerns in favor of social dramas and he made a few significant films including Anna Christie (1923), based on the play by Eugene O'Neill, and Human Wreckage (1923), which was an early anti-drug film starring Dorothy Davenport (widow of addicted star Wallace Reid). Although Ince found distribution for his films through Paramount and MGM, he was no longer as powerful as he once had been and tried to regain his status in Hollywood. In 1919, with several other independent entrepreneurs (notably his old partner at Triangle, Mack Sennett, Marshall Neilan, Allan Dwan and Maurice Tourneur) he co-founded the independent releasing company, Associated Producers, Inc., to distribute their films. However, Associated Producers merged with First National in 1922. Though Ince still made some significant motion pictures, the studio system was starting to take over Hollywood. With little room for an independent producer and despite his attempts, Ince could not regain the powerful standing he once held in the industry. He and other independent producers tried to form the Cinematic Finance Corporation in 1921, which made loans to producers who already had been successful, but only accomplished its goal in a limited sense. In 1925, a year after Ince's death, the studio was sold (with Pathé America) to Ince's friend Cecil B. Demille. Besides DeMille, among those who had offices on the lot were producer Howard Hughes and Selznick International Pictures. About four years later, DeMille sold his interest to Pathé and the studio became known as the Pathé Culver City Studio. By 1928 after mergers, the studio became RKO/Pathé. By 1957, a number of other studios followed: Desilu Culver, Culver City Studios, Laird International Studios, etc. In 1991, Sony Pictures Entertainment purchased the property as the home for its television endeavors, renaming it Culver Studios, and eventually selling it in 2004 to a group of investors; the street intersecting the studios was renamed Ince Blvd. The studio is still home to Brooksfilms today. Death Ince's death at the age of 44 has been the subject of much speculation and scandal, with rumors of murder, mystery, and jealousy. The official cause of his death was heart failure, and while witnesses (including his widow Nell) corroborate that his medical condition brought about his death, rumors and sensationalism continued decades later, fueled with the 2001 release of the movie The Cat's Meow. Ince and William Randolph Hearst had been negotiating a deal under which Hearst's Cosmopolitan Productions would use Ince's studio. Hearst visited Ince at his home, his "Dias Dorados" estate at 1051 Benedict Canyon Drive, on Saturday November 15 and invited him for a weekend cruise on his yacht to honor Ince's birthday and to work out details of the Ince/Cosmopolitan deal. According to Ince's widow, Nell, Ince took a train to San Diego, where he joined the guests the next morning. At dinner that Sunday night, the group celebrated his birthday but later Ince suffered an acute bout of indigestion due to his consumption of salted almonds and champagne, both forbidden as he had peptic ulcers. Accompanied by Dr. Goodman, a licensed though non-practicing physician, Ince traveled by train to Del Mar, where he was taken to a hotel and given medical treatment by a second doctor and a nurse. Ince then summoned his wife and Dr. Ida Cowan Glasgow (Ince's personal physician) to Del Mar with Ince's eldest son William accompanying them. The group traveled by train to his Los Angeles home where Ince died. Nell said that Ince had been treated for chest pains caused by angina, but years later his son William became a physician and said that his father's illness resembled thrombosis. Dr. Glasgow signed the death certificate citing heart failure as the cause of death. The front page of the Wednesday morning Los Angeles Times supposedly sensationalized the story: '"Movie Producer Shot on Hearst Yacht!", but the headlines vanished in the evening edition. On November 20, the Los Angeles Times published Ince's obituary citing heart disease as the cause of death along with his failing health from an automobile accident two years earlier. A month later, the New York Times reported that the San Diego District Attorney announced that Ince's death was caused by heart failure and no further investigation was necessary. Both Ince and his wife were practicing Theosophists who preferred cremation and had arranged for it long before Ince's death. While rumors prevailed that Ince's widow suddenly departed the country after her husband's death, she actually left for Europe about seven months later in July 1925. However, several conflicting stories circulated about the incident, often revolving around a claim that Hearst shot Ince in the head after mistaking him for Charlie Chaplin. Chaplin's valet, Toraichi Kono, claimed to have seen Ince when he came ashore via stretcher in San Diego. Kono told his wife that Ince's head was "bleeding from a bullet wound." The story quickly spread among Japanese domestic workers throughout Beverly Hills. Charles Lederer, the nephew of Hearst's longtime partner Marion Davies, also told a similar story to Peter Bogdanovich, the director of The Cat's Meow. Elinor Glyn, who was on the yacht, told Eleanor Boardman that everyone aboard the yacht had been sworn to secrecy about the events, which would indicate more than a death under natural circumstances. But during Ince's funeral, the Los Angeles Times noted that his casket would remain open for one hour "to afford friends and studio employees to pass for one last glimpse of the man they loved and respected", with no witnesses ever mentioning a bullet wound. Ince's body was cremated on November 21 in Hollywood Forever Cemetery and the ashes returned to his family on December 24, 1924 who reportedly scattered them at sea. Movie columnist Louella Parsons' name also figured into the Ince scandal, with some speculating that she had been aboard the Oneida that fatal day. When the Oneida sailed, Parsons was a New York movie columnist for one of Hearst's papers. Supposedly, after the Ince affair, Hearst gave her a lifetime contract and expanded her syndication. However, other sources show that Parsons did not gain her position with Hearst as part of "hush money" but had been the motion picture editor of the Hearst-owned New York American in December 1923 and her contract was signed a year before Ince's death. Another story circulated that Hearst provided Nell Ince with a trust fund just before she left for Europe and that Hearst paid off Ince's mortgage on his Château Élysée apartment building in Hollywood. But Nell was left a very wealthy woman and the Château Élysée was an apartment she had already owned and had built on the grounds where the Ince home once stood. Years later, Hearst spoke to a journalist about the rumor that he had murdered Tom Ince. "Not only am I innocent of this Ince murder," he said, "So is everybody else." Nell Ince herself was increasingly frustrated over the Hearst rumors surrounding her husband's death and remarked: "Do you think I would have done nothing if I even suspected that my husband had been victim of foul play on anyone's part?" But the myth of Ince's death overshadowed his reputation as a pioneering filmmaker and his role in the growth of the film industry. His studio was sold soon after he died. His final film, Enticement, a romance set in the French Alps, was released posthumously in 1925. In popular culture Murder at San Simeon (Scribner), a 1996 novel by Patricia Hearst (William Randolph's granddaughter) and Cordelia Frances Biddle, is a mystery based on the 1924 death of producer Thomas Ince aboard the yacht of William Randolph Hearst. This fictitious version presents Chaplin and Davies as lovers and Hearst as the jealous old man unwilling to share his mistress. RKO 281 is a 1999 film about the making of Citizen Kane. The movie includes a scene depicting screenwriter Herman Mankiewicz telling director Orson Welles his account of the incident. The Cat's Meow, the 2001 film directed by Peter Bogdanovich, is another fictitious version of Ince's death. Bogdanovich notes that he heard the story from director Orson Welles, who said he heard it from screenwriter Charles Lederer (Marion Davies's nephew). In Bogdanovich's film, Ince is portrayed by Cary Elwes. The movie was adapted by Steven Peros from his own play, which premiered in Los Angeles in 1997. Ince's star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame is located at 6727 Hollywood Blvd. in Los Angeles. The Silver Sheet A studio publication promoting Thomas H. Ince Productions. Filmography, posters and newspaper ads see Thomas H. Ince filmography Notes References External links Ince Theater, Culver City, California Thomas H. Ince Papers, 1913–1964, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. Thomas H. Ince Papers, 1907–1925, Museum of Modern Art, Film Study Center Special Collections, New York City 1880 births 1924 deaths Cinema pioneers American male screenwriters American male silent film actors American film production company founders American people of English descent Writers from Newport, Rhode Island Male actors from Rhode Island 20th-century American male actors Articles containing video clips Death conspiracy theories Film directors from Rhode Island Screenwriters from Rhode Island 20th-century American male writers 20th-century American screenwriters

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An axial compressor is a gas compressor that can continuously pressurize gases. It is a rotating, airfoil-based compressor in which the gas or working fluid principally flows parallel to the axis of rotation, or axially. This differs from other rotating compressors such as centrifugal compressor, axi-centrifugal compressors and mixed-flow compressors where the fluid flow will include a "radial component" through the compressor. The energy level of the fluid increases as it flows through the compressor due to the action of the rotor blades which exert a torque on the fluid. The stationary blades slow the fluid, converting the circumferential component of flow into pressure. Compressors are typically driven by an electric motor or a steam or a gas turbine. Axial flow compressors produce a continuous flow of compressed gas, and have the benefits of high efficiency and large mass flow rate, particularly in relation to their size and cross-section. They do, however, require several rows of airfoils to achieve a large pressure rise, making them complex and expensive relative to other designs (e.g. centrifugal compressors). Axial compressors are integral to the design of large gas turbines such as jet engines, high speed ship engines, and small scale power stations. They are also used in industrial applications such as large volume air separation plants, blast furnace air, fluid catalytic cracking air, and propane dehydrogenation. Due to high performance, high reliability and flexible operation during the flight envelope, they are also used in aerospace rocket engines, as fuel pumps and in other critical high volume applications. Description Axial compressors consist of rotating and stationary components. A shaft drives a central drum which is retained by bearings inside of a stationary tubular casing. Between the drum and the casing are rows of airfoils, each row connected to either the drum or the casing in an alternating manner. A pair of one row of rotating airfoils and the next row of stationary airfoils is called a stage. The rotating airfoils, also known as blades or rotors, accelerate the fluid in both the axial and circumferential directions. The stationary airfoils, also known as vanes or stators, convert the increased kinetic energy into static pressure through diffusion and redirect the flow direction of the fluid to prepare it for the rotor blades of the next stage. The cross-sectional area between rotor drum and casing is reduced in the flow direction to maintain an optimum Mach number axial velocity as the fluid is compressed. Working As the fluid enters and leaves in the axial direction, the centrifugal component in the energy equation does not come into play. Here the compression is fully based on diffusing action of the passages. The diffusing action in the stator converts the absolute kinetic head of the fluid into a rise in pressure. The relative kinetic head in the energy equation is a term that exists only because of the rotation of the rotor. The rotor reduces the relative kinetic head of the fluid and adds it to the absolute kinetic head of the fluid i.e., the impact of the rotor on the fluid particles increases their velocity (absolute) and thereby reduces the relative velocity between the fluid and the rotor. In short, the rotor increases the absolute velocity of the fluid and the stator converts this into pressure rise. Designing the rotor passage with a diffusing capability can produce a pressure rise in addition to its normal functioning. This produces greater pressure rise per stage which constitutes a stator and a rotor together. This is the reaction principle in turbomachines. If 50% of the pressure rise in a stage is obtained at the rotor section, it is said to have a 50% reaction. Design The increase in pressure produced by a single stage is limited by the relative velocity between the rotor and the fluid, and the turning and diffusion capabilities of the airfoils. A typical stage in a commercial compressor will produce a pressure increase of between 15% and 60% (pressure ratios of 1.15–1.6) at design conditions with a polytropic efficiency in the region of 90–95%. To achieve different pressure ratios, axial compressors are designed with different numbers of stages and rotational speeds. As a rule of thumb we can assume that each stage in a given compressor has the same temperature rise (Delta T). Therefore, at the entry, temperature (Tstage) to each stage must increase progressively through the compressor and the ratio (Delta T)/(Tstage) entry must decrease, thus implying a progressive reduction in stage pressure ratio through the unit. Hence the rear stage develops a significantly lower pressure ratio than the first stage. Higher stage pressure ratios are also possible if the relative velocity between fluid and rotors is supersonic, but this is achieved at the expense of efficiency and operability. Such compressors, with stage pressure ratios of over 2, are only used where minimizing the compressor size, weight or complexity is critical, such as in military jets. The airfoil profiles are optimized and matched for specific velocities and turning. Although compressors can be run at other conditions with different flows, speeds, or pressure ratios, this can result in an efficiency penalty or even a partial or complete breakdown in flow (known as compressor stall and pressure surge respectively). Thus, a practical limit on the number of stages, and the overall pressure ratio, comes from the interaction of the different stages when required to work away from the design conditions. These “off-design” conditions can be mitigated to a certain extent by providing some flexibility in the compressor. This is achieved normally through the use of adjustable stators or with valves that can bleed fluid from the main flow between stages (inter-stage bleed). Modern jet engines use a series of compressors, running at different speeds; to supply air at around 40:1 pressure ratio for combustion with sufficient flexibility for all flight conditions. Kinetics and energy equations The law of moment of momentum states that the sum of the moments of external forces acting on a fluid which is temporarily occupying the control volume is equal to the net change of angular momentum flux through the control volume. The swirling fluid enters the control volume at radius, , with tangential velocity, , and leaves at radius, , with tangential velocity, . and are the absolute velocities at the inlet and outlet respectively. and are the axial flow velocities at the inlet and outlet respectively. and are the swirl velocities at the inlet and outlet respectively. and are the blade-relative velocities at the inlet and outlet respectively. is the linear velocity of the blade. is the guide vane angle and is the blade angle. Rate of change of momentum, F is given by the equation: (from velocity triangle) Power consumed by an ideal moving blade, P is given by the equation: Change in enthalpy of fluid in moving blades: Therefore, which implies, Isentropic compression in rotor blade, Therefore, which implies Degree of Reaction, The pressure difference between the entry and exit of the rotor blade is called reaction pressure. The change in pressure energy is calculated through degree of reaction. Therefore, Performance characteristics Instabilities Greitzer used a Helmholtz resonator type of compression system model to predict the transient response of a compression system after a small perturbation superimposed on a steady operating condition. He found a non-dimensional parameter which predicted which mode of compressor instability, rotating stall or surge, would result. The parameter used the rotor speed, Helmholtz resonator frequency of the system and an "effective length" of the compressor duct. It had a critical value which predicted either rotating stall or surge where the slope of pressure ratio against flow changed from negative to positive. Steady-state performance Axial compressor performance is shown on a compressor map, also known as a characteristic, by plotting pressure ratio and efficiency against corrected mass flow at different values of corrected compressor speed. Axial compressors, particularly near their design point are usually amenable to analytical treatment, and a good estimate of their performance can be made before they are first run on a rig. The compressor map shows the complete running range, i.e. off-design, of the compressor from ground idle to its highest corrected rotor speed, which for a civil engine may occur at top-of-climb, or, for a military combat engine, at take-off on a cold day. Not shown is the sub-idle performance region needed for analyzing normal ground and in-flight windmill start behaviour. The performance of a single compressor stage may be shown by plotting stage loading coefficient () as a function of flow coefficient () Stage pressure ratio against flow rate is lower than for a no-loss stage as shown. Losses are due to blade friction, flow separation, unsteady flow and vane-blade spacing. Off-design operation The performance of a compressor is defined according to its design. But in actual practice, the operating point of the compressor deviates from the design- point which is known as off-design operation. from equation (1) and (2) The value of doesn't change for a wide range of operating points till stalling. Also because of minor change in air angle at rotor and stator, where is diffuser blade angle. is constant Representing design values with (') for off-design operations (from ): for positive values of J, slope of the curve is negative and vice versa. Surging In the plot of pressure-flow rate the line separating graph between two regions- unstable and stable is known as the surge line. This line is formed by joining surge points at different rpms. Unstable flow in axial compressors due to complete breakdown of the steady through flow is termed as surging. This phenomenon affects the performance of compressor and is undesirable. Surge cycle The following explanation for surging refers to running a compressor at a constant speed on a rig and gradually reducing the exit area by closing a valve. What happens, i.e. crossing the surge line, is caused by the compressor trying to deliver air, still running at the same speed, to a higher exit pressure. When the compressor is operating as part of a complete gas turbine engine, as opposed to on a test rig, a higher delivery pressure at a particular speed can be caused momentarily by burning too-great a step-jump in fuel which causes a momentary blockage until the compressor increases to the speed which goes with the new fuel flow and the surging stops. Suppose the initial operating point D () at some rpm N. On decreasing the flow-rate at same rpm along the characteristic curve by partial closing of the valve, the pressure in the pipe increases which will be taken care by increase in input pressure at the compressor. Further increase in pressure till point P (surge point), compressor pressure will increase. Further moving towards left keeping rpm constant, pressure in pipe will increase but compressor pressure will decrease leading to back air-flow towards the compressor. Due to this back flow, pressure in pipe will decrease because this unequal pressure condition cannot stay for a long period of time. Though valve position is set for lower flow rate say point G but compressor will work according to normal stable operation point say E, so path E-F-P-G-E will be followed leading to breakdown of flow, hence pressure in the compressor falls further to point H(). This increase and decrease of pressure in pipe will occur repeatedly in pipe and compressor following the cycle E-F-P-G-H-E also known as the surge cycle. This phenomenon will cause vibrations in the whole machine and may lead to mechanical failure. That is why left portion of the curve from the surge point is called unstable region and may cause damage to the machine. So the recommended operation range is on the right side of the surge line. Stalling Stalling is an important phenomenon that affects the performance of the compressor. An analysis is made of rotating stall in compressors of many stages, finding conditions under which a flow distortion can occur which is steady in a traveling reference frame, even though upstream total and downstream static pressure are constant. In the compressor, a pressure-rise hysteresis is assumed. It is a situation of separation of air flow at the aero-foil blades of the compressor. This phenomenon depending upon the blade-profile leads to reduced compression and drop in engine power. Positive stalling Flow separation occur on the suction side of the blade. Negative stalling Flow separation occur on the pressure side of the blade. Negative stall is negligible compared to the positive stall because flow separation is least likely to occur on the pressure side of the blade. In a multi-stage compressor, at the high pressure stages, axial velocity is very small. Stalling value decreases with a small deviation from the design point causing stall near the hub and tip regions whose size increases with decreasing flow rates. They grow larger at very low flow rate and affect the entire blade height. Delivery pressure significantly drops with large stalling which can lead to flow reversal. The stage efficiency drops with higher losses. Rotating stalling Non-uniformity of air flow in the rotor blades may disturb local air flow in the compressor without upsetting it. The compressor continues to work normally but with reduced compression. Thus, rotating stall decreases the effectiveness of the compressor. In a rotor with blades moving say towards right. Let some blades receives flow at higher incidence, this blade will stop positively. It creates obstruction in the passage between the blade to its left and itself. Thus the left blade will receive the flow at higher incidence and the blade to its right with decreased incidence. The left blade will experience more stall while the blade to its right will experience lesser stall. Towards the right stalling will decrease whereas it will increase towards its left. Movement of the rotating stall can be observed depending upon the chosen reference frame. Effects This reduces efficiency of the compressor Forced vibrations in the blades due to passage through stall compartment. These forced vibrations may match with the natural frequency of the blades causing resonance and hence failure of the blade. Development From an energy exchange point of view axial compressors are reversed turbines. Steam-turbine designer Charles Algernon Parsons, for example, recognized that a turbine which produced work by virtue of a fluid's static pressure (i.e. a reaction turbine) could have its action reversed to act as an air compressor, calling it a turbo compressor or pump. His rotor and stator blading described in one of his patents had little or no camber although in some cases the blade design was based on propeller theory. The machines, driven by steam turbines, were used for industrial purposes such as supplying air to blast furnaces. Parsons supplied the first commercial axial flow compressor for use in a lead smelter in 1901. Parsons' machines had low efficiencies, later attributed to blade stall, and were soon replaced with more efficient centrifugal compressors. Brown Boveri & Cie produced "reversed turbine" compressors, driven by gas turbines, with blading derived from aerodynamic research which were more efficient than centrifugal types when pumping large flow rates of 40,000 cu.ft. per minute at pressures up to 45 p.s.i. Because early axial compressors were not efficient enough a number of papers in the early 1920s claimed that a practical axial-flow turbojet engine would be impossible to construct. Things changed after A. A. Griffith published a seminal paper in 1926, noting that the reason for the poor performance was that existing compressors used flat blades and were essentially "flying stalled". He showed that the use of airfoils instead of the flat blades would increase efficiency to the point where a practical jet engine was a real possibility. He concluded the paper with a basic diagram of such an engine, which included a second turbine that was used to power a propeller. Although Griffith was well known due to his earlier work on metal fatigue and stress measurement, little work appears to have started as a direct result of his paper. The only obvious effort was a test-bed compressor built by Hayne Constant, Griffith's colleague at the Royal Aircraft Establishment. Other early jet efforts, notably those of Frank Whittle and Hans von Ohain, were based on the more robust and better understood centrifugal compressor which was widely used in superchargers. Griffith had seen Whittle's work in 1929 and dismissed it, noting a mathematical error, and going on to claim that the frontal size of the engine would make it useless on a high-speed aircraft. Real work on axial-flow engines started in the late 1930s, in several efforts that all started at about the same time. In England, Hayne Constant reached an agreement with the steam turbine company Metropolitan-Vickers (Metrovick) in 1937, starting their turboprop effort based on the Griffith design in 1938. In 1940, after the successful run of Whittle's centrifugal-flow design, their effort was re-designed as a pure jet, the Metrovick F.2. In Germany, von Ohain had produced several working centrifugal engines, some of which had flown including the world's first jet aircraft (He 178), but development efforts had moved on to Junkers (Jumo 004) and BMW (BMW 003), which used axial-flow designs in the world's first jet fighter (Messerschmitt Me 262) and jet bomber (Arado Ar 234). In the United States, both Lockheed and General Electric were awarded contracts in 1941 to develop axial-flow engines, the former a pure jet, the latter a turboprop. Northrop also started their own project to develop a turboprop, which the US Navy eventually contracted in 1943. Westinghouse also entered the race in 1942, their project proving to be the only successful one of the US efforts, later becoming the J30. As Griffith had originally noted in 1929, the large frontal size of the centrifugal compressor caused it to have higher drag than the narrower axial-flow type. Additionally the axial-flow design could improve its compression ratio simply by adding additional stages and making the engine slightly longer. In the centrifugal-flow design the compressor itself had to be larger in diameter, which was much more difficult to fit properly into a thin and aerodynamic aircraft fuselage (although not dissimilar to the profile of radial engines already in widespread use). On the other hand, centrifugal-flow designs remained much less complex (the major reason they "won" in the race to flying examples) and therefore have a role in places where size and streamlining are not so important. Axial-flow jet engines In the jet engine application, the compressor faces a wide variety of operating conditions. On the ground at takeoff the inlet pressure is high, inlet speed zero, and the compressor spun at a variety of speeds as the power is applied. Once in flight the inlet pressure drops, but the inlet speed increases (due to the forward motion of the aircraft) to recover some of this pressure, and the compressor tends to run at a single speed for long periods of time. There is simply no "perfect" compressor for this wide range of operating conditions. Fixed geometry compressors, like those used on early jet engines, are limited to a design pressure ratio of about 4 or 5:1. As with any heat engine, fuel efficiency is strongly related to the compression ratio, so there is very strong financial need to improve the compressor stages beyond these sorts of ratios. Additionally the compressor may stall if the inlet conditions change abruptly, a common problem on early engines. In some cases, if the stall occurs near the front of the engine, all of the stages from that point on will stop compressing the air. In this situation the energy required to run the compressor drops suddenly, and the remaining hot air in the rear of the engine allows the turbine to speed up the whole engine dramatically. This condition, known as surging, was a major problem on early engines and often led to the turbine or compressor breaking and shedding blades. For all of these reasons, axial compressors on modern jet engines are considerably more complex than those on earlier designs. Spools All compressors have an optimum point relating rotational speed and pressure, with higher compressions requiring higher speeds. Early engines were designed for simplicity, and used a single large compressor spinning at a single speed. Later designs added a second turbine and divided the compressor into low-pressure and high-pressure sections, the latter spinning faster. This two-spool design, pioneered on the Bristol Olympus, resulted in increased efficiency. Further increases in efficiency may be realised by adding a third spool, but in practice the added complexity increases maintenance costs to the point of negating any economic benefit. That said, there are several three-spool engines in use, perhaps the most famous being the Rolls-Royce RB211, used on a wide variety of commercial aircraft. Bleed air, variable stators As an aircraft changes speed or altitude, the pressure of the air at the inlet to the compressor will vary. In order to "tune" the compressor for these changing conditions, designs starting in the 1950s would "bleed" air out of the middle of the compressor in order to avoid trying to compress too much air in the final stages. This was also used to help start the engine, allowing it to be spun up without compressing much air by bleeding off as much as possible. Bleed systems were already commonly used anyway, to provide airflow into the turbine stage where it was used to cool the turbine blades, as well as provide pressurized air for the air conditioning systems inside the aircraft. A more advanced design, the variable stator, used blades that can be individually rotated around their axis, as opposed to the power axis of the engine. For startup they are rotated to "closed", reducing compression, and then are rotated back into the airflow as the external conditions require. The General Electric J79 was the first major example of a variable stator design, and today it is a common feature of most military engines. Closing the variable stators progressively, as compressor speed falls, reduces the slope of the surge (or stall) line on the operating characteristic (or map), improving the surge margin of the installed unit. By incorporating variable stators in the first five stages, General Electric Aircraft Engines has developed a ten-stage axial compressor capable of operating at a 23:1 design pressure ratio. Design notes Energy exchange between rotor and fluid The relative motion of the blades to the fluid adds velocity or pressure or both to the fluid as it passes through the rotor. The fluid velocity is increased through the rotor, and the stator converts kinetic energy to pressure energy. Some diffusion also occurs in the rotor in most practical designs. The increase in velocity of the fluid is primarily in the tangential direction (swirl) and the stator removes this angular momentum. The pressure rise results in a stagnation temperature rise. For a given geometry the temperature rise depends on the square of the tangential Mach number of the rotor row. Current turbofan engines have fans that operate at Mach 1.7 or more, and require significant containment and noise suppression structures to reduce blade loss damage and noise. Compressor maps A map shows the performance of a compressor and allows determination of optimal operating conditions. It shows the mass flow along the horizontal axis, typically as a percentage of the design mass flow rate, or in actual units. The pressure rise is indicated on the vertical axis as a ratio between inlet and exit stagnation pressures. A surge or stall line identifies the boundary to the left of which the compressor performance rapidly degrades and identifies the maximum pressure ratio that can be achieved for a given mass flow. Contours of efficiency are drawn as well as performance lines for operation at particular rotational speeds. Compression stability Operating efficiency is highest close to the stall line. If the downstream pressure is increased beyond the maximum possible the compressor will stall and become unstable. Typically the instability will be at the Helmholtz frequency of the system, taking the downstream plenum into account. See also References Bibliography Treager, Irwin E. 'Aircraft Gas Turbine Engine Technology' 3rd edn, McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1995, Hill, Philip and Carl Peterson. 'Mechanics and Thermodynamics of Propulsion,' 2nd edn, Prentice Hall, 1991. . Kerrebrock, Jack L. 'Aircraft Engines and Gas Turbines,' 2nd edn, Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 1992. . Rangwalla, Abdulla. S. 'Turbo-Machinery Dynamics: Design and Operation,' New York: McGraw-Hill: 2005. . Wilson, David Gordon and Theodosios Korakianitis. 'The Design of High-Efficiency Turbomachinery and Turbines,' 2nd edn, Prentice Hall, 1998. . Gas compressors

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The 2000 European Grand Prix (officially the 2000 Warsteiner Grand Prix of Europe) was a Formula One motor race held on 21 May 2000 at the Nürburgring in the German town of Nürburg in the state of Rhineland-Palatinate before 142,000 spectators. It was the sixth round of the 2000 Formula One World Championship and the ninth European Grand Prix in Formula One. Ferrari driver Michael Schumacher won the 67-lap race after starting from second place. Mika Häkkinen of the McLaren team finished in second and his teammate David Coulthard was third. Coulthard won the ninth pole position of his career by recording the fastest lap in qualifying. His teammate Häkkinen made a brisk getaway from third to take the lead into the first corner. He led the first ten laps until Michael Schumacher overtook him on lap 11. Heavy rain on lap 12 prompted the entire field to make pit stops and switch from the dry compound tyres to the wet-weather tyres. Michael Schumacher continued to lead until his second pit stop on lap 36, relinquishing it to Häkkinen for the next nine laps, after which the former regained the position. Michael Schumacher won the race, with Häkkinen 13.822 seconds behind in second, and Coulthard one lap adrift in third. It was Schumacher's fourth victory of the season, and the 39th of his career. Due to the result of the race, Michael Schumacher extended his lead over Häkkinen in the Drivers' Championship to 18 points. Coulthard remained in third place and he increased the gap by one point over the second Ferrari of Rubens Barrichello in fourth. In the Constructors' Championship, Ferrari increased their lead to ten points from the second-placed McLaren. Williams remained in third notwithstanding the team scored no points as Benetton passed Jordan for fourth place with eleven races left in the season. Background The 2000 European Grand Prix was the sixth of the seventeen races in the 2000 Formula One World Championship and the ninth edition of the event as part of the series. It was held at the 13-turn Nürburgring in the German town of Nürburg in the state of Rhineland-Palatinate on 21 May 2000. Tyre supplier Bridgestone brought four types to tyre to the race: two dry compounds, the Soft and the Extra Soft compounds, and two wet-weather compounds (the soft and the hard rain tyres). Going into the race, Ferrari driver Michael Schumacher led the Drivers' Championship with 36 points. His nearest rival was McLaren's Mika Häkkinen in second with 22 points and his teammate David Coulthard was a further two points behind in third. Rubens Barrichello in the second Ferrari was fourth with 13 points and Ralf Schumacher of the Williams team rounded out the top five with 12 points. In the Constructors' Championship, Ferrari (with 49 points) led McLaren by seven points. With 15 points, Williams stood in third. The Jordan and Benetton teams contended for fourth place. After the Spanish Grand Prix on 7 May 2000, the teams conducted in-season testing to prepare for the event. The McLaren, Sauber, Benetton, Jordan, Arrows, British American Racing (BAR) and Williams teams opted to test at the Circuito de Jerez between 9 and 11 May. Coulthard missed the test to help him recover from three broken ribs he sustained in a plane crash at Lyon. His teammate Häkkinen was fastest on the first day of running and BAR driver Ricardo Zonta paced the second day's running. Alexander Wurz set the fastest lap on the final day for the Benetton team. The Prost team conducted three days of running at the Circuit de Nevers Magny-Cours with driver Nick Heidfeld to test the AP03's aerodynamic components. Luca Badoer spent three days at the Fiorano Circuit practicing pit stops and testing aerodynamic and mechanical setups of the Ferrari F1-F2000. Barrichello ran a new engine for the car and performed tyre testing at the Mugello Circuit. Michael Schumacher won the season's first three races and had an healthy advantage over Häkkinen, who had reliability issues in the Australian and Brazilian races. Coulthard then won the British Grand Prix and Häkkinen the Spanish Grand Prix as Michael Schumacher had sub-par results at both of those races. Häkkinen said the gap was not extensive considering there were twelve races left in the season and that he was better able to handle pressure, "In this sport something weird always happens. If I were in Michael's shoes I would be getting a little bit worried at seeing us pick up two wins in a row – more than that, two 1–2 finishes." His teammate Coulthard said he would not allow his breaking three of his ribs to lose him momentum and hoped McLaren would finish first and second, "We are slowly chipping away at Michael's lead, but he has had this amazing run of luck and has finished every race in the points this season so it is still going to be difficult. But I am very confident, given my recent results, though it is still hard thinking about those six points I lost in Brazil when I was disqualified." A total of 11 teams (each represented by a different constructor) fielded two race drivers each with no changes from the season entry list. Some teams made modifications to their cars for the European Grand Prix. Both Ferrari and McLaren fitted a revised aerodynamic package aimed primarily at improving their car's performance in the qualifying session. Ferrari brought a new engine called the 049B and installed smaller Brembo brake calipers and lighter disc pads. McLaren mounted cooling chimneys on both sides of the MP4-15 to facilitate in the disposal of heat. Williams brought new cast titanium uprights that the team elected not to use at the preceding Spanish Grand Prix. BAR ran its 002 cars with a new Honda engine and a revised version of its Xtrac-designed gearbox. Minardi installed a revised specification of front wing to their M02s following the completion of wind tunnel testing on it and the team continued to use a cast titanium transmission in Gastón Mazzacane's car. Practice Four practice sessions were held before the Sunday race, two one-hour sessions on Friday and two 45-minute sessions on Saturday. The Friday practice sessions were held in cool and variable weather. Overnight rain created a wet track that dried during the day. Michael Schumacher was fastest with a time of 1 minute and 21.092 seconds, followed by BAR's Jacques Villeneuve, the Jordan duo of Heinz-Harald Frentzen and Jarno Trulli, Barrichello, Coulthard, Zonta, Häkkinen and Pedro Diniz for Sauber in positions two to ten. During his final lap of the session, Häkkinen locked his tyres at the Dunlop Curve corner and got beached in the turn's gravel trap. Rain fell between the conclusion of the morning session and the start of the afternoon session. It continued to fall at the north section of the track in the opening minutes of the second session before it dried and lap times improved sufficiently over the next 20 minutes. A light fuel load and a new set of tyres on his Williams FW22 meant Jenson Button recorded the day's fastest lap of 1 minute and 19.808 seconds with one minute of the session remaining. Wurz was 0.440 seconds slower in second. The McLaren pair of Häkkinen and Coulthard were third and fourth. Michael Schumacher, Ralf Schumacher, Trulli, Zonta, Heidfeld and Villeneuve followed in the top ten. An engine fault curtailed Ralf Schumacher's running and Giancarlo Fisichella of the Benetton team damaged the left-hand side of his car in a collision with a tyre barrier beside the circuit. Coulthard spun on a kerb at the Veedol chicane. The weather was cold and overcast on Saturday morning. In the third practice session, Michael Schumacher set the fastest lap of 1 minute and 18.527 seconds, ahead of Häkkinen, Frentzen, Coulthard, Pedro de la Rosa of the Arrows team, Ralf Schumacher, Zonta, Villeneuve, Button and Barrichello. Arrows driver Jos Verstappen's running was curtailed after 17 minutes due to smoke billowing from his engine. Button hit the kerbs on the track, spun, and damaged his car against the tyre barrier. Michael Schumacher did not improve his time; he remained the fastest driver in the fourth practice session. Barrichello in second was driving faster and he finished the session 0.227 seconds slower than his teammate. Häkkinen and Coulthard fell to third and fourth as Frentzen dropped to fifth. Fisichella improved to sixth, as the rest of the top ten comprised Villeneuve, Ralf Schumacher, De La Rosa and Trulli. During the session, Coulthard slid into a gravel trap at turn three though he rejoined the track without any apparent damage. He stopped at the side of the circuit at the Ford Kurve and track marshals extricated his car into an escape road. Marc Gené spun his Minardi car at the Castrol-S chicane and Ralf Schumacher drove into the grass after running deep at the Veedol chicane. Qualifying Saturday afternoon's one hour qualifying session saw every driver limited to twelve laps, with the starting order decided by their fastest qualifying laps. During this session the 107% rule was in effect, requiring each driver to remain within 107 per cent of the fastest lap time to qualify for the race. Sections of the circuit were damp from an earlier rain shower, and more rain was forecast, prompting teams to install the extra soft compound tyres on their cars and drivers ventured onto the track early in qualifying. A heavy rainstorm in the final 25 minutes prevented drivers from improving their lap times due to a slippery track. Coulthard took McLaren's first pole position in event history, his first since the 1998 Canadian Grand Prix and the ninth of his career with a lap of 1 minute and 17.529 seconds. He was joined on the grid's front row by Michael Schumacher who had the pole position until Coulthard's time and ran wide at the Ford Kurve. This formation continued on the second row with Häkkinen third after not feeling confident in the setup of his car and Barrichello took fourth after driver errors on his first two timed laps. Fifth-placed Ralf Schumacher was caught out by the change in conditions on a timed lap and went straight on at the Veedol chicane. Trulli, nursing a perforated eardrum, improved in the final minutes to go sixth, while Fisichella in seventh was delayed by Ralf Schumacher at the Coca-Cola Kurve. Jaguar's Eddie Irvine was baulked by one of the Prost cars en route to eighth as Villeneuve in ninth could not begin a fourth timed lap before qualifying ended. Frentzen qualified tenth as Jos Verstappen's Arrows car slowed his first timed lap. Button in 11th bemoaned venturing onto the track earlier than planned for his first timed lap and slower traffic hindered his final lap. A strategic error by the Arrows team meant De La Rosa was 12th and his teammate Verstappen 14th. They were separated by Heidfeld who fell from ninth to 13th in qualifying's final moments because he did not start a fourth timed lap. Wurz was caught out by the change in the weather and took 15th. Diniz in 16th mistimed a chance to begin his final timed lap and Johnny Herbert's Jaguar was 17th. Jean Alesi, who took 18th place, switched to the spare Prost setup for his teammate Heidfeld after his race car's electronic management system ceased the gearbox. He spun on the wet track and returned to the pit lane to retake his race car until the gearbox failed. Zonta qualified in 19th because his car's setup slowed him and another driver prevented him from setting his final timed lap because the session ended less than a second before he crossed the start/finish line. Sauber's Mika Salo was another driver who missed the cut-off time to set his final timed lap and was in 20th place. Slower traffic restricted Gené and his teammate Mazzacane to 21st and 22nd respectively. Post-qualifying Heidfeld's car was found to be under the minimum weight limit of when it was pushed onto the weighbridge during qualifying. The Prost team were summoned to meet the stewards and accepted the car was underweight. The stewards disqualified Heidfeld from the race per Formula One regulations. No appeal was filed by the Prost team. Qualifying classification Notes – Nick Heidfeld was found to have a car underweight and was barred from the race. Warm-up A 30-minute warm-up session on Sunday morning took place in cool and dry weather. All drivers fine-tuned their race set-ups and set laps in their spare cars. Michael Schumacher went fastest in the session's closing seconds with a time of 1 minute and 20.251 seconds. Häkkinen was nine-thousands of a second slower in second. Frentzen, Barrichello, Verstappen, Coulthard, De La Rosa, Villeneuve, Irvine and Trulli completed the top ten. Towards the conclusion of the session, the left rear wheel on Fisichella's car detached and a track marshal retrieved it as it rolled onto the track. Race The race was held in front of a crowd of 142,000 from 14:00 local time. The weather at the start was overcast and dry with an 80% chance of rain. The air temperature was and the track temperature . Every driver, except for Villeneuve, Verstappen, Barrichello and Michael Schumacher, began on the soft compound tyre. Coulthard was slow to react as his teammate Häkkinen made a brisk getaway to drive in-between Coulthard and Michael Schumacher and take the lead going into the Castrol-S chicane. Villeneuve moved from ninth to fifth by driving on the outside. Ralf Schumacher turned left to draw alongside Villeneuve; the former held fourth place as Villeneuve went onto the grass. Further down the field, Trulli and Fisichella collided at the Castrol-S chicane, breaking Trulli's left-rear suspension and he stopped at the side of the track to retire. The two Arrows put Frentzen off the track at the same corner and allowing them and Diniz to pass. Going downhill to the Dunlop chicane, Ralf Schumacher attempted to pass Villeneuve for fifth; Villeneuve defended the position. At the end of the first lap, Häkkinen led Michael Schumacher by 0.562 seconds, who in turn was 0.998 seconds ahead of Coulthard in third. Barrichello in fourth, was followed by Villeneuve in fifth and Ralf Schumacher in sixth. Michael Schumacher set the fastest lap at the time on lap two, completing a circuit in 1 minute and 22.438 seconds. On the same lap, De La Rosa overtook his teammate Verstappen to move into ninth and Alesi passed Button for 13th. Frentzen retired on lap three with smoke billowing from the rear of his car due to a piston sealing a gap between the engine's combustion chamber and crankcase failing. At the front, another fastest lap from Michael Schumacher lowered Häkkinen's advantage to 0.4 seconds. A lack of rear grip affected Coulthard's handling and the fourth-placed Barrichello pressured him. Villeneuve in fifth was distanced by the top four. On lap four, Ralf Schumacher was passed by Fisichella for sixth and De La Rosa overtook Irvine for eighth place. Fisichella drew close to Villeneuve in fifth as De La Rosa got ahead of Ralf Schumacher for seventh two laps later. On the eighth lap, Michael Schumacher set the race's overall fastest lap, a 1-minute and 22.269 seconds as he used less of the track all round the lap than Häkkinen. Villeneuve made a driver error at the Veedol chicane on lap nine, and Fisichella used his better traction and car handling to steer right out of the turn and pass Villeneuve into the Coca-Cola Kurve. Light rain began to fall on the tenth lap. Cresting a hill to the Veedol chicane on lap 11, Michael Schumacher slipstreamed Häkkinen, and put him wide, making a pass to the left for the lead. Häkkinen lost traction and Michael Schumacher opened a lead of four-tenths of a second at the end of the lap. The rain intensity began to increase on the next lap and the track became slippery. Barrichello achieved a better exit coming out of the Coca-Cola Kurve and he overtook Coulthard for third on the start/finish straight. Further back, Irvine passed Ralf Schumacher at the Veedol chicane to move into eighth and Wurz was overtaken by Alesi for tenth. The rain made teams uncertain whether to stop for the wet-weather tyres though Herbert began the pit stop phase at the end of lap 12. In clear air, Michael Schumacher extended his lead over Häkkinen to more than five seconds by the 13th lap. Gené spun onto the grass and damaged the front wing on the lap for which he entered the pit lane to have it replaced. Coulthard made his first pit stop on the next lap and Michael Schumacher and Häkkinen followed on lap 15. Both of their pit stops were problematic: Michael Schuamcher's refueller discovered no fuel had been inserted into the car for three seconds before resetting the fuel nozzle. Häkkinen's pit crew had difficulty fitting the right-rear wheel on his car and was stationary for an additional ten seconds. Michael Schumacher rejoined the race in front of Coulthard and Häkkinen fell to fifth. Coulthard turned left to attempt an overtake on Michael Schumacher into turn three to which the latter responded by blocking Coulthard's path. Barrichello led one lap before his pit stop on lap 16 and Ralf Schumacher followed suit. Because he spent longer on the wet track on the dry compound tyres than his teammate, Barrichello emerged in ninth and Michael Schumacher regained the lead. On the 19th lap, Fisichella drove right to pass De La Rosa going downhill to the Dunlop-Kurve hairpin for fourth and repelled the latter's manoeuvre to retake the position. By the 20th lap, Häkkinen was the fastest driver on the track and he reduced the gap to Michael Schumacher by two seconds per lap as his teammate Coulthard lost seven seconds to the latter. Coulthard went to the left of the Veedol chicane and allowed his teammate Häkkinen to move into second on the next lap. Michael Schumacher lost control of his car at the Veedol chicane on lap 22 and retained the lead. Further back, Barrichello overtook Verstappen, Irvine and Ralf Schumacher to return to fifth place by lap 23. Two laps later, Ralf Schumacher passed Herbert for ninth. On lap 28, a driveshaft failure on Salo's car caued him to lose control of his car and he retired in a gravel trap. Verstappen overtook Irvine on the outside at the exit to the Coca-Cola Kurve for seventh at the end of lap 29. Irvine attempted to retake the position by out-braking Verstappen into the Castrol-S chicane. He lost rear grip past the apex and slid into the side of Verstappen's car. As Irvine rotated in front of Ralf Schumacher, the latter spun into the rear of the Jaguar. Ralf Schumacher spun onto the grass and Irvine's rear wing detached at turn three. The loss of downforce beached Irvine in the gravel trap, as Verstappen spun and crashed against the right-side tyre barrier exiting the Ford Kurve. Further up the field, Barrichello caught and overtook Fisichella into the Veedol chicane for fourth on lap 32. He entered the pit lane on the next lap as the technical director of Ferrari Ross Brawn switched Barrichello to a three-stop strategy to better recover positions on dry tyres on a wet track. Michael Schumacher made a pit stop on lap 35 for enough fuel to finish the race. Häkkinen took the lead on lap 36 as Schumacher emerged in second. He increased the lead to 25.6 seconds by lap 40 since Michael Schumacher had a heavily fuelled car. Three laps later, Alesi overtook Wurz for tenth. Häkkinen had delayed his second pit stop for ten laps; he was unable to build up a lead large enough because of slower traffic and was leading by 21.9 seconds by lap 44. He and his teammate Coulthard made their final pit stops on lap 45, and rejoined in second and fifth respectively. With their pit stops complete, Michael Schumacher led Häkkinen by 12.5 seconds with the yet-to-stop De La Rosa third. Villeneuve was told to enter the pit lane from fifth on lap 46. He was retired because his team detected via telemetry an engine fault linked to a valve issue. De La Rosa made his stop on the 48th lap, elevating Barichello to third and Coulthard to fourth. On that lap, Gené retired with a failed accelerator throttle. On lap 49, Button was duelling with Herbert and ran into the rear of Herbert's car at the slow Veedol chicane, creating a hole in the leading edge of the Williams' front wing that Button was unable to notice; both drivers remained on the circuit and continued. Barrichello made the race's final pit stop on lap 51. Barrichello gained seven seconds on Coulthard; the gap was not large enough for Barrichello to retain third and he fell to fourth. Three laps later, Zonta's rear wheels locked under braking and he spun into a gravel trap and then beached upon a kerb. On lap 61, Wurz out-braked Button going uphill towards the Veedol chicane for tenth. Entering the Coca-Cola Kurve on the next lap, Wurz went to the right of Herbert, who remained wide to provide Wurz with space to negotiate through. Wurz was faster and he collided with Herbert. Both cars pirouetted through 180 degrees into a gravel trap. Wurz retired as Herbert continued until he spun through 180 degrees for a second time before retiring. Their retirements elevated Button to seventh. He remained there until enough water penetrated the hole in his front wing and caused an sudden electrical fault that cut out the engine on lap 65. Unhindered in the final 19 laps, Michael Schumacher negotiated his way past slower traffic, and finished first for his fourth victory of the season and the 39th of his career a time of 1 hour, 42 minutes and 0.307 seconds at an average speed of . Häkkinen followed 13.822 seconds later in second and his teammate Coulthard was one lap behind in third, nursing a mechanical issue. Barrichello was close to Coulthard in fourth. Fisichella took fifth and De La Rosa registered Arrows' first points-scoring finish of 2000 in sixth. Diniz gained eight places from his starting position of 15th to finish seventh notwithstanding pirouetting three times early in the race. Mazzacane had an untroubled race and progressed from 21st to eighth. Alesi was the final finisher after gearbox problems meant he made four pit stops and entailed a ten-second stop-and-go penalty due to a faulty pit lane speed limiter button on his steering wheel that caused him to violate the pit lane speed limit. The attrition rate was high, with 9 of the 21 starters finishing the race. Post-race The top three drivers appeared on the podium to collect their trophies and spoke to the media in a later press conference. Michael Schumacher said that none of the leaders made pit stops on lap 12 because they did not want to install the wet-weather tyres and discover they were slower than the slick dry compounds, "We knew [the heavy rain] would come, but nobody had any idea whether it would start then or later. So obviously it was difficult. Then some drivers started to come in for rain tyres, and as soon as we saw they were faster we went straight in too." Häkkinen said his start from third to the lead was one of the best of his career, "[When you're third on the grid] that's the only chance to get through. You can immediately improve your position, and I was happy to do it because the disappointment I had in qualifying was fixed." Coulthard spoke of his feeling that he was fortunate to have finish third and called it "one of my most difficult race" due to a lack of grip at the rear of his car, "But I knew from following other cars myself that visibility was very bad. So I just concentrated on driving my car and waiting to see where I would finish when it was over." Barrichello said he was disappointed to take fourth because he felt he could have finished on the podium, "Three-stops was definitely the way to make up lost time, but it was very difficult to overtake other cars in the spray. I have been looking forward to a close fought-race for some time now, and maybe I should have been on the podium today." De La Rosa scored his first points of the season and achieved his best finish since the 1999 Australian Grand Prix. The Arrows team owner Tom Walkinshaw said the driver's sixth-place finish would produce "a good foundation for the team to aspire to do better", and De La Rosa stated the result made up a poor start of the season, "We will try now, we will have to do it. I had some very good first laps and was always with the group but not because of drivers going out – this was just a deserved point." Wurz apologised to Herbert for the collision between the two at the Coca-Cola Kurve in the race's final laps. Frentzen called the event "a very disappointing weekend all round" for him and that "things have just not gone our way – and that is frustrating when you know your car is competitive." Irvine argued the three-car collision at the Castrol-S chicane on lap 30 lost him an opportunity to score points and Verstappen echoed similar feelings. Ralf Schumacher said he could not avoid the accident, "I saw the accident coming between Jos and Eddie and I expected them both to slide off onto the inside. But as Irvine's back end moved right in front of me, I had no way of getting out of the way." The new gap between Michael Schumacher and Häkkinen in the Drivers' Championship stood at 18 points in the former's favour. Coulthard was in third place with 24 points and moved a point clear from Barrichello in fourth. Ralf Schumacher remained in fifth with 12 points. In the Constructors' Championship, Ferrari moved a further three points in front of McLaren. Williams retained third place as Benetton passed Jordan in the battle for fourth with eleven races left in the season. Race classification Drivers who scored championship points are denoted in bold. Championship standings after the race Drivers' Championship standings Constructors' Championship standings Note: Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings. References European Grand Prix European Grand Prix European Grand Prix May 2000 sports events in Europe

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The following is a list of notable deaths in June 2014. Entries for each day are listed alphabetically by surname. A typical entry lists information in the following sequence: Name, age, country of citizenship and reason for notability, established cause of death, reference. June 2014 1 Salvador Anzelmo, 93, American lawyer and politician, member of the Louisiana House of Representatives (1960–1972). Liliana Leah Archibald, 86, English insurance broker, ruptured aortic aneurysm. Andres Briner, 91, Swiss music historian, academic and art journalist. Chang Feng-hsu, 85, Taiwanese politician, Pingtung County Magistrate (1964–1973), Mayor of Taipei (1972–1976), Minister of the Interior (1976–1978). John Edwards Conway, 79, American senior and chief judge (District of New Mexico), and federal judge (FISA Court). Ann B. Davis, 88, American actress (The Bob Cummings Show, The Brady Bunch), Emmy winner (1958, 1959), subdural hematoma from a fall. Dolfi Drimer, 79, Romanian chess player and engineer. Brian Farmer, 80, English footballer. Heinrich Fasching, 85, Austrian Roman Catholic prelate, Auxiliary Bishop of Sankt Pölten (1993–2004). Karlheinz Hackl, 65, Austrian actor (Sophie's Choice), malignant brain tumor. John Hills, 53, British jockey and horse trainer, pancreatic cancer. Yuri Kochiyama, 93, American internment camp detainee and civil rights activist. Dhondutai Kulkarni, 86, Indian Jaipur-Atrauli gharana singer, recipient of the Sangeet Natak Akademi Award (1990). Juhani Laakso, 72, Finnish Olympic shooter. Jay Lake, 49, American author (Mainspring), colorectal cancer. Valentin Mankin, 75, Ukrainian Soviet sailor, Olympic triple champion (1968, 1972, 1980) and silver medalist (1976), cancer. Lawrence G. Miller, 78, American politician, member of the Connecticut House of Representatives (since 1991). Tarō Naka, 92, Japanese poet, pneumonia. Joseph Olita, 70, Kenyan actor (Rise and Fall of Idi Amin, Mississippi Masala), hypertension. Antonio Rada, 77, Colombian World Cup footballer (1962), cancer. Tom Rounds, 77, American radio production executive (American Top 40), complications from surgery. Gholamreza Khosravi Savadjani, Iranian political prisoner, executed. Jack Souther, 90, Canadian volcanologist. Sir Hugo White, 74, British Navy officer, Governor of Gibraltar (1995–1997), Admiral and Commander-in-Chief Fleet (1992–1995). 2 Ramona Brooks, 63, American singer, cancer. Ivica Brzić, 73, Serbian football player (FK Željezničar Sarajevo, FK Vojvodina) and manager (CA Osasuna, RCD Mallorca, Alianza Lima). Max Charlesworth, 88, Australian philosopher. Anjan Das, 62, Indian National Film Award-winning filmmaker (Faltu), liver cancer. Ernie Eiffler, 88, Australian football player (Collingwood). Donald Flores, 65, Northern Marianan politician, Mayor of Saipan (since 2010), stroke. Anatol Grinţescu, 74, Romanian Olympic water polo player. Gennadi Gusarov, 77, Russian footballer. James Keegstra, 80, Canadian teacher and politician. James E. Keller, 71, American judge, member of the Kentucky Supreme Court (1999–2005), cancer. Nikolay Khrenkov, 29, Russian Olympic bobsledder (2014), traffic collision. Phạm Huỳnh Tam Lang, 72, Vietnamese football player and manager, stroke. Duraisamy Simon Lourdusamy, 90, Indian Roman Catholic prelate, Cardinal of Santa Maria (since 1985), Archbishop of Bangalore (1968–1971). Maciej Łukaszczyk, 80, Polish pianist. Weldon Myrick, 76, American steel guitar player (The Nashville A-Team, Area Code 615). Mame Reiley, 61, American political strategist, cancer. Kuaima Riruako, 79, Namibian chieftain, Paramount Chief of the Herero (since 1978), Hereroland Political Representative to South Africa (1978–1980), hypertension. Alexander Shulgin, 88, American pharmacologist and chemist, MDMA pioneer, liver cancer. Tapan Sikdar, 69, Indian politician, MP for Dum Dum (1998–2004), kidney failure. Marjorie Stapp, 92, American actress (My Three Sons, Dragnet). 3 Myles Ambrose, 87, American prosecutor and civil servant, commissioner for Customs and Border Patrol, heart failure. S. D. Bandaranayake, 96, Sri Lankan politician. Svyatoslav Belza, 72, Russian music and literary critic. Gordon Bennett, 59, Australian artist. Alan Callan, British businessman, record producer and music executive. (death announced on this date) Roy M. Goodman, 84, American politician, member of the New York Senate (1969–2002), respiratory failure. Sir Eldon Griffiths, 89, British politician, MP for Bury St Edmunds (1964–1992), Minister for Sport (1970–1974). Karl Harris, 34, English motorcycle racer, race collision. Elodie Lauten, 63, French-born American composer. André Lochon, 81, French Olympic water polo player. Virginia Luque, 86, Argentine singer and actress. Kaneyasu Marutani, 94, Japanese politician, member of the House of Councillors (1977–1989). Basheer Mauladad, 82–83, Kenyan Asian leader. (death announced on this date) Narendra Patni, 71, Indian chief executive, founded Patni Computer Systems, heart attack. Gopinath Munde, 64, Indian politician, Minister of Rural Development (2014), MP (since 2009), Maharashtra MLA, DCM and Minister of Home Affairs, traffic collision. Fritz Schwegler, 79, German artist and academic. James Alan Shelton, 53, American bluegrass guitarist (Ralph Stanley), cancer. 4 Neal Arden, 104, British actor. Joseph Befe Ateba, 52, Cameroonian Roman Catholic prelate, Bishop of Kribi (since 2008). John Baker, 86, British Anglican prelate, Bishop of Salisbury (1982–1993). Don Banfield, 97, Australian politician, Attorney-General of South Australia (1979). Waldemar Beck, 93, German Olympic rower. Tom Coleman, 85, American politician, member of the Georgia State Senate (1981–1995). George Ho, 94, American-born Chinese Hong Kong media owner (Commercial Television and Radio), recipient of the Gold Bauhinia Star (2001). A. Walton Litz, 84, American literary historian. Doc Neeson, 67, Australian musician (The Angels), malignant brain tumour. Ed Negre, 86, American race-car driver and owner (NASCAR, Dale Earnhardt). Chester Nez, 93, American Navajo code talker, last remaining Navajo who developed the code, recipient of the Congressional Gold Medal (2001), renal failure. William Schuelein, 86, American politician, member of the Oklahoma Senate (1972–1992). Cliff Severn, 88, British-born American cricketer (national team) and child actor (A Christmas Carol, How Green Was My Valley). Nathan Shamuyarira, 85, Zimbabwean newspaper editor and politician, Minister of Information (1980–1987) and Foreign Affairs (1987–1995), chest infection. Edward Sövik, 95, American architect and author. Sydney Templeman, Baron Templeman, 94, British judge and law lord. Martin Treacy, 78, Irish hurler (Kilkenny). Otto van Verschuer, 86, Dutch baron, estate manager and politician, member of the States of Gelderland (1962–1978) and Executive (1965–1978). Buddy Wentworth, 77, Namibian politician, recipient of the Ordre des Palmes Académiques, heart disease. Walter Winkler, 71, Polish footballer (Polonia Bytom, national team). Don Zimmer, 83, American baseball player (Brooklyn Dodgers) and manager (Boston Red Sox, Chicago Cubs), heart failure as a complication from cardiac surgery. 5 Bob Abrahamian, 35, American disc jockey and record collector, suicide. Abu Abdulrahman al-Bilawi, 42–43, Iraqi ISIL military commander. Maria Alquilar, 86, American ceramic artist. Édouard Mwe di Malila Apenela, 76, Congolese businessman. Hans Baars-Lindner, 88, German Olympic sailor (1960). Ganiyu Akanbi Bello, 83, Nigerian community leader and businessman, murdered. Nina Byers, 84, American physicist. Christopher Burger, 78, South African cricketer. Don Davis, 75, American musician, songwriter (Who's Making Love, Disco Lady) and Grammy Award-winning producer (You Don't Have to Be a Star). Rolf Hachmann, 96, German archaeologist. Robert Kuwałek, 47, Polish historian. Johnny Leach, 91, British table tennis player, World Table Tennis Champion (1949, 1951), team champion (1953), President of the ETTA. Ismael Betancourt Lebron, 83, Puerto Rican police officer. Hana Orgoníková, 67, Czech politician, MP for the CSDP (since 1989). Aaron Sachs, 90, American jazz musician. Reiulf Steen, 80, Norwegian politician and diplomat, Minister of Transportation (1971–1972) and Commerce (1979–1981), MP for Oslo and Akershus (1977–1993), Ambassador to Chile (1992–1996). 6 Irene Awret, 93, German artist, author and Holocaust survivor. Darío Barrio, 41, Spanish television chef, BASE jumping accident. Douglas Bartles-Smith, 77, English Anglican priest, Archdeacon of Southwark (1985–2004). Ado Bayero, 83, Nigerian chieftain, politician and diplomat, Emir of Kano (since 1963), Northern Region MLA, Ambassador to Senegal, cancer. Alejandro Antonio Buccolini, 84, Argentine Roman Catholic prelate, Bishop of Río Gallegos (1992–2005). Tap Canutt, 81, American stunt performer and actor. Joyce Mitchell Cook, 80, American philosopher. Karen DeCrow, 76, American civil rights activist, lawyer and author, President of the National Organization for Women (1974–1977), melanoma. Alain Desaever, 61, Belgian cyclist. Mary Ellen Epps, 79, American politician. Eric Hill, 86, British children's writer and illustrator (Spot the Dog). Lee Hyla, 61, American composer. David Lockwood, 85, British sociologist. Brian Miller, 93, Australian politician, member of the Tasmanian Legislative Council (1957–1986). Sheldon Roberts, 87, American metallurgist. Jerrold Schwaber, 67, American cell biologist. Alexander E. Shilov, 84, Russian chemist. Lorna Wing, 85, British psychiatrist, co-founder of the National Autistic Society, coined the term "Asperger syndrome". 7 Dora Akunyili, 59, Nigerian politician and academic, Federal Minister of Information and Communications (2008–2010), ovarian cancer. Leonard Bawtree, 90, Canadian politician. Natalia E. Bazhanova, 67, Russian orientalist. Eugene Cotran, 75, English judge. Alan Douglas, 82, American record producer (Jimi Hendrix) and sound engineer (Eric Clapton). Dick Elliott, 78, American politician, member of the South Carolina House of Representatives (1982–1992) and Senate (1992–2012). Kevin Elyot, 62, British scriptwriter (Clapham Junction) and playwright (My Night with Reg). Fernandão, 36, Brazilian footballer (Sport Club Internacional, national team), helicopter crash. E. W. Foy, 77, American basketball coach (Southeastern Louisiana Lions, McNeese State Cowboys). Glenn Freeman, 80, American politician, member of the Kentucky House of Representatives (1970–1971, 1974–1977) and Senate (1996–2000). Jurij Gustinčič, 92, Slovene journalist and writer. Marjorie Haines, 85, American Olympic equestrian. Anthony Herbert, 84, American army officer and whistleblower. Jacques Herlin, 86, French character actor (Of Gods and Men). Melvin Irvin, 72, American politician, member of the Louisiana House of Representatives (1983–1987), cancer. Jónas Kristjánsson, 90, Icelandic academic and novelist. Rafael A. Lecuona, 86, Cuban Olympic gymnast (1948, 1952, 1956) and American academic. Juan María Leonardi Villasmil, 67, Venezuelan Roman Catholic prelate, Bishop of Punto Fijo (since 1997). Roger Mayne, 85, English photographer. Epainette Mbeki, 98, South African anti-apartheid activist. James McNair, 63, American writer and comedian, traffic collision. Stephen A. Metcalf, 86, British missionary. Helcio Milito, 83, Brazilian musician. Pierre Patry, 80, Canadian filmmaker. Ida Schöpfer, 84, Swiss Olympic alpine skier. Clara Schroth, 93, American gymnast, Olympic bronze medalist (1948). Uday Singh, 75, Fijian politician. Merv Thackeray, 88, Australian politician, member of the Queensland Legislative Assembly for Keppel (1957–1960) and Rockhampton North (1960–1972). Anna-Teresa Tymieniecka, 91, Polish-born American philosopher. David Tyshler, 86, Russian Soviet Olympic fencer (1956) and academic. Norman Willis, 81, British trade unionist, General Secretary of the TUC (1984–1993). 8 Ruy Barbosa Popolizio, 94, Chilean businessman, oenologist and cathedratic, Minister of Agriculture (1963–1964), Rector of the University of Chile (1968–1969). John Bartlett, 85, English cricketer. Aman Ullah Chowdhury, Bangladeshi politician. Jan Deberitz, 64, Norwegian novelist. Ken Doubleday, 88, Australian Olympic hurdler and triple jumper (1952, 1956). Hans Kristian Eriksen, 81, Norwegian non-fiction writer, magazine editor, novelist and short story writer. Jean Geissinger, 79, American baseball player (AAGPBL). Alexander Imich, 111, Russian Congress Poland-born American chemist, parapsychologist and supercentenarian, oldest man in the world. Eva Kløvstad, 92, Norwegian World War II resistance member (Milorg). Veronica Lazăr, 76, Romanian-born Italian actress (Inferno, Last Tango in Paris, The Stendhal Syndrome). Dennis Lewiston, 80, British cinematographer (The Rocky Horror Picture Show). Harold Russell Maddock, 96, Australian jockey. Shirley Marsh, 88, American politician, member of the Nebraska Legislature (1973–1989). J. Stanley Marshall, 91, American educator, President of Florida State University (1969–1976), complications from a heart attack. Billy McCool, 69, American baseball player (Cincinnati Reds). J. William Pope, 76, American politician and lawyer, member of the Tennessee House of Representatives, cancer. Celio Roncancio, 48, Colombian cyclist. Ivo Vinco, 86, Italian opera singer. Ben Whitaker, 79, British politician and global poverty campaigner, MP for Hampstead (1966–1970). Prince Katsura, 66, Japanese royal, acute heart failure. 9 Bernard Agré, 88, Ivorian Roman Catholic prelate, Cardinal of San Giovanni (since 2001), Archbishop of Abidjan (1994–2006). Danilo Baroni, 92, Argentine lawyer and politician, Governor of Chaco (1987–1991). Tapan Barua, Indian cricketer. Harris Blake, 84, American politician, member of the North Carolina Senate (2003–2013), natural causes. William A. Bradfield, 86, New Zealand astronomer. Allan Brown, 89, Australian football player (Collingwood). John Ferguson Browne, 93, Canadian politician, MP for Vancouver-Kingsway (1958–1962). Edmund Bruggmann, 71, Swiss alpine skier, Olympic silver medalist (1972), complications from leukemia. Alison Burton, 92, Australian tennis player. Rex L. Carter, 88, American politician, member of the South Carolina House of Representatives (1953–1980) and Speaker (1973–1980). Robert Cranston, 85, Indian Olympic boxer. Junie Donlavey, 90, American Hall of Fame NASCAR team owner (Ken Schrader, Jody Ridley, Donlavey Racing), Alzheimer's disease. Marit Svarva Henriksen, 89, Norwegian politician. Reinhard Höppner, 65, German politician, Minister-President of Saxony-Anhalt (1994–2002), cancer. Kim Heungsou, 94, Japanese Korean-born South Korean harmonism artist. Rik Mayall, 56, English comedian, writer and actor (The Young Ones, Drop Dead Fred, Bottom), cardiac arrest. Bosse Persson, 72, Swedish eccentric and political figure, founder of the Donald Duck Party. Elsie Quarterman, 103, American plant ecologist. Vitaly Shafranov, 84, Russian theoretical physicist. Alicemarie Huber Stotler, 72, American senior judge, member (1984–2009) and Chief Judge (2005–2009) of the US District Court for Central California. Gustave Tassell, 88, American fashion designer, complications from Alzheimer's disease. Bob Welch, 57, American baseball player (Los Angeles Dodgers, Oakland Athletics), Cy Young Award winner (1990), accidental fall. Gerd Zacher, 84, German composer and author. 10 Toribio Aguilera, 73, Honduran economist and politician, MP for Cortés (1998–2014), lymphatic cancer. Kamaluddin Ahmed, 75, Pakistani physicist, hepatitis. Sebastián Alabanda, 63, Spanish footballer (Real Betis), heart attack. Marcello Alencar, 88, Brazilian politician and lawyer, Governor of Rio de Janeiro (1995–1999), Mayor of Rio de Janeiro (1983–1986, 1989–1993). Robert Arthur Alexie, 56, Canadian Gwich'in politician and novelist, Chief (1989–1991), President of the Tribal Council, chief First Nations negotiator during 1992 land reform. Frank Asaro, 86, American chemist. Albert Baernstein II, 73, American mathematician. Gabrielle Blunt, 95, British actress. Vladimir Derer, 94, British politician, founder of the Campaign for Labour Party Democracy. Jay Disharoon, 65, American politician, member of the Mississippi House of Representatives (1976–1980) and Senate (1980–1988), traffic collision. Julio García Estrada, 90, Mexican lawyer and academic. Gary Gilmour, 62, Australian Test cricketer. Robert M. Grant, 96, American theologian. Jim Hazelton, 82, Australian aviator, prostate cancer. Ian Horrocks, British RAF officer. Jack Lee, 94, American politician and radio broadcaster, Mayor of Fayetteville, North Carolina (1971–1975), chairman of the North Carolina Republican Party. Walter Lemos, 84, Argentine Olympic runner. Khair Bakhsh Marri, 86, Pakistani Baloch nationalist leader and militant, leader of the BLA, complications from a brain haemorrhage. Gerald N. McAllister, 91, American Episcopal prelate, Bishop of Oklahoma (1977–1989). William Pannill, 87, American daffodil hybridizer, president of the American Horticultural Society. Vithal Patil, 86, Indian cricketer. Peder I. Ramsrud, 91, Norwegian politician. Stuart Vaughan, 88, American theatre director, prostate cancer. Alex Wedderspoon, 83, British Anglican priest, Dean of Guildford (1987–2001). Vital João Geraldo Wilderink, 82, Dutch-born Brazilian Roman Catholic prelate, Bishop of Itaguaí (1980–1998). Jack Woolf, 90, American educator, President of the University of Texas at Arlington (1959–1968). Kin Maung Yin, 76, Burmese artist. 11 Horaţiu Badiţă, 37, Romanian Olympic swimmer. Joe Becker, 82, American Olympic cyclist (1956). Michael Brown, 93, American songwriter. Ruby Dee, 91, American award-winning actress (Decoration Day, American Gangster) and civil rights activist, National Medal of Arts laureate (1995). Rafael Frühbeck de Burgos, 80, Spanish conductor and composer, cancer. Charles Gautier, 69, French politician, Senator for Loire-Atlantique (2001–2011), colon cancer. Claude Horan, 96, American ceramic, glass artist and surfer, coined the term "Steamer Lane". Susan B. Horwitz, 59, American computer scientist, stomach cancer. Dan Knott, 95, Australian rules footballer (Collingwood, Richmond). Mipham Chokyi Lodro, 61, Chinese Tibetan Buddhist teacher, 14th Shamarpa of the Karma Kagyu sect, heart attack. Juan López Hita, 69, Spanish footballer (Algeciras, Sevilla). Keshav Malik, 89, Indian poet and critic. Benjamin Mophatlane, 41, South African information technology executive, CEO of Business Connexion Group (since 2007), cardiac arrest. Haobam Ongbi Ngangbi Devi, 89, Indian classical dancer and musician. Gilles Ségal, 82, French actor and playwright. Harilal Shah, 71, Kenyan cricket player (East Africa) and manager (national team), Captain (1975). Carlton Sherwood, 67, American soldier, journalist (1980 Pulitzer Prize team at Gannett) and filmmaker (Stolen Honor), heart failure. Ernest Tursunov, 78, Kyrgyzstani poet and translator. 12 Richard Arnowitt, 86, American physicist. Don Bennett, 80, English cricket player and coach (Middlesex). Lilian Benningsen, 89, Austrian operatic mezzo-soprano and contralto. Gabriel Bernal, 58, Mexican boxer, WBC Flyweight Champion (1984). Horacio Cordero, 68, Argentine painter, sculptor and ceramicist. Predhuman K Joseph Dhar, Indian author, social worker and a writer. Nabil Hemani, 34, Algerian footballer (JS Kabylie, ES Sétif, national team), fall. Dan Jacobson, 85, South African writer and academic. Kefee, 34, Nigerian gospel singer, lung failure. Julian Koenig, 93, American advertising copywriter. Carla Laemmle, 104, American actress (The Phantom of the Opera, The Broadway Melody, Dracula), natural causes. Gunnel Linde, 89, Swedish author. Donald Macaulay, Baron Macaulay of Bragar, 80, British politician and life peer. Khagen Mahanta, 71, Indian folk singer, cardiac ailment. Enzo Pastor, 32, Filipino race-car driver, shot. Joe Pittman, 60, American baseball player (Houston Astros, San Diego Padres). Shaktipada Rajguru, 92, Indian Bengali language writer. Pat Rosier, 72, New Zealand writer. Frank Schirrmacher, 54, German journalist, writer and newspaper publisher (Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung), heart attack. Jimmy Scott, 88, American jazz singer. Willie Sheelor, 86, American Negro league baseball player. Paul Silva, 91, American biologist. Gerald Westbury, 86, English surgeon. Yoo Byung-eun, 73, Japanese-born South Korean religious leader and businessman. (body found on this date) 13 Robin Amis, 82, British author, poet, publisher, editor and translator. Mark Ballinger, 65, American baseball player (Cleveland Indians). António Silva Cardoso, 86, Angolan politician. Neville Charlton, 85, Australian rugby league footballer. Michael Coetzee, 54, South African anti-apartheid activist and civil servant, cancer. Mahdi Elmandjra, 81, Moroccan economist and futurologist. Gyula Grosics, 88, Hungarian football player (Tatabánya, Budapest Honvéd, national team) and manager, Olympic champion (1952). Willie Harvey, 84, Scottish footballer (Kilmarnock). John Michael Ingram, 83, British fashion designer. Abdallah Kamal, 49, Egyptian newspaper journalist, editor, author and politician, MP, heart attack. Jim Keays, 67, Australian rock musician (The Masters Apprentices), pneumonia as a complication of multiple myeloma. David MacLennan, 65, Scottish actor and theatre producer, founded 7:84, motor neurone disease. Chuck Noll, 82, American football player (Cleveland Browns) and Hall of Fame coach (Pittsburgh Steelers), most coached Super Bowl wins (IX, X, XIII, XIV), natural causes. Robert Peters, 89, American poet, playwright, editor and stage actor, natural causes. Richard Rockefeller, 65, American billionaire physician, plane crash. Jack Roeser, 90, American engineer, manufacturing executive and political activist. Sara Widén, 33, Swedish opera singer (Royal Swedish Opera), cancer. 14 Bob Campbell, 83, English wildlife photographer. Alberto Cañas Escalante, 94, Costa Rican writer, journalist and politician, MP for San José (1962–1966, 1994–1998), complications following surgery. Alex Chandre de Oliveira, 36, Brazilian footballer (Hangzhou Greentown), heart attack. Ernie Cheatham, 84, American officer and football player. Isabelle Collin Dufresne, 78, French-born American actress (I, a Man), artist, author and model (Andy Warhol), cancer. Irene Forbes, 65, Cuban Olympic fencer (1972). Magdolna Gulyás, 64, Hungarian Olympic basketball player. Ágnes Gajdos-Hubai, 66, Hungarian Olympic volleyball player. José Gómez, 70, Spanish Olympic cyclist (1968). Sam Kelly, 70, British actor ('Allo 'Allo!, Porridge), cancer. Robert Lebeck, 85, German photojournalist. Steve London, 83, American television and film actor and attorney. Francis Matthews, 86, English film and television actor (Captain Scarlet and the Mysterons, Paul Temple, Heartbeat). Jamie McEwan, 61, American Olympic bronze medallist slalom canoeist (1972). Ivor Mendonca, 79, Guyanese cricketer (West Indies), throat and prostate cancer. Terry Richards, 81, British actor and stuntman (Raiders of the Lost Ark, Tomorrow Never Dies, The Princess Bride). James E. Rogers, 75, American educator and media owner (KSNV-DT, IWCC), Chancellor of Nevada System of Higher Education (2005–2009), cancer. Telangana Shakuntala, 63, Indian film and stage actress, cardiac arrest. Seymour Slive, 93, American art historian. Rodney Thomas, 41, American football player (Texas A&M Aggies, Tennessee Titans), heart attack. Maria Wonenburger, 86, Spanish mathematician. 15 Fathia al-Assal, 81, Egyptian playwright and activist. Jacques Bergerac, 87, French actor (Les Girls). Giancarlo Danova, 75, Italian footballer. Nalini Prava Deka, 70, Indian author. Larry Dupree, 70, American football player, heart attack. Ray Fox, 98, American Hall of Fame NASCAR engine builder and team owner (Junior Johnson, Cale Yarborough), pneumonia. Fazlul Karim, 89, Pakistani-Bangladeshi politician, political prisoner, academic and literary translator, member of the CAP, multiple organ failure. Casey Kasem, 82, American radio disc jockey (American Top 40) and voice actor (Scooby-Doo, Super Friends), Lewy body dementia. Daniel Keyes, 86, American author (Flowers for Algernon), complications from pneumonia. Andrei Kharlov, 45, Russian chess grandmaster. Kutho, 61, Burmese comedian and film director. John G. King, 88, English-born American physicist and professor (MIT), heart and renal failure. Maury Meyers, 82, American politician, Mayor of Beaumont, Texas (1978–1982, 1986–1990), Parkinson's disease. Olavi Nikkilä, 92, Finnish politician. Nick Nostro, 83, Italian film director. Petrus Oellibrandt, 78, Belgian racing cyclist. Olli Partanen, 91, Finnish discus thrower. Emile Riachi, 87, Lebanese orthopaedic surgeon. Moise Safra, 79, Syrian-born Brazilian billionaire financier, founder and chairman of Banco Safra, Parkinson's disease. 16 Charles Barsotti, 80, American cartoonist (The New Yorker), brain cancer. Plácido Bilbao, 73, Spanish footballer. Pierre D'Archambeau, 87, Belgian-born American violinist. Carol Kreeger Davidson, 85, American sculptor. Yvonne Dold-Samplonius, 77, Dutch mathematician and historian. Tony Gwynn, 54, American Hall of Fame baseball player (San Diego Padres), salivary gland cancer. Thore Heramb, 97, Norwegian painter and illustrator. Liselotte Marti, 58, Swiss Olympic gymnast. Maria Perosino, 52, Italian author and art historian, tumor. J. M. Rajaratnam, 86, Sri Lankan accountant and executive (Singer Corporation). Cándido Muatetema Rivas, 54, Equatoguinean politician and diplomat, Prime Minister (2001–2004), Ambassador to Germany (since 2005). Thérèse Vanier, 91, British doctor. 17 Yury Bayakovsky, 76, Soviet and Russian scientist. Asher Ben-Natan, 93, Austrian-born Israeli diplomat, Director General of the Ministry of Defense (1959–1965), Ambassador to Germany (1965–1970) and France (1970–1974). Haig Bosmajian, 86, American writer. Patsy Byrne, 80, English actress (Blackadder II). Éric Dewailly, 59, Canadian medical researcher, landslide. Wolfram Dorn, 89, German politician. Paul England, 85, Australian race car driver. Ray Evans, 74, Australian business executive and political activist, co-founder of the Lavoisier Group. Anthony Goldschmidt, 71, American graphic designer and poster artist (E.T. the Extra Terrestrial, The Dark Knight, Cocoon), liver cancer. Igor Korneluyk, 37, Russian state television correspondent, mortar strike. Mario Llamas, 86, Mexican tennis player. Stanley Marsh 3, 76, American artist and philanthropist, patron of Cadillac Ranch. John McClure, 84, American Grammy Award-winning record producer. Barry Moss, 74, American film casting director (Friday the 13th, Beavis and Butt-head Do America, The Cosby Show), heart failure. Peter J. Notaro, 79, American judge, member of the New York Supreme Court (1991–2005), stroke. Arnold S. Relman, 91, American physician, editor (New England Journal of Medicine) and health care activist, melanoma. Jorge Romo, 90, Mexican footballer (national team). Rodrigo Ruiz, 84, Costa Rican Olympic sports shooter. Anton Voloshin, 25–26, Russian sound engineer, motor strike. Jeffry Wickham, 80, British actor (The Remains of the Day, Scoop, Ali G Indahouse). Larry Zeidel, 86, Canadian hockey player (Detroit Red Wings, Chicago Blackhawks, Philadelphia Flyers), complications from heart failure and kidney problems. 18 David Cobb, 93, British marine artist. Leo De Maeyer, 86, Belgian physical chemist. Lynn DeJac, 50, American exonerated prisoner, cancer. Rezaul Bari Dina, 62, Bangladeshi politician. Sergei Dolgov, 59, Ukrainian-Russian journalist, murdered. Michael Frederick, 87, Barbadian cricketer. John Ruthell Henry, 63, American serial killer, execution by lethal injection. Stephanie Kwolek, 90, American chemist, inventor of Kevlar. Johnny Mann, 85, American composer, Grammy Award-winning arranger ("Up, Up and Away") and singer (Alvin and the Chipmunks). Claire Martin, 100, Canadian author. Itche Menahem, 74–75, Israeli football player and manager. John E. Miller, 85, American politician, member (1958–1998) and Speaker (1979–1980) of the Arkansas House of Representatives. Márcio Moreira, 67, Brazilian advertising executive, complications from heart surgery. James Nelson, 82, American sound editor (Five Easy Pieces, The Exorcist) and film producer (Star Wars). Vladimir Popovkin, 56, Russian military officer, head of the Federal Space Agency (2011–2013). Ces Renwick, 89, New Zealand cricketer. Horace Silver, 85, American jazz pianist (Song for My Father, Blowin' the Blues Away), natural causes. Luraine Tansey, 96, American slide librarian. 19 Tahira Asif, 52–53, Pakistani politician, member of the National Assembly (#52 Reserved Women's Sindh seat), shot. Oskar-Hubert Dennhardt, 98, German army and air force officer, World War II Wehrmacht major awarded Knight's Cross with Oak Leaves, general in the Bundeswehr. Gerry Goffin, 75, American Hall of Fame lyricist ("Will You Love Me Tomorrow", "The Loco-Motion", "Go Away Little Girl", "Take Good Care of My Baby"). Charlotte Greig, 59, British novelist and singer. Shrenik Kasturbhai Lalbhai, 88, Indian industrialist. James A. Lantz, 92, American politician, member of the Ohio House of Representatives, Speaker (1959–1961). Alan Moller, 64, American meteorologist and tornado chaser, Alzheimer's disease. Daniel Nazareth, 66, Indian composer and conductor. James Pitts, 93, American chemist, academic and civil servant, natural causes. William Reid, 87, Scottish military historian. Bill Renna, 89, American baseball player (New York Yankees, Boston Red Sox, Philadelphia Athletics/Kansas City Athletics). John Schiffer, 68, American politician, member of the Wyoming Senate (since 1993), liver cancer. Avraham Shalom, 86, Austrian-born Israeli security official, Director of the Shin Bet (1980–1986), commander in the capture of Adolf Eichmann and the Bus 300 affair. Ibrahim Touré, 28, Ivorian footballer (Misr El-Makasa SC, Al-Safa' SC), cancer. Guy Trottier, 73, Canadian ice hockey player (New York Rangers, Toronto Maple Leafs), cancer. 20 Anne Arnold, 89, American sculptor. Jim Bamber, 66, British cartoonist, cancer. David Brown, 84, British musicologist. Oberdan Cattani, 95, Brazilian footballer (Sociedade Esportiva Palmeiras). Nev Cottrell, 87, Australian rugby union player. Handel Greville, 92, Welsh rugby union player (national team). Philip Hollom, 102, British ornithologist. Florica Lavric, 52, Romanian rower, Olympic champion (1984), cancer. Amalia Miranzo, 74, Spanish politician, Senator for Cuenca (1977–1986). Norman Sheffield, 75, British rock drummer (The Hunters), recording facility co-owner (Trident Studios) and manager (Queen), cancer. Murat Sökmenoğlu, 69, Turkish politician, MP for Hatay Province (1983–1989) and Istanbul (1999–2002). Jaroslav Walter, 75, Czech ice hockey player (national team), Olympic bronze medalist (1964). 21 Tritobia Hayes Benjamin, 69, American art historian and educator. Gerry Conlon, 60, Northern Irish author and human rights activist, Guildford Four member wrongfully convicted of the Guildford pub bombings, lung cancer. Reb Chaim Daskal, 53, Israeli religious figure. Peter de Rome, 89, American filmmaker (Adam & Yves), natural causes. Robert Gardner, 88, American anthropologist and documentary filmmaker. John Heslop, 89, New Zealand surgeon and sports administrator. Roland Hill, 93, German-born British journalist and biographer. Yozo Ishikawa, 88, Japanese politician, Director General of the Defense Agency, member of the House of Representatives for Tokyo, acute respiratory failure. Anthony Jacobs, Baron Jacobs, 82, British peer and automobile executive, Chairman of the BSM (1973–1990). Walter Kieber, 83, Liechtenstein politician, Prime Minister (1974–1978). Roman Laskowski, 78, Polish academic. Standish Lawder, 78, American film director. Doreen Miller, Baroness Miller of Hendon, 81, British politician and life peer. Rose Marie Muraro, 83, Brazilian sociologist. Sir Philip Myers, 83, British police officer, Chief Constable of North Wales Police (1974–1982). Jimmy C. Newman, 86, American country music singer, cancer. Irajá Damiani Pinto, 94, Brazilian paleontologist. Aleksandr Shadrin, 25, Uzbekistani footballer, gastric ulcer. Bob Soleau, 73, American football player (Pittsburgh Steelers). Wong Ho Leng, 54, Malaysian politician, MP for Sibu (2010–2013), Sarawak MLA for Bukit Assek (1996–2001, since 2006), brain cancer. Bruno Zumino, 91, Italian particle physicist (CERN, UC-B), developed Wess-Zumino and WZW models, recipient of the Max Planck Medal (1989) and Humboldt Prize (1992). 22 Abdul Wahab Adam, 75, Ghanaian Islamic religious leader. Fouad Ajami, 68, Lebanese-born American political scientist and author, prostate cancer. Werner Biskup, 72, German footballer. Felix Dennis, 67, British poet and publisher, founder of Dennis Publishing, throat cancer. Rigoberto Guzmán, 82, Salvadoran football player and manager (national team), and teacher. Teenie Hodges, 68, American rhythm and blues guitarist (Hi Rhythm Section) and songwriter ("Take Me to the River", "Love and Happiness"), complications from emphysema. Matin Ahmed Khan, 93, Pakistani academic, Dean and Director of the Institute of Business Administration (1972–1977). Grzegorz Knapp, 35, Polish speedway and ice speedway rider, race collision. Washington Malianga, 88, Zimbabwean militant and political activist, founding member of ZANU and ZANLA. Rama Narayanan, 65, Indian film director, producer and politician, Tamil Nadu MLA for Karaikudi (1989–1994), kidney failure. Jennifer Wynne Reeves, 51, American painter, brain tumor. Steve Rossi, 82, American comedian (Allen & Rossi), cancer. Chuck Tatum, 87, American soldier, World War II Marine Iwo Jima combatant, provided source material for The Pacific. Arif Valiyev, 70, Azerbaijani politician, Chairman of the State Statistics Committee (since 1993). 23 Hayford Akrofi, 60, Ghanaian politician and architect, shot. Conrad Brann, 88, German linguist. Quinton-Steele Botes, 54, Namibian sports administrator, multiple myeloma. Małgorzata Braunek, 67, Polish actress (The Big Night Bathe), cancer. Nancy Garden, 76, American writer (Annie on My Mind) and LGBT activist, heart attack. Ichiro Komatsu, 63, Japanese civil servant and diplomat, Director-General of the Cabinet Legislation Bureau (2013–2014), Ambassador to France and Switzerland. Lantra Fernando, 57, Sri Lankan cricketer. Euros Lewis, 72, Welsh cricketer (Glamorgan, Sussex). Michael K. Locke, 61, American politician, member of the Tennessee House of Representatives (2002), traffic collision. Paula Kent Meehan, 82, American hair products executive, newspaper owner (Beverly Hills Courier) and philanthropist, co-founder of Redken. Charles R. Moore, 79, American Methodist minister, suicide. I. N. Murthy, 89, Indian film director. Glen Percy, 85, American football coach (Ottawa University). Steve Viksten, 53, American television writer and voice actor (Hey Arnold!, Rugrats), intracranial hemorrhage. Magnus Wassén, 93, Swedish sailor, Olympic bronze medalist (1952). Boris Yakovlev, 68, Ukrainian race walker. 24 Belfon Aboikoni, 74, Surinamese Saramaka chieftain. Gladys Asmah, 74, Ghanaian politician. Carlos F. Barbas III, 49, American biologist, cancer. Sanedhip Bhimjee, 44, Mauritian dancer, pancreatic cancer. John Clement, 85, Canadian politician, Ontario MPP for Niagara Falls (1971–1975). Donald Allan Darling, 99, American statistician. Jacqueline Jarrett Goodnow, 89, Australian cognitive psychologist. Olga Kotelko, 95, Canadian athlete and book subject, intracranial brain hemorrhage. Joachim Lambek, 91, German-born Canadian mathematician (Lambek–Moser theorem). Lee McBee, 63, American blues musician. Mary Ellen McCaffree, 96, American politician, member of the Washington House of Representatives (1963–1971). Paolo Salvati, 75, Italian painter. Richard Sharp, 67, American automotive retail and electronics executive, CEO of Circuit City (1986–2000), founder of CarMax, complications from Alzheimer's disease. David Taylor, 60, Scottish lawyer, Chief Executive of the SFA, General Secretary of UEFA. Ramón José Velásquez, 97, Venezuelan politician, Acting President (1993–1994). Chip Wadena, 75, American Ojibwe tribal executive, Chairman of the White Earth Indian Reservation (1976–1996). Eli Wallach, 98, American actor (The Good, the Bad and the Ugly, The Magnificent Seven, Baby Doll). Johnnie Mac Walters, 94, American civil servant and lawyer, Commissioner of Internal Revenue (1971–1973). 25 Viktor Blažič, 85, Slovene journalist and dissident. Hubert Bourdy, 57, French equestrian, Olympic bronze medalist (1988, 1992). Salwa Bughaighis, 51, Libyan human rights activist, revolutionary and lawyer, member of the National Transitional Council, shot. Nigel Calder, 82, British science writer (New Scientist) and television screenwriter, recipient of the Kalinga Prize (1972). Hirut Desta, 84, Ethiopian royal. Johnny Fantham, 75, English footballer (Sheffield Wednesday). Derek Fielding, 84, Australian librarian and author. Ragnhild Hilt, 68, Norwegian actress. Sir Harry Hookway, 92, British civil servant, Chief Executive of the British Library (1973–1984). Etta Hulme, 90, American editorial cartoonist (Fort Worth Star-Telegram). Arvid Jacobsen, 75, Norwegian newspaper editor (Avisenes Nyhetsbyrå, Dagsavisen). Ana María Matute, 88, Spanish writer, winner of the Miguel de Cervantes Prize (2010), heart attack. James Rogers Miller, Jr., 83, American judge, member of the U.S. District Court for Maryland, heart failure. A. C. Murali Mohan, 54, Indian actor, suicide by hanging. Walter B. Parker, 87, American civil servant and policy advisor, investigated the Exxon Valdez oil spill. Paul Patterson, 70, American neuroscientist and autism researcher, discovered further role of LIF in brain functioning. Ivan Plyushch, 72, Ukrainian politician, Chairman of the Verkhovna Rada (1990, 1991–1994, 2000–2002), cancer. 26 Lidia Alexeyeva, 89, Russian basketball player and Hall of Fame coach (national team), Olympic champion team (1976, 1980). Howard Baker, 88, American politician and diplomat, Senator from Tennessee (1967–1985), Senate Majority Leader (1981–1985), White House Chief of Staff (1987–1988), complications from a stroke. Terry Blair, 67, American politician, member of the Ohio House of Representatives (since 2009). Barry Cole, 77, British poet. Bernard Etkin, 96, Canadian scientist. Bill Frank, 76, American Hall of Fame CFL football player (Winnipeg Blue Bombers). Ron Hall, 68, Australian NTFA football player (Scottsdale), heart attack. Nina Hoekman, 49, Ukrainian-born Dutch draughts player and coach, breast cancer. Rollin King, 83, American airline executive, co-founder of Southwest Airlines, complications from a stroke. Wolf Koenig, 86, German-born Canadian filmmaker (Lonely Boy). Bob Mischak, 81, American football player (New York Giants, New York Titans, Oakland Raiders). Mary Rodgers, 83, American composer (Once Upon a Mattress) and children's author (Freaky Friday), heart ailment. Julius Rudel, 93, Austrian-born American Grammy Award-winning conductor and director (New York City Opera, Buffalo Philharmonic Orchestra). Vins, 70, Indian cartoonist. Moacyr José Vitti, 73, Brazilian Roman Catholic prelate, Archbishop of Curitiba (since 2004), heart attack. 27 José Emilio Amores, 95, Mexican cultural promoter and teacher. Gilbert Ashwell, 97, American biochemist and medical researcher, pneumonia. Edmond Blanchard, 60, Canadian politician and judge, New Brunswick MLA for Campbellton, Chief Justice of the CMAC. Fred Brown, 70, American politician, member of the Alaska House of Representatives (1974–1982). Jim Bullions, 90, Scottish footballer. John Dalgleish, 73, Australian footballer. P. N. Furbank, 94, British writer and literary critic. Miguel Ángel García Domínguez, 82, Mexican politician, MP (2003–2006). Allen Grossman, 82, American poet (Bollingen Prize), complications from Alzheimer's disease. Flor Hayes, 70, Irish Gaelic footballer (Cork). Tymon Mabaleka, 65, Zimbabwean footballer (national team). Amaro Macedo, 100, Brazilian botanist and plant collector. Leslie Manigat, 83, Haitian politician, President (1988), complications from a stroke. Bernard Ferdinand Popp, 96, American Roman Catholic prelate, Auxiliary Bishop of San Antonio (1983–1993). Petter Schramm, 58, Norwegian poet. Rachid Solh, 88, Lebanese politician, Prime Minister (1974–1975, 1992), MP for Beirut (1960–1974). Rex Whitehead, 65, Australian cricket umpire, complications from a stroke. Bobby Womack, 70, American Hall of Fame R&B singer ("Harry Hippie") and songwriter ("I Can Understand It"). 28 Seymour Barab, 93, American composer and cellist. Guido Boni, 80, Italian cyclist. Jim Brosnan, 84, American baseball player (Cincinnati Reds, Chicago Cubs). Joe Dooley, Irish hurler (Offaly). Lois Geary, 84, American actress (The Last Stand, Silverado, The Astronaut Farmer). Hedley Kett, 100, British World War II submariner. Visitacao Lobo, 68, Indian footballer. George Morrison, 86, American drama teacher. Antonio José Ramírez Salaverría, 96, Venezuelan Roman Catholic prelate, Bishop of Maturín (1958–1994). Jeffrey Ressner, 56, American entertainment journalist (Rolling Stone, Time, Politico), heart failure. Brian Roe, 75, British cricketer (Somerset). Hussein Shire, 85, Ugandan-born Somali transportation and agricultural executive. Meshach Taylor, 67, American actor (Designing Women, Mannequin, Ned's Declassified School Survival Guide), colorectal cancer. 29 Maher Abd al-Rashid, 72, Iraqi army general. Sixto Batista Santana, 82, Cuban military officer and politician. Barbara Brunton, 86, Australian actress. Damian D'Oliveira, 53, South African-born English cricketer (Worcestershire), cancer. Sir John Freeland, 86, British diplomat and lawyer. Dermot Healy, 66, Irish poet, novelist and playwright. Paul Horn, 84, American Grammy Award-winning jazz and new age musician. Abul Hussain, 91, Bangladeshi poet. Don Matheson, 84, American actor (Falcon Crest, General Hospital, Land of the Giants), lung cancer. Sir Cameron Moffat, 84, British Army officer and doctor, Director General Army Medical Services (1984–1987), Surgeon-General (1985–1987). Robin Neill, 82, Canadian economic historian. Walter Roberts, 97, Austrian-born American writer, lecturer, and government official. 30 Pierre Bec, 92, French Occitan language poet and linguist. Danny Canning, 88, Welsh footballer (Swansea Town). Frank Cashen, 88, American baseball executive (Baltimore Orioles, New York Mets), complications from heart failure. Anton Cassar, 90, Maltese journalist, founder and first editor of L-Orizzont. Bobby Castillo, 59, American baseball player (Los Angeles Dodgers, Minnesota Twins), cancer. Sultanul Kabir Chowdhury, 68, freedom fighter, lawyer and politician, heart disease. Álvaro Corcuera, 56, Mexican Roman Catholic priest, Director of the Legion of Christ (2005–2012), brain tumor. Alejandra Da Passano, 66, Argentine actress. Gustavo Dávila, 28, Colombian footballer, drowning. Christian Führer, 71, German Protestant pastor and political activist, an organiser of the Monday demonstrations in East Germany, respiratory failure. Tomás Galfrascoli, 88, Argentine Olympian Bob Hastings, 89, American actor (McHale's Navy, The Munsters, Batman: The Animated Series), prostate cancer. Richard Jencks, 93, American broadcasting executive, president of CBS Broadcast Group. Kenny Kingston, 87, American psychic and variety show personality, cardiovascular disease. Gianni Lancia, 89, Italian industrialist (Lancia). Humberto Loayza, 88, Chilean Olympic boxer. Piers Mackesy, 89, British historian. Petero Mataca, 81, Fijian Roman Catholic prelate, Archbishop of Suva (1976–2012). Matt's Scooter, 29, American Standardbred racehorse, euthanized. Paul Mazursky, 84, American film director and screenwriter (An Unmarried Woman, Harry and Tonto, Moscow on the Hudson), pulmonary cardiac arrest. Ed Messbarger, 82, American basketball coach (Angelo State Rams). Peter Pragas, 87, Malaysian composer. Jean-Pierre Renouard, 91, French writer, member of the Resistance. Frank M. Robinson, 87, American science fiction writer (The Power) and speechwriter (Harvey Milk). Maria Luisa Spaziani, 91, Italian poet. Željko Šturanović, 54, Montenegrin politician, Prime Minister (2006–2008), lung cancer. Hasan Tawfiq, 70, Egyptian poet and journalist. Wei Shoukun, 106, Chinese metallurgist and physical chemist, Vice President of the University of Science and Technology Beijing. References 2014-06 06

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doc-en-7716

The 2020–21 Los Angeles Lakers season was the franchise's 74th season, its 73rd season in the National Basketball Association (NBA), its 61st season in Los Angeles, and their 22nd season playing home games at Staples Center. The Lakers were coached by Frank Vogel in his second year as head coach. The Lakers played their home games at Staples Center as members of the Western Conference's Pacific Division. The Lakers entered the season as the defending Pacific Division, Western Conference, and NBA champions. On November 10, 2020, the NBA announced that the 2020–21 season would begin on December 22, 2020, following the delayed finish to the 2019–20 season due to the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. Each team was to play a shortened 72-game schedule. A week later, the NBA announced the format for the season which would include a play-in tournament to determine the seventh and eighth seeds in each conference. The second half of the schedule would not be announced until a later date to allow for the makeup of any games postponed due to COVID-19 issues. The season began just 72 days after the completion of the 2020 finals, giving the Lakers and the Miami Heat the shortest off-season in league history. In February 2021, the Lakers had the second best record in the West at 21–7, two games behind the Utah Jazz, when Anthony Davis suffered a strained calf that sidelined him for 30 games. One game after Davis was injured, Dennis Schröder missed a span of four games, in which the Lakers were winless, due to the league's health and safety protocols. LeBron James missed 26 of the team's final 30 games with a sprained ankle. After Davis returned from his nine-week absence, the Lakers were 35–23, going 14–16 without him, including 6–10 with James out as well. Schröder also missed seven games in the final weeks of the season, again due to health and safety protocols. In an injury-laden season, the Lakers finished with a 42–30 record (roughly the equivalent of 48–34), the same as the No. 5 Mavericks and No. 6 Trail Blazers; they fell to 7th place due to tiebreakers, resulting in the Lakers having to face the No. 8 Warriors in the play-in tournament, whom they defeated to secure the No. 7 seed in the playoffs. This was the first time in James's career that he did not have home court advantage in the first round of the playoffs. Against the second-seeded Phoenix Suns in the opening round, they were up 2–1 when Davis suffered a strained groin in Game 4. The Lakers were eliminated in six games, the first time in James's career that his team exited in the first round of the playoffs and the first defending NBA champion that was eliminated in the first round of the playoffs since the 2014–15 San Antonio Spurs. Previous season The Lakers finished the 2019–20 season 52–19 to finish in 1st place in the Pacific Division and the Western Conference. In the playoffs, they defeated the Portland Trail Blazers, Houston Rockets, and Denver Nuggets each in five games to advance to the NBA Finals for the first time since 2010. There they defeated the Miami Heat (LeBron's former team) in six games to earn the franchise's 17th NBA championship. Offseason Draft This was a traded pick with the Oklahoma City Thunder that sent Danny Green and the draft rights to Jaden McDaniels to the Thunder in return for Dennis Schröder. Before the start of the 2020 NBA draft period, the Lakers' first-round selection was held stuck as the 29th pick of the draft with their record being the second-best of all NBA teams behind the Milwaukee Bucks the prior season at 49–14 before the NBA suspended their season on March 12, 2020. However, the Lakers did resume their season in the 2020 NBA Bubble, eventually winning their 17th championship there against the Miami Heat, leaving them a chance to move their first-round pick up or down for the 2020 draft. In the bubble, the Toronto Raptors ended up finishing with a better overall record than the Lakers, moving their first-round pick to the 28th selection instead, though still finishing as the best Western Conference team that season. The Lakers only held one first-round selection for this draft, as they traded their second-round pick to the Orlando Magic for the draft rights to Talen Horton-Tucker in last season's draft. Preseason Game log |-style="background:#cfc" | 1 | December 11 | L.A. Clippers | | Talen Horton-Tucker (19) | Montrezl Harrell (12) | Kyle Kuzma (5) | Staples Center0 | 1–0 |-style="background:#cfc" | 2 | December 13 | L.A. Clippers | | Talen Horton-Tucker (33) | Montrezl Harrell (11) | Quinn Cook (7) | Staples Center0 | 2–0 |-style="background:#cfc" | 3 | December 16 | @ Phoenix | | Kyle Kuzma (23) | Marc Gasol (8) | Quinn Cook (4) | PHX Arena0 | 3–0 |-style="background:#cfc" | 4 | December 18 | @ Phoenix | | Anthony Davis (35) | LeBron James (8) | Gasol, James (4) | PHX Arena0 | 4–0 Regular season Standings Division Conference Notes z – Clinched home court advantage for the entire playoffs c – Clinched home court advantage for the conference playoffs y – Clinched division title x – Clinched playoff spot pb – Clinched play-in spot o – Eliminated from playoff contention * – Division leader Game log |-style="background:#fcc;" | 1 | December 22 | L. A. Clippers | | LeBron James (22) | Dennis Schröder (12) | Dennis Schröder (8) | Staples Center0 | 0–1 |-style="background:#cfc" | 2 | December 25 | Dallas | | Anthony Davis (28) | Marc Gasol (9) | LeBron James (10) | Staples Center0 | 1–1 |-style="background:#cfc" | 3 | December 27 | Minnesota | | Kyle Kuzma (20) | LeBron James (9) | Marc Gasol (8) | Staples Center0 | 2–1 |-style="background:#fcc | 4 | December 28 | Portland | | LeBron James (29) | Anthony Davis (10) | LeBron James (6) | Staples Center0 | 2–2 |-style="background:#cfc | 5 | December 30 | @ San Antonio | | LeBron James (26) | Montrezl Harrell (9) | LeBron James (8) | AT&T Center0 | 3–2 |-style="background:#cfc | 6 | January 1 | @ San Antonio | | Anthony Davis (34) | Davis, James, Harrell (11) | LeBron James (10) | AT&T Center0 | 4–2 |-style="background:#cfc | 7 | January 3 | @ Memphis | | LeBron James (22) | LeBron James (13) | LeBron James (8) | FedEx Forum0 | 5–2 |-style="background:#cfc" | 8 | January 5 | @ Memphis | | Davis, James (26) | LeBron James (11) | LeBron James (7) | FedEx Forum0 | 6–2 |-style="background:#fcc" | 9 | January 7 | San Antonio | | LeBron James (27) | Davis, Kuzma (10) | LeBron James (12) | Staples Center0 | 6–3 |-style="background:#cfc" | 10 | January 8 | Chicago | | LeBron James (28) | Montrezl Harrell (14) | LeBron James (7) | Staples Center0 | 7–3 |-style="background:#cfc" | 11 | January 10 | @ Houston | | Anthony Davis (27) | Montrezl Harrell (8) | James, Schröder (7) | Toyota Center0 | 8–3 |-style="background:#cfc | 12 | January 12 | @ Houston | | LeBron James (26) | Kyle Kuzma (11) | Gasol, James (5) | Toyota Center0 | 9–3 |-style="background:#cfc | 13 | January 13 | @ Oklahoma City | | LeBron James (26) | Davis, Morris (7) | LeBron James (7) | Chesapeake Energy Arena0 | 10–3 |-style="background:#cfc | 14 | January 15 | New Orleans | | Lebron James (21) | Kyle Kuzma (13) | Lebron James (11) | Staples Center0 | 11–3 |-style="background:#fcc | 15 | January 18 | Golden State | | Dennis Schröder (25) | Anthony Davis (17) | Anthony Davis (7) | Staples Center0 | 11–4 |-style="background:#cfc | 16 | January 21 | @ Milwaukee | | LeBron James (34) | Anthony Davis (9) | LeBron James (8) | Fiserv Forum0 | 12–4 |-style="background:#cfc | 17 | January 23 | @ Chicago | | Anthony Davis (37) | LeBron James (11) | LeBron James (6) | United Center0 | 13–4 |-style="background:#cfc | 18 | January 25 | @ Cleveland | | LeBron James (46) | Anthony Davis (10) | LeBron James (6) | Rocket Mortgage FieldHouse2,000 | 14–4 |-style="background:#fcc" | 19 | January 27 | @ Philadelphia | | LeBron James (36) | Anthony Davis (8) | LeBron James (7) | Wells Fargo Center0 | 14–5 |-style="background:#fcc" | 20 | January 28 | @ Detroit | | James, Kuzma (22) | Kyle Kuzma (10) | LeBron James (10) | Little Caesars Arena0 | 14–6 |-style="background:#cfc | 21 | January 30 | @ Boston | | Anthony Davis (27) | Anthony Davis (14) | James, Schröder (7) | TD Garden0 | 15–6 |-style="background:#cfc | 22 | February 1 | @ Atlanta | | Anthony Davis (25) | LeBron James (7) | LeBron James (9) | State Farm Arena1,341 | 16–6 |-style="background:#cfc | 23 | February 4 | Denver | | LeBron James (27) | LeBron James (10) | LeBron James (10) | Staples Center0 | 17–6 |-style="background:#cfc | 24 | February 6 | Detroit | | LeBron James (33) | Montrezl Harrell (8) | LeBron James (11) | Staples Center0 | 18–6 |-style="background:#cfc" | 25 | February 8 | Oklahoma City | | LeBron James (28) | LeBron James (14) | LeBron James (12) | Staples Center0 | 19–6 |-style="background:#cfc" | 26 | February 10 | Oklahoma City | | Lebron James (25) | Kyle Kuzma (9) | LeBron James (7) | Staples Center0 | 20–6 |-style="background:#cfc" | 27 | February 12 | Memphis | | Anthony Davis (35) | Kyle Kuzma (10) | LeBron James (8) | Staples Center0 | 21–6 |-style="background:#fcc" | 28 | February 14 | @ Denver | | LeBron James (22) | LeBron James (10) | LeBron James (9) | Ball Arena0 | 21–7 |-style="background:#cfc" | 29 | February 16 | @ Minnesota | | LeBron James (30) | LeBron James (13) | LeBron James (7) | Target Center0 | 22–7 |-style="background:#fcc" | 30 | February 18 | Brooklyn | | LeBron James (32) | Kyle Kuzma (10) | LeBron James (7) | Staples Center0 | 22–8 |-style="background:#fcc" | 31 | February 20 | Miami | | Kyle Kuzma (23) | Montrezl Harrell (10) | LeBron James (9) | Staples Center0 | 22–9 |-style="background:#fcc" | 32 | February 22 | Washington | | LeBron James (31) | Kyle Kuzma (11) | LeBron James (13) | Staples Center0 | 22–10 |-style="background:#fcc" | 33 | February 24 | @ Utah | | LeBron James (19) | Markieff Morris (9) | Talen Horton-Tucker (5) | Vivint Arena4,912 | 22–11 |-style="background:#cfc" | 34 | February 26 | Portland | | LeBron James (28) | James, Kuzma (11) | LeBron James (7) | Staples Center0 | 23–11 |-style="background:#cfc" | 35 | February 28 | Golden State | | LeBron James (19) | Kyle Kuzma (11) | Dennis Schröder (6) | Staples Center0 | 24–11 |-style="background:#fcc" | 36 | March 2 | Phoenix | | LeBron James (38) | Caruso, Morris (6) | James, Schröder (6) | Staples Center0 | 24–12 |-style="background:#fcc" | 37 | March 3 | @ Sacramento | | Dennis Schröder (28) | Kyle Kuzma (13) | Dennis Schröder (9) | Golden 1 Center0 | 24–13 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 38 | March 12 | Indiana | | Kyle Kuzma (24) | Kyle Kuzma (13) | LeBron James (10) | Staples Center0 | 25–13 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 39 | March 15 | @ Golden State | | Montrezl Harrell (27) | LeBron James (10) | LeBron James (11) | Chase Center0 | 26–13 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 40 | March 16 | Minnesota | | Harrell, James (25) | LeBron James (12) | LeBron James (12) | Staples Center0 | 27–13 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 41 | March 18 | Charlotte | | LeBron James (37) | Montrezl Harrell (11) | Dennis Schröder (7) | Staples Center0 | 28–13 |- style="background:#fcc;" | 42 | March 20 | Atlanta | | Montrezl Harrell (23) | Montrezl Harrell (11) | Horton-Tucker, James, Schröder (4) | Staples Center0 | 28–14 |- style="background:#fcc;" | 43 | March 21 | @ Phoenix | | Montrezl Harrell (23) | Montrezl Harrell (10) | Kyle Kuzma (6) | Phoenix Suns Arena3,190 | 28–15 |- style="background:#fcc;" | 44 | March 23 | @ New Orleans | | Montrezl Harrell (18) | Kyle Kuzma (10) | Kuzma, Schröder (7) | Smoothie King Center3,700 | 28–16 |- style="background:#fcc;" | 45 | March 25 | Philadelphia | | Kyle Kuzma (25) | Kyle Kuzma (9) | Dennis Schröder (11) | Staples Center0 | 28–17 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 46 | March 26 | Cleveland | | Montrezl Harrell (24) | Montrezl Harrell (10) | Kuzma, Schröder (7) | Staples Center0 | 29–17 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 47 | March 28 | Orlando | | Dennis Schröder (24) | Harrell, Kuzma, Morris (11) | Dennis Schröder (6) | Staples Center0 | 30–17 |- style="background:#fcc;" | 48 | March 31 | Milwaukee | | Montrezl Harrell (19) | Kyle Kuzma (7) | Dennis Schröder (8) | Staples Center0 | 30–18 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 49 | April 2 | @ Sacramento | | Kyle Kuzma (30) | Caldwell-Pope, Harrell (10) | Dennis Schröder (8) | Golden 1 Center0 | 31–18 |- style="background:#fcc;" | 50 | April 4 | @ L. A. Clippers | | Montrezl Harrell (19) | Kyle Kuzma (7) | Dennis Schröder (7) | Staples Center0 | 31–19 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 51 | April 6 | @ Toronto | | Talen Horton-Tucker (17) | Gasol, Morris (9) | Dennis Schröder (9) | Amalie ArenaN/A | 32–19 |- style="background:#fcc;" | 52 | April 8 | @ Miami | | Kentavious Caldwell-Pope (28) | Andre Drummond (12) | Dennis Schröder (14) | American Airlines ArenaN/A | 32–20 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 53 | April 10 | @ Brooklyn | | Andre Drummond (20) | Andre Drummond (11) | Talen Horton-Tucker (11) | Barclays Center1,773 | 33–20 |- style="background:#fcc;" | 54 | April 12 | @ New York | | Dennis Schröder (21) | Andre Drummond (10) | Dennis Schröder (6) | Madison Square Garden1,981 | 33–21 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 55 | April 13 | @ Charlotte | | Kyle Kuzma (24) | Andre Drummond (12) | Caruso, Schröder (6) | Spectrum Center3,676 | 34–21 |- style="background:#fcc;" | 56 | April 15 | Boston | | Talen Horton-Tucker (19) | Montrezl Harrell (8) | Dennis Schröder (8) | Staples Center1,915 | 34–22 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 57 | April 17 | Utah | | Andre Drummond (27) | Markieff Morris (12) | Dennis Schröder (8) | Staples Center1,710 | 35–22 |- style="background:#fcc;" | 58 | April 19 | Utah | | Talen Horton-Tucker (24) | Andre Drummond (8) | Dennis Schröder (6) | Staples Center1,709 | 35–23 |- style="background:#fcc;" | 59 | April 22 | @ Dallas | | Kentavious Caldwell-Pope (29) | Andre Drummond (19) | Dennis Schröder (13) | American Airlines Center4,443 | 35–24 |- style="background:#fcc;" | 60 | April 24 | @ Dallas | | Ben McLemore (20) | Andre Drummond (12) | Dennis Schröder (10) | American Airlines Center4,561 | 35–25 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 61 | April 26 | @ Orlando | | Dennis Schröder (21) | Andre Drummond (11) | Dennis Schröder (10) | Amway Center4,099 | 36–25 |- style="background:#fcc;" | 62 | April 28 | @ Washington | | Anthony Davis (26) | Andre Drummond (11) | Kuzma, Schröder (8) | Capital One Arena2,133 | 36–26 |- style="background:#fcc;" | 63 | April 30 | Sacramento | | Anthony Davis (22) | Anthony Davis (11) | James, Schröder (7) | Staples Center2,691 | 36–27 |- style="background:#fcc;" | 64 | May 2 | Toronto | | Kyle Kuzma (24) | Andre Drummond (11) | Davis, Horton-Tucker (7) | Staples Center2,053 | 36–28 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 65 | May 3 | Denver | | Anthony Davis (25) | Caldwell-Pope, Davis, Gasol (7) | Caruso, Horton-Tucker, Morris (3) | Staples Center2,454 | 37–28 |- style="background:#fcc;" | 66 | May 6 | @ L. A. Clippers | | Kyle Kuzma (25) | Drummond, Harrell (6) | Alex Caruso (7) | Staples Center3,275 | 37–29 |- style="background:#fcc;" | 67 | May 7 | @ Portland | | Anthony Davis (36) | Anthony Davis (12) | Caldwell-Pope, Davis (5) | Moda Center1,939 | 37–30 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 68 | May 9 | Phoenix | | Anthony Davis (42) | Anthony Davis (12) | Alex Caruso (8) | Staples Center3,144 | 38–30 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 69 | May 11 | New York | | Kyle Kuzma (23) | Andre Drummond (18) | Talen Horton-Tucker (10) | Staples Center3,550 | 39–30 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 70 | May 12 | Houston | | Talen Horton-Tucker (23) | Drummond, Kuzma (10) | Talen Horton-Tucker (10) | Staples Center4,087 | 40–30 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 71 | May 15 | @ Indiana | | Anthony Davis (28) | Andre Drummond (15) | LeBron James (8) | Bankers Life Fieldhouse0 | 41–30 |- style="background:#cfc;" | 72 | May 16 | @ New Orleans | | LeBron James (25) | Andre Drummond (13) | Caldwell-Pope, James (6) | Smoothie King Center3,700 | 42–30 Player stats Regular season statistics *Total with the Lakers only Postseason Play-in Tournament |- style="background:#cfc" | 1 | May 19 | Golden State | | Anthony Davis (25) | Anthony Davis (12) | LeBron James (10) | Staples Center6,022 | 1–0 Playoffs Game log |-style="background:#fcc;" | 1 | May 23 | @ Phoenix | | LeBron James (18) | Andre Drummond (9) | LeBron James (10) | Phoenix Suns Arena11,824 | 0–1 |-style="background:#cfc;" | 2 | May 25 | @ Phoenix | | Anthony Davis (34) | Andre Drummond (12) | LeBron James (9) | Phoenix Suns Arena11,919 | 1–1 |-style="background:#cfc;" | 3 | May 27 | Phoenix | | Anthony Davis (34) | Davis, Drummond (11) | LeBron James (9) | Staples Center7,825 | 2–1 |-style="background:#fcc;" | 4 | May 30 | Phoenix | | LeBron James (25) | LeBron James (12) | LeBron James (6) | Staples Center8,025 | 2–2 |-style="background:#fcc;" | 5 | June 1 | @ Phoenix | | LeBron James (24) | Andre Drummond (13) | LeBron James (7) | Phoenix Suns Arena16,163 | 2–3 |-style="background:#fcc;" | 6 | June 3 | Phoenix | | LeBron James (29) | LeBron James (9) | Gasol, James (7) | Staples Center8,550 | 2–4 Roster Transactions Overview Trades Free agency Re-signed Additions Subtractions References Notes External links 2020–21 Los Angeles Lakers at Basketball-Reference.com Los Angeles Lakers seasons Los Angeles Lakers Los Angeles Lakers Los Angeles Lakers Lakers Lakers

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doc-en-2951

A dead end, also known as a cul-de-sac (, from French for 'bag-bottom'), no through road or no exit road, is a street with only one inlet or outlet. The term "dead end" is understood in all varieties of English, but the official terminology and traffic signs include many different alternatives. Some of these are used only regionally. In the United States and other countries, cul-de-sac is often not an exact synonym for dead end and refers to dead ends with a circular end, allowing for easy turning at the end of the road. In Australia and Canada, they are usually referred to as a court when they have a bulbous end. Dead ends are added to road layouts in urban planning to limit through-traffic in residential areas. While some dead ends provide no possible passage except in and out of their road entry, others allow cyclists, pedestrians or other non-automotive traffic to pass through connecting easements or paths, an example of filtered permeability. The International Federation of Pedestrians proposed to call such streets "living end streets" and to provide signage at the entry of the streets that make this permeability for pedestrians and cyclists clear. Its application retains the dead end's primary function as a non-through road, but establishes complete pedestrian and bicycle network connectivity. History The earliest examples of dead ends were unearthed in the El Lahun workers' village in Egypt, which was built circa 1885 BC. The village is laid out with straight streets that intersect at right angles, akin to a grid but irregular. The western part of the excavated village, where the workers lived, shows fifteen narrow and short dead-ends laid out perpendicularly on either side of a wider, straight street; all terminate at the enclosing walls. Dead-end streets also appeared during the classical period of Athens and Rome. The 15th century architect and planner Leon Battista Alberti implies in his writings that dead-end streets may have been used intentionally in antiquity for defense purposes. He writes: The same opinion is expressed by an earlier thinker, Aristotle, when he criticized the Hippodamian grid: In the UK, their prior existence is implied by the Public Health Act 1875 which banned their use in new developments. Inferential evidence of their earlier use can also be drawn from the text of a German architect, Rudolf Eberstadt, that explains their purpose and utility: It was in the United Kingdom that the cul-de-sac street type was first legislated into use, with the Hampstead Garden Suburb Act 1906. The proponents of the Act, Raymond Unwin and Barry Parker, thus gained permission to introduce culs-de-sac in their subsequent site plans, and they promoted it as a suitable street type for Garden Suburbs. Unwin's applications of the cul-de-sac and the related crescent always included pedestrian paths independent of the road network. This design feature reflects the predominance of pedestrian movement for local trips at the turn of the 20th century, and presages the current planning priority for increased pedestrian accessibility. The 1906 Act defined the nature of the cul-de-sac as a non-through road and restricted its length to . Garden cities in the UK that followed Hampstead, such as Welwyn Garden City, all included culs-de-sac. In the 1920s, the garden city movement became more popular in the United States and, with it, came its design elements, such as the cul-de-sac. Clarence Stein, a main proponent of the movement, incorporated it in the Radburn, New Jersey subdivision, which was to become a model for subsequent neighborhood developments. The country's Federal Housing Authority (FHA) recommended and promoted their use through their 1936 guidelines and the power of lending development funds. In Canada, a variation of Stein's Radburn 1929 plan that used crescents (loops) instead of culs-de-sac was built in 1947: Wildwood Park, Winnipeg, designed by Hubert Bird. In 1954, the Central Mortgage and Housing Corporation published its own guidelines in which the cul-de-sac was strongly recommended for local streets and, as the FHA in the US, used its lending power to see its inclusion in development plans. The Varsity Village and Braeside, subdivisions in Calgary, Alberta also used the Radburn model in the late 1960s. In the 1960s the cul-de-sac attained systematic international application in planned new cities such as Doxiadis' Islamabad (1960). In the UK, new towns such as Harlow (1947) by Sir Frederick Gibberd and Milton Keynes (1967) incorporated culs-de-sac and crescents in their layouts. Planning theorists have suggested the use of alternatives to culs-de-sac. Most notably, Christopher Alexander et al., in his 1977 book "A Pattern Language" (pattern #49) suggests the use of looped local roads which do not abruptly stop. Although dead end streets (culs-de-sac), would fit his definition of looped local roads Alexander suggestions that "culs-de-sacs are very bad from a social standpoint—they force interaction and they feel claustrophobic, because there is only one entrance". Doxiadis has additionally argued their important role in separating man from machine. Originally-unplanned dead ends Originally-unplanned dead ends have been added in city centers that are laid out on a grid by blocking through-traffic. Whole neighbourhood street reconfigurations emerged in several cities, mainly concentrated in North America and the UK, which include Berkeley, California; Seattle, Washington; and Vancouver, British Columbia. The transformation of grid plans since the 1970s limits access to an existing road that is newly designated as a major artery, enabling traffic to move smoothly on it, alleviating residents' concerns. This selective, sporadic transformation is continuing. As traffic volumes increase and as cities decide to remove or reduce traffic on specific streets of central areas, streets are closed off using bollards or landscaping thus making new, originally unplanned dead ends and producing a new, functional blend of the inherited grid with newer street types. A recent variation of limiting traffic is managed closure by using retractable bollards that are activated only by designated card-holders. However, besides cars, they also stop ambulances and other emergency vehicles, and they often lack adequate turning. Suburban use and benefits Since the end of World War II, new subdivisions in the United States and Canada, as well as New Towns in England and other countries have made extensive use of the cul-de-sac and crescent (loops) street types. Typically, there is one or several central roads in the subdivision with many cul-de-sac streets of varying length, branching out from the main roads, to fill the land in the subdivision, a dendrite or hierarchical pattern. Since the 1960s, the pattern has been the dominant road network structure of suburbs and exurbs in the United States, Canada, and Australia. It is also increasingly popular in Latin America, Western Europe, and China. In this pattern, there are only a few roads (relative to the number of cul-de-sac streets) leading out of the subdivision and into other subdivisions or onto major roads. In the US, these changes can be attributed to real-estate developers' desire to meet FHA guidelines and make federal home loans available to their customers. In Canada, a similar incentive was provided to developers by CMHC. The incentives, which were discontinued in the 1970s, gave the initial impetus for the application of the hierarchical pattern. In other countries, such incentives do not exist, and adoption is motivated by customer preferences. American urban planning, in the 19th and the early 20th centuries, emphasized a grid plan, partly out of extensive reliance on foot, horse and trams for transportation. In such earlier urban development, alleys were included to allow for deliveries of soiled supplies, such as coal, to the rear of houses that are now heated by electricity, piped natural gas or oil. The use of culs-de-sac reduces the amount of car traffic on residential streets within the subdivision, thus reducing noise, air pollution and the probability of accidents. Ben-Joseph (1995), and Lovegrove and Sayed (2006), indicate a substantially lower collision rate for street networks based on the cul-de-sac street type. Dumbaugh and Rae (2009) suggest that land-use patterns play a significant role in traffic safety and should be considered in conjunction with the network pattern. While all intersection types in general increase the incidence of fatal crashes, four-way intersections, which rarely occur in a network with cul-de-sac or loop streets, increase total and injurious crashes significantly. The study recommends hybrid street networks with dense concentrations of T-intersections and concludes that a return to the 19th century gridiron is undesirable. The decrease in traffic, in turn, is thought to lower the incidence of crime and increase desirability, because in most cases the people who traverse the cul-de-sac either live there or are guests of those who do. CPTED planning principles suggest increased natural surveillance and sense of ownership as a means of fostering security in a neighbourhood. Both of these phenomena occur naturally on a cul-de-sac street as does social networking. Design guidelines based on the CPTED perspective recommend its use for those reasons. Cul-de-sac streets increase spontaneous outdoor activity by children. A study in California examined the amount of child play that occurred on the streets of neighbourhoods with different characteristics; grid pattern and culs-de-sac. The findings indicate that culs-de-sac showed substantial increase in play activity than the open grid street pattern. Culs-de-sac reduce perceived danger from traffic, thereby encouraging more outdoor play. Similar studies in Europe and Australia found that children's outdoor play is significantly reduced on through roads where traffic is, or perceived by parents to be, a risk. In addition, they confirmed the results of the seminal Donald Appleyard 1982 study, which showed the negative correlation between amount of traffic and social networks. The inverse correlation between amounts of traffic and sociability of streets was reconfirmed by a newer study that repeated Appleyard's San Francisco analysis in Bristol, UK. It showed that the cul-de-sac street with the lowest traffic of the three streets had the highest level of social interaction. The studies recommend the use of the cul-de-sac or strong traffic calming measures. When culs-de-sac are interconnected with foot and bike paths, as for example in Vauban, Freiburg and Village Homes in Davis, California, they can increase active modes of mobility among their residents. Real estate developers prefer culs-de-sac because they allow builders to fit more houses into oddly-shaped tracts of land and facilitate building to the edges of rivers and property lines. They also choose these discontinuous network patterns of cul-de-sac and loop streets because of the often significant economies in infrastructure costs compared to the grid plan. From an environmental perspective, culs-de-sac allow greater flexibility than the common grid in adapting to the natural grades of a site and to its ecologically sensitive features, such as streams, creeks, and mature forest growth. The desirability of the cul-de-sac street type among home buyers is implied by the evidence that they often pay up to a 20% premium for a home on such a street, according to one study. That could be because there is considerably less passing traffic, resulting in less noise and reduced actual or perceived risk, increasing the sense of tranquility. A survey of residents on three types of streets: cul-de-sac, loop, and through (grid) recorded their preferences among these types. It found that 82% of cul-de-sac residents preferred their own street type, 18% preferred a loop, and 0% the grid. Only 13% of grid street residents preferred their own type and 54% would choose a cul-de-sac. Two other studies, reported in 1990 and 2009 respectively, confirmed the upward trend and determined the premium that cul-de-sac streets command. The first found a 29% premium over the streets in a grid. The second, focused on trails and greenbelts, found that other amenities including cul-de-sac streets add significantly to the home value. The positive feelings that a cul-de-sac street could evoke, that residents value, are expressed vividly by Allan Jacobs in describing Roslyn Place, a short (), narrow (), densely built (), and wood-paved cul-de-sac in the Shadyside neighborhood of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania: "Step into Roslyn Place and you are likely to sense, immediately, that you are in a place, a special place, a handsome place, a safe place, a welcoming place, a place where you might wish to live." "narrowness and enclosure and intimacy bring a feeling of safety to Roslyn Place... 'Stay on our street' is all the kids have to know". Gated communities, whose numbers steadily increase worldwide, use cul-de-sac and loop street networks because the dendrite structure reduces the number of through roads and thus the corresponding number of entries and exits that need to be controlled. Criticisms and discussion Traffic safety issues Dead ends are traditionally considered safer traffic environments for children than normal streets, but research shows that areas with many dead ends in fact have higher rates of traffic accidents involving young children. This increased risk of death is due to multiple factors, including: families living on dead-end streets drive longer distances to reach their destinations, parents living on dead-end streets spend less time teaching their children to be as wary of traffic, and an increased risk of the parents accidentally driving over the children in front of their own homes. Environmental, health, and crime issues Culs-de-sac are criticised by urban designers like those of the Foundation for the Built Environment in the UK for encouraging car transport for even short distances, as more direct connections are precluded by the geometry, which necessitates long travel distances even to physically-nearby locations. This increases fuel consumption and vehicle emissions and has negative effects on health by reducing walking and cycling rates. Related research in the United States by Richard Jackson has shown that people in car-based (cul-de-sac heavy) communities weigh on average more than those in traditional towns (with open grid networks). An extensive analysis of the research evidence by TRB, however, shows only an association between the built environment and physical activity levels, not causal connections. The evidence also does not identify with certainty which characteristics of the built environment are most closely associated with physical activity behaviour. The study also warns against confusing inadequate physical activity with obesity which is the outcome of an energy imbalance. Many contemporary lifestyle trends, some inevitable (sedentary work) and some avoidable (frequent energy-rich food consumption or the watching of television [four hours per day]), contribute to the imbalance and must be considered in understanding and combating obesity. The impermeability deficiency of the typical cul-de-sac street can be addressed by applying a modified, improved version of it, mentioned above, that enables pedestrian and bicycle through-movement. While this more permeable version can be applied in new developments easily, modifying existing impermeable cul-de-sac streets is problematic as it encounters property ownership issues. Efforts in that direction are, however, being made. Because of the complicated legal process and the sheer number of existing cul-de-sac streets, however, such efforts would be slow to produce results and may have little impact in changing the landscape of existing districts. Conversely, transforming existing streets that are part of a grid plan into permeable, linked culs-de-sac, as was done in Berkeley, California, and Vancouver, British Columbia, is physically and administratively easy due to the public ownership of the street right-of-way. However, residents on adjacent through roads may resent the potential traffic increase and delay the process. In Berkeley, the barriers used were permeable to both pedestrian and bicycle traffic and became the backbone of the bicycle boulevard system in that region. Increases in pedestrian and bicycle permeability may result in a displacement of local car trips for short-distance destinations and consequently a reduction in neighbourhood vehicle emissions. The impermeable cul-de-sac not only discourages walking and biking but also increases the length of car trips by the circuitous geometry of the dendrite network structure of which it is a part. Research studies examined the influence of several variables on the amount of car travel that residents of several types of districts recorded. Results vary considerably among them, but there is general agreement on a number of key correlations: a) the wealthier and the larger the family is, the more cars they own, and the more they drive, b) the farther away a family lives from the city centre, and the fewer the jobs in the vicinity, plus a slow bus service, the more they drive, and c) street patterns may add a 10% length to local trips, but the total VKTs are affected more by the "macro" urban than the "micro" neighbourhood structure. Culs-de-sac, especially those that also limit pedestrian routes instead of only road-traffic routes, have also been criticised for negative effects on safety because they decrease the amount of through-traffic (vehicular or pedestrian) that might notice an accident or crime victim in need of help. Proponents of culs-de-sac and gated communities have in turn countered that the reduction in through-traffic makes any "stranger" much more recognisable in the closed local environment and thus reduces crime danger. That view has in turn been characterized as unrealistic. It is argued that, since only very few of all non-locals passing through the area are potential criminals, increased traffic should increase rather than decrease safety. Research has expanded the discussion on the disputed issue. A 2008 study did extensive spatial analysis and correlated several building, site plan and social factors with crime frequencies and identified subtle nuances to the contrasting positions. The study looked at, among others, a) dwelling types, b) unit density (site density) c) movement on the street, d) culs-de-sac or grids, and e) the permeability of a residential area. Among its conclusions are, respectively, that a) flats are always safer than houses and the wealth of inhabitants matters, b) density is generally beneficial but more so at ground level, c) local movement is beneficial but larger-scale movement not so, d) relative affluence and the number of neighbours has a greater effect than either being on a cul-de-sac or being on a through-street. It also established again that simple, linear culs-de-sac with good numbers of dwellings that are joined to through streets tend to be safe. As for permeability, it suggests that residential areas should be permeable enough to allow movement in all directions but no more. The overprovision of poorly-used permeability is a crime hazard. More generally, the New Urbanism movement has offered criticism of the cul-de-sac and crescent (loop) street types not intended to network with each other. It has been suggested that such street layouts can cause increased traffic on the collector streets. It is recognized that culs-de-sac and looped streets inherently remove car traffic through them and restrict access to residents only. Resident traffic is naturally channelled to minor residential collectors and to arterials that provide inter-neighbourhood and inter-district connectivity. A study, reported in 1990, compared the traffic performance in a development that was laid out using two approaches, one with and the other without hierarchy or cul-de-sac streets. It concluded that the non-hierarchical, traditional layout generally shows lower peak speed and shorter, more frequent intersection delays than the hierarchical pattern. The traditional pattern is not as conducive to long trips as the hierarchical but more conducive to short trips. Local trips in it are shorter in distance but about equivalent in time with the hierarchical layout. A later similar comparative traffic study of about concluded that all types of layouts perform adequately in most land-use scenarios and that a refined hierarchical, dendrite network can improve traffic performance. Anecdotal and research evidence suggests that navigation (especially on foot) in a disconnected network of cul-de-sac and looped streets is inconvenient and non-intuitive, particularly when combined with curvilinear geometry. Loss of orientation and sense of direction is also a common experience in older cities with cul-de-sac streets (Medina of Arab cities or Mediterranean hill towns) as well as in cities with highly-irregular block geometries and sizes and corresponding street alignments that produce a labyrinthine effect. The long history of such cities implies that an irregular, complicated street network that appears entirely illegible to a visitor is well understood and used by the inhabitants. More convincing about its workability for their permanent residents are the case histories of cities such as Regensburg that show a gradual transformation of an imported or imposed orthogonal, "legible" grid to the traditional "confusing" street networks. Cul-de-sac and loop streets can reduce the size of any given neighbourhood to a single street. Neighbourhoods can be defined by geographic boundaries but more often it is shared ethnic, socioeconomic and cultural characteristics that produce social cohesion irrespective of apparent physical "boundaries". Mehaffy et al. (2010), who propose a model for structuring an urban network, suggest that neighbourhoods cannot be designed into being. "Community" is viewed as a dynamic social and cultural construct, especially in contemporary, open, multicultural cities. Residential area street configuration can assist its emergence only by reducing through-traffic and increasing local pedestrian movementa design goal for which connected cul-de-sac and looped streets are suited. Issues of pedestrian trip length and isolation are very evident in the back-to-front housing arrangement where the front of the house fronts onto the cul-de-sac street while the rear fronts onto the main roads. Some of the problems can be mitigated by the newer practice of connecting the neighbouring roads and culs-de-sac with public pedestrian or cycle paths. In effect, this removes the discontinuity aspect for these modes of transport. Built examples of such connected culs-de-sac can be found in the United States (such as Radburn, New Jersey, and Village Homes, California), England (such as Milton Keynes), and Greece (such as Papagou, a suburb of Athens). Acknowledging their use, Germany, under the 2009 amendment to the Road Traffic Act, introduced an additional sign for culs-de-sac that are permeable to pedestrians and cyclists (see under signage below). A new system for organizing connected, permeable culs-de-sac into complete neighbourhoods, the fused grid, has been developed by Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation. In the development context and planning literature of North America, culs-de-sac have been associated with low-density residential development. Sustainable development theorists and proponents claim that to be, in some undefined way, inefficient. The increased prevalence of cul-de-sac streets occurred in the 1960s and 1970s, a period of rapid economic and city expansion, when a detached house on a large lot meant an ideal form of habitation. The temporal coincidence of the wide adoption of a street type and an increasing demand for large lots and houses suggests a necessary relationship between street type and unit density. Historically, however, the earliest systematic application of the cul-de-sac street type by Raymond Unwin (1909) had a unit density between , considerably higher than mid-to-late 20th century. Even in the 21st century, developments rarely achieve densities above in the suburbs. Conversely, early 1950s suburban developments that were laid out on a grid exhibit similar low densities. Evidently, street, network type and density are not linked causally; other factors, such as land scarcity and income, influence the outcome as, for example, in cities that are landlocked or that have low average incomes. Another concern is often voiced by emergency services, which can have difficulty locating streets when a community consists of a large number of similarly named culs-de-sac; also, large fire response vehicles, in particular, can have great difficulty with turning around in a cul-de-sac. However, confusing street naming is not a necessary outcome of street network design and can be improved. The practice of naming orthogonal networks by numbers and letters in the corresponding cardinal directions has been criticized by Camilo Sitte as lacking imagination. Nonetheless, police and fire departments now use advanced GPS systems that quickly locate the destination and the shortest path to follow. School buses can also have a hard time turning around, which means that children who live in a cul-de-sac must often walk to a bus stop on a main through-road. However, recent research on obesity and urban planning suggests that to be a possible advantage because it enables children to get daily physical activity. Longer walking distances, however, reduce interest to use buses especially when a car is available. This disincentive to walking to a school bus-stop can be overcome in planned cul-de-sac streets by regulating their maximum length to about , as was recommended and practiced by R. Unwin and others. Weighing available evidence has led a few US cities including Austin, Texas; Charlotte, North Carolina; and Portland, Oregon, to restrict and regulate the inclusion of cul-de-sac streets in new suburbs. However, a 2010 study on sprawl in North America by a legal expert concludes that "neighborhoods dominated by culs-de-sac are less walkable than those that include street grids.... On the other hand, culs-de-sac do have a countervailing public benefit: because of their very inaccessibility, they tend to have less automobile traffic. Given the existence of important public policy goals on both sides, a city seeking to maximize walkability should not favor culs-de-sac over grids, but should also allow some culs-de-sac as a legitimate residential option.... In addition, there are "middle ground" alternatives between prohibiting culs-de-sac and mandating them. For example, a city could encourage culs-de-sac combined with pedestrian walkways." This design combination is shown in the Village Homes layout and is an integral part of the Fused Grid. Terminology George Orwell wrote in his 1946 article "Politics and the English Language" that the term "cul de sac" is another foreign word used in English as pretentious diction and is unnecessary. The word "cul-de-sac" and its synonyms or near synonyms "dead end" and "no exit" have inspired metaphorical uses in literature and in culture, often with the result that a word or phrase seeming to have a negative connotation is replaced in street signs with a new coinage ("no outlet" is another alternative name used on street signs). The expression cul-de-sac comes from French, where it originally meant "bottom of a sack". It was first used in English in anatomy (since 1738). It was used for dead-end streets since 1800 in English (since the 14th century in French). The often-heard erroneous folk etymology "arse/ass [buttocks] of the sack" is based on the modern meaning of cul in French, Catalan, and Occitan, but cul does not have that meaning in cul-de-sac, which is still used to refer to dead ends in modern Frenchalthough the terms and are more common. J. R. R. Tolkien used the name Bag End as a translation of "cul-de-sac" to poke fun at the British use of French terms. Australia In Australia, dead-end streets are signposted as and often referred to as a "No Through Road". Suffixes for these types of streets include "court", "close" or "place". The term "cul-de-sac" generally only refers to a reasonably short street with a bulbous end, or even only to the end portion. A long road that is a no-through road and terminates abruptly is usually called a dead end. Canada In Canada, "cul-de-sac" is commonly used in speech but "no exit" or "no through road" is more common in road signs, especially in western Canada. In Quebec and Newfoundland, "Cul-de-Sac" is in far more common use, although Quebec is using "Impasse" too. France Cul de sac is French for 'bag-bottom'. New Zealand In New Zealand, dead-end streets are sometimes signposted as "No Exit", but are often not signposted at all. The terms 'cul-de-sac' and 'dead end' have the same senses as in Australia. United States U.S. Federal Highway Administration rules state: "The Dead End sign may be used at the entrance of a single road or street that terminates in a dead end or cul-de-sac. The No Outlet sign may be used at the entrance to a road or road network from which there is no other exit." There is no federal regulation on "no exit". The phrase "No Exit" is also preferred for Chicago signs, although "dead end" is still used there. New York City has favored "dead end" since at least the 1930s, when Sidney Kingsley used the phrase to title his Broadway play about poor, tough East Side youths with lives of little promise, in contrast to the dead-end streets of the nearby Sutton Place neighborhood. (Similarly, French existentialist Jean-Paul Sartre titled a play about three damned sinners, Huis Clos, translated into English as "No Exit".) Kingsley's play was later made into a movie, Dead End, which proved so popular that it spawned similar movies, many starring a group of recurring characters known as the Dead End Kids. The play and movies produced such a strong image of bleak futures and an unfair society that some municipalities changed the sign terminology for culs-de-sac, often to "no outlet" or "no exit". (The "dead end" signs currently at Sutton Place are bright yellow with black lettering.) In New York City, as of 2008, there were 4,659 "dead end" traffic signs, along with 160 "no outlet" signs. The city records, which go back to the 1960s, show only a couple of "no exit" signs once existing near the approaches to the Midtown Tunnel, and which are no longer there. New York City Commissioner of Transportation Janette Sadik-Khan said in 2008: "We hear that some towns use 'no outlet' instead of 'dead end' because they think it sounds less morbid." "We tell New Yorkers the truth: it's a 'dead end', and we think that motorists get the point quickly." California uses the phrase Not a Through Street or Not a Through Road to mark roads or road systems that end in culs-de-sac. More recently, No Outlet has been shown on some signs as well (an example being Meyers Avenue south of Eureka Street in the Pine Hills area). Other uses In military parlance, a "cul-de-sac" refers to a situation where an army is "hemmed in on all sides but behind". "Cul-de-sac" is also used metaphorically to mean a line of thought or action that leads nowhere. In medicine, the expression is used to refer to the recto-uterine pouch, also known as the Pouch of Douglas, the deepest point of the female peritoneal cavity. Signage See also Fused Grid Permeability (spatial and transport planning) Turnaround (road) References External links Types of streets

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Searchlight Control, SLC for short but nicknamed "Elsie", was a British Army VHF-band radar system that provided aiming guidance to an attached searchlight. By combining a searchlight with a radar, the radar did not have to be particularly accurate, it only had to be good enough to get the searchlight beam on the target. Once the target was lit, normal optical instruments could be used to guide the associated anti-aircraft artillery. This allowed the radar to be much smaller, simpler and less expensive than a system with enough accuracy to directly aim the guns, like the large and complex GL Mk. II radar. In 1943 the system was officially designated Radar, AA, No. 2, although this name is rarely used. The sight of searchlights swinging about wildly during the Blitz led a group of British Army engineers to begin development of SLC in early 1940. It was built using the electronics from the 1.5 m wavelength ASV Mark I connected to new antennas and a unique lobe switching system. The American SCR-268 and German Würzburg were generally similar in concept, but the SLC was small enough to be mounted directly to the light, as opposed to requiring a separate carriage. This greatly eased operation. There were several Marks of the system, differing in their mounting system, not the electronics. The effect of using SLC was dramatic; aided by sound locators, in 1939 a searchlight had about a 1% chance of tracking a target, while with SLC this improved to 90%. SLC's greatest success was during Operation Steinbock in early 1944; SLC was involved in the vast majority of interceptions of German bombers, helping guide the night fighters without the need to use their own radars. They proved less useful against the V-1 flying bomb attacks later that year, but by this time improved radars like the SCR-584 were rendering the SLC concept obsolete. The US made a largely identical copy as the SCR-768 while an all-new design based on the same concepts was SCR-668. SLC also proved useful to the enemy; in early 1942 an SLC and GL Mk. II were captured by Japanese forces at Singapore, along with the US SCR-268 in the Philippines. The SLC's Yagi antennas were unknown to the crews that discovered them, and they were surprised to find they were a Japanese invention. NEC produced a slightly modified version known as Ta-Chi 3, but it did not enter service. History Searchlight use before radar Before WWII, searchlights generally had two settings. One produced a wider beam a few degrees wide that was used for searching while the second narrowed the beam as much as possible in order to illuminate a single target. At the altitudes flown during World War I, the wider beam still produced enough illumination to detect a target, which the crews would do by swinging around the expected location. This was often aided with a Mark IX sound locator, which could help narrow the search area. When a target was seen, the beam would be narrowed to provide more illumination. By the opening of WWII, such systems were effectively useless. As combat altitudes moved over , the illumination provided by the wide setting was no longer enough to see a target, but searching for a target using the narrow setting was very difficult. The greatly increased speeds, roughly double that of WWI aircraft, made the speed of sound a major problem for the sound locators. Offsetting these problems was the high quality of pre-war training, and the crews were still able to find their targets at a high enough rate that there did not seem to be a problem. Things changed when the number of searchlights in service began to increase with the start of the war in 1939. The rapid enlargement of the force by newly trained crewmen had the effect of diluting the competence level. Another problem was that as the lights were moved from their training areas inland to various coastal deployments, they were invariably placed near the guns they would work with. This made the sound locators useless once the guns started firing. At the beginning of the war, searchlights had about a 1% chance of locating a target. Early Army radar The British Army was the first group in Britain to suggest the use of radar; a 1931 report by W. A. S. Butement and P. E. Pollard of the Army's Signals Experimental Establishment proposed using it for detecting ships in the English Channel. The Army proved uninterested in their proposal and the matter was forgotten. In 1935, the Air Ministry independently took up the radar concept and began rapid development of Chain Home. The Army was suddenly very interested, and sent Butement and Pollard to set up a lab at the Air Ministry's research site at Bawdsey Manor in 1936. The group, officially known the Military Applications Section, but referred to universally as the Army Cell, was first set to the task of producing a mobile version of the Chain Home radar, but this effort was soon taken over by the RAF. They were then told to develop a radar for measuring the range to aircraft as an aid for anti-aircraft artillery. Resolution of an antenna system (or any optical system) is a function of its aperture and operational frequency; higher accuracy requires shorter wavelengths or larger apertures. At the time, the available electronics were only capable of working at about 5 m wavelength at a minimum, so while the resulting GL Mk. I had antennas many meters across, it still had an accuracy of only 20 degrees in azimuth. As the utility of radar became evident, the Army's thinking changed about using the radar to directly guide the guns. This led to the GL Mk. II, which improved performance with larger antennas and a system known as lobe switching. This switched the signal back and forth between two closely spaced antennas, aimed slightly to each side of the centreline of the radar, or line of shoot. This produced two blips on the screen for each target, and the one from the antenna that is closer to the target would be slightly larger. Trained operators could produce accuracies on the order of degree, allowing it to guide the guns directly. While GL Mk. I was being developed, there was some consideration given to using its outputs to guide a searchlight. Similar solutions had been adopted in the US and Germany, although this was unknown to the British at the time. As the accuracy of the GL system improved, especially with the Mk. II, the need for the searchlight was eliminated. Additionally, the underlying electronics were in short supply, and dedicating a radar set to a searchlight would mean one that not guiding the guns directly. Meanwhile, the Air Ministry had been working on radar sets that operated at shorter wavelengths in an effort to make a system with antennas small enough to fit on an aircraft. After much effort, by 1938 they had units that were operating reliably at 1.5 m. During early testing, the team noticed that they could detect shipping in the Channel at several miles range, which led to the new concept of that Air-to-Surface Vessel radar, or ASV. The Army Cell took up this concept in a new radar known as Coast Defense, or CD. At these shorter wavelengths, CD's antennas were small enough to easily rotate to search for targets in a fashion not unlike a searchlight, something that was more difficult with the earlier sets using longer wavelengths. Before these CD sets were deployed, however, the Air Ministry took them over and used them as Chain Home Low to detect low-flying aircraft. Prototypes With the opening of the war in 1939, Bawdsey's exposed location on the east coast was cause for considerable concern. The Air Ministry teams decamped to Dundee, Scotland, while the Army Cell left for the Christchurch, Dorset area. Christchurch was the location of the Air Defence Experimental Establishment, originally the Searchlight Experimental Establishment, which had moved there from their former location at RAF Biggin Hill in 1939. The radar and searchlight groups were now working more closely together, and administratively merged to form the new Air Defence Research and Development Establishment (ADRDE). In April 1940, W. S. Eastwood, D. R. Chick and A. J. Oxford worked at the new Army Cell location in Somerford, outside Christchurch. They grew tired of the way "searchlight beams swung wildly about the sky but rarely found and held a target." They proposed developing a radar system for the searchlights, offering to work on it solely in their spare time. Their design was essentially a combination of the electronics from an obsolete ASV Mark I radar set with the display system of the GL Mk. II. Using the ASV's 1.5 m electronics meant they could have the same accuracy as the GL sets using antennas the size. But they did not need the same sort of accuracy; the system only needed to be accurate enough to get the searchlight within about two degrees, at which point the target would appear in the beam and the searchlight operator could guide it the rest of the way optically. Their first system used a Yagi antenna mounted on the trainable platform from a Mark IX sound locator. The antenna was mounted in the centre of the platform, on a motor that caused it to spin. A Yagi antenna is polarized, meaning it will pick up signals only in one plane, so as the motor spun the antenna it was sensitive only in the plane it was currently aligned. Switches located around the antenna base were triggered when a cam on the antenna shaft passed them. As it passed the 3 o'clock position the signal was sent into one of the channels of the horizontal display, and when it passed the 9 o'clock, the other. This produced two blips on the same display. Switches at 12 and 6 did the same for the vertical display. When the antenna was not pointed directly at the aircraft, one of the two blips would be larger because the antenna was pointed closer to it. For instance, if the target was slightly to the left of the antenna's line of shoot, the second blip would be larger and the operator would then swing the platform to the left until the blips were equal length. There were three displays; one for horizontal, one for vertical, and a third that received the signal at all times and was used for measuring the range. In the case where there were several aircraft flying close together, notably in the case when a night fighter was approaching its target, multiple blips would appear and this could result in very confusing displays. This was solved using a solution adopted from the GL radars. The range operator would rotate a large knob on the side of his display, which caused a "strobe", a short line acting as a cursor, to move back and forth under the signal. They would position the strobe under the target they wanted to select, and only signals within that short time window appeared on the bearing and elevation displays. This normally allowed a single target to be picked out. In practice, the rotating antenna was found to whip around and was not practical. A new version was built with five vertically polarized antennas, four of them as receivers, one in each of the positions formerly held by the sound horns of the Mark IX. The transmitter was a separate antenna placed above, and sometimes behind, the other four. The received signal was sent into a "phasing ring" which delayed each of the four signals a different amount and then changed those delays by rotating it with an electric motor at about 20 RPM. The relative phases of the output produced an angle that the system was sensitive in, which rotated at the same 20 RPM. The resulting output was then sent through a mechanical switch on the same motor, causing the signal to be sent to the four channels as in the rotating antenna case. Production models The first demonstration of the system in August proved so successful that an immediate order for 24 sets was placed, with the delivery to be completed before the next full moon. Although they required constant maintenance by the team, in testing the utility of the concept was obvious, and a pre-production order for another 76 examples was placed. These began to arrive before the end of 1940, by which time 50 were in service. During this period, the Army placed an order for another 100 then another 2,000, and finally enlarging it to 8,000. Throughout, minor changes were being worked into the design as a result of field experience, and ultimately 8,796 sets were delivered between April 1941 and December 1943. While some were placed on Mark IX chassis like the experimental model, most were delivered on a metal framework designed to be placed around a searchlight. Various Marks of this mounting gave the system its name. Mark I and Mark II models were the initial 24 and 76 pre-production examples on the Mark IX chassis, Mark III were later examples also mounted on the Mark IX. Mark IV was a lightweight fixed-position framework like a tripod known as a "wig-wam". Mark V was a mounting for the WWI-era 90 cm searchlights, and Mark VI was for the new 150 cm searchlights. Beginning in 1942, the installation of IFF Mark III became widespread and the various mounts were adapted to support another antenna similar to the transmitter to act as a transmitter/receiver antenna for the IFF signals. In most cases, this antenna was placed beside the transmitter at the top of the assembly. This was slightly shorter as it operated at 176 MHz. In operation, the system demonstrated an accuracy of 1 degree in bearing and elevation, and had an effective range of , although detections up to were achieved on bombers. This closely matched the performance of the 150 cm searchlight, which had a beamwidth of 1.25 degrees and was able to penetrate clouds. This pairing became the most common example in service. Although most examples were directly attached to their searchlights, there were advantages to the separate mountings on the wig-wams and Mark IX chassis. Due to the way the operators had to "hunt" for the angle that gave equal returns between the two blips, the radar tended to lag the target's movements. With the separate chassis, the operators were not blinded by the searchlight beam, and could manually point the system at the target if they could see it. The biggest problem with the SLC concept was the manpower required to operate it; three radar operators for range, bearing and elevation, more to operate the searchlight itself, and support staff. Staff from the searchlight groups was constantly being raided to provide men for infantry units, while others were sent into the light anti-aircraft gun units. On 23 April 1941, a secret trial called the Newark Experiment was carried out to see if women of the Auxiliary Territorial Service (ATS) could fill these roles, as there was the concern they would not handle the stress of operating the machinery and living in desolate locations. To their delight, all of this proved untrue, and the first seven troops were formed in July 1942, increasingly filling out the ranks until the system was almost wholly converted by 1943. To deal with the cold nights operating outdoors, the ATS introduced the soon coveted "Teddy Bear" jacket. Production was also undertaken in the US as the SCR-768. A similar concept but entirely new design was the SCR-668. Operational use From the beginning of 1942, searchlights were reorganized as part of a "tactical box" system that divided up the protected area into rectangles wide by deep. Within each box, one searchlight was given the task to operate as a beacon, shining its light directly upward. A night fighter would then fly into the box and keep station by flying orbits around the beacon. When a bogie was seen entering a given box, the fighter was given the "smack" order to leave the box and follow the bogie. While equipped with Airborne Interception radar and under ground-control throughout, the searchlights often proved vital in the actual interception. For instance, on the night of 8/9 September 1942, a Mosquito flown by Flight Lieutenant Henry Bodien was asked to follow a target but given strict orders not to fire as it was likely a lost "friendly". He noted: SLC was used in many theatres, and could be found around the world. An example was captured by the Japanese at Singapore in 1942, along with a GL Mk. II. The SLC's antenna system was unknown to the crews that discovered them, and when they discovered notes referring to the "Yagi" design they did not immediately recognize it as a Japanese name. It was not until they questioned a captured technician that they learned it was named after a Japanese professor. Development of a local version of SLC began at NEC under the name "Ta-Chi 3", Ta-Chi being the name for all ground-based radars. The same problems that plagued the early GL units in UK service appeared here; ground reflections rendered the display largely useless, and the resolution was too poor to guide the guns. Development was abandoned in favour of a version of the German Würzburg as the Ta-Chi 24, but this was not complete by the time the war ended. Maggie A serious problem with the GL series radars was that their height-finding system depended on reflections of the signal off the ground, and if the ground was not level it became wildly inaccurate. This was solved at most sites by building an "artificial ground" of chicken wire around the radar, a task that consumed the entire country's supply of thin wire and required an enormous labour pool to install. At some sites, even this was not enough, and the Army began using an expedient solution based on the SLC Mark III. These were the models placed on Mark IX sound locator frameworks, which originally drove the searchlight's direction through an electromechanical system. For this new role, the searchlight connection was replaced by a system of magslips whose output was connected directly to the predictor guiding the guns. The use of the magslips gave rise to the nickname "Maggie". Because the beam from the SLC was relatively narrow and could be aimed skyward on its mount, the interaction with the ground was no longer an issue. The main GL was still used for azimuth inputs, and also as an early warning system to help the SLC operators lay their radar. In the field, it was found that the Maggie could start tracking at about . A Maggie was used at Gibraltar. Baby Maggie By 1942, development of the new cavity magnetron-based GL Mk. III radar was well underway. By moving to microwave frequencies around 10 cm, the resolution of the radar was so improved that an antenna smaller than the 150 inch searchlights had enough accuracy to directly lay the guns. This rendered searchlights obsolete, and production of the SLC continued largely to supply the existing inventory of lights. By 1943, the first Canadian GL Mk. III(C)'s were arriving, but they were found to be almost impossible to keep running in the field. Their British counterparts, the GL Mk. III(B), had been repeatedly delayed. It was increasingly obvious that neither would be available in quantity for the future D-Day landings, and the existing GL Mk. II's reliance on a carefully prepared ground environment made it largely useless as a mobile unit. ADRDE responded by adapting the Maggie concept into the Radar, AA, No. 3 Mk. 3, better known as "Baby Maggie". This version abandoned the Mark IX chassis and used a modified version of the searchlight mounts on top of a rotating pole. The pole passed through the roof of a sheet metal cabin where the equipment and operators worked in cramped conditions. The first twelve units were hand-built by ADRDE, to fill an immediate need during Operation Torch. Serial production began in September 1943, but by then the GL Mk. III(B) was arriving and found to be suitable in the mobile role. Production ended after an additional 176 examples. They were removed from UK service in 1944, but had a more favourable history in Soviet use. Microwave SLC and auto-follow SLC had been rushed to service and proved somewhat unreliable at first as a result, but improvements were not carried out due to its expected outright replacement. With the introduction of the cavity magnetron in 1941, the War Office placed an order with the Ministry of Supply for a new SLC working in the microwave region. This would be smaller, less susceptible to jamming, and, due to its narrower beam, it would work better at low angles and able to pick out single targets in a group. They also noted that it would be much easier to adapt to an auto-follow system. Auto-follow, also known as radar lock-on, is a system that uses small differences in the signal received on two antennas or two shortly separated times in order to determine the location of the target within the beam. The output was an electrical signal that drove motors to keep the radar pointed at the target. It was a subject of considerable experimentation at the time, both in the UK as well as the US. A successful system had the possibility of greatly reducing the manpower needed to operate a radar; SLC Mark VII required four operators, one each for range, azimuth, elevation and the "long arm" operator. With auto-follow, a single range operator would pick a target with the strobe and the rest was completely automated. At that time, there were ongoing experiments to develop auto-follow for many existing radars, including the GL Mk. II and Mk. III(C) and III(B). In 1941, British Thomson-Houston (BTH) engineer L.C. Luckbrook experimented with the Mark VI mounting and added a system to use its signals to track the target automatically, reducing the crew to one and only as a backup. This was not taken into production, but this work proved valuable when adding similar systems to the post-war AA No. 3 Mk. 7 radar. In July 1942 the Ministry of Supply inquired about two alternatives; in one the operator used a strobe control to pick out a target and then used a joystick to move the SLC according to the other two displays, the other was a full auto-follow system. They noted that the US had done considerable work in this field, and began to liaise with their counterparts in the Radiation Laboratory. In September, they also suggested the ADRDE team consider using the unit built by their Air Ministry counterparts at the TRE for airborne radars. This led to a late-1942 contract with Cossor known as "AF-1", for Auto-Follow-1. Tests on these units in June 1943 proved the auto-follow was far superior to the semi-automated joystick option. A further run of magnetron-based prototypes as Mark 8 was sent to BTH, but they initially refused to build them due to the small number of units and great demand for other systems. It was not until the summer of 1944 that orders went out for rush delivery of 50 Mark 8 sets. A second order for 1,000 production versions, the Mark 9, was placed at the same time. The first examples of the Mark 8 did not begin to arrive until February 1945, but were used by the 21st Army Group with some success in northern France, Belgium and Holland. The production Mark 9's were initially scheduled for April 1945, but these were also delayed and the first examples did not arrive until June 1946. Of the original 1,000 ordered, 300 were produced. Canadian microwave SLC The Canadian National Research Council had directed radar development in that country since being introduced to British developments during the Tizard Mission. Among their many developments was a system known as "Night Watchman" that was used to detect ships attempting to enter Halifax at night. In March 1941, the Canadian Army raised the possibility of using Night Watchman's 1.4 m wavelength electronics as the basis for an SLC system. No real development was carried out, and in January 1942 the Army asked about using a microwave frequency radar for this purpose instead. Given a very low development priority, the system was not ready for testing until 1943. For testing purposes, this was mounted on a trainable platform, connected to a cabin for the single operator. The operator simply had to keep a range strobe centred on a selected target and the electronics would handle the tracking automatically. A large window on the front of the cabin allowed the accuracy of the system to be tested using a camera. Development was not yet complete when the project was abandoned in March 1944. One serious problem that arose was that while the operator had their head down over the radar display, the tracking motion gave them motion sickness as the cabin swung around. Post-war use In the post-war era the RAF stated there was still a need for SLC searchlights in order to aid nightfighter operations. However, the enemy would now be flying aircraft capable of at least above altitudes. As such, they were only interested in the "modern" types. The War Office, who would have to pay for the new sets as they were officially part of the Army, was not willing to spend the money needed to upgrade their fleet. In 1950, Fighter Command changed their mind and said they could not see a role for searchlights given their large manpower requirements. The Army began to repurpose their SLC systems to support light anti-aircraft guns at airfields and other point targets. As part of the general wind-down of AA in favour of guided missiles like the English Electric Thunderbird, all remaining SLC systems were removed from service in 1955. Description Antenna layout SLC used four receiver Yagi antennas arranged in a cross shape, and a fifth antenna as the broadcaster. Each receiver consisted of a circular mesh reflector at the back, the driven element in front of it, and five passive directors in front. The broadcaster differed only in that the active element was a folded dipole. They were arranged with the elements oriented vertically, which helps reduce ground reflections. The four receiver antennas were located close to the searchlight, with the reflectors partially overlapping the outer sides of the beam. If IFF was installed, the broadcast antenna was moved to the right as seen from the front of the lamp, and the slightly smaller but otherwise similar IFF antenna was added to its left. Displays and interpretation The basic system required three operators for the radar system, and a fourth operating the "long arm" visual tracking system. The three operators each had their own cathode ray tube display, one each for range, azimuth and elevation. The range operator, who sat on the left as seen from the back of the light, had a simple A-scope display that measured the approximate slant range to the target by comparing the blip to a scale along the bottom of the display. Using a dial on the right side of the display, they could move a strobe back and forth along the signal, allowing them to position it under a single blip to select it. The azimuth and elevation operators, sitting to the right of the range operator, had similar displays. These showed only the blip selected by the range operator's strobe, but did so from the two antennas on their axis – the left and right antennas for the azimuth operator, and the top and bottom antennas for elevation. The signal from one of the two antennas was delayed electronically so it appeared to the right of the other on the display. By comparing the height of the two blips, they could tell which direction to turn the light in order to point directly at the target. Versions From Wilcox: Mark I – initial 24 hand-built prototypes on Mark IX Sound Locator chassis Mark II – 76 pre-production versions otherwise similar to Mk. I Mark III – production versions otherwise similar to Mk. II Mark IV – mounted on "wig-wam" Mark V – mounted on 90 inch Projector Mark VI – not mentioned, possibly 120 cm Projector Mark VII – mounted on a 150-inch Projector Mark 8 – prototype UK microwave SLC Mark 9 – production UK microwave SLC Notes References Citations Sources External links S/L C. Nr. 5 (ZC-3488), a very, very small piece of a Searchlight, has several images of the range scope from an SLC radar. Radar Searchlight and Gun Control, Radio Craft magazine from November 1945 purports to have a "cover feature" on SLC, but has only basic information other than a good cover image of the system on a 90 cm light. Cold War military equipment of the United Kingdom Military radars of the United Kingdom British Army equipment Searchlights

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Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), also called human respiratory syncytial virus (hRSV) and human orthopneumovirus, is a common, contagious virus that causes infections of the respiratory tract. It is a negative-sense, single-stranded RNA virus, and its name is derived from the large cells known as syncytia that form when infected cells fuse. RSV is the single most common cause of respiratory hospitalization in infants, and reinfection remains common in later life: it is an important pathogen in all age groups. Infection rates are typically higher during the cold winter months, causing bronchiolitis in infants, common colds in adults, and more serious respiratory illnesses such as pneumonia in the elderly and immunocompromised. RSV is spread through contaminated air droplets and can cause outbreaks both in the community and in hospital settings. Following initial infection via the eyes or nose, the virus will infect the epithelial cells of the upper and lower airway, causing inflammation, cell damage, and airway obstruction. A variety of methods are available for viral detection and diagnosis of RSV including antigen testing, molecular testing, and viral culture. While the main prevention measures include hand washing and avoiding close contact with infected individuals, prophylactic use of palivizumab is available to prevent RSV infection in high-risk infants. Currently, there is no vaccine against RSV, although many are under development. Treatment for severe illness is primarily supportive, including oxygen therapy and more advanced breathing support with CPAP or nasal high flow oxygen, as required. In cases of severe respiratory failure, intubation and mechanical ventilation may be required. Ribavirin is the only antiviral medication currently licensed for the treatment of RSV in children, although its use remains controversial. Signs and symptoms RSV infection can present with a wide variety of signs and symptoms that range from mild upper respiratory tract infections (URTI) to severe and potentially life-threatening lower respiratory tract infections (LRTI) requiring hospitalization and mechanical ventilation. While RSV can cause respiratory tract infections in people of all ages and is among the most common childhood infections, its presentation often varies between age groups and immune status. Reinfection is common throughout life, but infants and the elderly remain at highest risk for symptomatic infection. Children Most children will experience at least one RSV infection by age 2. Most childhood RSV infections are fairly self-limited with typical upper respiratory tract signs and symptoms, such as nasal congestion, runny nose, cough, and low-grade fever. Inflammation of the nasal mucosa (rhinitis) and throat (pharyngitis), as well as redness of the eyes (conjunctival infection), may be seen on exam. Approximately 15–50% of children will go on to develop more serious lower respiratory tracts infections, such as bronchiolitis, viral pneumonia, or croup. Infants are at the highest risk of disease progression. Bronchiolitis is a common lower respiratory tract infection characterized by inflammation and obstruction of the small airways in the lungs. While several viruses can cause bronchiolitis, RSV is responsible for about 70% of cases. It usually presents with 2 to 4 days of runny nose and congestion followed by worsening cough, noisy breathing, tachypnea (fast breathing), and wheezing. As infants work harder to breathe, they can also show signs of respiratory distress, such as subcostal retractions (when the belly pulls under the ribcage), intercostal retractions (when the muscles between the ribs pull inward), grunting, and nasal flaring. If the child has not been able to feed adequately, signs of dehydration may also be present. Fever may be present, but high-grade fever is uncommon. Crackles and wheezing can often be heard on auscultation, and oxygen saturation levels may be decreased. In very young infants under 6 weeks of age, and particularly in premature infants, signs of infection may be less specific. They may have minimal respiratory involvement. Instead, they may exhibit decreased activity, irritability, poor feeding, or breathing with difficulties. This can also be accompanied by apneic spells, or brief pauses in breathing. Adults Reinfection with RSV remains common throughout life. Reinfection in adulthood often produces only mild to moderate symptoms indistinguishable from the common cold or sinus infection. Infection may also be asymptomatic. If present, symptoms are generally isolated to the upper respiratory tract: runny nose, sore throat, fever, and malaise. In the vast majority of cases, nasal congestion precedes the development of cough. In contrast to other upper respiratory infections, RSV is also more likely to cause new onset wheeze in adults. Only about 25% of infected adults will progress to significant lower respiratory tract infection, such as bronchitis or tracheobronchitis. While RSV very rarely causes severe disease in healthy adults, it can cause significant morbidity and mortality in the elderly and in those with underlying immune compromise or cardiopulmonary disease. Older adults have a similar presentation to younger adults but tend to have greater symptom severity with increased risk of lower respiratory tract involvement. In particular, the elderly are more likely to experience pneumonia, respiratory distress, and death. Immunocompromised In both adults and children, those who are immunocompromised are at an increased risk of severe infection with RSV. Infected individuals in this group are more likely to progress from upper to lower respiratory tract involvement and have prolonged viral shedding. Symptom severity seems to be closely related to the extent of immune suppression. Those who have undergone hematopoietic stem cell transplant (HSCT), intensive chemotherapy, and lung transplant are particularly susceptible. Bone marrow transplant patients appear to be at highest risk, especially prior to marrow engraftment. In this group, RSV infection carries a nearly 80% risk of both pneumonia and death. Complications Cause Risk factors Risk factors for development of severe lower respiratory tract infection with RSV vary by population. Virology Taxonomy RSV is a negative-sense, single-stranded RNA virus. The scientific name for this viral species is Human orthopneumovirus. This is synonymous with Human respiratory syncytial virus (hRSV) and is often shortened to just RSV. It belongs to the genus Orthopneumovirus, family Pneumoviridae, order Mononegavirales. Its name comes from the fact that F proteins on the surface of the virus cause neighboring cell membranes to merge, creating large multinucleated syncytia. Antigenic subtypes RSV is divided into two antigenic subtypes, A and B, based on the reactivity of the F and G surface proteins to monoclonal antibodies. The subtypes tend to circulate simultaneously within local epidemics, although subtype A tends to be more prevalent. Generally, RSV subtype A (RSVA) is thought to be more virulent than RSV subtype B (RSVB), with higher viral loads and faster transmission time. To date, 16 RSVA and 22 RSVB clades (or strains) have been identified. Among RSVA, the GA1, GA2, GA5, and GA7 clades predominate; GA7 is found only in the United States. Among RSVB, the BA clade predominates worldwide. Genome RSV has a negative-sense, single-stranded RNA genome. The genome is linear and approximately 15,000 nucleotides in length. It is non-segmented which means that, unlike influenza, RSV cannot participate in the type of genetic reassortment and antigenic shifts responsible for large pandemics. It has 10 genes encoding for 11 proteins. The gene order is NS1-NS2-N-P-M-SH-G-F-M2-L, with the NS1 and NS2 gene serving as nonstructural promoter genes. Structure & proteins RSV is a medium-sized (~150 nm) enveloped virus. While most particles are spherical, filamentous species have also been identified. The genome rests within a helical nucleocapsid and is surrounded by matrix protein and an envelope containing viral glycoproteins. There are 11 proteins, described further in the table below. G protein Surface protein G (glycoprotein) is primarily responsible for viral attachment to host cells. This protein is highly variable between strains. G protein exists in both membrane-bound and secreted forms. The membrane-found form is responsible for attachment by binding to glycosaminoglycans (GAGs), such as heparan sulfate, on the surface of host cells. The secreted form acts as a decoy, interacting with antigen presenting cells to inhibit antibody-mediated neutralization. G protein also contains a CX3C fractalkine-like motif that binds to the CX3C chemokine receptor 1 (CX3CR1) on the surface of ciliated bronchial host cells. This binding may alter cellular chemotaxis and reduce the migration of immune cells into the lungs of infected individuals. G protein also alters host immune response by inhibiting signaling from several toll-like receptors, including TLR4. F protein Surface protein F (fusion protein) is responsible for fusion of viral & host cell membranes, as well as syncytium formation between viral particles. Its sequence is highly conserved between strains. Interestingly, while viral attachment appears to involve both F and G proteins, F fusion occurs independently of G. F protein exists in multiple conformational forms. In the prefusion state (PreF), the protein exists in a trimeric form and contains the major antigenic site Ø. Ø serves as a primary target of neutralizing antibodies in the body. After binding to its target on the host cell surface (its exact ligand remains unclear), PreF undergoes a conformational change during which Ø is lost. This change enables the protein to insert itself into the host cell membrane and leads to fusion of the viral and host cell membranes. A final conformational shift results in a more stable and elongated form of the protein (postfusion, PostF). Opposite of the RSV G protein, the RSV F protein also binds to and activates toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4), initiating the innate immune response and signal transduction. Replication cycle Following fusion of the viral and host cell membranes, the viral nucleocapsid (containing the viral genome) and the associated viral polymerase are delivered into the host cell cytoplasm. Transcription and translation both occur within the cytoplasm. RNA-dependent RNA polymerase transcribes the genome into 10 segments of messenger RNA (mRNA) which is translated into structural proteins by host cell machinery. During replication of the negative-sense viral genome, RNA-dependent RNA polymerase synthesizes a positive-sense complement called the antigenome. This complementary strand is used as a template to construct genomic negative-sense RNA, which is packaged into nucleocapsids and transported to the plasma membrane for assembly and particle budding. Mechanism Transmission RSV is highly contagious and can cause outbreaks from both community and hospital transmission. For each person infected with RSV, it is estimated that an average of 5 to 25 uninfected people will become infected. RSV can spread when an infected person coughs or sneezes, releasing contaminated droplets into the air. Transmission usually occurs when these droplets come into contact with another person's eyes, nose, or mouth. RSV can also live for up to 25 minutes on contaminated skin (i.e. hands) and several hours on other surfaces like countertops and doorknobs. It has an incubation period of 2 to 8 days. Once infected, people are usually contagious for 3 to 8 days. In infants and in people with weakened immune systems, however, the virus may continue to spread for up to 4 weeks (even after they are no longer showing symptoms). Pathogenesis Following transmission through the nose or eyes, RSV infects ciliated columnar epithelial cells of the upper and lower airway. RSV continues to replicate within these bronchial cells for about 8 days. After the first several days, RSV-infected cells will become more rounded and ultimately slough into the smaller bronchioles of the lower airway. This sloughing mechanism is also thought to be responsible for the spread of virus from the upper to lower respiratory tract. Infection causes generalized inflammation within the lungs, including the migration and infiltration of inflammatory cells (such as monocytes and T-cells), necrosis of the epithelial cell wall, edema, and increased mucous production. Inflammation and cell damage tends to be patchy rather than diffuse. Together, the sloughed epithelial cells, mucous plugs, and accumulated immune cells cause obstruction of the lower airway. Diagnosis Laboratory diagnosis A variety of laboratory tests are available for the diagnosis of RSV infection. While the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) does not routinely recommend the use of lab testing to diagnosis RSV bronchiolitis (for which the treatment is largely supportive), confirmation of RSV infection may be warranted in high-risk groups if the result will guide clinical decisions. Common identification techniques include antigen testing, molecular testing, and viral culture. Antigen testing Antigen testing involves detection of RSV antigen fragments (or pieces of molecular viral structures), usually from an nasopharyngeal swab or aspirate. This can be accomplished either by viewing fluorescently labeled antigens under a microscope (direct fluorescence assay, or DFA) or using a commercially available rapid antigen detection test (RADT). Overall, antigen testing is highly sensitive in young children (80–90%) but substantially less reliable in older children and adults, who have less viral shedding. Antigen tests are also subject to higher false positive rates outside of the peak RSV season, such as in the summer months. In these scenarios, the use of either viral culture or nucleic acid amplification testing (NAAT) may aid in an accurate RSV diagnosis. Rapid antigen detection tests (RADT) are commonly used as point-of-care testing due to their ease of use and quick turnaround time (as little as 10 minutes). These include both enzyme immunosorbent assays (EIA) and chromatographic immunoassays (CIA). Direct fluorescence assay (DFA) allows for direct microscopic examination of virus-infected cells. The sensitivity of DFA testing depends on an adequate specimen. Molecular testing Molecular assays, such as nucleic acid amplification tests (NAATs), enable sensitive detection of very small amounts of virus in nasopharyngeal swabs and aspirates. NAAT assays such as polymerase chain reaction (PCR) detect virus-specific genetic material, rather than viral antigens. They have a sensitivity and specificity approaching 100%. However, they tend to be more expensive and require more complex equipment than other testing methods, making them less practical in resource limited areas. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is type of NAAT which allows a very small sample of genetic material to be rapidly amplified into millions of copies for study. PCR is more sensitive than either antigen testing or viral culture. Therefore, it can be used to detect virus in those with lower viral shedding, such as older children and adults. It may also be used to detect the disease earlier in at risk-at individuals (such as hospitalized or immunocompromised patients), when the viral burden may still be too low to be identified by traditional techniques. Because of its sensitivity, PCR can also often detect asymptomatic carriers and may remain positive even days after an infection has clinically resolved. Multi-pathogen panels are also available, which can detect the presence of multiple viral infections (including RSV) in a single patient. Viral culture In traditional viral culture, a sample of the virus is introduced to different cell lines and allowed to replicate so it can be studied. Benefits of this technique include the ability to perform genetic characterization, strain typing, and antiviral susceptibility testing. However, it is limited by its prolonged turnaround time of 3–7 days, making it less common in patient care and more common in research settings. Serologic testing Serology (the measurement of virus-specific antibodies in the serum) is not frequently used in RSV diagnosis. The time required for the body to mount a significant serologic response (and demonstrate a significant rise in antibodies that can be detected in serum) is usually not useful in guiding patient care. Up to 30% of patients with documented RSV infection will have negative serology results. As such, this method is generally reserved for research and surveillance studies. Imaging findings Chest x-rays findings in children with RSV bronchiolitis are generally nonspecific and include perihilar markings, patchy hyperinflation, and atelectasis. However, the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) does not recommend routine imaging for children with presumed RSV bronchiolitis because it does not change clinical outcomes and is associated with increased antibiotic use. Chest x-ray is sometimes considered when the diagnosis of bronchiolitis is unclear or when there is an unexpected worsening. In adults with RSV infection, chest films are often normal or demonstrate nonspecific changes consistent with viral pneumonia, such as patchy bilateral infiltrates. Differential diagnosis The differential diagnosis for individuals presenting with signs and symptoms of upper and lower respiratory tract infection includes other viral infections (such as rhinovirus, metapneumovirus, and influenza) and primary bacterial pneumonia. In children, inhaled foreign bodies and congenital conditions such as cystic fibrosis or asthma should also be considered. Prevention General prevention measures The main prevention measure is to avoid close contact with infected individuals. In community and daycare settings, careful hand washing can help reduce transmission. In hospital settings, strict adherence to infection control measures can help prevent the spread of RSV to high-risk individuals. Alcohol-based disinfectants are recommended for hand decontamination. Immunoprophylaxis Although there is currently no vaccine against RSV, passive immunization is available to prevent RSV infection and hospitalization in the highest risk infants. Historically, RSV-specific intravenous immunoglobin (IVIG) was used to provide passive immunity. This involved monthly administration of RSV-neutralizing antibodies (or immunoglobins) from human donors recovering from the disease. While this transfer of antibodies was reasonably effective in providing short-term immunization to at-risk infants, it was limited by both its intravenous administration and cost. RSV-IVIG has since been replaced with the use of a monoclonal antibody (MAb) that can be delivered through muscular injection. While several monoclonal antibodies have been developed for RSV prophylaxis, the most successful of these has been Palivizumab (brand name Synagis). Palivizumab is a monoclonal antibody directed against the surface fusion (F) protein of the RSV virus. It was licensed in 1998 and is effective in providing temporary prophylaxis against both RSV A and B. It is given by monthly injections, which are begun just prior to the RSV season and are usually continued for five months. Palivizumab has been shown to reduce both hospitalization rates and all-cause mortality in certain groups of high-risk children (such as those with chronic lung disease, congenital heart disease, and those born preterm). However, its cost limits its use in many parts of the world. More potent derivatives of this antibody have since been developed (including motavizumab) but were associated with considerable adverse events. The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP 2014) recommends RSV prophylaxis with palivizumab during RSV season for: Infants born at ≤28 weeks 6 days gestational age and <12 months at the start of RSV season Infants <12 months old with chronic lung disease of prematurity Infants ≤12 months old with hemodynamically significant congenital heart disease Infants <24 months old with chronic lung disease of prematurity requiring medical therapy Per AAP guidelines, palivizumab prophylaxis may also be considered in infants with: Congenital airway abnormality Neuromuscular disorder Cystic fibrosis Severe immunocompromise Recent or upcoming heart transplantation Vaccines Currently, there is no licensed vaccine to prevent infection by RSV. There has been tremendous interest and research in RSV vaccine discovery, given the virus's significant disease burden and the relative lack of disease-specific therapies. However, vaccine development has faced significant obstacles that have blocked its progress. Among these are infant-specific factors, such as the immature infant immune system and the presence of maternal antibodies, which make infantile immunization difficult. Attempts to develop an RSV vaccine began in the 1960s with a formalin-inactivated vaccine that was developed for use in infants and children. While a similar method was used to create a safe and effective poliovirus vaccine, this vaccine resulted in a dangerous phenomenon that came to be known as vaccine-associated enhanced respiratory disease (VAERD). In VAERD, the vaccinated infants went on to develop significantly worse respiratory disease than non-vaccinated infants during subsequent natural infection. Some 80% of such children (vs. 5% of virus-exposed controls) were hospitalized, with two cases leading to death. This disaster led to extreme caution and hindered vaccine development for many years. A 2019 paper claimed that research toward vaccine development had greatly advanced over the preceding 5–10 years, with more than 30 candidates in some stage of development. The same study predicted that a vaccine would be available within 10 years. The types of vaccines currently in research fall into five broad categories: live-attenuated, protein subunit, vector-based, particle-based, and messenger RNA. Each targets different immune responses, and thus may be better suited to prevent disease in different at-risk groups. Live-attenuated vaccines have shown some success in RSV-naive infants. Other vaccine candidates hope to target vulnerable populations across the lifespan, including pregnant women and the elderly. Treatment Supportive care Treatment for RSV infection is focused primarily on supportive care. This may include monitoring a patient's breathing or using suction to remove secretions from the upper airway. Supplemental oxygen may also be delivered though a nasal cannula or face mask in order to improve airflow. In severe cases of respiratory failure, intubation and mechanical ventilation may be required to support breathing. If signs of dehydration are present, fluids may also be given orally or through an IV. Additional supportive treatments have been investigated specifically in infants hospitalized with RSV bronchiolitis. These include the following: Nebulized hypertonic saline has been shown to reduce length of hospitalization and reduce clinical severity in infants with viral bronchiolitis. It is thought that this treatment may help by reducing airway edema and mucus plugging to decrease airway obstruction. Heliox, a mixture of oxygen with helium, may improve respiratory distress within the first hour after starting treatment. It works by reducing airway resistance and decreasing the work of breathing. However, it has not been shown to impact overall illness outcomes. Chest physiotherapy has not been found to reduce disease severity and is not routinely recommended. Inhaled recombinant human deoxyribonuclease (rhDNase), an enzyme that digests the DNA that contributes to mucus plugging and airway obstruction, has not been shown to improve clinical outcomes in this group. Viral-specific therapies Ribavirin is the only antiviral medication currently licensed for the treatment of RSV in children. It is a guanosine analog that acts by inhibiting viral RNA synthesis and capping. It was originally approved in 1986 for treatment of RSV infection. However, the use of ribavirin remains controversial due to unclear evidence regarding efficacy, concerns about toxicity to exposed staff members, as well as cost. As such, most current guidelines do not make specific recommendations regarding its use in children. In adults, ribavirin is used off-license and is generally reserved for the severely immunocompromised, such as those undergoing hematopoietic stem cell transplants. Presatovir, an experimental antiviral drug, has shown promising results in clinical trials but has not yet been approved for medical use. It acts as a fusion inhibitor by inhibiting the RSV F protein. Immunoglobins, both RSV-specific and non-specific, have historically been used for RSV-related illness. However, there is currently insufficient evidence to support the use of immunoglobins in children with RSV infection. Anti-inflammatories Corticosteroids (systemic or inhaled) have not been found to decrease hospitalization length or disease severity in viral bronchiolitis. Their use may also prolong viral shedding, and thus is not commonly recommended. However, the use of oral corticosteroids remains common in adults with RSV-related exacerbation of underlying lung disease. Leukotriene inhibitors such as Montelukast have been used in the treatment of infants and children with bronchiolitis. However, the evidence supporting their use remains inconsistent with no definitive conclusions on their efficacy. Bronchodilators Bronchodilators, medications commonly used to treat asthma, are sometimes used to treat the wheezing associated with RSV infection. These medications (such as albuterol or salbutamol) are beta-agonists that relax the muscles of the airways to allow for improved airflow. However, bronchodilators have not been found to improve clinical severity of infection or rate of hospitalization among those with RSV infection. Given their limited benefit, plus their adverse event profile, they are not routinely recommended for use in RSV bronchiolitis. Antibiotics Antibiotic therapy is not appropriate for treatment of RSV-related bronchiolitis or viral pneumonia. Antibiotics target bacterial pathogens, not viral pathogens such as RSV. However, antibiotics may be considered if there is clear evidence that a secondary bacterial infection has developed. Ear infections may also develop in a small number of infants with RSV bronchiolitis, in which case oral antibiotics may sometimes be used. Epidemiology Infants and children Worldwide, RSV is the leading cause of bronchiolitis and pneumonia in infants and children under the age of 5. The risk of serious infection is highest during the first 6 months of life. Of those infected with RSV, 2–3% will develop bronchiolitis, necessitating hospitalization. Each year, approximately 30 million acute respiratory illnesses and over 60,000 childhood deaths are caused by RSV worldwide. An estimated 87% of infants will have experienced an RSV infection by the age of 18 months, and nearly all children will have been infected by 3 years. In the United States, RSV is responsible for up to 20% of acute respiratory infection hospitalizations in children under the age of 5. However, the vast majority of RSV-related deaths occur in low-income countries that lack access to basic supportive care. Adults It is rare for healthy young adults to develop severe illness requiring hospitalization from RSV. However, it is now recognized as a significant cause of morbidity and mortality in certain adult populations, including the elderly and those with underlying heart or lung diseases. Its clinical impact among elderly adults is estimated to be similar to that of influenza. Each year, approximately 5-10% of nursing home residents will experience RSV infection, with significant rates of pneumonia and death. RSV is also responsible for 2-5% of adult community-acquired pneumonias. Immunocompromised In both adults and children, immunosuppression increases susceptibility to RSV infection. Children living with HIV are more likely to develop acute illness, and are 3.5 times more likely to require hospitalization than children without HIV. Bone marrow transplant patients prior to marrow engraftment are at particularly high risk, with RSV accounting for nearly half of the viral infections in this population. This group has also demonstrated mortality rates of up to 80% among those with RSV pneumonia. While infection may occur within the community, hospital-acquired infection is thought to account for 30-50% of cases among immunocompromised individuals. Seasonality RSV seasonality varies around the world. In temperate climates, infection rates tend to be highest during the cold winter months. This is often attributed to increased indoor crowding and increased viral stability in the lower temperatures. In tropical and arctic climates, however, the annual variation is less well defined and seems to be more prevalent during the rainy season. Annual epidemics are generally caused by the presence of several different viral strains. Subtype A and B viruses will often circulate simultaneously within a specific geographic region, although group A viruses are more prevalent. COVID-19 The COVID-19 pandemic resulted in a significant decline in the prevalence of RSV. There was then a significant unseasonal rebound when lockdowns and other restrictive measures were relaxed. History RSV was first discovered in 1956 when researchers isolated a virus from a population of chimpanzees with respiratory illness. They named the virus CCA (Chimpanzee Coryza Agent), although it was later realized that the chimpanzees caught the infection from their caretakers. In 1957, this same virus was identified by Robert M. Chanock in children with respiratory illness. Studies of human antibodies in infants and children revealed that the infection was common in early life. The virus was later renamed human orthopneumovirus, or human respiratory syncytial virus (hRSV). Several other pneumoviruses exist that show great similarity to hRSV. Most notable of these is bovine RSV (bRSV), which shares approximately 80% of its genome with hRSV. It also shares hRSV's predilection for the young, causing more severe disease in calves less than 6 months old. Because bRSV-infected calves have an almost identical presentation to hRSV-infected children, this has proven to be an important animal model in RSV research. References Atypical pneumonias Viral respiratory tract infections

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Brigadier General Sir Raymond Lionel Leane, (12 July 1878 – 25 June 1962) was an Australian Army officer who rose to command the 48th Battalion then 12th Brigade during World War I. For his performance during the war, Leane was described by the Australian Official War Historian Charles Bean as "the foremost fighting leader" in the Australian Imperial Force (AIF), and "the head of the most famous family of soldiers in Australian history", among other accolades. After the war, he served as Commissioner of the South Australia Police from 1920 to 1944, for which he was knighted. A businessman and part-time Citizen Forces officer before the war, Leane was commissioned into the AIF and led a company of the 11th Infantry Battalion at the landing at Anzac Cove, Gallipoli, on 25 April 1915. He rose to temporarily command his battalion, and was made a Companion of the Distinguished Service Order (DSO), awarded the Military Cross, twice mentioned in despatches and wounded three times during the Gallipoli campaign. After returning to Egypt, the AIF was re-organised, and Leane was appointed as the commanding officer of the newly formed 48th Battalion, which soon after was transported to the Western Front in France and Belgium. Important battles that the 48th were involved in under his command included the Battle of Pozières in 1916, and the First Battle of Bullecourt and First Battle of Passchendaele in 1917. During the latter battle, he was severely wounded. During 1916–1917, he was mentioned in despatches three more times, was made a Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George and awarded a bar to his DSO. After recuperating, in early 1918 he returned to his battalion and led it during the German spring offensive of March and April 1918, which included heavy fighting near Dernancourt, for which he was again mentioned in despatches. As a battalion commander, he proved a difficult subordinate, disobeying the orders of his brigade commanders at both Pozières and Dernancourt. In June 1918 he was promoted to colonel and temporary brigadier general to command the 12th Brigade, which he led during the Battle of Amiens in August, and the fighting to capture the Hindenburg Outpost Line in September. He was mentioned in despatches a further two times after the conclusion of the war, and in early 1919 was also awarded the French Croix de guerre, and made a Companion of the Order of the Bath for his "gallant and able" leadership while commanding the 12th Brigade. During the war, four of his brothers and six of his nephews served; two brothers and two nephews were killed. After helping oversee the repatriation of soldiers back to Australia, Leane returned home to South Australia in late 1919. In May the following year he was selected as the next Commissioner of the South Australia Police, taking up the appointment in July. His appointment was initially controversial within the force, as there had been an established practice of selecting the commissioner from within its ranks. Leane also returned to part-time soldiering, commanding at the brigade level until 1926, not without controversy. His administration of the police force was generally praised, although he did have to weather several storms, one of which involved a Royal Commission into bribery of some of his officers by bookmakers. He was a foundation member and inaugural president of the Legacy Club of Adelaide, established to assist the dependents of deceased ex-servicemen. In 1928, during a major dispute over the industrial award applying to waterfront labourers, Leane provided police protection to non-union workers, and on one occasion personally led a force of 150 police that successfully confronted a crowd of 2,000 waterside labourers who wanted to remove non-union workers from Adelaide ports. As commissioner, he introduced a number of innovations, including cadets and probationary training for young recruits, police dogs, and traffic accident analysis. After the outbreak of World War II, despite being on the retired list, Leane became the state commander of the Returned and Services League-organised Volunteer Defence Corps, a form of home guard, in addition to his duties as commissioner. After retiring in 1944, he was knighted for his services during 24 years at the head of the police force. In retirement he became involved in conservative politics, and remained active with returned servicemen's associations until his death in 1962. Early life and career Raymond Lionel Leane was born on 12 July 1878 in Prospect, South Australia, the son of a shoemaker, Thomas John Leane, and his wife Alice Short, who were of Cornish descent. One of eight children, he was educated at North Adelaide Public School until age 12, when he went to work for a retail and wholesale business, which sent him to Albany, Western Australia. He later moved to Claremont. In June 1902, Leane married Edith Louise Laybourne, a sister of the architect Louis Laybourne Smith. He and Edith lived at Claremont for six years, during which he served on the local council from 1903 to 1906. His interest in the military led to Leane being commissioned as a lieutenant in the 11th (Perth Rifles) Infantry Regiment, a unit of the part-time Citizen Forces in 1905. In 1908, he bought a retail business in Kalgoorlie and transferred to the Goldfields Infantry Regiment. He was promoted to captain on 21 November 1910. World War I On 25 August 1914, Leane joined the newly formed Australian Imperial Force (AIF) as a company commander in the Western Australia-raised 11th Infantry Battalion of the 3rd Brigade, with the rank of captain. The AIF was established as Australia's expeditionary force to fight in the war, as the Citizen Forces were restricted to home defence per the Defence Act 1903. When the battalion was formed, he was appointed to command F Company. The battalion embarked for overseas in October and sailed to Egypt, arriving in early December. On 1 January 1915, the unit was re-organised into four companies to mirror the British Army battalion structure, and a new C Company was created by combining E and F Companies. Leane was chosen to command the new C Company. Gallipoli campaign After several months training in Egypt, the 3rd Brigade first saw action as the covering force for the landing at Anzac Cove, Gallipoli, on 25 April 1915 and so was the first brigade ashore about 04:30. Leane's C Company was in the first wave, and landed just to the north of the Ari Burnu headland then climbed it to Plugge's Plateau. By noon on 30 April, the 1,000-strong 11th Battalion had suffered casualties amounting to nine officers and 369 men. Four days later, Leane was chosen to lead an amphibious assault on Gaba Tepe, a prominent headland south of the Anzac perimeter on which an Ottoman-held fort was situated. The troops occupying the fort were directing artillery fire onto the positions around Anzac Cove. Landing from boats on the beach at the foot of Gaba Tepe, the force consisted of over 110 men from the 11th Battalion and 3rd Field Company. The force was promptly pinned down on the beach by heavy fire. Leane signalled the Royal Navy to remove his wounded from the beach, which they did with a steamboat towing a rowboat. Having determined that the withdrawal along the beach was impossible owing to belts of barbed wire, Leane then signalled the Royal Navy to remove the rest of his party. The Navy sent two picket boats towing two ships' boats. Destroyers laid down covering fire, but while the Ottomans had held their fire for the evacuation of the wounded, they laid down tremendous fire on the withdrawing raiders. Many men were hit, including Leane, who was wounded in the hand. The raid was a failure, but Leane's leadership, courage and coolness under fire had impressed, and he was awarded the Military Cross (MC) for his actions. The recommendation from his commanding officer read: Following the raid on Gaba Tepe, Leane rejoined his battalion in the main defensive line around the beachhead. Before dawn on 19 May, elements of the Ottoman 16th Division attacked the 3rd Brigade positions on Bolton's Ridge as part of a wider counterattack against the Anzac sector. During the fighting, Leane was located in a forward sap of the battalion trenches overlooking a gully where the Ottoman troops were congregating. From this position, Leane and two other 11th Battalion men killed a large number of Ottoman troops with their rifles, firing from dawn until noon. On 28 June, Leane's company went forward of Bolton's Ridge towards Turkey Knoll to provide covering fire for an abortive attack by the 9th Battalion on Ottoman trenches on Sniper's Ridge. This attack was a feint, intended to distract the Ottoman commanders from reinforcing their troops opposite an Allied attack at Cape Helles far to the south. The forward company position was completely untenable, the lead elements of Leane's company were raked by shrapnel and machine gun fire, and Leane was wounded in the face. Despite this, he remained with his unit. The two companies of the 11th Battalion that were committed to support the attack lost 21 killed and 42 wounded. During the night of 31 July, Leane led an assault on an Ottoman trench opposite Tasmania Post, which was held by the 11th Battalion. The attack was prompted by a desire to give the Ottomans the impression that an attempt was going to be made to break out of the Anzac perimeter to the south, while a landing was planned at Suvla Bay far to the north. Leane's force consisted of four parties of 50 men, who were to assault the Ottoman trench after the firing of four mines that had been dug up to the enemy trench. Initially only the northernmost and southernmost of the mines exploded, but Leane led out the attack regardless. While the parties were covering the distance between Tasmania Post and the Ottoman trench, a third mine exploded, possibly burying some members of one of the assaulting groups. The fourth mine failed to explode. Stiff fighting occurred at some points of the objective trench, but the Ottomans were routed and the trench was consolidated and communication trenches leading towards the Ottoman rear were barricaded. Several desperate bomb fights occurred at the barricades. Work immediately began to convert the mine tunnels into communication trenches leading to the newly captured trench. There were some feeble counterattacks. At dawn, Ottoman artillery began an intense bombardment of the newly won position. During the shelling, Leane was speaking to an observer as an enemy shell landed. The observer was decapitated and Leane was wounded in the head, but remained at his post. The position captured during this operation became known as "Leane's Trench". While capturing the trench, the 11th Battalion had lost 36 killed and 73 wounded. Leane was promoted to temporary major on 5 August while recuperating in hospital on the island of Lemnos. He rejoined his unit four days later and was recommended to be made a Companion of the Distinguished Service Order (DSO), the second highest award for acts of gallantry by officers, for his "great gallantry, coolness and dash". He temporarily commanded the 11th Infantry Battalion from 30 September, and was promoted to substantive major and temporary lieutenant colonel on 8 October. Leane remained at Gallipoli until the battalion was evacuated to Lemnos on 16 November. He was admitted to hospital with pneumonia in late November, and was evacuated to Egypt, finally being discharged in early February 1916. For his service during the campaign, in addition to his MC and DSO, he was twice mentioned in despatches. He also became known by the nickname "The Bull". As the Official Australian War Historian Charles Bean observed, his "tall square-shouldered frame, immense jaw, tightly compressed lips, and keen, steady, humorous eyes made him the very figure of a soldier". Western Front On discharge from hospital, Leane initially returned to the 11th Battalion, but on 21 February 1916 was transferred to be the commanding officer of the planned 48th Infantry Battalion. The 48th Battalion was assigned to the 12th Brigade, part of the 4th Division. Leane was substantively promoted to lieutenant colonel on 12 March, and the battalion itself was raised four days later. Like Leane himself, the 48th was both South Australian and Western Australian, having been raised from a cadre drawn from the 16th Battalion reinforced by fresh recruits from Australia. Serving in the battalion were a number of Leane's relatives, including his younger brother, Benjamin Bennett Leane, who was initially his adjutant and later his second-in-command. There were also three of his nephews in the battalion (Allan Edwin, Reuben Ernest and Geoffrey Paul Leane), and several other relatives. The 48th became known throughout the AIF as the "Joan of Arc Battalion" because it was "made of All-Leanes" (Maid of Orleans). Throughout March and April 1916, the battalion undertook training in the desert before being moved to Habieta in early May where they briefly manned defensive positions as a precaution against a possible Ottoman attack on the Suez Canal. On 1 June, after a preliminary march to Serapeum, the battalion was moved by rail to Alexandria and boarded the troopship Caledonia, which sailed for France two days later. They docked at Marseille on 9 June, after which they were moved to northern France by rail. Pozières and Mouquet Farm After the battalion moved to France, its first serious fighting was during the Battle of Pozières on the night of 5/6 August, when it was committed to defend ground captured by the Australian 2nd Division. On receiving his orders, Leane immediately reconnoitred the position with his company commanders, during which they were pinned down by a German barrage and two of them were wounded. His brigade commander, Brigadier General Duncan Glasfurd and his superior commanders believed that a strong German counterattack would follow the tremendous barrage then falling on the Australian-held positions. Glasfurd therefore ordered Leane to place two companies north of Pozières, but Leane was convinced that this would overcrowd the area and result in needless casualties. His plan was to garrison his two trenches with one company each and hold his two reserve companies well to the rear of the village and he confronted Glasfurd and demanded written orders. Glasfurd then gave Leane a written order that his two reserve companies were to be sent forward, but Leane remained defiant, stationing only one company north of Pozières. According to Bean, while disobedience of orders is a dangerous practice in general, in this case later events proved that Leane was fully justified in this action. According to the historian Craig Deayton, Leane was already the dominant influence in the brigade, and was proving to be a "difficult subordinate" for Glasfurd. Leane was not alone in his approach, as the commanding officer of the flanking 14th Battalion, Lieutenant Colonel Charles Dare, adopted the same disposition and disobeyed his own brigade commander in doing so. Leane later described the relief of the previous garrison as the worst he experienced in the whole war, conducted as it was under a tremendous German bombardment. When he visited his front lines in the early morning, he found remnants of his two companies, scattered among shell holes rather than trenches, and surrounded by dead and wounded. By mid-afternoon on 6 August, it was apparent from the continuing heavy shelling that a German counterattack was to be expected. The two front line companies had suffered heavy losses, and, according to Bean, Leane's decision to retain a company in the rear of the village was shown to be a wise one. That evening he relieved his two forward companies with the reserve company, leaving the other company north of the village. About 04:00 on 7 August a full scale German counterattack developed, which threatened to overrun the 48th Battalion. Leane committed half of his remaining company, and this helped to resolve the situation. Leane's battalion was relieved in the afternoon. Leane's refusal to follow Glasfurd's orders has been described as flowing from "conspicuous common sense and great moral courage", but Deayton observes that the fact that no inquiry was undertaken after the battle was a failing by Leane's chain of command, which effectively gave Leane licence to disobey orders in future. The relationship between Glasfurd and Leane did not recover from this clash. Deayton further observes that if the German assault had been launched a day earlier, and the forward trenches lost, even temporarily, Leane would likely have been brought to account for his disobedience. In just one day and two nights of battle, the 48th Battalion lost 20 officers and 578 men, mainly from shell fire. The battalion returned to the line at Pozières on 12–15 August, losing another 89 casualties. Following this, the battalion undertook a defensive role around Mouquet Farm, before being moved to Flanders where they rotated with the other three battalions of the 12th Brigade to man a sector of the line south of Ypres. No major attacks occurred in their sector during this time, and although there were a few casualties, the battalion was able to replace some of its losses, reaching a strength of around 700 men. Leane was again mentioned in despatches, this time for "consistent, thorough and good work in raising and training his battalion" and his command of his unit at Pozières and Mouquet Farm. Bullecourt During the worst European winter in 40 years, the 48th Battalion continued to take its turn at the front line, and Leane was mentioned in despatches for the fourth time. In March 1917 his battalion followed up the Germans as they withdrew towards the multi-layered Hindenburg Line of fortifications. In early April 1917, the 12th Brigade was committed to an attack aimed at capturing Bullecourt, with the 48th Battalion given the task of capturing the secondary objective, following behind the 46th Battalion. During the preparations, due to a misunderstanding, Leane was ordered by his brigade commander to send 200 troops into the village of Bullecourt, which Leane believed to be well defended. Characteristically, Leane insisted that if the order must be carried out, it would involve the destruction of one of his companies, and he would have to choose that commanded by his nephew Allan. The timely arrival of a divisional staff officer clarified the situation, and the order was cancelled. On the morning of 10 April, the battalion was formed up for the attack when the promised tank support failed to arrive on time, and the assault was postponed. During the withdrawal back to the front line, Leane's brother, Major Benjamin Leanenow the second-in-command of the unitwas killed by shell fire, and the battalion suffered another 20 casualties. Leane found Ben's body among the dead, and carried him to a spot where he dug a grave before erecting a cross above it. The postponed attack was rescheduled for the following day, and despite further problems with the tank support, the 48th Battalion was able to push through to the second line of German trenches in the Hindenburg Line east of Bullecourt. The position was considered to be secure if close artillery support was provided. But mistaken artillery and air observers insisted that they had seen Australian troops beyond the Hindenburg Line, messages from the forward battalions did not get back to their higher headquarters, and the artillery commanders would not bring down the protective barrage needed. Reinforcements were unable to get through in sufficient strength. When a large-scale German counterattack developed, the 48th Battalion was almost cut off in the captured German trenches, and had to fight their way out, taking heavy casualties in the process. Of the around 750 men of the battalion involved in the attack, the unit lost 15 officers and 421 men. Leane's nephew Allan, who had led the fight in the captured German trench, was captured after being wounded and later died in a German hospital. The Australian commanders were scathing of the tanks, blaming them almost entirely for the failure, with Leane even accusing the tank crews of "cowardice and incompetence". Messines, Polygon Wood and Passchendaele The battalion was next involved in serious fighting during the Battle of Messines. Although in a supporting role for the brigade's initial advance on 7 June, its companies were soon committed to reinforce the leading battalions. They continued to fight the Germans until 10 June when they were withdrawn so that the battalion could be re-organised as a whole. Later the same day the battalion was recommitted to the front line. The following morning, with characteristic aggression, Leane pushed a strong fighting patrol forward at dawn, working on his assumption that the trenches and strong points opposite the battalion were only being held at night, with the German garrison being withdrawn during the day. He proved to be right, and the German positions were captured without a fight, along with two field guns and a large quantity of ammunition. This action secured the brigade objective and linked up the 12th Brigade with the 13th Brigade on its left. Up until the battalion was withdrawn from the battle on 12 June, it had lost 4 officers and 62 men. Leane was recommended for a bar to his DSO after Messines for "clever handling" of his battalion, but he did not receive that award. The battalion rotated through rest, reserve positions and the front line until the Battle of Polygon Wood in September. During this battle it was in a support role, engaged mainly in salvage in rear areas, but nevertheless suffered 27 casualties from heavy shell fire. Soon after, Leane was recommended to be made a Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George (CMG). The recommendation read: The battalion was next committed on the right flank of the main attack during the First Battle of Passchendaele on 12 October. Despite initial success and the capture of more than 200 Germans, the main attack failed, leaving the left flank of the battalion exposed. The first German counterattack was beaten off, but with its left flank unprotected, the second counterattack pushed the 48th Battalion back to its start line. During the fighting, the unit suffered 370 casualties from its original complement of 621. During the withdrawal, Leane was directing his unit from his headquarters near an old German pillbox when the area came under heavy German bombardment. A shell landed less than in front of him, Leane was severely wounded in the leg and hand, and was evacuated to England for treatment. He was again recommended for a bar to his DSO, this time successfully. The recommendation read: German Spring Offensive On 26 January 1918, Leane rejoined his battalion, having recuperated from his wounds. His CMG and bar to the DSO had been announced while he was away, as had his fifth mention in despatches. For almost the whole period of his absence, the 48th Battalion had been absorbing replacements, resting and training in rear areas, only returning to its rotation through to the front lines, reserve trenches and rest areas in mid-January. Even its brief periods in the front line had been quiet, mainly engaged in improving trenches and other defences. In mid-February the battalion moved to billets near Meteren where it remained until 25 March. On that day the 724-strong 48th Battalion was picked up by truck and sent south to help meet the German spring offensive, which had only been launched four days earlier, meeting with resounding success. After debussing north of Berles-au-Bois, the battalion marched into that village and took up positions. The following afternoon they were ordered to march through the night another further south to Senlis-le-Sec, arriving there on the morning of 27 March. After a brief stop they continued on through Hénencourt and east to Millencourt, due west of Albert. First Dernancourt The 12th Brigade was initially placed under the command of the 9th (Scottish) Division, responsible for holding the front line west of Albert, which had fallen into German hands. At this point, a breathless British staff officer appeared, stating that Dernancourt had fallen, and the Germans held the railway line in front of Albert. His orders were to guide the battalion into support positions on high ground behind the remnants of the 9th Division. Under Leane's stern gaze and questioning, he was unable to give the name of the commander of the 12th Brigade, Brigadier General John Gellibrand, who had apparently issued the orders, and due to rumours that alarms and false orders were being spread by Germans dressed as British staff officers, Leane detained him as a suspected spy. Leane went to find Gellibrand himself, found that the orders were correct, and the staff officer was released. After this delay in deployment, Leane directed his battalion east along the line of the Albert–Amiens road to the heights behind the 9th Division, which it reached in the early afternoon of 27 March. Gellibrand then ordered the 48th Battalion, and the 47th Battalion on its right, to immediately take up positions on the forward slope of the high ground and push posts forward to the railway embankment below. The forward slope was in full view of the approaching Germans. The 47th moved forward immediately, came under heavy German shelling, and suffered casualties in moving as far as an old half-completed trench some short of the railway line by 17:00. Leane took the view that Gellibrand did not know the full situation on the ground, and that he had the discretion to follow a course of action that would achieve the objective without unnecessary casualties. He decided not to move his troops forward until dark. Bean remarks on Leane again disobeying orders, but notes that the dangers of such action are mitigated when such subordinates, like Leane, have "outstanding qualities of courage and judgement". He concludes, "[b]ut Leane was Leane, and Gellibrand had the sense to know it". Deayton criticises Leane's decision, describing his failure to advise the 47th Battalion of his intentions as "inexcusable", and stating that the serious risk created by Leane's decision could have resulted in a disaster had there been a German attack that afternoon. Deayton also reflects that this was only the latest in a series of clashes between Leane and Gellibrand since the latter had taken over the brigade in November of the previous year. After dark, the 48th Battalion took over the line from the remainder of the 9th Division. The 47th Battalion was still on its right, and on the left was the British V Corps. The 48th Battalion occupied a small salient between Albert and Dernancourt. During the night, desultory artillery and machine gun fire was directed at the battalion's positions. In the early morning light of 28 March, the forward two companies could make out German infantry advancing through the fog. They approached without the coverage of a barrage, and in quite close formation, some had their rifles slung. The men of the 48th Battalion quickly brought their weapons to bear and the Germans stopped advancing. A minor break through on the right-flanking 47th Battalion was quickly dealt with and thirty prisoners taken. During the day, the Germans advanced another eight times, each time more cautiously and with a little more fire support. But each time the Australians beat them back. By evening the Germans appeared to have withdrawn, and the 48th Battalion had suffered the loss of 62 men. That night and the next two days passed relatively quietly, with Leane rotating his companies through the front line posts, with characteristic care not to create congestion in the forward areas. The battalion was relieved on the night of 30 March. Second Dernancourt The 48th Battalion returned to its former positions on the railway embankment on the night of 3 April, in their absence the line had been subjected to two more German attacks which had been beaten off fairly easily. On this occasion, despite his usual reticence to congest his forward positions with troops, Leane asked for permission to use two companies forward on the railway embankment, and another forward in a series of posts on the extreme left of the battalion sector. These posts were on either side of a gully just south of the Albert–Amiens road. He held his fourth company in a trench called Pioneer Trench, that had been dug on the high ground overlooking the embankment. He was also given a company of the 46th Battalion which he held in reserve near his headquarters. On 4 April, the commander of the 4th Division, Major General Ewen Sinclair-Maclagan decided the main line of defence would be the railway embankment, rather than the high ground behind it. While this did not change the dispositions of the 48th Battalion, it caused Gellibrand to issue an order that the embankment must be held at all costs, which had significant consequences for the coming battle. On the same day, word was received that a German attack was to be expected the next morning. Leane himself, observing German trench-mortar fire, and suspecting that they were registering targets for a bombardment, ensured his battalion was ready for the impending battle, and sent out night patrols that detected large concentrations of German troops on a road only beyond the embankment. Gellibrand ordered Lewis gun teams to be sent out to open fire on the assembling Germans, and called down artillery on the S.O.S. lines forward of the embankment. He also brought the 45th Battalion up to dig in on the high ground near Leane's headquarters. At 07:00, a heavy German bombardment came down, at first on rear areas of the 4th Division and its flanking formations, extending to the front line and supports about 08:00. Leane later observed that the barrage was "the heaviest since Pozières". No attack immediately materialised on the 48th Battalion's front, although large parties of Germans began advancing after an hour of the barrage descending on the frontline. In stiff fighting, the Germans were repulsed on the 48th Battalion's front. Although Leane had twice been ordered to disband the battalion scout platoon under a new standard battalion structure brought into force in 1917, he had only recently done so, and only in a formal sense. Instead, whenever the battalion went into action, a similar number of designated scouts immediately reported to him, and he posted them at various locations to keep him informed of events. About 10:30, some of Leane's scouts reported that the 13th Brigade, on the right of the 12th Brigade and opposite Dernancourt, was falling back. Around the same time, his right forward company on the embankment sent back a message indicating that the Germans had penetrated on the right of the brigade in the area of the 47th Battalion, and that it was taking over part of the left of the 47th Battalion line to assist. In response to a probe by the Germans against his northernmost company in the series of posts alongside the Albert–Amiens road, Leane immediately sent part of his reserve company from Pioneer Trench to reinforce it. Sensing the danger in the 13th Brigade area, Leane ordered Major Arthur Samuel Allen, commanding the nearby 45th Battalion, to move his battalion forward to vacant trenches overlooking that sector. As Allen was implementing these orders, he received conflicting orders from Gellibrand to send two companies forward to Pioneer Trench. Allen saw the wisdom of Leane's orders, and tried to convince the brigade major that Leane's preferred course of action was best. Nevertheless, Allen was directed to carry out Gellibrand's orders. Later events proved that, being the most experienced commander on the ground, Leane actually had the most accurate conception of the real danger to the 12th Brigade's position. At 12:15, with the 47th Battalion having given way to the German onslaught and withdrawing past them up towards the high ground, the two forward companies of the 48th on the embankment began to withdraw, leaving the northernmost company in its posts around the gully near the Albert–Amiens road. Soon after, the northern company was forced to withdraw its posts on the southern side of the gully. When he heard of the withdrawal, Leane sent forward his second-in-command to establish the line that the battalion would now attempt to hold. By 13:30, the 48th was still holding its left flanking posts near the Albert–Amiens road, but the rest of the battalion had withdrawn to Pioneer Trench on the high ground. The left flank posts were not withdrawn until about 15:30. At this point, a counterattack was ordered, involving the 49th Battalion of the 13th Brigade, which had been in reserve, with all but the far left flank of the 12th Brigade conforming with its advance. Sinclair-Maclagan wanted to use four available tanks to support the attack, but this was refused by the brigade commanders. Deayton surmises that this rejection of the tanks was at the urging of Leane, who had taken such a negative view of them at Bullecourt. Sinclair-Maclagan then argued that the objective of both brigades must be to retake the railway line, but this was opposed by Gellibrand, supported by Leane, whose opinion he still valued highly. They argued that the 12th Brigade should only aim to retake the former support line partway down the hill. Sinclair-Maclagan's view prevailed, possibly as he was acting in accordance with direction from higher headquarters. Despite this, Leane, as the commander of the forward troops of the 12th Brigade, once again displayed his strong independent streak, disobeying those orders and directing the troops' main effort towards recapturing the support trenches. The resulting counterattack was described by Bean as "one of the finest ever carried out by Australian troops". The 49th Battalion, flanked on its left by a line consisting of two companies of the 45th, the remnants of the 47th, and finally the re-organised 48th, surged forward at 17:15 into very heavy small arms fire, but by nightfall had reached positions not far short of the old support line. The 49th had fought its way to a position almost identical to that which Leane had wanted the 45th to deploy earlier in the day, when his orders had conflicted with those of Gellibrand. The line established overnight was the only one that had really ever been defensible. The forward troops of the 12th Brigade were relieved overnight by the 46th Battalion, and on 7 April the whole brigade was relieved by the 6th Brigade of the 2nd Division. During the latter fighting for Dernancourt, the 48th Battalion had lost another 4 officers and 77 men. Monument Wood After Dernancourt, the 48th Battalion marched to the rear and began establishing a reserve line at Beaucourt. On 18 April, Gellibrand was evacuated sick and Leane was appointed to act as brigade commander in his place. The following day he was temporarily promoted to the rank of colonel. During Gellibrand's absence, on 27–28 April, the 12th Brigade was deployed to the line at Villers-Bretonneux, which had just been recaptured from the Germans. In order to push the frontline further east of the town, it was necessary to capture strongly-held German positions in Monument Wood, so-named as it was adjacent to a memorial to the Franco-Prussian War. This task was given to the 12th Brigade, and Leane, knowing that the fighting would be difficult, applied his usual practice of giving the most challenging missions to his own, the 48th Battalion. After the intense fighting at Dernancourt, the 48th had been reinforced with a significant number of unseasoned new recruits. The attack was planned for 02:00 on 3 May, and in order to achieve surprise, there was to be only intermittent shelling of the wood during the day, and just a two-minute barrage with all available guns at the time of the attack. In the event, Leane's first battle as brigade commander went badly, with the artillery barrage being very weak and failing to cut the wire in front of the wood, and the supporting tanks failing to have any impact. One party managed to get through the wire and capture 21 Germans in the farm buildings in the centre of the wood, but a German counterattack forced the Australians back to their start line, with a loss of 12 officers and 143 other ranks, against German casualties of 10 officers and 136 men. Brigade command Leane returned to the 48th on 22 May and reverted in rank, but a little over a week later he was substantively promoted to colonel and temporarily promoted to brigadier general to command the 12th Brigade, as Gellibrand had been promoted to major general and appointed to command the 3rd Division. For his "considerable skill and ability" while acting brigade commander, Leane was recommended for the award of the French Croix de Guerre, and was mentioned in despatches for the sixth time. Immediately before his assumption of command, the limited number of reinforcements available, combined with losses suffered by the 12th Brigade at Dernancourt and Monument Wood necessitated the disbandment of one of the battalions of the brigade, and the 47th Battalion was chosen. Between 25 and 27 May its manpower was divided equally between the other battalions of the brigade. Leane then led his brigade during the highly successful Battle of Amiens on 8 August, during which it spearheaded the 4th Division as it leapfrogged through the 3rd Division to capture the second and third objectives, suffering casualties of nine officers and 212 other ranks. The second objective was captured by the 45th and 46th Battalions, with the 48th Battalion capturing the third objective, along with 200 prisoners and 12 machine guns. The Battle of Amiens was later described by the German General Erich Ludendorff as "the black day of the German Army". After a rest in reserve positions, the 12th Brigade was then in the forefront of the attack on the Hindenburg Outpost Line on 18 September, with the 48th Battalion leading the assault in the first phase, followed by the 45th which captured the second objective. Despite opinions to the contrary, Leane realised that the third "exploitation" phase of the attack would not be achieved by patrols, and would require the commitment of an entire battalion, and he allocated the 46th to the task. As the Australians were determined to push forward to the third objective despite a longer delay on the second objective by the British on the right flank of the 12th Brigade, Leane gave the commanding officer of the 46th Battalion very specific instructions regarding his assault, including to attack in great depth and protect his right flank. About 15:00, the attack of the 46th was held up by German resistance, so once he received this report, Leane went forward and urged its commanding officer to renew the attack as soon as artillery support could be arranged. The commanding officer argued against this approach, saying that his men were exhausted and needed rest and food. Leane accepted this, and it was decided that the attack would be renewed at 23:00. Leane, concerned about his exposed right flank caused by the failure of the British to go forward, ordered two companies of the 48th Battalion to prepare to attack across the divisional boundary and capture a hill in the forward area of the British 1st Division, but had to cancel the order when the British divisional commander objected. Instead, he had the two companies advance to a position protecting that flank but within his brigade boundary. That night, the 46th's attack was a great success, netting about 550 prisoners. Leane placed the two companies of the 48th under the command of the 46th to assist in consolidation of the position. The attack of the 46th, and on its left flank, the 14th Battalion, was an "extraordinarily daring attack", which, according to Bean, achieved results rarely achieved on the Western Front, and it was only on the Australian Corps front that the third objective of the attack was achieved. The British on the right flank repeatedly reported that they had also captured the third objective, but Leane, sending a patrol to make contact, quickly ascertained this report was incorrect. It was later found that what had been referred to as the Hindenburg Outpost Line was in fact being held as the main German position. The 12th Brigade had suffered casualties amounting to 19 officers and 282 men in achieving this success. The 4th Division was then relieved and went to the rear to rest. The brigade did not return to combat before the Armistice of 11 November 1918. After the war had ended, Leane acted as the commander of the 4th Division for a month, took some leave, was mentioned in despatches for the seventh time, and was also awarded the French Croix de Guerre. In April, he ceased to command the 12th Brigade, as it had been amalgamated with another brigade as men were repatriated to Australia. Leane then travelled to the United Kingdom, where he was appointed as General Officer Commanding No. 4 Group Hurdcott on the Salisbury Plain, which had an important role in repatriation. In June, he was made a Companion of the Order of the Bath. The recommendation for the award read: In July, he was mentioned in despatches for the eighth and final time. In September he relinquished his duties at Hurdcott and embarked to return to Australia. Leane was variously described by Bean in his Official History of Australia in the War of 1914–1918 as, "the head of the most famous family of soldiers in Australian history", "the fighting general par excellence", "the foremost fighting leader in the AIF", "a particularly cool and forcible – and serious commander", and a "great leader". He had a reputation as "a considerate leader, with great strength of character and a high sense of duty. In action he was... unflappable and heedless of danger". Of Leane's four brothers who served in World War I, two were killed. Six of his nephews also served, two of whom were killed. The Leanes became one of the nation's most distinguished fighting families, and were known as the "Fighting Leanes of Prospect". Police commissioner Leane disembarked in Adelaide on 18 October 1919, and his appointment in the AIF was terminated, in accordance with normal repatriation procedures, on 3 January 1920. In addition to the decorations he had received during the war, he was also issued with the 1914–15 Star, British War Medal and Victory Medal. While deployed overseas, he had been promoted to the brevet rank of lieutenant colonel in the peacetime Citizen Forces. On 20 January 1920, he was promoted to the substantive rank of colonel, "supernumerary to the establishment of Colonels," with the honorary rank of brigadier-general. On 13 May 1920, it was announced that Leane would be the next Commissioner of the South Australia Police from 1 July, replacing Thomas Edwards. Leane's appointment was something of a surprise to senior police officers, who, based on long-standing arrangements, expected that the commissioner would be appointed from within the force. At the time, Leane was described as a "splendid fellow" by soldiers who had served under his command, and it was observed that "tact and firm decision" were outstanding features of his character. When the Police Association, which represented the rank-and-file of the force, met on 29 June, Leane's appointment was freely discussed, and it was resolved that, despite the fact that they, as a body, were opposed to the appointment of an outsider as Commissioner, they would be loyal to him. The meeting also decided to ask Leane to meet with representatives of each branch of the service as soon as possible, to discuss various grievances and suggest reforms. In July 1920, Leane was appointed to command the part-time 19th Infantry Brigade, which encompassed the metropolitan area of Adelaide and the south-east districts of South Australia, and was part of the peacetime military structure. In the same year, he was appointed as an aide-de-camp to the Governor-General. In May of the following year, as part of a re-organisation of the Citizen Forces, he was appointed to command the 3rd Infantry Brigade. In response to Leane's annual report on the police force in December 1922, The Register newspaper observed that Leane had "dispelled, for the most part, any feeling of regret at his appointment which existed among members of the force", and that he had won their respect by his strict impartiality, consideration and sense of justice. It also stated that the conditions of police service had markedly improved in the two years since his appointment. In June 1923, Leane brought a case of defamation against Harry Kneebone, the editor of the Australian Labor Party (ALP) newspaper, The Daily Herald. The case alleged that Kneebone had impugned Leane's reputation over the conduct of the 3rd Infantry Brigade annual camp at Wingfield in March that year, over which Leane had presided. The paper had described the camp as a "breeding ground for outlawry", had claimed that discipline was lacking, and that the food and accommodation was poor, among other things. Bill Denny, a lawyer and ALP Member of Parliament, represented Kneebone. It was determined that there was a prima facie case against the defendant, and the matter was scheduled for trial in the Supreme Court in October, but the jury was unable to come to a verdict and were dismissed. The case was abandoned in November. By July 1923, The Advertiser newspaper was reporting that Leane's approach over his three years at the helm had made a significant difference in the administration of the South Australia Police, explaining that Leane had dispensed with seniority as the basis for promotion, by substituting merit and efficiency, as well as selecting candidates who displayed qualities of sympathy and tact in dealing with the public. In February 1925, Leane hosted a conference of commissioners of police from around Australia held in Adelaide. Leane actively supported commemorative activities such as Anzac Day and Remembrance Day, and attended unveilings of memorials. In April 1926, Leane relinquished command of the 3rd Infantry Brigade, and was placed on the unattached list. For his military service since 1905, he had also been awarded the Volunteer Officers' Decoration. In 1926–1927, a Royal Commission into bribery of members of the police by bookmakers was conducted, finding that it was probable that two detectives and several plainclothes constables were guilty of taking bribes. After considering the report of the Royal Commission, Leane submitted his own report to the government, in which he criticised the vague nature of its findings, and while accepting that some police may have accepted bribes, he asserted that corruption was not widespread. One detective and three constables were offered the opportunity to resign and took it, and another plainclothes constable was returned to uniformed duty. During the course of the royal commission, several other plainclothes constables had resigned. Before the commission concluded, Leane recommended to the Chief Secretary, James Jelley, who was the minister responsible for the police, that the plainclothes branch of the police be abolished, with uniformed constables to be rotated through those duties as required. His recommendation was accepted. In January 1927, the design by Leane's brother-in-law, Louis Laybourne Smith, was selected for the National War Memorial in Adelaide. In early 1928, Leane became a foundation member and the inaugural president of the Legacy Club of Adelaide, established to assist the dependents of deceased ex-servicemen. In September 1928, Leane provided police protection to non-union strikebreakers brought in to work on the Port Adelaide wharves to circumvent a dispute over the industrial award that covered the waterfront. Leane went to the extent of personally supervising police operations, despite a lack of unrest at the beginning of the dispute. There were suggestions that communists were interfering in internal union deliberations to resolve the matter. A week later, the continued employment of non-union labour resulted in significant violence on the waterfront. On the morning of 27 September, a crowd of between 4,000 and 5,000 unionists and others overran the Port Adelaide wharves, boarding ships and injuring and intimidating strikebreakers. That afternoon, a crowd of 2,000 marched the from Port Adelaide to Outer Harbor to confront the strikebreakers working there. Leane, accompanied by just one inspector, met the leaders and attempted to dissuade them from entering the wharf area. Instead, the crowd surged forward towards the docks. But Leane, his inspectors and about 150 mounted and foot police immediately set into motion plans to first break up the mass of the crowd among the buildings, then cordon off a significant portion of it in an open allotment. For some time they remained at a stalemate, but the crowd eventually dispersed having been unable to approach any of the strikebreakers or the vessels they were working on. The unionists had attacked a number of police and police horses, there had been a considerable amount of stone throwing by the crowd, and the police had used their batons freely at times. The events of the day were described in The Register as "probably without parallel in the history of the state". Over the following weekend, some 1,000 volunteers were sworn-in as part of the Citizens' Defence Brigade, a force of special constables raised at Leane's request to augment the police in dealing with the waterfront dispute. The brigade was based at Fort Largs and was equipped with service rifles and bayonets. The men were quickly posted at the wharves to maintain law and order. During the dispute, Leane slept in an office at the port so that he was on hand to deal with any emergencies. Leane's decision to arm the mostly inexperienced volunteers with bayonets was later criticised in Parliament. The dispute continued on, with major disturbances at Port Adelaide on 14 January 1929 which resulted in many injuries, and another on 17 January. A significant police presence was required at the wharves into 1930 to deal with disturbances and assaults on non-union workers, and Leane personally supervised police operations there on several occasions. In November 1928, two of Leane's sons, Lionel and Geoffrey, had joined the mounted police. In 1931, The Mail newspaper published a glowing article on Leane's eleven years as commissioner, praising the discipline and efficiency he had brought to the force, and describing him as a "true fighter" and "humane leader", who "never asks a man to do what he would not do himself". In the following year, Leane introduced 15–17 year old police cadets into the force, in a push to recruit more highly trained men. He specified that if all other things were equal, preference for the cadetships would be given to the sons of deceased returned servicemen. In 1934, Leane built on this scheme by introducing probationary police training for youths aged 17 to 20. Leane was also an advocate for the role of female police officers, and was the first to place a woman in control of the female members of the force. In 1934, he introduced police dogs into service, and in the following year he unveiled a memorial to police officers who had died on duty since 1862. Also in 1935, Leane proposed a nationwide scheme to analyse traffic accidents to determine the risk factors contributing to them, and tailor police traffic enforcement operations, and in the interim, implemented such a program in South Australia. In 1936, a biographical sketch of Leane mentioned that he was a justice of the peace, had been president of the Commonwealth Club in Adelaide, was the chairman of the South Australian branch of the Institute of Public Administration, and had been awarded the King George V Silver Jubilee Medal the previous year. In 1937, Leane was made an Officer of the Order of Saint John, and also received the King George VI Coronation Medal. In the same year he introduced training in morse code for police officers, presaging the introduction of radio to the police force. In 1938, Leane was placed on the retired list of military officers, having reached 60 years of age. His service in the police was extended by an act of Parliament allowing him to serve until he was 65. Leane's continuing concern about traffic accidents and their consequences was highlighted by a map maintained in his office, on which all accidents were marked. In April 1939, with the danger of war in Europe, Leane became a member of the State Emergency Civil Defence Council, with responsibilities for internal security, protection of vulnerable points, control of the civil population, intelligence, detention of enemy civil aircraft, civil flying, and the air examination service. In the same year, after the outbreak of World War II, Leane advocated for the introduction of radio communications into the police, stressing the need for quick response in cases of civil emergency. On 18 June 1940, Leane was appointed as the commander of the Returned and Services League-organised Volunteer Defence Corps (VDC) in South Australia, an organisation similar to the Home Guard in the United Kingdom. Within two weeks, more than 2,000 returned World War I servicemen had enlisted in the VDC. In response to the outbreak of war, by July 1940 Leane had authorised the swearing-in of 3,000 special constables to guard vulnerable points and industry against fifth column elements. On 19 October, Leane commanded a parade of more than 5,000 VDC members, including 2,000 who had travelled from country areas. By February 1941, the VDC had increased to a strength of 8,000 men. During World War II, South Australia was the only state to permit members of the police to enlist in the armed forces, but this was withdrawn after Japan entered the war, due to the need to maintain police numbers. In July 1943, Leane's appointment as VDC commander was extended for twelve months, despite the fact that he had reached the normal Army retirement age of 65. On 30 June 1944, Leane retired as police commissioner, and was replaced by William Francis Johns, a serving superintendent. Retirement After Leane's retirement as police commissioner, he briefly continued his work with the VDC, resigning on 30 July 1944. He was knighted in the 1945 King's birthday honours for his services as police commissioner over a 24-year period. For his service with the VDC during World War II he was issued with the War Medal 1939–1945 and Australia Service Medal 1939–1945. In 1946, he became the inaugural president of the Plympton branch of the conservative Liberal and Country League, the forerunner of the state Liberal Party. He continued to lead the Adelaide Anzac Day March each year, and on 7 September 1946 was invested with his knighthood by the Governor-General of Australia, Prince Henry, Duke of Gloucester. His police cadet system was allowed to lapse after his retirement, but it was re-introduced by John McKinna, another former soldier, who became commissioner in 1957. He remained a strong advocate of part-time soldiering, as well as a system of universal military training. Leane lived in Adelaide until his death at the Repatriation General Hospital, Daw Park, on 25 June 1962, with him and his wife celebrating their diamond wedding anniversary two weeks before his death. He was buried in Centennial Park Cemetery, and was survived by his wife, Edith, and six children: five sons and a daughter. His son Geoffrey was originally a mounted policeman then a detective, was a lieutenant colonel and twice mentioned in despatches during World War II, later became a police inspector, and was deputy commissioner from 1959 to 1972. His namesake son, known as Lionel, became a detective sergeant. Another son, Benjamin, was a warrant officer during World War II, and survived being a prisoner-of-war of the Japanese. On receiving the news of his death, McKinna said that Leane was "a grand man and an excellent soldier", who "was really the father of the present-day police force, as during his term as police commissioner he reorganised the whole force". He also said that, "The force was now receiving the benefits of his reorganisation and the many new systems and improvements he introduced". He observed that Leane "was always a strict disciplinarian but was scrupulously fair in all his dealings". The Premier of South Australia, Sir Thomas Playford, said that Leane "had been one of the great generals of World War I, and had also served with conspicuous ability as police commissioner for many years". See also List of Australian generals and brigadiers Footnotes References Books Newspapers Websites 1878 births 1962 deaths Australian generals Australian military personnel of World War I Australian Knights Bachelor Australian Companions of the Order of the Bath Australian Companions of the Order of St Michael and St George Australian Companions of the Distinguished Service Order Australian recipients of the Military Cross Recipients of the Croix de Guerre 1914–1918 (France) Commissioners of the South Australia Police Australian justices of the peace People from Adelaide Burials in South Australia Volunteer Defence Corps officers

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The University of Warsaw (, ), established in 1816, is the largest university in Poland. It employs over 6,000 staff, including over 3,100 academic educators. It provides graduate courses for 53,000 students (on top of over 9,200 postgraduate and doctoral candidates). The university offers some 37 different fields of study, 18 faculties and over 100 specializations in the humanities, technical, and the natural sciences. It was founded as a Royal University on 19 November 1816, when the Partitions of Poland separated Warsaw from the oldest and most influential Jagiellonian University of Kraków. Alexander I granted permission for the establishment of five faculties – law and political science, medicine, philosophy, theology and the humanities. The university expanded rapidly but was closed during November Uprising in 1830. It was reopened in 1857 as the Warsaw Academy of Medicine, which was now based in the nearby Staszic Palace with only medical and pharmaceutical faculties. All Polish-language campuses were closed in 1869 after the failed January Uprising, but the university managed to train 3,000 students, many of whom were important part of the Polish intelligentsia; meanwhile the Main Building was reopened for training military personnel. The university was resurrected during the First World War and the number of students reached 4,500 in 1918. By the early 1930s it became the country's largest institution of higher learning. Following the Second World War and the devastation of Warsaw, the university successfully reopened in 1945. Today, the University of Warsaw consists of 126 buildings and educational complexes with over 18 faculties: biology, chemistry, journalism and political science, philosophy and sociology, physics, geography and regional studies, geology, history, applied linguistics and philology, Polish language, pedagogy, economics, law and public administration, psychology, applied social sciences, management and mathematics, computer science and mechanics. The University of Warsaw is one of the top Polish universities. It was ranked by Perspektywy magazine as best Polish university in 2010, 2011, 2014, and 2016. International rankings such as ARWU and University Web Ranking rank the university as the best Polish higher level institution. On the list of 100 best European universities compiled by University Web Ranking, the University of Warsaw was placed as 61st. QS World University Rankings previously positioned the University of Warsaw as the best higher level institution among the world's top 400. History Beginnings under Alexander I In 1795 the partitions of Poland left Warsaw with access only to the Academy of Vilnius; the oldest and most influential Polish academic center, the Jagiellonian University in Kraków, became part of the Habsburg Monarchy. In 1815, the newly established autonomous Congress Poland de facto belonging to the Russian Empire found itself without a university at all, as Vilnius was incorporated into Russia. The first to be established in Congress Poland were the Law School and the Medical School. In 1816 Tsar Alexander I permitted the Polish authorities to create a university, comprising five departments: Law and Administration, Medicine, Philosophy, Theology, and Art and Humanities. The university soon grew to 800 students and 50 professors. After most of the students and professors took part in the November 1830 Uprising the university was closed down. After the Crimean War, Russia entered a brief period of liberalization, and the permission was given to create a Polish medical and surgical academy (Akademia Medyko-Chirurgiczna) in Warsaw. In 1862 departments of Law and Administration, Philology and History, and Mathematics and Physics were opened. The newly established academy gained importance and was soon renamed the "Main School" (Szkoła Główna). However, after the January 1863 Uprising the liberal period ended and all Polish-language schools were closed down again. During its short existence, the Main School educated over 3,000 students, many of whom became part of the backbone of the Polish intelligentsia. The Main School was replaced with a Russian-language "Imperial University of Warsaw". Its purpose was to provide education for the Russian military garrison of Warsaw, the majority of students (up to 70% out of an average of 1,500 to 2,000 students) were Poles. The tsarist authorities believed that the Russian university would become a perfect way to Russify Polish society and spent a significant sum on building a new university campus. However, various underground organizations soon started to grow and the students became their leaders in Warsaw. Most notable of these groups (the supporters of Polish revival and the socialists) joined the ranks of the 1905 Revolution. Afterwards a boycott of Russian educational facilities was proclaimed and the number of Polish students dropped to below 10%. Most of the students who wanted to continue their education left for Galicia and Western Europe. After the fall of the January Uprising (1863–1864), the Tsarist authorities' decided to convert the Main School into a Russian-language university, which functioned under the name of Imperial University for 46 years. There were two times when the question of moving the university into Russia was considered. During the 1905–1907 revolution, such a proposal was made by some of the professors, in the face of a boycott of the university by Polish students. Talks on that subject were conducted with a number of Russian cities, including Voronezh and Saratov. The Russian government finally decided to keep a university in Warsaw, but as a result of the boycott, the university was Russian not only in the sense of the language used, but also of the nationality of its professors and students. For the second time the question emerged during the First World War, when the military and political situation forced the Russian authorities to evacuate. Beginning from the autumn of 1915, there were two Universities of Warsaw: one Polish, in Warsaw, and another Russian, in Rostov-on-Don which functioned until 1917. On 5 May 1917 the Russian Provisional Government decided to close the University of Warsaw. The decision took effect on 1 July 1917; on the same day, the University of the Don, was inaugurated. During World War I Warsaw was seized by Germany in 1915. In order to win over the Poles for their case and secure the Polish area behind the front lines the governments of Germany and Austria-Hungary allowed for a certain liberalization of life in Poland. In accordance with the concept of Mitteleuropa, German military authorities permitted several Polish social and educational societies to be recreated. One of these was the University of Warsaw. The Polish language was reintroduced, and the professors were allowed to return to work. In order not to let the Polish patriotic movement out of control the number of lecturers was kept low (usually not more than 50), but there were no limits on the number of students. Until 1918 their number rose from a mere 1,000 to over 4,500. Second Polish Republic After Poland regained its independence in 1918, the University of Warsaw began to grow very quickly. It was reformed; all the important posts (the rector, senate, deans and councils) became democratically elected, and the state spent considerable amounts of money to modernize and equip it. Many professors returned from exile and cooperated in the effort. By the late 1920s the level of education in Warsaw had reached that of western Europe. By the beginning of the 1930s the University of Warsaw had become the largest university in Poland, with over 250 lecturers and 10,000 students. However, the financial problems of the newly reborn state did not allow for free education, and students had to pay a tuition fee for their studies (an average monthly salary, for a year). Also, the number of scholarships was very limited, and only approximately 3% of students were able to get one. Despite these economic problems, the University of Warsaw grew rapidly. New departments were opened, and the main campus was expanded. After the death of Józef Piłsudski the Senate of the University of Warsaw changed its name to "Józef Piłsudski University of Warsaw" (Uniwersytet Warszawski im. Józefa Piłsudskiego). The Sanacja government proceeded to limit the autonomy of the universities. Professors and students remained divided for the rest of the 1930s as the system of segregated seating for Jewish students, known as ghetto benches, was implemented customarily, not institutionally; comparable to the era of the Civil rights movement in the United States. World War II After the Polish Defensive War of 1939 the German authorities of the General Government closed all the institutions of higher education in Poland. The equipment and most of the laboratories were taken to Germany and divided amongst the German universities while the main campus of the University of Warsaw was turned into military barracks. German racial theories assumed that no education of Poles was needed and the whole nation was to be turned into uneducated serfs of the German race. Education in Polish was banned and punished with death. However, many professors organized the so-called "Secret University of Warsaw" (Tajny Uniwersytet Warszawski). The lectures were held in small groups in private apartments and the attendants were constantly risking discovery and death. However, the net of underground faculties spread rapidly and by 1944 there were more than 300 lecturers and 3,500 students at various courses. Many students took part in the Warsaw Uprising as soldiers of the Armia Krajowa and Szare Szeregi. The German-held campus of the university was turned into a fortified area with bunkers and machine gun nests. It was located close to the buildings occupied by the German garrison of Warsaw. Heavy fights for the campus started on the first day of the Uprising, but the partisans were not able to break through the gates. Several assaults were bloodily repelled and the campus remained in German hands until the end of the fights. During the uprising and the occupation 63 professors were killed, either during fights or as an effect of German policy of extermination of Polish intelligentsia. The university lost 60% of its buildings during the fighting in 1944. A large part of the collection of priceless works of art and books donated to the university was either destroyed or transported to Germany, never to return. In the People's Republic After World War II it was not clear whether the university would be restored or whether Warsaw itself would be rebuilt. However, many professors who had survived the war returned, and began organizing the university from scratch. In December 1945, lectures resumed for almost 4,000 students in the ruins of the campus, and the buildings were gradually rebuilt. Until the late 1940s the university remained relatively independent. However, soon the communist authorities started to impose political controls, and the period of Stalinism started. Many professors were arrested by the Urząd Bezpieczeństwa (Secret Police), the books were censored and ideological criteria in employment of new lecturers and admission of students were introduced. On the other hand, education in Poland became free of charge and the number of young people to receive the state scholarships reached 60% of all the students. After Władysław Gomułka's rise to power in 1956, a brief period of liberalization ensued, though communist ideology still played a major role in most faculties (especially in such faculties as history, law, economics, and political science). International cooperation was resumed and the level of education rose. By mid-1960s the government started to suppress freedom of thought, which led to increasing unrest among the students. A political struggle within the communist party prompted Zenon Kliszko to ban the production of Dziady by Mickiewicz at the Teatr Narodowy, leading to 1968 Polish political crisis coupled with anti-Zionist and anti-democratic campaign and the outbreak of student demonstrations in Warsaw, which were brutally crushed – not by police, but by the ORMO reserve militia squads of plain-clothed workers. As a result, a large number of students and professors were expelled from the university. Nonetheless, the university remained the centre of free thought and education. What professors could not say during lectures, they expressed during informal meetings with their students. Many of them became leaders and prominent members of the Solidarity movement and other societies of the democratic opposition which led to the collapse of communism. The scientists working at the University of Warsaw were also among the most prominent printers of books forbidden by censorship. Campus University of Warsaw owns a total of 126 buildings. Further construction and a vigorous renovation program are underway at the main campus. The university is spread out over the city, though most of the buildings are concentrated in two areas. Main campus The main campus of the University of Warsaw is in the city center, adjacent to the Krakowskie Przedmieście street. It comprises several historic palaces, most of which had been nationalized in the 19th century. The chief buildings include: Kazimierzowski Palace (Pałac Kazimierzowski) – the seat of the rector and the Senate; Uruski Palace (Pałac Uruskich) – left side of main gate entrance, houses the Department of Geography and Regional Studies the Old Library (Stary BUW) – since recent refurbishment, a secondary lecture building; the Main School (Szkoła Główna) – former seat of the Main School until the January 1863 Uprising, later the faculty of biology; now, since its refurbishment, the seat of the Institute of archaeology; Auditorium Maximum – the main lecture hall, with seats for several hundred students. The Warsaw University Library building is a short walk downhill from the main campus, in the Powiśle neighborhood. Natural sciences campus The second important campus is located near Banacha and Pasteura streets. It is home to the departments of chemistry, physics, biology, mathematics, computer science, and geology, and contains several other university buildings such as the Interdisciplinary Centre for Mathematical and Computational Modelling, the Environmental Heavy Ion Laboratory that houses a cyclotron and a facility for the production of PET radiopharmaceuticals, and a sports facility. Several new buildings have been constructed within this campus in recent years, and the Department of Physics moved here from its previous location at Hoża Street. Together with buildings of other institutions, such as the Institute of Experimental Biology, Radium Institute and the Medical University of Warsaw, the campus is part of an almost contiguous area of scientific and educational facilities covering approximately . Faculties Liberal Arts Applied Linguistics Applied Social Sciences and Resocialization Biology Chemistry Economic Sciences Education Geography and Regional Studies Geology History Law and Administration Journalism, Information and Bibliology Management Mathematics, Informatics, and Mechanics Modern Languages Oriental Studies Philosophy and Sociology Physics Political Science and International Studies Polish Studies Psychology Other institutes American Studies Center British Studies Centre Centre de Civilisation Française et d'Études Francophones auprès de l'Université de Varsovie Centre for Archaeological Research at Novae Centre for Environmental Study Centre for Europe Centre for European Regional and Local Studies (EUROREG) Centre for Foreign Language Teaching Centre for Inter-Faculty Individual Studies in the Humanities Centre for Latin-American Studies (CESLA) Centre for Open Multimedia Education Centre for the Study of Classical Tradition in Poland and East-Central Europe Centre of Studies in Territorial Self-Government and Local Development Chaire UNESCO du Developpement Durable de l`Universite de Vaersovie Comité Polonais de l'Alliance Français Digital Economy Lab (DELab) – joint institute with Google Erasmus of Rotterdam Chair Heavy Ion Laboratory Individual Inter-faculty Studies in Mathematics and Natural Sciences Institute of Americas and Europe Institute of International Relations – host of GMAPIR The Robert B.Zajonc Institute for Social Studies Inter-faculty Study Programme in Environmental Protection Interdisciplinary Centre for Behavioural Genetics Interdisciplinary Centre for Mathematical and Computational Modelling Physical Education and Sports Centre Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology University Centre for Technology Transfer University College of English Language Teacher Education University of Warsaw for Foreign Language Teacher Training and European Education Institutions Academic Radio Kampus 97,1 FM Institute of Information Science and Book Studies The Institute of Polish Language and Culture 'Polonicum' University of Warsaw Libraries Notable alumni Jerzy Andrzejewski (1909–1983), author Krzysztof Kamil Baczyński (1921–1944), poet, Home Army soldier killed in the Warsaw Uprising Menachem Begin (1913–1992), 6th Prime Minister of Israel (1977–1983), Nobel Peace Prize winner (1978) Adam Bodnar (born 1977), lawyer, human rights activist, Polish Ombudsman Tadeusz Borowski (1922–1951), poet, writer Kazimierz Brandys (1916–2000), writer Marian Brandys (1912–1998), writer, journalist Frédéric Chopin (1810–1849), pianist, composer Włodzimierz Cimoszewicz (born 1950), politician, Prime Minister of Poland (1996–1997), Marshal of the Sejm (2005) Tomasz Dietl (born 1950), physicist Samuel Eilenberg (1913–1998), mathematician, computer scientist, art collector Barbara Engelking (born 1962), sociologist Joseph Epstein (1911–1944), communist leader of French resistance Lech Gardocki (born 1944) lawyer, judge, former First President of the Supreme Court of Poland Marek Gazdzicki (born 1956), nuclear physicist Bronisław Geremek (1932–2008), historian, politician Małgorzata Gersdorf (born 1952), lawyer, first President of the Supreme Court of Poland Maciej Gliwicz (born 1939), biologist Witold Gombrowicz (1904–1969), writer Hanna Gronkiewicz-Waltz (born 1952), politician, President of the National Bank of Poland (1992–2001), Mayor of Warsaw (2006–2018) Jan T. Gross (born 1947), historian, writer, Princeton University professor Zofia Helman (born 1937), musicologist Gustaw Herling-Grudziński (1919–2000), journalist, writer, Gulag survivor Leonid Hurwicz (1917–2008), economist, mathematician, Nobel Prize in Economics winner (2007) Maria Janion (1926-2020), literary critic Monika Jaruzelska (born 1963) fashion designer, journalist, daughter of former Polish President Wojciech Jaruzelski Jerzy Jedlicki (1930–2018), historian of ideas, anti-communist activist Jarosław Kaczyński (born 1949), politician, Prime Minister of Poland (2006–2007) Lech Kaczyński (1949–2010), politician, Mayor of Warsaw (2002–2005), President of Poland (2005–2010) Andrzej Kalwas (born 1936), lawyer, businessman, and former Polish Minister of Justice Aleksander Kamiński (1903–1978), writer, leader of Polish Scouting and Guiding Association Ryszard Kapuściński (1932–2007), writer and journalist Mieczysław Karłowicz (1876–1909), composer Jan Karski (1914–2000), Polish resistance fighter Zofia Kielan-Jaworowska (1925–2015), paleobiologist Leszek Kołakowski (1927–2009), philosopher, historian of philosophy Bronisław Komorowski (born 1952), politician, Marshal of the Sejm (2007–2010), President of Poland (2010–2015) Alpha Oumar Konaré, (born 1946), 3rd President of Mali (1992–2002) Janusz Korwin-Mikke (born 1942), conservative-liberal politician and journalist Marek Kotański (1942–2002), psychologist and streetworker Adrian Kubicki (born 1987), Consul General of the Republic of Poland in New York City Jacek Kuroń (1934–2004), historian, author, social worker, and politician Jan Józef Lipski (1926–1991), literature historian, politician Ewa Łętowska (born 1940), lawyer, first Polish Ombudsman for Citizen Rights Jerzy Łojek (1932–1986), historian, writer Olga Malinkiewicz (born 1982), physicist Tadeusz Mazowiecki (1927–2013), author, social worker, journalist, Prime Minister of Poland (1989–1991) Adam Michnik (born 1946), journalist Karol Modzelewski (1937–2019), historian, politician Mirosław Nahacz (1984–2007), novelist, screenwriter Jerzy Neyman (1894–1981), mathematician, statistician, University of California professor Jan Olszewski (1930-2019), lawyer, politician, Prime Minister of Poland (1991–1992) Janusz Onyszkiewicz (born 1937), politician Maria Ossowska (1896–1974), sociologist Bolesław Piasecki (1915–1979), politician Bohdan Paczyński (1940–2007), astronomer Rafał Pankowski (born 1976), sociologist and political scientist Longin Pastusiak (born 1935), politician, Marshal of the Senate of the Republic of Poland (2001–2005) Krzysztof Piesiewicz (born 1945), lawyer, screenwriter Moshe Prywes (1914–1998), Israeli physician and educator; first President of Ben-Gurion University of the Negev Adam Przeworski (born 1940), political scientist, New York University professor Bolesław Prus (1847–1912), writer Emanuel Ringelblum (1900–1944), historian, founder Emanuel Ringelblum Archives of Warsaw Ghetto Ireneusz Roszkowski (1910–1996), precursor of prenatal medicine Józef Rotblat (1908–2005), physicist, Nobel Peace Prize winner (1995) Stefan Sarnowski (1939-2014), philosopher Stanisław Sedlaczek (1892–1941), social worker, leader of Polish Scouting and Guiding Association Yitzhak Shamir (1915–2012), 7th Prime Minister of Israel (1983–1984 and 1986–1992) Wacław Sierpiński (1882–1969), mathematician Andrzej Sobolewski (born 1951), physicist Dmitry Strelnikoff (born 1969), Russian writer, biologist, journalist for the media Kazimiera Szczuka (born 1966), literary critic, feminist, LGBT rights activist, television personality Adam Szymczyk (born 1970), art critic and curator Magdalena Środa (born 1957), philosopher and feminist Alfred Tarski (1902–1982), logician, mathematician, member of the Lwów-Warsaw school of logic Władysław Tatarkiewicz (1886–1980), philosopher, historian of esthetics Olga Tokarczuk (born 1962), writer, essayist, psychologist, Nobel Prize in Literature winner (2018) Rafał Trzaskowski (born 1972), politician, academic teacher, Mayor of Warsaw Julian Tuwim (1894–1953), poet and writer Alfred Twardecki (born 1962), archaeologist, historian of antiquity, museologist Andrzej Udalski (born 1957), astronomer and astrophysicist Mordkhe Veynger (1890–1929), Soviet-Jewish linguist Andrzej Kajetan Wróblewski (born 1933), experimental physicist Janusz Andrzej Zajdel (1938–1985), physicist and science-fiction writer Ludwik Zamenhof (1859–1917), physician, inventor of Esperanto Paweł Zarzeczny (1961–2017), sports journalist, columnist and TV personality Anna Zawadzka (1919–2004), social worker, leader of Polish Scouting and Guiding Association Maciej Zembaty (1944–2011), poet, writer, translator of Leonard Cohen's works Rafał A. Ziemkiewicz (born 1964), writer Florian Znaniecki (1882–1958), philosopher and sociologist Notable staff Professors Osman Achmatowicz (1899–1988), chemist, rector of the Technical University of Łódź (1946–1953) Szymon Askenazy (1866–1935), historian Karol Borsuk (1905–1982), mathematician Franciszek Bujak (1919–1921) historian Jan Niecisław Baudouin de Courtenay (1845–1929), linguist, introduced the concept of a phoneme Zygmunt Bauman (1925–2017), sociologist Tomasz Dietl (born 1950), physisct, Laureate of Agilient Technologies Europhysics Prize of The European Physical Society (2005) Benedykt Dybowski (1833–1930), biologist and explorer of Siberia and Baikal area Michel Foucault (1926–1984), French philosopher, at the university dean-faculty of the French Centre 1958–1959 Stanisław Grabski (1871–1949), economist Henryk Jabłoński (1909–2003), historian, nominal head of state of Poland (1972–1985) Feliks Pawel Jarocki (1790–1865), zoologist Barbara Jaruzelska (1931–2017), philologist and German studies professor, First Lady of Poland (1985–1990) Leszek Kołakowski (1927–2009), philosopher Kazimierz Kuratowski (1896–1980), mathematician Joachim Lelewel (1786–1861), historian, politician and freedom fighter Antoni Leśniowski (1867–1940), surgeon and medic, one of the discoverers of Crohn's disease Edward Lipiński (1888–1986), economist, founder of the Main Statistical Office Jan Łukasiewicz (1878–1956), mathematician and logician Mieczysław Maneli (1922–1994), jurist Leszek Marks (born 1951), geologist Kazimierz Michałowski (1901–1981), archaeologist, explorer of Deir el Bahari and Faras Andrzej Mostowski (1913–1975), mathematician Maria Ossowska (1896–1974), sociologist Stanisław Ossowski (1897–1963), sociologist Grigol Peradze (1899–1942), Orthodox theologian Leon Petrażycki (1867–1931), jurist, philosopher and logician, one of the founders of sociology of law Ladislaus Pilars de Pilar (1874–1952), literature professor, poet and entrepreneur Adam Podgórecki (1925–1998), sociologist of law Henryk Samsonowicz (1930–2021), historian, rector (1980–1982) Wacław Sierpiński (1882–1969), mathematician Alfred Sokołowski (1849–1924), physician and a pioneer in tuberculosis treatment Hélène Sparrow (1891–1970), bacteriologist and public health pioneer, especially typhus Andrzej K. Tarkowski (born 1933), zoologist, Laureate of Japan Prize (2002) Tadeusz Wałek-Czarnecki (1889–1949), professor of Ancient History Nikolay Yakovlevich Sonin (1849–1915), mathematician Jan Strelau (born 1931), psychologist Jerzy Szacki (1929–2016), sociologist and historian Stanisław Thugutt (1873–1941), politician, rector (1919–1920) Ewa Wipszycka (born 1933), historian and papyrologist Władysław Witwicki (1878–1948), psychologist, philosopher, translator and artist Włodzimierz Zonn (1905–1985), astronomer Rectors Wojciech Szweykowski (1818–1831) Józef Karol Skrodzki (1831) Józef Mianowski (1862–1869) Piotr Ławrowski (1869–1873) Nikołaj Błagowieszczański (1874–1884) Nikołaj Ławrowski (1884–1890) Michaił Szałfiejew (1895) Pawieł Kowalewski (1896) Grigorij Zenger (1896) Michaił Szałfiejew (1898) Grigorij Uljanow (1899–1903) Piotr Ziłow (1904) Yefim Karskiy (1905–1911) Wasilij Kudrewiecki (1911–1912) Iwan Trepicyn (1913) Siergiej Wiechow (1914–1915) Józef Brudziński (1915–1917) Antoni Kostanecki (1917–1919) Stanisław Thugutt (1919–1920) Jan Karol Kochanowski (1920–1921) Jan Mazurkiewicz (1921–1922) Jan Łukasiewicz (1922–1923) Ignacy Koschembahr-Łyskowski (1923–1924) Franciszek Krzyształowicz (1924–1925) Stefan Pieńkowski (1925–1926) Bolesław Hryniewiecki (1926–1927) Antoni Szlagowski (1927–1928) Gustaw Przychocki (1928–1929) Tadeusz Brzeski (1929–1930) Mieczysław Michałowicz (1930–1931) Jan Łukasiewicz (1931–1932) Józef Ujejski (1932–1933) Stefan Pieńkowski (1933–1936) Włodzimierz Antoniewicz (1936–1939) Jerzy Modrakowski (1939) Stefan Pieńkowski (1945–1947) Franciszek Czubalski (1947–1949) Jan Wasilkowski (1949–1952) Stanisław Turski (1952–1969) Zygmunt Rybicki (1969–1980) Henryk Samsonowicz (1980–1982) Kazimierz Albin Dobrowolski (1982–1985) Rector electus Klemens Szaniawski (1984) Grzegorz Białkowski (1985–1989) Andrzej Kajetan Wróblewski (1989–1993) Włodzimierz Siwiński (1993–1999) Piotr Węgleński (1999–2005) Katarzyna Chałasińska-Macukow (2005–2012) Marcin Pałys (2012–2020) Alojzy Nowak (since 2020) Staff Czesław Miłosz – janitor at Warsaw University Library during World War II; recipient of 1980 Nobel Prize in Literature. See also List of modern universities in Europe (1801–1945) Open access in Poland Warsaw School of History (Askenazy school) Warsaw School of Mathematics Main building of Warsaw University (Rostov-on-Don) Notes External links The WU Students Association Website of The University New Library Educational institutions established in 1816 Universities and colleges in Warsaw 1816 establishments in the Russian Empire 1810s establishments in Poland

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"Subway" (sometimes referred to as "The Accident") is the seventh episode of the sixth season of the American police television drama Homicide: Life on the Street, and the 84th episode overall. It first aired on NBC in the United States on December 5, 1997. In the episode, John Lange (Vincent D'Onofrio) becomes pinned between a Baltimore Metro Subway train and the station platform. The Baltimore homicide department is informed that Lange will be dead within an hour and Pembleton tries to solve the case while comforting Lange in his final minutes. "Subway" featured guest star Bruce MacVittie as a man suspected of pushing Lange into the path of the train. The episode was written by James Yoshimura, who co-produced with David Simon. It was directed by Gary Fleder and was the only episode of Homicide: Life on the Street helmed by the feature film director. Yoshimura based "Subway" on an episode of the HBO hidden-camera documentary show Taxicab Confessions, in which a New York City detective described a real-life instance of a man trapped between a subway train and platform. "Subway" was filmed on location in a Baltimore Metropolitan Transit Authority (MTA) station. Fleder included cinematic elements that were uncommon in the traditionally naturalistic show. This led to conflicts between Fleder and director of photography Alex Zakrzewski. "Subway" received overwhelmingly positive reviews but ranked number three in its time-slot during its original broadcast, capturing 10.3 million viewers but falling behind ABC's 20/20 and CBS's Nash Bridges. The episode won a Peabody Award for excellence in television broadcasting and was nominated for two Emmy Awards, one for Yoshimura's script and one for D'Onofrio's guest performance. "Subway" was the subject of a two-hour PBS television documentary, Anatomy of a "Homicide: Life on the Street", which originally aired on the network on November 4, 1998. Screenwriter Vince Gilligan said "Subway" directly influenced an episode of The X-Files that he wrote, which in turn helped inspire the casting of Bryan Cranston in Breaking Bad. Synopsis During an altercation on a crowded subway platform, John Lange (Vincent D'Onofrio) falls against a moving train and is pinned at waist level between a subway car and the edge of the platform. Detectives Pembleton (Andre Braugher) and Bayliss (Kyle Secor) arrive to investigate and are told the man's spinal cord is severed. Although Lange is not feeling much pain, emergency personnel tell the detectives he has less than an hour to live and will die as soon as he is moved. Bayliss questions Larry Biedron (Bruce MacVittie), who was involved with the altercation that led to Lange's fall. Biedron says he was bumped from behind with Lange, but witnesses give conflicting reports: Some say that Biedron pushed Lange, some that Lange pushed Biedron, and others say that it was an accident. Pembleton tries to talk to Lange, who becomes uncooperative and angry when told he will die. Lange says that his girlfriend, Sarah Flannigan (Laura MacDonald), is jogging near the harbor, so Pembleton sends detectives Lewis (Clark Johnson) and Falsone (Jon Seda) to look for her. Lewis and Falsone talk about the nature of death while questioning random joggers; their search effort proves fruitless. Lange tries to convince EMT Joy Tolson (Wendee Pratt) to give him painkillers, but she refuses because it will reduce their chances of saving his life, even while she insists he cannot be saved. Pembleton keeps Lange company, despite his initial annoyance at Lange's bullying and mean-spirited attitude. The emergency personnel plan to use airbags to push the subway train away from the platform, then pull Lange free and rush him to the hospital. Pembleton and Lange grow closer; Lange experiences more pain as time passes, and switches among remorse, anger, and casual small talk during their conversations. Later, Pembleton holds Lange's hand to comfort him and confides about his recent stroke. Bayliss grows suspicious when Biedron says that he cannot recall his last place of work or when he moved to Baltimore. Biedron eventually admits that he had been criminally charged and placed into a psychiatric ward for pushing a man in front of a Chicago subway train for no reason. Biedron is arrested, and Bayliss confirms to Pembleton that Lange was pushed; Pembleton decides not to tell Lange because he does not think that it will comfort him, but Lange figures it out for himself by observing their conversation. Lange experiences greater pain and starts to lose consciousness. After saying "I'm OK" to Pembleton, Lange falls unconscious and the EMTs push the train with the airbags. Lange dies immediately after he is removed. A shocked and disoriented Pembleton leaves the subway and, after staring at Biedron in the back of a police squad car, walks to his vehicle while recalling a line about how sugar maple leaves behave when it rains (a line that Lange said as he was dying). He then drives away with Bayliss. The episode ends with Flannigan jogging past the subway station. Pre-production Conception James Yoshimura, one of the Homicide: Life on the Street writers and supervising producers, first conceived the story for "Subway" after watching an episode of the HBO series Taxicab Confessions, which features hidden-camera footage of taxi passengers discussing their lives with the drivers. In the episode he saw, a New York Police Department detective discussed an experience in which a man was pushed and trapped between a subway train and station platform. Although the man was initially still alive, the homicide department was called in to investigate because emergency officials said they knew that he would eventually die. The detective said that the incident was the most upsetting thing he ever saw. He likened the twisting of the body to that of a plastic bag being spun around quickly and turning like a corkscrew, and said that when the train was removed and the body was twisted back, "All your guts fall down and in less than a minute, you're dead." Yoshimura first pitched the show to the Homicide: Life on the Street production team in May 1997 at the San Francisco production center of executive producer Barry Levinson. The episode was discussed and well-received during a round-table discussion involving Levinson, executive producer Tom Fontana, producer David Simon, supervising producer Julie Martin, and consulting producer Gail Mutrux. During that meeting, Markin suggested that the transit authority should pressure the police to resolve the homicide case quickly and get the trains moving again, an element which Yoshimura eventually added to the script. Levinson suggested ending the episode with the detectives walking back to the surface, then feeling the hum and vibration of the train starting back up under their feet. This suggestion, however, did not appear in the final episode. Distressed from a long stretch of poor ratings, NBC executives placed pressure on Homicide: Life on the Street producers to improve its viewership and become more popular than its higher-rated time-slot competitor, Nash Bridges. Yoshimura and the other producers, however, decided to continue pushing the envelope with "Subway" because they felt the series needed to maintain its quality and survive. "Subway" had to be greenlighted by NBC before a script could be written, and Yoshimura anticipated backlash about the episode. He said, "Every episode, we have trouble with NBC, so this is no different. We've fought that battle, we've had five years of that, so it doesn't matter to us." However, the executives were surprisingly enthusiastic about the premise. Warren Littlefield, then-president of NBC Entertainment, said his first reaction was "the classic response of a network programmer: 'Oh my God, this is scary, but that he quickly came around to the idea and greenlighted the project. Writing In writing the script for "Subway", Yoshimura wanted the Pembleton character to be confronted with his own mortality, a theme that had continued from the previous season in which the character suffered a stroke. Although Pembleton does not typically discuss his own feelings, Yoshimura wanted him to be placed in a situation in which he not only discussed death, but is also led by the unique circumstance of Lange's subway incident to confide his stroke experience to an almost complete stranger. From the beginning of the writing process, Yoshimura specifically wanted the Lange character to be mean and unpleasant, rather than the nice and innocent victim more typically portrayed in such television episodes: "Tragedy can happen to jerky people too and I think it'd be much more interesting to see how that kind of character's circumstances transcends the typical clichéd TV kind of victim." Yoshimura wanted Braugher to treat D'Onofrio like he was "bad luck" and try to keep his distance at first, but gradually come to view him as a person and form a close bond with him by the end of the episode. A New York City firefighter, Tim Brown, was a consultant for most of the technical information in the episode. In addition to helping Yoshimura with the dialogue from medical staff characters, Brown advised Yoshimura on the method of using air bags to push the subway train forward and remove Lange's body. Yoshimura included conflicting reports from witnesses about how the incident took place, which the writer described as a "Rashomon thing", in reference to the 1950 Japanese film in which several characters offer differing descriptions of the same murder. "Subway" continued a sixth season trend in which the detectives became more personally involved with the victims, and thus becoming more emotionally drained at their deaths. For example, in the episode "Birthday", which aired a month earlier, Falsone interviewed a victim who eventually died at the conclusion of the episode. It was the first television script Attanasio ever wrote. Yoshimura included a B story of Lewis and Falsone looking for Lange's girlfriend to provide comic relief and so that the entire episode would not be confined to the subway platform location. Yoshimura wanted the two detectives to also discuss the nature of mortality and death, but deliberately included black humor in their dialogue and made sure the characters did not act "teary-eyed [or] philosophical", because he believed it would be clichéd and an inaccurate depiction of how real detectives would behave. Some viewers were offended or startled by the flippant nature of the discussions about death between the two characters. Lange's girlfriend jogged behind Lewis and Falsone during a scene in which the two detectives were distracted in a discussion; Yoshimura deliberately included this in the episode to create a moment of irony. The line by Falsone to a jogger, "Are you sure you're not Sarah?", and Lewis' mocking reaction to the question, were both ad-libbed by the actors. Executive producers Barry Levinson and Tom Fontana reviewed the script after it was finished and made minor suggestions for changes. In the original script, Yoshimura made Pembleton more confrontational with the firefighters and emergency personnel, but this aspect of the script was changed when Fontana suggested it was too distracting. NBC executives indicated they would have preferred Lewis and Falsone find Lange's girlfriend and bring her back to the subway station before Lange died, but Yoshimura described that scenario as a "typical TV ending" and was vehemently opposed to any such change. Fontana also defended the original ending because he said Pembleton ends up filling the role that Lange's girlfriend would have filled. On August 18, 1997, four days before shooting on the episode began, NBC censors provided 17 pages of notes to Yoshimura requiring changes regarding violence and language. A typical Homicide: Life on the Street episode usually results in only three or four pages. Yoshimura made several modifications with the help of his writing assistant Joy Lusco, a future writer on Simon's HBO series The Wire. The changes included removing several instances of the words "ass" and "bitch" from the script. Lange's line, "Why am I even saying the son of a bitch's name?" was changed to "Why am I even saying the twerp's name?", and his line, "Go find another train and throw your miserable stupid ass in front of it" was changed to "throw yourself in front of it". Casting and director hiring Consulting producer Gail Mutrux recommended feature film director Gary Fleder to direct "Subway" because she believed he would provide visually engaging direction without distracting from the story in the script. Other Homicide: Life on the Street producers were not familiar with Fleder. When Mutrux told them the name of one of his previous films, Things to Do in Denver When You're Dead, Yoshimura became concerned Fleder was "one of these indie kind of guys [who is] going to come in and try to reinvent our show", a problem he had experienced with other directors in the past. After watching Things to Do in Denver When You're Dead, however, Yoshimura believed Fleder would be perfect to direct "Subway" because he felt that Fleder could provide strong visuals to a story that took place in one location, and prevent the script from becoming too static and boring. Upon being offered the job, Fleder thought that it would be a challenge due to most of the action being confined to a single set, but accepted the director position based on the strength of Yoshimura's script:, "The script was terrific. And for me, the big issue from day one was, 'How do I not screw it up?'" Yoshimura said that feature directors often struggle with Homicide: Life on the Street because they are used to working at a slower and more deliberate pace than the typical eight-day filming period of a single episode. Additionally, Yoshimura said, they have little time to adjust to the regular cast and crew, which he described as a "closed community [who are] used to shooting or working a certain way on this show, and then have their rhythms and their patterns and their habits". Casting director Brett Goldstein contacted Vincent D'Onofrio's agent about playing the part of John Lange, but the agent said D'Onofrio would never work in television and refused to even suggest the part to the actor. Goldstein remained convinced the actor was right for the role, and mailed the script directly to D'Onofrio; the actor liked the script and agreed to play the part. The agent later contacted Goldstein a second time, and they got into a dispute over how much money D'Onofrio would be paid. Yoshimura said that D'Onofrio was not the kind of actor he originally envisioned for the part, although he later praised his performance. D'Onofrio said he was attracted to the part based on the strength of the script and the reputation of Homicide: Life on the Street, although he had never seen the show himself. Fleder, D'Onofrio and Andre Braugher had only between two and three hours to read the script, discuss the characters and rehearse the material. Braugher said his first reaction to the episode premise was that it was a "horrifying idea" because he thought it would be sensational and end with a clichéd moral, which Braugher said "frankly, nauseated me, the idea of that". But Braugher said that he was extremely satisfied with Yoshimura's final script. Bruce MacVittie auditioned for the role of Larry Biedron by mailing a tape of himself performing to the show's producers. Yoshimura had previously seen MacVittie perform on the New York City stage and thought that he was a "wonderful, wonderful actor". After watching his rehearsal tape, Yoshimura settled on MacVittie for the part based not only on his acting, but also on his short physical stature. Yoshimura said, "I'm watching this tape and I'm thinking, 'Yeah, this little guy! Who would suspect this little guy to have these murderous kinds of tendencies. Laura MacDonald was also cast as Lange's girlfriend Sarah Flannigan based on an audition tape she sent to the show. Wendee Pratt was cast as emergency medical technician Joy Tolson, who works to help Lange throughout the episode but does not get along with him. Yoshimura said that he particularly enjoyed Pratt's performance "because she's not playing at all sympathetic. This guy's a pain in her ass." Shari Elliker, a WBAL (AM) disc jockey from the Baltimore area, made a cameo appearance as a witness in the subway. Preparation NBC sought permission to film "Subway" in an MTA station, but the authority was initially hesitant to allow filming for a script that portrayed their train as the source of a fatal accident. Since it was too late to build a set, co-executive producer Jim Finnerty told Yoshimura to wait before writing the script because of the strong possibility that the episode could never be filmed. When Yoshimura insisted on continuing anyway, Finnerty angrily stormed out of the meeting. However, Finnerty was eventually able to convince the authority to allow filming in one of their stations. Yoshimura also sought 300 extras to play firefighters, emergency medical personnel, transit workers and commuters. Finnerty authorized the use of more extras than an episode usually received, but refused to pay for 300 extras, forcing Yoshimura to make minor modifications to the script. Seven days of pre-production began on August 15, 1997. On the first day, Fleder met with Yoshimura and Fontana to discuss the script and the director's vision for the episode. Fleder suggested modifying the prologue, and storyboarded the introduction which was included in the episode. The new prologue involved commuters coming down to the train station while a street band performed, leading up to the subway accident before the opening credits rolled. The song featured in this prologue, "Killing Time", was written by Lisa Matthews, the lead singer of the Baltimore-area band Love Riot. Matthews also had a brief cameo on "Subway" as one of the witnesses to Lange's fall. On August 16, the show creators scouted out the Johns Hopkins Hospital Metro Subway Station, where the episode was to be filmed. At the request of the authority, the subway was renamed the fictional Inner Harbor station during filming. Fleder himself had only one hour to scout the location with his technical crew. Art director Vincent Peranio created a dummy wall to place in the empty space between two subway cars, making it appear that the two trains were one big car. Inside the dummy wall was a space in which the actor could stand and appear cut. Stunt coordinator G.A. Aguilar also choreographed the accident that day, and Peranio simulated the accident itself by tying a dummy into the hole in the dummy wall. Peranio originally wanted a stuntman to fall against the moving train, spin and fall into the padded hole in the dummy wall, but the transit authority refused to allow it. Production Filming The episode was filmed in seven days, starting on August 26, 1997. The MTA gave permission for filming to take place in one of their subways, but only allowed shooting to take place between 6 p.m. and 6 a.m. when the trains were not running. The restrictive hours, short preparation time, confining shooting space and excessive heat due to lack of ventilation created additional stresses to the crew of more than 100 people during the filming of the episode. The tight schedule and lack of rehearsal time was difficult on the actors, but D'Onofrio said that it added "a certain velocity and energy" to the shoot, which made the dialogue from the actors feel less rehearsed and more spontaneous. Yoshimura served as the on-set consulting editor during filming along with fellow producer David Simon, who wrote the book Homicide: A Year on the Killing Streets, from which the series was adapted. The cast and crew shot between seven and nine pages of the script each of the seven production days. Fleder said he was impressed by this pace because he usually shoots between one and two pages per day during his movies, and he said that the actors on Homicide: Life on the Street were better prepared and more cooperative than his usual film actors. Fleder dedicated a great deal of focus to establishing the correct chemistry between Braugher and D'Onofrio. Fleder said, "The energy between them had to be [strong] because they're carrying the episode. The audience is centered on them and if either of them falters, the whole episode kind of falls apart." The first day of shooting had to take place outside the subway station, so all outside scenes were shot first. As a result, the final scenes of the film were shot on the first day. Among those scenes were Pembleton leaving the subway in a daze following Lange's death; Yoshimura deeply regretted that this was one of the first scenes shot because he felt that the performance would have been more moving if Braugher had some previous dramatic interaction with D'Onofrio. The stunt simulating Lange's fall into the subway train was filmed on August 27, the second production day, and Yoshimura said that it was the most challenging part of the shoot. D'Onofrio and MacVittie had to arrive at the platform just as the subway train was approaching, and their scene had to be reshot several times because the train did not pass the actors on time. The crew also filmed shots of a dummy dressed as Lange being dragged by the train inside the dummy wall, but most of those scenes were not used in the final cut. The remaining five filming days focused primarily on the scenes between Braugher and D'Onofrio, which Yoshimura and Fleder felt were the most crucial element of the episode. During the filming of the climactic scene with Pembleton and Lange which ends with Lange's death, several members of the crew reacted emotionally, something Yoshimura said is extremely rare because the crew members typically look at their work as a job and do not become emotionally invested in the story that they are filming. While shooting the first subway scenes, D'Onofrio's performance was over-the-top and bombastic. Yoshimura asked him to act a little calmer during the earlier scenes and save the energy for the later scenes, because "if he did go up right away, there was nowhere else for him to go after that". D'Onofrio agreed and modified his performance accordingly. Fleder also clashed with MacVittie over his portrayal of the Biedron character. Fleder felt that the character appeared too crazy in earlier scenes, and that the actor was telegraphing the twist in which MacVittie would turn out to be a murderer. MacVittie approached Yoshimura about the criticism, but Yoshimura agreed with Fleder's interpretation. After MacVittie toned down the character's behavior, Fleder said that he was extremely pleased with the end result. Many of the firefighters appearing as extras in "Subway" were Baltimore firefighters. Yoshimura said that the firefighters who appeared to be running in the episode were actors, while the real firefighters walked slowly because, based on their real-life experience, they knew that there would be no need to rush in a situation involving a fatality. Although power on the railings were turned off during shooting, the crew and producers were not aware that some residual electricity continues to run through the cars even after the tracks have been shut down. At one point during the shooting, D'Onofrio felt a charge of that electricity run through him and said, "I'm really feeling something strange here." The crew initially believed D'Onofrio to be ad-libbing a line of dialogue in character, but eventually realized he was being electrified. When the MTA explained about the residual electricity, the crew installed rubber insulation so that D'Onofrio would not touch the metal of the train and experience any electricity. Fleder was impressed that D'Onofrio continued with the shoot, and said, "Most actors I worked with would've left the set at that point." Photography "Subway" was shot by Alex Zakrzewski, the series' regular director of photography. The episode was staged so that Pembleton is initially keeping his distance from Lange, but gradually moves closer and closer as they begin to bond, and by the end is sitting next to him and holding his hand. Accordingly, the initial scenes included wider shots with Braugher and D'Onofrio on the outer edges of the frame, but later scenes included more close-ups of the two sitting together. Although Homicide: Life on the Street typically employs a number of back-and-forth whip pan-style cuts, Fleder asked that the style be modified for this episode. In earlier scenes, Fleder asked for wider long shots to create a sense of setting within the subway station, and as the episode progressed and the story became more intense, he then allowed more close-ups and whip pans. This led to disagreements on the set between Fleder and Zakrzewski, who felt Fleder was trying to being too disruptive and difficult. Fleder said of his behavior, "I have to admit, I'm not the most charming guy on the set. I'm just not. When I'm on the set, I'm very focused and my humor goes away and I become not so charming." After the episode was complete, Fleder said that he and Zakrzewski settled their differences and were both happy with the final result. Fleder also asked for stylistic touches on the episode which were inconsistent with the show's typical emphasis on documentary-style realism. For example, he arranged for red scrim lighting to reflect on the subway car to add an artistic visual touch, even though there was nothing in particular in the subway station that reflected such a light. Upon hearing of the technique, Yoshimura was initially concerned, saying "Oh, he's getting artsy fartsy with me." Just before Lange's death, Fleder included a close-up with Braugher looking directly into the camera, breaking the fourth wall in a way typically forbidden on the show. During an outdoor dialogue scene between Johnson and Seda while the characters were driving in a car, Fleder filmed it by placing the camera outside the car's front windshield and panning back and forth between the two actors. Unbeknownst to Fleder, all car shots on Homicide: Life on the Street are only allowed to be filmed from inside the car to keep the scene more realistic. As a result of Fleder's car scene, a memo was circulated to the cast and crew reminding them of this policy and threatening to fire anybody who allowed a scene to be shot through the windshield again. Editing The episode was edited by series regular Jay Rabinowitz in a Manhattan NBC facility, with consultation at various times by Fleder, Yoshimura and Tom Fontana. Rabinowitz edited the episode for several days alone, then worked with Fleder for four days, making hundreds of edits to the episode. Yoshimura worked with the editor next and was disappointed with the first cut of the episode that he saw, claiming that it needed to be "a lot more frenetic and chaotics at the end, and not so artsy". Yoshimura also told Rabinowitz that the final cut of the episode should place strong emphasis on Braugher because he felt that the story is experienced "through his eyes". During the editing process, Yoshimura originally removed a scene featuring a silhouette of Pembleton riding the escalator out of the subway station after Lange died. Yoshimura felt that the shot was too sentimental, but Levinson personally had it placed back in the episode after Fleder claimed to have "begged" for it to be included. When Fontana first watched the episode, he felt that the prologue was too confusing because it was difficult to tell what happened during the accident scene. It was edited so that rather focusing on medium shots of D'Onofrio and MacVittie, it included a wider shot to establish the presence of a subway train before the accident so viewers would not be so confused. Audio tracks were mixed with recorded sounds from real subway cars, as well as PA system announcements, to make the episode sound more authentic. In the original episode, Pembleton grabbed Biedron by the collar of his shirt while Biedron sat in the back of a squad car during one of the final scenes. The scene was modified so that Pembleton only looked at Biedron, because Yoshimura felt that the scene was just as effective without him grabbing Biedron. During the last scene of the episode, in which Lange's girlfriend jogs by the subway station and ignores the emergency vehicles, Rabinowitz was originally instructed to include a musical score. He tried many different types of music, including rock music, Irish music, classical music, jazz, and piano riffs. When none of the music worked, Fontana suggested including no music at all, and it was agreed the silence was the most effective solution. Fontana said that after watching the episode repeatedly during the editing process, he liked the final product but doubted he would watch it again for a long time because it was "too emotionally draining". Reception Reviews and ratings "Subway" was originally scheduled to air during the 1997 November sweeps season, but lower-than-expected ratings for the three-part sixth-season premiere, "Blood Ties", prompted NBC to move its broadcast date to December 5 and heavily promote it. The strategy also gave the press more time to preview it and generate reviews. Warren Littlefield said, "The feeling was let's get out of the insanity of the sweeps and say, 'This is a little different'—hopefully we'll bring more people to this episode." During this time, the episode was renamed "The Accident" in some advertising materials. When all the Nielsen ratings markets were accounted for, "Subway" was listed as having been seen by 10.3 million households. It was the third-highest ranked show in its time-slot, behind ABC's 20/20, which was seen by 17.7 million households, and CBS's Nash Bridges, which was seen by 11.9 million. NBC executives had hoped that the extensive promotion and press coverage of "Subway" would help it outperform Nash Bridges and so lift Homicide: Life on the Street above its usual third place in the rankings. When it did not, "Subway" was considered a commercial failure, and helped fuel already existing discussions within NBC on whether to cancel the show. Reviews were overwhelmingly positive for "Subway". It was identified by The Baltimore Sun as one of the ten best episodes of the series, with Sun writer Chris Kaltenbach declaring, "Dramas don't come any better than this." Kinney Littlefield of The Orange County Register said it was "perhaps the best Homicide episode ever" and praised D'Onofrio's performance. USA Today gave the episode its highest rating of four stars. Tom Shales of The Washington Post called it, "a tour de force for D'Onofrio and Braugher". Entertainment Weekly writer Bruce Fretts said, "This is as gripping an hour of television as you're ever likely to see." Television and literary critic John Leonard said that "Subway" was "an artistic experience that is as genuine and accomplished and crafted as you will get anywhere". David P. Kalat, author of Homicide: Life on the Street: The Unofficial Companion, said of the episode, "Writer James Yoshimura proves that he has not lost his touch, with yet another truly grueling screenplay." Awards and nominations "Subway" won a 1998 Peabody Award for excellence in television broadcasting. The episode also received two Emmy Award nominations for the 1997–98 season. James Yoshimura was nominated for an Emmy for Outstanding Writing in a Drama Series for the episode's script, and Vincent D'Onofrio received a nomination for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Drama Series. It lost both nominations; NYPD Blue won the best writing Emmy for the fifth season episode "Lost Israel", and John Larroquette won the guest actor award for his appearance in "Betrayal", a second-season episode of The Practice. However, Jay Rabinowitz and Wayne Hyde won an International Monitor Award for best editing in a film-oriented television series. In 2009, TV Guide ranked "Subway" #25 on its list of the 100 Greatest Episodes. Cultural influences Vincent D'Onofrio's character in "Subway" partially inspired the creation of the antagonist played by Bryan Cranston in "Drive", a sixth season episode of The X-Files, which first aired on November 15, 1998. In the episode, Cranston's character is unpleasant and anti-semitic, but he is dying throughout the episode, and screenwriter Vince Gilligan intended for the audience to sympathize with him despite his unlikeable qualities. Gilligan said that this was influenced by "Subway", which he called an "amazing episode". He said of D'Onofio's character: "The brilliant thing they did in this episode, the thing that stuck with me, was this guy's an asshole, the guy really is unpleasant, and yet at the end (you) still feel his humanity." The casting of Cranston in this role directly led Gilligan to eventually cast him as the lead in his television series Breaking Bad. PBS documentary "Anatomy of a 'Homicide: Life on the Street'" WGBH-TV, a Boston-based Public Broadcasting Service station, produced a 75-minute television documentary about the episode "Subway" called Anatomy of a "Homicide: Life on the Street". The documentary was written, produced and directed by filmmaker Theodore Bogosian, and was originally broadcast on November 4, 1998, at 9 p.m. on PBS. The film focused predominantly on James Yoshimura, beginning with his conception of the script and ending with his reaction to the episode's television broadcast and the ratings numbers. The documentary included a brief featurette about Homicide: Life on the Street and its history of both critical acclaim and low ratings. It also focused on the balance between art and business, with Yoshimura and the other producers trying to produce an intelligent, high-quality episode while also capturing high ratings. The documentary crew put wireless microphones on several of the actors and crew and followed them through the conception, pre-production, filming, editing, screening and reception of "Subway". Many people involved with the show found the process extremely disruptive. In particular, Fleder said that he hates to be photographed and found the camera crew distracting and stressful. Fleder, who agreed to interviews for the documentary but refused to wear a microphone on the set, said of the crew, "To pull off a show like this, a seven-day shoot with this much dialogue and this many shots per day, you have to be really, really focused, and for me the thing with the documentary crew kept pulling away from the focus." Rob Owen, television editor of the Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, said that the documentary provided an interesting, entertaining and detailed look behind the scenes of the show. Owen said that this was "rare, because TV doesn't usually reveal details about itself. It's nice to see PBS pulling back the curtain on its competition, and I wish it happened more often." Manuel Mendoza of The Dallas Morning News praised it, calling it "a documentary as rare to public TV as Homicide is to commercial television", but said that it "falls short of being definitive" because it cannot address all elements of the series due to its brief running time. Several commentators praised the humorous scene in the documentary in which Yoshimura goes line-by-line through his script and replaces curse words based on orders from NBC censors. References External links 1997 American television episodes Homicide: Life on the Street (season 6) episodes Underground railways in fiction Maryland Transit Administration

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Christopher Walken (born Ronald Walken; March 31, 1943) is an American actor and comedian who has appeared in more than 100 films and television programs, including Annie Hall (1977), The Deer Hunter (1978), The Dogs of War (1980), Brainstorm (1983), The Dead Zone (1983), A View to a Kill (1985), King of New York (1990), Batman Returns (1992), True Romance (1993), Pulp Fiction (1994), Last Man Standing (1996), Mouse Hunt (1997), Antz (1998), Vendetta (1999), Sleepy Hollow (1999), Joe Dirt (2001), Catch Me If You Can (2002), Click (2006), Hairspray (2007), Seven Psychopaths (2012), the first three Prophecy films, The Jungle Book (2016), and Irreplaceable You (2018). He has received a number of awards and nominations, including the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor for The Deer Hunter. He was nominated for the same award and won BAFTA and Screen Actors Guild Awards for Catch Me If You Can. His films have grossed more than $1 billion in the United States alone. Walken has also played the lead in the Shakespeare plays Hamlet, Macbeth, Romeo and Juliet, and Coriolanus. He is a popular guest-host of Saturday Night Live, hosting seven times. His most notable roles on the show include record producer Bruce Dickinson in the "More Cowbell" sketch; the disgraced Confederate officer Colonel Angus; and multiple appearances in the Continental sketch. He has also appeared in Hallmark Hall of Fame's Sarah, Plain and Tall (1991), which earned him a Primetime Emmy Award nomination. Walken debuted as a film director and screenwriter with the 2001 short film Popcorn Shrimp. He also wrote and played the lead role in the 1995 play Him about his idol Elvis Presley. Early life Walken was born Ronald Walken on March 31, 1943, in Astoria, Queens, New York, the son of Rosalie Russell (May 16, 1907 – March 26, 2010), a Scottish immigrant from Glasgow, and Paul Wälken (October 5, 1903 – February 23, 2001), a German immigrant from Gelsenkirchen who owned and operated Walken's Bakery in Astoria. Walken was named after actor Ronald Colman. He was raised Methodist. He and his brothers, Kenneth and Glenn, were child actors on television in the 1950s, influenced by their mother's dreams of stardom. When he was 15, a girlfriend showed him a magazine photo of Elvis Presley, and Walken later said, "This guy looked like a Greek god. Then I saw him on television. I loved everything about him." He changed his hairstyle to imitate Presley and has not changed it since. As a teenager, he worked as a lion tamer in a circus. He attended Hofstra University but dropped out after one year, having gotten the role of Clayton Dutch Miller in an off-Broadway revival of Best Foot Forward alongside Liza Minnelli. Walken initially trained as a dancer at the Washington Dance Studio before moving on to dramatic stage roles and then film. Career 1950s–1960s As a child, Walken appeared on screen as an extra in numerous anthology series and variety shows during the Golden Age of Television. After appearing in a sketch with Martin and Lewis on The Colgate Comedy Hour, Walken decided to become an actor. He landed a regular role in the 1953 television show Wonderful John Acton playing the part of Kevin Acton. During this time, he was credited as Ronnie Walken. Over the next two years, he appeared frequently on television (landing a role in the experimental film Me and My Brother) and had a thriving career in theatre. From 1954 to 1956, Walken and his brother Glenn originated the role of Michael Bauer on the soap opera The Guiding Light. In 1963, he appeared as a character named Chris in an episode of Naked City, starring Paul Burke. In 1966, Walken played the role of King Philip of France in the Broadway premiere of The Lion in Winter. In 1968, he played Lysander in A Midsummer Night's Dream and Romeo in Romeo and Juliet at the Stratford Festival in Canada. In 1969, Walken guest-starred in Hawaii Five-O as Navy SP Walt Kramer. In 1964, he changed his first name to Christopher at the suggestion of Monique van Vooren, who had a nightclub act in which Walken was a dancer and who believed the name suited him better than Ronnie (a pet form of his given name, Ronald), which he was credited as until then. He prefers to be known informally as Chris instead of Christopher. 1970s In 1970, Walken starred in the Off-Broadway production of Lanford Wilson's Lemon Sky opposite Charles Durning and Bonnie Bartlett. Later that year Walken received the Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Performance. Walken made his feature film debut with a small role opposite Sean Connery in Sidney Lumet's The Anderson Tapes. In 1972's The Mind Snatchers a.k.a. The Happiness Cage, Walken played his first starring role. In this science fiction film, which deals with mind control and normalization, he plays a sociopathic U.S. soldier stationed in Germany. Paul Mazursky's 1976 film Next Stop, Greenwich Village had Walken, under the name "Chris Walken", playing fictional poet and ladies' man Robert Fulmer. In Woody Allen's 1977 film Annie Hall, Walken played the borderline crazy brother of Annie Hall (Diane Keaton). Also in 1977, Walken had a minor role as Eli Wallach's partner in The Sentinel. In 1978, he appeared in Shoot the Sun Down, a western filmed in 1976 that costarred Margot Kidder. Along with Nick Nolte and Burt Reynolds, Walken was considered by George Lucas for the part of Han Solo in Star Wars; the part ultimately went to Harrison Ford. In 1977, Walken also starred in an episode of Kojak as Ben Wiley, a robber. Walken won an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor in Michael Cimino's 1978 film The Deer Hunter. He plays a young Pennsylvania steelworker who is emotionally destroyed by the Vietnam War. To help achieve his character's gaunt appearance before the third act, Walken consumed only bananas, water, and rice for a week. 1980s Walken's first film of the 1980s was the controversial Heaven's Gate, also directed by Cimino. Walken also starred in the 1981 action adventure The Dogs of War, directed by John Irvin. He surprised many critics and filmgoers with his intricate tap-dancing striptease in Herbert Ross's musical Pennies from Heaven (1981). In 1982, he played a socially awkward but gifted theater actor in the film adaptation of Kurt Vonnegut's short story Who Am I This Time? opposite Susan Sarandon. Walken then played schoolteacher-turned-psychic Johnny Smith in David Cronenberg's 1983 adaptation of Stephen King's The Dead Zone. That same year, Walken also starred in Brainstorm alongside Natalie Wood and (in a minor role) his wife, Georgianne. In 1985, Walken played a James Bond villain, Max Zorin, in A View to a Kill, Roger Moore's last appearance as Bond. Walken dyed his hair blond to befit Zorin's origins as a Nazi experiment. At Close Range (1986) starred Walken as Brad Whitewood, a rural Pennsylvania crime boss who tries to bring his two sons into his empire; his character was mostly based on criminal Bruce Johnston. In 1988, Walken played a memorable role as Sgt. Merwin J. Toomey in Neil Simon's Biloxi Blues, which was directed by Mike Nichols, and he played the role of Federal Agent Kyril Montana in The Milagro Beanfield War. He also played the leading role of Whitley Strieber in 1989's Communion, an autobiographical film written by Strieber based on his claims that he and his friends were subject to visitations by unknown, other-worldly entities variously identified as possibly "aliens" or, simply, as "visitors". That same year, Walken appeared in the film Homeboy, which was written by and which featured Mickey Rourke in the titular role. In 1989, he played the lead role of "Puss" in the Cannon theatre group's musical version of Puss in Boots. 1990s The Comfort of Strangers, an art house film directed by Paul Schrader, features Walken as Robert, a decadent Italian aristocrat with extreme sexual tastes and murderous tendencies who lives with his wife (Helen Mirren) in Venice. King of New York (1990), directed by Abel Ferrara, stars Walken as ruthless New York City drug dealer Frank White, recently released from prison and set on reclaiming his criminal territory. In 1991, Walken starred in Sarah, Plain and Tall as Jacob Witting, a widowed farmer. In 1992, Walken played a villain in Batman Returns, millionaire industrialist Max Shreck. Also in 1992, Walken appeared in Madonna's controversial coffee table book SEX and the music video for her hit single, "Bad Girl" (directed by David Fincher). He also played Bobby, Cassandra's producer, in Wayne's World 2. Walken's next major film role was opposite Dennis Hopper in True Romance, scripted by Quentin Tarantino. His so-called Sicilian scene has been hailed by critics as the best scene in the film and is the subject of four commentaries on the DVD. Walken has a supporting role in Tarantino's Pulp Fiction as a Vietnam veteran named Captain Koons. He gives his dead comrade's son the family's prized possession—a gold watch—while explaining in graphic detail how he had hidden it from the Vietcong by smuggling it in his rectum after the boy's father, in whose rectum the watch had previously been concealed, had died of dysentery. Later in 1994, Walken starred in A Business Affair, a rare leading role for him in a romantic comedy. Walken manages to once again feature his trademark dancing scene as he performs the tango. In 1995, he appeared in Things to Do in Denver When You're Dead, Wild Side, The Prophecy and the modern vampire flick The Addiction, which was his second collaboration with director Abel Ferrara and writer Nicholas St. John. He also appeared in Nick of Time, which also stars Johnny Depp, and an art house film by David Salle, Search and Destroy. In 1995, Walken acted in "Him," a first play written by Walken about his idol Elvis in the afterlife featured in the New York Shakespeare Festival. The New York Times gave a somewhat positive review of his "most cheering and refreshingly absurd invention" of retelling Elvis' death as a disappearing act that enabled Elvis to flee to Morocco for a sex change to become "her" in a "woozily conceived, fantastical new play...in the sharpness and wit of writing and in the performances by Mr. Walken and Mr. Heyman." In the 1996 film Last Man Standing, Walken plays a sadistic gangster named Hickey. That year, he played a prominent role in the video game Ripper, portraying Detective Vince Magnotta. Ripper made extensive use of real-time recorded scenes and a wide cast of celebrities in an interactive movie. In 1996 Walken also appeared in the Italian film Celluloide as US Officer Rod Geiger and played the role of Ray in the Abel Ferrara crime-drama film The Funeral. In 1997, Walken starred in the comedy films Touch and Excess Baggage and had a minor role in the film Mouse Hunt. He also appeared in the drama/thriller film Suicide Kings, which was also filled with suspense and humor. In 1998, Walken played an influential gay New York theater critic in John Turturro's film Illuminata. The same year he voiced Colonel/General Cutter in the computer-animated film Antz. In 1999, he played James Houston in Vendetta, an HBO original movie based on the March 14, 1891 New Orleans lynchings. In the same year, Walken appeared in the romantic comedy Blast from the Past portraying Calvin Webber, a brilliant but eccentric Caltech nuclear physicist whose fears of a nuclear war lead him to build an enormous fallout shelter beneath his suburban home. The same year, he appeared as the Headless Horseman in Tim Burton's Sleepy Hollow, starring Johnny Depp and Christina Ricci. He also appeared in Kiss Toledo Goodbye with Michael Rapaport and Nancy Allen. Walken also starred in two music videos in the 1990s. His first video role was as the Angel of Death in Madonna's 1993 "Bad Girl". The second appearance was in Skid Row's "Breakin' Down" video. 2000s In 2000, Walken was cast as the lead, along with Blair Brown, in James Joyce's The Dead on Broadway. A "play with music", The Dead featured music by Shaun Davey, conducted by Charles Prince, with music coordination and percussion by Tom Partington. James Joyce's The Dead won a Tony Award that year for Best Book for a Musical. Walken had a notable music video performance in 2001 with Fatboy Slim's "Weapon of Choice". Directed by Spike Jonze, it won six MTV awards in 2001 and—in a list of the top 100 videos of all time compiled from a survey of musicians, directors, and music industry figures conducted by UK music TV channel VH1—won Best Video of All Time in April 2002. In this video, Walken dances and flies around the lobby of the Marriott Hotel in Los Angeles; Walken also helped choreograph the dance. Also in 2001, Walken played a gangster who was in the witness protection program in the David Spade comedy Joe Dirt and an eccentric film director in America's Sweethearts. Also in 2001, Walken played Lieutenant Macduff in Scotland, PA, a loose film adaptation of Shakespeare's Macbeth. In 2002 Walken played Mike in the film Poolhall Junkies and played Frank Abagnale, Sr. in Catch Me If You Can, which is inspired by the story of Frank Abagnale, Jr., a con artist who passed himself off as several identities and forged millions of dollars' worth of checks. His portrayal earned him an Academy Award nomination for Best Supporting Actor. Walken also had a part in the 2003 action comedy film The Rundown, starring Dwayne "The Rock" Johnson and Seann William Scott, in which he plays a ruthless despot. He was nominated for a Razzie (Worst Supporting Actor) in 2002's The Country Bears and in two 2003 movies, Gigli and Kangaroo Jack. Walken also starred in Barry Levinson's Envy, in which he plays J-Man, a crazy guy who helps Ben Stiller's character, and in his starring role in 2004's Around the Bend he again has a dancing scene as he portrays an absentee father who has fled prison to reunite with his father, his son, and the grandson he never knew before dying. Walken played the role of Paul Rayburn in 2004's Man on Fire, where, when speaking about the imminent destructive actions of John Creasy (Denzel Washington), his character states: "A man can be an artist... in anything, food, whatever. It depends on how good he is at it. Creasy's art is death. He's about to paint his masterpiece." Also in 2004, Walken played Mike in the film The Stepford Wives. In 2005, he played Mark Heiss in the film Domino and the role of Secretary Cleary in the film Wedding Crashers. In 2006, he played Morty, a sympathetic inventor who is more than meets the eye, in the comedy/drama Click and also appeared in Man of the Year with Robin Williams and Lewis Black. He co-starred in the 2007 film adaptation Hairspray, wherein he is seen singing and dancing in a romantic duet with John Travolta, and portrayed the eccentric but cruel crime lord and Ping-Pong enthusiast Feng in the 2007 comedy action film Balls of Fury opposite Dan Fogler. Walken was in the movie Five Dollars a Day (released in 2008), in which he plays a con man proud of living like a king on $5 a day. The film The Maiden Heist, a comedy co-starring Morgan Freeman, William H. Macy and Walken about security guards in an art museum, debuted at the Edinburgh International Film Festival on June 25, 2009. Walken also starred in Universal Studios Florida's "Disaster" attraction (formerly "Earthquake and the Magic of Effects" and soon to be Fast & Furious: Supercharged). Walken portrayed the owner of "Disaster Studios" Frank Kincaid and encouraged guests to be extras in his latest film, Mutha Nature. Walken was projected on a clear screen, much like a life-size hologram, and interacted with the live-action talent. Famous quote "Frankenstein never scared me". 2010s Walken returned to Broadway in Martin McDonagh's play A Behanding in Spokane in 2010, and received a Tony Award nomination for Best Performance by a Leading Actor in a Play. He had a small voice role in NBC sitcom 30 Rock, in the "Audition Day" episode. In 2011, he played the role of Jewish-American loan shark Alex "Shondor" Birns in the film based on the life of gangster Danny Greene, Kill the Irishman. In 2012, Walken reunited with McDonagh for the British-American crime comedy film Seven Psychopaths, and also played the founder and leader of a string quartet in A Late Quartet. Walken costarred with Al Pacino and Alan Arkin in the film Stand Up Guys, a story about aging gangsters out on the town for one last hoorah. He also appeared in The Power of Few. In December 2012, Walken was selected as a "GQ" Man of the Year. ("Gentlemen's Quarterly." April 2018. p. 24) In 2013, Walken became the protagonist in the campaign "Made From Cool" by Jack & Jones. In 2014, he appeared in Turks & Caicos. Walken appears as Gyp DeCarlo in the 2014 film Jersey Boys. In 2014, Walken played Captain Hook in the NBC production Peter Pan Live! In 2015, Walken starred in the film When I Live My Life Over Again and played the role of Clem for the second time in the David Spade comedy Joe Dirt 2: Beautiful Loser. In 2016, he voiced King Louie in the CGI-live action adaptation of Disney's The Jungle Book, directed by Jon Favreau. He also recorded a cover of Louie's song "I Wan'na Be like You", which he sings in the film as well as on the soundtrack. Also that year, he appeared in Dexter Fletcher's Eddie the Eagle and Barry Sonnenfeld's Nine Lives. In 2017, Walken replaced Bill Irwin in the role of Walter Tinkler in the critically panned Father Figures. The following year, he played Myron in the Netflix film Irreplaceable You. 2020s In 2021, Walken appeared as Frank in the BBC One/Amazon Prime Video comedy The Outlaws. Legacy and popularity Described as "diverse and eccentric" and "one of the most respected actors of his generation", Walken has long established a cult following among film fans. He is known for his versatility and was named as one of Empire magazine's "Top 100 Movie Stars of All Time". Once dubbed a "cultural phenomenon", he has portrayed several iconic movie characters including Johnny Smith in The Dead Zone, Max Shreck in Batman Returns and Max Zorin in A View to a Kill and was also considered for the role of Han Solo in Star Wars films. His Oscar-winning performance in The Deer Hunter was ranked as the 88th greatest movie performance of all time by Premiere magazine and his performance in Pennies from Heaven made it into Entertainment Weekly'''s list of the "100 Greatest Performances that should have won Oscars but didn't." Sometimes regarded as "one of the kings of cameos", Walken has made several notable cameo appearances or appeared in a single but popular scene of films including as Captain Koons in Pulp Fiction, Duane in Annie Hall, Hessian Horseman in Sleepy Hollow, and Don Vincenzo in True Romance. Writer and director Quentin Tarantino declared that Walken's involvement in True Romances popular "Sicilian scene" as one of the proudest moments in his career. Walken's work has been praised and acclaimed by many popular figures. Benicio del Toro cited Walken as an influence and stated that the best advice he had ever been given regarding acting came from him: "When you're in a scene and you don't know what you're gonna do, don't do anything." Kat Dennings called him her favorite actor and said that he was the reason that she wanted to be an actress. Johnny Depp once said one of the main reasons he starred in Nick of Time was wanting to work with Walken. Mickey Rourke, Sam Rockwell, Colin Farrell, Bradley Cooper, Leonardo DiCaprio and Mads Mikkelsen are among actors who spoke about their admiration for Walken. Prominent movie critic Roger Ebert was particularly impressed by his villain and anti-hero portrayals, once stated "when he is given the right role, there is nobody to touch him for his chilling ability to move between easy charm and pure evil" and called him "one of the few undeniably charismatic male villains." Walken is noted for refusing movie roles only rarely, having stated in interviews that he will decline a role only if he is too busy on other projects to accept. He regards each role as a learning experience. A rare example of a role Walken turned down was that of Ray Ruby in the film Go Go Tales (2007). According to film director Abel Ferrara, the character was originally written for Walken but the latter "didn't want to do it". The role was then given to Walken's New Rose Hotel (1998) co-star Willem Dafoe. Walken's unique voice and speaking style has been compared to other entertainment figures with voices that create "a pleasing (or at least entertaining) aural experience," such as William Shatner and Garrison Keillor. Walken believes that the source of his speech stems from growing up with immigrant neighbors who came from everywhere stating, "The neighborhood itself, you didn't hear a lot of English. Lots of Greek, Italian, Polish, German, Yiddish. I think I grew up listening to people who spoke English in a kind of broken way. I think maybe I talked that way." Walken inspired the stage show, All About Walken: The Impersonators of Christopher Walken, created by actor/comedian Patrick O'Sullivan in Hollywood in 2006. Appearances on Saturday Night Live Walken has hosted the comedy sketch and satire TV series Saturday Night Live (SNL) seven times. One of Walken's more famous SNL performances was a spoof of Behind the Music, featuring a recording session of Blue Öyster Cult's "(Don't Fear) the Reaper". In the guise of record producer Bruce Dickinson (not to be confused with the real Bruce Dickinson, lead singer for Iron Maiden), Walken makes passionate and slightly unhinged speeches to the band and is obsessed with getting "More Cowbell" into the song. The phrase "I gotta have more cowbell" has since been adapted to merchandise. The producer who suggested the cowbell on the original BÖC recording is David Lucas. Walken is also known for his part in one of Will Ferrell and Rachel Dratch's "The Luvahs" skits. His character brought a lady friend to meet The Luvahs, and she is subjected to learning the history that Walken's character shares with The Luvahs. He also divulges private information about his sex life with his girlfriend, much to her horror ("She was willing to accept her lover's body in places no one had ever trespassed...specifically, the ear canal"). Walken spoofed his starring role from The Dead Zone (1983) in a sketch titled "Ed Glosser: Trivial Psychic" (1992). In the film, Walken's character can predict deaths and catastrophes, while Glosser can accurately predict meaningless, trivial future but with the same emotional intensity as in the film: "You're going to get an ice cream headache. It's going to hurt real bad, right here, [touches forehead] for eight, nine seconds."). His character in A View to a Kill was parodied in a sketch titled "Lease with an Option to Kill", in which he reprised his role as Max Zorin. Zorin, who had taken on some qualities of other notable Bond villains (Blofeld's cat and suit, Emilio Largo's eye patch), was upset that everything was going wrong for him. His lair was still under construction; his henchmen had jump suits that didn't fit; and his shark tank lacked sharks, having a giant sea sponge instead. A captive James Bond, portrayed by Phil Hartman, offered to get Zorin "a good deal" on the abandoned Blofeld volcanic lair if Zorin let him go, to which he reluctantly agreed. He performed a song and dance rendition of the Irving Berlin standard, "Let's Face the Music and Dance". Finally, there was the "Colonel Angus" sketch, laden with ribald double entendres, in which Walken played a dishonored Confederate officer. Until 2003, Walken had a recurring SNL sketch called "The Continental", in which Walken played a "suave ladies' man" who in reality cannot do anything to keep a woman (a neighbor in his apartment building) from giving him the cold shoulder. Though he is outwardly chivalrous, his more perverted tendencies inevitably drive away his date over his pleading objections. For instance, he invites the woman to wash up in his bathroom; once she is inside, it becomes obvious that the bathroom mirror is a two-way mirror when he is seen lighting up a cigarette. In "The Continental", only the hand of his neighbor is ever seen; the camera always shows her point of view. The April 5, 2008 Saturday Night Live show was the first time an episode hosted by Walken did not have a "Continental" sketch or a monologue in which he sang and danced. This episode, however, did include one sketch titled "Walken Family Reunion", which spoofs many of Walken's idiosyncrasies. The sketch depicts a fictional Walken family reunion, where all of Christopher's relatives have his mannerisms and speech patterns, and sport his trademark pompadour hairstyle. In order of appearance, the other Walkens are Christopher's cousin Stanley (Bill Hader); Stanley's brother John (Jason Sudeikis); John's son Scott (Andy Samberg) and daughter Maxine (Amy Poehler) (who carries a doll that also has a pompadour); Nathan (Fred Armisen), a gay relative for whom "flamboyance" means dressing all in black and running his finger around the rim of a cosmo glass; Uncle Richard (Darrell Hammond) and Aunt Martha (Kristen Wiig), who think that The Deer Hunter was hilarious, and who are hosts of a Nigerian foreign exchange student named Oleki (Kenan Thompson). When he came to live with them, Oleki—who has absorbed all of the Walken Family traits—could not speak any English. But now (he says) he "talks like a normal teenaged American boy". The biggest laugh of the sketch occurs when Christopher expresses his sympathies for Scott's teenaged attitude: "I appreciate your situation. For a Walken, adolescence is a difficult time. You feel like you're the only normal person in a school full of nutjobs." Scott's response: "Wow! It's like you're lookin' right into my noggin!" (Will Forte also appears as a waiter at the beginning of the sketch, but does not do a Walken impression.) In September 2004, SNL released a DVD titled The Best of Christopher Walken through Lionsgate. Presidential candidacy hoax Walken became the subject of a hoax controversy in 2006, when a fake website started in August of that year by members of Internet forum Genmay.com announced that he was running for President of the United States. Some believed it was authentic, until Walken's publicist dismissed the claims. When asked about the hoax in a September 2006 interview with Conan O'Brien, Walken said he was amused, and when asked to come up with a campaign slogan, he replied, "What the Heck" and "No More Zoos!" Personal life In 1963, Walken met Georgianne Thon during a tour of West Side Story''. They married in January 1969. The couple have no children, and Walken has stated in interviews that being childless is one of the reasons he has had such a prolific career. The couple have a cat named Bowtie, and their previous cat was named Flapjack. Filmography Awards References External links 1943 births Living people 20th-century American comedians 20th-century American male actors 21st-century American male actors American male child actors American male comedians American male comedy actors American male dancers American male film actors American male musical theatre actors American male Shakespearean actors American male soap opera actors American male stage actors American male television actors American male video game actors American male voice actors American Methodists American people of German descent American people of Scottish descent Best Supporting Actor Academy Award winners Best Supporting Actor BAFTA Award winners Comedians from New York City Hofstra University alumni Male actors from New York City Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Supporting Role Screen Actors Guild Award winners People from Astoria, Queens People from Bayside, Queens People from Wilton, Connecticut

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Long Branch is a beachside city in Monmouth County, New Jersey, United States. As of the 2010 United States Census, the city's population was 30,719, reflecting a decline of 621 (-2.0%) from the 31,340 counted in the 2000 Census, which had in turn increased by 2,682 (+9.4%) from the 28,658 counted in the 1990 Census. As of the 2010 census, it was the 6th-most-populous municipality in Monmouth County and had the 71st-highest population of any municipality in New Jersey. Long Branch was formed on April 11, 1867, as the Long Branch Commission, from portions of Ocean Township. Long Branch was incorporated as a city by an act of the New Jersey Legislature on April 8, 1903, based on the results of a referendum, replacing the Long Branch Commission. History Long Branch was a beach resort town in the late 18th century, named for its location along a branch of the South Shrewsbury River. In the 19th century, theatrical performers of the day often gathered and performed there. It was visited by presidents Chester A. Arthur, James A. Garfield, Ulysses S. Grant, Benjamin Harrison, Rutherford B. Hayes, William McKinley and Woodrow Wilson. Seven Presidents Park, a park near the beach, is named in honor of their visits. The Church of the Presidents, where all seven worshiped, is the only structure left in Long Branch associated with them. President Grant and his family summered at their beachfront cottage in Long Branch the first year of his presidency in 1869 and for most of the rest of Grant's life. During this time, Long Branch came to be called the "summer capital". President James A. Garfield was brought to Long Branch in the hope that the fresh air and quiet might aid his recovery after being shot on July 2, 1881, an incident that left the assassin's bullet lodged in his spine. He died here on September 19, 1881, exactly two months before his 50th birthday. The Garfield Tea House, constructed from railroad ties that had been laid to carry Garfield's train, is in Elberon. The famous Long Branch Saloon of the American Old West, located in Dodge City, Kansas, was given its name by its first owner, William Harris, who had moved west from Long Branch, New Jersey, his hometown. Originally a resort town with a few hotels and large estates and many farms in the early 20th century, Long Branch grew in population. Italian, Irish and Jewish immigrants settled in during this period. During the 1930s, the city used government policies to enforce racial segregation against Blacks at local beaches, assigning all black applicants for beach passes to a single, segregated beach. By the 1950s, Long Branch like many other towns had developed new residential spots and housing to make room for the growing population. Many of the former farms of Long Branch were transformed into residential suburbs. Many of the estates and a few old historic resorts (with the addition of many new ones) still remain. In the early 20th century, Long Branch lost much of its activity as a theater spot. In addition, the opening of the Garden State Parkway in the mid-1950s allowed shore visitors to access points further south, which added to Long Branch's decline. The civil unrest of the 1960s caused riots in neighboring Asbury Park, and many fled the shore cities for the suburban towns west of the beach. Decades later, the older, more dilapidated parts of the resort town were condemned and redeveloped, in part by using eminent domain legislation. Long Branch still continues to be a popular resort area. Many people from New York City travel or settle into the area to escape the crowded city and enjoy Long Branch's beaches. The area also attracts some tourists from the Philadelphia area as well. Hurricane Sandy On October 29, 2012, Long Branch was one of many shore communities that were devastated by Hurricane Sandy. Although Sandy's winds were powerful, Long Branch's position between Long Beach Island and Sea Bright gave Long Branch a much larger wall of security because it could not be engulfed by surrounding waters. Despite this mainland advantage, there were still several instances of flooding in Long Branch during the storm. Many residents went without electricity for as long as two weeks. The boardwalk was destroyed; the city began rebuilding it in 2015, and it reopened in April 2016, making it the last boardwalk damaged by Sandy to be rebuilt. Geography Long Branch takes its name from the "long branch" or south branch of the Shrewsbury River. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city had a total area of 6.29 square miles (16.28 km2), including 5.12 square miles (13.27 km2) of land and 1.16 square miles (3.01 km2) of water (18.49%). The city borders the Monmouth County communities of Deal, Monmouth Beach, Ocean Township, Oceanport and West Long Branch. Neighborhoods There are several distinct neighborhoods and areas in the City of Long Branch, each with its own character. Unincorporated communities, localities and place names located partially or completely within the city include Branchport, East Long Branch, Elberon (served as ZIP Code 07740), Hollywood, Kensington Park, North Long Branch, Pleasure Bay and West End. Other areas include North End (once known as "Atlanticville"), Beachfront North and South (including Pier Village, adjacent to the site of the former Long Branch Pier at the foot of Laird Street), Downtown and Uptown. As the city's redevelopment initiatives continue to expand, the lower Broadway area (a portion of the city's Downtown) will become an Arts District. In years past, Long Branch was a major destination for beachgoers, along with Asbury Park, and enjoyed an upscale connotation with tourists. Long Branch is home to Seven Presidents Oceanfront Park, named for the United States presidents who visited the fashionable resort town, including Ulysses S. Grant, Chester A. Arthur, Rutherford Hayes, Benjamin Harrison, William McKinley, Woodrow Wilson and James Garfield. Long Branch's fame as the Nation's First Seaside Resort waned in the years following World War II. The defining moment marking the end of this era occurred on June 8, 1987, when the largest fire in the history of the city destroyed the landmark amusement pier and adjoining Haunted Mansion, "Kid's World" Amusement Park and other businesses. Climate According to the Köppen climate classification system, Long Branch has a humid subtropical climate (Cfa). Cfa climates are characterized by all months having an average temperature > , at least four months with an average temperature ≥ , at least one month with an average temperature ≥ and no significant precipitation difference between seasons. Although most summer days are slightly humid with a cooling afternoon sea breeze in Long Branch, episodes of heat and high humidity can occur with heat index values > . Since 1981, the highest air temperature was on August 9, 2001, and the highest daily average mean dew point was on August 13, 2016, and July 19, 2019. July is the peak in thunderstorm activity and the average wettest month is August. Since 1981, the wettest calendar day was on August 27, 2011. During the winter months, the average annual extreme minimum air temperature is . Since 1981, the coldest air temperature was on January 22, 1984. Episodes of extreme cold and wind can occur with wind chill values < . The average seasonal (November–April) snowfall total is and the average snowiest month is February which corresponds with the annual peak in nor'easter activity. Ecology According to the A. W. Kuchler U.S. potential natural vegetation types, Long Branch would have a dominant vegetation type of Appalachian Oak (104) with a dominant vegetation form of Eastern Hardwood Forest (25). The plant hardiness zone is 7a with an average annual extreme minimum air temperature of . The average date of first spring leaf-out is March 23 and fall color typically peaks in early-November. Economy Portions of the city are part of a joint Urban Enterprise Zone (UEZ) with Asbury Park, one of 32 zones covering 37 municipalities statewide. The city was selected in 1994 as one of a group of 10 zones added to participate in the program. In addition to other benefits to encourage employment and investment within the UEZ, shoppers can take advantage of a reduced 3.3125% sales tax rate (half of the % rate charged statewide) at eligible merchants. Established in November 1994, the city's Urban Enterprise Zone status expires in November 2025. Development Broadway Center is a planned entertainment and commercial hub of Long Branch, as envisioned by the City Government and Thompson Design Group, who created the Master Plan for the city. This complex is planned to offer retail shops, cafes, bars, restaurants and two performing arts theaters as well as 500 new residences sitting atop a 1,500 car parking garage. It will be designed by the architectural firms of Hellmuth, Obata and Kassabaum (HOK). In June 2013, the city approved designation of the area around its train station as a transit village, which can bring incentives for revitalization and denser development. There are several mid-rise buildings lining the oceanfront. In December 2013 another 12-story residential project was approved. Demographics Census 2010 The Census Bureau's 2006-2010 American Community Survey showed that (in 2010 inflation-adjusted dollars) median household income was $52,792 (with a margin of error of +/- $2,549) and the median family income was $56,778 (+/- $4,202). Males had a median income of $36,404 (+/- $3,363) versus $33,397 (+/- $4,036) for females. The per capita income for the borough was $30,381 (+/- $2,212). About 11.5% of families and 14.5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 26.7% of those under age 18 and 9.6% of those age 65 or over. Census 2000 As of the 2000 United States Census there were 31,340 people, 12,594 households, and 7,248 families residing in the city. The population density was 6,008.6 people per square mile (2,318.1/km2). There were 13,983 housing units at an average density of 2,680.9 per square mile (1,034.3/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 68.03% White, 18.66% African American, 0.36% Native American, 1.64% Asian, 0.05% Pacific Islander, 7.08% from other races, and 4.19% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 20.67% of the population. There were 12,594 households, out of which 27.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 36.9% were married couples living together, 15.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 42.4% were non-families. 34.1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 10.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.47 and the average family size was 3.19. In the city the population was spread out, with 23.8% under the age of 18, 10.2% from 18 to 24, 32.4% from 25 to 44, 20.8% from 45 to 64, and 12.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 35 years. For every 100 females, there were 94.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 91.6 males. The median income for a household in the city was $38,651, and the median income for a family was $42,825. Males had a median income of $37,383 versus $27,026 for females. The per capita income for the city was $20,532. About 13.9% of families and 16.7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 23.3% of those under age 18 and 13.3% of those age 65 or over. Government Local government The City of Long Branch is governed under the Mayor-Council (Plan A) form of municipal government under the Faulkner Act, enacted by direct petition as of July 1, 1966. The city is one of 71 municipalities (of the 565) statewide that use this form of government. The governing body is comprised of the Mayor and the five-member City Council, whose members are elected at-large on a non-partisan basis in the May municipal elections to serve concurrent four-year terms of office. , the Mayor of Long Branch is John Pallone. Members of the City Council are Dr. Mary Jane Celli, Bill Dangler, Mario Vieria, Dr. Anita Voogt and Rose Widdis. The mayor and city council members serve concurrent terms of office ending on June 30, 2022. Federal, state and county representation Long Branch is located in the 6th Congressional District and is part of New Jersey's 11th state legislative district. Politics As of March 23, 2011, there were a total of 13,442 registered voters in Long Branch, of which 4,293 (31.9%) were registered as Democrats, 1,783 (13.3%) were registered as Republicans and 7,358 (54.7%) were registered as Unaffiliated. There were 8 voters registered to other parties. In the 2012 presidential election, Democrat Barack Obama received 64.5% of the vote (5,421 cast), ahead of Republican Mitt Romney with 34.5% (2,897 votes), and other candidates with 1.0% (81 votes), among the 8,470 ballots cast by the city's 14,289 registered voters (71 ballots were spoiled), for a turnout of 59.3%. In the 2008 presidential election, Democrat Barack Obama received 61.2% of the vote (6,171 cast), ahead of Republican John McCain with 35.7% (3,600 votes) and other candidates with 1.0% (98 votes), among the 10,090 ballots cast by the city's 14,433 registered voters, for a turnout of 69.9%. In the 2004 presidential election, Democrat John Kerry received 58.0% of the vote (5,724 ballots cast), outpolling Republican George W. Bush with 40.5% (4,001 votes) and other candidates with 0.7% (99 votes), among the 9,870 ballots cast by the city's 14,563 registered voters, for a turnout percentage of 67.8. In the 2013 gubernatorial election, Republican Chris Christie received 57.4% of the vote (2,621 cast), ahead of Democrat Barbara Buono with 41.1% (1,876 votes), and other candidates with 1.6% (71 votes), among the 4,677 ballots cast by the city's 14,129 registered voters (109 ballots were spoiled), for a turnout of 33.1%. In the 2009 gubernatorial election, Democrat Jon Corzine received 48.1% of the vote (2,714 ballots cast), ahead of Republican Chris Christie with 44.7% (2,523 votes), Independent Chris Daggett with 5.7% (320 votes) and other candidates with 0.9% (48 votes), among the 5,645 ballots cast by the city's 13,812 registered voters, yielding a 40.9% turnout. Police The Long Branch Police Department (LBPD) is the primary law enforcement agency responsible for the city. It currently has 92 sworn officers, making it one of the largest police departments in Monmouth County. The Long Branch Police Department is actually a division within the Department of Public Safety. The Long Branch Fire Department comprises the other division. The LBPD is headed by Chief Jason Roebuck, the former Director of Public Safety. Before 2018, Long Branch did not have a Chief of Police for almost 50 years. The Long Branch Police Department is made up of three divisions. The largest of these is the Patrol Division. The next is the Detective Bureaus and the final one is Support Services Division, which handles the record keeping function of the Police Department, as well as the dispatchers, budgeting and Traffic Bureau. The detectives are responsible for investigating crimes, targeting narcotics and interviewing suspects among other things. The Long Branch Police Department also utilizes Class I and Class II Special Law Enforcement Officers during the summer months to handle the increase in traffic and population in the areas along the oceanfront. The department hires 20-25 Class I Specials and 10-15 Class II Specials each summer. Officers are issued the SIG Sauer P229R DAK .40 S&W pistol and officers have the choice of attaching a tactical light if deemed necessary by the officer. Prior officers carried the 9mm Beretta 92 semi-automatic pistol. Since the establishment of the Long Branch Police Department, three officers died while on duty. On November 20, 1997, Patrick King was shot twice in the back of the head. Education Long Branch's public schools are operated by the Long Branch Public Schools, serving children in pre-kindergarten through twelfth grade. The district is one of 31 former Abbott districts statewide, which are now referred to as "SDA Districts" based on the requirement for the state to cover all costs for school building and renovation projects in these districts under the supervision of the New Jersey Schools Development Authority. All Long Branch Public Schools are free, including the district's preschool programs which are full-day and accommodate children ages 3–5 years old. Long Branch schools offer free breakfast each morning for the students. In addition, Long Branch Public Schools provide free summer programs for most of the summer. As of the 2018–19 school year, the district, comprising eight schools, had an enrollment of 5,786 students and 477.8 classroom teachers (on an FTE basis), for a student–teacher ratio of 12.1:1. Schools in the district (with 2018–19 enrollment data from the National Center for Education Statistics) are Lenna W. Conrow School (with 380 students; in grades Pre-K–K), Joseph M. Ferraina Early Childhood Learning Center (314; Pre-K–K), Morris Avenue School (379; Pre-K–K), Amerigo A. Anastasia School (541; 1–5), George L. Catrambone Elementary School (876; K–5), Gregory School (552; 1–5), Long Branch Middle School (1,198; 6–8), Long Branch High School (1,499; 9–12) and Audrey W. Clark School / The Academy of Alternative Programs, an alternative education program. George L. Catrambone Elementary School was constructed at a total cost over $40 million for a facility that was designed to house 800 students in a facility covering for which construction began in 2012. With the start of the 2014–15 school year, a realignment of the district closed West End School, converted Morris Avenue School for early childhood use and repurposed Audrey W. Clark School for alternative education. Seashore School is a private K-8 school, with class size limited to 16 students. Declining attendance led the Roman Catholic Diocese of Trenton to close the K-8 Holy Trinity School in June 2006. Media WRLB "Radio Long Branch" signed-on June 1, 1960, at 107.1 FM. Since December 1996 the call letters have been WWZY. Transportation Roads and highways As of 2010, the city had a total of of roadways, of which were maintained by the municipality, by Monmouth County and by the New Jersey Department of Transportation. Route 36 and Route 71 are the most significant highways that pass through the city. Public transportation Long Branch is connected to New York City and Northern New Jersey via NJ Transit trains running on the North Jersey Coast Line. The Long Branch station, located three blocks away from the beach, marks the end of electrified trackage, where passengers continuing south must change to diesel-powered trains. A second station is located at Elberon district just north of the borough of Deal. In the past there were stops in the West End neighborhood and on Broadway, but they were closed to reduce travel time to New York City. Local bus transportation is provided by NJ Transit on the 831 and 837 routes. Transportation to New York City is provided by Academy Bus' Route 36 and Shore Points routes. Notable people People who were born in, residents of, or otherwise closely associated with Long Branch include: M. H. Abrams (1912–2015), literary critic, known for works on romanticism. Aida de Acosta (1884–1962), socialite and the first woman to fly a powered aircraft solo. Richard Anderson (1926–2017), best known for his role as Oscar Goldman, in both The Six Million Dollar Man and The Bionic Woman TV series and subsequent TV movies. Paul Baerwald (1871–1961), banker and philanthropist. Arthur Hornbui Bell (1891–1973), attorney who was the Grand Dragon of the Ku Klux Klan in New Jersey. Joe Benning (born 1956), member of the Vermont Senate who has represented the Caledonia District since 2011. Clint Black (born 1962), country music performer. Jeff Blumenkrantz (born 1965), actor, composer and lyricist. Clara Bloodgood (1870–1907), stage actress. Dorothy Borg (1902–1993), historian specializing in American-East Asian relations. Joe Bravo (born 1971), thoroughbred racing jockey. MarShon Brooks (born 1989), basketball player for the Brooklyn Nets. Frank Budd (born 1939), wide receiver in the NFL for the Philadelphia Eagles and the Washington Redskins who once held the world record in the 100-yard dash. John Cannon (born 1960), former defensive end who played nine seasons for the Tampa Bay Buccaneers. Rick Cerone (born 1954), former Yankee catcher who played for eight major league baseball teams, and was part of the New York Yankees for seven years. Jo Champa (born 1968), actress, producer and model., June Clark (born 1900), jazz trumpeter who later managed boxer Sugar Ray Robinson. Connor Clifton (born 1995), ice hockey defenceman for the Boston Bruins of the NHL. Paul Cohen (1934–2007), awarded the Fields Medal for developing forcing to show the independence of the continuum hypothesis and the axiom of choice in axiomatic set theory. James M. Coleman (1924–2014), politician who served in the New Jersey General Assembly and as a judge in New Jersey Superior Court. Tom Constanten (born 1944), musician, former keyboardist for the Grateful Dead. John D'Amico Jr. (born 1941), who served on the Monmouth County Board of Chosen Freeholders and served in the New Jersey Senate in 1988 and 1989. Herbert Dardik (1935–2020), vascular surgeon who served as the chief of vascular surgery at Englewood Hospital and Medical Center. Bob Davis (born 1945), former NFL quarterback whose career included three seasons with the New York Jets Sean Davis (born 1993), professional soccer player for the New York Red Bulls of Major League Soccer. David Doubilet (born 1946), underwater photographer. Frederick Douglass (1818–1895), lived in Long Branch for a short period of time until his home burnt down. Samuel Feltman (1899–1951), computer scientist and weaponry expert. Mel Ferrer (1917–2008), actor, director and producer. Joan Field (1915–1988), concert violinist. Tom Fleming (1951–2017), distance runner who won the 1973 and 1975 New York City Marathon. Waldo Frank (1889–1967), novelist, historian, political activist and literary critic James A. Garfield (1831–1881), 20th President of the United States, died in Long Branch. David Garrison (born 1952), actor most noted for playing Steve Rhoades on Married... with Children. Richard T. Gill (1927–2010), Harvard University economist who became an opera singer at midlife. Vin Gopal (born 1985), politician who represents the 11th Legislative District in the New Jersey Senate. Sonny Greer (1895–1982), jazz drummer, best known for his work with Duke Ellington. John Faucheraud Grimké (1752–1819), father of abolitionists Sarah Grimké and Angelina Grimké. Sarah Moore Grimké (1792-1873), abolitionist and women's rights activist, briefly lived in Long Branch while caring for her father. Harry Frank Guggenheim (1890–1971), businessman, diplomat, publisher, philanthropist, aviator and horseman. Garret Hobart (1844–1899), 24th Vice President of the United States, under William McKinley. Winslow Homer (1836–1910), stayed in Long Branch in 1869, while he produced paintings of Victorian women strolling the boardwalks. Deborah Lee James (born 1958), 23rd Secretary of the United States Air Force. Jim Jeffcoat (born 1961), professional football player for the Dallas Cowboys and the Buffalo Bills from 1983 to 1997. Mamie Johnson (1935–2017), professional baseball player who was one of three women, and the first female pitcher, to play in the Negro leagues. Ed Jones (born 1952), former defensive back for the Edmonton Eskimos of the Canadian Football League from 1976 to 1984, who won five Grey Cups for the Eskimos and was a CFL All-Star from 1979 to 1981. Julius Katchen (1926-1969), concert pianist, best known for his recordings of Johannes Brahms's solo piano works. Raja Feather Kelly, choreographer best known for his work on Off-Broadway shows which combine "pop and queer culture". Jim Kerwin (born 1941), retired basketball player and college coach. Tom Kerwin (born 1944), professional basketball forward who played in the American Basketball Association for the Pittsburgh Pipers. Thomas G. Labrecque (1938–2000), business executive who served as president, CEO, and COO of Chase Manhattan Bank. Connie Lawn (1944–2018), independent broadcast journalist who, at the time of her death, was the longest-serving White House correspondent. Norman Mailer (1923–2007), novelist. Ashley Marinaccio (born 1985), director, documentarian and actor. Jonathan Maslow (1948–2008), author who wrote extensively about nature, with a focus on obscure and little understood animals. Karen McCloskey (born 1951), rower who competed in the women's quadruple sculls event at the 1976 Summer Olympics. Walter Mebane (born 1958), University of Michigan professor of political science and statistics and an expert on detecting electoral fraud. Sam Mills (1959–2005), linebacker who played 12 seasons in the NFL for the New Orleans Saints and Carolina Panthers. Julian Mitchell (1854-1926), director of the Ziegfeld Follies. John Montefusco (born 1950), Major League Baseball pitcher 1974 to 1986 for the San Francisco Giants, Atlanta Braves, San Diego Padres and New York Yankees. Denise Morrison (born 1954), business executive who served as president and chief executive officer of Campbell Soup Company from 2011 through 2018. Frank Pallone (born 1951), member of the United States House of Representatives since 1988, who served on the Long Branch city council from 1982 to 1988. Dorothy Parker (1893–1967), writer and storied member of the Algonquin Round Table, whose birthplace at 792 Ocean Avenue has been designated as a National Literary Landmark. George R. Pettit (1929–2021), chemist and researcher in the field of natural anticancer compounds. Robert Pinsky (born 1940), Poet Laureate of the United States from 1997 to 2000. Anthony Portantino (born 1961), politician who serves in the California State Senate, where he represents the 25th Senate District. Brian Pulido (born 1961), founder of Chaos! Comics and writer of comics books such as Lady Death, Evil Ernie and Purgatori. Paris Qualles (born 1951), screenwriter and television producer. Jim Quirk (born c. 1940), NFL on-field official from 1988 to 2008. Harry Ray (born 1946), R&B vocalist who was a member of the groups "The Moments" and "Ray, Goodman, & Brown". Charles Rembar (1915–2000), attorney best known as a First Amendment rights lawyer. Richie Rosenberg, trombonist who performed with Southside Johnny & The Asbury Jukes. Jason Ryan (born 1976), pitcher who played two seasons for Minnesota Twins. Melanie Safka (born 1947), singer-songwriter. Adam Sarafian (born 1986), geologist who has advanced theories about the origin of water on Earth and pole vaulter who won the national championship in 2004. Fred Schneider (born 1951), singer, songwriter, arranger and musician, best known as the frontman of the rock band the B-52's, of which he is a founding member. Scott Schoeneweis (born 1973), a relief pitcher who played for the New York Mets, among other teams. Rubby Sherr (1913–2013), nuclear physicist who co-invented a key component of the first nuclear weapon while participating in the Manhattan Project. John W. Slocum (1867–1938), lawyer, county judge, President of the New Jersey Senate Bruce Springsteen (born 1949), born in Long Branch and raised in Freehold Borough, New Jersey, wrote "Born to Run", "Thunder Road" and "Backstreets" in a cottage at 7 1/2 West End Court. John Strollo (born 1954), college football coach. Danny Stubbs (born 1965), who won multiple National Championships with University of Miami and two Super Bowls with the San Francisco 49ers as a defensive tackle. Norman Tanzman (1918–2004), politician who served in the New Jersey General Assembly from 1962 to 1968 and in the New Jersey Senate from 1968 to 1974. Yvonne Thornton (born 1947), obstetrician-gynecologist, musician and author, best known for her memoir, The Ditchdigger's Daughters. Meghan Tierney (born 1997), snowboarder who represented the United States at the 2018 Olympics. Army Tomaini (1918–2005), American football tackle who played for the New York Giants in 1945. Johnny Tomaini (1902–1985), professional football player who played in the NFL for the Orange Tornadoes, Newark Tornadoes and Brooklyn Dodgers Ivy Troutman (1884-1979), Broadway actress. John Henry Turpin (1876-1962), one of the first African-American Chief Petty Officers in the United States Navy; also notable for surviving the catastrophic explosions of two U.S. Navy ships: USS Maine in 1898, and USS Bennington in 1905. Chase Untermeyer (born 1946), United States Ambassador to Qatar. Anthony M. Villane (born 1929), dentist and politician who was elected to serve seven terms in the New Jersey General Assembly from 1976 to 1988. John Villapiano (born 1951), former professional football player who played in the World Football League and politician who served on the Monmouth County, New Jersey Board of chosen freeholders and the New Jersey General Assembly from 1988 to 1992. Phil Villapiano (born 1949), former NFL linebacker who played in four Pro Bowls and was a part of the Oakland Raiders Super Bowl XI winning team. Constance H. Williams (born 1944), politician who served from 2001 to 2009 in the Pennsylvania State Senate. Earl Wilson (born 1958), NFL and CFL player Morris Wood (1882–1967), champion speed skater during the early 1900s. Bernie Worrell (1944–2016), keyboardist and founding member of Parliament-Funkadelic. Mike Zapcic, podcaster and cast member of the AMC reality TV show Comic Book Men with Kevin Smith. In popular culture The AXS TV reality series, Bikini Barbershop, is set in Long Branch, at Bikini Barbers located on Ocean Boulevard. In the HBO series, The Sopranos, Long Branch is the setting for Adriana La Cerva's nightclub, the Crazy Horse (see "The Telltale Moozadell"). In the episode "The Blue Comet", the house in which Tony Soprano hides out towards the end of the series is near the beach in North Long Branch. See also Long Branch Police Department Long Branch Public Schools Long Branch, Toronto References External links City of Long Branch website Long Branch Public Library and Children's Library Long Branch Chamber of Commerce 1903 establishments in New Jersey Cities in Monmouth County, New Jersey Faulkner Act (mayor–council) Jersey Shore communities in Monmouth County New Jersey Urban Enterprise Zones Populated places established in 1903

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S Club 7 were a British pop group from London, created by former Spice Girls manager Simon Fuller and consisting of members Bradley McIntosh, Hannah Spearritt, Jo O'Meara, Jon Lee, Paul Cattermole, Rachel Stevens and Tina Barrett. The group was formed in 1998 and quickly rose to fame by starring in their own BBC television series, Miami 7. In their five years together, S Club 7 had four UK number-one singles, one UK number-one album, and a string of hits throughout Europe as well as a Top 10 hit on the US Hot 100, with their 2000 single "Never Had a Dream Come True". They recorded four studio albums, released 11 singles and went on to sell over 10 million albums worldwide. The concept of the group was created by Simon Fuller who signed them to Polydor Records. Their show lasted four seasons and saw the group travel across the US, eventually ending up in Barcelona. It became popular in 100 countries where the show was watched by over 90 million viewers. The show, a children's sitcom, often mirrored real-life events which had occurred in S Club, like the relationship of Spearritt and Cattermole, and Cattermole's departure from the group. S Club 7 won two BRIT Awards—in 2000 for British breakthrough act and in 2002, for best British single. In 2001 the group earned the Record of the Year award. Cattermole departed in 2002, citing "creative differences", and the group name dropped the "7". Their penultimate single reached number five in the UK charts and their final album failed to make the top ten. Following Cattermole's departure, the group fought many rumours presuming that they were about to split. However, on 21 April 2003, during a live onstage performance, S Club announced that they were to disband. In 2014, the original lineup announced a UK reunion tour for 2015. History 1997–1998: Formation Simon Fuller has commented that he came upon the concept of S Club 7 the day after he was fired by the Spice Girls in November 1997, with the new group meant as a "continuation" of the latter. He selected the members for the group after auditioning from over 10,000 hopefuls; Rachel Stevens was the only member of the group who did not audition to gain admittance into the group. Instead, two producers from 19 Management approached her and asked her to go into the studio to record a demo tape for Fuller. Both Jo O'Meara and Paul Cattermole were spotted by producers from 19 and asked to audition. After the auditions had been advertised in The Stage, Jon Lee, Hannah Spearritt, Tina Barrett and Bradley McIntosh auditioned. After some final adjustments, including the removal of three original members, S Club 7 was formed. Once the final line-up was decided, they flew to Italy to become acquainted with each other. Speaking about this first meeting, Stevens remarked that the group "felt comfortable with each other from the beginning". Several members of the group have since stated that the "S" in S Club 7 stands for Simon, after the group's creator, although the official line has always been ambiguous. The group's entry on the Popjustice website states that at one point they were nearly called "Sugar Club" instead of the name that stuck. Another theory is that the group is so-named because "S" is the first letter of the word "seven". McIntosh, in a December 2012 interview, said a lot of Simon Fuller's success has been based on the number 19 (owning 19 Entertainment); therefore, as "S" is the 19th letter of the alphabet, the "S" was put into S Club 7. 1999–2000: S Club television series S Club 7 first came to public attention in 1999, when they starred in their own television series, Miami 7. The show first aired on CBBC on BBC One and was a children's sitcom based on the lives of the group who had moved to Miami, Florida in search of fame in America. The show was also launched in the United States, airing on Fox Family, and later on ABC Family; it was retitled S Club 7 in Miami for American audiences. The show eventually celebrated worldwide success and was watched by 90 million viewers in over 100 countries. The group also filmed two specials between the first two series of their show. The first, Back to the '50s—which aired on CITV, instead of CBBC—told the story of how the group found themselves back in 1959. In the second TV special, Boyfriends & Birthdays, Stevens' boyfriend gave her an ultimatum of staying with him or remaining with S Club. Within the television series, and the parallel branding, each member of S Club 7 had their own character, which contained exaggerated forms of their real life counterparts as well as their own identifiable "S Club colour". Hannah Spearritt, for example, had an "S Club colour" of yellow which, as Spearritt describes, mirrors her own interesting personality: "bright and happy". US media characterized S Club 7 as "The Monkees for the next generation". However, Joel Andryc—the vice president of the Fox Family Channel—stated that Miami 7 is "far more relationship driven" than The Monkees, and that "kids today are more sophisticated". Following on from Miami 7, S Club 7 released the theme music to the show as their debut single on 9 June 1999. The up-tempo "Bring It All Back" reached number-one in the United Kingdom singles charts, and after selling more than 600,000 copies, was made BPI certified Platinum. Commenting on the chart position of "Bring It All Back", the group felt "nervous and on-edge" before they discovered they had reached number one. Once they had received the phone call from the record company, the group celebrated the news with "cheers, shouting and crying". The group's success escalated and much like Fuller's marketing campaign for the Spice Girls, they were set to become a "marketable commodity". As evidence for this, global toy manufacturer Hasbro agreed upon an exclusive licensing agreement with 19 Management which included worldwide rights in the fashion doll category; singing S Club 7 dolls were later released onto the market. An official magazine, fan club, and accompanying Miami 7 scrapbook were also launched furthering 19 Management's corporate aim. Over the course of the year, the group enjoyed more success in the charts after their second single, "S Club Party", entered the UK charts at number-two and went straight to number-one in New Zealand. Their third single was a double A-side and featured the ballad, co-written by Cathy Dennis, "Two in a Million" and retro-styled, up-tempo "You're My Number One". The former was the first single where O'Meara took leads vocals, setting the standard for future S Club 7 releases; the single also reached number-two in the UK charts. Following the success of their television show and released singles, the group released their debut album S Club in October 1999. The album quickly rose to number-two in the UK charts, and then became certified Double Platinum. The album consisted of a variety of styles including motown and salsa tracks. Due to the increasing demand for the group with gruelling schedules including spending over thirteen weeks in America filming the first series of their show and their subsequent television specials, the members often felt that the travelling back and forth from the UK and the US was "perhaps more tiring than what we were actually going out to America to do". Paul Cattermole once commented that the speed of the schedule sometimes caused a "kind of dreamscape in your head", as the group often felt "jetlagged and tired". On top of the filming schedules, the group often performed at high-profile pop music festivals such as Party in the Park where they performed for 100,000 fans. The intensity of the schedule would be a constant battle for the group and was going to continue to take its toll for all the years S Club 7 were together. In spite of this, the group always remained in solidarity that they were all good friends, "cared for each other a lot" and supported each other through difficult times in the group. 2000–2001: 7 In February 2000, the group won the 'British Breakthrough Act' award at the 2000 BRIT Awards. In April 2000, S Club's second TV series, L.A. 7 (renamed S Club 7 in L.A. in the US), was released. The series saw the group depart from Miami and move to Los Angeles to seek a record deal. It introduced the song "Reach", another retro-styled uptempo track, which was co-written by Cathy Dennis and aired as the main theme tune to the second series. "Reach" was released as a single in May 2000 and reached number-two in the UK charts. It arguably became one of the group's most successful singles, paving the way for the group's second album, 7 which was released on 12 June 2000. This album was a departure from the overtly pop stylings of S Club, with tracks styled more towards R&B than the traditional nineties pop sound of their debut album. It reached number-one in the UK charts becoming certified Triple Platinum, and a certified Gold record in the US. The second single from the album, "Natural", featured Stevens as lead vocalist. It reached number three in September 2000. S Club 7 took an active part in promoting several charities during their time as a band. As well as performing for Children in Need, the band launched, on 25 September 2000, a new television series called S Club 7 Go Wild!, which saw each band member support an endangered species. Teaming up with the World Wildlife Fund, each member travelled to different destinations worldwide with a hope to raise awareness about the seven endangered creatures, including the Siberian tiger and the hyacinth macaw. In October 2000, they launched the annual Poppy Appeal Campaign with Dame Thora Hird and supported Woolworth's Kids First Campaign throughout 1999 and 2000. The group also recorded vocals for "It's Only Rock 'N' Roll", which raised money for Children's Promise, an alliance of seven children's charities: Barnardo's, Children in Need, ChildLine, The Children's Society, Comic Relief, NCH and the NSPCC. A cover of The Rolling Stones song, the group contributed to the vocals alongside many popular artists, including Mary J. Blige, Natalie Imbruglia and the Spice Girls; it entered the UK charts at number-nineteen. Also, during that time they filmed two speciales: "Artistic Differences" and their "Christmas Special". In November 2000, S Club 7 were invited to provide the official song for the UK's BBC Children in Need Campaign 2000, so a new song, the ballad "Never Had a Dream Come True", was recorded. The song became popular in the US market eventually taking the group to appear on MTV's TRL to perform the song, and it was also included on the US release of Now That's What I Call Music. After topping the UK charts in December 2000, the song was added to a re-release of the 7 album, along with another new track, a cover of Stevie Wonder's "Lately". 2001–2002: Sunshine and Cattermole's departure "Never Had a Dream Come True" had marked a more mature direction for the group whilst still retaining their pop sensibilities, a direction which continued into their third studio album, Sunshine. The album contained what was to become one of S Club's most popular tracks, "Don't Stop Movin'". The song was released in April 2001, marked a high point for the group as the single went straight to number-one, went Platinum and became the seventh best selling single of 2001. McIntosh, who takes lead vocals with O'Meara in the track, said he was "nervous" about taking lead vocals and was worried how people would react. However, after the song went in at number-one, he felt as though he was "supported by the fans" and his fears were alleviated. McIntosh also remarked that the single had broken new ground for the group, and Cattermole thought it to be their "best song by miles". The group won the Record of the Year award for the song, and in February 2002, the single won the group their second BRIT Award for best British single. The song has since been covered by The Beautiful South for their 2004 album Golddiggas, Headnodders and Pholk Songs, as well as by Starsailor who recorded it for BBC Radio 1's Live Lounge. By spring 2001, the group were "desperate" to start touring; it was something which they had always wanted to do, but couldn't because things were "always so hectic". After spending most of early 2001 rehearsing, the S Club Party 2001 tour began on 19 May 2001. Describing the tour, Stevens remarked that seeing a crowd of over 13,000 fans each night coming to see them was "such an unbelievable feeling", and the other members of the group shared an "adrenaline rush" as well as a wave of emotion before going on stage. Once the tour was over, the group had to fly back to the United States in order to film the third series of their television show, Hollywood 7. This third series, which was still set in Los Angeles, was the group's favourite to film because they had more acting experience and could "drop their shoulders" and start to enjoy themselves. The group, however, had to continuously cope with intense schedules and early starts whilst recording for the programme, something which, although the group felt "laid back" about it at the time, was to eventually take its toll and lead to the demise of the band. Hollywood 7 began airing in September 2001 and dealt with the issue of an on-screen kiss between Spearritt and Cattermole, who had begun dating in real life. Their relationship, which was kept secret for six months, was well received by the band who claimed it had made them all closer as friends. Hollywood 7 aired alongside a new CBBC reality show, S Club Search, which invited children to extend the S Club brand and audition to form a younger version of the band. The new group were to be chosen to sing with S Club 7 on Children in Need 2001 and go on tour with them on their future S Club 7 Carnival 2002 tour. The eight children who went on to form the band named themselves S Club Juniors and had six top ten UK hits. The effects of the group's charity single, "Never Had a Dream Come True", were felt when the group handed over £200,000 to Children in Need, from the sales of the CD after the release of "Don't Stop Movin'" in April 2001. As a result, S Club 7 were invited back and asked to record a second consecutive Children in Need single, in November 2001. It was decided that "Have You Ever", a song co-written by Chris Braide and Cathy Dennis, was to be released for the charity campaign. After the success of the previous year's single, the performance on the night featured many primary school children who had pre-recorded their own versions of the chorus, including the S Club Juniors who they made their first television appearance. The band felt "overjoyed" that they could, once again, contribute to the Children in Need campaign, feeling that it meant a lot to them to be involved and feeling privileged to be able to help; they also commented that it was nice for British school children to be involved in raising money for charity. The single was another success for the group and became their fourth number-one, as well as the 21st biggest selling single of 2001. In January 2002, S Club 7 embarked upon their second arena tour, S Club 7 Carnival 2002, which aimed to please fans by stylising their songs to fit with a carnival-like theme with music styles from different countries of the world. Speaking about the tour, McIntosh described it as "older show", a change from S Club Party 2001, which was "more like bubblegum", with Paul Cattermole comparing 2001's "theatrical" tour with the Carnival tour as a more "glitzy, concert stage". The tour was generally well received by the children's media, describing the show as "diverse" and "dazzling", whereas the group was criticised by the broadsheets as being "like a compilation of toddler-friendly Eurovision entries" although conceding that it was a "slick, decent-value show". Cattermole was also criticised when he was dubbed overweight and a "heavy-footed dancer". After the success of their last three singles, all of which had made it to number-one, S Club 7 failed to top the charts when they released their ninth single, "You"; it reached number-two in the UK. The single, which was described as a "candyfloss-bright, tongue-in-cheek 50s pastiche", was to be Paul Cattermole's last single with the band and led the way for a series of events that was to unravel S Club 7's time at the top of the charts, which would ultimately cause the band to split. Talking about his former musical venture three months before he left S Club 7, Paul Cattermole described his school nu metal band – called Skua – as having a "Limp Bizkit vibe" as well as comparing their style to Rage Against the Machine. Cattermole's resignation came as Skua had decided to reform, and he found it a perfect time to make the transition back from pop to rock as S Club 7's record contracts were up for renewal. Skua released their first album in October 2014 titled Kneel. Cattermole stayed with the band until June 2002, featuring in four out of thirteen episodes of the group's final television series, Viva S Club, and performing his final concert with the group for Party at the Palace, which was part of Queen Elizabeth II's Golden Jubilee celebrations. 2002–2003: Film, Greatest Hits and break-up After Cattermole's departure, vowing to not disband, the remaining six members stayed together under the name S Club. Despite losing a member of the group, the future remained positive as, although they were very sad to see Cattermole leave the group, they were "delighted" to have extended their contracts meaning they could look forward to new material, a new series of their television show as well as their first feature film. However, media reports of the time weren't so optimistic stating that, as neither the Spice Girls nor Take That had survived once they lost a member of their group, it would be difficult for S Club to remain together in an industry which has a "horrible habit of leaving bands in tatters once the first member has left". After only peaking at number-five in the UK charts with "Alive", their first single as a six, was S Club's optimism diminished. Although their progressive musical style was once again furthered with the release of their fourth studio album, Seeing Double, it failed to make an impact on the UK charts, stalling at number-seventeen. S Club's time at the top of the charts was slowly coming to an end, and when O'Meara announced that she had an immobilizing back condition which could have left her in a wheelchair, and she was unable to take part in television performances, the group was left devastated. In April 2003, S Club released their first feature film, Seeing Double, directed by music-video director Nigel Dick, which was to be the last time the group would be seen on-screen together. Unlike its television predecessors, the film moved into the realm of children's fantasy, and saw the group fighting evil scientist Victor Gaghan in his quest to clone the world's pop stars. The film's release was marked by many rumours that the group were about to split, which were quickly denied by the six. There was also controversy when the band had to travel economy class to America and when Fuller did not turn up for the premiere of the film. On 27 April 2003, it was reported that Spearritt's parents had hired lawyers to chase payments owed to them by Simon Fuller and his management company. They claimed that out of the €75 million fortune the band made for Fuller, they only received €150,000 a year of it. Ten days after the release of their movie, the rumours were confirmed when it was announced live on stage—during their S Club United tour on 21 April 2003 – that, after a final single and greatest hits album, S Club would part ways. The band cited a mutual split, expressing it was simply a time "to move on and face new challenges". The members of S Club have commented on how exhausting being in the band was, due to hectic schedules and long filming days. Spearritt has remarked that the group had felt it appropriate wanting to do their own thing; she had constantly felt "drained" whilst with S Club. The fans felt "betrayed" and "disappointed" by the breakup, as well as "angry" due to the group denying rumours only two weeks before at the Seeing Double premiere. Many compared the demise of the group to that of fellow pop band Steps, as they too had denied their intentions until the moment before their split, after which they were accused of acting out of "greed and cynicism". The final single was a double A-side, coupling "Love Ain't Gonna Wait for You", from their fourth album Seeing Double, with a new ballad, "Say Goodbye", released on 26 May. The single reached number-two in the UK, beaten to the top spot by R. Kelly's "Ignition (Remix)". On 2 June it was released on their greatest hits album, Best: The Greatest Hits of S Club 7. This compilation brought together the group's releases with a previously unreleased track, "Everybody Get Pumped" and 7 track "Bring the House Down". The album reached number-two in the United Kingdom. On 8 June the group made their last appearance together on Top of the Pops. 2014–2015: Original line-up reunion In August 2014, it was reported that the band would be reforming under the backing of Simon Fuller. Cattermole denied these reports the next day, but said a reunion was "God damn close to happening". On 22 October, it was confirmed that all seven members of S Club 7 would reunite for the BBC Children in Need telethon; the reunion aired on 14 November 2014, with S Club 7 performing a medley of four of their greatest hits: "S Club Party", "Reach", "Bring It All Back" and "Don't Stop Movin'". On 17 November 2014, S Club 7 announced their plans for an arena reunion tour, promptly titled Bring It All Back 2015, which toured the UK in May 2015. In March 2015, during an interview with Graham Norton on BBC Radio 2, the group confirmed plans to re-release their 2003 greatest hits, Best: The Greatest Hits of S Club 7 that forthcoming May, and that it may contain the previously unreleased track "Rain". On 28 April 2015, it was confirmed that the re-issue of the Best album would release on 4 May, and would include "Rain", as well as "Friday Night" from the S Club album. Controversies On 20 March 2001, Cattermole, Lee and McIntosh were caught with cannabis in London's Covent Garden; they were cautioned by police at Charing Cross Police Station and released without charge. After the event, their publicity firm Henry's House released a public apology stating they were "very stupid" and "very sorry", admitting to having made a "stupid mistake". At the time, BT and Cadbury, who had sponsorship deals with S Club 7, said they were "very disappointed" to learn of the caution but said they would keep their contracts with the band. However, cereal firm Quaker Oats ended talks with 19 Entertainment after learning of the police caution. It was rumoured that merchandising company PMS International were to take out an £800,000 lawsuit against the band for declining sales as a direct result of the drugs scandal. However, this came to nothing and any doubts over the future of sponsorship ended when Pepsi signed the band up less than a month after the drugs caution. Musical style The style of music S Club 7 normally falls under is pop, or more specifically bubblegum pop. Vocals were shared amongst all group members in their first two singles, although the third single "Two in a Million", caused O'Meara to gain more media attention. The band progressively changed their style throughout the years together, their first album consisted of many tracks atypical pop genre: "You're My Number One" and "Everybody Wants Ya" were Motown-driven however, "Viva La Fiesta" and "It's A Feel Good Thing" were both "bouncy, salsa-driven Latino songs". Their second album 7 had songs that had styles that somewhat opposed traditional pop songs rival pop bands of the nineties were releasing. With the release of "Natural" in 2000, S Club 7 changed a new style of music with a R&B-lite sound approach. The release of their third album, Sunshine, gave audiences their biggest change: the album contained tracks such as the disco-influenced "Don't Stop Movin'" and the R&B ballad "Show Me Your Colours". S Club then released their final album, Seeing Double and then released "Alive" which was a "power-packed dance floor filler", similar to their final track on the album "Love Ain't Gonna Wait for You". The album contained many dance tracks and songs that varied from original bubblegum pop stylings, such as the "sex for the CBBC generation" in "Hey Kitty Kitty", although one reviewer, referring to "Gangsta Love", said "S Club's spiritual home is the suburban disco, not urban underground clubs, and their attempt to go garage on "Gangsta Love" ends up amusing rather than authentic". S Club 7 remains the same style in its song, like "Reach", "You" and "Say Goodbye". Awards and nominations Members Timeline Discography S Club (1999) 7 (2000) Sunshine (2001) Seeing Double (2002) Filmography Concert tours Headlining 2001–02: S Club Party Tour 2002: Carnival Tour 2003: S Club United Tour 2015: Bring It All Back 2015 References 19 Recordings artists Brit Award winners English dance music groups English pop music groups Teen pop groups Interscope Records artists Musical groups reestablished in 2020 Musical groups disestablished in 2015 Musical groups reestablished in 2014 Musical groups disestablished in 2003 Musical groups established in 1998 Musical groups from London Polydor Records artists 1999 establishments in England

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, officially the (; ; ), is a in the province of , . According to the , it has a population of people. It has a total land area of , making up 5.39% of the provincial land area of Iloilo. Its relatively flat land stretches alongside the Jalaur and Lamunan Rivers. Mountainous areas are found along the northern part of the city. Passi is a rice, pineapple, and sugar-rich area and the only component city and the largest in the Province of Iloilo in terms of land area and income and second in population after Oton. It is popularly known with its slogan "The Sweet City at The Heart of Panay" due to its vast pineapple plantations and annual output in fruit production. History Passi is considered to be one of the oldest Spanish settlements in Iloilo. It was organized as a pueblo (community settlement of natives) in 1766 with Don Martin Saligumba as its first gobernadorcillo. It was settled by three Malay brothers named Dig-on, Tokiab and Umawang long before the arrival of the Spaniards. Their first formal community was located on the site presently occupied by the Roman Catholic Church. According to popular legend, Spanish conquistadors stumbled on a small hut by the river's bank where an old woman was fond winnowing pounded rice. One of them asked her, “¿Cómo se llama este lugar?” not knowing the native language of course. Much to the old woman's surprise and perhaps excitement, she replied without much ado, “Ah, pasi,” which means some of the unhusked rice on her basket. She must have thought that they were eager to know what was in the basket and what she was doing, because she could not understand their language. From that time on, the Spanish begun to call the place Pasi at first until it later evolved into Passi. Such legends about name origins are common throughout towns and cities in the Philippines, the core plot being a Spaniard asking the non-Spanish speaking natives what the name of the place is and the latter responding in what would end up eventually as the name of the place. It is said that the first Spanish settlement was established in the area in 1766. In the traditional story, Spanish explorers anchored in Ansig, a place located at the mouth of Lamunan River. The founding of the present poblacion of Passi was attributed to Don Martin Saligumba. In 1957, the sitio of Agtabo in the barrio of Salngan was converted into a barrio. In the same year the barrio of Santa Rosa was renamed Santo Tomas. Passi had experience development over the period. Because of its strategic location, Passi became a center for trade and commerce bringing more investment opportunities to the municipality. Its high income, high population growth, and a big area of land has finally bring into the limelight and recognized as the first component city in the Island of Panay. Passi was converted into a city by the signing of R.A. 8469 on the 30th day of January, 1998 by the then President of the Philippines, Pres. Fidel V. Ramos. Historical Notes About Passi Passi was the pre-war capital of Iloilo Province in January 1942 to April 16, 1942, until the landing of Japanese Occupation Force. Passi was made the quartermaster depot of United States Army Forces in the Far East (USAFFE) for the food of the army that resisted in Bataan through Capiz. All her building in the central school became the seat of the provincial government offices including the Agricultural and Industrial Bank and the Philippine National Bank before the Japanese landing in Panay. Passi has the first warehouse of the Compania General de Tabacos de Filipinas in Central Panay which lately became the Roman Catholic Church and also the warehouse of the USAFE for foodstuff for Corregidor and Bataan. Ibajay Cave and mountain northeast of the poblacion was the seat of the Municipal Resistance Government under Mayor Filoteo Palmares and Municipal Treasurer Pedro Oro during the war years. Passi Central Elementary School (now Passi I Central School) had the first clean ground in the province before the war. One of the first regional high schools established in Iloilo was in Passi soon after liberation and one of the first to have acquired the widest site for high school of 12 hectares. Its athletic field cut from a hill and bulldozed by Mayor Palmares, leveled, and improved in time for the most lavished Unit Athletic Meet ever held in the interior in 1949–1959. The record of Passi in holding the First Provincial Athletic Meet in the interior before the war and in sustaining all the athletic delegations from different towns in Iloilo most abundantly and freely of which some meat uneaten were only given to them gratis et amore and some heads of cattle (surplus) sold for athletic fund ̶ still unbroken up to this day ̶ a feat that has never been or will ever be equaled in the history of athletic meets of Iloilo. In matters of bestowing the old Filipino traditional customs of being hospitable to individual visitor, visiting teams and districts, Passi's record is yet unsurpassed because sumptuous foods and drinks offered by truckloads and caritos flow like water without reservation of any kind. Passi has the biggest cattle ranch in Panay before the war because of her wide grazing land. Passi therefore was the biggest supplier of meat for the army during the war and also the biggest supplier of rice and corn for sustenance of the guerilla forces and the Provincial Guards of the Civil Resistance Movement of Free Panay and Romblon Gov. Tomas Confesor. During Spanish regime, Passi was the home of wealthy families outside Iloilo City. Passi became the first component city of Iloilo in 1998. Geography The City of Passi is situated on the heart of Panay and can be reached via the New Iloilo-Capiz Highway which starts from Iloilo City up to Roxas City, and goes all the way to Kalibo and Caticlan Jetty Port at Malay, Aklan. It is from Iloilo City and from Roxas City. The City of Passi is clockwise surrounded by Dumarao in the north, San Rafael in the east, San Enrique in the southeast, Dueñas in the south, Calinog in the west and Bingawan in the northwest. Climate Passi, like most of the Iloilo's inland towns, belong to the third type climate region which has no pronounced maximum rain period and no distinct dry and wet season while it is not within typhoon belt, but it has its own share of typhoons that visits the province of Iloilo occasionally. Rivers and Mountains The city is traversed by 5 major rivers namely (1) Jalaur River (2) Lamunan River (3) Hin-ayan River (4) Asisig River and (5) Maliao River. It also has creeks and tributaries which can be tapped for irrigation purposes. It is relatively dominated by rolling hills and narrow valley plain. It is bordered by two mountains namely Mount Cañapasan and Mount Bayoso. Barangays Passi City is politically subdivided into 51 barangays (38 rural barangays, 11 urban barangays, and 2 city proper barangays), which are grouped into four geographical districts. Barangays Poblacion Ilawod and Ilaya are the highly urbanized barangays of the city because the two compose the city proper area of Passi. Majority of the downtown area is occupied by Poblacion Ilawod. Dorillo Street divides the whole city proper area into two barangays; the western portion occupied by Poblacion Ilaya, and the eastern part occupied by Poblacion Ilawod. Barangay Poblacion Ilawod was the political center of Passi when it was a municipality; however, the new city hall and the government center were transferred to Barangay Sablogon when Passi was proclaimed as a city in 1998. The City of Passi belongs to the 4th District Iloilo. Listed below are the respective population of each barangay as of 2010. Demographics The natives of this city are called Passinhons, with most people speaking Kinaray-a, together with other surrounding towns. People also speak Hiligaynon, Capiznon, Tagalog and English as second languages. Language Kinaray-a is the most dominant language spoken in Passi City. English is used as the language of business and education. In addition, other local dialects such as Hiligaynon is also spoken. Some Spanish words are used accompanying the Kinaray-a conversation, which is very evident among the elderly and some wealthy families and also the elder members of the micro-community of sugar-plantations related families. Religion The Passinhon people are predominantly Roman Catholic. Protestant churches also exist such as members of Philippine Independent Church or Aglipayan Church, Baptist, Presbyterian, Methodist, Adventist, and other Evangelical Christians. There are also non Protestant and other Christian sects such as Iglesia Ni Cristo, Church of Christ of Latter day Saints (Mormon) and Jehovah's Witnesses. Economy The physical resources of Passi consists of relatively good soil types along rolling hills and narrow valley plains with substantial surface and ground water, with no distinct dry and wet season which is suitable for a wide range of agricultural products like rice, sugarcane, and pineapple. When the sugar industry experience a slump due to falling sugar prices and quotas in the world market, farmers diversified into other agricultural products like corn, pineapple, mongo, root crops, and other farm- based products. The city has investment potentials for Agri-Industrial developments. Passi is a 4th class component city with this year's annual income of P300,860,719-General Income, P26,732,922-Special Educational Fund, P37,287,853-Trust Fund, with a total current operating income of P364,881,424 . Passi City has played an important role in reaching its peak of progress. Centrally situated in the province, Passi City is locally important as the District Agri-Industrial Center of Iloilo with three sugar centrals. It is rich with agriculture resources that have long formed the backbone of its economy and agricultural diversification produces crops such as rice, corn, vegetables, coconut, sugarcane and pineapple. Passi City has been an important pineapple producer for years, it has long been known for other industries including fruit processing, wallboard production, metalworking production and cut-flower propagation. Its locally produced pineapple wine, jam and fruit preserves have already established captured market with its exposure to various local trade fairs and exhibits such as the annual Fiesta in the City celebration during May; TUMANDOK in September; and WOW Philippines: the Best of the Region. Passi, a component city (R.A. No. 8469 by Pres. Fidel Valdez Ramos last January 30, 1998.) is bounded on the north by San Enrique; Dumarao, Capiz on the south; east by Calinog; and Lemery on the west. Predominantly a mountainous area, it is politically divided into 51 barangays. It is about 50 kilometers from the city of Iloilo, 70 kilometers from the city of Roxas and has an area of 25,139 hectares or 251.39 km2---the largest in the province. Industrial development is one of the priority concerns of the local unit being one of the five Agro-Industrial district in the Province and the site for People's Industrial Enterprise (PIE's) District Agro-Industrial Center (PAIC) in the 4th District. The PIE's / DAIC's provide intermediate processing of indigenous raw materials produced in their respective influence area for final processing at the DAIC. They also manufacture finished goods cooperative advantage for such manufacturing activities would prove viable. Attractions in the city include the wide pineapple plantations, the cock farms, the Baroque Church of Saint William the Hermit, the old Muscovado Chimney, the Chameleon Butterfly Garden, the Amorotic caves of Barangay Magdungao, the breath-taking highway view with good sunset and the old Railway Bridge which needs some preservation and attention spanning the Jalaur River. Recently, CCTV cameras were installed along city proper roads, national highways, public market, large establishments, hospital, bus terminal, some political subdivision boundaries, and other strategic areas due to sudden increase in crimes this 2010 to 2011. Banking Passi City being the center of trade and business outside Iloilo City, several banking institutions are presently serving in the city and the surrounding municipalities. Shopping Being the component city of Iloilo Province, Passi serves as the major shopping destination outside the province's capital city. Gaisano Capital Passi, so far is the first shopping mall in Passi. It has a complete line of grocery store and department store. It has also some leased spaces which are occupied by Rose Pharmacy, Ted's Lapaz Batchoy, Mister Donuts, Goldilocks Cake, Mang Inasal Restaurant, Parajan Deli Resto, Bongbong's Pasalubong, Robinsons Bank, Big Brother Party Needs, Western Union, Jed's Barbershop, Fuji Film Photo, F&C Jewelry, Nouva KTV and Amusement and other stalls. CityMall (Philippines) Commercial Centers Inc. is now open and is located at the front of Passi City Bus Terminal at the Iloilo-Capiz New Route. It houses several retail stores and food chains. A lot of retail chain of stores had already invested in the city. Power and Energy Power distribution is facilitated by Iloilo Electric Cooperative II (ILECO II), to Passi City and neighboring towns such as Dueñas, San Enrique, and Calinog. Water Supply Water distribution is facilitated by Balibago Waterworks System Inc. to Passi City proper and neighboring baranggays. Communications Telephone services including domestic and international direct dial, mobile communications, internet, cable television, post offices and other services. There are three telephone Service provider in Passi providing landline connections to almost several households, offices and establishments. These are: Philippine Long Distance Telephone Company, Globe Telecom and Panay Telephone Corporation (PANTELCO). Cellular telephone facilities are also provided by two cellular companies namely Smart Communications, and Globe Telecom. Television Stations Kalibo Cable TV Inc. (Former Milkyway Cablevision Services, Inc. (MCSI)) provider of local cable TV to Passi, San Enrique, Duenas and Dingle. It offers 74 national and international television channels, plus one local channel (Milkyway Community Channel) showing local programming and talk shows. Talking Point is one of the major programs of this channel where a particular person or organization of an institution is interviewed regarding the particular matters or topics relevant to the City of Passi. It is also broadcast live in Facebook by the page Good Morning Passi. Cignal HD TV is also available in the area for wireless, direct to satellite signal for watching local and international channels. Local antenna can also receive signals of local channels like GMA7, Abs-Cbn, TV5 and PTV4. Print media The Passinhon Times is the official publication of the City of Passi. Culture Pintados de Passi The Pintados de Pasi Festival, in Passi City, central of Iloilo province, is one way of celebrating the cityhood of Passi in March 1998. This festival is perhaps one of the best known and established festivals of the Visayan region that have evolved through the years. It has played a big part in the lives of most Passinhons. It is the most popular spectator cultural event and has a large community following. Theatrical-like street dancing performances are a celebrated part of the Pintados festivity that is characterized by heavy and aggressive body movements. Here, performers adorned in traditional body tattoo with elaborate geometrical designs in their body, including their arms, legs and torso dramatizes stories in which the towns’ ancestral beings laid down every feature of the area, especially, their way of life. Characterized by heavy and aggressive body movements, the dances seem to have developed independent of any external influences, as in the combat dances, folk plays, ritual actions, or character types. Historical or cultural sources are essential materials in sustaining a festival such as theirs. The first inhabitants of the Island called it Aninipay, after the name of the plant that was then abundant in the area. When the Malayans came, they named it Madia-as, which was the name of the highest peak in the Island. But unknown to many, the first batch of Spaniards that reached the island gave a different name to it. They called it “Isla de Pintados” after seeing tattooed men whom they called pintados or “painted people.” The art tattooing was practiced all throughout the island. The chronicler Miguel de Loarca, in his account in Historia Pre-Hispanica de Filipinas Sobre la Isla de Panay, described the practice. Culturally, the inhabitants of Panay used tattoos to exhibit their record in battle. The more tattoo marks a man had on his body, the higher his status as a warrior. The elegance of the pintado practice has raised tattooing into the level of art. They do then with such order, symmetry, and coordination that they elicit admiration from those who see them. While the men put tattoo all over their body, it was a rule in the old Panay society that women only wear tattoos on one side of their arms. Christmas events Christmas events are held in the city every middle of December until the first Sunday of January in the next year at Plaza Paloma. During its opening day it had a grand fireworks display, followed by the opening of lights, and food stalls. Trees and other structures in the plaza are designed with colorful lights. Lamp post are also illuminated with designs. Food stalls for children are also available like popcorn, cotton candy, and pancakes. Every night there are presentations held at the middle of the plaza by different institutions, sometimes including live music and entertainment. Kapistahan Passi City celebrates the feast of its patron saint, San Guillermo de Ermita (St. William the Hermit) on the 10th of February along with the coronation of the fiesta queen. Mostly the activities are already starting 1 week before. There will be street parades in the morning. Programs are held every night in the plaza sponsored by different institutions and there will be dancing afterwards. Carnivals and rides in the plaza are available for the public and small store kiosk are open to sell different items like clothing, jewelry, home designs, etc. It is one of the most anticipated festival in the city. St. William the Hermit of Maleval Parish Church This is considered a militaristic church in that it was planned as a ‘fortress church’ and the proof of this can be seen in the massive buttresses which support the front and back walls of the church. The church was built to replace churches that had been destroyed by an earthquake in 1612 and subsequent churches that had been destroyed by fires. In 1856 Friar Pedro Ceberio restored the church that had fallen into disrepair and what we see today is the result of his work. As is usual in churches of this vintage that can immediately discern that it was built, once again, by the Augustinians since their seal appears in the archway over one of the side entrances. It is said that the historical record is vague on the topic of entrances that indicates that historians are not certain as to where the actual main entrance was placed by the original builders. It appears that it may well have been this doorway on the southeast corner of the church at the entrance of the ‘Garden of Saints’. All was well with the church through the Revolution and the Philippines American War but in 1932 the roof was blown away by a typhoon. The church is surrounded by a ‘Garden of the Saints’ which contains 25 to 30 statues of Saints that have been placed in the garden by parishioners over the years. Inside the very tall belfry of the church are the three bells, two of which are massive ones and the other one is a small one. To ring the large one, they need to step on the chain that is attached to the bell's clapper to make it hit the sound rim. The harder it is stepped on it the louder would the sound be. The two other bells are rung manually. They have to hold the two clappers together and hit them to the sound rim to make them work. This makes the bell ringer so close to the bells when ringing them. Discovery and Foundation The discovery of Passi, at the same time its foundation as a mission parish by the Spanish explorers for Panay Island occurred in 1584. It was placed under the patronage of St. William of Maleval whose feast had since then been celebrated every February 10. In 1593, Padre Juan Villamayor, an Augustinian friar, became its first resident priest. The first mission church was made out of light materials and located near the riverbank of Jalaur River. In 1600 the church was transferred from the old site to its present location. The foundation and the walls were made of stones, slabs and lime. The parishioners were made to carry the needed materials every time they went to the church. The construction was finished during the time of Padre Pedro Ceberio when Salvador “Badong” Panes Perfecto was the Captain of the town. Schism and Abaca Around 1821 during the time of Padre Apolinario Villanueva, Schism ensued between him as Parish Priest and the Spanish Populace of the town. He transferred the seat of the Parish Church to Abaca where he constructed a chapel. When Padre Martin succeeded him, the seat of the parish church was returned to Passi. Aglipayon Revolution With the concurring Filipino Revolution against the Spanish government, there was a clamor of the Filipino Clergy for reforms. Padre Rafael Murillo, the Parish Priest then was a good follower and supporter of the Aglipay. He was elevated to the rank of an Aglipayan Bishop not long brought with him his family. To support his family, he demanded tributes from the people. The Passinhons under Captain Badong Perfecto strongly objected and Padre Joaquin was removed not long after. Spanish Era to Post-War Years Padre Lorenzo Diaz, a Catholic Augustinian Priest administered the Parish. The year 1891 saw the last Spanish Augustinian Parish Priest of Passi in Padre Bravo. Reverend Father Amado Panes Perfecto In 1893, after three centuries of Christianization, Passi was able to produce its first priest, Padre Amado Panes Perfecto. He studied in the University of Salamanca in Spain and graduated a Doctor of Canon Law, which at that time was a rare privilege. He was appointed the first Filipino Priest of Passi. He constructed a convent furnished with carved furniture and imported chinaware and utensils. One of his remaining masterpieces is the “Flores de Mayo Salve” which has become part of the tradition of the town. World War II World War II was conflagration for the Passinhons. Fire gluttered all the Spanish built houses of the town. The guerillas burned all the buildings leaving the town empty for the occupying Japanese. Nothing was left of the wooden structure of both church and convent but the stones. The church was made the garrison of the Japanese forces and later the headquarters of the Residence Civil Government. Filipino troops under the Philippine Commonwealth Army and Philippine Constabulary were liberated in Passi and help the local guerrilla groups by attacking Japanese troops and ended in World War II. Lady Caycay earthquake The 1948 Lady Caycay earthquake occurred on January 25, 1948, at 1:46 AM UTC+08:00 in Panay Island, Philippines. The bell tower did not survive the harshness of the earthquake. The tall tower was wrecked; making the entire bells fell down to the ground. No damage was found except for the other massive bell, which had a very slight crack on it. The Church from Then and Now Reconstruction The reconstruction of the church took a gradual development. The wood and nipa roofing of the church was constructed during the time of Padre Parreñas. Wooden posts were placed at the Eastern side of the church as temporary area to place the bells, since the bell tower was damaged during the 1948 earthquake. When Padre Buenaflor took over, he had the roof changed into galvanized iron. The improvement of the altar which was transferred by Padre Parreñas to the main entrance of the church was done during the time of Padre Castaño. The present church with its steel trusses, washed walls, benches, and a new but permanent belfry, together with the old parish convent already demolished, the Assumption School and the former Social Hall, were all constructed as projects of Msgr. Eligio Villavert, the 81st Parish Priest of Passi. Final Restoration and Renovation It was 1997 when the Parish of St. William of Maleval was graced with another Passinhon Priest. Msgr. Felipe Dativo Palomo, P.C., fully supported by the Parish Councils and the Passinhon Parishioners both local and abroad decided to venture into ambitious but necessary projects. In the year 2000, the completion and the blessing of the Jubilee Hall, the largest and tallest parish convent in the whole Diocese was witnessed. After the completion, behind the church, the attention of the parishioners and Msgr. Palomo were directed to the uncompleted church. The main entrance is nowhere to be found, making Passi Church one of its kind. The landscaping of the Western side of the church and the installation of the statues of the saints took place. The altar was transferred to its original place, to give way to the restoration of its original main entrance. The altar has been restored according to the Augustinian's original architectural design. The ornate granite flooring, echo-proof ceiling, decorative stained glasses, a huge steel door at the main entrance and modern lighting facilities were installed. On the Eastern side, one can see the Avenida de la Virgin Maria, the Adoration Chapel, parking area, and the very huge relief map of Passi City. On October 26, 2010, the Church of St. William of Maleval had its Solemn Dedication, an annual festivity which the Parishioners will celebrate to continue recalling the extra graciousness God has abundantly bestowed in the Christian Community of Passi. Typhoon Yolanda On November 8, 2013, signal number four Typhoon Yolanda (also known internationally as Typhoon Haiyan) hit the Visayas Region, causing serious damages to the infrastructure, including the church. The church, three years after it is restored was partially damaged. The ceiling outside the church and into the altar collapsed. The church was temporarily closed and masses are temporarily held at the Jubilee Hall. However, it was opened again to the public on December 16, 2013, after the massive reconstruction and repair. Infrastructure and tourism Passi City has several landmarks that symbolizes its rich history and culture over the years. The city is known for its natural environment and diversity, including its mountain ranges and caves. Its historical significance in the Second World War also contributed much in the history of Iloilo Province as well. It offers a lot of place to satisfy your stomach development. It has also places where you can spend your time leisurely or maybe just relax and take a rest. Currently, a lot infrastructure developments are taking place in the city. The bypass road which has 3 stages. The first is from Gines Viejo to Man it via Gemat y. The second from main hiway in Punong to main hiway in Sablogon via Batu, Man it, San Roque St, Sara Rd, and a new road to Sablogon. The third is from main hiway Sablogon to Arac and to Gines via Lamunan Bridge. The bridges are still undergoing construction and so are the roads. It is expected to be finish before February 2020. If finished travelers from different directions of Passi City can go directly to any directions they want without passing the city proper. Passi City Esplanade is also undergoing construction. It will be from the old railway bridge to the bridge of the main hiway and it will be done on both banks of the river. It will be 5 meters wide, except on the location near the bridge on Citimall side where it will be wider and will put some amenities for recreational activities. Places To See F. Palmares Sr. Street It is also known as the "Calle Real" of Passi since it was the busiest business hub of the city until now. This street is an old national highway when going to the Province of Capiz or Aklan. At present, it is used as an alternative national road going to Iloilo Airport. The New City Hall of Passi City Built in 1995 as a new municipal hall, but in 1998, it is redesigned to become the new city hall. It is located at Corner Monfort Avenue-Casamayor Street. The Old Municipal Hall The municipal hall was built in 1930 and it is one of the only surviving Pre-war infrastructures in Passi. Presently, it houses the office of the Department of Agrarian Reform (DAR), Commission on Elections (COMELEC), Post Office, and Conference Hall. The old municipal hall is sometimes known as "Residencia Passi". St. William of Maleval Parish Church Convent The largest and tallest parish convent in the whole Archdiocese has two reception halls (Jubilee Hall and Lamunan Hall) that can be used in various occasions such as wedding reception. Plaza Paloma Located just in front of the old municipal hall. The large pineapple restroom is one of the most attractive feature of the said park. The park also has a multipurpose sporting court for the people who want to do recreational activities such as playing badminton, tennis and others. Paseo de Passi Just few meters away from plaza paloma, is a brick floored paseo that is a perfect place for people who are fond of doing fitness exercises. Passi City Public Market The new public market of Passi is the largest in the whole Iloilo Province. Old Jalaur Railway Bridge Also known as Watanabe Terror Bridge, it is one of the fewest railroad bridges left in the whole Panay. It is one of the major landmarks of Passi that needs further preservation. Muscovado Chimney The muscovado chimney of Passi Sugar Central is the largest and tallest in the whole Panay island. Health and Social Services The City of Passi in its goal to have a healthy environment and thereby realized a healthy community has intensified its health and social programs and activities. Consequently, it has improved the health situation and public services of the entire populace through government services and non-government organizations. Don Valerio Palmares Sr. Memorial District Hospital The only province-managed district hospital Passi City. Salngan Rural Hospital In October, 2013, the inauguration of the extension hospital in Barangay Salngan took place. The hospital will help residents who live very far away from the city proper in giving necessary medical attentions and first aid. Other Private Health Institutions Medicus Passi Fronthub Medilab and Clinics and other privately owned clinics which also offer high quality health services. Philippine Red Cross Passi City is the new Regional Operations Center of the Philippine Red Cross as well as its new logistics and disaster management training center. The center was inaugurated on April 21, 2017, by several officials of the PRC led by PRC Chairman Richard Gordon as well as the Secretary General of Korea National Red Cross Gunn-Joong Kim and the Head of Delegation of the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies Kari Isomaa in the presence of Arthur D. Defensor, Sr., Governor of the Province of Iloilo; Jesry Palmares, Mayor of Passi City; Ferjenel Biron, Representative of the 4th District Iloilo; and Marlyn Convocar, Department of Health Regional Director. Chameleon Association, Inc. Founded in 1997 by French national Laurence Ligier, Chameleon Association, Inc (CAI), is a non- stock, non-profit and non-government organization that provides holistic and comprehensive rehabilitation to girls survivors of sexual abuse in Western Visayas. Likewise, CAI provides educational assistance to underprivileged but deserving children in our neighboring communities in Passi, San Enrique and Bingawan through its Sponsorship Program. The said organization is located in Barangay Sablogon, Passi City. The Chameleon Association has branches in Paris, Luxembourg, and Switzerland and contacts in Belgium and Andorra. Chameleon aims to give children and their families access to education and training; and support medically, morally, legally, and financially so as to help them have honorable and successful living conditions in the long-term. The association has also put in place a prevention program for the protection and training to reintegrate these children back into society and give them an everlasting survival strategy. The Chameleon Association has an integrated approach and multiple programs to support and protect the children from the region. Their rehabilitation program handles young girls who are victims of sexual abuse in two stages: a three-year residential program and a post-residential program for rehabilitation. The community development program supports the studies of children who are victims of great poverty. This organization has also implemented programs for health, the defense of Children's rights, and income-generating projects. The Chameleon Association creates long lasting relationships between the children and their sponsors through the exchange of letters, drawings, photographs, report cards, and small gifts. Chameleon gives back to these children part of their innocence and helps them to fulfill their dreams of going to school and having a future. Sports Passi City athletic field was currently under construction beside Passi City College at Barangay Bacuranan. It is expected to be finished by 2020. It is going to be huge with state of the art facilities, capable to host provincial and regional sports meet. Passi City Gymnasium opened last May 2018. UAAP and PBA teams had already played here for exhibition games. Passi City Center Fitness and Wellness located at Barangay Sablogon is a gym and fitness center. Passi City Center is also a location for cockfights events. Every summer they held the Mayor Jesry T Palmares Summer Olympics which started on the year 2014. Sports played are basketball, volleyball, table tennis, lawn tennis, badminton, taekwondo, soccer, chess and fun run. Education College Passi City College - courses offered Diploma Passi Trade School (Tesda) Primary and secondary education The area is also home to several high schools, elementary and prep schools schools, as well as several kinder schools. Transportation The city can be reached by bus, although some people can take it by taxi from Iloilo City. Tricycle and jeepney are the major means of transportation within Passi. Plane From Manila, one can take direct flights to Iloilo. Flying time approximately takes 45 minutes. From Cebu, Iloilo is even nearer—a mere 30 minutes away. From the Iloilo International Airport you can either take a taxi or rent a van and go directly to Passi City or you can go to Bus Terminals in Jaro, Iloilo for a bus ride. Boat, Ship One can also take the longer but infinitely more exciting ferry trips from the North Harbor in Manila aboard a ship. A ferry trip to Iloilo City usually takes 24 hours to reach Iloilo Seaport. One can take a cab to the bus terminal located at Jaro, Iloilo City and get on a bus to Passi City. If from Bacolod, you can take a fastcraft to Iloilo port. The trip usually takes 45 minutes. Then take a cab to the bus terminal located at Jaro, Iloilo City. Roro Passi City can also be reached from Manila for 18 hours or more via the New Iloilo-Capiz Highway on a RORO Bus. You take the bus going to Iloilo and ask if it will pass Passi City, because others Roro bus take a different route when going to Iloilo City. Bus Passi City can be reached by riding a Ceres Bus (either a regular one or air-conditioned) from Ceres Terminal in Jaro, Iloilo City with destination label such as Kalibo, Roxas, Caticlan, and Passi. If from Roxas City, Kalibo and Caticlan, you can ride Ceres Bus with label Iloilo. These buses always take a stopover at the Bus Terminal Complex at Passi City. CIBLA (Central Iloilo Bus Line Association) Busses are also available, and usually their destination labels are Passi, they are parked at tagbak Terminal in Jaro, Iloilo City. Taxi There is no taxis within Passi City , but Taxi'd travelling around Iloilo City hired in going to Passi City. Jeepney Neighboring towns such as Calinog and San Rafael have regular Public Utility Jeepney (PUJ) ride to reach Passi. Several barangays in Passi City make use of jeepney as their mode of transportation. Tricycle Passi City , its barangays ,towns of San Enrique and Dueñas are using tricycle in travelling in and out of Passi. A typical tricycle has an open front, four seaters, back passengers facing backwards and the front ones faces in front. . Majority has a route within city proper or what they called roving tricycles and they are colored yellow. Color coding are assigned to each barangay tricycles for distinction. Notable people Jose S. Palma - The present Archbishop of Cebu and President of Catholic Bishops' Conference of the Philippines References External links [ Philippine Standard Geographic Code] Philippine Census Information Local Governance Performance Management System Cities in Iloilo Populated places established in 1766 1766 establishments in the Philippines Component cities in the Philippines

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The history of New Mexico is based on archaeological evidence, attesting to the varying cultures of humans occupying the area of New Mexico since approximately 9200 BCE, and written records. The earliest peoples had migrated from northern areas of North America after leaving Siberia via the Bering Land Bridge. Artifacts and architecture demonstrate ancient complex cultures in this region. The first written records of the region were made by the Spanish conquistadors, who encountered Native American Pueblos when they explored the area in the 16th century. Since that time, the Spanish Empire, Mexico, and the United States (since 1787) have claimed control of the area. The area was governed as New Mexico Territory until 1912, when it was admitted as a state. The relatively isolated state had an economy dependent on mining. Its residents and government suffered from a reputation for corruption and extreme traditionalism. New Mexico introduced the atomic age in 1945, as the first nuclear weapons were developed by the federal government in the research center it established at Los Alamos. Ethnically, New Mexico's population consists of a mixture of Native Americans, Hispanics, and Anglos. Native American settlements Human occupation of New Mexico stretches back at least 11,000 years to the hunter-gatherer Clovis culture. They left evidence of their campsites and stone tools. After the invention of agriculture, the land was inhabited by the Ancestral Puebloans, who built houses out of stone or adobe bricks. They experienced a Golden Age around AD 1000, but climate change led to migration and cultural evolution. From those people arose the historic Pueblo peoples who lived primarily along the few major rivers. The most important rivers are the Rio Grande, the Pecos, the Canadian, the San Juan, and the Gila. Pueblos The Pueblo people built a flourishing sedentary culture in the 13th century A.D., constructing small towns in the valley of the Rio Grande and pueblos nearby. By about 700 to 900 AD, the Pueblo began to abandon ancient pit houses dug in cliffs and to construct rectangular rooms arranged in apartment-like structures. By 1050 AD, they had developed planned villages composed of large terraced buildings, each with many rooms. These apartment-house villages were often constructed on defensive sites- on ledges of massive rock, on flat summits, or on steep-sided mesas, locations that would afford the Anasazi protection from their Northern enemies. The largest of these villages, Pueblo Bonito, in the Chaco Canyon of New Mexico, contained around 700 rooms in five stories and may have housed as many as 1000 persons. No larger apartment-house type construction would be seen on the continent until 19th century Chicago and New York. Then, around 1150, Chaco Anasazi society began to unravel. Long before the Spanish arrival, descendants of the Anasazi were using irrigation canals, check dams and hillside terracing as techniques for bringing water to what had for centuries been an arid, agriculturally marginal area. At the same time, the ceramics became more elaborate, cotton replaced yucca fiber as the main clothing material and basket weaving became more artistic. The Spanish encountered Pueblo civilization and elements of the Athabaskans in the 16th century. Cabeza de Vaca in 1535, one of only four survivors of the Panfilo de Narvaez expedition of 1527, tells of hearing Indians talk about fabulous cities somewhere in New Mexico. Fray Marcos de Niza enthusiastically identified these as the fabulously rich Seven Cities of Cíbola, the mythical seven cities of gold. Francisco Vásquez de Coronado led a massive expedition to find these cities in 1540–1542. The Spanish maltreatment of the Pueblo and Athabaskan people that started with their explorations of the upper Rio Grande valley led to hostility between the indigenous peoples and the Spanish which lasted for centuries. The three largest pueblos of New Mexico are Zuñi, Santo Domingo, and Laguna. There are three different languages spoken by the pueblos. Athabaskans-Apachean The Navajo and Apache peoples are members of the large Athabaskan language family, which includes peoples in Alaska and Canada, and along the Pacific Coast. The historic peoples encountered by the Europeans did not make up unified tribes in the modern sense, as they were highly decentralized, operating in bands of a size adapted to their semi-nomadic cultures. From the 16th to the 19th centuries, the European explorers, missionaries, traders and settlers referred to the different groups of Apache and Navajo by various names, often associated with distinctions of language or geography. These Athabaskan peoples identified themselves as Diné, which means "the people". The Navajo and Apache made up the largest non-Pueblo Indian group in the Southwest. These two tribes led nomadic lifestyles and spoke the same language. Some experts estimate that the semi-nomadic Apache were active in New Mexico in the 13th century. Spanish records indicated that they traded with the Pueblo. Various bands or tribes participated in the Southwestern Revolt against the Spanish in the 1680s. By the early 18th century the Spanish had built a series of over 25 forts to protect themselves and subjugated populations from the traditional raiding parties of the Athabaskan. The Navajo Nation, with more than 300,000 citizens the largest federally recognized tribe in the United States, is concentrated in present-day northwestern New Mexico and northeastern Arizona. The Mescalero Apache live east of the Rio Grande. The Jicarilla Apache live west of the Rio Grande. The Chiricahua Apache lived in southwestern New Mexico and southeastern Arizona until the late 19th century. Colonial period Spanish exploration and colonization Francisco Vásquez de Coronado assembled an enormous expedition at Compostela, Mexico in 1540–1542, to explore and find the mythical Seven Golden Cities of Cibola, as described by Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca, who had just arrived from his eight-year ordeal of survival. De Vaca traveled mostly overland from Florida to Mexico. He and three companions were the only survivors of the Pánfilo de Narváez expedition of June 17, 1527 to Florida, losing 80 horses and several hundred explorers. These four survivors had spent eight arduous years getting to Sinaloa, Mexico on the Pacific coast, and had visited many Indian tribes. Coronado and his supporters sank a fortune in this ill-fated enterprise. They took 1,300 horses and mules for riding and packing, and hundreds of head of sheep and cattle as a portable food supply. Coronado's men found several adobe pueblos (towns) in 1541 but no rich cities of gold. Further widespread expeditions found no fabulous cities anywhere in the Southwest or Great Plains. A dispirited and now poor Coronado and his men began their journey back to Mexico, leaving New Mexico behind. it is likely that some of Coronado's horses escaped, to be captured and adopted for use by Plains Indians. Over the next two centuries, they made horses at the center of their nomadic cultures. Only two of Coronado's horses were mares. More than 50 years after Coronado, Juan de Oñate came north from the Valley of Mexico with 500 Spanish settlers and soldiers and 7,000 head of livestock, founding the first Spanish settlement in New Mexico on July 11, 1598. The governor named the settlement San Juan de los Caballeros. This means "Saint John of the Knights". San Juan was in a small valley. Nearby the Chama River flows into the Rio Grande. Oñate pioneered El Camino Real de Tierra Adentro, "The Royal Road of the Interior Land," a 700-mile (1,100 km) trail from the rest of New Spain to his remote colony. Oñate was appointed as the first governor of the new province of Santa Fe de Nuevo México. Although he intended to achieve the total subjugation of the Natives, Oñate noted in 1599 that the Pueblo "live very much the same as [the Spanish] do, in houses with two and three terraces." The Native Americans at Acoma revolted against this Spanish encroachment but faced severe suppression. In battles with the Acomas, Oñate lost 11 soldiers and two servants, killed hundreds of Indians, and punished every man over 25 years of age by the amputation of their left foot. The Franciscans found the Pueblo people increasingly unwilling to consent to baptism by newcomers who continued to demand food, clothing and labor. Acoma is also known as the oldest continually inhabited city in the United States. Oñate's capital of San Juan proved to be vulnerable to Apache (probably Navajo) attacks. Governor Pedro de Peralta moved the capital and established the settlement of Santa Fe in 1610 at the foot of the Sangre de Cristo Mountains. Santa Fe is the oldest state capital city in the United States. Peralta built the Palace of the Governors in 1610. Although the colony failed to prosper, some missions survived. Spanish settlers arrived at the site of Albuquerque in the mid-17th century. Missionaries attempted to convert the natives to Christianity, but had little success. Contemporary scholars believe that the objective of Spanish rule of New Mexico (and all other northern lands) was the full exploitation of the native population and resources. As Frank McNitt writes, Governors were a greedy and rapacious lot whose single-minded interest was to wring as much personal wealth from the province as their terms allowed. They exploited Indian labor for transport, sold Indian slaves in New Spain, and sold Indian products ... and other goods manufactured by Indian slave labor. The exploitative nature of Spanish rule resulted in their conducting nearly continuous raids and reprisals against the nomadic Indian tribes on the borders, especially the Apache, Navajo, and Comanche. Franciscan missionaries accompanied Oñate to New Mexico; afterward there was a continuing struggle between secular and religious authorities. Both colonists and the Franciscans depended upon Indian labor, mostly the Pueblo,the sedentary people of the Rio Grande valley, and competed with each other to control a decreasing Indian population. The Indians suffered high mortality because of infectious diseases unknowingly brought by the Spaniards, to which they had no immunity, and the exploitation that disrupted their societies. The struggle between the Franciscans and the civil government came to a head in the late 1650s. Governor Bernardo Lopez de Mendizabal and his subordinate Nicolas de Aguilar forbade the Franciscans to punish Indians or employ them without pay. They granted the Pueblo permission to practice their traditional dances and religious ceremonies. After the Franciscans protested, Lopez and Aguilar were arrested, turned over to the Inquisition, and tried in Mexico City. Thereafter, the Franciscans reigned supreme in the province. Pueblo dissatisfaction with the rule of the clerics was the main cause of the Pueblo revolt. The Spanish in New Mexico were never able to gain dominance over the Indian peoples, who lived among and surrounded them. The isolated colony of New Mexico was characterized by "elaborate webs of ethnic tension, friendship, conflict, and kinship" among Indian groups and Spanish colonists. Because of the weakness of New Mexico, "rank-and-file settlers in outlying areas had to learn to coexist with Indian neighbors without being able to keep them subordinate." The Pueblo Indians were the first group to challenge Spanish rule significantly. Later the nomadic Indians, especially the Comanche, mounted attacks that weakened the Spanish. Pueblo Revolt of 1680 Many of the Pueblo people harbored hostility toward the Spanish, due to their oppression of the Indians and prohibition of their practice of traditional religion. The economies of the pueblos (towns) were disrupted, as the people were forced to labor on the encomiendas of the colonists. The Spanish introduced new farming implements which the Pueblo adopted and provided some measure of security against Navajo and Apache raiding parties. The Pueblo lived in relative peace with the Spanish from the founding of the northern New Mexico colony in 1598. In the 1670s, drought swept the region, causing famine among the Pueblo, and attracting increased attacks from neighboring nomadic tribes trying to gain food supplies. Spanish soldiers were unable to defend the settlements adequately. At the same time, European-introduced diseases caused high mortality among the natives, decimating their communities. Dissatisfied with the protective powers of the Spanish Crown and its god of the Catholic Church, the Pueblo returned to their old gods. This provoked a wave of repression by New Mexico governor Juan Francisco Treviño, as well as the Franciscan missionaries. Following his arrest on a charge of witchcraft and subsequent release, Popé (or Po-pay) planned and orchestrated the Pueblo Revolt. After being freed, Popé moved to Taos and planned a Pueblo war against the Spaniards. He dispatched runners to all the Pueblos carrying knotted cords, the knots signifying the number of days remaining until the appointed day for them to rise together against the Spaniards. Hearing that the Spaniards had learned of these plans, Popé ordered the attacks advanced to August 13. The Spanish were driven from all but the southern portion of New Mexico. They set up a temporary capital at El Paso while making preparations to reconquer the rest of the province. The retreat of the Spaniards left New Mexico controlled by the Indians. Popé ordered the Indians, under penalty of death, to burn or destroy crosses and other Catholic religious imagery, as well as any other vestige of the Spanish culture. He also wanted to destroy Spanish livestock and fruit trees. Kivas (rooms for religious rituals) were reopened, and Popé ordered all Indians to bathe in soap made of yucca root. He forbade the planting of Spanish crops of wheat and barley. Popé ordered those Indians married by the rites of the Catholic Church to dismiss their wives, and take others under their traditional ways. He took control of the Governor's Palace as ruler of the Pueblo, and collected tribute from each Pueblo until his death in 1688. Following their success, the different Pueblo tribes, separated by hundreds of miles and six different languages, quarreled as to who would occupy Santa Fe and rule over the territory. These power struggles, combined with raids from nomadic tribes and a seven-year drought, weakened the Pueblo strength. In July 1692, Diego de Vargas led Spanish forces that surrounded Santa Fe, where he called on the Indians to surrender, promising clemency if they would swear allegiance to the king of Spain and return to the Christian faith. The Indian leaders gathered in Santa Fe, met with De Vargas, and agreed to peace. While developing Santa Fe as a trade center, the returning settlers founded Albuquerque in 1706, naming for the viceroy of New Spain, the Duke of Albuquerque. Prior to its founding, Albuquerque consisted of several haciendas and communities along the lower Rio Grande. The settlers constructed the Iglesia de San Felipe Neri (1706). Development of ranching and some farming in the 18th century were the basis for the culture of many of the state's still-flourishing Hispanics. While the Pueblo achieved a short-lived independence from the Spaniards, they gained a measure of freedom from future Spanish efforts to impose their culture and religion following the reconquest. The Spanish issued substantial land grants to each Pueblo, and appointed a public defender to protect the rights of the Indians and argue their legal cases in the Spanish courts. Spanish relations with the natives From the date of the founding of New Mexico, the Pueblo people and Spanish settlers were plagued by hostile relationships with nomadic and semi-nomadic Navajo, Apache, Ute, and Comanche people. These tribes raided the more sedentary peoples for livestock, food supplies and stores, and captives to ransom or use as slaves. The southwestern natives developed a horse culture, raiding Spanish ranches and missions for their horses, and ultimately breeding and raising their own herds. The native horse culture quickly spread throughout western America. Navajo and Apache raids for horses on Spanish and Pueblo settlements began in the 1650s or earlier. Through the Pueblo Revolt of 1680, the Indians acquired many horses. By the 1750s the Plains Indians horse culture was well established from Texas to Alberta, Canada. The Navajo, in addition to being among the first mounted Native Americans in the U.S., were unique in developing a pastoral culture based on sheep stolen from the Spanish. By the early 18th century, the Navajo households typically owned herds of sheep. Comancheria After the Pueblo revolt, the Comanche posed the most serious threat to the Spanish settlers. Scholar Hämäläinen (2008) argues that from the 1750s to the 1850s, the Comanche were the dominant group in the Southwest, and they ruled a domain known as Comancheria. Hämäläinen calls it an empire. Confronted with Spanish, Mexican, French, and American outposts on their periphery in New Mexico, Texas, Louisiana, and Mexico, they worked to increase their own safety, prosperity and power. The Comanche used their military power to obtain supplies and labor from the Americans, Mexicans, and Puebloans through cunning, tribute, and kidnappings. The Comanche empire was primarily an economic construction, based on a raiding, hunting and pastoral economy and rooted in an extensive commercial network that facilitated long-distance trade. Dealing with subordinate natives, the Comanche spread their language and culture across the region. In terms of governance, the Comanche created a decentralized political system, They created a hierarchical social organization in which young men could advance through their success in war. In 1706, colonists in New Mexico first recorded the Comanche; by 1719 they were raiding the colony as well as other Native peoples. The other tribes had primarily raided for plunder, but the Comanche introduced a new level of violence to the conflict. The Comanche were pure nomads, well mounted by the 1730s. They were more elusive and mobile than the semi-nomadic Apache and Navajo, who were dependent upon agriculture or herding for part of their livelihoods. The Comanche both raided and traded with the Spanish settlers. They were especially prominent at the annual Taos trade fair, where they peacefully exchanged hides, meat and captives, often before or after raiding other settlements. The Governor of New Mexico Tomás Vélez Cachupín, who administered the province from 1749 to 1754 and from 1762 to 1767 led a successful expedition against the Comanche, but the Comanche continued to raid, endangering the survival of colonial New Mexico, stripping the settlements of horses, forcing the abandonment of many settlements, and in 1778 killing 127 Spanish settlers and Pueblo people. Punitive expeditions by the Spanish and their native allies against the Comanche were usually ineffective, but in 1779 a Spanish and Puebloan force of 560 men, led by Juan Bautista de Anza, surprised a Comanche village near Pueblo, Colorado and killed Cuerno Verde (Green Horn), the most prominent of the Comanche war leaders. The Comanche subsequently sued for peace with New Mexico, joined the New Mexicans in expeditions against their common enemy, the Apache, and turned their attention to raiding Spanish settlements in Texas and northern Mexico. The New Mexicans on their part took care not to re-antagonize the Comanche and lavished gifts on them. The peace between New Mexico and the Comanche endured until the United States conquest of the province in 1846 during the Mexican–American War. Peace with the Comanche stimulated a growth in the population of New Mexico; settlements expanded eastward on to the Great Plains. The inhabitants of these new settlements were mostly genizaros, natives and the descendants of natives who had been ransomed from the Comanche. Navajo and Apache raids continued to affect the territory. The Navajo were defeated in 1864 by Kit Carson, but the Apache leader Geronimo did not surrender until 1886. The Ute had earlier allied with the New Mexicans for mutual protection against the Comanche. The Comanche empire collapsed after their villages were repeatedly decimated by epidemics of smallpox and cholera, especially in 1849; their population plunged from about 20,000 in the 18th century to 1,500 by 1875, when they surrendered to the U.S. Government. The Comanche no longer had the manpower to deal with the U.S. Army and the wave of white settlers who encroached on their region in the decades after the Mexican–American War ended in 1848. U.S. exploration Following Lewis and Clark many men started exploring and trapping in the western parts of the United States. Sent out in 1806, Lt. Zebulon Pike's orders were to find the headwaters of the Arkansas and Red rivers. He was to explore the southwestern part of the Louisiana Purchase. In 1807, when Pike and his men crossed into the San Luis Valley of northern New Mexico they were arrested and taken to Santa Fe, and then sent south to Chihuahua where they appeared before the Commandant General Salcedo. After four months of diplomatic negotiations, Pike and his men were returned to the United States, under protest, across the Red River at Natchitoches. Mexican territory Revolution and Mexican Independence The decade that led up to independence was a painful period in the history of Mexico. In 1810 catholic priest Miguel Hidalgo instigated a war for independence in central Mexico, a struggle that quickly took on the character of a class war. The following year, military captain Las Casas instigated a coup within the Imperial regime. Sympathizing with the poor underclass, Las Casas opened up a line of dialogue with the revolutionaries. This caused the Spanish elite to instigate its own counter coup and executed Las Casas. For years afterward the regime failed to regain coherency and the mandate to administer. These ideological struggles affected peripheral New Mexico much less than they did the national center, but it resulted in a sense of alienation with central authority. Furthermore, in 1818 a longstanding peace between the settled communities of New Mexico and the neighboring nomadic Indian tribes broke down. Just a month after swearing loyalty to the new Mexican government in 1821, governor Melgares led a raid into Navajo country. For these reasons it is highly surprising that the transition from Spanish to Mexican rule occurred as peacefully as it did. In New Mexico the event passed with few shows of enthusiasm or partisanship. Festivals were largely a lackluster affair and held only at the behest of the revolutionary government which expressed that they should be held, "in all the form and with the magnificence that the oaths of allegiance to the Kings have previously been read". But there was no renewed civil war and the provisional government was given the grudging support of most of society. Trade along the Santa Fe Trail was opened following Mexican independence. With this trade came a new influx of citizens from the United States. Prior to independence, the estranjeros (foreigners) were not allowed to participate in receiving land grants, but now, along with the open trade, a few would become participating owners of these merceds (grants). Federalist stage In 1824 a new constitution was drafted, that established Mexico as a federalist republic. A generally liberal-minded atmosphere that had pervaded Mexico since independence led to generous grants of local autonomy and limited central power. New Mexico in particular was able to take advantage and to carve out significant privileges in this new system. Classified as a territory rather than a state, it had reduced representation in the national government but broad local autonomy. Because of the advanced age of New Mexican society and its relative sophistication, it was uniquely placed to take advantage of its position as a frontier but still effecting influence in the rest of the country. One of the defining features of the Mexican period in the history of New Mexico was the attempt to instill a nationalist sentiment. This was a tremendous challenge considering the nature of identity in Mexico during the Spanish empire. Under the official dictates of the empire, subjects were classified in terms of ethnicity, class and position in society. These legal distinctions kept groups separate, and movement between groups was regulated. Ethnic Europeans made up the upper crust of this system, with Peninsulars—those born in Spain itself—comprising the true elite, while Mexican-born Europeans, the creoles, were ranked just below them. At the bottom were the masses of Indians and Mestizos, who had few legal rights and protections against the abuse of their superiors. In contrast, the new 'Mexican' elite attempted to create a common identity among all classes and ethnicities. Embracing a wide range of peoples and cultures, from nomadic Indians to the high society of Mexico City, this ambitious undertaking met with mixed success. In New Mexico, there was already a highly structured and differentiated society at the time of independence, which was unique along the Mexican frontier. At the top were ethnic Europeans who then merged with a large community of Hispanics. The more Indian blood you possessed, the lower on the social scale you tended to reside until the bottom was made of settled Pueblo communities and the nomadic Indians who existed outside of the polity. Nationalists attempted to establish equality, if only legally, between these disparate groups. The local autonomy New Mexicans had established inhibited these endeavors and throughout the Mexican period the elite continued to maintain their privileges. Nevertheless, the inhabitants of New Mexico were able to adapt their old identity as Spanish subjects to Mexican nationals. Instead of a purely modern liberal sense of identity, this adapted Spanish feudalism to a geographic area. The evidence of this success in nationalism can be seen in the Pueblo myth of Montezuma. This held that the original Aztec homeland lay in New Mexico, and the original king of the Aztecs was a Pueblo. This creates a symbolic, and completely artificial, connection between the Mexican center and an isolated frontier society. Centralist stage and collapse The federalist and liberal atmosphere that pervaded Mexican thought since independence fell apart in the mid-1830s. Across the political spectrum there was the perception that the previous system had failed and needed readjustment. This led to the dissolution of the 1824 constitution and the drafting of a new one based on centralist lines. As Mexico drifted farther and farther toward despotism, the national project began to fail and the nation fell into a crisis. Along the frontier, formerly autonomous societies reacted aggressively to a newly assertive central government. The most independent province, Texas, declared its independence in 1835, triggering the sequence of events that led directly to Mexico's collapse. The Revolt of 1837 in New Mexico itself overthrew and executed the centrally appointed governor and demanded increased regional authority. This revolt was defeated within New Mexican society itself by Manuel Armijo. This was motivated not by nationalist sentiment but by the class antagonism within New Mexican society. When central rule was reestablished, it was done so on Armijo's lines (he became governor) and he ruled the province with even greater autonomy than any other time during the Mexican period. As the situation within central Mexico fell further and further into confusion, New Mexico began to draw closer economically to the United States. This was epitomized in the growth in traffic and prominence of the Santa Fe Trail as a means of communication and trade. In the mid-1830s New Mexico began to function as a trading hub between the United States, central Mexico and Mexican California. Merchants making their way over the Great Plains would stop in Santa Fe, where they would meet with their counterparts from Los Angeles and Mexico City. The result was that as central Mexico fell into turmoil, New Mexico grew economically and trade ties strengthened with the United States. In 1845 the governorship of Armijo was interrupted when the regime of Antonio López de Santa Anna replaced him as governor with political outsider Mariano Martínez de Lejanza. In the growing threat of war with the United States, the national center sought to bring the frontier under tight control as it is there that any war would be fought. Most New Mexicans distrusted the central government by now but that soon turned to fury when, one year into his reign, Martinez sparked a needless war with a neighboring Indian tribe out of incompetence and naïveté. To prevent revolution, Martinez was swiftly removed and Armijo reinstated, but any confidence the central government still enjoyed was completely destroyed. The following year rumors arrived in New Mexico that the Mexican government was planning on selling the territory to the United States. There was so little trust in the central government by this point that instead of investigating these rumors (which were completely false) leading members of New Mexican society drafted a threat of secession to the government. This stated that if any such actions were taken then New Mexico would declare independence as La República Mexicana del Norte. It was not until invading American troops reached New Mexico in August 1846 that they learned of war with the United States. Texas The Republic of Texas seceded from Mexico in 1836 and claimed but never controlled territory as far south and west as the Rio Grande. While most of the northwestern territory was then the Comancheria, it would have included Santa Fe and divided New Mexico. The only attempt to realize the claim was Texian President Mirabeau Lamar's Santa Fe Expedition, which failed spectacularly. The wagon train, supplied for a journey of about half the actual distance between Austin and Santa Fe, followed the wrong river, back-tracked, and arrived in New Mexico to find the Mexican governor restored and hostile. Surrendering peaceably upon a pledge to be allowed to return the way they came, the Texians found themselves bound at gunpoint and their execution put to a vote of the garrison. By one vote, they were spared and marched south to Chihuahua and then Mexico City. United States control Mexican–American War In 1846, during the Mexican–American War, American General Stephen W. Kearny marched down the Santa Fe Trail and entered Santa Fe without opposition to establish a joint civil and military government. Kearny's invasion force consisted of his army of 300 cavalry men of the First Dragoons, about 1600 Missouri volunteers in the First and Second Regiments of Fort Leavenworth, Missouri Mounted Cavalry, and the 500 man Mormon Battalion. Kearny appointed Charles Bent, a Santa Fe trail trader living in Taos, as acting civil governor. He then divided his forces into four commands: one, under Colonel Sterling Price, appointed military governor, was to occupy and maintain order in New Mexico with his approximately 800 men; a second group under Colonel Alexander William Doniphan, with a little over 800 men was ordered to capture El Paso, in the state of Chihuahua, Mexico and then join up with General Wool; the third, of about 300 dragoons mounted on mules, Kearny led under his command to California. The Mormon Battalion, mostly marching on foot under Lt. Col. Philip St. George Cooke, was directed to follow Kearny with wagons to establish a new southern route to California. When Kearny encountered Kit Carson, traveling East and bearing messages that California had already been subdued, he sent nearly 200 of his dragoons back to New Mexico. In California about 400 men of the California Battalion under John C. Fremont and another 400 men under Commodore Robert Stockton of the U.S. Navy and Marines had taken control of the approximately 7,000 Californios from San Diego to Sacramento. New Mexico territory, which then included present-day Arizona, was under undisputed United States control, but the exact boundary with Texas was uncertain. Texas initially claimed all land North of the Rio Grande; but later agreed to the present boundaries. Kearny protected citizens in the new US territories under a form of martial law called the Kearny Code; it was essentially Kearny and the U.S. Army's promise that the US would respect existing religious and legal claims, and maintain law and order. The Kearny Code became one of the bases of New Mexico's legal code during its territorial period, which was one of the longest in United States history. Many of the provisions remain substantially unchanged today. Kearny's arrival in New Mexico was almost without conflict; the governor surrendered without battle. The Mexican authorities took the money they could find and retreated south into Mexico. Nonetheless, the U.S. occupation was resented by the New Mexicans. Provisional governor Charles Bent, a longtime resident of New Mexico, implored U.S. army officers to "respect the rights of the inhabitants" and predicted "serious consequences" if measures were not taken to prevent abuses. His warning was prophetic, as New Mexican and Pueblo Indian rebels were soon to begin the Taos Revolt. On January 19, 1847, rebels attacked and killed acting Governor Bent and about ten other American officials. The wives of Bent and Kit Carson, however, managed to escape. Reacting quickly, a U.S. detachment under Colonel Sterling Price marched on Taos and attacked. The rebels retreated to a thick-walled adobe church. U.S. forces breached a wall and directed concentrated cannon fire into the church. About 150 of the rebels were killed, and 400 captured, following close fighting. During one trial, six rebels were arraigned and tried, of whom five were convicted of murder and one of treason. All six were hanged in April, 1847. A young traveler and later author, Lewis Hector Garrard, wrote the only eyewitness account of this trial and hanging. He criticized, "It certainly did appear to be a great assumption on the part of the Americans to conquer a country, and then arraign the revolting inhabitants for treason ... Treason, indeed! What did the poor devil know about his new allegiance? But so it was; and, as the jail was overstocked with others awaiting trial, it was deemed expedient to hasten the execution ... I left the room, sick at heart. Justice! out upon the word, when its distorted meaning is the warrant for murdering those who defend to the last their country and their homes." Additional executions followed to total at least 28. Price fought three more engagements with the rebels, which included many Pueblo Indians, who wanted to push the Americans from the territory. By mid-February he had the revolt well under control. President James K. Polk promoted Price to a brevet rank of Brigadier General for his service. Total fatalities amounted to more than 300 New Mexican native rebels and about 30 Anglos, as non-Latino whites are commonly called in the southwest to this day. Provisional government Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo Under the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo of 1848, Mexico ceded much of its mostly unsettled northern holdings, today known as the American Southwest and California, to the United States of America in exchange for an end to hostilities, and the American evacuation of Mexico City and many other areas under its control. Under this treaty, Mexico recognized Texas as a part of the United States. Mexico also received $15 million cash, plus the assumption of slightly more than $3 million in outstanding Mexican debts. New Mexico, the new name for the region between Texas and California, became a US territory. The Senate struck out Article X of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, which said that vast land grants in New Mexico (nearly always gifts by the local authorities to their friends) would all be recognized. The treaty promised to protect the ownership rights of the heirs of the land grants. The decision to strike down Article X eventually led to court cases in which the US removed millions of acres of land, timber, and water from Mexican-issued land grants and placed them back in the public domain. But, Correia points out that the lands involved had typically never been occupied or controlled by the men who had the grants; most were in Indian-controlled areas. The residents could choose whether they remain and receive United States citizenship or remove to Mexico and retain (or gain) Mexican citizenship. All but 1000 or so settlers—who were mostly Mexican government officials—chose American citizenship, which included full voting rights. Because at the time only white men could vote in most states, the Mexicans were considered white under the law. In later decades, as discrimination by whites increased in numerous areas in relation to growth in the number of Mexican immigrants, some states tried to classify Hispanics as black or colored, and thus exclude them from voting because of barriers to voter registration. These practices were challenged in the mid-20th century and resolved in a case that reached the US Supreme Court. American Territory The Congressional Compromise of 1850 halted a bid for statehood under a proposed antislavery constitution. Texas transferred eastern New Mexico to the federal government, settling a lengthy boundary dispute. Under the compromise, the American government established the New Mexico Territory on September 9, 1850. The territory, which included all of Arizona, New Mexico and parts of Colorado, officially established its capital at Santa Fe in 1851. The U.S. territorial New Mexico census of 1850 found 61,547 people living in all the territory of New Mexico. The people of New Mexico would determine whether to permit slavery under a proposed constitution at statehood, but the status of slavery during the territorial period provoked considerable debate. The granting of statehood was up to a Congress sharply divided on the slavery issue. Some (including Stephen A. Douglas) maintained that the territory could not restrict slavery, as under the earlier Missouri Compromise, while others (including Abraham Lincoln) insisted that older Mexican legal traditions, which forbade slavery, took precedence. Regardless of its official status, black slavery was rarely seen in New Mexico although Indian slavery was common. Statehood was finally granted to New Mexico on January 6, 1912. Navajo and Apache raids and plundering led Kit Carson to abandon his intent to retire to a sheep ranch near Taos after the Mexican–American War. Carson accepted an 1853 appointment as U.S. Indian agent with a headquarters at Taos, and fought the Indians with notable success. The United States acquired the southwestern boot heel of the state and southern Arizona below the Gila river in the mostly desert Gadsden Purchase of 1853. This purchase was desired when it was found that a much easier route for a proposed transcontinental railroad was located slightly south of the Gila river. This territory had not been explored or mapped when the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was negotiated in 1848. The ever-present Santa Anna was in power again in 1853 and needed the money from the Gadsden Purchase to fill his coffers and to pay the Mexican Army for that year. The Southern Pacific built the second transcontinental railroad though this purchased land in 1881. In the United States House of Representatives the Committee of Thirty-Three on January 14, 1861, reported that it had reached majority agreement on a constitutional amendment to protect slavery where it existed and the immediate admission of New Mexico Territory as a slave state. This latter proposal would result in a de facto extension of the Missouri Compromise line for all existing territories below the line. After the Peace Conference of 1861, a bill for New Mexico statehood was tabled by a vote of 115 to 71 with opposition coming from both Southerners and Republicans. Media The first newspaper in New Mexico was El Crepusculo de la Libertad ("The Dawn of Liberty"), a Spanish-language paper founded in 1834 at Taos. The Santa Fe Republican, founded in 1847, was the first English-language newspaper. By 2000 the state had 18 daily newspapers, 13 Sunday newspapers, and 25 weekly newspapers. Today's daily papers include the Albuquerque Journal, the Santa Fe New Mexican (founded in 1849), the Las Cruces Sun-News, the Roswell Record, the Farmington Daily Times, and the Deming Headlight. The most widely broadcast radio station since its founding in 1922 has been KKOB (AM) in Albuquerque. With 50,000 watts of transmitter power on a clear channel it reaches audiences in most of New Mexico and parts of neighboring states. There are at least five television stations, based in Albuquerque, representing ABC, NBC, CBS, PBS, and Fox. Civil War During the American Civil War, Confederate troops from Texas commanded by Gen. Henry Sibley briefly occupied southern New Mexico in July 1861, pushing up the Rio Grande valley as far as Santa Fe by February 1862. Defeated in the Battle of Glorieta Pass, they were forced to withdraw south. Union troops from California under Gen. James Carleton re-captured the territory in August 1862. As Union troops were withdrawn to fight elsewhere, Kit Carson helped to organize and command the 1st New Mexican Volunteers to engage in campaigns against the Apache, Navajo, and Comanche in New Mexico and Texas as well as participating in the Battle of Valverde against the Confederates. Confederate troops withdrew after the Battle of Glorieta Pass where Union regulars, Colorado Volunteers (The Pikes Peakers), and New Mexican Volunteers defeated them. The Arizona Territory was split off as a separate territory in 1863. After the Civil War, Congress passed the Peonage Act of 1867, aiming to abolish the historical system of peonage that had existed in New Mexico. Indians Centuries of continued conflict with the Apache and the Navajo continued to plague New Mexico. In 1864, the U.S. Army trapped and captured the main Navajo forces, forcing them onto a small reservation in eastern New Mexico in what is called the Long Walk of the Navajo, also called the Long Walk to Bosque Redondo. This put an end to their livestock raids on New Mexican farms, ranches, and Indian pueblos. After several years of severe hardships, during which many Navajos died, they were allowed in 1868 to return to most of their lands. Sporadic Apache small-scale raiding continued until Apache chief Geronimo finally was captured and imprisoned in 1886. After the Civil War, the Army set up a chain of forts to protect the people and the caravans of commerce. Most tribes were relocated on reservations near the forts, where they were given food and supplies by the federal government. Often supplies and annuities were late, or food spoiled. The new legal system and the legal profession In the first half of the 19th century, Mexico set up a judicial system for its northernmost districts, in present-day New Mexico and California. There were no professionally trained lawyers or judges. Instead, there were numerous low-ranking legal roles such as notario, escribano, asesor, auditor de Querra, justicia mayor, procurador, and juez receptor. With the annexation by the United States in 1848, Congress set up an entirely new territorial legal systems, one that used the English language and American laws, forms, and procedures. Practically all the lawyers and judges were new arrivals from the United States, as there was no place in the new system for the old Hispanic roles. Elfego Baca (1865 – 1945) was an outlaw-turned-lawman, lawyer, and politician in New Mexico in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. In 1888, after serving as a County Sheriff, Baca became a U.S. Marshal. He served for two years and then began studying law. In December 1894, he was admitted to the bar and practice law in New Mexico until 1904. he held numerous local political offices, and when New Mexico became a state in 1912, he was the unsuccessful Republican candidate for Congress. In the late 1950s, Walt Disney turned Baca into the first Hispanic popular culture hero in the United States, on 10 television shows, in six comic books, in a feature film, and in related merchandising. However, Disney deliberately avoided ethnic tension by presenting Baca as a generalized Western hero, portraying a standard hero similar to Davy Crockett, in Hispanic dress. Las Gorras Blancas After the Mexican–American War, Anglo Americans began migrating in large numbers to all of the newly acquired territory. Anglos began taking lands from both Native Americans and Nuevomexicanos by different means, most notably by squatting. Squatters often then sold these lands to land speculators for huge profits, especially after the passage of the 1862 Homestead Act encouraging development in the West. Nuevomexicanos demanded the return of their lands, but the governments did not respond favorably. For example, the Surveyor of General Claims Office on New Mexico would at times take up to fifty years to process a claim, meanwhile, the lands were being grabbed up by the newcomers. The first Surveyor General, William Pelham, had two translators assisting him: David Miller and David Whiting. But these two men seemingly did not cut into the fifty years needed to translate. While the Santa Fe, Atchison, and Topeka railroad was built in the 1890s, speculators known as the Santa Fe Ring, orchestrated schemes to dislodge natives from their lands. In response, Nuevomexicanos gathered to reclaim lands taken by Anglos. Hoping to scare off the new immigrants, they eventually used intimidation and raids to accomplish their goals. They sought to develop a class-based consciousness among local people through the everyday tactics of resistance to the economic and social order confronting common property land grant communities. They called themselves Las Gorras Blancas, a name referring to the white head coverings many wore. Gilded Age In 1851 the Vatican appointed Jean-Baptiste Lamy (1814–1888), a French cleric, as bishop of the diocese of Santa Fe. There were only nine priests at first; Lamy brought in many more. In 1875 it was upgraded to the status of archdiocese, with supervision over Catholic affairs in New Mexico and Arizona. Lamy had St. Francis Cathedral built in a French style; the work was conducted between 1869 and 1886. To provide the forts and reservations with food, the federal government contracted for thousands of head of cattle, and Texas cattlemen began entering New Mexico with their herds. Rancher Charles Goodnight blazed the first cattle trail through New Mexico in 1866, extending from the Pecos River northward into Colorado and Wyoming. Over it more than 250,000 head of cattle trailed to market. John Chisum also brought his herds up the Pecos. As employer of the desperado Billy the Kid, he figured prominently in the Lincoln County War of 1878–1880. This was one of the many struggles between cattle herders and territorial officials, among rival cattle barons, and between sheep ranchers and cattle ranchers during this period. The Butterfield Trail, the longest of the cattle trails, had its first important stop in New Mexico at Fort Fillmore. It began operations in 1858 and was superseded by railroad operations in 1881. The Santa Fe Railroad reached New Mexico in 1878, with the first locomotive crossing Raton Pass that December. It reached Lamy, New Mexico, 16 miles (26 km) from Santa Fe in 1879 and Santa Fe itself in 1880, and Deming in 1881, thereby replacing the storied Santa Fe Trail as a way to ship cattle to market. The new town of Albuquerque, platted in 1880 as the Santa Fe Railroad extended westward, quickly enveloped the old town. The rival Southern Pacific was completed between the Rio Grande valley and the Arizona border in 1881. From 1880 to 1910 the territory grew rapidly. With the coming of the railroad, many homesteaders moved to New Mexico. In 1886 the New Mexico Education Association of school teachers was organized; in 1889 small state colleges were established at Albuquerque, Las Cruces, and Socorro; and in 1891 the first effective public school law was passed. An irrigation project in the Pecos River valley in 1889 marked the first of many such projects to irrigate farms in the dry state. Discovery of artesian waters at Roswell in 1890 gave both farming and mining a boost. The power of the cattle barons faded as much land was fenced in at the expense of the open range. The cattle ranchers and sheep ranchers also learned to tolerate one other, and both the cattle and sheep industries expanded. Mining became even more important, especially gold and silver. Coal mining developed during the 1890s, primarily to supply the railroads, and oil was discovered in Eddy County in 1909. The population of New Mexico reached 195,000 in 1910. Conflicting land claims led to bitter quarrels among the original Spanish inhabitants, cattle ranchers, and newer homesteaders. Despite destructive overgrazing, ranching survived as a mainstay of the New Mexican economy. Statehood On January 6, 1912, after years of debate on whether the population of New Mexico was fully assimilated into American culture, or too immersed in corruption, President William Howard Taft twisted arms in Congress and it approved admission of New Mexico as the 47th state of the Union. The admission of neighboring Arizona on February 14, 1912, completed the contiguous 48 states. Thousands of Mexicans fled north during the extremely bloody civil war that broke out in Mexico in 1911. In 1916 Mexican military leader Pancho Villa led an invasion across the border into Columbus, New Mexico, where they burned some homes and killed several Americans. New Mexico contributed some 17,000 men to the armed services during World War I. Thousands more from the state fought for the Allies during World War II. Artists and writers When the mainline of the railroad bypassed Santa Fe, the city lost businesses and population. In the 20th century, American and British artists and writers, and retirees were attracted to the cultural richness of the area, the beauty of the landscapes, and dry warm climate. Local leaders took the opportunity to promote the city's heritage making it a tourist attraction. The city sponsored bold architectural restoration projects and erected new buildings according to traditional techniques and styles, thus creating the "Santa Fe style." Edgar L. Hewett, founder and first director of the School of American Research and the Museum of New Mexico in Santa Fe, was a leading promoter. He began the Santa Fe Fiesta in 1919 and the Southwest Indian Fair in 1922 (now known as the Indian Market). When he tried to attract a summer program for Texas women, many artists rebelled saying the city should not promote artificial tourism at the expense of its artistic culture. The writers and artists formed the Old Santa Fe Association and defeated the plan. The old "mud city" - which short-sighted modernizers laughed at for its adobe houses - was transformed into a city proud of its peculiarities and its blend of tradition and modernity. Nuevomexicanos In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the Anglos tried to regulate the Hispanics living in New Mexico to second-class social status, due to xenophobia and prejudice. Some of these Anglos were ethnocentric, deprecating Hispanic/Mexican culture and disputing the rights of the original inhabitants. Richard Nostrand claims that this treatment caused the Hispanics to construct a "Spanish American" identity in response to show allegiance to the US, in an early instance of expressing being American through ethnic identity, to avoid being labeled as "Mexican", and to distinguish themselves from recent Mexican immigrants. World War I gave the Hispanics the opportunity to demonstrate American citizenship by participating in the war effort. Like the "new immigrants" in northeastern cities, who also constructed dual identities, members of the Nuevomexicano middle class exuberantly participated in the war effort. They melded images of their heritage with patriotic symbols of America, especially in the Spanish-language press. Nuevomexicano politicians and community leaders recruited the rural masses into the war cause overseas and on the home front, including the struggle for woman suffrage. Support from New Mexico's Anglo establishment aided their efforts. Their wartime contributions improved the conditions of minority citizenship for Nuevomexicanos but did not eliminate social inequality. For example, no Hispanics —not even the son of a politician— were allowed to be a member of a fraternity at the state university. The Anglos and Hispanics cooperated because both prosperous and poor Hispanics could vote and they outnumbered the Anglos. Around 1920, the term "Spanish-American" replaced "Mexican" in polite society and in political debate. The new term served both the interests of both groups. For Spanish speakers, it evoked Spain, not Mexico, recalling images of a romantic colonial past and suggesting a future of equality in Anglo-dominated America. For Anglos, on the other hand, it was a useful term that upgraded the state's image, for the old image as a "Mexican" land suggested the violence and disorder associated with that country's civil war in the early 20th century. This had discouraged capital investment and set back the statehood campaign. The new term gave the impression that "Spanish Americans" belonged to a true "American" political culture, making the established order appear all the more democratic. New arrivals In the 20th century immigrants and migrants brought new skills, outlooks and values, modernizing the highly traditional culture of the state. They included Midwestern farmers who tried to cultivate humid-area crops to the desert climate, Texas oilmen, tuberculosis patients who sought healing in the dry air (before an appropriate antibiotic was discovered), artists who made Taos a national cultural center, New Dealers who sought to modernize the state as fast as possible and improve infrastructure, soldiers and airmen from all over who came for training at the many military bases, noted scientists who came to Los Alamos to build a super weapon, and stayed on, and retirees from colder climes. They brought money and new ideas. The state residents gradually adopted more of a standard national culture, losing some of its unique qualities. The building for the State Supreme Court was constructed during the Great Depression as a WPA project, completed in 1937. It's an example of the numerous projects which the Democratic administration of President Franklin D. Roosevelt collaborated on with states in order to improve infrastructure, invest in facilities, and put people to work. Prior to that project, the Supreme Court met in the basement of the state capitol. Women's suffrage The suffrage movement in the state worked hard to get women the vote but were stymied by the conservatism of politicians and the Catholic Church. New Mexico's legislature was one of the last in 1920 to ratify the 19th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution. After it passed, there was quickly a dramatic increase in political participation by both Anglo and Hispanic women, as well as strong mobilization efforts by the major parties to gain the support of the female voters. World War II New Mexico proportionately suffered the loss of more servicemen than any other state in the nation. The state led in the national war bond drive and had fifty federal installations, including glider and bombardier training schools. The state rapidly modernized during the war, as 65,000 young men (and 700 young women) joined the services, where they received a wide range of technical training and saw the outside world, many for the first time. Federal spending brought wartime prosperity, along with high wages, jobs for everyone, rationing and shortages. Federal facilities have continued to be major contributors to the state's economy in the postwar years. The top secret remote Los Alamos Research Center was developed in the mountains of New Mexico as a research facility, opening in 1943 for the purpose of developing the world's first atomic bomb. Teams of scientists and engineers were recruited to work on this project. The first test at Trinity Site in the desert of the Alamogordo Bombing and Gunnery Range, now known as White Sands Missile Range, 28 miles southeast of San Antonio, New Mexico, on July 16, 1945, ushered in the atomic age. New Mexico had become a center of world-class science. High-altitude balloon experiments from Holloman Air Force Base caused debris found near Roswell, New Mexico (The Roswell Incident) in 1947. This reputedly led to the persistent (but unproven) claims by a few individuals that the government had captured and concealed extraterrestrial corpses and equipment. Albuquerque expanded rapidly after the war. The state quickly emerged as a leader in nuclear, solar, and geothermal energy research and development. The Sandia National Laboratories, founded in 1949, carried out nuclear research and special weapons development at Kirtland Air Force Base south of Albuquerque and at Livermore, California. Environmentalism Since the late 19th century, New Mexico and other arid Western states have sought to assert sovereign control over water allocation policies within their boundaries. In the 1990s the legislature debated H.R. 128, the proposed State Water Sovereignty Protection Act. Since the passage of the Newlands Act in 1902, Western states have benefited from federal water projects. In spite of these projects, water allocation remained a politically charged issue throughout the 20th century. Most states have sought to limit federal control over water distribution, preferring instead to allocate water under the discredited doctrine of prior appropriation. As a state dependent on both smokestack industry and scenic tourism, New Mexico was at the center of the debates over clean air legislation, particularly the Clean Air Act of 1967 and its amendments in 1970 and 1977. The Kennecott Copper Corporation, which operated a large smelter at Hurley, New Mexico, generating as a byproduct thick clouds of air pollution, led the opposition to the environmentalists, represented by the New Mexico Citizens for Clean Air and Water. Eventually the company was forced to comply with fairly strict federal standards. They often delayed the compliance process for years by threatening economic repercussions, such as plant closings and unemployment, if forced to comply with standards. See also Governor of New Mexico List of governors of New Mexico List of Mexican governors of New Mexico List of Spanish governors of New Mexico History of New Mexico History of slavery in New Mexico List of counties in New Mexico List of ghost towns in New Mexico List of municipalities in New Mexico Indigenous peoples of the North American Southwest Southwestern archaeology Territorial evolution of New Mexico Santa Fe de Nuevo México U.S. provisional government of New Mexico Territory of New Mexico State of New Mexico Timeline of New Mexico history Timeline of Albuquerque, New Mexico References Further reading Surveys Bancroft, Hubert Howe. The Works of Hubert Howe Bancroft, Vol. XVII. (History of Arizona and New Mexico 1530–1888) (1889); reprint 1962. online edition Beck, Warren and Haase, Ynez. Historical Atlas of New Mexico 1969. Beck, Warren. New Mexico: A History of Four Centuries (1962), standard survey Bullis, Don, New Mexico: A Biographical Dictionary, 1540–1980, 2 vol, (Los Ranchos de Albuquerque: Rio Grande, 2008) 393 pp.  Chavez, Thomas E. An Illustrated History of New Mexico, 267 pages, University of New Mexico Press 2002, DeMark, Judy, ed. Essays in 20th Century New Mexico History (1994) Etulain, Richard W., ed. New Mexican Lives: Profiles and Historical Stories (2002) Sanchez, Joseph P. Robert L. Spude and Arthur R. Gomez. New Mexico: A History (U of Oklahoma Press, 2013) 384pp Simmons, Marc. New Mexico: An Interpretive History, 221 pages, University of New Mexico Press 1988, , short introduction Szasz, Ferenc M. Larger Than Life: New Mexico in the Twentieth (2nd ed. 2006). Weber, David J. “The Spanish Borderlands, Historiography Redux.” The History Teacher, 39#1 (2005), pp. 43–56., online. Weigle, Marta, ed. Telling New Mexico: A New History (2009) 483 . wide range of readings online review Special studies Bronstein, Jamie L. "'Selling Sunshine': Land Development and Politics in Postwar Southern New Mexico." New Mexico Historical Review 85.3 (2010). Brown, Tracy L. Pueblo Indians and Spanish Colonial Authority in Eighteenth Century New Mexico. University of Arizona Press, 2013. Carleton, William R. Fruit, Fiber, and Fire: A History of Modern Agriculture in New Mexico (U of Nebraska Press, 2021). Carlson, Alvar Ward. "New Mexico's Sheep Industry: 1850–1900, Its Role in the History of the Territory." New Mexico Historical Review 44.1 (1969). online Carnett, Daniel R. Contending for the Faith: Southern Baptists in New Mexico. (2002) 230pp. Getz; Lynne Marie Schools of Their Own: The Education of Hispanos in New Mexico, 1850–1940 (1997) online edition Erlinda Gonzales-Berry, David R. Maciel, editors, The Contested Homeland: A Chicano History of New Mexico, 314 pages – University of New Mexico Press 2000, Forrest, Suzanne. The Preservation of the Village: New Mexico's Hispanics and the New Deal (1998) online edition González; Nancie L. The Spanish-Americans of New Mexico: A Heritage of Pride (1969) online edition González, Deena J. Refusing the Favor: The Spanish-Mexican Women of Santa Fe, 1820–1880 (1999) online edition Gutiérrez; Ramón A. When Jesus Came, the Corn Mothers Went Away: Marriage, Sexuality, and Power in New Mexico, 1500–1846 (1991) online edition Hain; F. Paul L. Chris Garcia, Gilbert K. St. Clair; New Mexico Government 3rd ed. (1994) online edition Holtby, David V. "Historical Reflections on New Mexico Statehood: New Mexico's Economy; A Case Study of Mining to 1940," New Mexico Historical Review, (Winter 2013), 88#1 pp 65–94. Holtby, David V. Forty-Seventh Star: New Mexico's Struggle for Statehood (2013) online review Tony Hillerman, The Great Taos Bank Robbery and other Indian Country Affairs, University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque, 1973, trade paperback, 147 pages, (), stories Holmes, Jack E. Politics in New Mexico (1967) Holtby, David V. Forty-Seventh Star: New Mexico's Struggle for Statehood (U. of Oklahoma Press; 2012) 362 pages; examines the struggle for statehood in the context of wider politics from 1848 to 1912. Paul Horgan, Great River, The Rio Grande in North American History, 1038 pages, Wesleyan University Press 1991, 4th Reprint, , Pulitzer Prize 1955 Hornung, Chuck. Cipriano Baca, Frontier Lawman of New Mexico (McFarland, 2013) 285 pp. Kern, Robert W. Labor in New Mexico: Strikes, Unions, and Social History, 1881–1981, University of New Mexico Press 1983, Lamar; Howard R. The Far Southwest, 1846–1912: A Territorial History (1966, repr 2000) Larson, Robert W. New Mexico's Quest for Statehood, 1846–1912 (1968) Nieto-Phillips, John M. The Language of Blood: The Making of Spanish-American Identity in New Mexico, 1880s–1930s, University of New Mexico Press 2004, Pickens, William. "The New Deal in New Mexico," in John Braeman et al. eds. The New Deal: Volume Two - the State and Local Levels (1975) pp 311–54 Resendez, Andres. Changing National Identities at the Frontier: Texas and New Mexico, 1800–1850 (2005) 309pp Sánchez; George I. Forgotten People: A Study of New Mexicans (1940; reprint 1996) Szasz, Ferenc M.; and Richard W. Etulain; Religion in Modern New Mexico (1997) online edition Trujillo, Michael L. Land of Disenchantment: Latina/o Identities and Transformations in Northern New Mexico (2010) 265 pages; An experimental ethnography that contrasts life in the Espanola Valley with the state's commercial image as the "land of enchantment." Weber, David J. The Mexican Frontier, 1821–1846: The American Southwest under Mexico (1982) online edition Scott, David Settino "What is a Plaza Rat?", 2013. primary sources (2013) Primary sources Andrews, Martha Shipman and Richard A. Melzer, eds. The Whole Damned World: New Mexico Aggies at War, 1941–1945; World War II Correspondence of Dean Daniel B. Jett (2008) Ellis, Richard, ed. New Mexico Past and Present: A Historical Reader. 1971. Santa Fe Trail Bibliography - Kansas Historical Society Weber, David J. Foreigners in Their Native Land: Historical Roots of the Mexican Americans (1973), primary sources to 1912 New Mexico History of the Rocky Mountains

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The 1993–94 South-West Indian Ocean cyclone season was the most active season in the basin since the start of reliable satellite coverage in 1967, until the record was surpassed 25 years later. Activity lasted from mid-November, when Moderate Tropical Storm Alexina formed, until mid-April, when Tropical Cyclone Odille became extratropical. Four tropical cyclones – Daisy, Geralda, Litanne, and Nadia – struck eastern Madagascar, of which Geralda was the costliest and deadliest. With gusts as strong as accompanied by heavy rainfall, Geralda destroyed more than 40,000 homes and left 356,000 people homeless. Geralda killed 231 people and caused more than $10 million in damage. Cyclone Nadia was the second deadliest cyclone, having killed 12 people in northern Madagascar and later severely damaging portions of northeastern Mozambique, killing about 240 people and leaving $20 million in damage in the latter country. In February, Cyclone Hollanda struck Mauritius near peak intensity, causing $135 million in damage and two deaths. Three storms – Alexina, Bettina, and Cecilia – formed in late 1993, of which Cecilia affected land; it produced heavy rainfall in Réunion while dissipating. Cyclone Daisy was the first storm in 1994, which struck Madagascar twice and affected many areas that were later struck by Geralda. One cyclone – Farah – previously formed in the Australian basin as Tropical Cyclone Pearl before crossing into the south-west Indian Ocean. Tropical Cyclone Ivy threatened Mauritius just days after Hollanda struck, and Intense Tropical Cyclone Litanne in March was the third of the season to hit northeastern Madagascar. The basin is defined as the area west of 90°E and south of the Equator in the Indian Ocean, which includes the waters around Madagascar westward to the east coast of Africa. Tropical cyclones in this basin are monitored by the Regional Specialised Meteorological Centre in Réunion (MFR), as well as by the Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC). Seasonal summary On July 1, 1993, the Météo-France office in Réunion (MFR) became a Regional Specialized Meteorological Center, as designated by the World Meteorological Organization. In the year, MFR tracked tropical cyclones south of the equator from the coast of Africa to 90° E. Due to the high activity during the season, MFR issued twice the number of advisories as in the previous year. Every six hours in the season, the agency issued bulletins when there was a tropical system within the basin. Storms were named by advisory centers in Mauritius and Madagascar. During the year, there were neutral El Niño Southern Oscillation conditions, and for several months there was a well-established monsoon trough that extended into the Australian basin. The average storm duration was 9 days, although the final storm, Odille, lasted 16 days, a record at the time. The season was the second-most active on record since the start of reliable satellite coverage in 1967. Due to the high number of storms, there were a record number of cyclone days – days in which a tropical cyclone is active – as well as intense tropical cyclone days, with a total of 27 days for the latter. The next seasons to approach either total were the 2001–02 and 2018–19 seasons. MFR had an alphabetically prepared list of names for the season, the last seven of which went unused: Pemma, Ronna, Sydna, Telia, Valentina, Williana, and Yvanna. In addition to the named storms, MFR tracked three other tropical systems that did not last for more than 24 hours. The first, designated Tropical Depression C1, formed on December 5 near the eastern portion of the basin, and quickly dissipated. The other two, designated E1 and H1, formed in January and February, respectively. In addition, Tropical Cyclone Willy crossed into the basin as a dissipating tropical depression, for which MFR did not issue advisories. Systems Moderate Tropical Storm Alexina The first storm of the season formed from a low-pressure area with associated convection that persisted east of the Chagos Archipelago on November 7. It formed in tandem with two tropical depressions in the North Indian Ocean. The JTWC began tracking the system that day, although MFR did not follow suit until two days later. On November 10, the depression intensified into Moderate Tropical Storm Alexina, having developed a central dense overcast. A narrow eastward-moving trough caused the storm to move generally southward for its entire duration, the only such storm of the season to maintain a largely north–south track. On November 11, MFR estimated that Alexina attained peak winds of , while JTWC estimated peak winds of . Increased wind shear disrupted the convection, while a building ridge to the south caused its movement to slow. By late on November 12, Alexina weakened to tropical depression status, which subsequently drifted to the west until dissipating on November 16. Severe Tropical Storm Bettina On November 23, the Intertropical Convergence Zone spawned a low-pressure area in the far northeastern portion of the basin, which the JTWC assessed as having formed in the western Australian basin. Located north of a large ridge, the system tracked southwestward initially before turning more to the west. Late on November 25, MFR began classifying the system as a tropical disturbance, and within 12 hours the agency upgraded it to Moderate Tropical Storm Bettina. On November 26, the storm turned to the southwest. The next day, Bettina developed an eye feature, and MFR upgraded it to a severe tropical storm, with winds of . By comparison, the JTWC estimated winds of . After wind shear increased sharply on November 28, the storm quickly weakened and within 24 hours was devoid of convection. Bettina again turned to the west as a tropical depression, moving around the large ridge. It briefly re-intensified on December 1, but dissipated on December 3 south of the Mascarene Islands. Severe Tropical Storm Cecilia The Intertropical Convergence Zone spawned a tropical disturbance in the northeast portion of the basin on December 9. Initially the system did not develop, and MFR did not classify it until December 12. The next day, the depression intensified into a moderate tropical storm, and was named Cecilia. The strengthening was short-lived, and the storm quickly weakened to tropical depression status on December 14. After initially tracking to the southwest, Cecilia turned to the west on December 15 due to a strengthening ridge to the south, by which time it had restrengthened and developed a central dense overcast. On December 17, MFR upgraded the storm toa severe tropical storm, with winds of according to MFR. The next day, JTWC estimated that Cecilia intensified to reach winds of . While near peak intensity, the storm turned to the southwest and began weakening after wind shear increased. By December 19, Cecilia had weakened to tropical depression status, and dissipated on December 21 after passing west of Réunion. An approaching trough had caused thunderstorms to reform in the eastern portion of the circulation, which resulted in heavy rainfall over Mauritius and later Réunion. In the latter island, the rainfall was heaviest in the northern portion, peaking at in Salazie in 24 hours; the same station recorded in a 6-hour period, including in just 30 minutes. Tropical Cyclone Daisy In early January, the Intertropical Convergence Zone persisted off the northeast coast of Madagascar, spawning a low-pressure area on January 6. The next day, the system developed into a tropical disturbance, which initially moved to the east due to high pressure to the south. On January 8, the system developed a curved area of convection, which later developed into a central dense overcast. Initially located within a broader trough, the disturbance gradually became better defined as a distinct system. On January 10, it intensified into Moderate Tropical Storm Daisy while passing near St. Brandon. A trough to the south weakened the ridge, causing the storm to turn to the southwest toward Madagascar. Daisy intensified into a severe tropical storm on January 11, and later into a tropical cyclone the next day. At around 1200 UTC on January 13, the cyclone made landfall near Brickaville in eastern Madagascar, with MFR estimating winds of about ; at around the same time, the JTWC estimated peak winds of . At landfall, Daisy had a symmetrical cloud pattern in diameter. The high mountains of Madagascar caused the storm to quickly weaken, although it emerged into the Mozambique Channel as a tropical disturbance on January 15. That day, a trough turned Daisy to the south, and it briefly re-intensified into a tropical storm over warm waters. On January 16, Daisy made a second landfall in southern Madagascar and dissipated the next day. When Daisy struck Madagascar, it produced wind gusts on Île Sainte-Marie, along with heavy rainfall. The storm destroyed over 90 schools and government buildings and damaged the road network. Madagascar's capital Antananarivo was flooded, forcing 6,000 people to evacuate. Many of the same areas affected by Daisy were later affected by Geralda in February. Severe Tropical Storm Edmea The Intertropical Convergence Zone spawned a low-pressure area south of the Chagos archipelago on January 12, and developed a large area of convection the next day. On January 13, MFR began classifying the system as a tropical depression, and following further intensification, the agency upgraded the depression to Moderate Tropical Storm Edmea later that day. With a ridge to the southeast, the storm tracked generally to the southwest. Its initial strengthening rate slowed until Edmea reached peak winds of on January 17. An approaching trough turned the storm to the south away from any landmasses, and also increased shear which caused weakening. Turning to the southeast on January 18, Edmea became extratropical the following day and was later absorbed by the trough. Tropical Cyclone Pearl–Farah On January 11, a tropical low formed northwest of Broome, Western Australia. It was named Pearl a few hours later by the Bureau of Meteorology. The cyclone continued westward and reached a peak intensity of . As the system moved west of 90°E, MFR took over warning responsibility on January 18 and renamed the cyclone Farah. At that time, MFR estimated winds of about . After having moved westward due to a ridge to the south, Farah turned to the south upon entering the basin due to an approaching trough, which previously absorbed Edmea. High wind shear caused rapid weakening, and by January 19, there was little remaining convection. The next day, Farah weakened to tropical depression status and turned to the southeast. The ridge built behind the trough, causing the depression to stall and drift northward, and by February 22, Farah dissipated. Intense Tropical Cyclone Geralda Cyclone Geralda originated from an area of low pressure from the monsoon trough on January 25. Over the following few days, the depression underwent gradual intensification, and MFR estimated peak winds of on January 31. Cyclone Geralda made landfall near Toamasina, Madagascar after weakening from its peak intensity. Within hours of moving onshore, the system had substantially weakened, and by February 5, Geralda had degenerated into a land depression. After briefly emerging into the Mozambique Channel, Geralda crossed southern Madagascar, and it became extratropical on February 8. Geralda was the strongest of the season and the strongest to hit Madagascar since a cyclone in March 1927. Geralda was the second cyclone in as many months to strike eastern Madagascar, after Daisy in January. Geralda produced wind gusts as strong as , which were the highest worldwide for several decades. The cyclone also dropped heavy rainfall that caused flooding, particularly in valleys. About 80% of the city of Toamasina was destroyed, including most schools, homes, and churches. The cyclone heavily damaged roads and rail lines, which later disrupted relief efforts. In the capital Antananarivo, Geralda killed 43 people after flooding many houses. Overall, more than 40,000 homes were destroyed, leaving 356,000 people homeless. Nationwide, the cyclone killed 231 people and caused over $10 million in damage. Relief work in the storm's aftermath was hampered by lack of coordination, and the Malagasy military were deployed to help storm victims. Few stocks were pre-positioned, causing food prices to rise greatly. Several countries and departments of the United Nations donated money or supplies to the country. Tropical Cyclone Hollanda The monsoon trough remained active, spawning a tropical depression on February 6 south of the Chagos archipelago. The system moved generally southwestward for much of its duration, steered by a ridge to the south. On February 8, the depression intensified into Moderate Tropical Storm Hollanda, and the next day became a tropical cyclone, developing a small eye. On February 10, the cyclone attained peak winds of , as assessed by MFR, and that day Hollanda struck the island of Mauritius at that intensity. Subsequently, the cyclone weakened while turning more to the south. A trough turned Hollanda to the east on February 13, and the next day the storm became extratropical. While moving across the island, Hollanda produced wind gusts of in the capital city of Port Louis, while heavy rainfall reached in Mare aux Vacoas. The cyclone destroyed or severely damaged 450 houses, which left at least 1,500 people homeless. High winds downed about 30% of the island's trees and left half of the island without power. Hollanda also caused severe crop damage; nearly half of the island's sugar crop was destroyed, which necessitated for the government to assist in replanting efforts. Hollanda killed two people and caused $135 million in damage on Mauritius. The highest rainfall from the cyclone fell on Réunion, with recorded at Grand Coude. On that island, there was also damage to crops and power lines. Tropical Cyclone Ivy The origins of Cyclone Ivy were from a disturbance that the JTWC began tracking on February 6 in the Australian basin. The next day, the disturbance crossed into the south-west Indian Ocean, and on February 8, MFR began tracking it. A ridge to the south imparted a general westward movement. With the convection gradually organizing, MFR upgraded the system to a tropical depression on February 9 and later to Moderate Tropical Storm Ivy the next day. A trough associated with the stronger Cyclone Hollanda turned the storm to the southwest. Although the JTWC upgraded Ivy to the equivalent of a minimal hurricane on February 12, MFR estimated the storm weakened slightly, due to wind shear obscuring the center. By the following day, convection reorganized and the storm re-strengthened, first to severe tropical storm status on February 15 and then to tropical cyclone status the next day. Around that time, Ivy approached within of Rodrigues, where gusts reached , and there was some damage. After passing near Rodrigues, Ivy strengthened further, developing a well-defined eye in diameter, while turning more to the south due to a trough associated with the remnants of Hollanda. The JTWC estimated peak winds of on February 17, around the same time MFR estimated peak winds of . The strengthening ridge caused Ivy to slow its motion to the southwest while increased shear caused weakening. On February 18, the cyclone weakened to tropical storm status, and by the next day was downgraded to tropical depression status. On February 20, Ivy became extratropical, which dissipated the subsequent day. Tropical Depression Julita In the middle of February, the monsoon trough persisted over the Mozambique Channel and spawned a circulation on February 15 to the west of Juan de Nova Island. Thunderstorms increased around the circulation, and later that day, MFR began tracking the system as a tropical depression. Despite warm air temperatures, the system did not develop a warm core like most tropical cyclones as it moved to the southeast. On February 16, the storm passed about south of Juan de Nova Island, producing gusts of . The next day, MFR estimated peak winds of about ; despite that the system did not intensify into a moderate tropical storm, the Meteorological Service of Madagascar named the depression Julita on February 17. It weakened as its structure deteriorated, and Julita moved ashore in western Madagascar near Morondava early on February 18. It dissipated shortly thereafter. Julita affected areas impacted by earlier cyclones Daisy and Geralda, but caused minimal damage and no deaths. Moderate Tropical Storm Kelvina The Intertropical Convergence Zone spawned an area of convection on March 5 off the northeast coast of Madagascar, which was classified by both JTWC and MFR that day. A large anticyclone to the east caused the system to track generally to the south, and initially wind shear prevented significant strengthening. On March 6, the Meteorological Service of Madagascar named the system Kelvina, although the depression did not intensify into a moderate tropical storm until the next day. At around that time, the convection became better organized, extending away from the center to the east. On March 8, MFR estimated peak winds of about , although further strengthening was prevented by an increase in wind shear. On March 10, Kelvina passed near Reunion, where it dropped heavy rainfall. The next day, the storm became extratropical, which continued south for several days, eventually degenerating into a trough that influenced the tracks of subsequent tropical cyclones. Intense Tropical Cyclone Litanne In late February, a low-pressure area developed near the Cocos Islands, associated with the monsoon trough. After initially moving eastward, a ridge turned it to the west, and on March 7, the system crossed 90° E into the south-west Indian Ocean as a developing tropical depression. The next day, MFR upgraded it to Tropical Storm Litanne. For much of its track, Litanne moved generally to the west-southwest, to the north of a large ridge. The storm quickly intensified, developing an eye feature within its central dense overcast by late on March 8. Late on March 9, MFR upgraded Litanne to a tropical cyclone, after the storm developed a small, well-defined eye in diameter. With warm sea surface temperatures, Litanne intensified into an intense tropical cyclone by late on March 10, although it subsequently weakened slightly. The cyclone turned to the southwest due to a trough from the remnants of Kelvina. Around 2000 UTC on March 12, Litanne passed near St. Brandon, and the next day the cyclone passed about north of Réunion island. At the time, the storm's eye was wide, and the wind radius was about wide. The islands reported high surf but little effects. Subsequently, the storm turned more to the west, and Litanne restrengthened into an intense tropical cyclone while approaching the eastern coastline of Madagascar. MFR estimated peak winds of on March 14. Weakening slightly after peaking in intensity, Cyclone Litanne continued to the west, making landfall near Brickaville in east-central Madagascar at 1600 UTC on March 15. This occurred months after cyclones Daisy and Geralda affected the same general area. Four hours before landfall, the storm had peak winds of . A strengthening trough turned Litanne southward over the eastern portion of the country, and the storm dropped heavy rainfall. Flooding was limited, although high winds severely damaged the rice crop. Increasing wind shear removed the convection, causing quick weakening. On March 17, Litanne emerged from southeastern Madagascar into the Indian Ocean as a tropical depression, and the next day transitioned into an extratropical cyclone after being absorbed by a nearby trough. Five days later after accelerating to the southeast, the storm dissipated about south of where it first developed. Severe Tropical Storm Mariola The monsoon trough persisted east of the Cocos Islands in early March in the Australian basin, spawning the earlier Cyclone Litanne and the system that would eventually become Mariola. An area of convection developed on March 5, and gradually organized with favorable upper-level winds. The JTWC began tracking it on March 7, and MFR followed suit the next day, when the system was located about east of Litanne. On March 10, the MFR estimated the system became a tropical depression once it developed a central dense overcast, and that night the system crossed into the basin as a moderate tropical storm, making it one of three concurrent storms, along with Kelvina and Litanne. With the ridge to the south, the storm tracked generally westward for much of its duration. After MFR named the storm Mariola early on March 11, steady strengthening continued. On March 12, a small eye feature developed, indicating the storm was near tropical cyclone intensity. MFR estimated peak winds of , and JTWC estimated peak winds of . Due to Litanne crossing the same path three days earlier, Mariola was unable to intensify further. It began weakening shortly after peak intensity, and the structure gradually deteriorated. The storm turned slightly to the south-west due to the remnants of Kelvina disrupting the ridge, although a west motion resumed after the ridge restrengthened. Cooler and drier air weakened the convection, and Mariola weakened below tropical storm status on March 18. The next day, the depression dissipated north of Reunion. Intense Tropical Cyclone Nadia Cyclone Nadia formed on March 16 and moved westward for the first ten days of its duration, due to a ridge to the south. Warm waters and low wind shear allowed for the storm to gradually strengthen, first into a moderate tropical storm on March 19 and later into a tropical cyclone on March 21. After developing a well-defined eye, Nadia intensified to reach winds of early on March 22, according to MFR. The JTWC estimated winds of about . On March 23, the cyclone struck northern Madagascar, causing flooding and localized damage where it moved ashore. There were 12 deaths in the country. Nadia emerged into the Mozambique Channel as a weakened storm, although it reintensified slightly before making landfall in northeastern Mozambique on March 24. The storm turned southward through the country, emerging over water on March 26. It turned to the northeast and meandered over waters before dissipating on April 1. Damage was heaviest in Mozambique, estimated at about $20 million. Cyclone Nadia severely affected four provinces in the country, primarily Nampula Province where it moved ashore. There, 85% of the houses were destroyed, and across its path, the cyclone left 1.5 million people homeless. High winds caused widespread power outages, left areas without water, and significantly damaged crops, notably the cashew crop. The storm struck before the harvest, and lack of food caused 300 deaths in the months after the storm. Across Mozambique, Nadia directly caused 240 deaths and injured thousands. Effects spread as far inland as Malawi. Intense Tropical Cyclone Odille Around March 26, an area of disturbed weather persisted just east of 90° E, associated with a low-pressure area. That day, the JTWC began tracking the system. Located north of an anticyclone, the system tracked slowly to the south before curving to the west. On March 30, it became a tropical depression, and that day crossed into the basin. The next day, the depression was named Odille after it intensified further. With low wind shear, the storm steadily intensified as it moved to the west, reaching severe tropical cyclone status on April 2 after an eye feature developed. The JTWC estimated winds of on April 3, equivalent to a strong Category 1 hurricane, although subsequently Odille weakened after turning to the northwest and experiencing increased wind shear. By April 6, the system had weakened to a tropical disturbance with a poorly defined center, which was dislocated from the remainder of the convection. On April 4, Odille began redeveloping convection and re-intensified into a moderate tropical storm, after entering an area of more favorable conditions. Around that time, it began moving to the southwest due to a break between the ridge. On April 10, Odille intensified into a tropical cyclone while moving slowly around a ridge. The next day, it intensified into an intense tropical cyclone while passing near St. Brandon and turning to the southeast due to an approaching trough. Odille developed a well-defined eye in diameter, and MFR estimated peak winds of , while the JTWC estimated winds of . On April 12, the cyclone passed about 150 km (95 mi) west of Rodrigues, where wind gusts reached at Port Mathurin. Steady weakening occurred as Odille accelerated and experienced increasing shear, weakening below tropical cyclone status on April 13. The next day, the storm became extratropical, which lasted three more days until it was absorbed by the cold front. Season effects This table lists all the cyclones that developed in the Indian Ocean, during the 1993–94 South-West Indian Ocean cyclone season. It includes their intensity, duration, name, landfalls, deaths, and damages. |- | || November 9–14 || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || || || || |- | || November 25 – December 2 || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || || || || |- | || December 12–21 || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || Mauritius, Reunion || || || |- | || January 7 – January 16 || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#|935 hPa (27.61 inHg) || St. Brandon, Madagascar || || || |- | || January 13 – January 19 || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#|976 hPa (28.82 inHg) || || || || |- | || January 18 (entered basin) – January 21 || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#|960 hPa (28.35 inHg) || || || || |- | || January 26 – February 8 || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#|905 hPa (26.72 inHg) || Madagascar || $10 million || 231 || |- | || February 6 – February 14 || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#|940 hPa (27.76 inHg) || Mauritius, Reunion || $135 million || 2 || |- | || February 8 – February 20 || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#|950 hPa (28.05 inHg) || Rodrigues || || || |- | || February 15 – February 18 || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#|995 hPa (29.38 inHg) || Madagascar || || || |- | || March 5 – March 11 || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#|985 hPa (29.09 inHg) || || || || |- | || March 7 – March 19 || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#|910 hPa (26.87 inHg) || St. Brandon, Madagascar || || || |- | || March 10 – March 19 || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#|966 hPa (28.53 inHg) || || || || |- | || March 16 – April 1 || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#|925 hPa (27.32 inHg) || Madagascar, Comoros, Mayotte, Mozambique, Malawi || $20.2 million || 252 || |- | || March 29 – April 14 || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#| || bgcolor=#|925 hPa (27.32 inHg) || St. Brandon, Rodrigues || || || |- See also Atlantic hurricane seasons: 1993, 1994 Pacific hurricane seasons: 1993, 1994 Pacific typhoon seasons: 1993, 1994 North Indian Ocean cyclone seasons: 1993, 1994 Notes References South-West Indian Ocean cyclone seasons Articles which contain graphical timelines

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Construal level theory (CLT) is a theory in social psychology that describes the relation between psychological distance and the extent to which people's thinking (e.g., about objects and events) is abstract or concrete. The general idea is that the more distant an object is from the individual, the more abstract it will be thought of, while the closer the object is, the more concretely it will be thought of. In CLT, psychological distance is defined on several dimensions—temporal, spatial, social and hypothetical distance being considered most important, though there is some debate among social psychologists about further dimensions like informational, experiential or affective distance. The theory developed by the Israeli social psychologists Nira Liberman and the American psychologist Yaacov Trope. An example of construal level effects would be that although planning one's next summer vacation one year in advance (in the distant future) will cause one to focus on broad, decontextualized features of the situation (e.g., anticipating fun and relaxation), the very same vacation planned to occur very soon will cause one to focus on specific features of the present situation (e.g. what restaurants to make reservations for, going for a trip in an off-road vehicle). According to construal level theory people perceive events that vary in several types of psychological distance: temporal distance (time) spatial distances (physical space) social distances (interpersonal distances, such as distance between two different groups or two dissimilar people) hypothetical distances (imagining that an event is likely or unlikely) Psychological distance affects the extent to which we think about an event, person, or idea as high or low level, and this will influence how concrete or abstract those thoughts are: High level construal is when people think abstractly. When thinking on this level, people are looking at the bigger picture; not focusing on details. At the high level, people focus on central features that capture the overall gist of the situation or object. Low level construal is when people think more concretely and is associated with psychological proximity. When people are engaged in low-level construal, they are focusing on the present in great detail. At the low level, people focus on the peripheral, secondary features that are less essential to the overall gist of the situation or object. Levels of construal CLT divides mental construals into two levels: the high-level and the low-level. High-level construals are a way of thinking in a big-picture way. This is a superordinate or central approach, thinking about the overall idea of the situation and extracting the main gist of the situation. Low-level construals are more detail-oriented or subordinate thought processes. For example, one could think about children playing catch in either a high or low level manner. If one were to think about the children's activity at a high level, one might describe this activity as "children having fun". Whereas, if one were to think about the children's activity at a low level, one would focus on more specific, immediate details, such as the color of the ball or the ages of the children. At the low level, more emphasis is placed on how the situation is different from others, whereas at the high level the focus is more on finding how they are similar. Thus which subordinate features one focuses on may depend upon the situation, whereas central, high-level features will not. Construal level is also related to desirability and feasibility concerns in decision-making. Considering the desirability of an object, event, or course of action puts more importance on the end result and is a high-level construal, or way of thinking. Considering the feasibility, on the other hand, is more focused on the means or how to get to the end result and is a low-level construal, or way of thinking. That is, the high level focuses more on "why", while the low level focuses more on "how". Types of psychological distances According to CLT, psychologically distant events are construed at the high level, while psychologically near events are construed at the low level. There are several different kinds of psychological distance. Temporal distance, spatial distance, social distance, and hypothetical distance are those that have received the most attention in research. Temporal distance Temporal distance refers to distance in time. Something that is temporally near is something that is near in time, whereas something that is temporally distant is far in time. For example, there is greater temporal distance in thinking about a trip that will occur in six months than in thinking about a trip that will occur in one week. Temporal distance to imagined future events modulates our evaluative representation of them such that the greater the distance, the more likely the event is to be conceptualized in terms of a few abstract features. This is relevant in case of potential dangers or risks because this mechanism divorces us cognitively from the reality of likely undesirable eventualities. According to Trope and Liberman, the long history of research on how planning for the near and distant future can be explained by CLT. The planning fallacy The planning fallacy describes how people tend to not consciously think through the future in detail. This leads people to overcommit to different events in the future. They then realize as the events become closer that they cannot possibly complete all of the tasks that they had planned. This can be due to the events overlapping, or not having the time to fully commit to all of their previous plans. According to CLT, the planning fallacy occurs because events in the distant future are construed at a higher, more abstract level, while events in the near future are construed at a lower, more concrete level. In one study, college students were asked to indicate how many hours they planned to spend on various activities, such as studying, attending classes, exercising, etc. during a week in the near future (next week) or a week in the distant future (a week occurring a few months later). When planning for the near future, students' estimates of how much time they would spend on each activity took into account the fact that time spent on one activity would come at the expense of time spent on another (e.g., time spend exercising might come at the expense of time spent studying). However, when planning for the distant future, students' estimates of how much time they would spend on different activities didn't take these practical limitations into account, and they planned activities as though they had unlimited time and resources. According to the researchers, time constraints and conflicts between activities are factors affecting the feasibility of the activity and are thus low level and more likely to be the focus of near future planning. On the other hand, when the week being planned was in the distant future, desirability concerns (how attractive each activity was), which are high level, were the focus of the students' plans. Time discounting Time discounting or temporal discounting is a wide range of ideas involving the connection between time and the extent to which an object, situation, or course of action is seen as valuable. The overall theory is that people put more value and worth into immediate events and outcomes, and apply less value to future outcomes or events. According to Trope and Liberman, CLT can provide a framework with which to understand the broad array of phenomena described by temporal discounting research. Different construals may differ in the extent to which they are associated with positive or negative evaluations. An abstract, high-level construal of an activity (e.g., "learning to speak French") may lead to a more positive evaluation of that activity than a concrete, low-level construal (e.g., "learning to conjugate the irregular French verb 'avoir). Thus, CLT predicts that we will think about the value of the low-level construals when evaluating an event in the near future, but think about the value of the high-level construals when evaluating an event in the distant future. Thus CLT predicts that when low-level construals are more valuable, time delay will discount the attractiveness of an option, but when high-level construals are more valuable, time delay will increase its attractiveness. Thus, the discounting rate is affected and measured by the amount of value placed on the event or outcome. If there is a small reward, it is discounted faster than if the reward were larger. Spatial distance Spatial distance is the physical distance at which the events are taking place from each other. If the event, such as a graduation, is taking place down the street it is being processed on a low level. If the graduation is taking place in another state, then it is processed on a high level. When an event is located far from a person, it is viewed more abstractly. Likewise, when events are at a near location they are viewed more concretely. In one study, it was found that participants who imagined a spatially distant rather than near event (helping a friend move into an apartment 3,000 miles away from where the participant resided, rather than in the local area) preferred to describe the actions associated with the move in terms of high-level states (e.g., "securing the house") rather than low-level means (e.g., "putting a key in the lock"). Social distance Social distance is the measure of space between two or more social groups or individuals. Social distance is more about the feeling of the people within the group and how they interact with other group members. If a social group feels secure and open with another group they would be exhibiting close distance. This can also occur when they feel like the other social groups are similar to their group, therefore seeing the group as an extension of their social group. In this case, a group feels insecure and closed off from groups at far distances. Far distances are when people in a social group feel as if they can't relate to the other group. Interpersonal similarity is another form of social distance. The more similar someone is to us, the more socially near they seem. Research has shown that an action by someone who is dissimilar to oneself is construed in more abstract terms than an action by someone who is more similar, suggesting that similarity functions as a form of psychological distance. The area where social distances and spatial difference meet is in language. When people talk about friendships, they often express social distances from their friends with words used to describe spatial distances. The languages used implies that there is physical space between the mental relationships of friends. For example, someone might say of another person "we seem be on opposite sides right now". Hypothetical distance Hypothetical distance is another type of psychological distance described by construal level theory. Hypotheticality refers to the likelihood of an event occurring. A hypothetically near event is one that is highly probable, whereas a hypothetically distant event is one that is highly improbable. The distance in hypothetical distance has to do with how close to reality something is. According to CLT, highly likely events will be processed at a low level construal and highly unlikely events will be processed at a high level construal. One way to think about something at the higher level is to think of it in terms of broader abstract categories (e.g., clothing), rather than narrow subordinate categories (e.g., mini-skirts). In one study, participants were asked to imagine engaging in an activity, such as going on a camping trip, that was either highly likely or highly unlikely. Participants were then given a list of objects or events that related to that activity (e.g., soap, bathing suit, raft, sneakers, flashlight) and asked to group them into categories. Participants who imagined an unlikely event grouped the items into fewer broader categories than those who imagined a likely event, while those who imagined the likely event used a lower-level construal by focusing on narrower categories. Optimism plays a role in hypothetical distance. Optimism can affect when people make plans for the future and how many errors occur with the planning process. When people are planning into the distant future, they are planning abstractly and are often optimistic. When people fantasize about future events, they believe that every aspect is going to go according to their plans. Perceptions Perceptions are affected by construal level theory in almost all aspects of psychology. Strong relationships and similarities have been found between different types of psychological distances. These include temporal, spatial, personal, and social distance. When distance on one of these levels increases, the other levels also increase. These different types of psychological distance have been found to greatly correlate with one another. This was shown through testing of temporal distance to see if this would also affect the perception of social distance. These were found to have similar results, being that as one level of distance goes up so does the other. So when the time is more distant and associated with another person, this person is thought of as being less like oneself, and thus more distant socially. Therefore, temporal and social distance can increase or decrease familiarity. Also, lack of familiarity (increased social distance) can affect discrimination involving stereotypes, empathy levels, and people's willingness to help this person. Thus, increasing any type of psychological distance can have negative consequences for relationships between socially distant groups or individuals. CLT can be applied to almost any situation. For example, people thinking in a more distant or high-level construal, will be more open to comprehensive exams which cover a wider overarching idea of the subject, whereas people thinking in lower-level construals or the more near future tend to be more content with a detailed-specific test. In one study, participants viewed a number of partial pictures paired with ideas of either the near or the distant future. When looking at these images, with the idea of the near future, the participants were more able to view the image as a whole concrete image, while they had more abstract interpretations of the distant future images. Judgments People judge all aspects of their lives, including events, people, and society. If an event is close in time, we are more likely to think in terms of concrete low-level construals, making the details more important. If an event is further away, however, we think more in terms of abstract overall ideas that follow high-level construals. When judging how much time it takes to finish a task, participants in a series of studies thought it would take them more time to complete a task when it was further in the future (temporally distant), posed as hypothetical (hypothetically distant) or when they were primed with abstract ideas beforehand. Memories can also be affected by different construal levels and distances. The further in one's past an event occurred the more abstract, high-level thinking occurs. When recalling memories from long ago, an abstract, overall, high-level idea of the event is more likely to be used. When memory of something more recent is recalled, it can be done more concretely with focus on more low-level details. Stereotyping CLT can also be used to explain stereotypes. The abstractness of the representations we have of people or groups can change our judgment of people who do not fit in the same categories as ourselves and are therefore more socially distant. For example, when viewing a different group of people in a more distant or high-level way, one may easily use abstract or centralized views. Viewing a group of teenagers in the mall, an adult may think that they are up to no good, or that they are trouble-makers. This is an overall abstract and centralized view focused only on one broad aspect of the group. These views are usually incorrect, and can lead to stereotypes and discrimination. Similarly, thinking of others on the lower level, such as people that the individual knows personally (i.e., less distant people), allows for more detailed ideas and perceptions of those people. Therefore, these perceptions are often more correct and less likely to create or strengthen stereotypes. The more social distance there is between groups, the more it increases discrimination against groups that are racially or sexually different from ourselves. When people are categorized in such a way that is distinctly different from oneself (that is, psychologically distant from the self) and are thus viewed in more abstract terms, there tend to be more negative effects. Increasing other types of psychological distance (e.g., temporal, spatial) can increase social distance between groups, leading to more of these negative intergroup outcomes. Categorization We form categories depending on the use of the different construal levels. This shapes how we view things as either alike or different. Generally, when we think of objects, situations, or people in abstract, high-level terms, we tend to categorize them into broader categories (e.g., "kitchenware"). When we think in low-level terms, we tend to use narrower more specific subcategories (e.g., "plates", "pots"). Categories can be of different kinds of people where those who are more physically distant or different from ourselves can be categorized as others or out-groups different from ourselves. This can form group bonds, along with attitudes that differ toward out-groups. We can also categorize ourselves, this is often used when people are thinking about their specific qualities, or more of who they are overall. So when thinking about oneself in the present, people tend to be more focused on their individual concrete qualities in more detail, versus when they think of themselves in the future, they think more of how they will be in the years to come in an overall abstract way. Decision-making and risky behavior Distance or high-level construals can make alternative choices that are hard to accomplish more desirable. Near-future or low-level construals can oppositely make alternative choices that are hard to accomplish less desirable. Risky behavior therefore, can be explained by CLT. High level construals can make more difficult or impossible outcomes more attractive and therefore cause people to take greater risks for less likely outcomes. High-level construals can have an effect of valuing rewards that are more risky, and further in the future. For example, people will take riskier bets when the bet is in the distant than the near future. The ideas of time and probability are often thought of in very similar ways; therefore, they tend to correspond, as one increases the other one does as well. The connections between these two are often made automatically, without the conscious knowledge of the individual. When thinking of investments in a high-level construal, people tend to engage in more risk taking behavior. When thinking about the same investment in a low-level construal, there is more focus on the present and what the risk would mean in terms of the here and now. Thus, focusing on the low level aspects of a decision can deter some risk taking behavior by causing one to focus on the actual details, and lesson an overall possible feeling for the future. Across the overall idea of decision making, CLT has been supported for aiding in the help or harm of organizational decision making processes and outcomes. Research has also examined more common decisions, such as the choice to procrastinate. More concrete activities, or near future events tend to create a more low-level construal, and therefore people are less likely to procrastinate for these functions, than for more abstract activities set further into the future. Interpersonal People tend to view others as either similar or different from oneself. As discussed previously, this corresponds to social distance. If a person is viewed as less similar to oneself, they are thought of as more socially distant and thus at a higher-level construal. If they are seen as more similar to oneself, social distance decreases, resulting in lower-level construals. High level construals can help to create social diversity by making people interested in meeting new and different people. Low-level construals are more helpful to relationships with people who are more similar to us, and aid in sustaining already formed relationships with people in our inner circle and in-group. The frequency of exposure to a certain situation or person can also influence the construal level used. The more often a person has been exposed to an event or person, the more likely it is that they are going to use a lower-level approach to describe them, involving more specific detail learned over time. In contrast, a less familiar event or person would probably be described in a higher level more abstract manner due to the lack of exposure involved. People tend to use these construals to interact with and form an opinion of others. These opinions can often be unconscious or automatic, and thus are not always something that people are aware of doing. People tend to form more of these snap judgments when the person they are judging is more spatially distant. This affects people's opinions on an implicit level, showing how construal levels are an automatic phenomenon. Additionally, at greater psychological distances, people tend give more weight to central traits, rather than peripheral traits when judging another person's character. Social power Power in society can create social distance from others who have either more or less power than oneself. Research has demonstrated that those who are primed with the concept of power tend to construe events in a more abstract, high-level manner. Differing social status can create social distance, and therefore may parallel other forms of psychological distance. Politeness Psychological distance can influence levels of politeness. Higher-level construals and increasing distance increase politeness cues, and lower-level construals or less distant events decrease politeness cues. Even physical distance can be reflective of high and low level construals of politeness. For example, the distance from which people stand from each other when having a conversation, or after initially meeting, can determine the level of politeness displayed. The closer in distance that people stand from each other, the less polite and more informal the meeting is portrayed to be. This can be seen through closer more intimate relations hugging or embracing, versus keeping a polite or respectful distance during more formal interactions. Being polite is used in social situations to reflect and control social distance. This has been found cross-culturally, giving more credence to the relationship between construal levels and the level of politeness displayed. Studies have shown that not only does politeness tend to increase with temporal, and spatial distance, along with abstraction, but also oppositely increasing politeness also increases the level of spatial, and temporal distance, along with a higher level of abstraction. Self-regulation/self-control There is a connection between distance and the facilitation of self-regulation or self-control. It has been shown that the future and further distances better facilitate self-regulation, and that as distance to the event decreases, self-regulation decreases as well. When people fear that they will be unable to achieve their goal due to the temptations that can distract them, they choose self-control methods to make decisions and avoid these temptations, thus giving themselves a better chance at attaining their goal. People are more likely to act in this fashion when thinking in a high-level construal. This high-level thinking can increase the use of certain self-control strategies. Two self-control strategies are choice bracketing and self-imposing punishment. In choice bracketing, through acknowledging detrimental choices and determining a number of positive and helpful substitutes, people can find ways to help aid their self-control. Self-imposed punishments are punishments that people give to themselves for acting on impulsive or detrimental choices, instead of the more self-controlled choices. Because high-level construals support self-control, conceiving of a tempting situation at a higher level promotes the use of both of these strategies and thus can improve self-control. Social conflict, negotiation, and persuasion Negotiations and persuasion are social conflicts that can be understood in terms of CLT. When negotiating or trying to persuade someone, there are often major, high-level, considerations and minor, low-level, considerations. Major issues are aspects such as values, ideology, and overall beliefs. The major issues are often focused on to a greater extent when thinking about the distant future, or with high-level construals. Minor issues are more specific interests that are focused on when thinking about the near future, or low-level construals. CLT and persuasive communications are connected and interrelated in many aspects. When looking at negotiations in relation to high-level construal, there were multiple findings that have shown a difference between the future and the present. When people are more temporally distant or personally distant from an outcome, they are less likely to come to an easy conclusion or compromise over minor objectives. More distance between the present and the time when the negotiations take place makes people more willing to come to a joint conclusion and achieve logrolling agreements that maximize the outcomes of both parties. Lastly, thinking more abstractly about the negotiation in general leads to more compromises and mutually beneficial agreements. Consumer behaviors Decision making can be applied to various situations, such as consumer behavior. High and low level construals affect the way people consider purchasing items. When buying items, feasibility (how we can buy the item) which is low-level and desirability (how much we want the item) which is high-level, play a large role in what we buy and why we buy it. This includes the way we view rebates, and the more distance involved to receive the rebate, the less likely the buyer is to pursue the rebate. Low-level construal is also more likely to increase the level of perceived risk and thus increase the likelihood of purchasing insurance or a protection plan. Looking at purchasing something from a further distance (high level construal) highlights the central aspects of the item, often making it seem more positive and satisfactory. Advertising also uses this as a way to build excitement for an item. For example, cell phone advertisements will neglect to advertise every little detail of their product, but instead only show the newest or most unusual aspect, highlighting the new camera or voice feature, instead of how to turn it on and off. This makes the consumer more likely to purchase the item, by seeing what is advertised to come out in the future. Advertisers may use this strategy to persuade consumers to buy the company's products by highlighting the higher level and more central aspects of the item. Due to construal level effects, promotional message that include a warning of risky side effects (cigarette ads that warn of risks associated with cancer, for example) can ironically increase consumer buying when there is a delay between the time consumers decide whether to choose and the time they expect to consume the product. Purchasing decisions can also be influenced by physical distance. Being able to touch or see the product in person, versus a more abstract idea of the item can influence potential buyers to be more excited or committed to purchasing the item. These effects of physical distance mirror those of spatial and temporal distance. These aspects of consumer behaviors can be manipulated by the companies by knowing how the consumer thinks, and by changing the level of construal. Regret Regret is also a large aspect of consumer behaviors that is affected by construal level. Regret over one's purchasing choice is experienced differently as distance increases or decreases. When pre-purchasing or preordering an item far in the future the consumer may regret or change their decision in the extended time that they are forced to wait to receive the item. This may also have the opposite effect, however, by strengthening their commitment, and this can occur with the added consistency of advertising, and through constantly being reminded of the positive qualities of the product. Even in events where the purchase is in the present or near future, the first reaction is often regret that later changes toward appreciation of our choices. Creativity Triggering an abstract (high) construal level (e.g., by imagining doing a task next year instead of today) improves performance on several different measures of creativity. When viewing a task through a high-construal processing frame, people arrive at creative insight ('aha moments') more often, and generate more creative reasons for why something should be done. Additional types of distance associated with consumer behavior Additional types of psychological distance, aside from those traditionally discussed as part of CLT, have been proposed to explain consumer decisions. Experiential distance is the extent to which the consumer has obtained information based on first-hand, direct experience, or on indirect experiences, such as from other people or the media. Informational distance is defined in terms of how much information or knowledge someone has about a product. The more information one has about the product, the less distant it is. See also Construals Objectification Dehumanization References Social psychology

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Assassin's Creed III is a 2012 action-adventure video game developed by Ubisoft Montreal and published by Ubisoft for PlayStation 3, Xbox 360, Wii U, and Microsoft Windows. It is the fifth major installment in the Assassin's Creed series, and a direct sequel to 2011's Assassin's Creed: Revelations. The game was released worldwide for PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360, beginning in North America on October 30, 2012, with a Wii U and Microsoft Windows release in November 2012. A remastered version of the game was released in 2019 for Windows, PlayStation 4, Xbox One and Nintendo Switch. The plot is set in a fictional history of real-world events and follows the millennia-old struggle between the Assassins, who fight to preserve peace and free will, and the Templars, who desire peace through control. The framing story is set in the 21st century and features series protagonist Desmond Miles who, with the aid of a machine known as the Animus, relives the memories of his ancestors to find a way to avert the 2012 apocalypse. The main story is set in the 18th century, before, during and after the American Revolution from 1760 to 1783, and follows Desmond's half-English, half-Mohawk ancestor, Ratonhnhaké:ton / Connor, as he fights the Templars' attempts to gain control of the colonies. The first portion of the game, set in 1754–1755, follows Connor's father, Haytham Kenway, the leader of the Colonial Templars. Assassin's Creed III is set in an open world and presented from the third-person perspective with a primary focus on using each playable character's combat and stealth abilities to eliminate targets and explore the environment. Connor is able to freely explore 18th-century Boston, New York City, and the American frontier to complete side missions away from the primary storyline. The game also features a multiplayer component, allowing players to compete online to complete solo and team-based objectives including assassinations and evading pursuers. Ubisoft developed a new game engine, Anvil Next, for the game. A number of downloadable content (DLC) packs were released to support Assassin's Creed III, including The Tyranny of King Washington, a story expansion set in an alternate timeline from the base game's events. The game received positive reviews from critics, who praised it for its gameplay, narrative, setting, and ambitious scale, while criticism was directed at the unevenly developed gameplay mechanics, mission design, and pacing. It was a commercial success, selling more than 12 million copies worldwide. Assassin's Creed III was released alongside a spin-off for the PlayStation Vita titled Assassin's Creed III: Liberation. A sequel, Assassin's Creed IV: Black Flag, was released in October 2013; while its modern-day narrative continues from the events of Assassin's Creed III, the main plot is set during the Golden Age of Piracy in the early 18th century and follows Connor's grandfather, Edward Kenway. Gameplay Assassin's Creed III is a third-person action-adventure title set in an open world in which the player uses a combination of stealth, parkour, and combat to complete various missions. The player takes the role of three characters during the course of the game. The main character is Desmond Miles, a 21st-century Assassin, working to uncover the secrets of a mysterious Precursor Vault that will protect the Earth from an upcoming solar flare on December 21, 2012. To uncover the secrets, Desmond uses the Animus to live out memories of two of his ancestors which the player controls during these sequences, both set at the time of the American Revolutionary War. The first, briefly played at the start of the game, is Haytham Kenway, a British Templar who seeks the location of the Vault. The second and the primary character for the game is Ratonhnhaké:ton, the result of a brief liaison between Kenway and a Native American woman. Ratonhnhaké:ton takes on the name Connor to blend in better with colonial society. When playing as Connor, the player has access to a huge wilderness known as the Frontier (which is roughly 1.5 times bigger than Rome in Assassin's Creed: Brotherhood), as well as the cities of Boston and New York City. Portions of the Eastern Seaboard and Caribbean Sea can be explored via the flagship of the Assassins' navy, the Aquila, captained by Connor Kenway himself, with Robert Faulkner his first-mate advising and teaching him in the ways of the sea. Free running has been simplified to allow for more fluid parkour in the cities and wilderness, such as climbing and running on trees, mountains, cliffs, etc. Close combat has been modified, allowing Connor to dual-wield weapons and take down multiple opponents at once and players no longer need to manage the lock-on mechanic. Aiding this, Connor has access to a wide range of weapons which include muskets, swords, pistols, native weapons such as the tomahawk and bow and arrow, a rope dart (used to pull foes or hang them, while on a tree) as well as the Hidden Blades. In addition, the left Hidden Blade has a folding mechanism for blocking attacks, skinning an animal, and performing high-profile assassinations. Human shields can be used against firing lines of enemies. Medicine is no longer used as health recovers automatically. Stealth is also revamped, allowing players to use natural elements such as tall grass and trees to hide, along with the ability to blend between any two people. Assassin's Creed III features new weather simulations such as snow, fog, and rain. The seasons can also change i.e., Summer and Winter, which not only affect visuals but also gameplay, as the player will find that they run slower in deep snow. Snowfall can reduce visibility for the player and enemies, aiding stealth. Unlike the past games, this one includes animals varying from domestic (horses, cows, dogs) to wild (deer, wolves, bears). The wild ones are found in the Frontier and can be hunted for meat or marrow in order to be sold. The quality of the kill determines the price, encouraging the player to hunt silently. For this, traps and bait can also be used. The economy is now based on the Davenport Homestead, which also acts as Connor's adoptive home. The site can be visited by people such as carpenters, tailors, etc. suffering from displacement due to the war. Helping and interacting with these non-player characters (NPCs) will encourage them to settle in the Homestead. From there on, the player can craft various items and trade with them, and then sell the goods to the cities via caravan. The player can also help them build relationships with each other, which will then result in the formation of a small village. The player can also upgrade the Homestead manor as well as Connor's ship, the Aquila. A revamped version of Assassin's Creed: Brotherhoods recruitment feature returns as players can enlist citizens to the Assassins' cause by completing "Liberation" missions. They also have a much larger skill set, which allows them to start a riot, provide a covert escort, act as a personal bodyguard, etc. Other side missions include collecting Almanac pages, exploring tunnels to locate fast-travel stations, joining hunting and fighting clubs, investigating frontiersman rumors about UFOs and Sasquatch, "peg-leg" missions in which Connor goes to underground forts and wastelands to uncover the legend of Captain Kidd's treasure, and others. Assassin's Creed III also features naval expeditions. Using Connor's warship, the Aquila, the player can navigate the high seas. Control of the ship relies on environmental factors such as wind direction and speed, local presence of storms, high waves, and rocks. Engagements are by cannon, with broadsides covering both flanks of the ship, swivel guns that can be used to damage smaller ships which can also be boarded to find treasure, and chain shots from the broadsides as well to take down the masts of larger ships and disable them. The Aquila is used in the side missions known as "Privateer missions" and is also used in some of the main missions. In addition, Assassin's Creed III is actually the first release in the franchise to have minigames including Bowls, Checkers, Fanorona and Nine men's morris. The Wii U version of the game has extra features. The player has the ability to change weapons on the go and the map is always visible on the Wii U Gamepad. The Wii U version also supports Off TV Play. With this feature enabled, the main screen is redirected to the Wii U Gamepad. Online multiplayer returns in this installment by Ubisoft Annecy. Along with returning modes, new ones feature a co-operative mode named Wolfpack, in which 1–4 players are charged with killing certain NPCs within a time limit, through a sequence of 25 stages. It also features Domination, a team mode where players will have to capture certain areas of the map, protecting them from the opposing team. The remastered version of the game features more revamped mechanics. Players can now whistle from anywhere while hidden, whereas the previous version of the game only allowed whistling from corners. Double assassinations have been improved so as not to require entering high-profile mode to do so. Free-aiming with ranged weapons was also made possible, allowing Connor more control over his bow and pistols, much like in Black Flag and Rogue. The mini-map and the UI were upgraded with better-looking and easier-to-recognize icons for ease of accessibility, figuring out where enemies will point next and also features color-blind modes. The crafting system and the economy system was also vastly upgraded. The game's lighting system has been upgraded to resemble the newly-implemented technology in Assassin's Creed: Origins and the textures have also been revamped to resemble the future AnvilNext 2.0 Assassin's Creed games. Synopsis Setting Following the conclusion of the "Ezio Trilogy" with Assassin's Creed: Revelations, Assasssin's Creed III shifts focus towards a new historical time period: 18th-century Colonial America. The game follows two new protagonists: Haytham Kenway, a British nobleman and high-ranking member of the Templar Order, who is sent to America to establish a strong Templar presence on the continent and find a temple of the First Civilization that predates humanity; and Ratonhnhaké:ton (also known as "Connor"), Haytham's half-Mohawk son, who joins the Assassins to avenge the burning of his village by the Templars and stop the latter from gaining control of the colonies. Haytham's story serves as a prologue to the main narrative, and takes place from 1754 to 1755, at the onset of the French and Indian War, which paved the way for the American Revolution. Connor's story spans through two decades of his life, from his childhood in 1760 to 1783, and involves major events from the American Revolutionary War seen from Connor's perspective. Boston and New York City are cities that can be explored, as well as the American Colonial Frontier, spanning forest, cliffs, rivers, Connor's village, and the settlements of Lexington and Concord. The player can hunt small and large animals, and approximately one third of the story takes place in the Frontier. The city of Philadelphia can also be visited at one point during the game, as can The Caribbean during several naval missions. The entire Eastern seaboard is also explorable via Connor's captaining his naval warship, the Aquila. Like the previous games in the series, the story also includes segments set during the modern day, in 2012, which again follow Desmond Miles and his efforts to save humanity from an impending disaster. These segments have been expanded significantly compared to the game's predecessors, and now involve actual missions that the player must complete to advance the narrative. Locations visited during the modern-day segments include a skyscraper in Manhattan, New York; a stadium in São Paulo, Brazil; and Abstergo's facility in Rome, Italy. Characters Assassin's Creed III features a large cast of characters. The modern-day cast features many returning characters from the previous four games in the series, including protagonist Desmond Miles (Nolan North), his father William (John de Lancie), and friends Shaun Hastings (Danny Wallace) and Rebecca Crane (Eliza Schneider). During the missions he carries out, Desmond is hunted by mercenary Daniel Cross (Danny Blanco-Hall) and scientist Warren Vidic (Phil Proctor), working for Abstergo Industries (a corporate conglomerate used as a front by the modern-day Templar Order). Desmond also crosses paths with Minerva (Margaret Easley) and Juno (Nadia Verrucci), members of a precursor race known as the First Civilization (or "Those Who Came Before"), who try to help him save humanity from the same catastrophic event that wiped out their race. The main protagonist of the game is Ratonhnhaké:ton (Noah Watts), also known as Connor, a half-English, half-Mohawk assassin born in 18th-century Colonial America. Connor's supporting cast includes Achilles Davenport (Roger Aaron Brown), Connor's mentor and a retired assassin; Connor's mother Kaniehtí:io / Ziio (Kaniehtiio Horn); Connor's first mate aboard the Aquila, Robert Faulkner (Kevin McNally); and French taverner Stephane Chapheau (Shawn Baichoo), Connor's first Assassin recruit. During the game, Connor battles the Colonial Templars, who are led by his father, the British nobleman Haytham Kenway (Adrian Hough), who is playable in the first three sequences of the game. Haytham is aided by several historical figures who are portrayed as members of the Templar Order, including Charles Lee (Neil Napier), Thomas Hickey (Allen Leech), John Pitcairn (Robert Lawrenson), Benjamin Church (Harry Standjofski), William Johnson (Julian Casey), and Nicholas Biddle (Fred Tatasciore). The era also features several other historical figures such as Israel Putnam (Andreas Apergis), George Washington (Robin Atkin Downes), Thomas Jefferson (John Emmet Tracy), Mason Weems (Tod Fennell), Paul Revere (Bruce Dinsmore), Edward Braddock, Benjamin Franklin (Rick Jones), and Samuel Adams (Mark Lindsay Chapman). Plot After the events of the previous game, Desmond, William, Rebecca and Shaun find the Grand Temple of the First Civilization in a cave in New York and access it using their Apple of Eden. As Juno begins to communicate with Desmond, the latter enters the Animus to deal with his dissociative fugue, where Juno's influence causes him to experience the memories of his ancestor, Haytham Kenway. In 1754, Haytham assassinates a patron at the Royal Opera House to steal a Piece of Eden in his possession. Instructed by his Order (later revealed as the Templars) to find the temple they believe it opens, Haytham travels to the American Colonies and recruits several allies to aid his expedition. After they free a group of Mohawk slaves, one of them, Kaniehti:io ("Ziio"), enlists Haytham's help in killing Edward Braddock before taking him to the Grand Temple. Haytham is unnable to access it and assumes the Key is ineffective. Deducing the Key is meant for the Temple's inner chambers, Desmond relives the memories of Ratonhnhaké:ton, Haytham and Ziio's son, to find it. In 1760, Ziio dies during an attack on their village, which Ratonhnhaké:ton assumes was ordered by the Templar Charles Lee. In 1769, the village elder informs Ratonhnhaké:ton that it is their tribe's duty to prevent the Temple's discovery, and gives him a Sphere which allows Juno to communicate with him. She leads Ratonhnhaké:ton to retired Assassin Achilles Davenport, whose brotherhood collapsed years ago, and he reluctantly agrees to train him. At Achilles' suggestion, Ratonhnhaké:ton renames himself "Connor" to move more freely throughout the Colonies. Over the following years, Connor is drawn into the American Revolution and the resulting Revolutionary War as he attempts to protect his people's land and keep the Revolution free of the Templars' influence. After assassinating most of Haytham's lieutenants, Connor meets his father and the two form a temporary alliance to eliminate a rogue Templar. Later, Haytham discovers George Washington's plan to displace indigenous populations suspected of supporting the Loyalists, including Connor's tribe. Haytham also reveals that Washington ordered the attack that killed Ziio, causing Connor to angrily break ties with both of them. Returning to his village, he learns Lee recruited Mohawk warriors to turn back the Patriots sent to eradicate them. Connor neutralizes the warriors to avoid conflict. In the present, Desmond retrieves batteries to activate the Temple, while being hunted by the Templar Daniel Cross. After William is captured by Abstergo while trying to recover the final battery, Desmond rescues him, killing Cross and Warren Vidic in the process. Connor becomes conflicted about eliminating the Templars and hopes to work with Haytham towards peace and freedom. However, Haytham remains convinced of the necessity to control the nation by replacing Washington with Lee. Lee is disgraced by Washington for attempting to sabotage the outcome of the Battle of Monmouth and takes refuge in Fort George. Connor infiltrates the fort, but finds Haytham instead and is forced to kill him. Connor eventually assassinates Lee, retrieving the Key given to him by Haytham. Returning to his village, Connor finds it abandoned and the Sphere left behind. Instructed by Juno to conceal the Key, Connor buries it in the grave of Achilles' son, Connor Davenport. Desmond retrieves the Key and accesses the Temple's inner chambers, where Juno reveals that he can save the world at the cost of his own life. Minerva appears, opposing the plan as it will free Juno, who was sealed in the Temple to prevent her from conquering humanity. Juno and Minerva explain that if the solar flare occurs, Desmond will become a messiah-like figure to other survivors and will be revered as a god after his death, but will have his legacy manipulated to control future generations. Desmond chooses to sacrifice himself to save humanity and give them the opportunity to fight Juno. An epilogue scene set in 1783 details the end of Connor's journey. Despite eliminating the Colonial Templars and helping the Americans achieve independence, Connor feels that he failed his people, who are still being opressed; their former land is being sold to colonists to settle the U.S. government's war debts, and the slave trade is still active. In the present, a voiceover directs the player to locate several 'pivot points' across the virtual representation of Colonial America. Once collected, the voiceover informs them that they have connected to the cloud. The Tyranny of King Washington Some time after the end of the Revolutionary War, Washington secretly meets with Connor, telling him of dreams he has received from an Apple of Eden he had seized. Concerned, Connor attempts to take the Apple from Washington, but is transported into an alternate timeline, created by Washington's nightmares. In this universe, Connor's mother Ziio is still alive, his father Haytham died years ago, and Washington, mad with power, has become the "Mad King" of the United States. After Ziio tries and fails to steal Washington's source of power, a Scepter with the Apple at the top, a furious Washington mobilizes his army to eliminate her and Connor's tribe. In desperation, the tribe's Clan Mother brews the Tea of the Great Willow, which can grant great physical abilities with crippling side effects. However, Ziio forbids Connor from drinking the tea and gifts him Haytham's old Hidden Blades. Washington's forces attack, slaughtering the tribe and killing Ziio. Connor attempts to fight back, but is overpowered by Washington's Scepter and gunned down. Five months later, after Connor has recovered, the Clan Mother insists that only the Tea can stop Washington. Connor brews and drinks it, gaining the power to turn invisible and summon spectral wolves. The Clan Mother is later killed in a raid led by General Benedict Arnold, leading Connor to kill him. With his dying breath, Arnold reveals that he had been mind controlled by Washington, and directs Connor to seek Benjamin Franklin. Connor is captured by General Israel Putnam and taken to Boston to be executed, but manages to escape. In the process, he reunites with his childhood friend Kanen'tó:kon, who is part of a resistance group led by Samuel Adams. After Kanen'tó:kon reveals that drinking more of the Tea can grant additional powers, Connor does so, gaining the ability to transform into an eagle. Connor then tracks down Franklin and frees him from Washington's control. Franklin agrees to help Connor eliminate Washington. However, Putnam ambushes and kills Adams and his rebels. With no other choice, Connor and Franklin seize a ship to escape Boston. Putnam attempts to stop them but is killed by Connor. Connor, Franklin, and Kanen'tó:kon set sail to New York, where Washington is building a pyramid. Upon arriving, their ship is attacked by Washington's navy, scattering the crew. Kanen'tó:kon sacrifices himself to protect Franklin, and Connor drinks the Tea again, granting him the strength of a bear. They encounter another resistance group led by Thomas Jefferson attempting to attack Washington's pyramid. Connor helps Jefferson's rebels withdraw, and works to gain additional support. Washington addresses the people with a speech, boasting about his plans to invade England and enslave its people. Eventually, Connor sows enough chaos and support that the entire city rises up against Washington. Using a special key provided by Franklin, Connor infiltrates the pyramid, where he battles and defeats Washington. As Connor reaches for the Scepter, he is returned to his own timeline. Terrified by the Apple's power, Washington orders Connor to dispose of it. In his office, Washington is met by an unknown man who suggests he should become the king of the United States. Washington flatly refuses, and the man disappears when Connor tosses the Apple into the sea. Development Origins Work on Assassin's Creed III began in January 2010 (almost immediately after the release of Assassin's Creed II) by a senior team of Ubisoft developers. The title was in development for two and a half years and had the longest development cycle since the first Assassin's Creed. When Ubisoft first revealed Assassin's Creed: Brotherhood in 2010, as new details came to light, there was some confusion within the gaming community as to whether this would be Assassin's Creed III. According to the developers, Brotherhood was not Assassin's Creed III, and the third installment would not star a "pre-existing character." Ubisoft Montreal's developers stated in their interviews that Assassin's Creed III would be released eventually. Jean-François Boivin of Ubisoft also stated that each numbered title in the series will introduce a new lead character and a new setting. Patrice Désilets, former series' creative director, said that the series has always been planned as a trilogy. He also commented on the story of Assassin's Creed III, saying that it would focus on Assassins' quest to prevent the end of the world in 2012, and their race against time to find temples and Apples of Eden built by "Those Who Came Before". Desmond would be searching for clues as to the locations of these temples, by exploring memories of one (or more) of his other ancestors. From interviews with Désilets and creative director Alex Hutchinson, the original plan for the ending of Assassin's Creed III when it was only planned out as a trilogy was to have Desmond and Lucy take down Abstergo in the days before the solar flare stuck. Desmond would have used the knowledge that he gained from Altiar and Enzo as part of this. The game would then have ended as the solar flare brought about the end of the earth but with Desmond and Lucy on a spaceship to restart humanity elsewhere similarly to Adam & Eve; Lucy's name was based on that of Lucy, the fossilized remains of what was believed to be one of the first hominini creatures in allusion to starting a new society. However, this ending significantly changed after the success of Assassin's Creed II, which saw additional spinoffs before work started on the 3rd main game. Désilets and Hutchinson opted to close out Desmond's story but avoided the cataclysmic scenario as to allow further games in the series. In October 2011 Alexandre Amacio, creative director of Assassin's Creed: Revelations, announced that the next installment of the franchise was to be released before December 2012, however, Amacio himself would not be directing the game. This comes from the idea that Desmond Miles, the modern-day protagonist of the series, was to finish his tale by December 2012. Amacio said that gamers should not have to play a futuristic game after the time period in which it is set. Pre-announcement Ubisoft CEO Yves Guillemot confirmed during an earnings call on November 8, 2011, that a new "major" Assassin's Creed game would be released in 2012. Guillemot refused to go into any further detail on the title beyond its confirmation. Speaking to MCV, Guillemot dismissed the notion that annual Assassin's Creed installments are diluting the brands, stating instead that they're necessary to "satisfy the demand". Guillemot also claimed in the same interview that this year's Assassin's Creed will be the series' "biggest to date." In February 2012, Ubisoft officially confirmed the existence of Assassin's Creed III, and its North American release date of October 30, 2012. Guillemot described Assassin's Creed III as "the true next generation of both the Assassin's Creed brand and interactive entertainment/storytelling in general. We will push the title a lot because it's a fantastic product that the team has been working on for three years. What we have seen is just fabulous." Guillemot went on to say the publisher's investing more heavily in the game than in any other title in the series. Internal leaks Reports that Assassin's Creed III would take place during the American Revolution surfaced following a supposed "inside source" at Ubisoft, who made such a claim in January 2012. On February 29, 2012, an upcoming promotional image of the game was sent to Kotaku by a Best Buy employee, along with information from the retailer that a full reveal was imminent. The leaked promotional image led to a general consensus that the game was set in North America during the American Revolution, and at least in part, a snowy setting. Around the same time, Ubisoft mentioned "a major announcement from Assassin's Creed" was "only days away" via the series' official Facebook. The page's cover photo also depicted a snowy and bleak setting. Furthermore, Game Informer appeared ready to confirm the fresh details via an advertising banner posted on its site. Images showed the new assassin standing next to American revolutionary leader George Washington. Following the reports, Ubisoft released Assassin's Creed IIIs official box art on March 1, 2012, which confirmed the game's American Revolution setting. The company said it will announce "all the details" at 5pm on March 5. Additionally, Game Informer revealed its latest cover feature, which included more artwork of the game's new main character. On March 2, several screenshots were leaked ahead of Ubisoft's official reveal, and the first gameplay details emerged via Game Informer. Post-announcement Assassin's Creed III was unveiled with a cinematic trailer on March 5, 2012. Ubisoft described the game as the "most ambitious" project in the company's history, with twice the production capacity of any previous title from the publisher. The game's engine, AnvilNext, delivers improved visuals, character models and AI, allowing for battlefields full of fighters. Ubisoft later said it's aiming to make Assassin's Creed III "look next-gen" on current-gen consoles using the new AnvilNext engine. Ubisoft said that when Rockstar's Red Dead Redemption released midway through Assassin's Creed IIIs development, it was surprising to see Rockstar had included wild animal hunting and a giant frontier to explore—features both planned for its own sequel. Lead writer Corey May said Ubisoft's now looking at Red Deads success and trying to take the formula in "new directions". Similarities between these two games are down to "a convergence of minds", said Assassin's Creed III writer Matt Turner. Creative Director Alex Hutchinson said Ubisoft steered clear of making the Assassin's Creed III protagonist a female character because the game's setting is not a strong match. Hutchinson said while many people wanted to see female assassins in the series, the American Revolution setting makes it difficult this time around. Ubisoft recommends the PC version of the game to be played with a controller even though it will still support keyboard and mouse setup. Ubisoft Montreal's creative director Alex Hutchinson admitted: "We're definitely supporting PC, we love PC, but I think it'll be PC with a controller. I don't see us investing hugely in a mouse and keyboard setup. I think if you want to play on PC and you want to play Assassin's Creed, you have a controller." Music The score to Assassin's Creed III was composed by Scottish composer Lorne Balfe, who previously co-composed the soundtrack of Assassin's Creed: Revelations with longtime Assassin's Creed series composer, Jesper Kyd. The game's soundtrack is the first soundtrack of the series' main games to not feature Jesper Kyd. The soundtrack was released via digital download on October 30, 2012. Balfe also composed the music within the DLC content, The Tyranny of King Washington, with the soundtrack released via digital distribution on April 23, 2013. The game also features additional compositions by Max Aruj, Dave Fleming, Andrew Kawczynski, Jasha Klebe, and Steve Mazzaro. Marketing Ubisoft's senior vice president of sales and marketing, Tony Key, said the game would enjoy the biggest marketing commitment in company history. Ubisoft UK MD Rob Cooper has said that Assassin's Creed III is a good entry point for newcomers to the series and that he thinks Assassin's Creed III will hold its own against this year's biggest releases. In March 2012, the Assassin's Creed: Double Pack was released both as a retail purchase for PlayStation 3, Xbox 360 and for download on PSN, which brings together the first Assassin's Creed and Assassin's Creed II in a virtual compilation box. Ubisoft has collaborated with several retail outlets on pre-order bonuses available through several store chains throughout the world. Which of the pre-order bonuses the player received depended upon where they pre-ordered the game. A free SteelBook collectible featuring artwork by renowned comic book artist Alex Ross is available as a pre-order incentive. The "Captain of the Aquila" DLC pack includes a single player weapon (The Pirate Boarding Axe) and a single player skin (The Captain of the Aquila's uniform). The "Colonial Assassin" DLC pack includes a single player weapon (The Scottish Flintlock) and a single player skin (the Traditional Colonial Assassins outfit). "Redcoat Multiplayer" DLC pack includes redcoat costume, a snake emblem, and a "doctor doll" relic. In the US, Gamestop is offering the single-player mission Lost Mayan Ruins and the Sawtooth Sword, Best Buy is offering the single-player mission Ghost of War and the Pontiac's War Club, while Amazon is offering the Steelbook Case. SCEE offers a digital version of Assassin's Creed III via the PlayStation Store. Dubbed the "Gold Edition", the download includes the game, PlayStation Vita title Assassin's Creed III: Liberation and a Season Pass (a first for the series). Another version of the "Gold Edition" features the game and the Season Pass, but not Liberation. The third version comes with Liberation, but without the Season Pass. All versions include A Dangerous Secret, the extra mission available with the Special Edition. Dutch site Entertainment Business reported that thieves made off with a truck on November 14, 2012, in transporting the entire launch shipment of Assassin's Creed III on PC for Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg. Ubisoft stated that it won't affect launch as copies will be sourced elsewhere. Those who pre-ordered the Join or Die edition, however, were affected as allegedly this cannot be re-manufactured. Ubisoft also passed on serial numbers and barcodes to retailers of the stolen games and placed the same numbers on a blacklist preventing them from receiving online authentication. American global technology company Nvidia bundled the PC version of Assassin's Creed III with its new GeForce GTX 650 Ti. It is built on the Kepler architecture along with others in the Nvidia's 600 series of GPUs. According to Nvidia, Assassin's Creed III makes the most of the TXAA technology. Ubisoft Australia put together a "very special, very limited" edition of Assassin's Creed III to auction off in benefit of the Sydney Children's Hospital Foundation. There are only ten of these editions in the world, and eight of them will be auctioned off to raise money for the Sydney Children's Hospital in Randwick. Each will be auctioned separately between November 30, 2012 and December 17. Allegations of pro-American and anti-British prejudice In June 2012 Ubisoft and in particular its French-Canadian subsidiary Ubisoft Montreal had to fend off increasing accusations of anti-British prejudice after trailers and box art depicting the killing of British Redcoats started to appear. One site described the 'July 4' live-action trailer as "American nationalism". Lead script writer Corey May defended the developers and publisher Ubisoft from allegations of bigotry and discrimination. This controversy, however, continued because marketing materials continued to depict only the British as the enemy, with a number of gaming news outlets noting US trailers cutting scenes that did seem to depict the protagonist killing Patriots. The publisher eventually decided that the Limited Edition of the game would not be sold in the UK or Europe. However, upon the game's release, critics said their depiction was balanced and fair. Official Xbox Magazine UK felt that "the strongest aspect of ACIII is the more mature moral tone – there's none of the anticipated 'yay, America'." In another review by Kotaku, the reviewer notes "publishers from big video game companies are not known for subtlety or complexity of theme", going on to say "the marketing always suggested that Assassin's Creed III's igniting of the Revolution would be a game of interactive jingoism; its developers always said it was not. The developers were the ones being accurate." Retail editions On March 26, 2012, Ubisoft announced three collectors' editions of Assassin's Creed III, The Freedom, Join Or Die and Special editions, exclusive to EMEA countries and Australia. On June 1, 2012, Ubisoft also announced another collectors' edition of Assassin's Creed III, the UbiWorkshop Edition. Ubisoft and Sony partnered to offer the game as a bundle with the PlayStation 3 console, which was offered from the day of the game's release. On the day of its release, Assassin's Creed III on the PlayStation 3 received four exclusive single-player missions, titled The Benedict Arnold Missions. The gameplay revolves around Benedict Arnold and his connections with turning West Point over to the British. Scriptwriter Matt Turner stated that the Benedict Arnold missions were some of the most historically accurate missions in the game, as "some scenes have the actual words spoken by key players in the events at West Point, according to the records from the court proceedings following what happened." The Freedom Edition features a retail copy of the game, a steelbook case with cover art drawn by comic artist Alex Ross, George Washington's notebook, a 24 cm figurine of the protagonist Connor and two exclusive lithographs. In-game content included is two exclusive single player missions (Ghost of War and Lost Mayan Ruins) and an additional multiplayer character (Sharpshooter). The Join Or Die Edition features a retail copy of the game, Connor's medallion (the medallion of the Assassins with its curd ladle) and George Washington's notebook. In-game content included is one exclusive single player mission (Ghost of War) and an additional multiplayer character (Sharpshooter). The Special Edition features a retail copy of the game and special packaging. In-game content included is one exclusive single-player mission (A Dangerous Secret). The UbiWorkshop Edition features a retail copy of the game, the second edition of the Assassin's Creed Encyclopedia, exclusive packaging, five rare prints, and a new graphic novel titled Assassin's Creed: Subject 4. The Limited Edition features a retail copy of the game, a 24 cm figurine of Connor, an embroidered 28" x 48" Assassin's Creed-inspired Colonial flag, a 3" x 3.25" metal belt buckle with the Assassin insignia and George Washington's notebook. In-game content included is an exclusive single player mission (Lost Mayan Ruins). This edition is not available in the UK or Europe due to perceived anti-British sentiment portrayed in the content. The Digital Deluxe Edition features a retail copy of the game, George Washington's notebook and the official Assassin's Creed III soundtrack. In-game content included is three exclusive single player missions, two skins (The Captain of the Aquila's uniform and The Colonial Assassin outfit) and two additional multiplayer characters (Sharpshooter and Redcoat). It also includes the Benedict Arnold DLC previously exclusive only to the PS3. The edition is exclusive to PC. Washington Edition includes: all 3 parts of DLC "The Tyranny of King Washington", "The Hidden Secrets Pack" and "The Battle Hardened Pack". It was released 20 June 2013. Remastered In September 2018, a remastered edition of Assassin's Creed III was announced. The remaster contains enhanced visuals, lighting, and resolution, improved character models, and several modified game mechanics, with all previously-released downloadable content also included. It was released on March 29, 2019 for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 4, and Xbox One, both as a downloadable add-on to Assassin's Creed Odyssey and a standalone game. A Nintendo Switch version was released on May 21, 2019. Downloadable content On October 3, 2012, Ubisoft officially revealed a Season Pass for downloadable content (DLC), made available for a six-month time period on PlayStation Network and on Xbox Live. The pass gives purchasers access to the three King Washington DLC packs, The Hidden Secrets pack with all the preorder, retailer exclusive, bonus material, and The Battle Hardened pack, featuring new maps and characters for multiplayer. Furthermore, players with the pass will have access to DLC a week before other gamers. The Remastered version of the game includes all DLC released for the original version minus the multiplayer component, plus new legacy outfits based on the protagonists from later titles like Black Flag, Rogue, Unity, Syndicate, Origins and Odyssey, which are unlockable via Uplay. Uplay content Ubisoft's Uplay system enables further in-game enhancements which can be redeemed by points that are given when playing the game. The available awards are an "Assassin's Creed III Theme" (available for the PlayStation 3, Xbox 360 and PC), "The Life Scratcher Pack", which allows the player to increase the capacity of Connor's tool pouches, and unlock exclusive multiplayer profile items, "Ezio's Outfit'", an outfit similar to the one worn by Ezio Auditore in "Assassin's Creed: Brotherhood", but with a differently colored cape, and "The Renegade Pack", which unlocks the Multiplayer Night Stalker's costume and additional profile items. The Hidden Secrets Pack On December 4, 2012, The Hidden Secrets Pack was released for Season Pass players on the PlayStation 3, Xbox 360 and PC, with all gamers getting the pack December 11, 2012 and Wii U players getting the pack on January 17, 2013. The pack includes three missions (The Lost Mayan Ruins, The Ghost of War and A Dangerous Secret), which unlock the Sawtooth Cutlass, Pontiac War Club, and Flintlock Musket respectively, two single-player costumes (the Captain of the Aquila and the Colonial Assassin), and two multiplayer characters (the Redcoat and the Sharpshooter). All of the content was previously available as preorder bonuses through different retailers, or in different editions of the game. The Battle Hardened Pack Announced on December 4, 2012 with The Hidden Secrets Pack, The Battle Hardened Pack includes new maps and characters for multiplayer. On January 8, 2013, The Battle Hardened Pack was released to all players on the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360, with a PC release on January 15 and Wii U release on January 17. The pack includes the Governor, Highlander and Coyote Man multiplayer characters and the Charlestown, Fort St-Mathieu and Saint Pierre maps. The Tyranny of King Washington On October 3, 2012, Ubisoft revealed the first portion of a story-driven DLC for the game, titled The Tyranny of King Washington. The story revolves around an alternative history "The United Kingdom of America", wherein George Washington has seized an Apple of Eden, becomes corrupted by its power, and dubs himself King. The player is tasked with overthrowing the dictator. The single-player campaign is separated into 3 episodic installments. In the DLC, Connor gains new abilities: the "Power of the Bear" for strength, the "Power of the Eagle" for speed, the "Power of the Wolf" for stealth, "Warpaint" to enhance the abilities, and "Alpha of the Pack", giving the ability to call wolves to help in battle. On January 24, 2013, the first episode of the DLC was announced, titled "The Infamy". Set in 1783, Connor awakens from what appears to be an alternate reality where the events of the main game involving him have never happened. He is tasked to find George Washington, corrupted heavily by the Apple of Eden. Washington has crowned himself King and begun to enslave and massacre the Frontier's population. Connor must do everything in his power to dethrone him to return the land to freedom, including utilizing the new abilities granted to him. The first episode was released on February 19 for Xbox 360 and PC, February 20 for PlayStation 3, and on February 21 for the Wii U. On February 6, 2013, it was announced that the second episode, titled "The Betrayal", would be released on March 19 for Xbox 360, PC and PlayStation 3 and an unknown date for Wii U (available in the eShop as of March 27) and that the third episode, titled "The Redemption", would be released on April 23 for Xbox 360, PC and PlayStation 3. Despite being given a release date of May 16 for Wii U, "The Redemption" has been available in the eShop since April 27. Reception Critical response Assassin's Creed III received positive reviews, with critics praising the narrative, gameplay (particularly the naval missions), setting, and scale, while complaints focused on the unevenly developed mechanics, prescriptive mission design, and pacing. Aggregating review website Metacritic gave the PlayStation 3 version 85/100, the Xbox 360 version 84/100, the Wii U version 85/100, and the PC version 80/100. Daniel Bischoff of GameRevolution gave it 5/5 stars, saying "Combining the best of the franchise so far, Assassin's Creed III doesn't disappoint long-time fans who've been with the series while also making it easy enough to jump in for the kill." IGN gave the game a score of 8.5/10, saying "It achieves so much that you can't help but respect it, no other open world game has ever given us a setting that's as impressive to observe or as full of things to do as this". They did, however, say "Not everything about the game gels together convincingly and the missions' unnecessary prescriptiveness sometimes undermines the sense of freedom that the rest of the game works so hard to create". GameSpot gave a similar review, stating "It takes chances with its opening, with its story, and with its characters. It expands the series' gameplay in enjoyable and sensible ways. As with many ambitious games, not every arrow fired hits the bull's eye, yet this big, narratively rich sequel is easy to get invested in" and gave a score of 8.5/10. Game Informer awarded the game 9.5/10, saying "Assassin's Creed III delivers everything the series has promised, and throws in a little more for good measure ... Most players will likely spend the first six hours of Assassin's Creed III wrapping their heads around the profound size and ambition of the game". G4 felt that "Assassins Creed III [was] not perfect ... But there is so much story, so much multiplayer, and so much stuff to do that your average 10 hour game should be terribly ashamed of itself". Official Xbox Magazine gave it 8.5/10, and said "[Its] newly refined gameplay and incredibly rich setting are captivating stuff ... It improves on the underlying Assassin's Creed formula in a handful of subtle but tangible ways ... And its unwavering commitment to storytelling is both rare and impressive". They did however criticize, "Pacing problems which can drag the campaign into busy-work tedium". PC Gamer was more critical, giving the game a 72/100 and stating that Assassin's Creed III had "Entertaining storytelling and fantastic naval combat marred by terrible mission design and endemic feature creep." The reviewer felt that homesteading detracted from the central theme and story, and narrowly scripted optional objectives punished players for thinking laterally. "It's about pattern recognition rather than creative thought, binary reactions with no room for life or dynamism." In April 2020, Game Informer ranked the game as the eleventh best main instalment in the Assassin's Creed series to date. Remastered According to Metacritic, Assassin's Creed III Remastered received "generally favorable reviews" on PC as well as Xbox One, whereas the PlayStation 4 and Nintendo Switch versions were met with "mixed or average" reviews. Accolades Assassin's Creed III was nominated for six awards in the 2012 Spike Video Game Awards: Game of the Year, Best Xbox 360 Game, Best PS3 Game, Best Action Adventure Game, Best Graphics, and Character of the Year (Connor). GameTrailers awarded Assassin's Creed 3 Best Action-Adventure Game of the Year 2012 while Game Revolution named Assassin's Creed III its Game of the Year 2012. For the 2013 D.I.C.E. Interactive Achievement Awards, the game won the award for Outstanding Achievement in Animation and was nominated for Adventure Game of the Year, and Outstanding Achievement in Sound Design. Assassin's Creed III also received four Game Developers Choice Awards nominations for Best Audio, Best Narrative, Best Technology, and Game of the Year. Sales On March 30, 2012, Ubisoft stated that in the three weeks since the game's pre-order campaign began, numbers had already surpassed the total U.S. pre-order numbers of Assassin's Creed: Brotherhood and exceeded 10 times more than the pre-orders Assassin's Creed: Revelations attracted in a comparable time frame. On October 25, 2012, Ubisoft announced that the game is the most pre-ordered game in the company's history, more than doubling pre-orders for Revelations, the previous record holder. Assassin's Creed III was the bestselling game in the United Kingdom in the week of its release, with the best sales of the series to date. It was the biggest launch in publisher Ubisoft's history and the third biggest launch of any game in the UK in 2012 (behind Call of Duty: Black Ops II and FIFA 13). It doubled the launch week sales of Assassin's Creed II, and beat 2011's Revelations by over 117,000 copies. According to Ubisoft, Assassin's Creed III sold over 3.5 million units in its first week, which represents a 100 percent year-over-year increase from Revelations. On December 12, 2012, Ubisoft announced that the game had sold 7 million copies worldwide. In the United Kingdom, Assassin's Creed III was the 3rd bestselling title of 2012, after being on sale for 2 months. According to the NPD Group, the game was the 4th bestselling game of 2012 in North America. On February 7, 2013, Ubisoft announced that the game had sold 12 million copies worldwide, representing an almost 70 percent increase over Revelations at the same point of its lifecycle, and making it the best-selling game in the franchise. Technical issues On November 14, 2012, Ubisoft reassured that the PC version of Assassin's Creed III will launch with fewer bugs than the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 versions. A new patch was in the works to fix glitches on all versions. It was the second title update for the game following a large patch available day-one. The PC launch came with both of these patches included. After two days, Ubisoft detailed the sizable patch scheduled for release across the major platforms. This extensive patch was designed to address a list of around one hundred identified bugs present within the single-player campaign and online multiplayer modes plaguing the player experience. Some of the problems outlined involve substantial environmental instability, severe NPC technical issues, occasional console crashes and various issues involving sound synchronization amongst others. Series continuation In September 2012, franchise main writer Corey May stated that the Assassin's Creed III plot leaves possible sequels "plenty of room to play". Assassin's Creed III associate producer Julien Laferrière said that further Assassin's Creed games featuring new hero Connor depend on reaction to character, stating "We made three games with Ezio because people loved Ezio." In November 2012, The Gaming Liberty spotted a supposed Ubisoft survey that suggested another annual installment could be set for release next year. The survey asked participants how they would feel about a return of Desmond, Connor and the American Revolution setting, and if they would purchase such a title if it were to be released next year, suggesting that Ubisoft had its eye on repeating the Brotherhood and Revelations route of the Ezio trilogy. The survey was also said to ask how participants would feel about the introduction of a co-op mode, and how they feel about Naughty Dog's Uncharted 3: Drake's Deception, possibly suggesting a move to more scripted gameplay. On February 28, 2013, Ubisoft posted their first promotional picture and cover for their next Assassin's Creed game, following leaked marketing material days before. Titled Assassin's Creed IV: Black Flag, it serves as a sequel to Assassin's Creed IIIs modern story and a prequel to its ancestral storyline. The game is set in the Caribbean islands during the Golden Age of Piracy, and centers around Edward Kenway; the father of Haytham Kenway, and grandfather of Connor, the playable characters of Assassin's Creed III. References External links 2012 video games Action-adventure games Alternate history video games Assassin's Creed Cultural depictions of Benjamin Franklin Cultural depictions of George Washington Cultural depictions of Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette Cultural depictions of Paul Revere Cultural depictions of Thomas Jefferson Cultural depictions of William Kidd Hunting in video games Multiplayer and single-player video games Native Americans in popular culture Nintendo Network games Nintendo Switch games Open-world video games Patricide in fiction PlayStation 3 games PlayStation 4 games Stealth video games Ubisoft games Video game sequels Video games about revenge Video games about the American Revolution Video games developed in Canada Video games scored by Lorne Balfe Video games set in 2012 Video games set in Belize Video games set in Boston Video games set in Brazil Video games set in Canada Video games set in Italy Video games set in Jamaica Video games set in London Video games set in Martinique Video games set in Massachusetts Video games set in New Jersey Video games set in New York (state) Video games set in New York City Video games set in Pennsylvania Video games set in Rhode Island Video games set in Rome Video games set in São Paulo Video games set in Virginia Video games set in the 18th century Video games set in the 21st century Video games set in the Bahamas Video games set in the Caribbean Video games set in the United States Video games using Havok Video games with downloadable content War video games set in the United States Wii U eShop games Wii U games Windows games Xbox 360 games Xbox One X enhanced games Xbox One games American Revolutionary War video games Video games set in Philadelphia Stadia games

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This is a list of notable events in music that took place in the year 1947. Specific locations 1947 in British music 1947 in Norwegian music Specific genres 1947 in country music 1947 in jazz Events June 11 – 15 – First Llangollen International Musical Eisteddfod is held in Wales. August 7 – Carlo Bergonzi makes his professional debut as Schaunard in La Bohème at the Arena Argentina in Catania. October – Enrico De Angelis leaves Quartetto Cetra to join the army. Lucia Mannucci replaces him. Jack Brymer becomes principal clarinettist of the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra. Patti Page signs with Mercury. Frankie Laine earns the first of his 21 gold records. Kay Starr signs with Capitol. George Jones begins performing. Ernesto Bonino embarks on his Latin American tour. The Amadeus Quartet is founded, as the Brainin Quartet. Bernard Greenhouse and John Serry Sr. appear in Studio One on the CBS network. Albums released Glenn Miller Masterpieces, Vol. 2 – Glenn Miller Music Out of the Moon – Les Baxter The Jolson Album Vol. 1 – Al Jolson St. Patrick's Day – Bing Crosby Accordion Capers – The Biviano Rhythm Sexteete with John Serry Sr. & Tony Mottola Top hit records The following records achieved the top positions in Billboard magazine's year-end charts for 1947. Pop Folk Race Other hit records Published popular music "Across the Alley From the Alamo" w.m. Joe Green "Afraid to Fall in Love" w. Ralph Blane m. Harry Warren. Introduced by Mickey Rooney and Gloria DeHaven in the 1948 film Summer Holiday "Ah, But It Happens" w. William Dunham m. Walter Kent "Almost Like Being in Love" w. Alan Jay Lerner m. Frederick Loewe. Introduced by David Brooks and Marion Bell in the musical Brigadoon. Performed in the 1954 film version by Gene Kelly. "And Mimi" w.m. Jimmy Kennedy & Nat Simon "Apalachicola F.L.A." w. Johnny Burke m. Jimmy Van Heusen. Introduced by Bob Hope and Bing Crosby in the film Road to Rio "An Apple Blossom Wedding" w.m. Jimmy Kennedy & Nat Simon "April in Portugal" w. Jose Galhardo (Port) Jimmy Kennedy (Eng) m. Raul Ferrão "Autumn Leaves" ("Les Feuilles Mortes") w.(Eng) Johnny Mercer (Fr) Jacques Prévert m. Joseph Kosma "Ballerina" w.m. Bob Russell & Carl Sigman "Beg Your Pardon" w.m. Francis Craig & Beasley Smith "Big Brass Band from Brazil" w.m. Bob Hilliard & Carl Sigman "Bloop Bleep" w.m. Frank Loesser "Blue Shadows on the Trail" w. Johnny Lange m. Elliot Daniel "Bouquet of Roses" w.m. Steve Nelson & Bob Hilliard "Busy Doing Nothing" w. Johnny Burke m. Jimmy Van Heusen "But Beautiful" w. Johnny Burke m. Jimmy Van Heusen "Buttons and Bows" w.m. Jay Livingston & Ray Evans "C'est si bon" w.(Eng) Jerry Seelen (Fr) André Hornez m. Henri Betti "Chi-Baba, Chi-Baba" w.m. Mack David, Jerry Livingston & Al Hoffman "Cigarettes, Whisky, And Wild, Wild Women" w.m. Tim Spencer "Civilization" w.m. Bob Hilliard & Carl Sigman. Introduced by Elaine Stritch in the revue Angel in the Wings "Clancy Lowered the Boom" w.m. Hy Heath & Johnny Lange "Come to Me, Bend to Me" w. Alan Jay Lerner m. Frederick Loewe "Come to the Mardi Gras" w. (Eng) Ervin Drake & Jimmy Shirl (Port) Max Bulhoes & Milton De Oliviera m. Max Bulhoes & Milton De Oliviera "Confess" w.m. Bennie Benjamin & George David Weiss "Cuanto Le Gusta" w. Ray Gilbert m. Gabriel Ruiz "Don't Smoke in Bed" w.m. Willard Robison "Don't Telephone, Don't Telegraph, Tell a Woman" w.m. Al Stewart & Tex Williams "Down by the Station" adapted from a children's song by Lee Ricks & Slim Gaillard "Down the Old Spanish Trail" Kenneth Leslie-Smith & Jimmy Kennedy "The Dream of Olwen" w. Winifred May m. Charles Williams "The Egg and I", w. Bert Kalmar, Al Jolson, and Harry Akst m. Harry Ruby "Everybody Loves Somebody" w. Irving Taylor m. Ken Lane "Everybody's Gonna Have A Wonderful Time Up There" Lee Roy Abernathy "Ev'ry Day I Love You" w. Sammy Cahn m. Jule Styne "A Fella with an Umbrella" w.m. Irving Berlin "For Every Man There's a Woman" w. Leo Robin m. Harold Arlen. Introduced by Tony Martin in the 1948 film Casbah "Four Brothers" by Jimmy Giuffre "Fun And Fancy Free" w.m. Bennie Benjamin & George David Weiss "Galway Bay" w.m. Dr Arthur Colahan "The Gentleman Is A Dope" w. Oscar Hammerstein II m. Richard Rodgers "Good Rockin' Tonight" w.m. Roy Brown "Haunted Heart" w. Howard Dietz m. Arthur Schwartz "The Heather On The Hill" w. Alan Jay Lerner m. Frederick Loewe "Here Comes Santa Claus" w.m. Gene Autry & Oakley Haldeman "Here I'll Stay" w. Alan Jay Lerner m. Kurt Weill "Hooray For Love" w. Leo Robin m. Harold Arlen. Introduced by Tony Martin and Yvonne DeCarlo in the 1948 film Casbah "A Hundred And Sixty Acres" w.m. David Kapp "Hurry On Down" w.m. Nellie Lutcher "I Like'em Fat Like That" w.m. Claude Demetrius, Louis Jordan, J. Mayo Williams "I Still Get Jealous" w. Sammy Cahn m. Jule Styne "I Tipped My Hat And Slowly Rode Away" w.m. Larry Marks & Dick Charles "I Wish I Didn't Love You So" w.m. Frank Loesser "Ichabod" Don Raye & Gene De Paul "If You Stub Your Toe On The Moon" w. Johnny Burke m. Jimmy Van Heusen "I'll Dance At Your Wedding" w. Herb Magidson m. Ben Oakland "I'll Go Home With Bonnie Jean" w. Alan Jay Lerner m. Frederick Loewe "I'm My Own Grandpa" w.m. Dwight Latham & Moe Jaffe "It Only Happens When I Dance With You" w.m. Irving Berlin "It Takes a Long, Long Train With a Red Caboose" w.m. Larry Marks & Dick Charles "It Was Written in the Stars" w. Leo Robin m. Harold Arlen "It's a Most Unusual Day" w. Harold Adamson m. Jimmy McHugh "It's Magic" w. Sammy Cahn m. Jule Styne "Ivy" w.m. Hoagy Carmichael "Kokomo, Indiana" w. Mack Gordon m. Josef Myrow "Laroo Laroo Lilli Bolero" w. Sylvia Dee & Elizabeth Moore m. Sidney Lippman "Lazy Countryside" w.m. Bobby Worth "Life Gets Tee-jus, Don't It" w.m. Carson Robison "A Little Bird Told Me" w.m. Harvey O. Brooks "Look To The Rainbow" w. E.Y. Harburg m. Burton Lane "Love Is Where You Find It" w. Earl K. Brent m. Nacio Herb Brown "Love Somebody" w.m. Joan Whitney & Alex Kramer "The Maharajah Of Magador" w.m. Lewis Harris & John Jacob Loeb "Mam'selle" w. Mack Gordon m. Edmund Goulding "Mañana (Is Soon Enough for Me)" w.m. Peggy Lee & Dave Barbour "Maybe It's Because I'm a Londoner" w.m. Hubert Gregg "Maybe You'll Be There" w. Sammy Gallop m. Rube Bloom "Nature Boy" w.m. eden ahbez "Near You" w. Kermit Goell m. Francis Craig "The Night Has A Thousand Eyes" w. Buddy Bernier m. Jerome (Jerry) Brainin "Now Is The Hour" w.m. Maewa Kaihan, Clement Scott & Dorothy Stewart "(I'd Like to Get You on a) Slow Boat to China" w.m. Frank Loesser "Once And For Always" w. Johnny Burke m. Jimmy Van Heusen "Papa Won't You Dance With Me?" w. Sammy Cahn m. Jule Styne "Pass That Peace Pipe" w. Ralph Blane m. Hugh Martin "Perhaps, Perhaps, Perhaps" w.(Eng) Joe Davis (Span.) Osvaldo Farrés m. Osvaldo Farrés Quizás, Quizás, Quizás "Please Stop Playing Those Blues, Boys" Claude Demetrius & Fleecie Moore "Put 'Em In A Box, Tie 'Em With A Ribbon, And Throw 'Em In The Deep Blue Sea" w. Sammy Cahn m. Jule Styne "Rhode Island Is Famous For You" w. Howard Dietz m. Arthur Schwartz "Save The Bones For Henry Jones" w.m. Danny Barker & Michael H. Goldsen "Serenade Of The Bells" w.m. Kay Twomey, Al Goodhart & Al Urbano "Sixteen Tons" w.m. Merle Travis "Smoke! Smoke! Smoke!" w.m. Merle Travis & Tex Williams "Steppin' Out With My Baby" w.m. Irving Berlin "Tallahassee" w.m. Frank Loesser "There But For You Go I" w. Alan Jay Lerner m. Frederick Loewe "Too Fat Polka" w.m. Ross MacLean & Arthur Richardson "Toolie Oolie Doolie" w.(Eng) Vaughn Horton (Ger) Arthur Beul m. Arthur Beul "The Turntable Song" w. Leo Robin m. John Green "Waitin' For My Dearie" w. Alan Jay Lerner m. Frederick Loewe "The Wedding Samba" w.m. Abraham Ellstein, Allan Small & Joseph Liebowitz "We're Gonna Rock, We're Gonna Roll" Teddy Reig, William Moore "What Good Would the Moon Be?" w. Langston Hughes m. Kurt Weill. Introduced by Anne Jeffreys in the musical Street Scene "What's Good About Goodbye?" w. Leo Robin m. Harold Arlen. Introduced by Tony Martin in the 1948 film Casbah "When I'm Not Near The Girl I Love" w. E. Y. Harburg m. Burton Lane Introduced by David Wayne in the Broadway production of Finian's Rainbow "Woody Woodpecker" w.m. George Tibbles & Ramez Idriss "You Do" w. Mack Gordon m. Josef Myrow "You Don't Have To Know The Language" w. Johnny Burke m. Jimmy Van Heusen "You Were Only Fooling" w. William E. Faber & Fred Meadows m. Larry Fotine "You, You, You Are The One" w. Milton Leeds & Fred Wise m. Tetos Demey Classical music Premieres 1 Concert premiere. The Sonata was recorded by Webster Aiken for a radio broadcast one month earlier, on February 7. Compositions Milton Babbitt – Three Compositions for Piano Samuel Barber – Knoxville: Summer of 1915 Lennox Berkeley – Piano Concerto in B-flat Doreen Carwithen (Mary Alwyn) – ODTAA (One Damn Thing After Another) Paul Creston – Fantasy for Trombone George Crumb Gethsemane for small orchestra Three Early Songs for Voice and Piano David Diamond – String Quartet No. 3 Maurice Duruflé – Requiem Henri Dutilleux – Oboe Sonata Einar Englund – Symphony No. 1 War Symphony Vittorio Giannini – Variations on a Cantus Firmus Morton Gould – American Salute Vagn Holmboe – Symphony No. 6 Charles Ives – Piano Sonata No. 2, Concord, Mass., 1840–60 (Concord Sonata, revised version) André Jolivet – Concerto for ondes Martenot and orchestra Miloslav Kabeláč – Overture No. 2 for large orchestra Aram Khachaturian – Symphony No. 3 (Symphony-Poem) Wojciech Kilar – Two Miniatures for Children for piano Witold Lutosławski – Symphony No. 1 Gian Francesco Malipiero Symphony No. 5 (Concertante in Eco) Symphony No. 6 (degli Archi) Nikolai Myaskovsky Pathetic Overture in C Minor, Op.76 String Quartet No. 12 in G, Op.77 Sergei Prokofiev Symphony No. 6 in E-flat Minor Symphony No. 4 in C Major (extensively revised version) Edmund Rubbra – Symphony No. 5 Mátyás Seiber – Ulysses (cantata) Harold Shapero – Symphony for Classical Orchestra Othmar Schoeck – Concerto for Cello and String Orchestra, Op. 61 Arnold Schoenberg A Survivor from Warsaw Igor Stravinsky Orpheus (ballet) Petrushka (ballet) (2nd version) Edgard Varèse – Tuning Up Heitor Villa-Lobos – String Quartet No. 11 William Walton – String Quartet in A minor (1945–47) Opera Benjamin Britten – Albert Herring Gottfried von Einem – Dantons Tod Gian Carlo Menotti – The Telephone Vano Muradeli – The Great Friendship Ildebrando Pizzetti – L'Oro Francis Poulenc – Les mamelles de Tiresias Virgil Thomson – The Mother of Us All Film Bernard Herrmann - The Ghost and Mrs. Muir Erich Korngold - Escape Me Never (1947 film) Constant Lambert - Anna Karenina (1948 film) Alfred Newman - Captain from Castile Dmitri Shostakovich - Pirogov (film) Max Steiner - Pursued Franz Waxman - Dark Passage Jazz Musical theater Allegro Broadway production Angel in the Wings Broadway production Annie Get Your Gun (Irving Berlin) – London production opened at the Coliseum on June 7 and ran for 1304 performances Barefoot Boy with Cheek Broadway production Bless the Bride (Vivian Ellis and A. P. Herbert) – London production opened at the Adelphi Theatre on April 26 and ran for 886 performances. Starring Georges Guétary, Lizbeth Webb, Anona Winn and Brian Reece. Features "I Was Never Kissed Before", "Ma Belle Marguerite" and "This Is My Lovely Day" Bonanza Bound Philadelphia production Brigadoon (Alan Jay Lerner and Frederick Loewe) – Broadway production Finian's Rainbow (Burton Lane and E. Y. Harburg) Broadway production opened on January 10 at the 46th Street Theatre and ran for 725 performances London production opened on October 21 at the Palace Theatre and ran for 55 performances High Button Shoes (Jule Styne and Sammy Cahn) – Broadway production Oklahoma! (Rodgers & Hammerstein) – London production opened at the Theatre Royal on April 29 and ran for 1543 performances The Red Mill London revival The Shape of Things! East Hampton production Street Scene Broadway production Together Again London revue starring The Crazy Gang opened at the Victoria Palace Theatre on April 7 and ran for 1566 performances Tuppence Coloured London revue Under the Counter Broadway production opened at the Shubert Theatre on October 3. Cicely Courtneidge reprised her starring role from the London production but the show closed after only 27 performances Musical films Carnival in Costa Rica Con la música por dentro, starring Germán Valdés, Marcelo Chávez and Marga López Copacabana Don't Give Up (Tappa inte sugen), starring Nils Poppe and Annalisa Ericson Down to Earth Etoile Sans Lumiere (Star Without Light) The Fabulous Dorseys Fiesta Fun and Fancy Free animated film includes Bongo and Mickey And The Beanstalk Golden Earrings Good News I Wonder Who's Kissing Her Now I'll Be Yours starring Deanna Durbin, Tom Drake, William Bendix and Adolphe Menjou. Directed by William A. Seiter. It Happened in Brooklyn starring Frank Sinatra, Peter Lawford, Kathryn Grayson and Jimmy Durante. Directed by Richard Whorf. Ladies' Man Linda Be Good starring Elyse Knox, Marie Wilson and John Hubbard. Directed by Frank McDonald. Directed by Frank McDonald. Little Miss Broadway starring Jean Porter, John Shelton and Ruth Donnelly. Directed by Arthur Dreifuss. Living in a Big Way starring Gene Kelly Mother Wore Tights starring Betty Grable and Dan Dailey My Favorite Brunette My Wild Irish Rose New Orleans Night Song Nora Prentiss Northwest Outpost The Perils of Pauline The Road to Rio The Secret Life of Walter Mitty Shadiyat al-Wadi, starring Layla Murad The Shocking Miss Pilgrim released January 4 starring Betty Grable and Dick Haymes Something in the Wind Song of Scheherazade Star Without Light This Time for Keeps The Trouble with Women The Unfinished Dance Variety Girl Welcome, Stranger Births January 6 – Sandy Denny, folk singer (Fairport Convention) (d. 1978) January 7 (or 1) – Mohammad-Reza Lotfi, Iranian setar player and composer (d. 2014) January 8 David Bowie, singer-songwriter (d. 2016) Terry Sylvester, pop guitarist and singer (The Hollies) January 18 – John O'Conor, Irish pianist January 19 – Rod Evans (Deep Purple, Captain Beyond) January 20 – George Grantham (Poco) January 21 – Pye Hastings (Caravan) January 24 – Warren Zevon, singer-songwriter (d. 2003) January 29 – David Byron, lead vocalist (Uriah Heep, Spice) (d. 1985) January 30 – Steve Marriott (Small Faces, Humble Pie) (d. 1991) February 3 Dave Davies, singer-guitarist (The Kinks) Melanie Safka, singer-songwriter February 7 – John Weathers (Gentle Giant, Man) February 9 – Joe Ely, singer, guitarist and songwriter February 11 – Derek Shulman (Gentle Giant) February 14 – Tim Buckley, singer-songwriter and musician (d. 1975) February 15 – John Coolidge Adams, composer February 18 – Dennis DeYoung (Styx) February 24 – Rupert Holmes, singer-songwriter February 26 – Sandie Shaw, singer March 3 – Jennifer Warnes, singer March 5 – Clodagh Rodgers, singer March 6 – Kiki Dee, singer March 8 – Michael Allsup (Three Dog Night) March 10 – Tom Scholz (Boston) March 11 – Mark Stein (Vanilla Fudge) March 14 Jona Lewie, English singer-songwriter and keyboard player Peter Skellern, English singer-songwriter and pianist (d. 2017) March 15 – Ry Cooder, guitarist, singer and composer March 18 – B. J. Wilson, drummer (Procol Harum) (d. 1990) March 24 – Mike Kellie, drummer (Spooky Tooth) (d. 2017) March 25 Elton John, pianist and singer-songwriter John Rowles, New Zealand singer March 29 – Bobby Kimball, singer (Toto) April 2 – Emmylou Harris, country singer-songwriter April 7 Patricia Bennett, rock singer (The Chiffons) Florian Schneider, electronic musician (Kraftwerk) (d. 2020) April 8 Steve Howe, guitarist (Yes) Larry Norman, singer-songwriter and producer (d. 2008) April 10 – Bunny Wailer, reggae singer-songwriter and percussionist (d. 2021) April 16 Ján Lehotský, Slovak composer Gerry Rafferty, singer-songwriter (d. 2011) April 21 Iggy Pop, rock singer-songwriter John Weider (John Mayall's Bluesbreakers) April 23 – Glenn Cornick, bass guitarist (Jethro Tull) (d. 2014) April 27 – Pete Ham, singer-songwriter (Badfinger) (d. 1975) April 29 – Tommy James, singer-songwriter and producer (Tommy James and the Shondells) May 8 – Phil Sawyer, guitarist (The Spencer Davis Group, Jefferson Starship) May 10 – Jay Ferguson (Spirit) May 11 – Butch Trucks, drummer (The Allman Brothers Band) (d. 2017) May 13 – Pete Overend Watts, guitarist (Mott the Hoople) (d. 2017) May 14 – Al Ciner, guitarist (Three Dog Night) May 15 – Graeham Goble, rock musician (Little River Band) May 16 Barbara Lee, rock singer (The Chiffons) Darrell Sweet, hard rock drummer (Nazareth) (d. 1999) May 19 – Paul Brady, singer-songwriter May 20 – Steve Currie (T. Rex) (d. 1981) May 21 – Bill Champlin (Chicago) May 31 – Junior Campbell, singer-songwriter June 1 – Ronnie Wood, guitarist (The Faces; The Rolling Stones) June 3 – Mickey Finn, glam rock drummer (T. Rex) (d. 2003) – Shuki Levy, composer June 5 Laurie Anderson, singer-songwriter Tom Evans, rock singer-songwriter (Badfinger) (d. 1983) June 8 Mick Box, hard rock guitarist (Uriah Heep) Julie Driscoll, singer (Brian Auger and the Trinity) June 14 – Barry Melton, rock guitarist (Country Joe and the Fish) June 15 – Paul Patterson, composer June 17 Gregg Rolie, singer and keyboard player (Santana, Journey) Paul Young, lead vocalist (Sad Café), singer & percussionist (Mike + The Mechanics) (d. 2000) June 20 – Dolores "LaLa" Brooks, singer (The Crystals) June 22 – Howard Kaylan, rock singer (The Turtles, The Mothers of Invention, Flo & Eddie) June 24 – Mick Fleetwood, rock drummer (Fleetwood Mac) July 7 David Hodo, American singer and actor (Village People) Rob Townsend, drummer (Family) July 8 – Jonathan Kelly, singer-songwriter July 9 – Mitch Mitchell, drummer (The Jimi Hendrix Experience) (d. 2008) July 10 – Arlo Guthrie, folk singer July 11 – John Holt, singer (The Paragons) (d. 2014) July 15 Peter Banks, guitarist (Yes, The Syn) (d. 2013) Roky Erickson (The 13th Floor Elevators) (d. 2019) July 19 Bernie Leadon (The Flying Burrito Brothers, Eagles) Brian May, guitarist (Queen) July 20 – Carlos Santana, guitarist July 22 – Don Henley (Eagles) July 23 – David Essex, singer and actor July 24 Peter Serkin, classical pianist (d. 2020) Chris Townson, drummer (John's Children, The Who) (d. 2008) August 5 Rick Derringer (The McCoys) Gregory Leskiw (The Guess Who) August 6 – Dennis Alcapone, reggae deejay and producer August 9 – Barbara Mason, singer August 10 Dimitri Alexeev, pianist Ian Anderson, singer and flautist (Jethro Tull) August 14 – Maddy Prior, folk singer August 17 – Gary Talley, guitarist (The Box Tops) August 20 – James Pankow, brass player (Chicago) September 3 – Eric Bell, guitarist (Thin Lizzy) September 5 – Buddy Miles (d. 2008) September 12 – Darryl DeLoach, vocalist (Iron Butterfly) (d. 2002) September 17 Lol Creme, singer (10cc) Gordon Edwards (The Kinks) September 21 – Don Felder (Eagles) September 23 – Jerry Corbetta (Sugarloaf) (d. 2016) September 26 – Lynn Anderson, country-music singer (d. 2015) September 27 – Meat Loaf, singer September 30 – Marc Bolan, singer-songwriter (d. 1977) October 4 – Jim Fielder, bass guitarist (Blood, Sweat & Tears, Buffalo Springfield) October 5 – Brian Johnson, singer (AC/DC) October 9 France Gall, yé-yé singer (d. 2018) Rod Temperton, songwriter (d. 2016) October 10 – Norman Carl Odam, the Legendary Stardust Cowboy, novelty artist October 12 – George Lam, Hong Kong singer and actor October 13 – Sammy Hagar (Montrose, Van Halen) October 16 – Bob Weir (Grateful Dead) October 17 – Michael McKean (This Is Spinal Tap) October 18 – Laura Nyro, singer, pianist and composer (d. 1997) October 21 – Tetsu Yamauchi, bass guitarist (Free, The Faces) October 23 – Greg Ridley, bass guitarist (Spooky Tooth, Humble Pie) (d. 2003) October 30 – Timothy B. Schmit (Poco, Eagles) November 2 – Dave Pegg, multi-instrumentalist (Fairport Convention, Jethro Tull), bassist (Ian Campbell Folk Group) November 5 Peter Noone, singer, "Herman" of Herman's Hermits Steve Hodson, British actor November 8 – Minnie Riperton, singer (d. 1979) November 10 Greg Lake progressive rock singer-songwriter (Emerson, Lake & Palmer) (d. 2016) Dave Loggins, singer-songwriter November 12 – Buck Dharma, hard rock guitarist and singer (Blue Öyster Cult) November 20 – Joe Walsh, hard rock singer-songwriter and guitarist (James Gang, Eagles) November 29 – Ronnie Montrose, rock guitarist (Montrose, Gamma) (d. 2012) December 4 – Terry Woods, folk rock musician (The Pogues) December 5 Jim Messina (Buffalo Springfield, Loggins and Messina) Rick Wills, bass guitarist (Foreigner) December 8 – Gregg Allman, singer, guitarist and songwriter (d. 2017) December 12 – Vin Scelsa, radio DJ December 21 – Paco de Lucía, flamenco guitarist (d. 2014) December 27 – Tracy Nelson, singer (Mother Earth) December 28 – Dick Diamonde, bassist (The Easybeats) December 29 – Cozy Powell, drummer (d. 1998) December 30 – Jeff Lynne, singer, songwriter and producer (The Move, Electric Light Orchestra) December 31 – Burton Cummings, rock singer-songwriter (The Guess Who) Deaths January 3 – Gus Wickie, singer and voice actor, 61 January 11 – Eva Tanguay, singer, vaudeville star, 67 January 16 Sonny Berman, jazz trumpeter, 21 (suspected drug overdose) Fate Marable, jazz pianist and bandleader, 56 (pneumonia) January 26 – Grace Moore, operatic soprano, 48 (plane crash) January 28 – Reynaldo Hahn, French composer and conductor, 71 February 5 – Salvatore Cardillo, songwriter, 72 February 6 – Luigi Russolo, composer, 61 February 22 – Fannie Charles Dillon, composer, 65 March 5 – Alfredo Casella, composer, 63 March 28 – Rudolph Simonsen, composer, 57 April 22 – Charles Friant, tenor, 57 May 2 – Louie Henri, singer and actress, 83 May 6 – Louise Homer, operatic contralto, 76 May 27 – Claire Croiza, mezzo-soprano and singing teacher, 64 May 30 – Georg Ludwig von Trapp, head of the singing von Trapp family, 67 July 1 – Clarence Lucas, composer and conductor, 80 July 12 – Jimmie Lunceford, jazz saxophonist and bandleader, 45 (cardiac arrest) July 13 – Marcel Varnel, Broadway director, 52 (car crash) July 15 – Walter Donaldson, songwriter, 54 July 24 – Ernest Austin, English composer, 72 September 18 – Bert Kalmar, lyricist, 63 September 28 – Francisco Santiago, "Father of Kundiman Art Song", 58 September 29 – Jan Hambourg, violinist, 65 October 6 Janet Fairbank, opera singer, 44 (leukaemia) Leevi Madetoja, composer October 30 - Syech Albar November 14 – Joseph Allard, French-Canadian fiddler, 74 November 26 – John McKenna, traditional Irish flute player, 67 November 28 – Georg Schnéevoigt, conductor and composer, 75 December 14 – Will Fyffe, Scottish comedian and singer, 62 December 16 – Cesare Sodero, conductor, 61 date unknown – Ilia Trilling, Yiddish theatre producer and composer References 20th century in music Music by year

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Harold Patrick Kelly (July 30, 1944 – October 2, 2005) was an American professional baseball player who played in Major League Baseball (MLB) as an outfielder from 1967 to 1981 with the Minnesota Twins, Kansas City Royals, Chicago White Sox, Baltimore Orioles and the Cleveland Indians. He batted and threw left-handed. His brother, Leroy, was a Pro Football Hall of Fame running back. Born and raised in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, Kelly was an "All Public" baseball player at Simon Gratz High School, honored with the Cliveden Award as Philadelphia's finest prep school athlete in 1962. Signed by the Twins that year, he spent the next several seasons in the minor leagues, debuting with the Twins in 1967. He played a handful of games for them in 1968, then was selected in the 1968 Major League Baseball expansion draft by the Royals, becoming an everyday player over the next two years with the fledgling franchise. Traded to the White Sox before the 1971 season, he spent part of 1971 in the minor leagues but got more playing time as a right fielder and designated hitter in the following years, reaching the All-Star Game for the only time in his career in 1973. Traded to the Orioles after the 1976 season, he received significant playing time in left field in 1977 and 1978, then served as a bench player the next two years. With a career-high .536 slugging percentage in 1979, Kelly helped the Orioles reach the MLB playoffs, appearing in the World Series, which Baltimore lost to the Pittsburgh Pirates in seven games. After one last season with the Indians in 1981, Kelly retired. After becoming a born-again Christian in 1975, Kelly became very involved in Christian ministry. Under his influence, several of his Oriole teammates became Christians. Following his career, he became an ordained minister, serving at ministries in Baltimore and Cleveland until his death of a heart attack in 2005. Early life Harold Patrick Kelly was born on July 30, 1944, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, to parents Orvin and Argie Kelly. His parents had originally lived in South Carolina, but they had moved to the Nicetown neighborhood of northern Philadelphia in the 1920s, when Orvin was hired by a steel company. Pat was one of nine children, though he never met two of his siblings who died in 1940 because of rheumatic fever. He recalled, "My father worked for $12 a week to serve nine kids and put food on the table. He would wake up at four in the morning and it would be freezing cold outside. He would go in a pickup truck with no heat some 30 miles and work all day, but he went with God in his heart." A faithful Baptist family, the Kellys attended Sunday school each week. They were also an athletic family; Leroy, Pat's older brother by two years and the closest in age to him, succeeded Jim Brown as the Cleveland Browns primary running back and was eventually inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame. Pat and Leroy competed all the time, which Pat credited for helping instill in him a competitive nature. He went to baseball games at Connie Mack Stadium growing up, and his favorite ballplayer was Jackie Robinson. Kelly attended Simon Gratz High School, graduating in 1962. He was part of the "All Public" teams in both baseball and football. As a senior, he was honored with the Cliveden Award, presented to the finest Philadelphia prep school athlete. Though he would be an outfielder in the major leagues, Kelly was used as a pitcher in high school. After allowing home runs, he would often display a bad attitude, but the reprimands of coach Pete Lorenc eventually helped him overcome the habit. "When you played for him, the first thing you learned was discipline," Kelly said, observing its importance both in hitting and keeping a good attitude. Minor leagues (1963–66) On September 11, 1962, Kelly signed his first professional baseball contract with the Minnesota Twins, who decided to use him as an outfielder. He split the 1963 season with the Erie Sailors of the Class A New York-Penn League and the Orlando Twins of the Class A Florida State League. Having grown up in Philadelphia, Kelly, who was black, was unused to dealing with segregation. At Orlando, though, he and his black teammates had to stay at a different hotel from the white players on the team. "I know those times were hard, but what always kept me going was what Jackie Robinson went through," he later recalled. In 69 games with Erie, he batted .283 with 50 runs scored, 70 hits, four home runs, and 30 runs batted in (RBI). With Orlando in 49 games, he batted .242 with 27 runs scored, 28 hits, no home runs, and 26 RBI. Kelly spent most of 1964 with the Wisconsin Rapids Twins of the Class A Midwest League. In 104 games, he ranked among the league leaders with a .357 batting average (third, behind Dave May's .368 and Ed Moxey's .362), 138 hits (third, behind May's 166 and John Matias's 151), 26 doubles (tied with May, Eusebio Rosas, and David Burge for the league lead), 16 home runs (third, behind Rene Lachemann's 24 and Chuck Gross's 18), and 70 RBI (eighth). He also played 18 games with the Wilson Tobs of the Class A Carolina League, batting .245 with eight runs scored, 12 hits, no home runs, and eight RBI. In 1965, Kelly spent the whole season with Wilson. He played 144 games, batting .283 with 138 hits, four home runs, and 52 RBI. Kelly ranked fifth in the league with 27 stolen bases (in 32 attempts), and his 101 runs scored were topped only by Sam Thompson's 121. Kelly expected a promotion to the Class AA Charlotte Hornets of the Southern League in 1966; thus, he was very disappointed when he found out the Twins planned to send him back to Wilson. "When I found out I didn’t make the Charlotte team, I packed up my Pontiac LeMans and told them I was leaving camp if they did not put me on the Charlotte roster by noon,” Kelly recalled. “And they agreed." The ballplayer went on to have the second-highest batting average (.321) in the league that year, behind only Johnnie Fenderson's .324. He also finished second to Thompson in steals, with 52 as opposed to Thompson's 60. In 113 games, Kelly scored 74 runs, recorded 126 hits, had three home runs, and batted in 55 runs. Minnesota Twins (1967–68) In 1967, Kelly moved up to Class AAA, spending most of the year with the Denver Bears of the Pacific Coast League (PCL). He played 65 games for them, batting .286 with 42 runs scored, 70 hits, no home runs, 15 RBI, and 19 stolen bases. That September, he reached the major leagues for the first time, promoted by the Twins when rosters expanded. His first game came on September 6, when he pinch-ran for Frank Kostro in a 3–2 loss to the Cleveland Indians. Seven of the eight games he played were as a pinch runner; he pinch hit in one other game, striking out against Bob Humphreys in his only at bat of the season. After the 1967 season, he played some games for the Twins affiliate in the Florida Instructional League as well. Kelly spent most of the 1968 season in Denver. In 108 games, he had 70 runs scored, 121 hits, three home runs, and 31 RBI. Kelly finished third in the league with a .306 batting average (topped only by Jim Hicks's .366 and José Herrera's .311), and he led the league with 38 stolen bases. That September, he was again called up by Minnesota. Though he only appeared in 12 games this year, he received more playing time, as he started in the outfield for nine of them. On September 23, he hit his first major league home run, coming against Clyde Wright in a 3–0 victory over the California Angels. With the Twins in 1968, he had four hits in 35 at bats. After the season, he went to Venezuela to play winter baseball. Originally, he was going to play for the Leones del Caracas with Twins teammate César Tovar, but because the Leones already had enough outfielders, he played for the Navegantes del Magallanes instead. In 60 games, he batted .342 with 11 home runs and 45 RBI. He and Cito Gaston were some of the first foreign stars for the team as they helped the Navegantes to reach the first round of the playoffs. Kansas City Royals (1969–70) While Kelly was in Venezuela, the Kansas City Royals selected him in the fourth round of the 1968 Major League Baseball expansion draft. His playing time increased in 1969, as he started 106 games in the outfield: 60 as a right fielder, 44 as a center fielder, and two as a left fielder. "He’s tremendously improved with the bat," opined manager Joe Gordon. "He’s changed his whole style of attacking the ball. . .he has a quick bat, a good level swing and has no fear at the plate. He’ll hit all kinds of pitching." In 112 games (417 at bats), Kelly batted .264 with 61 runs scored, 110 hits, eight home runs, and 32 RBI. He stole a career-high 40 bases in 53 attempts. After the year, the Royals sent him to their instructional league affiliate to refine his hitting, bunting, and fielding technique. Kelly began 1970 as the Royals starting right fielder. He seemed to be losing the position to Joe Keough in June, as Keough started 12 straight games there beginning June 16 while Kelly was used mainly as a pinch hitter during that stretch. After Keough broke his leg on June 28, Kelly served as the starting right fielder again for the rest of the year. On September 11, against the Oakland Athletics, his single with two outs in the eighth inning spoiled a no hitter by Vida Blue, who went on to complete one 10 days later. In 136 games (452 at bats), Kelly batted .235 with 56 runs scored, 106 hits, six home runs, and 38 RBI. He stole 34 bases in 50 attempts. After the season, on October 13, Kelly and Don O'Riley were traded to the Chicago White Sox for Matias and Gail Hopkins. Chicago White Sox (1971–76) Before he played a game for the White Sox, Kelly spent the 1970–71 offseason in Venezuela with the Tiburones de La Guaira. He batted .365 with six home runs in 27 games, then batted .405 in the postseason as the Tiburones won the league championship. Kelly was less successful in spring training with the White Sox, as he ran into a fence and hurt his right knee, struggled to hit, and was sent to the minor leagues to begin the season. "I was a little upset. . . no, I guess I was a great deal upset," Kelly recalled three years later. "But I talked to my brother and finally got myself together again." In 75 games (301 at bats) with the PCL's Tucson Toros, Kelly batted .355 with 71 runs scored, 107 hits, six home runs, 43 RBI, and 15 stolen bases in 19 tries. Called up by the White Sox in June, Kelly never played a game in the minor leagues again. He had established himself in the major leagues, though for the rest of his career, he was mainly used against right-handed pitching. In 67 games (213 at bats) for the White Sox, he batted .291 with 32 runs scored, 62 hits, three home runs, 22 RBI, and 14 stolen bases in 23 attempts. After the season, he played for the Tiburones again, hitting no home runs but batting .400 as La Guira reached the final round of the playoffs. Kelly shared right field duties with Walt Williams in 1972 but got the bulk of the starts. In the second game of a doubleheader against the Texas Rangers on August 6, Kelly walked to lead off the game, stole second base, advanced to third on a groundout, and stole home for the only run of the game. Exactly 14 days later, he played a big part in the first game of a doubleheader, with the White Sox trailing the Boston Red Sox 7–6 in the ninth and two outs. Kelly hit a three-run walkoff home run against Marty Pattin to give Chicago a 9–7 victory. "It's a good thing my boy didn't leave Kelly out of the lineup," manager Chuck Tanner quipped with reporters afterwards. Adept at base-stealing, Kelly's "small ball" contributions helped the White Sox finished second place in the American League (AL) West Division, behind Oakland. In 119 games (402 at bats), Kelly batted .261 with 57 runs scored, 105 hits, five home runs, 24 RBI, and 32 stolen bases in 41 attempts. After the season, Kelly played in the Venezuelan leagues for the last time, batting .296 with two home runs in 35 games as the Tiburones reached the playoffs. The 1973 season was one of Kelly's best. Hitting from the start, he led the major leagues with a .441 batting average at the end of May. A hurt shoulder made throwing more difficult for the outfielder, but it did not keep him from hitting. "I’ve become much more selective about pitches in my swing zone,” Kelly explained, “and I’m seeing the ball good. When you’re hitting, it’s as big as a balloon." On the strength of his hot start, Kelly was selected to the AL All-Star team for the only time in his career, chosen by manager Dick Williams. Playing in a career-high 144 games (550 at bats), he hit .280 with 77 runs scored, 154 hits, 24 doubles, one home run, 44 RBI, and 22 stolen bases in 37 attempts. Kelly was used a majority of the time as the designated hitter for the White Sox in 1974, as Bill Sharp got more of the starts in right field. On June 24, Kelly's sixth-inning single against Steve Busby was the first hit off the pitcher in 17 innings, spoiling Busby's attempt at throwing a second straight no hitter. He topped his batting average from the previous year by one point, accruing 60 runs scored, 119 hits, four home runs, and 21 RBI in 122 games (424 at bats). Kelly stole 18 bases in 29 attempts. In 1975, Kelly resumed his duties as Chicago's primary right fielder. With the White Sox trailing Oakland 3–2 in the first game of the season on April 8, and the tying run on second base, Kelly had a pinch-hit single against Rollie Fingers. However, Lee Richard was thrown out trying to score, and the White Sox lost 3–2. The next day, Kelly pinch-hit against Fingers again in the ninth, with the bases loaded and the White Sox down by a run. This time, his pinch-hit triple put the White Sox ahead for a 7–5 victory. In 133 games (471 at bats), he batted .274 with 73 runs scored, 129 hits, nine home runs, 45 RBI, and 18 stolen bases in 28 chances. Kelly returned to the designated hitter role in 1976, as the newly-acquired Ralph Garr became the starting right fielder. In 107 games (311 at bats), Kelly batted .254 with 42 runs scored, 79 hits, five home runs, 34 RBI, and 15 stolen bases in 22 tries. After the season, thinking they had plenty of left-handed hitters and seeking catching help, the White Sox traded Kelly to the Baltimore Orioles for Dave Duncan. The trade did not solve their catching problems, as Duncan was released the following March without ever having played a game for the White Sox. "A most glaring mistake" is how owner Bill Veeck described the transaction. Baltimore Orioles (1977–80) With the Orioles, Kelly was used mostly as a left fielder, sharing time there with Andrés Mora in 1977 and 1978. After a 1-for-18 start to the 1977 season, Kelly had a 19-game hitting streak from May 1 through 23. Baltimore manager Earl Weaver said of his performance, "Kelly is hot now. I don't know if he'll stay that way all year. It's kind of doubtful he will, because he has never hit this much before, but no matter what he hits, he's an asset to this club. He was even when he was one-for-18." On June 3, Kelly was part of what sportswriter Fred Rothenberg called "one of the strangest triple plays in baseball history." With the bases loaded for the Royals in the ninth inning, and Kansas City down 7–5, John Wathan hit a fly ball to right field that Kelly caught for the first out. All the runners tagged to advance a base, but Kelly threw to shortstop Mark Belanger, who caught Freddie Patek in a rundown between first and second base and ultimately tagged him out. While this was going on, Dave Nelson, who had successfully advanced to third base, decided to try to score. Upon tagging out Patek, Belanger ran towards the third base line and caught up with Nelson 10 feet from home plate, tagging him out to complete the triple play and end the game. In 120 games (360 at bats) for the Orioles in 1977, Kelly batted .256 with 50 runs scored, 92 hits, 10 home runs, 49 RBI, and 25 stolen bases in 32 attempts. He played 100 games for the Orioles in 1978, batting .274 in 274 at bats, with 38 runs scored, 75 hits, a career-high 11 home runs, 40 RBI, and 10 stolen bases in 18 attempts. Mora returned to Mexico for the 1979 season, and Gary Roenicke became the primary left fielder for the Orioles, limiting Kelly to a bench role. However, 1979 was one of his best seasons, as he posted a career-high .536 slugging percentage and delivered with several important hits during the season. In the 10th inning of a game against the Red Sox on May 23, Kelly had a pinch-hit, walkoff home run against Bob Stanley to give Baltimore a 5–2 victory. Reporters had observed in the past that the Christian Kelly often seemed to have big hits on Sundays, yet this was a Wednesday game. "Wednesday was the first day we had a meeting for Bible study, so though it was not Sunday, it was the same," Kelly pointed out. Exactly three months later, he pinch-hit for Rich Dauer in the eighth inning of a game where Baltimore trailed Oakland 4–3. Facing Dave Heaverlo with the bases loaded, Kelly hit a grand slam, earning curtain calls twice from the ecstatic fans at Memorial Stadium as Baltimore won 7–4. In 68 games (153 at bats), Kelly batted .288 with 25 runs scored, 44 hits, nine home runs, 25 RBI, and four stolen bases in nine attempts as the Orioles won the AL East title. In the playoffs for the first time, Kelly started three out of the four games in the AL Championship Series against the Angels, batting .364. He hit a three-run home run against John Montague in Game 4, putting the Orioles up 8–0 in a win that sent them to the World Series against the Pittsburgh Pirates. Kelly also played five games in this series but was used only as a pinch-hitter, racking up a hit and a walk in five plate appearances. Batting for Rick Dempsey in the ninth inning of Game 7, Kelly made the last out of the series, flying out to Pirates center fielder Omar Moreno as Baltimore was defeated in seven games. Kelly had a similar amount of playing time in 1980. Used mostly against right-handed pitchers, he faced right-handed pitchers only five times all year. Against the Detroit Tigers on September 10, he had a pinch-hit grand slam against Dave Rozema, adding another RBI as well in an 8–4 victory. Rozema was the pitcher whom Kelly had the most success against during his career; he had six hits in eight at bats against the Tiger, including four home runs. In 89 games (200 at bats), he batted .260 with 38 runs scored, 52 hits, three home runs, and 26 RBI. He stole 16 bases while only getting caught twice. After the season, he became a free agent. Cleveland Indians (1981) Kelly finished his major league career with the Indians during the strike-shortened 1981 season. He hit .213 (16-for-75) in 48 games, with one home run, 16 RBI, and two stolen bases in six attempts. Following the season, he retired from baseball. Career overview In a 15-season career, Kelly was a .264 hitter with 76 home runs and 418 RBI in 1,385 games played. He added 1,147 hits, 189 doubles, 35 triples, and 250 stolen bases. A speedy runner, he served most commonly as a leadoff hitter when he was in the starting lineup. According to a common anecdote, Kelly once asked manager Weaver, "Why don't you walk with the Lord?" Weaver responded, "I'd rather you walk with the bases loaded." Kelly actually did walk a great deal during his career, accruing a total of 588 bases on balls. When Kelly joined the White Sox in 1971, manager Tanner described his arm as "adequate," noting that he was not a "polished outfielder." Later in Kelly's career, Weaver would tell him to stand three feet from the foul line and not move. "If the ball is hit to you, all I want you to do is throw it to second base," Weaver said. When Kelly asked him what to do if it was the ninth inning, the team was up by a run, and someone was trying to score from second, Weaver said, "Don't worry about that. If we're up a run in the ninth inning, you aren't out there anyway." Personal life Kelly's friend Andre Thornton introduced the player to his sister-in-law Phyllis Jones, part of The Jones Sisters Trio, who married Kelly on February 10, 1979. Oriole teammate Lee May was one of the ushers at the wedding. Pat and Phyllis had one child, daughter April Marie. During his career, Kelly took college classes at Morgan State University, earning his degree sometime during the 1970s. Fishing and basketball were hobbies of his. Religion Though raised in a Baptist household, Kelly moved on to a lifestyle of "liquor, drugs, [and] women" after his major league career began. He and White Sox teammate Paul Casanova opened the La Pelota nightclub in Caracas, Venezuela, during the 1971–72 offseason. By 1975, he was suffering from depression. That year, personal friend Clyde White invited him to a Bible class, where Kelly became a born-again Christian. "I thought I was happy before, but actually, I didn't know what true happiness meant," he said in an interview two years later. He was not shy about sharing his faith with his teammates. With the Orioles, he organized a chapel service in the lifting weight room at Memorial Stadium. Scott McGregor, Tippy Martinez, Doug DeCinces, Kiko Garcia, and Ken Singleton became Christians as a result of Kelly's influence. According to Kelly, after he left the Orioles, Weaver sent him a letter expressing his admiration for Kelly's religious devotion. "Some of the fellows call me 'Reverend'," Kelly said in a 1977 interview. "Other people say I missed my calling." Once his career was over, Kelly did indeed become an ordained minister at the Evangelical Baptist Church in Baltimore. He was a minister for Lifeline Ministries as well. Kelly's service was not just confined to Maryland; he assisted in charity work as the executive director of the Cleveland-based Christian Family Outreach. He travelled back and forth between Cleveland and his home of Timonium, Maryland, also journeying to international destinations to share his faith. "I go and I proclaim the Gospel. I see people saved," Kelly described his ministry. Death After preaching in a Methodist Church at Amberson, Pennsylvania, on October 2, 2005, Kelly was journeying to visit some friends. He suffered a heart attack in Chambersburg, Pennsylvania, and died at age 61. The ballplayer was buried at Dulaney Valley Memorial Gardens in Timonium. Following his death, Joe Ehrmann, ex-linebacker for the Baltimore Colts and pastor of Grace Fellowship Church in Baltimore, had this to say about Kelly. "Pat was such an asset to the community. He was the embodiment of his religious beliefs. . . He transcended race, class, sports, and was just a fabulous lover of people, a good husband, and father. He was a charismatic preacher whose message came from his own life, and he wanted people to know that he walked with God." References External links , or Retrosheet, or Pura Pelota 1944 births 2005 deaths African-American baseball players African-American Christians American League All-Stars Baltimore Orioles players Baseball players from Philadelphia Burials at Dulaney Valley Memorial Gardens Charlotte Hornets (baseball) players Chicago White Sox players Cleveland Indians players Denver Bears players Erie Sailors players Florida Instructional League Twins players Kansas City Royals players Major League Baseball right fielders Minnesota Twins players Navegantes del Magallanes players American expatriate baseball players in Venezuela Orlando Twins players Tiburones de La Guaira players Tucson Toros players Wilson Tobs players Wisconsin Rapids Twins players 20th-century African-American sportspeople 21st-century African-American people

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The 1965–66 Ashes series consisted of five cricket Test matches, each of five days with six hours play and eight ball overs. It formed part of the MCC tour of Australia in 1965–66 and the matches outside the Tests were played in the name of the Marylebone Cricket Club. M.J.K. Smith led the England team with the intent on regaining the Ashes lost in the 1958–59 Ashes series, but the series was drawn 1-1 and they were retained by Australia. The Australian team was captained by Bobby Simpson in three Tests, and his vice-captain Brian Booth in two Tests. It was the first tour of Australia by players instead of amateurs and professionals and the first time that the MCC travelled to Australia by air instead of by sea. Although the press labelled the England team as the weakest to go to Australia, their entertaining cricket won them favour with the crowds. They also made their runs faster than any other England team since the war and for once England batted faster than Australia, a refreshing contrast to other Ashes series of the era. With both sides having good batsmen and weak bowling attacks an exceptional number of runs were made, especially by Australia in the last two Tests when they fielded seven specialist batsmen and an all rounder. A record eleven batsmen averaged over 40 in the series and the teams exceeded 500 in an innings three times between them, 400 another four times and England made their highest score in Australia since 1928–29. "The long and short of it was that the batting of both sides was much stronger than the bowling". In the Third Test at Sydney England's Bob Barber and Geoff Boycott added 234 for the first wicket in 242 minutes, the highest opening partnership by England in Australia since Jack Hobbs and Herbert Sutcliffe made 283 at Melbourne in 1924–25, resulting in Australia's defeat by an innings and 93 runs, their worst result at home since 1911–12. In the Fourth Test at Adelaide Bobby Simpson and Bill Lawry added 244 in 255 minutes, the highest opening stand by Australia in an Ashes Test at the time, and still their highest opening stand against England in Australia. They won by an innings and 9 runs to even the series, only the third time that two teams had defeated each other by an innings in successive Tests. Lawry "always seemed to be batting", his 592 runs (84.57) were the most in an Ashes series since Don Bradman in 1946–47 and his three centuries the most since Arthur Morris in 1948. Bob Cowper retained the Ashes for Australia with his 307 in 727 minutes in the Fifth Test at Melbourne, the first Test triple century in Australia, the longest Test innings in Australia and the highest Ashes century in Australia. The series also saw the debut of the Australians Doug Walters, who made a century on debut, Keith Stackpole and Peter Allan and the final Tests of Wally Grout, Brian Booth, Peter Burge and David Sincock. First Test – Brisbane Australia had substantially the better of it, Walters adding his name to the fairly select list of those who have made a hundred in their first Test...After Walters's innings I wrote that with one necessary qualification I thought he would be come to be rated as the best bat produced by Australia since Neil Harvey proclaimed himself with his famous hundred at Headingley in 48. The reservation concerned his ability against really fast bowling, as to which I had no evidence...Only Lawry and Simpson have made more runs and had record to compare if one is to make a quantitative judgement. Any all events my contention is at least arguable. Doug has made eleven hundreds for Australia , some of extreme brilliance, and if he ever played a dull innings I never saw it. E.W. Swanton Preliminaries Although the wicket at the Gabba usually favours fast bowlers both teams used a leg spinner and two off-spinners in the match, Bob Barber, Fred Titmus and Dave Allen for England and Peter Philpott, Tom Veivers and Bob Cowper for Australia. Vice-captain Brian Booth took command as Bobby Simpson had broken his wrist, and elected to bat after winning the toss. The 19-year-old Doug Walters was called up for his Test debut after having made 129 for New South Wales against the tourists and so was the fast bowler Peter Allan on his home ground. Bill Lawry's Victorian teammate Ian Redpath was brought in to open instead of Simpson. The veteran batsman Peter Burge ensured his place with innings of 52, 50, 114 not out and 60 against the MCC. The tourists had had the best run of games of any MCC team since the war, beating Western Australia, South Australia and New South Wales, drawing with Queensland, when they needed two more wickets to win, and losing to Victoria by 32 runs after a run-chase. As a result, the bookies reduced the odds of their winning the Ashes from 7/2 to evens. The England vice-captain Colin Cowdrey was unable to play and was replaced by the in form Scottish opener Eric Russell. Australia – First Innings Persistent rain ruined the first two days with less than three hours play on the first day and none on the second. England thought their wicket-keeper Jim Parks caught Bill Lawry off Dave Brown (3/71) with his seventh ball, but were turned down by Umpire Egar. This was the first and last umpiring dispute of the series as Egar and Lou Rowan soon established their credentials. Lawry – "England's scourge of the sixties" – stayed put until the afternoon of the third day making 166. He added 187 with Doug Walters who hit 155 with 11 fours and 2 sixes to become the 10th Australian to make a century on his Ashes debut, and aged 19 years and 357 days the third youngest after Archie Jackson and Neil Harvey. The off-spinner Tom Veivers made 56 not out and Booth declared on 443/6 early on the fourth day, leaving him 11 hours to bowl England out twice if he could enforce the follow on. England – First Innings England made steady progress, Bob Barber was out for 5, but the young batsmen Geoff Boycott (45) and John Edrich (32) batted for 108 minutes adding 70 runs for the second wicket before the leg-spinner Peter Philpott removed them both. The stonewaller Ken Barrington dug himself in for over three hours making 53 while first Jim Parks (52) and Fred Titmus (60) attacked the bowling at the other end. Parks hit 4 fours and 3 sixes and Titmus 6 fours and Barrington asked them to slow down as they were making him look foolish. They both fell to Philpott, as did Brown to give the Australian 5/90, his only five-wicket haul in Tests. The last five wickets fell for 59 runs and Eric Russell, who had injured his hand, came in last and batted out an unbeaten duck in his only Test of the series. Though England made 280 – 183 runs behind – Booth could enforce the follow on due to the truncated play on the first two days. England – Second Innings Australia had less than three and a half hours to bowl England out for victory and their spinners gave them 50 overs to do so. Bob Barber hit 34 off 37 balls with 3 fours and a six, but Geoff Boycott carried his bat through to stumps with 63 not out. Boycott pushed a ball from Peter Philpott away with his hand during his innings, but Brian Booth refused to appeal for handled the ball and Wally Grout just told him not to do it again. John Edrich (37) and Ken Barrington (38) also hit sixes and Mike Smith saw out the last half-hour as England made 186/3 to ensure a draw. Result Thanks to nine hours of rain Australia and England drew the Test to go into the Second Test with the series tied 0–0, though the hosts felt that they had the moral advantage. Second Test – Melbourne England's reply began with an 'electrifying' 88 in an hour by Boycott and Barber – what a pity that circumstances prevented this glamorous partnership from regularly plaguing England's opponents once this tour was over! From this beginning all those following took profit, so that England, for the first time in Australia since the Bodyline tour thirty-odd years before, topped 500. E.W. Swanton Preliminaries The Australian captain Bobby Simpson and England vice-captain Colin Cowdrey were fit again and rejoined their respective teams. Ian Redpath was dropped due to his captain's return, as were Neil Hawke in favour of the fast bowler Garth McKenzie and Peter Allan for the fast-medium bowler Alan Connolly. The batsman Eric Russell and fast bowler Dave Brown were suffering from injuries and Ken Higgs had a chill. The Welsh left-arm fast bowler Jeff Jones was called up, as was the Essex all rounder Barry Knight flown out as a replacement just before the First Test. Simpson won the toss and batted on a good wicket. Australia – First Innings Bobby Simpson (59), Bill Lawry (88 in almost four and a half hours) and Bob Cowper (99) reached 278/4 by the end of the first day despite the best efforts of Jeff Jones (3/92). The next morning they collapsed to 358 all out with Barry Knight (4/84) taking four of the last five wickets and Tom Veivers being run out. England – First Innings Bob Barber (48) was determined to attack the Australian bowling from the get go, but was outpaced by Geoff Boycott (51) as they made 88 in an hour and 98 for the first wicket. John Edrich (109), Ken Barrington (64), Colin Cowdrey (104), Mike Smith (41), Jim Parks (71) and Fred Titmus (56 not out) piled up 558 as England made their biggest total down under since their 636 in the Second Test in 1928–29. Titmus was hit on the back of the head by a bouncer from Alan Connolly, but continued to play and hit three quick boundaries. They batted the into the fourth day and the long suffering Garth McKenzie took 5/134 off 35.2 eight-ball overs, which if nothing else confirmed his reputation of taking wickets on good batting tracks. Australia – Second innings Bobby Simpson (67) and Bill Lawry (78) added 120 for the first wicket and helped by poor light ending play two hours early Australia were 131/1 going into the last day. They had reached 204/4 when Jim Parks missed a stumping chance off Peter Burge when Australia were only four runs ahead. Burge made 120, his fourth and final Test century, all made against England in times of crisis, and Doug Walters 115 in his second Test. Mike Smith had given up hope when the part-time bowler Geoff Boycott (2/32) had Burge out after a stand of 198 and with Ken Barrington (2/47) surprisingly cleared up the tail to have Australia out for 426. England – Second Innings England needed to make 227 runs in less than half an hour and the match was called off after Boycott had made 5 not out. Result Thanks to some poor weather and some resolute Australian batting on the last day the Test was a draw, leaving the teams 0–0. Even though the first two Tests had been drawn the press were optimistic about the series. Lindsay Hassett said it wasn't the best team England had sent to Australia, but no other tried so hard to make cricket interesting. Third Test – Sydney Often in bleak moments do I cast back to Bob Barber's 185 in front of 40,000 on that sunny Friday in January 66. He batted without chance for five hours, starting decorously enough and then hitting the ball progressively harder and with a superb disdain to every corner of the field. One recalls the exceptional vigour of his driving and how he brought his wrists into the cut, making room for the stroke. It made blissful watching to English eyes – to one pair in particular, for by a wonderful chance father Barber had flown in from home that very day. E.W. Swanton Preliminaries The Australian captain Bobby Simpson was unable to play due to chickenpox and his vice-captain Brian Booth led the team again. Grahame Thomas was brought into the team to open with Bill Lawry, Alan Connolly was replaced by the fast bowler Neil Hawke and the off-spinner Tom Veivers by David Sincock, one of the very rare specialist bowlers of left-arm wrist-spin. This type of bowling is usually reserved for part-time bowlers, but though "Evil Dick" could turn the ball and produce reverse googlies he struggled to produce a consistent line and length. England kept their team from Melbourne, except that Dave Brown was fit again and replaced Barry Knight. On a wicket famous for taking spin the toss was vital. Mike Smith won it for the first time in the series and chose to bat. England – First Innings Bob Barber's father arrived that morning from England in time to see his son play the innings of his life. The attacking opener hit the Australian bowlers for 19 fours in his 185 in five hours. It was his only Test century, his highest First Class score and the 234 runs he added for the first wicket with Geoff Boycott – whose 84 gave him 1,000 Test runs – was the third highest opening partnership for England in Australia. He was out on 308/2, after which England collapsed to 328/5 in the last hour of the first day. John Edrich made a solid 103, but Colin Cowdrey, M.J.K. Smith, Dave Brown and Jim Parks were all caught by Wally Grout off Neil Hawke, whose 7/105 was his best bowling in Tests. Grout snapped up Fred Titmus off Doug Walters (1/38) to give him five catches and reduce England to 395/8, but Dave Allen made 50 not out adding 93 runs for the last two wickets with Edrich and Jeff Jones, whose 16 was his highest Test score as England made 488. Australia – First Innings Jim Parks equalled Wally Grout's five dismissals in an innings with three catches and two stumpings, starting with Bill Lawry off Jeff Jones (2/51) for a duck in the first over. Grahame Thomas (51) and Bob Cowper (60) added 81 for the second wicket until separated by Dave Brown (5/63) and Australia were 113/4 by stumps. Cowper and David Sincock (29) added 50 runs together, but the tail collapsed and Australia were out for 221, 267 runs behind England as Mike Smith enforced the follow on. Australia – Second Innings The wicket began to take ever increasing turn and wickets fell regularly to the England off-spinners Fred Titmus (4/40) and Dave Allen (4/47). Titmus took his 100th Test wicket and as he had passed 1,000 Test runs in the England innings completed the double of 1,000 Test runs and 100 Test wickets. Jim Parks failed to dismiss any batsmen, but the expert close fielders Mike Smith and Colin Cowdrey took five catches between them. Doug Walters top scored with 35 not out and David Sincock hit 5 fours in his 27 as Australia fell to 174 all out and an innings defeat on the fourth day. Smith tried to give Dave Allen the honour of leading the England team off the field, but he and the others insisted that their captain should enter the pavilion first. They were greeted by the Australian captain Brian Booth, who shook hands with all the England players with his typical good sportsmanship. Result England beat Australia by an innings and 93 runs to give them a 1–0 lead in the series. It was the first time that Australia had lost by an innings at home since the Second Test of the 1936–37 Ashes series when they lost by an innings and 22 runs. It was their biggest defeat at home since the Fourth Test of the 1911–12 Ashes series when they lost by an innings and 225 runs (though they had lost the First Test of the 1928–29 Ashes series by 675 runs). Fourth Test – Adelaide Simpson now announced that his target would be a run a minute, an ordinary rate maybe in days gone, but a breakneck almost in the sixties, what with slow over-rates and so much accent on defence. Yet Australia, give or take a few minutes, achieved it, their captain leading the way with the highest opening stand ever, in a partnership with Lawry, for Australia against England: 244. I never remember seeing better running between wickets than of these two – and found myself comparing them, in fact, with Hobbs and Sutcliffe. With the field constantly changing over as right- and left-hander alternated, England, in much heat, sweated and chased unavailingly. E.W. Swanton Preliminaries After Australia's biggest defeat at home in 50 years the Australian press were in uproar and the selectors Ewart Macmillan, Jack Ryder and Don Bradman took drastic action, dropping the captain Brian Booth, batsman Bob Cowper and the bowlers Garth McKenzie, Peter Philpott and David Sincock. Booth received a letter from Bradman on behalf of the selectors explaining "Never before have I written to a player to express my regret at his omission from the Australian XI. In your case I am making an exception because I want you to know how much my colleagues and I disliked having to make this move. Captain one match and out of the side the next looks like ingratitude, but you understand the circumstances and will be the first to admit that your form has not been good." Booth had made only 84 runs (16.80) in the series and never played for Australia again. Cowper was blamed for slow scoring even though he had made 99 and 60 in the Second and Third Tests. Peter Allan of Queensland was brought back into the side after he had taken the third best bowling figures in Australia – 10/61 in the first innings against Victoria, but was injured and McKenzie was restored to the team. The off-spinner Tom Veivers and young batsmen Ian Chappell were called up and Keith Stackpole made his Test debut, so Australia went to Adelaide with only three specialist bowlers – McKenzie, Hawke and Veivers. England simply kept the same XI from Sydney, even though this meant that Geoff Boycott was their third place bowler after Jeff Jones and Dave Brown. Mike Smith won the toss and decided to bat. England – First Innings The Adelaide Oval was notoriously flat, but Garth McKenzie was an expert on getting batsmen out on dull wickets and used the humid atmosphere and fresh pitch to bowl Bob Barber for a duck and have John Edrich caught by the ever-reliable Simpson at slip. Ian Chappell took a superb catch off Neil Hawke to remove Geoff Boycott and England were 33/3. Ken Barrington (60) and Colin Cowdrey (38) began to rebuild the innings with a 72 run partnership, until Cowdrey heard a shout from the Australian wicketkeeper Wally Grout, thought he was being called and was run out. Debutant Keith Stackpole took a great catch off Jim Parks (49) to give McKenzie his third wicket, who then removed Dave Allen and Dave Brown to give him his second five wicket haul in successive Tests. England were 240/9 at the end of the first day, which soon became 241 all out as McKenzie caught Fred Titmus (33) leg before wicket first thing in the morning to give him 6/48, his best Test bowling figures to date. Australia – First Innings With eight recognised batsmen Australia could expect a large total even though Simpson insisted that they make their runs quickly and by the end of the second day they were 333/3 with the captain 159 not out. Even Bill Lawry responded with 9 fours and a six in his 119 as he and Simpson put on 244 runs in 255 minutes for the first wicket, more than the entire England first innings. This remained the highest opening partnership for Australia against England until Mark Taylor and Geoff Marsh made 329 for the first wicket in the Fifth Test of the 1989 Ashes series and remains Australia's highest opening stand against England at home. Grahame Thomas made 52 of the 87 runs he added with Simpson as Australia passed 300 for the loss of one wicket. Jeff Jones (6/118) put up a fight, dismissing Thomas, Tom Veivers, Peter Burge, Ian Chappell, Simpson and Keith Stackpole, who made 43 batting at number eight. Simpson was finally out after batting for 545 minutes, hitting 18 fours and a six in his 225 as Australia made 516 to give them a lead of 275 runs. England – Second Innings Coming in to bat late on the third day England could only hope for a draw, but Neil Hawke (5/54) gave them a worst start than in the first innings as they collapsed to 32/3. Once again Ken Barrington and Colin Cowdrey had to rescue their side, Barrington staying in for six hours making 102 while Cowdrey took two and a half hours over his 35 as they added 82 for the fourth wicket. The Adelaide Oval was Barrington's favourite venue and his century kept up his record of never scoring less than 50 runs there; 104, 52, 52 not out, 63, 132 not out, 69, 51, 63, 60 and 102, a total of 748 runs (93.50). Keith Stackpole removed Cowdrey and Mike Smith with his leg-spin, his 2/33 remaining the best bowling figures of his Test career. Fred Titmus (53) hit 8 fours and added 81 for the seventh wicket with the entrenched Barrington, but England did not outlast the fourth day and were dismissed for 266. Result Australia beat England by an innings and 9 runs to even the series 1–1. It was only the third occasion that two teams had defeated each other by an innings in successive Tests. The previous two instances were when England won their biggest victory over Australia in the Fifth test at the Oval in 1938 by an innings and 579 runs only to suffer their greatest defeat in the First Test in Brisbane in 1946–47 by an innings and 332 runs (the Second World War intervening). In 1952–53 Pakistan lost their inaugural Test against India at New Delhi by an innings and 70 runs, but won the Second Test at Lucknow by an innings and 43 runs. Fifth Test – Melbourne When Australia batted, Lawry, their stumbling-block-extraordinary, took root, and in an interminable left-handed stand with Cowper effectively doused English prospects. When this relentless fellow, having reached his sixth Test hundred against England, at length took a liberty he had made 592 runs in the Tests, average 84, the highest aggregate since Bradman's in 1946/7: not only that, he had scored 979 against Smith's side since they landed in Perth, and had occupied the crease for forty-one and a half hours. There was a gayer side to Lawry as we had seen at Adelaide – but he didn't let it obtrude too often. He just kept that long, sharp nose religiously over the ball, accumulating at his own deliberate gait... E.W. Swanton Preliminaries Each team made one change from the Fourth Test at Adelaide. England replaced the off-spinner Dave Allen with the all-rounder Barry Knight and Australia made Peter Burge twelfth man after he declared that he would not tour South Africa, allowing Bob Cowper to return to the team. Therefore, England only had four and Australia three specialist bowlers in the deciding Test of the series. Mike Smith won the toss for the third time in a row and again decided to bat. England – First Innings Needing quick runs to force a win England made 312/5 on the first day, but Geoff Boycott hogged the batting, ran out his opening partner Bob Barber and took 75 minutes to make 17 runs. However, the obstinate stonewaller Ken Barrington surprised the crowd by hitting 2 sixes and 8 fours in his 115, one of his few sustained hitting displays. He made 63 off 101 balls then hit Keith Stackpole over long on for six and brought up his century 20 balls later with a six into the South Stand off Tom Veivers. His hundred came off 122 balls and won him "one of the most moving ovations I have heard in Australia", and the Walter Lawrence Trophy for the fastest Test century of 1966. He was caught for 115 by Wally Grout who told Doug Walters to bowl him a ball down the leg so that he could move over and catch the glance. Garth McKenzie (1/100) and Neil Hawke (1/109) suffered, but Doug Walters took 4/53 to dismiss Barrington, John Edrich (85), Colin Cowdrey (79) and Mike Smith (0). Jim Parks (89) and Fred Titmus (42) added some late runs before Mike Smith declared on 485/9 an hour before stumps on the second day. Australia – First Innings Bobby Simpson and Grahame Thomas were soon out to leave Australia 36/2, but Bill Lawry and Bob Cowper saw out the day and batted through most of the next. Their carefully complied third wicket stand of 212 avoided the follow-on and England's best chance of regaining the Ashes, but failed to entertain the crowd. Lawry made a typical 108 in 369 minutes, but Cowper was 159 not out at the end of the third day and Australia 333/3. The fourth day was washed out, rendering the final day of the series academic as a result could not be forced on the flat wicket. Cowper, however, took his score to 307, the first Test triple century to be made in Australia and at 727 minutes the longest. It was his highest Test and First Class score and remains the highest and longest Ashes century down under though Matthew Hayden's 380 against Zimbabwe in 2002–03 is now the highest Test century. In the end he was bowled by Barry Knight (2/105) on 543/8 and Simpson declared to leave England just over an hour to bat. England – Second Innings Garth McKenzie made the most of the situation, taking 3/17 to dismiss Geoff Boycott, Bob Barber and John Edrich with England finishing with 69/3. Result Australia and England drew the Test and series 1–1, with Australia retaining the Ashes for the fourth time after regaining them in 1958–59. It was the second time the two teams had drawn the series in the last three Ashes series, with 15 of the 20 Tests being drawn (the next series was also drawn 1–1). It had already been realised that the captains on both sides were unusually cautious when playing each other as so much was at stake even though Bobby Simpson and Mike Smith had done all that they could to make the games interesting. 1965–66 Test Series Averages Eleven batsmen averaged over 40 in the series, the most in an Ashes series in Australia since the timeless Tests of 1928–29 when twelve batsmen achieved this feat. It has not been equalled since, though ten batsmen averaged over 40 in 2002–03. Bill Lawry's 592 runs (84.57) was the most in an Ashes series since Don Bradman's 680 runs (97.14) in 1946–47 and his three centuries were the most since Arthur Morris three in 1948. source References Bibliography Peter Arnold, The Illustrated Encyclopedia of World Cricket, W. H. Smith, 1985 Mark Peel, England Expects, A biography of Ken Barrington, The Kingswood Press, 1992 Ray Robinson, On Top Down Under, Cassell, 1975 Ray Robinson and Mike Coward, England vs Australia 1932–1985, E.W. Swanton (ed), Barclays World of Cricket, Collins Willow, 1986 E.W. Swanton, Swanton in Australia with MCC 1946–1975, Fontana/Collins, 1975 E.W. Swanton (ed), Barclay's World of Cricket, Willow, 1986 Fred Titmus, My Life in Cricket, Blake Publishing, 2005 Further reading A.B.C. Book 1965–66: M.C.C. Tour of Australia John Arlott, John Arlott's 100 Greatest Batsmen, MacDonald Queen Anne Press, 1986 Bill Frindall, The Wisden Book of Test Cricket 1877–1978, Wisden, 1979 Chris Harte, A History of Australian Cricket, Andre Deutsch, 1993 Ashley Mallett, One of a Kind: The Doug Walters Story, Orion, 2009 Rothmans, Rothmans Test Cricket Almanack: 1965–66 Series, Rothamns, 1965 Huw Turbervill, The Toughest Tour: The Ashes Away Series: 1946 to 2007, Aurum Press Ltd, 2010 Derek A. Watts, Young Jim: The Jim Parks Story (100 Greats Series), The History Press Ltd, 2005 Ashes series Ashes series Ashes series Ashes series Australian cricket seasons from 1945–46 to 1969–70 International cricket competitions from 1945–46 to 1960 The Ashes

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The apostrophe ( or ) is a punctuation mark, and sometimes a diacritical mark, in languages that use the Latin alphabet and some other alphabets. In English, the apostrophe is used for three basic purposes: The marking of the omission of one or more letters, e.g. the contraction of "do not" to "don't". The marking of possessive case of nouns (as in "the eagle's feathers", "in one month's time", "at your parents'‌ [home]"). The marking of plurals in a few distinctive cases, e.g. "p's and q's" or Oakland A's. The word "apostrophe" comes ultimately from Greek (, '[the accent of] turning away or elision'), through Latin and French. For use in computer systems, Unicode has code points for three different forms of apostrophe. Usage in English Historical development The apostrophe was first used by Pietro Bembo in his edition of De Aetna (1496). It was introduced into English in the 16th century in imitation of French practice. French practice Introduced by Geoffroy Tory (1529), the apostrophe was used in place of a vowel letter to indicate elision (as in in place of ). It was also frequently used in place of a final "e" (which was still pronounced at the time) when it was elided before a vowel, as in . Modern French orthography has restored the spelling . Early English practice From the 16th century, following French practice, the apostrophe was used when a vowel letter was omitted either because of incidental elision ("I'm" for "I am") or because the letter no longer represented a sound ("lov'd" for "loved"). English spelling retained many inflections that were not pronounced as syllables, notably verb endings ("-est", "-eth", "-es", "-ed") and the noun ending "-es", which marked either plurals or possessives, also known as genitives; see Possessive apostrophe, below). An apostrophe followed by "s" was often used to mark a plural; specifically, the Oxford Companion to the English Language notes that There was formerly a respectable tradition (17th to 19th centuries) of using the apostrophe for noun plurals, especially in loanwords ending in a vowel (as in ... Comma's are used, Philip Luckcombe, 1771) and in the consonants s, z, ch, sh, (as in waltz's and cotillions, Washington Irving, 1804)... Standardisation The use of elision has continued to the present day, but significant changes have been made to the possessive and plural uses. By the 18th century, an apostrophe with the addition of an "s" was regularly used for all possessive singular forms, even when the letter "e" was not omitted (as in "the gate's height"). This was regarded as representing the Old English genitive singular inflection "-es". The plural use was greatly reduced, but a need was felt to mark possessive plural. The solution was to use an apostrophe after the plural "s" (as in "girls' dresses"). However, this was not universally accepted until the mid-19th century. Plurals not ending in -s keep the -'s marker, such as "children's toys, the men's toilet". Possessive apostrophe The apostrophe is used in English to indicate what is, for historical reasons, misleadingly called the possessive case in the English language. This case was called the genitive until the 18th century and (like the genitive case in other languages) in fact expresses much more than possession. For example, in the expressions "the school's headmaster", "the men's department", and "tomorrow's weather", the school does not own/possess the headmaster, men do not own/possess the department, and tomorrow does not/will not own the weather. In the words of Merriam-Webster's Dictionary of English Usage: This dictionary also cites a study that found that only 40% of the possessive forms were used to indicate actual possession. The modern spelling convention distinguishes possessive singular forms ("Bernadette's", "flower's", "glass's", "one's") from simple plural forms ("Bernadettes", "flowers", "glasses", "ones"), and both of those from possessive plural forms ("Bernadettes'", "flowers'", "glasses'", "ones'"). For singular forms, the modern possessive or genitive inflection is a survival from certain genitive inflections in Old English, for which the apostrophe originally marked the loss of the old "e" (for example, became ). Until the 18th century, the apostrophe was extensively used to indicate plural forms. Its use for indicating plural "possessive" forms was not standard before the middle of the 19th century. General principles for the possessive apostrophe Summary of rules for most situations Possessive personal pronouns, serving as either noun-equivalents or adjective-equivalents, do not use an apostrophe, even when they end in "s". The complete list of those ending in the letter "s" or the corresponding sound or but not taking an apostrophe is "ours", "yours", "his", "hers", "its", "theirs", and "whose". Other pronouns, singular nouns not ending in "s", and plural nouns not ending in "s" all take "'s" in the possessive: e.g., "someone's", "a cat's toys", "women's". Plural nouns already ending in "s" take only an apostrophe after the pre-existing "s" to form the possessive: e.g., "three cats' toys". Basic rule (singular nouns) For most singular nouns the ending "'s" is added; e.g., "the cat's whiskers". If a singular noun ends with an "s"-sound (spelled with "-s", "-se", for example), practice varies as to whether to add "'s" or the apostrophe alone. A widely accepted practice is to follow whichever spoken form is judged better: "the boss's shoes", "Mrs Jones' hat" (or "Mrs Jones's hat", if that spoken form is preferred). In many cases, both spoken and written forms differ between writers (see details below). Acronyms and initialisms used as nouns (CD, DVD, NATO, RADAR, etc.) follow the same rules as singular nouns: e.g., "the TV's picture quality". Basic rule (plural nouns) When the noun is a normal plural, with an added "s", no extra "s" is added in the possessive; so "the neighbours' garden" (there is more than one neighbour owning the garden) is standard rather than "the neighbours's garden". If the plural is not one that is formed by adding "s", an "s" is added for the possessive, after the apostrophe: "children's hats", "women's hairdresser", "some people's eyes" (but compare "some peoples' recent emergence into nationhood", where "peoples" is meant as the plural of the singular "people"). These principles are universally accepted. A few English nouns have plurals that are not spelled with a final "s" but nevertheless end in an /s/ or a /z/ sound: "mice" (plural of "mouse"; also in compounds like "dormouse", "titmouse"), "dice" (when used as the plural of "die"), "pence" (a plural of "penny", with compounds like "sixpence" that now tend to be taken as singulars). In the absence of specific exceptional treatment in style guides, the possessives of these plurals are formed by adding an apostrophe and an "s" in the standard way: "seven titmice's tails were found", "the dice's last fall was a seven", "his few pence's value was not enough to buy bread". These would often be rephrased, where possible: "the last fall of the dice was a seven". Basic rule (compound nouns) Compound nouns have their singular possessives formed with an apostrophe and an added s, in accordance with the rules given above: the Attorney-General's husband; the Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports's prerogative; this Minister for Justice's intervention; her father-in-law's new wife. In such examples, the plurals are formed with an s that does not occur at the end: e.g., attorneys-general. A problem therefore arises with the possessive plurals of these compounds. Sources that rule on the matter appear to favour the following forms, in which there is both an s added to form the plural, and a separate 's added for the possessive: the attorneys-general's husbands; successive Ministers for Justice's interventions; their fathers-in-law's new wives. Because these constructions stretch the resources of punctuation beyond comfort, in practice they are normally reworded: interventions by successive Ministers for Justice.<ref>[http://www.llc.manchester.ac.uk/subjects/lel/staff/david-denison/papers/Fileuploadmax10Mb,120431,en.pdf Is the English Possessive Truly a Right-hand Phenomenon?]</ref> Joint or separate possession For two nouns (or noun phrases) joined by and, there are several ways of expressing possession, including: 1. marking of the last noun (e.g. "Jack and Jill's children") 2. marking of both nouns (e.g. "Jack's and Jill's children"). Some grammars make no distinction in meaning between the two forms. Some publishers' style guides, however, make a distinction, assigning the "segregatory" (or "distributive") meaning to the form "John's and Mary's" and the "combinatorial" (or "joint") meaning to the form "John and Mary's". A third alternative is a construction of the form "Jack's children and Jill's", which is always distributive, i.e. it designates the combined set of Jack's children and Jill's children. When a coordinate possessive construction has two personal pronouns, the normal possessive inflection is used, and there is no apostrophe (e.g. "his and her children"). The issue of the use of the apostrophe arises when the coordinate construction includes a noun (phrase) and a pronoun. In this case, the inflection of only the last item may sometimes be, at least marginally, acceptable ("you and your spouse's bank account"). The inflection of both is normally preferred (e.g. Jack's and your dogs), but there is a tendency to avoid this construction, too, in favour of a construction that does not use a coordinate possessive (e.g. by using "Jack's letters and yours"). Where a construction like "Jack's and your dogs" is used, the interpretation is usually "segregatory" (i.e. not joint possession). With other punctuation; compounds with pronouns If the word or compound includes, or even ends with, a punctuation mark, an apostrophe and an s are still added in the usual way: "Westward Ho!'s railway station"; "Awaye!'s Paulette Whitten recorded Bob Wilson's story"; Washington, D.C.'s museums (assuming that the prevailing style requires full stops in D.C.).If the word or compound already includes a possessive apostrophe, a double possessive results: Tom's sisters' careers; the head of marketing's husband's preference; the master of foxhounds' best dog's death. Many style guides, while allowing that these constructions are possible, advise rephrasing: the head of marketing's husband prefers that.... If an original apostrophe or apostrophe with s occurs at the end, it is left by itself to do double duty: Our employees are better paid than McDonald's employees; Standard & Poor's indices are widely used: the fixed forms of McDonald's and Standard & Poor's already include possessive apostrophes. For similar cases involving geographical names, see below. Similarly, the possessives of all phrases whose wording is fixed are formed in the same way: "Us and Thems inclusion on the album The Dark Side of the MoonYou Am I's latest CD The 69'ers' drummer, Tom Callaghan (only the second apostrophe is possessive) His 'n' Hers's first track is called "Joyriders". Was She success greater, or King Solomon's Mines? For complications with foreign phrases and titles, see below. Time, money, and similar An apostrophe is used in time and money references in constructions such as one hour's respite, two weeks' holiday, a dollar's worth, five pounds' worth, one mile's drive from here. This is like an ordinary possessive use. For example, one hour's respite means a respite of one hour (exactly as the cat's whiskers means the whiskers of the cat). Exceptions are accounted for in the same way: three months pregnant (in modern usage, one says neither pregnant of three months, nor one month(')s pregnant). Possessive pronouns and adjectives No apostrophe is used in the following possessive pronouns and adjectives: yours, his, hers, ours, its, theirs, and whose. All other possessive pronouns do end with an apostrophe and an s. In singular forms, the apostrophe comes first, e.g. one's; everyone's; somebody's, nobody else's, etc., while the apostrophe follows the s in plural forms as with nouns: the others' complaints. The possessive of it was originally it's, and it's a common mistake today to write its this way, though the apostrophe was dropped by the early 1800s and authorities are now unanimous that it's can be only a contraction of it is or it has. Importance for disambiguation Each of these four phrases (listed in Steven Pinker's The Language Instinct) has a distinct meaning: My sister's friend's investment (the investment belonging to a friend of my sister)My sister's friends' investment (the investment belonging to several friends of my sister)My sisters' friend's investment (the investment belonging to a friend of several of my sisters)My sisters' friends' investment (the investment belonging to several friends of several of my sisters)Kingsley Amis, on being challenged to produce a sentence whose meaning depended on a possessive apostrophe, came up with: Those things over there are my husband's. (Those things over there belong to my husband.) Those things over there are my husbands'. (Those things over there belong to several husbands of mine.) Those things over there are my husbands. (I'm married to those men over there.) Singular nouns ending with an "s" or "z" sound Some singular nouns are pronounced with a sibilant sound at the end: /s/ or /z/. The spelling of these ends with -s, -se, -z, -ze, -ce, -x, or -xe. Many respected authorities recommend that practically all singular nouns, including those ending with a sibilant sound, have possessive forms with an extra s after the apostrophe so that the spelling reflects the underlying pronunciation. Examples include Oxford University Press, the Modern Language Association, the BBC and The Economist. Such authorities demand possessive singulars like these: Bridget Jones's Diary; Tony Adams's friend; my boss's job; the US's economy. Rules that modify or extend the standard principle have included the following: If the singular possessive is difficult or awkward to pronounce with an added sibilant, do not add an extra s; these exceptions are supported by The Guardian, Yahoo! Style Guide, and The American Heritage Book of English Usage. Such sources permit possessive singulars like these: Socrates' later suggestion; or Achilles' heel if that is how the pronunciation is intended. The Economist style guide omits the apostrophe entirely in this case. Some style guides advise that Classical, biblical, and similar names ending in a sibilant, especially if they are polysyllabic, should not take an added s in the possessive; among sources giving exceptions of this kind are The Times and The Elements of Style, which make general stipulations, and Vanderbilt University, which mentions only Moses and Jesus. As a particular case, Jesus' – referred to as "an accepted liturgical archaism" in Hart's Rules – is commonly written instead of Jesus's. There are also some entrenched uses, for example St James's Park (in London) (but the Newcastle stadium displays its name spelled St James' Park), St James's Palace (and the Court of St James's), St. James's Hospital (in Dublin), King James's School, Knaresborough and King James's School, Almondbury (but there is no genitive at all in St James Park (Exeter) or St. James Park (Bronx); nor is there one in the King James Bible since, like the Hebrew Bible, it is a description not a possessive). Although less common, some contemporary writers still follow the older practice of omitting the second s in all cases ending with a sibilant, but usually not when written -x or -xe. Some contemporary authorities such as the Associated Press Stylebook recommend or allow the practice of omitting the additional "s" in all words ending with an "s", but not in words ending with other sibilants ("z" and "x"). The 15th edition of The Chicago Manual of Style had recommended the traditional practice, which included providing for several exceptions to accommodate spoken usage such as the omission of the extra s after a polysyllabic word ending in a sibilant, but the 16th edition no longer recommends omitting the possessive "s". Similar examples of notable names ending in an s that are often given a possessive apostrophe with no additional s include Dickens and Williams. There is often a policy of leaving off the additional s on any such name, but this can prove problematic when specific names are contradictory (for example, St James' Park in Newcastle [the football ground] and the area of St. James's Park in London). However, debate has been going on regarding the punctuation of St James' Park (Newcastle) for some time, unlike St James's Park (London) which is the less contentious version. For more details on practice with geographic names, see the relevant section below. Some writers like to reflect standard spoken practice in cases like these with sake: for convenience' sake, for goodness' sake, for appearance' sake, for compromise' sake, etc. This punctuation is preferred in major style guides. Others prefer to add 's: for convenience's sake. Still others prefer to omit the apostrophe when there is an s sound before sake: for morality's sake, but for convenience sake. The Supreme Court of the United States is split on whether a possessive singular noun that ends with s should always have an additional s after the apostrophe, sometimes have an additional s after the apostrophe (for instance, based on whether the final sound of the original word is pronounced /s/ or /z/), or never have an additional s after the apostrophe. The informal majority view (5–4, based on past writings of the justices ) favoured the additional s, but a strong minority disagrees. Nouns ending with silent s, x, or z The English possessive of French nouns ending in a silent s, x, or z is addressed by various style guides. Certainly a sibilant is pronounced in examples like Descartes's and Dumas's; the question addressed here is whether s needs to be added. Similar examples with x or z: 's main ingredient is truffle; His 's loss went unnoticed; "Verreaux('s) eagle, a large, predominantly black eagle, Aquila verreauxi,..." (OED, entry for "Verreaux", with silent x; see Verreaux's eagle); in each of these some writers might omit the added s. The same principles and residual uncertainties apply with "naturalised" English words, like Illinois and Arkansas. For possessive plurals of words ending in a silent x, z or s, the few authorities that address the issue at all typically call for an added s and suggest that the apostrophe precede the s: The Loucheux's homeland is in the Yukon; Compare the two Dumas's literary achievements. The possessive of a cited French title with a silent plural ending is uncertain: "'s long and complicated publication history", but "' singular effect was 'exotic primitive' ..." (with nearby sibilants -ce- in noces and s- in singular). Compare treatment of other titles, above. Guides typically seek a principle that will yield uniformity, even for foreign words that fit awkwardly with standard English punctuation. Possessives in geographic names Place names in the United States do not use the possessive apostrophe on federal maps and signs. The United States Board on Geographic Names, which has responsibility for formal naming of municipalities and geographic features, has deprecated the use of possessive apostrophes since 1890 so as not to show ownership of the place. Only five names of natural features in the US are officially spelled with a genitive apostrophe: Martha's Vineyard; Ike's Point, New Jersey; John E's Pond, Rhode Island; Carlos Elmer's Joshua View, Arizona; and Clark's Mountain, Oregon.Cavella, C, and Kernodle, RA, How the Past Affects the Future: the Story of the Apostrophe. american.edu Some municipalities, originally incorporated using the apostrophe, have dropped it in accordance with this policy; Taylors Falls in Minnesota, for example, was originally incorporated as "Taylor's Falls". On the state level, the federal policy is not always followed: Vermont's official state website has a page on Camel's Hump State Forest. Australia's Intergovernmental Committee on Surveying and Mapping also has a no-apostrophe policy, a practice it says goes back to the 1900s and which is generally followed around the country. On the other hand, the United Kingdom has Bishop's Stortford, Bishop's Castle and King's Lynn (among many others) but St Albans, St Andrews and St Helens. London Underground's Piccadilly line has the adjacent stations of Earl's Court in Earls Court and Barons Court. These names were mainly fixed in form many years before grammatical rules were fully standardised. While Newcastle United play football at a stadium called St James' Park, and Exeter City at St James Park, London has a St James's Park (this whole area of London is named after the parish of St James's Church, Piccadilly). Modern usage has been influenced by considerations of technological convenience including the economy of typewriter ribbons and films, and similar computer character "disallowance" which tend to ignore past standards. Practice in the United Kingdom and Canada is not so uniform. Possessives in names of organizations Sometimes the apostrophe is omitted in the names of clubs, societies, and other organizations, even though the standard principles seem to require it: Country Women's Association, but International Aviation Association; Magistrates' Court of Victoria, but Federated Ship Painters and Dockers Union. Usage is variable and inconsistent. Style guides typically advise consulting an official source for the standard form of the name (as one would do if uncertain about other aspects of the spelling of the name); some tend towards greater prescriptiveness, for or against such an apostrophe. As the case of shows, it is not possible to analyze these forms simply as non-possessive plurals, since women is the only correct plural form of woman. Possessives in business names Where a business name is based on a family name it should in theory take an apostrophe, but many leave it out (contrast Sainsbury's with Harrods). In recent times there has been an increasing tendency to drop the apostrophe. Names based on a first name are more likely to take an apostrophe, but this is not always the case. Some business names may inadvertently spell a different name if the name with an s at the end is also a name, such as Parson. A small activist group called the Apostrophe Protection Society has campaigned for large retailers such as Harrods, Currys, and Selfridges to reinstate their missing punctuation. A spokesperson for Barclays PLC stated, "It has just disappeared over the years. Barclays is no longer associated with the family name." Further confusion can be caused by businesses whose names look as if they should be pronounced differently without an apostrophe, such as Paulos Circus, and other companies that leave the apostrophe out of their logos but include it in written text, such as Cadwalader's. Apostrophe showing omission An apostrophe is commonly used to indicate omitted characters, normally letters: It is used in contractions, such as can't from cannot, it's from it is or it has, and I'll from I will or I shall. It is used in abbreviations, as gov't for government. It may indicate omitted numbers where the spoken form is also capable of omissions, as '70s for 1970s representing seventies for nineteen-seventies. In modern usage, apostrophes are generally omitted when letters are removed from the start of a word, particularly for a compound word. For example, it is not common to write 'bus (for omnibus), 'phone (telephone), 'net (Internet). However, if the shortening is unusual, dialectal or archaic, the apostrophe may still be used to mark it (e.g., 'bout for about, 'less for unless, 'twas for it was). Sometimes a misunderstanding of the original form of a word results in a non-standard contraction. A common example: 'til for until, though till is in fact the original form, and until is derived from it. The spelling fo'c's'le, contracted from the nautical term forecastle, is unusual for having three apostrophes. The spelling bo's'n's (from boatswain's), as in Bo's'n's Mate, also has three apostrophes, two showing omission and one possession. Fo'c's'le may also take a possessive s – as in the fo'c's'le's timbers – giving four apostrophes in one word. A word which formerly contained two apostrophes is sha'n't for shall not, examples of which may be found in the older works of P G Wodehouse and "Frank Richards" (Charles Hamilton), but this has been superseded by shan't. Shortenings with more apostrophes, such as y'all'dn't've (y'all wouldn't have), are possible, particularly in Southern US dialects. It is sometimes used when the normal form of an inflection seems awkward or unnatural; for example, KO'd rather than KOed (where KO is used as a verb meaning "to knock out"); "a spare pince-nez'd man" (cited in OED, entry for "pince-nez"; pince-nezed is also in citations). An apostrophe's function as possessive or contractive can depend on the grammatical context: We rehearsed for Friday's opening night. (We rehearsed for the opening night on Friday.) We rehearsed because Friday's opening night. (We rehearsed because Friday is opening night. "Friday's" here is a contraction of "Friday is.") Eye dialects use apostrophes in creating the effect of a non-standard pronunciation. Apostrophes to omit letters in place names are common on British road signs when space does not allow for the full name for example, Wolverhampton abbreviated as "W'hampton" and Kidderminster as "K'minster". The United States Board on Geographic Names, while discouraging possessive apostrophes in place names, allows apostrophes indicating omission, as in "Lake O' the Woods," or when normally present in a surname, as in "O'Malley Draw". Use in forming some plurals Following an evolution in usage in the 20th century, today "the apostrophe of plurality continues in at least five areas": abbreviations, letters of the alphabet/small words, numbers, family names, and in non-standard use. Abbreviations For abbreviations, including acronyms, the use of s without an apostrophe is now more common than its use with an apostrophe. Most modern style guides, and Wikipedia's Manual of Style entry, disparage the use of apostrophes in all plural abbreviations. Some references continue to condone their use, or even recommend their use in some abbreviations. For example, The Canadian Style states "Add an apostrophe and s to form the plural of abbreviations containing more than one period", so G.M.’s is preferred to G.M.s. The Oxford Companion to the English Language condones V.I.P.'s, VIP's, and VIPs equally. Letters of the alphabet, and small words For single lowercase letters, pluralization with 's is usual.<ref name="MW apostrophe">{{cite book |page=79 |title=Merriam-Webster's Concise Dictionary of English Usage |date=2002 |publisher=Penguin |isbn=9780877796336 |quote=Letters are usually pluralized with s: mind your p's and q's although capital letters are sometimes pluralized with s alone. The use of '''s to form the plurals of numerals, abbreviations, and symbols is not now as common as pluralization with simple s; 1970s, CPUs, &s are more likely to be found than the apostrophied counterparts. |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780877796336/page/79 }}</ref> Many guides recommend apostrophes whether the single letters are lowercase (as in "minding your p's and q's") or uppercase (as in "A's and S's"). The Chicago Manual of Style recommends the apostrophe of plurality only for lowercase letters. Sometimes, adding just s rather than s may leave meaning ambiguous or presentation inelegant. However, an apostrophe is not always the preferred solution. APA style requires the use of italics instead of an apostrophe: ps, ns, etc. In the phrase dos and don'ts, most modern style guides disparage spelling the first word as do's. However, there is a lack of consensus and certainly the use of an apostrophe continues, legitimately, in which "the apostrophe of plurality occurs in the first word but not the second". Numbers and symbols The Oxford Companion to the English Language notes that "a plural s after a set of numbers is often preceded by an apostrophe, as in 3's and 4's..., but many housestyles and individuals now favour 3s and 4s". Most style guides prefer the lack of apostrophe for groups of years (i.e. 1980s) and will prefer 90s or '90s over 90's or '90's. While many guides discourage using an apostrophe in all numbers/dates, many other guides encourage using an apostrophe for numbers or are divided on the issue; for example, the Australian Government Style Manual recommends "Binary code uses 0’s and 1’s" but recommends "the 2020s". Still other guides take a laissez-faire approach. For example, the University of Sussex's online guide notes regional variation in the use of apostrophes in dates, and slightly prefers 1's and 7's over 1s and 7s but condones both. The apostrophe is very often used in plurals of symbols, for example "that page has too many &'s and #'s on it". Some style guides state that the apostrophe is unnecessary since there is no ambiguity but that some editors and teachers prefer this usage. The addition of an s without an apostrophe may make the text difficult to read. For many numbers and symbols, a useful alternative is to write out the numbers as words (e.g. thousands instead of 1000's or 1000s, and ampersands instead of &s or &'s). Family names The vast majority of English references published from the late twentieth century onwards disparage the use of apostrophes in family-name plurals, for example identifying Joneses as correct and Jones's as incorrect. As an exception, the Oxford Companion to the English Language (2018) reports that, in addition to Joneses etc., standard apostrophe usage does continue "in family names, especially if they end in -s, as in keeping up with the Jones's". Nonstandard use See the greengrocer's apostrophe. Use in non-English names Names that are not strictly native to English sometimes have an apostrophe substituted to represent other characters (see also As a mark of elision, below). Anglicised versions of Irish surnames typically contain an apostrophe after an O (in place of Ó), for example O'Doole. Some Scottish and Irish surnames use an apostrophe after an M, for example M'Gregor. The apostrophe here may be seen as marking a contraction where the prefix Mc or Mac would normally appear. However, it may also arise from confusion of ‘ (turned comma or "6-quote"), which was used as a substitute for superscript c when printing with hand-set metal type. Compare: M'Lean, McLean, M‘Lean. Use in transliteration In transliterated foreign words, an apostrophe may be used to separate letters or syllables that otherwise would likely be interpreted incorrectly. For example: in the Arabic word , a transliteration of , the syllables are as in mus·haf, not mu·shafin the Japanese name Shin'ichi, the apostrophe shows that the pronunciation is shi·n·i·chi (hiragana ), where the letters n () and i () are separate morae, rather than shi·ni·chi (). in the Chinese Pinyin romanization, the apostrophe (, , géyīn fúhào, 'syllable-dividing mark') is used before a syllable starting with a vowel (a, o, or e) in a multiple-syllable word when the syllable does not start the word (which is most commonly realized as ), unless the syllable immediately follows a hyphen or other dash. This is done to remove ambiguity that could arise, as in Xi'an, which consists of the two syllables ("") (""), compared to such words as (""). (This ambiguity does not occur when tone marks are used: The two tone marks in unambiguously show that the word consists of two syllables. However, even with tone marks, the city is usually spelled with an apostrophe as .) Furthermore, an apostrophe may be used to indicate a glottal stop in transliterations. For example: in the Arabic word , a common transliteration of (part of) al-qur'ān, the apostrophe corresponds to the diacritic Maddah over the , one of the letters in the Arabic alphabet Rather than (modifier letter left half ring), the apostrophe is sometimes used to indicate a voiced pharyngeal fricative as it sounds and looks like the glottal stop to most English speakers. For example: in the Arabic word for , the apostrophe corresponds to the Arabic letter . Finally, in "scientific" transliteration of Cyrillic script, the apostrophe usually represents the soft sign , though in "ordinary" transliteration it is usually omitted. For example, "The Ob River (Russian: Обь), also Ob', is a major river in western Siberia,...". Non-standard English use Failure to observe standard use of the apostrophe is widespread and frequently criticised as incorrect, often generating heated debate. The British founder of the Apostrophe Protection Society earned a 2001 Ig Nobel prize for "efforts to protect, promote and defend the differences between plural and possessive". A 2004 report by British examination board OCR stated that "the inaccurate use of the apostrophe is so widespread as to be almost universal". A 2008 survey found that nearly half of the UK adults polled were unable to use the apostrophe correctly. Superfluous apostrophes ("greengrocers' apostrophes") Apostrophes used in a non-standard manner to form noun plurals are known as greengrocers' apostrophes or grocers' apostrophes, often written as greengrocer's apostrophes or grocer's apostrophes. They are sometimes humorously called greengrocers apostrophe's, rogue apostrophes, or idiot's apostrophes (a literal translation of the German word Deppenapostroph, which criticises the misapplication of apostrophes in Denglisch). The practice, once common and acceptable (see Historical development), comes from the identical sound of the plural and possessive forms of most English nouns. It is often criticised as a form of hypercorrection coming from a widespread ignorance of the proper use of the apostrophe or of punctuation in general. Lynne Truss, author of Eats, Shoots & Leaves, points out that before the 19th century it was standard orthography to use the apostrophe to form a plural of a foreign-sounding word that ended in a vowel (e. g., banana's, folio's, logo's, quarto's, pasta's, ouzo's) to clarify pronunciation. Truss says this usage is no longer considered proper in formal writing. The term is believed to have been coined in the middle of the 20th century by a teacher of languages working in Liverpool, at a time when such mistakes were common in the handwritten signs and advertisements of greengrocers (e. g., Apple's 1/- a pound, Orange's 1/6d a pound). Some have argued that its use in mass communication by employees of well-known companies has led to the less literate assuming it to be standard and adopting the habit themselves. The same use of apostrophe before noun plural -s forms is sometimes made by non-native speakers of English. For example, in Dutch, the apostrophe is inserted before the s when pluralising most words ending in a vowel or y for example, (English babies) and (English radios). This often produces so-called "Dunglish" errors when carried over into English. Hyperforeignism has been formalised in some pseudo-anglicisms. For example, the French word (from English pin) is used (with the apostrophe in both singular and plural) for collectible lapel pins. Similarly, there is an Andorran football club called (after such British clubs as Rangers F.C.) and a Japanese dance group called Super Monkey's. Omission In the UK there is a tendency to drop apostrophes in many commonly used names such as St Annes, St Johns Lane, and so on. UK supermarket chain Tesco omits the mark where standard practice would require it. Signs in Tesco advertise (among other items) . In his book Troublesome Words, author Bill Bryson lambasts Tesco for this, stating that "the mistake is inexcusable, and those who make it are linguistic Neanderthals." The United States Board on Geographic Names discourages the use of possessive apostrophes in geographic names (see above), though state agencies do not always conform; Vermont's official state website provides information concerning Camel's Hump State Forest. The Geographical Names Board of New South Wales, Australia, excludes possessive apostrophes from place names, along with other punctuation. Particular cases George Bernard Shaw, a proponent of English spelling reform on phonetic principles, argued that the apostrophe was mostly redundant. He did not use it for spelling cant, hes, etc., in many of his writings. He did, however, allow I'm and it's. Hubert Selby Jr. used a slash instead of an apostrophe mark for contractions and did not use an apostrophe at all for possessives. Lewis Carroll made greater use of apostrophes, and frequently used sha'n't, with an apostrophe in place of the elided ll as well as the more usual o. These authors' usages have not become widespread. The British pop group Hear'Say famously made unconventional use of an apostrophe in its name. Truss comments that "the naming of Hear'Say in 2001 was [...] a significant milestone on the road to punctuation anarchy". Criticism Over the years, the use of apostrophes has been criticised. George Bernard Shaw called them "uncouth bacilli", referring to the apostrophe-like shape of many bacteria. The author and language commentator Anu Garg, in a humorous but well-argued discussion, has called for the abolition of the apostrophe, stating "Some day this world would be free of metastatic cancers, narcissistic con men, and the apostrophe." In his book American Speech, linguist Steven Byington stated of the apostrophe that "the language would be none the worse for its abolition". Adrian Room, in his English Journal article "Axing the Apostrophe", argued that apostrophes are unnecessary, and context will resolve any ambiguity. In a letter to the English Journal, Peter Brodie stated that apostrophes are "largely decorative ... [and] rarely clarify meaning". John C. Wells, emeritus professor of phonetics at University College London, says the apostrophe is "a waste of time". The Apostrophe Protection Society, founded by retired journalist John Richards in 2001, was brought to a full stop in 2019, Richards (then aged 96) accepting that "the ignorance and laziness present in modern times have won!". Non-English use As a mark of elision In many languages, especially European languages, the apostrophe is used to indicate the elision of one or more sounds, as in English. In Albanian the apostrophe is used to show that a vowel has been omitted from words, especially in different forms of verbs and in some forms of personal pronoun. For example, : them (from : them), (from ). It is used too in some of the forms of possessive pronouns, for example: (from ). In Afrikaans, as in Dutch, the apostrophe is used to show that letters have been omitted from words. The most common use is in the indefinite article , which is a contraction of een meaning 'one' (the number). As the initial e is omitted and cannot be capitalised, the second word in a sentence that begins with is capitalised instead. For example: , 'A tree is green'. In addition, the apostrophe is used for plurals and diminutives where the root ends with long vowels, e.g. , , , , etc. In Catalan, French, Italian, Ligurian, and Occitan word sequences such as , (often shortened to maître d, when used in English), and the final vowel in the first word (de 'of', le 'the', etc.) is elided because the word that follows it starts with a vowel or a mute h. Similarly, French has instead of ('that he'), instead of ('it is or it's'), and so on. Catalan, French, Italian, and Occitan surnames sometimes contain apostrophes of elision, e.g. , In Danish, apostrophes are sometimes seen on commercial materials. One might commonly see ('Take me with [you]') next to a stand with advertisement leaflets; that would be written in standard orthography. As in German, the apostrophe must not be used to indicate the possessive, except when there is already an s, x or z present in the base form, as in ('the Book of Esajas'). In Dutch, as in Afrikaans, the apostrophe is used to indicate omitted characters. For example, the indefinite article can be shortened to , and the definite article shortened to . When this happens in the first word of a sentence, the second word of the sentence is capitalised. In general, this way of using the apostrophe is considered non-standard, except as genitivus temporalis in , , , (for , 'at morning, at afternoon, at evening, at night') and in some frozen place names such as 's-Hertogenbosch (possessive, lit. "The Duke's forest"), ‌'s-Gravenhage (traditional name of The Hague, lit. "The Count's hedge"), ‌'s-Gravenbrakel (Braine-le-Comte, in Belgium), ‌'s-Hertogenrade (Herzogenrath, in Germany), etc. In addition, the apostrophe is used for plurals where the singulars end with long vowels, e.g. , ; and for the genitive of proper names ending with these vowels, e.g. , . These are in fact elided vowels; use of the apostrophe prevents spellings like and . However, most diminutives do not use an apostrophe where the plural forms would; producing spellings such as and . In Esperanto, the limits the elision mark to the definite article (from ) and singular nominative nouns ( from , 'heart'). This is mostly confined to poetry and songs. Idiomatic phrases such as (from , 'thanks to') and (from 'of the') are nonetheless frequent. In-word elision is usually marked with a hyphen, as in (from , 'Dr'). Some early guides used and advocated the use of apostrophes between word parts, to aid recognition of such compound words as , 'guitarist'; but in the latter case, modern usage is to use either a hyphen or a middle dot when disambiguation is necessary, as in ĉas-hundo or ĉas·hundo, "a hunting dog", not to be mispronounced as ĉa.ŝun.do. In Finnish, the apostrophe is used in inflected forms of words whose basic form has a "k" between similar vowels, to show that the "k" has elided in the inflected form: for example the word ("raw") becomes in the plural. The apostrophe shows that the vowels on either side of it belong to different syllables. French feminine singular possessive adjectives do not undergo elision, but change to the masculine form instead: preceding becomes ('my church'). Quebec's Bill 101, which dictates the use of French in the province, prohibits the use of apostrophes in proper names in which it would not be used in proper French (thus the international donut chain Tim Hortons, originally spelled with the possessive apostrophe as Tim Horton's, was required to drop the apostrophe in Quebec to comply with Bill 101). Galician language standard admits the use of apostrophe () for contractions that normally don't use (e.g.: de + a= da) it but when the second element is a proper noun, mostly a title: (the hero of the Odyssey). They are also used to reproduce oral ellisions and, as stated below, to join (or split) commercial names of popular public establishments, namely bars and in masculine (, The pot). In Ganda, when a word ending with a vowel is followed by a word beginning with a vowel, the final vowel of the first word is elided and the initial vowel of the second word lengthened in compensation. When the first word is a monosyllable, this elision is represented in the orthography with an apostrophe: in 'the father of the children', ('of') becomes w; in ('who is it?'), ('who') becomes y. But the final vowel of a polysyllable is always written, even if it is elided in speech: ('this man'), not *, because ('man') is a polysyllable. In German an apostrophe is used almost exclusively to indicate omitted letters. It must not be used for plurals or most of the possessive forms. The only exceptions are the possessive cases of names ending in an "s"-sound as in , or "to prevent ambiguities" in all other possessive cases of names, as in (referring to the female name , not the male name ). The English/Saxon style of using an apostrophe for possession was introduced after the spelling reform, but is strongly disagreed on by native speakers, and discouraged. Although possessive usage (beyond the exceptions) is widespread, it is often deemed incorrect. The German equivalent of "greengrocers' apostrophes" would be the derogatory ('idiot's apostrophe'; ). In modern printings of Ancient Greek, apostrophes are also used to mark elision. Some Ancient Greek words that end in short vowels elide when the next word starts with a vowel. For example, many Ancient Greek authors would write () for () and () for (). Such modern usage should be carefully distinguished from polytonic Greek's native rough and smooth breathing marks, which usually appear as a form of rounded apostrophe. In Hebrew, the geresh (׳), often typed as an apostrophe, is used to denote initialisms. A double geresh (״), known by the dual form gershayim, is used to denote acronyms; it is inserted before (i.e., to the right of) the last letter of the acronym. Examples: (abbreviation for , 'professor', 'professor'); (, 'P.S.'). The geresh is also used to indicate the elision of a sound; however, this use is much less frequent, and confined to the purpose of imitating a natural, informal utterance, for example: ( – short for , , 'I am/do not'). In Irish, the past tense of verbs beginning with a vowel, or with fh followed by a vowel, begins with d' (elision of do), for example becomes ('opened') and becomes ('returned'). The copula is often elided to 's, and ('to'), ('my') etc. are elided before f and vowels. In Italian it is used for elision with pronouns, as in instead of ; with articles, as in instead of ; and for truncation, as in instead of . Stylistically, sentences beginning with È (as in ) are often rendered as E' in newspapers, to minimise leading (inter-line spacing). In modern Norwegian, the apostrophe marks that a word has been contracted, such as from ('have/has not'). Unlike English and French, such elisions are not accepted as part of standard orthography but are used to create a more "oral style" in writing. The apostrophe is also used to mark the genitive for words that end in an -s sound: words ending in -s, -x, and -z, some speakers also including words ending in the sound . As Norwegian doesn't form the plural with -s, there is no need to distinguish between an -s forming the possessive and the -s forming the plural. Therefore, we have ('man') and ('man's'), without apostrophe, but ('naval pilot') and ' ('naval pilot's'). Indicating the possessive for the two former American presidents named George Bush, whose names end in , could be written as both (simply adding an -s to the name) and (adding an apostrophe to the end of the name). In Portuguese the apostrophe is also used in a few combinations, such as ('water tower'), ('guineafowl'), (a plant species, ), etc. Portuguese has many contractions between prepositions and articles or pronouns (like na for em + a), but these are written without an apostrophe. Modern Spanish no longer uses the apostrophe to indicate elision in standard writing, although it can sometimes be found in older poetry for that purpose. Instead Spanish writes out the spoken elision in full (, ) except for the contraction for + , which uses no apostrophe. Spanish also switches to a form that is identical to the masculine article (but is actually a variant of the feminine article) immediately before a feminine noun beginning with a stressed a instead of writing (or saying) an elision: , , and but and . This reflects the origin of the Spanish definite articles from the Latin demonstratives . In Swedish, the apostrophe marks an elision, such as , short for ('in the city'), to make the text more similar to the spoken language. This is relaxed style, fairly rarely used, and would not be used by traditional newspapers in political articles, but could be used in entertainment related articles and similar. The formal way to denote elision in Swedish is by using colon, e.g. for which is rarely spelled out in full. The apostrophe must not be used to indicate the possessive except – although not mandatory – when there is already an s, x or z present in the base form, as in . Welsh uses the apostrophe to mark elision of the definite article ('the') following a vowel (a, e, i, o, u, y, or, in Welsh, w), as in , 'to the house'. It is also used with the particle , such as with , 'she is'. As a glottal stop Several languages and transliteration systems use the apostrophe or some similar mark to indicate a glottal stop, sometimes considering it a letter of the alphabet: In several Finno-Ugric languages, such as Estonian and Finnish; for example in the Finnish word , being the genitive or accusative of ('raw'). In Guarani, it is called , and used in the words (language, to speak), (grass), (sterile). In Hawaiian, the okina , an inverted apostrophe, is often rendered as . It is considered a letter of the alphabet. Mayan. In the Tongan language, the apostrophe is called a and is the last letter of the alphabet. It represents the glottal stop. Like the okina, it is inverted. Various other Austronesian languages, such as Samoan, Tahitian, and Chamorro. Tetum, one of the official languages of East Timor. The Brazilian native Tupi language. Mossi (Mooré), a language of Burkina Faso. In Võro, the apostrophe is used in parallel with the letter q as symbol of plural. Several fictional languages such as Klingon, D'ni, Mando'a or Na'vi add apostrophes to make names appear "alien". The apostrophe represents sounds resembling the glottal stop in the Turkic languages and in some romanizations of Semitic languages, including Arabic and Hebrew. In that case, the letter 'ayn (Arabic ع and Hebrew ע) is correspondingly transliterated with the opening single quotation mark. As a mark of palatalization or non-palatalization Some languages and transliteration systems use the apostrophe to mark the presence, or the lack of, palatalization: In Belarusian and Ukrainian, the apostrophe is used between a consonant and a following "soft" (iotified) vowel (Be.: е, ё, ю, я; Uk.: є, ї, ю, я) to indicate that no palatalization of the preceding consonant takes place, and the vowel is pronounced in the same way as at the beginning of a word. It therefore marks a morpheme boundary before and, in Ukrainian, is a letter of the alphabet (as the hard sign in Russian is) rather than a simple punctuation mark in English, as it is not a punctuation mark in Ukrainian. It appears frequently in Ukrainian, as, for instance, in the words: () 'five', () 'departure', () 'united', () 'to clear up, explain', () play (drama), etc.Linguist List 13.1566, Daniel Bunčić, "Apostrophe rules in languages", from 31 May 2002. In Russian and some derived alphabets, the same function has been served by the hard sign (ъ, formerly called yer). But the apostrophe saw some use as a substitute after 1918, when Soviet authorities enforced an orthographic reform by confiscating movable type bearing the hard sign from stubborn printing houses in Petrograd. In some Latin transliterations of certain Cyrillic alphabets (for Belarusian, Russian, and Ukrainian), the apostrophe is used to replace the soft sign (ь, indicating palatalization of the preceding consonant), e.g., Русь is transliterated Rus' according to the BGN/PCGN system. (The prime symbol is also used for the same purpose.) Some of these transliteration schemes use a double apostrophe ( ˮ ) to represent the apostrophe in Ukrainian and Belarusian text and the hard sign (ъ) in Russian text, e.g. Ukrainian ('Slavic') is transliterated as . Some Karelian orthographies use an apostrophe to indicate palatalization, e.g. ('to give advice'), ('just (like)'), ('to revive'). To separate morphemes Some languages use the apostrophe to separate the root of a word and its affixes, especially if the root is foreign and unassimilated. (For another kind of morphemic separation see pinyin, below.) In Danish an apostrophe is sometimes used to join the enclitic definite article to words of foreign origin, or to other words that would otherwise look awkward. For example, one would write to mean "the IP address". There is some variation in what is considered "awkward enough" to warrant an apostrophe; for instance, long-established words such as ('company') or ('level') might be written and , but will generally be seen without an apostrophe. Due to Danish influence, this usage of the apostrophe can also be seen in Norwegian, but is non-standard – a hyphen should be used instead: e.g. (the CD). In Estonian, apostrophes can be used in the declension of some foreign names to separate the stem from any declension endings; e.g., (genitive case) or (illative case) of Monet (name of the famous painter). In Finnish, apostrophes are used in the declension of foreign names or loan words that end in a consonant when written but are pronounced with a vowel ending, e.g. ('in a show'), ('to Bordeaux'). For Finnish as well as Swedish, there is a closely related use of the colon. In Polish, the apostrophe is used exclusively for marking inflections of words and word-like elements (but not acronyms – a hyphen is used instead) whose spelling conflicts with the normal rules of inflection. This mainly affects foreign words and names. For instance, one would correctly write for "Al Gore's campaign". In this example, is spelled without an apostrophe, since its spelling and pronunciation fit into normal Polish rules; but needs the apostrophe, because e disappears from the pronunciation, changing the inflection pattern. This rule is often misunderstood as calling for an apostrophe after all foreign words, regardless of their pronunciation, yielding the incorrect , for example. The effect is akin to the greengrocers' apostrophe (see above). In Turkish, proper nouns are capitalised and an apostrophe is inserted between the noun and any following inflectional suffix, e.g. ("in Istanbul"), contrasting with ("in school", is a common noun) and ('Istanbulite', -lu is a derivational suffix). In Welsh the apostrophe is used with infixed pronouns in order to distinguish them from the preceding word (e.g. , 'and my sister' as opposed to , 'about a sister'). Miscellaneous uses in other languages In Breton, the combination is used for the consonant (like ch in English Loch Ness), while is used for the consonant (as in French or English she). In Czech, an apostrophe is used for writing to indicate spoken or informal language where the writer wants to express the natural way of informal speech, but it should not be used in formal text or text of a serious nature. E.g., instead of ('he read'), the word form is used. is the informal variant of the verb form , at least in some varieties. These two words are the same in meaning, but to use the informal form gives the text a more natural tone, as though a friend were talking to you. Furthermore, the same as in the Slovak case above holds for lowercase t and d, and for the two-digit year notation. In Finnish, one of the consonant gradation patterns is the change of a k into a hiatus, e.g. → ('a pile' → 'a pile's'). This hiatus has to be indicated in spelling with an apostrophe if a long vowel or a diphthong would be immediately followed by the final vowel, e.g. → , → . (This is in contrast to compound words, where the equivalent problem is solved with a hyphen, e.g. , 'land area'.) Similarly, the apostrophe is used to mark the hiatus (contraction) that occurs in poetry, e.g. for ('where is'). Galician restaurants sometimes use in their names instead of the standard article ('the'). In Ganda, (pronounced ) is used in place of ŋ on keyboards where this character is not available. The apostrophe distinguishes it from the letter combination (pronounced ), which has separate use in the language. Compare this with the Swahili usage below. In Hebrew, the geresh (a diacritic similar to the apostrophe and often represented by one) is used for several purposes other than to mark an elision: As an adjacent to letters to show sounds that are not represented in the Hebrew alphabet: Sounds such as (English j as in job), (English th as in thigh), and (English ch as in check) are indicated using ג, ת, and צ with a geresh (informally chupchik). For example, the name George is spelled in Hebrew (with representing the first and last consonants). To denote a Hebrew numeral (e.g., , which stands for '50') To denote a Hebrew letter which stands for itself (e.g., – the letter mem) Gershayim (a double geresh) to denote a Hebrew letter name (e.g., – the letter lamed) Another (rarer) use of geresh is to denote the last syllable (which in some cases, but not all, is a suffix) in some words of Yiddish origin (e.g., ). In the Middle Ages and the Early modern period, gershayim were also used to denote foreign words, as well as a means of emphasis. In Italian, an apostrophe is sometimes used as a substitute for a grave or an acute accent. This may be done after an initial E or an accented final vowel (when writing in all-capitals), or when the proper form of the letter is unavailable for technical reasons. So a sentence beginning ('It is true that...') may be written as . This form is often seen in newspapers, as it is the only case of an accent above the cap height and its omission permits the text to be more closely spaced (leading). Less commonly, a forename like might be rendered as Niccolo, or NICCOLO; perché, as perche, or PERCHE. This applies only to machine or computer writing, in the absence of a suitable keyboard. In Jèrriais, one of the uses of the apostrophe is to mark gemination, or consonant length: For example, represents , , , , and (contrasted with , , , , and ). In Lithuanian, the apostrophe is occasionally used to add a Lithuanized ending on an international word, e.g.- "parking'as", "Skype'as", "Facebook'as". In standard Lojban orthography, the apostrophe is a letter in its own right (called ) that can appear only between two vowels, and is phonemically realised as either [h] or, more rarely, [θ]. In Macedonian the apostrophe is sometimes used to represent the sound schwa, which can be found on dialectal levels, but not in the Standard Macedonian. In Slovak, the caron over lowercase t, d, l, and uppercase L consonants resembles an apostrophe, for example, ď, ť, ľ, and Ľ. This is especially so in certain common typographic renderings. But it is non-standard to use an apostrophe instead of the caron. There is also l with an acute accent: ĺ, Ĺ. In Slovak the apostrophe is properly used only to indicate elision in certain words (, as an abbreviated form of ('you are'), or for ('up')); however, these elisions are restricted to poetry (with a few exceptions). Moreover, the apostrophe is also used before a two-digit year number (to indicate the omission of the first two digits): (usually used for 1987). In Swahili, an apostrophe after shows that there is no sound of after the sound; that is, that the is pronounced as in English singer, not as in English finger. In Switzerland, the apostrophe is used as thousands separator alongside the fixed space (e.g., 2'000'000 or for two million) in all four national languages. In the new Uzbek Latin alphabet adopted in 2000, the apostrophe serves as a diacritical mark to distinguish different phonemes written with the same letter: it differentiates (corresponding to Cyrillic ў) from , and (Cyrillic ғ) from . This avoids the use of special characters, allowing Uzbek to be typed with ease in ordinary ASCII on any Latin keyboard. In addition, a postvocalic apostrophe in Uzbek represents the glottal stop phoneme derived from Arabic hamzah or 'ayn, replacing Cyrillic ъ. In English Yorkshire dialect, the apostrophe is used to represent the word the, which is contracted to a more glottal (or 'unreleased') /t/ sound. Most users will write in t'barn ('in the barn'), on t'step ('on the step'); and those unfamiliar with Yorkshire speech will often make these sound like intuh barn and ontuh step. A more accurate rendition might be in't barn and on't step, though even this does not truly convey correct Yorkshire pronunciation as the t is more like a glottal stop. In the pinyin (hànyǔ pīnyīn) system of romanization for Standard Chinese, an apostrophe is often loosely said to separate syllables in a word where ambiguity could arise. Example: the standard romanization for the name of the city Xī'ān includes an apostrophe to distinguish it from a single-syllable word . More strictly, however, it is standard to place an apostrophe only before every a, e, or o that starts a new syllable after the first if it is not preceded by a hyphen or a dash. Examples: Tiān'ānmén, Yǎ'ān; but simply Jǐnán, in which the syllables are ji and nan, since the absence of an apostrophe shows that the syllables are not jin and an (contrast Jīn'ān). This is a kind of morpheme-separation marking (see above). In the largely superseded Wade–Giles romanization for Standard Chinese, an apostrophe marks aspiration of the preceding consonant sound. Example: in tsê (pinyin ze) the consonant represented by ts is unaspirated, but in ts'ê (pinyin ce) the consonant represented by ts is aspirated. Some academic users of the system write this character as a spiritus asper () or single left (opening) quotation mark (‘). In some systems of romanization for the Japanese, the apostrophe is used between moras in ambiguous situations, to differentiate between, for example, and  + . (This is similar to the practice in Pinyin mentioned above.) In science fiction and fantasy, the apostrophe is often used in fictional names, sometimes to indicate a glottal stop (for example Mitth'raw'nuruodo in Star Wars), but also sometimes simply for decoration. Typographic form The shape of the apostrophe originated in manuscript writing, as a point with a downwards tail curving clockwise. This form was inherited by the typographic apostrophe, , also known as the typeset apostrophe (or, informally, the curly apostrophe). Later sans-serif typefaces had stylised apostrophes with a more geometric or simplified form, but usually retaining the same directional bias as a closing quotation mark. With the invention of the typewriter, a "neutral" or "straight" shape quotation mark, , was created to represent a number of different glyphs with a single keystroke: the apostrophe, both the opening and the closing single quotation marks, the single primes, and on some typewriters even the exclamation point (by backspacing and overprinting with a period). This is known as the typewriter apostrophe or 'vertical apostrophe'. The same convention was adopted for double quotation marks (). Both simplifications carried over to computer keyboards and the ASCII character set. Informal use in records of measurement Formally, the symbol used to represent a foot of length, depth, or height, is (prime) and that for the inch is (double prime). (For example, in the US and UK, the notation signifies 5 feet and 7 inches). Similarly, the prime symbol is the formal representation of a minute of arc (1/60 of a degree in geometry and geomatics), and double prime represents a second of arc (for example, 17°54'32" represents 17 degrees 54 minutes and 32 seconds). Because of the very close similarity of the typewriter apostrophe and typewriter double quote to prime and double prime, substitution in informal contexts is ubiquitous but they are deprecated in contexts where proper typography is important. Unicode In its Unicode Standard (version 13.0), the Unicode Consortium describes three characters that represent apostrophe: : The typewriter or ASCII apostrophe. The standard remarks: is preferred where the character is to represent a punctuation mark, as for contractions: "we’ve", and the code is also referred to as a punctuation apostrophe. The closing single quote and the apostrophe were unified in Unicode 2.1 "to correct problems in the mapping tables from Windows and Macintosh code pages." This can make searching text more difficult as quotes and apostrophes cannot be distinguished without context. is preferred where the apostrophe is to represent a modifier letter (for example, in transliterations to indicate a glottal stop). In the latter case, it is also referred to as a letter apostrophe. The letter apostrophe may be used, for example, in transliterations to represent the Arabic glottal stop (hamza) or the Cyrillic "soft sign", or in some orthographies such as of Breton, where this combination is an independent trigraph. ICANN considers this the proper character for Ukrainian apostrophe within IDNs. This character is rendered identically to in the Unicode code charts, and the standard cautions that one should never assume this code is used in any language. Characters similar to apostrophe Hawaiian okina and for the transliteration of Arabic and Hebrew ʻayn. Arabic hamza and Hebrew alef. Arabic and Hebrew ʿayin. Stress accent or dynamic accent. One of two characters for glottal stop in Nenets. Also known as combining Greek psili. Also known as combining Greek dasia. Identical to U+0313. Also known as Greek . (or turned comma, which can mark a letter's omission) Saltillo of the languages of Mexico. Fullwidth form of the typewriter apostrophe. Computing In modern computing practice, Unicode is the standard and default method for character encoding. However, Unicode itself and many legacy applications have echoes of earlier practices. Furthermore, the limited character set provided by computer keyboards has also required practical and pragmatic adjustments. These issues are detailed below. ASCII encoding The typewriter apostrophe, , was inherited by computer keyboards, and is the only apostrophe character available in the (7-bit) ASCII character encoding, at code value 0x27 (39). In ASCII, it may be used to represent any of left single quotation mark, right single quotation mark, apostrophe, vertical line or prime (punctuation marks), or an acute accent (modifier letters). Many earlier (pre-1985) computer displays and printers rendered the ASCII apostrophe as a typographic apostrophe, and rendered the grave accent ('back tick', 0x60, 96) as a matching left single quotation mark. This allowed a more typographic appearance of text: ``I can't'' would appear as on these systems. This can still be seen in many documents prepared at that time, and is still used in the TeX typesetting system to create typographic quotes. Typographic apostrophe in 8-bit encodings Support for the typographic apostrophe ( ’ ) was introduced in several 8-bit character encodings, such as the Apple Macintosh operating system's Mac Roman character set (in 1984), and later in the CP1252 encoding of Microsoft Windows. Both sets also used this code point for a closing single quote. There is no such character in ISO 8859-1. The Microsoft Windows code page CP1252 (sometimes incorrectly called ANSI or ISO-Latin) contains the typographic apostrophe at 0x92. Due to "smart quotes" in Microsoft software converting the ASCII apostrophe to this value, other software makers have been effectively forced to adopt this as a de facto convention. For instance, the HTML5 standard specifies that this value is interpreted as this character from CP1252. Some earlier non-Microsoft browsers would display a '?' for this and make web pages composed with Microsoft software somewhat hard to read. Entering apostrophes Although ubiquitous in typeset material, the typographic apostrophe ( ’ ) is rather difficult to enter on a computer, since it does not have its own key on a standard keyboard. Outside the world of professional typesetting and graphic design, many people do not know how to enter this character and instead use the typewriter apostrophe ( ' ). The typewriter apostrophe has always been considered tolerable on Web pages because of the egalitarian nature of Web publishing, the low resolution of computer monitors in comparison to print, and legacy limitations provided by ASCII. More recently, the standard use of the typographic apostrophe is becoming more common on the Web due to the wide adoption of the Unicode text encoding standard, higher-resolution displays, and advanced anti-aliasing of text in modern operating systems. Because typewriter apostrophes are now often automatically converted to typographic apostrophes by word processing and desktop publishing software, the typographic apostrophe does often appear in documents produced by non-professionals, albeit sometimes incorrectly—see the section "Smart Quotes" below. XML (and hence XHTML) defines an &apos; character entity reference for the ASCII typewriter apostrophe. &apos; is officially supported in HTML since HTML 5. It is not defined in HTML 4 despite all the other predefined character entities from XML being defined. If it cannot be entered literally in HTML, a numeric character reference could be used instead, such as &#x27; or &#39;. In the HTML entity &rsquo; the rsquo is short for right single quotation mark. Smart quotes To make typographic apostrophes easier to enter, word processing and publishing software often convert typewriter apostrophes to typographic apostrophes during text entry (at the same time converting opening and closing single and double quotes to their standard left-handed or right-handed forms). A similar facility may be offered on web servers after submitting text in a form field, e.g. on weblogs or free encyclopedias. This is known as the smart quotes feature; apostrophes and quotation marks that are not automatically altered by computer programs are known as dumb quotes. Such conversion is not always correct. Smart quotes features often incorrectly convert a leading apostrophe to an opening quotation mark (e.g., in abbreviations of years: ‘29 rather than the correct ’29 for the years 1929 or 2029 (depending on context); or ‘twas instead of ’twas as the archaic abbreviation of it was). Smart quote features also often fail to recognise situations when a prime rather than an apostrophe is needed; for example, incorrectly rendering the latitude 49° 53′ 08″ as 49° 53’ 08”. In Microsoft Word it is possible to turn smart quotes off (in some versions, by navigating through Tools, AutoCorrect, AutoFormat as you type, and then unchecking the appropriate option). Alternatively, typing Control-Z (for Undo) immediately after entering the apostrophe will convert it back to a typewriter apostrophe. In Microsoft Word for Windows, holding down the Control key while typing two apostrophes will produce a single typographic apostrophe. Programming Some programming languages, like Pascal, use the ASCII apostrophe to delimit string literals. In many languages, including JavaScript, ECMAScript, and Python, either the apostrophe or the double quote may be used, allowing string literals to contain the other character (but not to contain both without using an escape character), e.g. foo = 'He said "Bar!"';. Strings delimited with apostrophes are often called single quoted''. Some languages, such as Perl, PHP, and many shell languages, treat single quoted strings as "raw" strings, while double quoted strings have expressions (such as "$variable") replaced with their values when interpreted. The C programming language (and many derived languages like C++, Java, C#, and Scala) uses apostrophes to delimit a character literal. In these languages a character is a different object than a one-letter string. In C++, since C++14, apostrophes are also used as digit separators in numeric literals. In Visual Basic (and earlier Microsoft BASIC dialects such as QuickBASIC) an apostrophe is used to denote the start of a comment. In the Lisp family of programming languages, an apostrophe is shorthand for the quote operator. In Rust, in addition to being used to delimit a character literal, an apostrophe can start an explicit lifetime. See also Apologetic apostrophe Caron Contraction (grammar) Elision Genitive case Modifier letter double apostrophe Possessive case Wikipedia Manual of Style § Apostrophes for the use of different apostrophe characters within Wikipedia Notes and references Notes References Bibliography External links "Obsessed with Possessives" The Carolina Chapter of the Society for Technical Communication article on apostrophe use with possessives. The apostrophe character Problems representing apostrophes on computers The Apostrophe Protection Society ASCII and Unicode quotation marks The Dreaded Apostrophe: An approach using a single rule only How to use an apostrophe The Oatmeal "How the Past Affects the Future: The Story of the Apostrophe" by Christina Cavella and Robin A. Kernodle A humorous guide to proper and improper usage of the apostrophe Humble apostrophe reprieved in council U-turn |The Times, 18 March 2013 The Ultimate Flowchart to Using Apostrophes (Infographic) Latin-script diacritics English orthography Hebrew diacritics Punctuation

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Scouting in Wales provides an overview of Scouting activities in Wales. Scout troops have existed in the country since 1908 with the largest number of Scouts and volunteer leaders today linked to the Scout Association of the United Kingdom. This is done through ScoutsCymru, the Welsh Scout Council who split the region further into four regions and a total of 12 Scout Areas. In addition to the Scout Association, there are also traditional Scouting groups belonging to the Baden-Powell Scouts' Association and a number of Scouting clubs within Universities which are affiliated to the Student Scout and Guide Organisation. The Scout Association: ScoutsCymru ScoutsCymru, formerly known as ScoutsWales and the Welsh Scout Council, is the Country Scout Headquarters for Wales and supports the development of The Scout Association programme in the Country. It was first established in 1925 and is distinct from the other country Scout headquarters as a number of matters are undertaken by the UK headquarters at Gilwell Park but does have a role in tailoring the Scout Association programme and message to Wales such as providing programme resources and support in the Welsh language in line with legislation. There are 14,000 young people and 5,000 adult volunteers in ScoutsCymru. Prior to the formal establishment of the Welsh Scout Council, the appointment of Chief Scout of the Principality of Wales was held by Edward, Prince of Wales from 1911 and held this position until he became official patron of the Scout Movement across the British Empire on becoming King Edward VIII in 1936. The current name of ScoutsCymru was adopted on 1 March 2016, Saint David's Day, to reflect the pride of the welsh roots of the organisation and to reflect a commitment to the culture of Wales. ScoutsCymru has a similar organisational structure to England with four regions, 12 Scout Areas supporting local Scout districts and groups. The lead volunteer for Wales, the Chief Commissioner for Wales, leads Scouts Cymru and since 2018 this has been Rhian Moore. They are supported by a team of 27 volunteers, collectively branded as TeamCymru, including two Deputy Chief Commissioners for Strategy and Operations, as well as a Youth Commissioner for Wales; a 20 strong board of trustees to govern the charity; and 11 paid members of staff based at the headquarters in Caerphilly. ScoutsCymru also operate a number of properties and sites that are available for other Scouts to use. This includes meeting rooms at their HQ in Caerphilly, the Yr Hafod mountaineering hostel in Snowdonia that is part of the Scout Adventures grouping and the Cornel Scout Centre in Snowdonia with indoor accommodation and camping space. Scouts in Wales wear the same uniform as the wider Scout Association but with the addition of a badge showing the flag of Wales on each shoulder. Similarly, the ScoutCymru scarf design is red with green and white borders to match the flag of Wales. There are a number of badges and awards specific to Welsh Scouts which are awarded by ScoutsCymru HQ: The Welsh Beaver, Cub and Scout Awards, one for each section, that raise awareness of Welsh heritage. Dragon Award, available in Bronze, Silver and Gold variations can be achieved by members in the Scouts, Explorers and Scout Network sections. Aims to promote outdoor nights away experiences in new and different locations and at different times of the year. Democracy challenge to raise awareness of the democratic processes within the section, the local community and at elections for the Welsh and UK Parliament. Produced in partnership with the Welsh Parliament and open to all sections. Rights Badge to raise awareness of children's rights and the role of the Children's Commissioner for Wales and produced in partnership with the Commissioner's office. Flood Awareness Badge for the Cub and Scouts sections to raise awareness of flooding and how it can be prevented. Produced in partnership with Natural Resources Wales. Internet Safety Award for each section produced in partnership with the Child Exploitation and Online Protection Command. A number of events are organised on a Wales-wide basis coordinated by ScoutsCymru. Such events include Beaver Scout Leaders' Conference, Wales Cub Fun Day, All Wales Scout Camp and AWESOME. Brecknock Scout Area Brecknock Scout Area is located within the Powys Welsh Scout Region and covers an area approximate to the historic county of Brecknockshire. It includes much of the Brecon Beacons National Park and is rural in nature. It is led by an area commissioner, along with other volunteers at area and district levels. The area is split into three Scout districts that support the nine Scout groups in the area: Brecon & Glanusk including Crickhowell, Llangynidr and Llangors. Builth Wells in the North of the area including nearby Llanwrtyd Wells. Ystradgynlais in the South West corner of the area. From early days of the movement, the area experienced strong growth through the influence of Baron Glanusk, who became the first Commissioner for Wales in 1912, and with the first Ystradgynlais troop established in 1908. Scouts marked the coronation of George VI and Elizabeth II in 1937 and 1953 respectively by lighting a beacon on Pen y Fan - a symbol that appears as the area badge for members' uniforms. Welsh Jamborees were celebrated in the area at Gwernyfed in 1961 and Glanusk in 1993. Cardiff and Vale Scout Area Cardiff and Vale Scout Area, located in the South Wales Region, is concurrent with the City of Cardiff and the county borough of the Vale of Glamorgan which includes the towns of Barry, Penarth, Llantwit Major, and Cowbridge. It is led by an area commissioner, along with other volunteers at area and district levels. As of January 2021, there are 2,600 members in the area. The area has a central office, called The Hub, in the Gabalfa community of Cardiff and offers meeting space, resources for leaders and a Scout shop run by a paid administrator. The area has around 4,000 members and is split into five districts and around 50 groups. These were last reorganised in 2017 and are: Cardiff East covering an area of the city roughly east of the railway line to Caerphilly including Cathays, Roath, Cyncoed and Trowbridge. Cardiff North covering the central north part of the city including Llanishen, Rhiwbina and Whitchurch. Cardiff West covering the area of the city west of the River Taff including Radyr, Llandaff, Ely and Grangetown. Penarth and District including Dinas Powys, Sully and Wenvoe. Tir a Môr (English: Land and Sea) covers the western Vale of Glamorgan including Barry, Cowbridge and Llantwit Major. The Area runs and owns two campsites; Jubilee field which is based in the Vale of Glamorgan, and Miskin Mill Scout Village which is owned jointly with Mid Glamorgan Scout Area. Since the mid-1980s, the area has run a Scout Post system around Christmas time where Scouts sort and deliver Christmas cards as a fundraising activity and a way to engage the community. The uniform badge used by the area and worn on the uniform of every member shows three chevrons pointing up and coloured differently in the two halves of the badge: white on a red background on the left and red on a gold background on the right, similar in style to that appearing on the coat of arms of both Cardiff and the Vale of Glamorgan. 1st Cathays Al Huda Located within the area, the 1st Cathays Al Huda Scout Group in Cardiff became the first Muslim Scout Group in Wales in 2006 and the tenth in the United Kingdom. Informal meetings of the Group started in 2002, prior to its official establishment in January 2006, growing from 61 members in 2006 to 98 in 2010. By 2018, they had 250 members making them one of the largest Muslim scout groups in the UK. They provide the full range of Scouting sections including separate sections for boys and girls. Tŷ Hafan Scouts Conceived in 2007 for the Centenary of Scouting and founded in 2008, Tŷ Hafan Scout Group provides scouting activities to the patients at the Tŷ Hafan children's hospice. They are the first hospice Scout group in the UK and emerged from the need to provide fun activities and experiences to the children with life limiting conditions including camping and activities with their families. The group do not charge patients for the activities, so costs for the activities and the Scouts membership fees are covered through fundraising. Lord Mayor's Own Scouts Run directly by the area, The Lord Mayor's Own Scout Troop is made up of Scouts from the area which have achieved the highest youth awards. Since 2003, this has been Scouts achieving the Chief Scout's Gold Award, the Chief Scout's Platinum Award, the Chief Scout's Diamond Award and the Queen's Scout Award. The troop support the Lord Mayor of Cardiff with ceremonies and civic events. The group first emerged when the 14th Cardiff Scout Troop assisted with the rescue efforts at the Senghenydd colliery disaster in 1913 when their efforts were recognised by James Robinson, the Lord Mayor of Cardiff, he adopted the group and presented them some colours. When the group was disbanded in 1954, the colours were returned to the City Council and stored where they were uncovered in 1994 by the Lord Mayor Councilor Ricky Ormand who approached the Scouts to discover their story. The Lord Mayor's Own Scout troop was reformed in its current state in that year with members wearing a white necker bearing the coat of arms of the City of Cardiff. Carmarthenshire Scout Area Carmarthenshire Scout Area is located within the West Welsh Scout Region and covers an area roughly concurrent to the historic county of Carmarthenshire (the exception being Scout groups in Newcastle Emlyn which is administered by neighbouring Ceredigion Scout Area). It is led by an area commissioner, along with other volunteers at the area level to support scout groups directly as there are no districts within Carmarthenshire. The 1st Carmarthen Scout Group is notable within the area as one of the founding troops registered with the Scout Association in 1908 while local records suggest another early Scout group in Llanelli founded in 1908. Ceredigion Scout Area Ceredigion Scout Area is located within the West Welsh Scout Region and covers an area roughly concurrent to the principal area of Ceredigion and includes around 600 members. It is led by an area commissioner, along with a team of 8 volunteers at the area level to support scout groups and districts. The area is split into two districts: North Ceredigion including Aberystwyth. Teifi covering the southern part of the area and named for the River Teifi that forms the southern border of the area. The area has a lengthy history of Scouting with records existing in the Ceredigion Archives for the Aberystwyth Local Scout Association in April 1910. Clwyd Scout Area Clwyd Scout Area is located within the North Welsh Scout Region and covers an area largely equal to the preserved county of Clwyd, specifically the boroughs of Denbighshire, Flintshire and Wrexham, in the North East of Wales. The area has around 2,200 Scouts and a further 800 adults and is led by an area commissioner along with a team of volunteers at the area level to support the Scout districts and the approximately 60 scout groups. The area is split into four districts: Flintshire Llangollen includes the areas of the counties of Denbighshire and Wrexham around the town of Llangollen including Corwen and Chirk. Vale of Clwyd covering the remaining areas of Denbighshire including Rhyl and Prestatyn. Wrexham The former national Scout camp of Brynbach, which was used since the 1930s , transferred to headquarters in December 1948 and closed in September 1952, is situated in Denbighshire near the village of Saron. Eryri Y Mon Scout Area Eryri Y Mon Scout Area (English: Snowdonia and the Isle of Anglesey) is located within the North Welsh Scout Region and covers an area concurrent with the preserved county of Gwynedd, the borough of Conwy and the island of Anglesey. It also covers the Snowdonia National Park and is led by an area commissioner. The area is split into three districts following local authority boundaries: Conwy Gwynedd Ynys Môn (English: Isle of Anglesey) and sometimes shortened to ScoutsMôn. The Gwynedd Archives Service holds records of Scouts in the area as early as 1911 with records of Scouts in Anglesey, Caernarfonshire and Merionethshire. Local newspaper records identify the 1st Colwyn (YMCA) as being founded in May 1908. Glamorgan West Scout Area Glamorgan West Scout Area is covers an area equal to the City and County of Swansea and county borough of Neath Port Talbot. The area is split into three districts: Afan Nedd covers the county borough of Neath Port Talbot and is named jointly for the River Afan and Neath which translates as Castell-nedd in Welsh. Cwm Newydd covers the northern suburbs of Swansea including Loughor, Morriston, Fforestfach and Pontarddulais. Swansea and Gower Notable in the district for its history is the 1st Swansea Sea Scouts which were founded in July 1913 with help from Captain Heneage of Parc le Breos. 60 members of the troop would end up fighting in World War I with 6 dying in that conflict; their names are all recorded in a memorial in the West Glamorgan Archives. Gwent Scout Area Gwent Scout Area is located within the South Welsh Scout Region and covers much of the preserved county of Gwent. It covers the county boroughs of Blaenau Gwent, Monmouthshire, Torfaen and the City of Newport. It is led by an area commissioner, along with other volunteers at area and district levels. The area is split into four Scout districts which follow the council boundaries: Blaenau Gwent has groups in the towns of Abertillery, Blaina, Brynmawr, Ebbw Vale, Tredegar and the villages of Beaufort and Cwm. Monmouthshire has groups across the district including the towns of Abergavenny, Caldicot, Chepstow and Usk. Newport Torfaen with groups in Blaenavon, Cwmbran and Pontypool. The area has a long history of Scouting with groups in the area by 1910 with the first recorded decision to establish a troop in May 1908. Records of these exist through newspaper records and minute books from trustees dating back to 1927. Notable in the area is the 25th Newport Air Scouts, who are the only Royal Air Force recognised Scout troop in Wales. The area runs a series of regular events including Gwentrek, an expedition challenge for Scouts and Explorer Scouts. Mid Glamorgan Scout Area Mid Glamorgan Scout Area is located within the South Welsh Scout Region and is named for the preserved county of Mid Glamorgan. It covers the county boroughs of Bridgend, Caerphilly, Merthyr Tydfil and Rhondda Cynon Taf. It is led by an area commissioner, along with a team of 16 volunteers at area and district levels. The area is split into four Scout districts which follow the council boundaries: Bridgend including the towns of Bridgend, Maesteg, Pencoed and Porthcawl. CRAI serves the Caerphilly County Borough, with its name serving as an initialism of Caerphilly, Rhymney Valley And Islwyn. Merthyr Tydfil serves the town of the same name as well as Aberfan, Treharris and Troed-y-rhiw. Rhondda Cynon Taf including Aberdare, Pontypridd, Porth, Tonypandy and Treorchy. Montgomeryshire Scout Area Montgomeryshire Scout Area is named for the historic county of the same name and sits as the Northern section of the principal area and preserved county of Powys and the Powys Welsh Scout Region. It is rural in nature and has a single district serving the nine groups in locations including in the main towns of Llanidloes, Machynlleth, Montgomery, Newtown and Welshpool. It is led by an area commissioner along with a team of 12 volunteers including a district commissioner. Pembrokeshire Scout Area Pembrokeshire Scout Area serves the county and principal area of the same name and is part of the West Welsh Scout Region. It is led by an area commissioner, along with a team of volunteers to support the local Scouting groups and sections. It has a single district serving the groups in the towns of Goodwick, Haverfordwest, Milford Haven, Narberth, Pembroke and Pembroke Dock as well as the villages of Johnston and Kilgetty. Radnor Scout Area Radnor Scout Area is located within the Powys Welsh Scout Region and covers an area approximate to the historic county of Radnorshire. It is led by an area commissioner along with a team of volunteers to support the local Scouting groups and sections and is organised into a single Radnor Scout district. Baden-Powell Scouts' Association Within Wales there is also a presence of Scout Groups affiliated to the Baden-Powell Scouts' Association who follow the traditional Scouting methods. They share the history of the Scout Association until 1970 when they split to continue following the traditional Scouting method and programme as a result of the changes suggested by The Chief Scout's Advance Party Report. Student Scout and Guide Organisation (SSAGO) There are five Scouting clubs at universities across the country all affiliated to the Student Scout and Guide Organisation (SSAGO). These clubs are based at Aberystwyth University (AberSSAGO), Bangor University (Bangor BUGS), Swansea University (SUGS), University of South Wales (SSAGO USW) and Cardiff SSAGS which covers Cardiff University, Cardiff Metropolitan University, University of Wales and Royal Welsh College of Music & Drama. Campsites There is a large number of Scout campsites within Wales serving youth groups in a variety of settings. Due to the mountainous nature of many rural areas in the country, there are a number of centres clustered in some areas of the country including some owned and run by Scouting organisations from outside the area. Clwyd The preserved county of Clwyd contains a number of campsites including Cornel Scout Centre owned and run by ScoutsCymru and centres owned by local Scouts. Clwyd Scout Area run the Cae Llwyd greenfield campsite near Ruabon Moors and the Gladstone centre which includes an indoor centre and campsite facilities. Additionally, the Wrexham Scout district within the area run the Cox Wood campsite, the Rowallan Scout campsite and hall is owned by the 1st Hope Scout Group and the Chirk Bunkhouse, which beds 24, is owned and run jointly by Chirk Scouts and Girlguiding. The Northampton Scouts owned Yr Hen Felin Activity and Mountain Centre an the Conwy Scouts owned Rowen Campsite are also located in the county. Cornel Located on the banks of Llyn Crafnant, high above the Conwy valley, Cornel Scout Centre is a 25 acre site owned by ScoutsCymru and run by a team of volunteers. The site contains an indoor scouting centre (comprising the house and the annex) that sleeps 30 and an outdoor campsite area that has camping space for a further 30 young people. It is limited in the activities it provides on site due to its size but does offer pioneering and backwoods cooking activities; it is however a useful base for hillwalking nearby and for boating on lakes nearby. Cox Wood Owned by the Wrexham Scout District and located between the town and Chester, Cox Wood Scout Campsite includes a number of clearings within an ancient woodland setting. In addition, the site also has two indoor lodges housing kitchens and dining areas, indoor classroom for training and activities and an outdoor activity shelter. The site contains a wide range of activities including climbing, abseiling, bouldering, adventure playground, crate stacking, pedal go carts, archery and rifle shooting. Gladstone The Clwyd Scout Area run The Gladstone Centre, a campsite and indoor centre located between Hawarden and Broughton. The site has a number of camping sites bordering woodland and two centres: an indoor training centre and a bunkhouse offering indoor accommodation. The site also has a few onsite activities including pioneering, abseiling and orienteering as well as being well placed for activities based on the nearby area. Rowen Gwersyll Parc Mawr, often referred to by its location as Rowen campsite is a 2 acre split level campsite and building located near Rowen, Conwy and partly named for the Parc Mawr ancient woodland to the north. It was gifted to the Conwy Scout District in 1931 by Dr W H Tattershall of Conwy and was notable until World War II as the only adult training centre for Mid and North Wales. The camp building on site has 6 beds, a kitchen and multi-purpose hall for indoor activities. Yr Hen Felin Located in Cynwyd, Denbighshire, Yr Hen Felin Activity and Mountain Centre (English: The Old Mill) is an activity centre owned by Northampton Scout District. Purchased in 2005 and opened in 2006, the site used to be the Cynwyd Youth Hostel run by the Youth Hostels Association (YHA) from the 1930s until the decision to sell it off in 2005 due to low usage and high costs required to bring it up to modern standards. The centre is focused on the former hostel, which sleeps 30, and a camping area outside ideal for expeditions. Activities offered include pioneering, canoeing, bouldering and mountain based activities. Dyfed The preserved county of Dyfed contains two Scout campsites. The Carmarthenshire Scout Area is responsible for the Cwm Rhaeadr Scout Camp (English: Valley of the Waterfall) near Llandovery, which also goes by the name Rhandyrmwyn. Located in the Natural Resources Wales forest of the same name, the site has access to walking routes and a mountain biking trail in the woodland. It is a predominantly back to basics campsite with space for 100 campers but also contains two camping barns with 24 beds and no kitchen to promote backwoods cooking. The Pembrokeshire Scout Area runs St Bride's Scouting Campsite in St Brides near Haverfordwest. The site is located in the Pembrokeshire Coast National Park as part of a former orchard on the edge of the St Brides Castle estate. While the site has no on-site activities, it does have camping space for approximately 60 people and two cottages on the site for indoor use. Gwent The Gwent preserved county is home to one scout centre, the Botany Bay Training and Activity Centre run by Gwent Scout Area and located in the Wye Valley near Tintern. The 27 acre mostly wooded site has a large camping field, indoor activity and training spaces and cabins for accommodation. Activities on the site are primarily limited to traditional scouting activities although some other activities and visit locations are available off-site nearby. Gwynedd The Gwynedd county has half a dozen scout centres, grouped in the north of the county towards the top of the Snowdonia National Park including the only Scout Adventures centre in Wales. A number of these are owned and run by Scout organisations outside of Wales, primarily as bases for hillwalking in the surrounding area: the 38 bed Old School Lodge in Deiniolen is owned by Wallasey & West Wirral Scout Districts; the 36 bed Clogwyn Centre in Port Penrhyn owned by Mersey Weaver Scout District and includes an indoor climbing wall; and the 30 bed Yr Hen Neuadd (English: The Old Hall) centre located in Bethesda which was converted from a Salvation Army hall in 1970 by Greater London South West Scout County. Scouts also have access to the Clwt-y-Bel 18 bed bunkhouse near Deiniolen owned by the Shrewsbury Mountaineering Club and the 34 bed Coetmor Mill Bunk House near Bethesda. It was formerly a water mill that was disused by the late 19th century before being converted to a bunkhouse by Hertfordshire Scout County in the late 1960s and used as their mountain centre until the surrendered the lease in 2016; the centre is now owned by the Coetmor Mill Trust. Yr Hafod Located in Nant Ffrancon Pass, Snowdonia, Yr Hafod (English: Summer house) is owned by ScoutsCymru and run as part of the national Scout Adventures grouping. It was opened in 1959 by Bill Tilman, it consists of a single 32 bed lodge with no camping area. It offers crag climbing, hill walking and hiking in the surrounding mountains and runs a significant number of mountaineering training courses each year. It is also a base for expeditions, particularly for parties undertaking their Duke of Edinburgh's Award. Mid Glamorgan The preserved county of Mid Glamorgan houses three Scout campsites primarily owned by the Scout Areas within the county. Miskin Mill Scout Village near Llantrisant is jointly run by Cardiff and The Vale and Mid Glamorgan Scout Areas, while the latter also run the Plas Dolygaer campsite and 36 bed accommodation centre near Pontsticill as their mountain training centre. The CRAI Scout District covering Caerphilly owns the CRAI Scout Activity Park near Newbridge. CRAI Scout Activity Park Located near Newbridge, CRAI Scout Activity Park (alternatively known as Islwyn Scout Parc) is owned by the Scout district of the same name. Open to all youth groups, the centre includes camping space for 300 people, a lodge containing training space and 16 beds and an activity centre with climbing, abseiling and bouldering walls. The site also hosts archery, tomahawk throwing, rifle shooting, canoeing and kayaking. Miskin Mill Located near Llantrisant, Miskin Mill Scout Village is a Scout centre and campsite owned and run jointly by the Mid Glamorgan and Cardiff and Vale Scout Areas. It is based around a historic Water Mill from 16th Century which has been used by the Scouts since 1929, initially owned by the Welsh Scout Council and since 1985 the two Scout areas. The 3 acre site contains camping space as well as a series of buildings on site: the mill itself offering indoor activity space and dining facilities, the 32 bed lodge accommodation building and the cottage containing an activity room and kitchen. As well as being ideally placed for local attractions, the site offers archery, shooting, laser tag, pioneering and crate stacking on site. Powys While some Scout headquarters are available to rent as smaller campsites the primary campsite in the preserved county is Gwersyll Bryniau, the area campsite owned and run by the Montgomeryshire Scout Area. Located north of Machynlleth, the site consists of a 4 acre camping field and 20 acres of woodland and offers basic activities such as pioneering and walking locally. South Glamorgan Cardiff and The Vale Scout Area own and are responsible for Jubilee Campsite, a small campsite in Peterston-super-Ely offering basics camping and on-site target activities. West Glamorgan The preserved county of West Glamorgan has a number of centres including Silver Cross Scout Centre near Morriston, the Cadoxton campsite near Neath and the Moorlakes Wood and Parc-le-Breos greenfield campsites which are both on the Gower Peninsula with the latter run by Swansea and Gower Scout District. Swansea Marina is also the home of the MAST Centre, short for Marine Activity Scout Training Centre, which offers water activities and can be used for indoor accommodation. Cadoxton The Neath Scout Activity Centre, or more formally the John Leitz Training Ground, is located in Cadoxton, Neath on the edge of the Craig Gwladys Country Park. The site offers camping across two fields, and has a main hall that includes space for activities, dining, meetings and a 6 bed bunk room and provision for more sleeping in the main hall. Silver Cross Glamorgan West Scout Area is responsible for Silver Cross Scout Centre near Llangyfelach, Swansea. The 15 acre mostly wooded site has been running as a Scout campsite since 1951 and is run by a volunteer team offering camping and indoor accommodation and activity space suitable for 40 people. The site has a climbing and abseiling wall, archery and rifle shooting ranges, adventure course and offers crate stacking, paintball, laser tag and tomahawk throwing. Gang Shows There are two Gang Shows in Wales:- Cardiff and Newport. Scout Bands It was estimated by Gilwell park, that during the late 1950s, there was around 50 marching band associated with Scouting in Wales. These numbers rapidly decreased in the early 1990s and today only one marching band is associated with Scouting in Wales – 1st Rogerstone Scout Band. The 1st Rogerstone Scout Band was formed in 1957 by Ramon O'brien, who continued, as bandmaster, until his death in January 2012. Ramon played with the Newport District Scout Band and continued to play in both until Newport District Scout band ceased to exist. It is a 'Group Band' however it has members from all over the Newport Scout District. The band was formed quite by chance, as someone offered Ramon some second hand drums they no longer had the space for, and the band was born. The band has included members that have gone onto play for The Parachute Regiments Corps of Drums. It has played a major part in Rogerstone's Remembrance Day Parade as well as Newport District's annual St George's Day Parade. In February 2012, Gavin Foley and Jonathan Gibbons took over the band as Band Master and Assistant Band master, and have subsequently added new music and instruments, to the existing line up. In the summer of 2012, Andy Watson joined the leadership team as Director of Music See also Scouting sections Neighbouring areas: Scouting in North West England Scouting in West Midlands Scouting in South West England Girlguiding Cymru References External links Scouts Cymru - The Scout Association in Wales website. Wales, Scouting in Education in Wales

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FC Spartak Vladikavkaz () was a Russian football club based in Vladikavkaz (formerly Ordzhonikidze), North Ossetia–Alania. Founded in 1921, the club played in the Soviet Top League during the communist era, and won its first and only league title in the 1995 Russian Top League. History At the collapse of the Soviet Union, Spartak Vladikavkaz were the only non-Muscovite Russian club competing in the old Soviet Top League. This had been their second and last season in the STL. Before that the only other season they competed in the top Soviet division was in 1970. Their most successful season was 1995 when they managed to win the Russian Premier League champions title after several years of domination by Spartak Moscow. They were the first non-Muscovite Russian club to win the title since Zenit St Petersburg won the STL in 1984. The team had previously won a silver medal for second place in 1992 and 1996. However, in the qualification stages of the UEFA Champions League Alania lost 10–3 on aggregate to the Scottish club Rangers. However, after departure of manager Valery Gazzaev and several players from the club, Alania were not able to repeat its success, finishing in the bottom half of the table. Previously, the club was known as Spartak Ordzhonikidze (1937–1990), Spartak Vladikavkaz (1990–1994, 2006 and from 2016), Spartak-Alania Vladikavkaz (1995–1996 and 2003), Alania Vladikavkaz (1997–2002, 2004–2005 and from 2007 to 2016). In season 2005 Alania was relegated from Russian Premier League after 15 seasons of top-flight football. On 14 February 2006 Alania and another First Division club, Lokomotiv Chita, were denied professional licences by Professional Football League and excluded from professional football for juridical irregularities. On 22 February PFL decided to replace Alania and Lokomotiv with Lada Togliatti and Mashuk-KMV Pyatigorsk, the runners-up in the Second Division. The Russian Football Union did not endorse the exclusion and on 28 February decided to keep Alania and Lokomotiv in the First Division, giving them another chance to fulfill the league requirements. Consequently, on 6 March PFL decided to extend the First Division from 22 to 24 clubs, including Alania, Lokomotiv, Lada, and Mashuk-KMV. However, on 20 March the Russian Football Union finally decided to exclude Alania and Lokomotiv from the league. This decision was announced by the Professional Football League on 21 March, five days before the start of the First Division. Alania underwent reorganization, were renamed Spartak Vladikavkaz and on 4 April were admitted into the Russian Second Division, South zone. After finishing first in the South Zone of 2nd division in the 2006 the team was promoted to Russian First Division and again renamed to Alania. In 2009, Alania achieved 3rd place in the Russian First Division, just below the nominal promotion places. However, due to FC Moscow being expelled from the Russian Premier League, Alania were chosen to take their place. Their season back in the top flight was not successful and only Sibir Novosibirsk finished below them, thus going back to the First Division; despite the subsequent withdrawal of Amkar Perm and Saturn Moscow Oblast, Alania was refused a reprieve by the RPL. In the spring of 2011, Alania qualified for the final of the 2010–11 Russian Cup, where it met PFC CSKA Moscow. CSKA already qualified for the UEFA Champions League spot, and therefore Alania secured a spot in the 2011–12 UEFA Europa League regardless of the final result. That is the second occasion in Russian football history when a second-level division team qualified for European competition (the first one was FC Terek Grozny). Alania achieved a rare feat of reaching the cup final without scoring a single regular-time goal. On three occasions they won a penalty shootout after playing the game with a score of 0–0 and once they received a bye after their opponent team went bankrupt. In February 2014, Alania pulled out of the 2013–14 Russia First Division, due to financial liquidation and sponsorship problems, and the club was dissolved. Before the 2014–15 season, former Alania's farm club, FC Alania-d Vladikavkaz, was renamed to Alania, and this club participated in the Russian Professional Football League from the 2014–15 season. Before the 2016–17 season, FC Alania Vladikavkaz that participated in the third-tier Russian Professional Football League was dissolved and a formally new club called FC Spartak was organized again and registered for PFL. PFL did not allow the club to register with 'Alania' in their name due to accumulated debts for the club of that name. Before the 2019–20 season, a new club was created with the historical name Alania that was privately owned, the team was tasked with returning to the elite of Russian football. However, Spartak Vladikavkaz also remained in the Russian Professional Football League for the 2019–20, where it finished in last place, before being dissolved in the summer of 2020. European Honours Russian Premier League Winners (1): 1995 Runners-up (2): 1992, 1996 Russian Cup Runners-up (1): 2010-11 Soviet First League Winners (2): 1969, 1990 Russian Football National League Runners-up (1): 2011-12 Soviet Second League / Russian Professional Football League Winners (2): 1983, 2006 Runners-up (2): 1966, 1982 League history Soviet Union {|class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |- style="background:#efefef;" ! Season ! Div. ! Pos. ! Pl. ! W ! D ! L ! GS ! GA ! P !Cup !colspan=2|Europe !Top Scorer (League) |- ||1960||2nd, RSFSR-3||14||26||3||4||19||26||68||10||-||colspan="2"|-|| |- ||1961||2nd, RSFSR-4||10||24||6||6||12||32||57||18||1/64||colspan="2"|-|| |- ||1962||2nd, RSFSR-3|| style="background:pink;"|8||28||10||6||12||38||36||26||1/128||colspan="2"|-|| |- ||1963||3rd, RSFSR-3||7||30||12||8||10||47||39||32||1/512||colspan="2"|-|| |- |rowspan="2"|1964||3rd, RSFSR-4||4||34||16||7||11||53||35||39||rowspan="2"|1/512||rowspan="2" colspan="2"|-|| |- ||3rd, RSFSR-final||4||8||3||2||3||9||10||8|| |- ||1965||rowspan="2"|3rd, RSFSR-4||9||38||16||7||15||54||43||39||-||colspan="2"|-|| |- |rowspan="2"|1966||1||38||22||9||7||80||40||53||rowspan="2"|1/32||rowspan="2" colspan="2"|-|| |- ||3rd, RSFSR-final|| style="background:lightgreen;"|2||7||4||1||2||9||4||9|| |- ||1967||2nd, group 1||16||38||10||11||17||34||45||31||1/32||colspan="2"|-|| |- ||1968||2nd, group 3||2||40||19||12||9||53||29||50||1/64||colspan="2"|-||align="left"| Kaishauri: 18 |- |rowspan="2"|1969||2nd, group 1||1||38||22||12||4||60||25||60||rowspan="2"|1/64||rowspan="2" colspan="2"|-|| rowspan="2" style="text-align:left;"| Papelishvili: 16 |- ||2nd, final|| style="background:lightgreen;"|1||3||2||0||1||4||2||4 |- ||1970||Top League|| style="background:pink;"|17||32||7||8||17||31||48||22||1/16||colspan="2"|-||align="left"| Kaishauri: 8 |- ||1971||rowspan="11"|2nd||5||42||19||7||16||52||57||45||1/16||colspan="2"|-||align="left"| Zazroev: 11 |- ||1972||9||38||14||10||14||49||50||38||1/16||colspan="2"|-||align="left"| Kaishauri: 18 |- ||1973||17||38||13||7||18||29||44||30||1/16||colspan="2"|-||align="left"| Kaishauri: 7 |- ||1974||17||38||15||4||19||45||67||34||1/32||colspan="2"|-||align="left"| Kitaev: 17 |- ||1975||9||38||15||7||16||41||43||37||1/32||colspan="2"|-||align="left"| V. Gazzaev: 14 |- ||1976||15||38||11||14||13||40||50||36||1/32||colspan="2"|-||align="left"| Kaishauri: 11 |- ||1977||15||38||11||11||16||38||45||33||1/32||colspan="2"|-||align="left"| Khuadonov: 6 |- ||1978||18||38||10||8||20||30||50||28||1/16||colspan="2"|-||align="left"| Khuadonov: 9 |- ||1979||13||46||19||7||20||49||44||45||group stage||colspan="2"|-||align="left"| Suanov, Zazroev: 9 |- ||1980||15||46||17||9||20||43||50||43||group stage||colspan="2"|-||align="left"| Khuadonov: 9 |- ||1981|| style="background:pink;"|21||46||14||12||20||36||49||40||group stage||colspan="2"|-||align="left"| Y. Gazzaev: 10 |- |rowspan="2"|1982||3rd, zone 3||1||32||22||6||4||64||18||50||rowspan="2"|-||rowspan="2" colspan="2"|-||align="left"| Y. Gazzaev: 23 |- ||3rd, final-1||2||4||1||2||1||5||4||4|| |- |rowspan="2"|1983||3rd, zone 3||1||30||23||2||5||69||23||48||rowspan="2"|-||rowspan="2" colspan="2"|-|| |- ||3rd, final-2|| style="background:lightgreen;"|1||4||1||3||0||2||0||5|| |- ||1984||rowspan="7"|2nd||16||42||15||8||19||42||51||38||1/32||colspan="2"|-||align="left"| Argudyaev: 13 |- ||1985||16||38||17||4||17||49||52||38||1/16||colspan="2"|-||align="left"| Ambalov: 12 |- ||1986||16||46||15||12||19||58||66||42||1/64||colspan="2"|-||align="left"| Ploshnik: 16 |- ||1987||18||42||12||12||18||37||46||36||1/64||colspan="2"|-||align="left"| Gagloev: 8 |- ||1988||13||42||15||9||8||57||60||39||1/32||colspan="2"|-||align="left"| Y. Gazzaev: 10 |- ||1989||17||42||12||11||19||44||61||35||1/64||colspan="2"|-||align="left"| Y. Gazzaev: 10, Tskhovrebov: 7 |- ||1990|| style="background:lightgreen;"|1||38||24||9||5||73||30||57||1/64||colspan="2"|-||align="left"| Tedeev: 23 |- ||1991||Top League||11||30||9||8||13||33||41||26||1/64||colspan="2"|-||align="left"| Suleymanov: 13 |- ||1992||-||-||-||-||-||-||-||-||-||1/16||colspan="2"|-|| |} Russia {|class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |- style="background:#efefef;" ! Season ! Div. ! Pos. ! Pl. ! W ! D ! L ! GS ! GA ! P !Cup !colspan=2|Europe !Top Scorer (League) |- ||1992||rowspan="14"|RFPL|| style="background:silver;"|2||26||13||6||7||47||33||32||-||colspan="2"|-||align="left"| Suleymanov: 12 |- ||1993||6||34||16||6||12||49||45||38||1/16||colspan="2"|-||align="left"| Suleymanov, Markhel: 14 |- ||1994||5||30||11||11||8||32||34||33||1/2||UC||R1||align="left"| Suleymanov: 6 |- ||1995|| style="background:gold;"|1||30||22||5||3||63||21||71||1/2||colspan="2"|-||align="left"| Kavelashvili: 12 |- ||1996|| style="background:silver;"|2||35||22||6||7||65||37||72||1/16||UC||R1||align="left"| Suleymanov, Tedeev, Kasymov: 11 |- ||1997||10||34||14||4||16||52||42||46||1/8||UC||R1||align="left"| Yanovsky: 13 |- ||1998||8||30||11||7||12||46||39||40||1/2||UC||R1||align="left"| Demetradze: 14 |- ||1999||6||30||12||7||11||54||45||43||1/8||colspan="2"|-||align="left"| Demetradze: 21 |- ||2000||10||30||10||8||12||34||36||38||1/16||colspan="2"|-||align="left"| Tedeev: 10 |- ||2001||11||30||8||8||14||31||47||32||1/16||UC||R1||align="left"| Paolo Emilio: 6 |- ||2002||12||30||8||6||16||31||42||30||1/16||colspan="2"|-||align="left"| Demetradze, D. Bazaev: 6 |- ||2003||13||30||9||4||17||23||43||31||1/16||colspan="2"|-||align="left"| Mikholap: 4 |- ||2004||14||30||7||7||16||28||52||28||1/8||colspan="2"|-||align="left"| G. Bazaev, Tudor: 5 |- ||2005|| style="background:pink;"|15||30||5||8||17||27||53||23||1/8||colspan="2"|-||align="left"| D. Bazaev: 9 |- ||2006||3rd, "South"|| style="background:lightgreen;"|1||32||27||3||2||81||20||84||1/16||colspan="2"|-||align="left"| Dubrovin: 28 |- ||2007||rowspan="3"|2nd||12||42||15||11||16||56||56||56||1/64||colspan="2"|-||align="left"| Dubrovin: 19 |- ||2008||10||42||17||8||17||50||41||59||1/32||colspan="2"|-||align="left"| Dadu: 18 |- ||2009|| style="background:lightgreen;"|3||38||21||7||10||57||30||70||1/16||colspan="2"|-||align="left"| Dadu: 12 |- ||2010||RFPL|| style="background:pink;"|15||30||4||8||18||34||58||20|| style="background:silver;"|F||colspan="2"|-||align="left"| Gabulov, Marenich: 4 |- ||2011–12 ||2nd|| style="background:lightgreen;"|2||52||28||13||11||66||39||97||1/32||colspan="2"|-||align="left"| Bikmaev: 11 |- ||2012–13 ||RFPL|| style="background:pink;"|16||30||4||7||19||26||53||19||1/16||colspan="2"|-||align="left"| Neco: 9 |- ||2013–14 ||2nd|| style="background:grey;"|12||36||14||4||18||29||52||46||1/16||colspan="2"|-||align="left"| Khastsayev: 13 |- ||2014–15 ||rowspan="5"|3rd, "South"||17||20||5||6||9|| |21||33||21 ||1/256||colspan="2"|-||align="left"| Burayev: 12 |- ||2015–16 ||style=";"|11||24||4||7||13||15||37||19||1/256||colspan="2"|-||align="left"| Sikoyev: 7 |- ||2016–17 ||style=";"|10||30||10||7||13||26||36||37||1/128||colspan="2"|-||align="left"| Gatikoev: 8 |- ||2017–18 ||style=";"|13||32||8||8||16||26||41||32||1/256||colspan="2"|-||align="left"| Gurtsiev: 5 |- ||2018–19 ||style=";"|10||28||8||6||14||36||48||30||1/64||colspan="2"|-||align="left"| Zhabkin: 8 |- ||2019–20 ||rowspan="5"| ||16||19||1||5||13|| |14||40||8||1/256||colspan="2"|-||align="left"| |} Former coaches Grigoriy Gornostaev (1966–1967) Mussa Tsalikov (1967) Andrei Zazroyev (1968–1970) Kazbek Tuaev (1970) Sergei Korshunov (1971) Dmitri Chikhradze (1971) Andrei Zazroyev (1972) Ivan Larin (1973) Kazbek Tuaev (1974–1977) Viktor Belov (1977–1978) Mussa Tsalikov (1978–1980) Andrei Zazroyev (1980–1981) Aleksandr Kochetkov (1982) Valeri Maslov (1983) Ivan Varlamov (1984) Valeri Ovchinnikov (1985–1986) Igor Zazroyev (1986–1987) Oleg Romantsev (1988) Valeriy Gazzaev (1989–1991) Nikolay Khudiyev (1991) Aleksandr Novikov (1992–1993) Valeriy Gazzaev (1994–1999) Vladimir Gutsaev (2000) Aleksandr Averyanov (2000–2001) Aleksandr Yanovskiy (2001–2002) Volodymyr Muntyan (2002) Bakhva Tedeyev (2002) Revaz Dzodzuashvili (2003) Nikolay Khudiyev (2003) Bakhva Tedeyev (2003–2004) Rolland Courbis (2004–2005) Yuri Sekinaev (2004) Bakhva Tedeyev (2005) Edgar Gess (2005) Itzhak Shum (2005) Aleksandr Yanovskiy (2005–2006) Boris Stukalov (2006–2007) Stanislav Tskhovrebov (2007-2008) Valery Petrakov (2009) Mircea Rednic (2009) Vladimir Shevchuk (2010–2011) Vladimir Gazzayev (2011–2012) Valeriy Gazzaev (2012–2014) Artur Pagayev (2014–2015) Zaur Tedeyev (2015–2016) Fyodor Gagloyev (2016) Marat Dzoblayev (2016-2017) Yuri Gazzaev (2018) Spartak Gogniyev (2019–Current) Notable players Soviet Union/Russia Valeriy Gazzaev Stanislav Cherchesov Zaur Khapov Viktor Bulatov Vasili Baranov Victor Onopko Yuri Kovtun Artur Pagayev Bakhva Tedeev Omari Tetradze Soslan Dzhanayev Igor Yanovsky Spartak Gogniyev Alan Kasaev Georgia Mikhail Kavelashvili Giorgi Demetradze Murtaz Shelia Mikheil Ashvetia Levan Kobiashvili Mamuka Kobakhidze Giorgi Chanturia Uzbekistan Mirjalol Qosimov Hungary Tamás Priskin Belarus Renan Bressan Ivory Coast Dacosta Goore Nigeria Isaac Okoronkwo Sani Kaita Bosnia and Herzegovina Ognjen Vranješ Zajko Zeba Vladan Grujić Lithuania Deividas Semberas Burkina Faso Ibrahim Gnanou Romania George Florescu Cristian Tudor El Salavdor Rodolfo Zelaya Netherlands Royston Drenthe Azerbaijan Nazim Suleymanov Moldova Sergiu Dadu New Zealand Kosta Barbarouses References 1921 establishments in Russia 2020 establishments in Russia Association football clubs established in 1921 Association football clubs disestablished in 2020 Defunct football clubs in Russia Sport in Vladikavkaz Soviet Top League clubs

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The following is a list of the first woman to serve as mayor of their respective municipalities. 1900s 1906 Lady Margaret Dockrell, first women chair of the Urban District Council of Monkstown, Ireland, United Kingdom 1908 Elizabeth Garrett Anderson, first woman mayor in England and first female mayor of Aldeburgh, United Kingdom 1910s 1910 Sarah Lees, first woman mayor of Oldham, in Lancashire, England Gwenllian Morgan, first woman mayor of Brecon, Wales, United Kingdom first woman mayor in Wales 1911 Kate F. O'Connor, first woman mayor of Arcadia, Illinois, United States Ella Wilson, first woman mayor of Hunnewell, Kansas 1912 Clara C. Munson, first woman mayor of Warrenton, Oregon, United States also the first woman elected mayor following the passage of the equal suffrage law in Oregon. Some sources, including The Daily Astorian, erroneously call Munson the first woman elected mayor in Oregon, however, that distinction belongs to Alice E. Burns who was elected mayor of Florence, Oregon in 1895. Mary E. Woolley Chamberlain, first woman mayor of Kanab, Utah, United States Susan Wissler, mayor of Dayton, Wyoming, United States Wissler was the first woman mayor in Wyoming 1913 Defenbaugh, first woman elected mayor in Tyro, Kansas, United States 1914 Clara Latourell Larsson, first woman elected mayor of Troutdale, Oregon, United States 1915 Angela Rose Canfield, first woman mayor of Warren, Illinois, United States Estelle Lawton Lindsey, first woman to execute the duties of Mayor of Los Angeles, California, United States it occurred when Los Angeles Mayor Henry R. Rose was absent from his post in September 1915 and directed Lindsey, a member of the city council, to fill-in as acting mayor. 1916 Ellen French Aldrich, first woman elected mayor of Sawtelle, United States C. I. Driver, first woman to serve as mayor of Lone Rock, Colorado, United States was appointed by the city council Mary Alice Partington, first woman mayor of Glossop, in Derbyshire . 1917 Avis Francis, first woman mayor of Valley Center, Kansas, United States Ophelia "Birdie" Crosby Harwood, mayor of Marble Falls, Texas, United States also the first woman mayor in Texas, elected by an all-male vote three years before women were allowed to vote. Marian Newhall Horwitz, first woman who served as mayor of Moore Haven, Florida, United States also first woman mayor in Florida Laura Jane Starcher, first woman elected mayor of Umatilla, Oregon, United States 1918 Blanch Shelley, first woman elected mayor of Sandy, Oregon, United States Maria Skobtsova, first woman mayor in the former Russian Empire and first female mayor of Anapa, Russia. 1919 Helen B. Coe, first woman elected mayor of Langley, Washington, United States was elected with an all-woman city council Ada Summers, first woman elected mayor of Stalybridge, in Cheshire, England 1920s 1920 Hattie Barnes Adkisson, first woman mayor of Jewett, Texas, United States, Ellen Chapman, first woman elected mayor of Worthing, in West Sussex, England Lula V. Coleman first woman mayor of Jena, Louisiana, United States Coleman, who was serving as deputy sheriff of LaSalle Parish, was appointed mayor by Governor John M. Parker, making her the first woman to serve as mayor in Louisiana Nora Gammon, first woman mayor of Thebes, Illinois, United States Louise Fussman, mayor Humboldt, Kansas, United States Grace B. Lampshire, first woman elected mayor of Burns, Oregon, United States also the first woman elected mayor in Oregon by write-in vote Grace Miller, first woman elected mayor of Jackson, Wyoming, United States Bernice Pitts, first woman to execute the office of Mayor of Portland, Oregon, United States Pitts, a student at Richmond School, served as mayor in place of George Luis Baker for five minutes 1921 Ellen M. Anderson, first woman mayor of Lantana, Florida, United States Léonie Keingiaert de Gheluvelt, first woman elected mayor of Gheluvelt, Belgium also the first woman elected mayor in Belgium Lillian Cox Gault, first woman elected mayor of St. Peter, Minnesota, United States also the first woman to serve as mayor in Minnesota Christiana Hartley, first woman elected mayor of Southport, in Lancashire, England Amy A. Kaukonen, first woman elected mayor in Fairport Harbor, Ohio, United States Mayme Ousley, first woman elected mayor of St. James, Missouri, United States Ousley was also the first woman elected mayor in the state of Missouri Mary Peterson, first woman elected mayor of Red Cloud, Nebraska, United States Florence J. Pierce, the first woman elected mayor of Goodhue, Minnesota, United States Dolly Spencer, first woman elected mayor of Milford, Ohio, United States Alice Harrell Strickland, first woman elected mayor of Duluth, Georgia, United States Strickland was the first woman elected mayor in the state of Georgia Clara Winterbotham, first woman elected mayor of Cheltenham, in Gloucestershire, England 1922 Beatrice Anna Cartwright, first woman elected mayor of Brackley, Northamptonshire, England, United Kingdom Dr. Josie Rogers, first woman mayor of Daytona, Florida, United States Ada Salter, Mayor of Bermondsey, first woman mayor in London Maude R. Satterthwaite, first woman mayor of Stonewall, North Carolina, United States 1923 Catherine Alderton, first woman mayor of Colchester, Essex, England, United Kingdom Emma J. Harvat, first woman elected mayor of Iowa City, Iowa, United States first woman in the United States to be elected mayor of a city with more than 10,000 inhabitants Mary McFadden, first woman mayor of Magnetic Springs, Ohio, United States was appointed by the city council at the age of 80. Janet Stancomb-Wills, first woman mayor of Ramsgate, Kent, England, United Kingdom 1924 Kathrine M. Cowan, first woman mayor of Wilmington, North Carolina, United States Lucy Dales, first woman elected mayor of Dunstable, England, United Kingdom Jesse Elwyn Nelson, first woman elected mayor of Signal Hill, California, United States also Signal Hill's first mayor Edwina Benner, first woman elected mayor of Sunnyvale, California, United States Carrie Maude Eve, first woman elected mayor of Stoke Newington, in London, England Alice U. Kerr, first woman elected mayor of Edmonds, Washington, United States Ethel Leach, first woman elected mayor of Great Yarmouth, in Norfolk, England Mary Mercer, first woman elected mayor of Birkenhead, in Cheshire, England Matilde Pérez Mollá, first woman elected mayor in Spain, (city of Gorga, Spain) Mildred Putnam, first woman elected mayor of Stoutsville, Missouri, United States 1925 Rosa Belle Eaddy Woodberry Dickson, first woman elected mayor in South Carolina and first woman elected mayor of Johnsonville, South Carolina. Rebecca Estell Bourgeois Winston, first woman elected mayor in New Jersey, United States , first mayor and founder of Estell Manor Maude Duncan, first woman elected mayor of Winslow, Arkansas, United States Maggie Skipwith Smith, first woman elected mayor in Louisiana, United States 1926 Mattle Chandler, first woman mayor of Richmond, California, United States Bertha Knight Landes, first woman Mayor of Seattle, Washington, United States first woman mayor of a major American city Aasa Helgesen, first woman elected mayor of Utsira and first female mayor in Norway 1927 Alzira Soriano de Souza, first female appointed mayor in Brazil also first female mayor of Lages Fanne Gaar, first woman elected mayor in Arizona, mayor of Casa Grande, Arizona, United States Margaret Beavan, first woman elected Lord Mayor of Liverpool, England, United Kingdom first woman lord mayor in the United Kingdom Lucia Foster Welch, first woman elected Mayor of Southampton, England, United Kingdom 1928 Leah Arcouet Chiles, first woman elected mayor of Kenilworth Park, North Carolina, United States Lena Culver Hawkins, first woman mayor of Brooksville, Florida, United States Ella L. Maddocks, first woman mayor of Owls Head, Maine, United States "mayor" was an honorary title chosen by the Owls Head Select Committee May B. Hopkins, first woman elected mayor of Redondo Beach, California, United States Alzira Soriano, first woman elected mayor in Latin America, mayor of Lajes, Rio Grande do Norte, Brazil 1929 Emily Jones, first woman elected mayor of Eureka, United States Bessie Moore, first woman elected mayor of Candor (village), New York, United States Moore won by write-in vote and refused to take the oath of office 1930s 1930 A. F. Board, first woman elected Mayor of Watford, England, United Kingdom Sadiye Hanım, first woman elected mayor in Turkey when elected for Kılıçkaya in Artvin Essie Ward, first woman elected mayor of King City, Missouri, United States Luiza Zavloschi, first woman elected mayor in Romania when elected for Buda (Bogdănești) 1931 Miriam Moses, first woman elected mayor of Stepney, England, United Kingdom also the first Jewish woman mayor in the United Kingdom Phenie Lou Ownby, first woman elected mayor of Broken Arrow, Oklahoma, United States Julia Platt, first woman elected mayor of Pacific Grove, California, United States Grace Prescott, first woman elected mayor of Godmanchester, England, United Kingdom 1932 Stella Alexander, first woman elected mayor of Issaquah, Washington, United States Edna Allen, first woman elected mayor of Jefferson, Oregon, United States Elsie Kimber, first woman elected mayor of Newbury, England, United Kingdom June G. Olsen, first woman elected mayor of Ekalaka, Montana, United States 1933 Elena Azcuy, first woman mayor of Consolación del Norte, Cuba Azcuy was the first woman to serve as mayor of a Cuban municipality. Doris W. Bradway, first woman mayor of Wildwood, New Jersey, United States Lily Sophia Tawney, first woman elected mayor of Oxford, England, United Kingdom in 1960, the title was changed to Lord Mayor of Oxford. Clara Marie Emma Heiser, first woman elected mayor of Ellsworth, Kansas, United States 1934 Mrs. Solomon S. Youmans, first woman mayor of Oak Park, Georgia, United States 1935 Alicia Cañas, first female elected mayor in Chile, the first of Providencia Louise Bucks, first woman elected mayor of Waconia, Minnesota, United States 1936 Ella M. Amdahl, first woman elected mayor of Hingham, Montana, United States Aurora Mesa Andraca, first woman mayor of Chilpancingo, Guerrero, Mexico Barbara Hanley, first woman elected mayor in Canada when elected to office in Webbwood, Ontario Evalina Herd, first woman elected mayor of Kevin, Montana, United States Ann Eliza Longden, first woman elected Lord Mayor of Sheffield, England, United Kingdom 1937 Mary Lucy Kyle Hartson, first woman elected mayor of Kyle, Texas, United States Ines V. Serion, the first woman elected mayor in Philippines—elected in Vallehermoso, Negros Oriental Kathrine Wykle, mayor of Clyde, New York, United States also the first woman mayor in New York 1938 Nellie Babcock, first woman mayor of Rochester, Indiana, United States Lilian Fowler, first woman mayor in Australia, at Newtown Lady Gwladys Delamere, first woman mayor of Nairobi, Kenya Nettie Terrill, first woman elected mayor of Dixon, Wyoming, United States Terrill ran unopposed 1939 Kathleen Clarke, first woman Lord Mayor of Dublin, Ireland Graciela Contreras, first woman elected mayor in Santiago, Chile Alice Burke, first woman elected as mayor in New England—in Westfield, Massachusetts, United States 1940s 1940 Mary Ellen Presnell Brendle, first woman mayor of Englewood, Tennessee, United States 1941 Elsie Chamberlain, first woman mayor of Bangor, Gwynedd, Wales, United Kingdom Marie Elizabeth May Bell, first woman mayor of Windhoek, Namibia Edna Annie Crichton, first woman Lord Mayor of York, England, United Kingdom 1942 Gladys Maasdorp, first woman mayor of Salisbury, Southern Rhodesia (today's Harare, Zimbabwe) Jessie Beatrice Kitson, first woman Lord Mayor of Leeds, England, United Kingdom took office after the previous male holder, Arthur Clark, died in office Jessie Reed, first woman elected mayor of Seal Beach, California, United States 1943 Edith May Greenan, first woman to serve as mayor of Avalon, New Jersey, United States Nellie Grace Ibbott, first woman mayor of Heidelberg, Victoria, Australia 1944 Mary Carey Dondero, first woman mayor of Portsmouth, New Hampshire, United States 1945 Mary Carey Dondero, first woman mayor of Portsmouth, New Hampshire, United States Ursula Meisterernst, first woman mayor of Arnstadt, Germany Meisterernst was the first woman to serve as mayor in Germany. Mabel Nielsen, first woman mayor of Panguitch, Utah, United States Odette Roux, first woman mayor of Les Sables-d'Olonne and the first woman mayor in France Walker, first woman mayor of Lisle (village), New York, United States 1946 Virginia Oteyza-De Guia, first woman mayor of Baguio, Philippines Doris Barnes, first woman elected mayor of Wrangell, Alaska, United States Truus Smulders-Beliën, first woman mayor of Oost-, West- en Middelbeers and the first woman mayor in Netherlands Luise Albertz, first woman elected mayor in Oberhausen and the first elected female mayor (Oberbürgermeisterin) in Germany Felisa Rincón de Gautier, first woman mayor of San Juan, Puerto Rico first woman mayor of a capital city in United States soil Ninetta Bartoli, first woman mayor in Italy and first female mayor in Sardinia. 1947 Juliet M. Gregory, first woman elected mayor of Missoula, Montana, United States Mary Kingsmill Jones, first elected female Lord Mayor of Manchester, England, United Kingdom Sarah G. Leffler, first female mayor of Mt. Lebanon, Pennsylvania, United States also the first woman elected mayor in Pennsylvania Louise Schroeder, first female mayor of Berlin, Germany 1948 Zenzi Hölzl, first female mayor of Gloggnitz and also the first female mayor in Austria Belle Cooledge, first female mayor of Sacramento, California, United States Mildred Stark, first female mayor of East Detroit (now Eastpointe), Michigan also first female mayor in Michigan 1949 Gertrude A. Richardson, first woman mayor of Taree, New South Wales, Australia also the first woman mayor of a municipality in New South Wales Beryl Archibald Crichlow, first female mayor of San Fernando, and the first woman elected mayor in Trinidad and Tobago Dorothy McCullough Lee, first woman mayor of Portland, Oregon, United States Edith P. Welty, first woman Mayor of Yonkers, New York, United States Salawati Daud, first woman mayor of Makassar, Indonesia and the first female mayor in Indonesia 1950s 1950 Dorothy Davis, first woman mayor of Washington, Virginia, United States Kathleen Harper, first woman to serve as mayor of Bath, England, United Kingdom Jacquetta Marshall, first woman mayor of Plymouth, England, United Kingdom Dorothy Painter Crawford, first woman elected mayor in Mississippi, Madison, Mississippi Erika Keck, first woman elected mayor in Ahrensburg and the first elected female mayor (Bürgermeisterin) in Germany Katharine Elkus White, first woman mayor of Red Bank, New Jersey, United States Müfide İlhan, first woman elected mayor in Turkey and of Mersin Augustine Magdalena Waworuntu, first woman mayor of Manado, Indonesia Rohana Muthalib, first woman mayor of Pontianak, Indonesia 1951 Blanche Barkl, first woman mayor of Bankstown, New South Wales, Australia Miriam Cummings, first woman elected mayor of Mill Valley, California, United States Rebekah H. Hord, first woman mayor in Kentucky, Maysville Kentucky, United States Emily L. Perry, first woman mayor of Floyd, Iowa, United States Charlotte Whitton, first woman elected mayor of Ottawa, Ontario, Canada Olga Maturana, first woman elected Mayor of Pichilemu, Chile Vera Martucci, first woman appointed mayor of Teterboro, New Jersey, United States Bertha Trim, first woman elected mayor of Plainview, Minnesota, United States 1952 Violet Grantham, first woman elected Lord Mayor of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, England, United Kingdom Alice S. Johnson, first woman elected mayor of Boston, Lincolnshire, England, United Kingdom Martha Priscilla Shaw, first woman elected Mayor of Sumter, South Carolina, United States Alice L. Stratton, first woman elected mayor of Beech Grove, Indiana, United States 1953 Elsie Gibbons, first woman elected mayor of an municipality in the Canadian province of Quebec Agnes Israelson, first woman elected mayor in Thief River Falls, Minnesota, United States Dorothy Porter, first woman elected mayor in Nevada and first woman elected mayor of North Las Vegas, Nevada, United States 1954 Dorothy N. Dolbey, first woman elected mayor in Cincinnati, Ohio, United States Emílie Knotková, first woman elected mayor in Liberec, Czechoslovakia Olive Louise Urquhart, first woman mayor of Pointe-Claire, Quebec, Canada also the first woman mayor in Quebec Adela Van Severen, first woman mayor of Santa Tecla, El Salvador also the first woman mayor in the country 1955 Ragina Balas, first woman elected mayor of Ferry Village, New York, United States Jane Forrester, first woman elected mayor of Belleville, Ontario, Canada Alba Roballo, first woman elected to the (then collective) Municipal Council of Montevideo, Uruguay Mary Van Stevens, first woman elected mayor of Heppner, Oregon, United States She resigned in 1956 after purchasing a business in The Dalles, Oregon, United States . 1956 Maria Desylla-Kapodistria, first woman elected mayor in Greece and of Corfu (city) Dorothy Edwards, first woman elected mayor in Tasmania, Australia and of Launceston Hannah Levin, first woman mayor of Rishon LeZion, Israel Smt. Sulochana M. Modi, first woman elected mayor in Mumbai, India Myrth Sarvela, first woman elected mayor of Sitka, Alaska, United States Mary Estus Jones Webb, first woman to serve as Mayor-President of Baton Rouge, Louisiana, United States 1957 Lolita Cass, first mayor of Watkins Glen, New York, United States Josephine Fey, first woman mayor in Laramie, Wyoming, United States Hulda Dóra Jakobsdóttir, first woman elected mayor in Kópavogur and first female mayor in Iceland Elizabeth Hall, first woman mayor of Sag Harbor, New York Betty Potter, first woman mayor of Mount Kisco, New York, United States 1958 Aruna Asaf Ali, first woman elected mayor in Delhi, India Tara Cherian, first woman elected mayor in Chennai, India Iris Winnifred King, first woman elected mayor in Kingston, Jamaica Aldamira Guedes Fernandes, first woman elected mayor in Brazil and also first female mayor of Quixeramobim Ester Roa, first woman elected mayor in Concepción, Chile Mary Pearce, first woman elected Lord Mayor of Leeds, England, United Kingdom 1959 Helena Evans, first woman elected Lord Mayor of Cardiff, Wales, United Kingdom Jane Dowdall, first woman elected Lord Mayor of Cork, Ireland Joyce Newton-Thompson, first woman elected mayor of Cape Town, South Africa 1960s 1960 Auður Auðuns, first woman mayor of Reykjavik, Iceland Dame Jean Roberts, first woman Lord Provost of Glasgow, Scotland, United Kingdom first woman lord provost. "Provost" is used instead of "mayor" in Scotland Margot Brett, first woman mayor of Bulawayo, Southern Rhodesia (today Zimbabwe) 1961 Barbara Saben, first woman mayor of Kampala, Uganda May Ross McDowell, first woman elected mayor of Johnson City, Tennessee, United States Violet Kusbel Cimbora, first woman elected mayor in Florida. Mayor of Masaryktown, Florida, United States Myrtle Reed, first woman mayor of Grand River, Ohio, United States 1962 Eleanor P. Sheppard, first woman elected mayor of Richmond, Virginia, United States Leonida Tămaș, first woman mayor of Timișoara, Romania 1963 Teena Clifton, first woman mayor of Rolling Hills, California, United States Florence E. Douglas, first woman elected mayor of Vallejo, California, United States Marian Erdmann, first woman elected mayor of Great Falls, Montana, United States Ann Hitch Kilgore, first woman mayor of Hampton, Virginia, United States Anita Fernandini de Naranjo, first woman mayor of Lima, Peru Florence Mills Brown, first woman elected lord mayor of Bristol, England, United Kingdom 1964 Lenore Bishop, first woman mayor of Mount Gambier, South Australia, Australia also first woman mayor in South Australia Vera Kolarič, first woman mayor of Maribor (present Slovenia) Margaret H. Prickett, first woman elected mayor of Mishawaka, Indiana, United States 1965 Norma O. Walker, first woman mayor of Aurora, Colorado, United States Annie Major, first elected female Lord mayor of Kingston upon Hull, England, United Kingdom Florence Kathleen Lower, first woman elected Lord Mayor of Oxford, England, United Kingdom Grace Onyango, first woman elected mayor of Kisumu, Kenya also the first African woman who was a mayor of an African city 1966 Constance Cummings-John, first appointed woman mayor of Freetown, Sierra Leone Bernice Stokke, first woman mayor of Petersburg, Alaska, United States 1967 Norma Villareal de Zambrano, first woman mayor in Mexico Ann Uccello, first woman mayor of Hartford, Connecticut, United States Grace Hartman, first woman mayor of Sudbury, Ontario, Canada Janet Wesonga, first woman mayor of Mbale, Uganda Mary "Peggy" Kerr, first woman mayor of Sayreville, New Jersey, United States was elected with three female councilwomen, creating the first female-majority municipal government in New Jersey Nellie Robinson, first woman mayor of Toowoomba, Queensland, Australia also the first woman mayor in Queensland Maxing Patterson, first woman elected mayor of Edgerton, Wyoming, United States Patterson ran unopposed Marie Madoé Sivomey, first woman mayor of Lomé, Togo also the first woman mayor in the country 1968 Silvia Boza, first woman mayor of Las Condes, Chile Lise Girardin, first woman Mayor of Geneva, Switzerland Hsu Shih-Hsien, first woman elected mayor of Chiayi City and the first woman elected mayor in Taiwan Rena Parker, first woman mayor of Corona, California, United States Jean Robinson, first woman elected mayor of Blackpool, England, United Kingdom 1969 Pilar Careaga Basabe, first woman mayor of Bilbao, Spain Eve Homeyer, first woman elected mayor of Aspen, Colorado, United States Viola Phillips, first woman mayor elected in Loveland, Ohio, United States also first woman mayor in Hamilton County 1970s 1970 Margaret Kenyatta, first black female mayor of Nairobi, Kenya Dabir Azam Hosna, first woman elected mayor of Babolsar, Iran Colette Flesch, first woman elected mayor of Luxembourg City, Luxembourg 1971 Linda A. Blogoslawski, first woman elected mayor of New Britain, Connecticut, United States Patience Latting, first woman elected mayor of Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, United States Latting was also the first female mayor of any major U.S. city with more than 350,000 residents. Kathryn Kirschbaum, first woman elected mayor of Davenport, Iowa, United States Lorette Wood, first woman mayor of Santa Cruz, California, United States Norene Mosley, first woman elected mayor of Polson, Montana, United States 1972 Mila Elaine Cameron, first woman elected mayor of Point Comfort, Texas, United States Ellen Walker Craig-Jones, first woman elected mayor of Urbancrest, Ohio, United States also the first African-American woman to be elected mayor by popular vote of a United States municipality. Phyllis Loe, first woman elected Lord mayor of Portsmouth, United Kingdom Jane Bigelow, first woman mayor of London, Ontario, Canada Stella Harris Oaks, first woman to serve as mayor of Vernal, Utah, United States Oaks was served as acting mayor Marian Perry Whitehurst, first woman mayor of Chesapeake, Virginia, United States 1973 Jemima Cook, first woman elected mayor of Twin Bridges, Montana, United States Doris A. Davis, first woman mayor of Compton, California, United States Lelia Foley, first African American woman mayor in the United States and first woman mayor of Taft, Oklahoma Eileen Lloyd, first woman elected mayor of Keansburg, New Jersey, United States Marjorie Alice Brown, first woman elected Lord mayor of Birmingham, United Kingdom Julianne M. Jensen was elected the first woman mayor of Knoxville, Iowa, United States Barbara Impellittiere, first woman elected mayor of Cold Spring, New York, United States Jane McCormick Tolmach first woman elected Mayor of Oxnard, California, United States 1974 Diane L. Bervig, First elected Mayor of Williston, North Dakota, United States Janet Gray Hayes, first woman elected Mayor of San Jose, California, United States Hayes was also the first female mayor of a major U.S. city with more than 500,000 residents. Eleanor Kieliszek, first woman elected Mayor of Teaneck, New Jersey, United States Carrie Kent, first African-American woman mayor of Walthourville, Georgia, United States Anne Kaplan, first woman mayor of Monticello, New York, United States 1975 Ruth Blankman, first woman elected mayor of Canton, New York, United States Helen Boosalis, first woman elected mayor of Lincoln, Nebraska, United States Mary Byrne, first woman elected mayor of Galway, Ireland Ione Christensen, first woman elected mayor of Whitehorse, Yukon, Canada Lila Cockrell, first woman elected mayor of San Antonio, Texas, United States Joy Cummings, first woman elected Lord Mayor of Newcastle (New South Wales), Australia Beth Finch, first woman elected mayor of Fayetteville, North Carolina, United States Betty Edmondson, first woman mayor of Yakima, Washington, United States Evelyn Helena Parker, first woman mayor of Subiaco, Western Australia, Australia also the first woman mayor in Western Australia Connie Ames Peters, first woman elected mayor of Wichita, Kansas, United States Jeannette Plambeck, first woman mayor of Burns, Wyoming, United States Eleanor A. Simpson, first woman elected mayor in Old Westbury, New York, United States also first woman elected mayor in Nassau County, New York Ella Stack, first woman elected Lord Mayor of Darwin, Australia 1976 Unita Blackwell, first African American woman elected mayor in Mississippi, United States served as Mayor of Mayersville, Mississippi from 1976 to 2001 Sofía Medina de López, first woman elected mayor of Medellín, Colombia Margaret Hance, first woman elected Mayor of Phoenix, Arizona, United States Adlene Harrison, first woman mayor of Dallas, Texas, United States Floretta K. Lauber, first woman mayor of Arcadia, California, United States Dorothy Wilken, first woman elected mayor of Boca Raton, Florida, United States Phyllis Sweeney, first woman elected mayor of Laguna Beach, California, United States 1977 Maria Barnaby Greenwald, first woman elected mayor of Cherry Hill, New Jersey Isabella Cannon, first woman elected mayor of Raleigh, North Carolina, United States Eleanor Crouch, first woman elected mayor of Santa Paula, California, United States Joyce Ebert, first woman to serve as mayor of Everett Washington, United States Carole Keeton Strayhorn, first woman elected mayor of Austin, Texas, United States Betty Marshall, first woman elected Mayor of York, Pennsylvania, United States Suzi Oppenheimer, first woman elected mayor of Mamaroneck (village), New York, United States Mathilde Schroyens, first woman elected mayor of Antwerp, Belgium 1978 Dianne Feinstein, first woman and first person of Jewish faith to serve as Mayor of San Francisco, United States Feinstein was appointed mayor on December 4, 1978 following the shooting death of her predecessor, George Moscone. In 1979, she became the first woman elected Mayor of San Francisco. Enma González, first elected female Mayor of Vigo, Spain Dusty Miller, first woman elected Mayor of Thunder Bay, Ontario, Canada Marjorie Carroll, first woman elected Mayor of Waterloo, Ontario, Canada Helen Wilkes, first woman to become Mayor of West Palm Beach, Florida, United States Frances Prince, first woman to become mayor of Thousand Oaks, California, United States also served 1983 to 1984 1979 Núria Albó, first woman elected mayor of La Garriga, Spain Jane M. Byrne, first woman elected Mayor of Chicago, Illinois, United States, United States Byrne was also the first female mayor of any United States city with more than 3 million residents. Clo Hoover, first woman elected mayor of Santa Monica, California, United States Delitha Kilgore, first woman elected mayor of Lewiston, Idaho, United States Virginia Smith, first woman mayor of Ticonderoga, New York, United States Regina Zokosky, first woman elected mayor of Indio, California, United States 1980s 1980 Janice Bateman, first woman mayor of Berwick, Victoria, Australia Sr. Carolyn Farrell, first woman elected mayor of Dubuque, Iowa, United States Farrell was the first nun elected mayor in Iowa Josephine Heckman, first woman elected mayor of Pasadena, California, United States Patricia Logan, first woman elected mayor of Noblesville, Indiana, United States Janet Smith, first woman elected mayor of St. Albans (city), Vermont, United States less than a week after she was sworn-in Smith was shot and killed at her home. 1981 Joy Burgess, first woman elected mayor of Milwaukie, Oregon, United States Ruth Burleigh, first woman elected mayor of Bend, Oregon, United States Juanita Crabb, first woman elected Mayor of Binghamton, New York, United States Eileen Anderson, first woman elected Mayor of Honolulu, Hawaii, United States Maria Barnaby Greenwald, first woman elected Mayor of Cherry Hill, New Jersey, United States previously served from 1977 to 1979 as chosen by city council Violet Khouri, first woman elected mayor of Kafr Yasif and the first female mayor in Israel Mary K. Shell, first woman elected mayor of Bakersfield, California, United States Deborah Ponder Baker, first woman mayor of Hot Springs, North Carolina, United States Dr. G. M. Wells, first woman elected mayor of Enterprise, Kansas, United States 1982 Claudette Kaye McCrary, first woman elected mayor of Casper, Wyoming, United States Kathryn J. Whitmire, first woman elected mayor of Houston, Texas, United States Tina Tomlje, first woman mayor of Ljubljana, present Slovenia Grace Bannister, first woman elected Lord Mayor of Belfast, United Kingdom Patricia Rustad, first woman elected mayor of Beaconsfield, Quebec, Canada Kit Ward, first woman mayor of Nuneaton and Bedworth, England, United Kingdom Sue Marie Young, first woman elected mayor of Richfield, Utah, United States 1983 Mary Donaldson, Baroness Donaldson of Lymington, first woman elected Lord Mayor of London, England, United Kingdom Luiza Erundina, first woman elected mayor of São Paulo, Brasil Wendy Chapman, first woman elected Lord Mayor of Adelaide, Australia Edith Henningsgaard, first woman elected mayor of Astoria, Oregon, United States Elizabeth Kishkon, first woman elected mayor of Windsor, Ontario, Canada Sue Miller, first woman elected mayor of Salem, Oregon, United States Elda Pucci, first woman elected mayor of Palermo, Italy also the first female mayor of an Italian city Catherine Tizard, first woman elected mayor of Auckland, New Zealand Helen Westberg, first woman mayor of Carbondale, Illinois, United States 1984 Daurene Lewis, first black female mayor in Nova Scotia, Canada (Annapolis Royal) Mary Kate Stovall, first female, first African American mayor of Hurtsboro, Alabama, United States Donna Owens, first woman elected Mayor of Toledo, Ohio, United States Karen Johnson, first woman elected mayor of Schenectady, New York, United States Elsie Wayne, first woman elected mayor of Saint John, New Brunswick Canada 1985 Sallyanne Atkinson, first woman elected Lord Mayor of Brisbane, Australia first woman member of the Liberal Party of Australia to serve as Lord Mayor Ella Bengel, first woman elected mayor of New Bern, North Carolina, United States Dee Donne, the first woman elected mayor of Torrington, Connecticut, United States Bogdana Glumac-Levakov, first woman elected mayor of Zrenjanin, present Serbia Shirley Huffman, first woman elected mayor of Hillsboro, Oregon, United States Lorna Kesterson, first woman elected mayor of Henderson, Nevada, United States Gerri Lynn O'Connor, first woman elected mayor of Uxbridge, Ontario, Canada Ann Pomykal, first woman elected mayor of Lewisville, Texas, United States Joan Barr, first woman elected mayor of Evanston, Illinois, United States Kristi M. Vetri, first woman elected mayor of O'Fallon, Illinois, United States 1986 Julene Kennerly, first woman elected mayor of Browning, Montana, United States also the first Native American woman elected mayor in the United States Alexis Ord, first woman elected mayor of Lord Mayor of Melbourne, Australia Gretchen Brewin, first woman elected mayor of Victoria, British Columbia, Canada Doone Kennedy, first woman elected Lord Mayor of Hobart, Tasmania, Australia Maria Luíza Fontenele, first woman elected mayor of Fortaleza, Brasil Maureen O'Connor, first woman elected mayor of San Diego, California, United States Jessie M. Rattley, first woman and African American elected by fellow Council members as mayor of the City of Newport News, Virginia, United States Lois Reed, first woman elected mayor of Malinta, Ohio, United States Reed served for ten minutes before tendering her resignation 1987 Maria Magnani Noya, first woman elected mayor of Turin, Italy Carrie Saxon Perry, first woman elected mayor of Hartford, Connecticut, United States Sandra Warshaw Freedman, first woman elected mayor of Tampa, Florida, United States May Cutler, first woman elected mayor of Westmount, Quebec, Canada Sue Myack, first woman elected Mayor of Charlotte, North Carolina, United States Lottie Shackelford, first woman to serve as mayor of Little Rock, Arkansas, United States Laura Slate, first woman elected mayor of Gouverneur, New York, United States Annette Strauss, first woman elected mayor of Dallas, Texas, United States Betty Turner, first woman elected mayor of Corpus Christi, Texas, United States Helen Perkins, first woman elected mayor of Hollandale, Mississippi, United States also the city's first African American mayor 1988 Agnes Devanadera, first woman elected mayor of Sampaloc, Quezon, Philippines Elizabeth H. Dwarica, first woman elected mayor of Leonia, New Jersey, United States Luiza Erundina, first woman elected mayor of São Paulo, Brazil Eleanor McLaughlin, first woman Lord Provost of Edinburgh, Scotland, United Kingdom Sophie Masloff, first woman elected Mayor of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States Meyera E. Oberndorf, first woman elected mayor of Virginia Beach, Virginia, United States Joyce Trimmer, first woman elected mayor of Scarborough, Ontario, Canada Rosalia I. Umali, first woman elected Mayor of Calapan City, Oriental Mindoro, Philippines 1989 Annette Jäger, first female mayor of Essen, Germany Catherine Trautmann, first woman elected mayor of Strasbourg, France Jan Reimer, first woman elected mayor of Edmonton, Alberta, Canada Vicki Buck, first woman elected Mayor of Christchurch, New Zealand Krystyna Nesteruk, first woman elected mayor of Katowice, Poland Janice Stork, first woman elected Mayor of Lancaster, Pennsylvania, United States Suzie Azar, first woman elected mayor of El Paso, Texas, United States Martha S. Wood, first woman elected mayor of Winston-Salem, North Carolina, United States Clementina Ródenas, first woman elected mayor of Valencia, Spain 1990s 1990 Hazel Beard, first woman elected mayor of Shreveport, Louisiana, United States Franciszka Cegielska first woman elected mayor of Gdynia, Poland Alice Jempsa, Los Alamitos, California, United States Rohani Darus Danil first woman mayor of Tebing Tinggi, Indonesia 1991 Cosetta Castagno, first woman elected mayor of Vernon, Utah, United States Ruth Devenney, first woman mayor of Kiama, New South Wales, Australia Harue Kitamura, first woman elected mayor of Ashiya, Japan Moira Leiper Ducharme, first woman elected mayor of Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada Linda Lingle, first woman elected Mayor of Maui, Hawaii, United States Sharon Pratt Kelly, first woman elected Mayor of the District of Columbia, United States Ana Rosa Payán, first woman elected mayor of Mérida, Mexico June Rowlands, first woman elected mayor of Toronto, Ontario, Canada Kaba Rougui Barry, first woman elected mayor of Matam, Guinea Susan Weiner, first woman elected Mayor of Savannah, Georgia, United States Elizabeth Brater, first woman elected Mayor of Ann Arbor, Michigan, United States Joyce Johnson, first woman mayor of Orem, Utah, United States Mary Kanyha, first woman mayor of Pine Knoll Shores, North Carolina, United States 1992 Deedee Corradini, first woman elected mayor of Salt Lake City, Utah, United States Irene Sáez was elected mayor of Chacao Municipality, the wealthiest of the five municipalities of Caracas and, after her outstandingly satisfactory work, she was reelected in 1995 without having to do any campaign, obtaining a 96% of votes. Sonia Durán de Infante, first woman in function of mayor of Bogotá, Colombia Rose Janneire , first woman elected mayor of Arima, Trinidad and Tobago Jane Robbins, first woman elected mayor of Pine City, Minnesota, United States Marilyn Roman, first woman to serve as Mayor of Jersey City, New Jersey, United States served as acting mayor for over four months following the removal of her predecessor, Gerald McCann, who was convicted of fraud Ann-Marit Sæbønes, first woman elected mayor of Oslo, Norway M. Susan Savage, first woman elected mayor Tulsa, Oklahoma, United States Susan Thompson, first woman elected mayor of Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada Fran Wilde, first woman elected mayor of Wellington, New Zealand Cheryll Woods-Flowers, first woman elected mayor of Mount Pleasant, South Carolina, United States Stella Welsh, first woman elected mayor of Orem, Utah, United States Welsh defeated Joyce Johnson, the first woman mayor of Orem who was appointed by the city council, in the 1991 general election 1993 Eunice Britto, first woman elected mayor Mangalore (Mangaluru), India Rita Cutajar, first woman mayor of Għasri (Gozo), and also first female mayor in Malta Slobodanka Gruden, first woman elected mayor of Belgrade, Serbia Ildikó Asztalos, first woman elected mayor of Miskolc, Hungary Agnethe Davidsen, first woman elected mayor of Nuuk, Greenland Ruth Bascom, first woman mayor of Eugene, Oregon, United States Anne Jones, first woman elected mayor of Pottstown, Pennsylvania, United States Sylvia Kerckhoff first woman elected mayor of Durham, North Carolina Shirley Seney, first woman mayor of Lake Placid, New York, United States Judy Green, first woman to serve as mayor of Oviedo, Florida, United States 1994 Sharon Sayles Belton, first woman and first African-American elected mayor of Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States Patricia Candiano, first woman mayor of Asbury Park, New Jersey, United States Dagmar Lastovecká, first woman elected mayor of Brno, Czech Republic Marie-Luise Smeets, first woman elected mayor of Düsseldorf, Germany 1995 Muriel Allerton, first woman elected mayor of Fulton, Oswego County, New York, United States Soledad Becerril, first elected female mayor of Seville, Spain Ivi Eenmaa, first woman mayor of Tallinn, Estonia Christine Korff, first woman elected mayor of Port Chester, New York, United States Mary Lou Makepeace, first woman mayor of Colorado Springs, Colorado, United States Petra Roth first woman elected mayor of Frankfurt, Germany Luisa Fernanda Rudi, first elected female mayor of Saragossa, Spain Joan Shafer, first woman elected mayor of Surprise, Arizona, United States Saroj Singh, first woman elected mayor of Varanasi, India Sukhi Turner, first woman elected mayor of Dunedin, New Zealand Celia Villalobos, first elected female mayor of Málaga, Spain Rosemary Waldorf, first woman elected Mayor of Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States 1996 Margaret Farquhar, first woman elected Lord Provost of Aberdeen, Scotland, United Kingdom Marina Matulović-Dropulić, first woman in function of mayor of Zagreb, Croatia (appointed 1996, elected 1997) Eva-Riitta Siitonen, first woman elected mayor of Helsinki, Finland 1997 Sue Bauman,, first woman elected mayor of Madison, Wisconsin, United States Fay Brennan, first woman elected mayor of Wyong, New South Wales, Australia Jessica Maes, first woman elected mayor of Huntington Park, California, United States Joan Wagnon, first woman elected of mayor of Topeka, Kansas, United States Tokozile Xasa, first woman elected mayor of Amathole District, Eastern Cape, South Africa also first woman mayor in Eastern Cape 1998 Fran Barford, first woman elected mayor of Temple Terrace, Florida, United States Barford ran unopposed Roxanne Browning, first women elected mayor of Northport, New York, United States Janet Crampsey, first woman mayor of Carrickfergus, Northern Ireland, United Kingdom Miriam Feirberg, first woman elected mayor of Netanya, Israel Betty Flores, first woman elected mayor of Laredo, Texas, United States Yael German, first woman elected mayor of Herzliya, Israel Diane Mathis, first woman mayor of Tulare, California, United States Fikile Mtembu, first woman elected mayor of Manzini, Swaziland also first woman mayor in Swaziland Maria O'Brien Campbell, first woman mayor of Drogheda, Ireland Vilma Santos, first woman elected mayor of Lipa City, Philippines Sarojini Yogeswaran, first woman elected mayor of Jaffna, Sri Lanka she was assassinated three months into her term Molly Mulyahati Djubaedi, first woman mayor of Sukabumi, Indonesia 1999 Rosa Aguilar, first woman elected mayor of Córdoba, Spain Yolanda Barcina, first woman elected mayor of Pamplona, Spain Kay Barnes, first woman elected Mayor of Kansas City, Missouri, United States Paz Fernández, first woman elected mayor of Gijón, Spain Jan Laverty Jones, first woman elected Mayor of Las Vegas, Nevada, United States Maria Clara Lobregat, first woman elected Mayor of Zamboanga City, Philippines Patricia Nawa, first woman elected mayor of Lusaka, Zambia Shirley Robb, first woman elected mayor of Princeton, Indiana, United States Rosario Robles, first woman appointed Head of Government of the Federal District in Mexico City, Mexico in Mexico City, "Head of Government of the Federal District" is the equivalent of a mayor. Theresia Samaria, first woman elected mayor of Walvis Bay, Namibia Frankie Seaberry, first woman elected mayor of Centerville, Missouri, United States Jennifer Stultz, first woman elected mayor of Gastonia, North Carolina, United States Helen Wright, first woman elected Lord Provost of Dundee, Scotland, United Kingdom Yvonne Thorne, first woman elected mayor of Dorset Council in Tasmania, Australia Blanca Vela, first woman elected mayor of Brownsville, Texas, United States Deborah C. Whitcraft, the first woman elected mayor of Beach Haven, New Jersey, United States Sharon J. Bilinski, the first woman elected Mayor of Pana, Illinois, United States, May 1, 1999. See also List of first women governors and/or chief ministers List of first women mayors List of first women mayors (18th and 19th centuries) List of first women mayors (21st century) List of first women mayors in the United States List of the first female holders of political offices Women in government References Lists of mayors Lists of the first female holders of political offices Lists of female political office-holders

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During the 2011–12 season, Sheffield Wednesday F.C. competed in League One, the FA Cup, the League Cup, and the Football League Trophy. It was their second consecutive season in the third tier of English football, and their 110th season in the Football League. At the end of the season they completed their aim of automatic promotion to the Football League Championship, after a remarkable season with so many twists and turns. League table Review Pre-season Pre-season for Sheffield Wednesday saw the introduction of many new players, as well as many leaving the club. With this being the first opportunity for manager Gary Megson to change the squad, having only joined Wednesday at the beginning of February and the club in the bottom half of the table, he felt that it was time to vastly change the squad, into a promotion contending team. His intentions were clear even before the pre-season started as the Owls confirmed new signings of David Prutton from recently relegated Swindon Town, and Rob Jones, who had played on loan at the later stages of the previous season. As well as arrivals, there were also many departures, including Richard Hinds whom had been released, striker Paul Heffernan on a free transfer to Kilmarnock, academy product Tommy Spurr on an undisclosed fee to Doncaster Rovers, and midfielder Darren Potter to Milton Keynes Dons. The first day of the new pre-season saw another departure with midfielder Gary Teale leaving on 1 July by mutual consent. Three days later the club signed defender Julian Bennett from Football League Championship side Nottingham Forest on a two-year deal. Sheffield Wednesday's pre-season matches kicked off with a tour in Austria. Before their first match, the club featured more introductions and departures of players. Firstly, Jose Semedo joined the club on a free transfer from Charlton Athletic, in which he had won Charlton Athletic's player of the year the previous season. Defender Michael Morrison then departed the club for Charlton Athletic having only joined the Owls six months previously, this was for an undisclosed fee, rumoured to be for around £1.5million. Also, midfielder Tommy Miller moved across to the West of Yorkshire to Huddersfield Town on a free transfer. The first game the Owls played in their pre-season was against recently promoted Russian Premier League side FC Volga Nizhny Novgorod, the game ended in a goalless draw. On 14 July 2011, Sheffield Wednesday confirmed 'a groundbreaking sponsorship deal', where both Sheffield clubs (Sheffield Wednesday and rivals Sheffield United) announced at a joint press conference that they would share the same club sponsors, in a collaborative 'twin sponsorship'. This deal was the first of its kinds in the history of British football, whereby two rival clubs shared the same sponsor. The sponsorship deal was with Westfield Health and Volkswagen, with Sheffield Wednesday wearing the Volkswagen logo on their home shirts, and Sheffield United on their away, and Westfield Health on the away shirts of the Owls, and the home of the Blades. Having arrived back home from the tour in Austria, Sheffield Wednesday faced their first opponents back in England on 16 July, a day before this game, manager Gary Megson announced the club's new captain Rob Jones, who had only joined permanently weeks earlier. The Owls then played Worksop Town away in the first set of pre-season games back in England, in which they won 0–3, thanks to goals from Lewis Buxton on the eleventh minute, Gary Madine ten minutes later and defender Mark Beevers on the sixty-seventh minute. Wednesday's next friendly took place across Sheffield at Don Valley Stadium, where they won Rotherham United 1–2. The Owls took a two-goal lead after goals from Lewis Buxton and Gary Madine, before Adam Le Fondre pulled one back for Rotherham United, which was one of his last goals for Rotherham United as he later went on to sign for Reading. As well as the Wednesday first team taking part in friendlies, a Sheffield Wednesday XI – mainly made up of the Sheffield Wednesday Academy – also took part in several friendlies. The first of these games took place against Stocksbridge Park Steels, in which the end result was a 2–0 loss, after an own goal from Ayo Obileye and a goal from Mark Ward. Sheffield Wednesday then went on to play their first home game of the pre-season. The game against Leeds United and finished in a 1–1 draw, with goals from ex-Leeds United player David Prutton finishing after a dribble into the box on the eighth minute, and an eighty-fourth-minute goal from the penalty spot by Max Gradel. Max Gradel's goal was also the last he scored for his club, as he then went on to move to France by joining Marseille. One day later Sheffield Wednesday's XI were in action again, they played the oldest club in the world – local side Sheffield FC. The game ended in a 3–0 loss for the Owls XI, after goals from James Gregory, Danny Kirkland and Connor Higginson. On 26 July the Owls signed central defender Danny Batth on loan for six months from Wolverhampton Wanderers, with the deal due to end in January. Later that same evening, the Owls were in action away to Barnsley. With goals from David Perkins on the seventh minute, and James O'Brien on the eightieth, it ended in a 2–0 loss. Again, a day later on 27 July, the Owls XI played a match, this against local side Hallam FC, whom are six leagues below the first team of Sheffield Wednesday. At half time the game was level at 1–1, with the Wednesday XI scoring their first goal of the pre-season campaign, after they conceded in the third minute from a goal by Matthew Thompson, then Brad Tomlinson equalising in the thirty-second. Thompson scored his second goal of the game to put Hallam FC back in front, and then thirteen minutes later Hallam FC finished off the game with a goal from David Heaver. Although the Owls XI did score a second with six minutes to go thanks to a goal from Mitcham Husbands, the game did finish in a 3–2 loss. The final friendly for the Sheffield Wednesday first team was at home to Premier League side Stoke City on 30 July. Playing their toughest opposition of the pre-season, The Owls managed to end the game in a goalless draw. The final game for the Sheffield Wednesday XI was against Alfreton Town. With Alfreton Town only two leagues below the first team, it was by far their toughest opponents of the pre-season. However, although the game was going to be tough, the outcome turned out to be an embarrassing loss for the Wednesday youngsters – losing by an abysmal 14–0. The game started with an own goal by goalkeeper Sean Cuff, and then thirteen more goals followed, including hat-tricks from Nathan Arnold, Nathan Jarman, and Paul Clayton. August August kicked off with the start of the new season, with Sheffield Wednesday playing in their second consecutive season in the Football League One. Being second favourites for the title, Wednesday were expected to come out with a comfortable win in their first game against Rochdale. In front of the home crowd at Hillsborough Stadium the game finished in a 2–0 win, after goals from captain Rob Jones from a corner-kick, and then a superb volley from outside the area by David Prutton, after the ball was cleared away from a corner. The goal is now up for contention for Sheffield Wednesday's goal of the season. Three days later, The Owls confirmed the signing of striker Chris O'Grady from Rochdale. It was rumoured before the previous game that O'Grady was soon to sign for Wednesday, and actually played his last game for Rochdale against Sheffield Wednesday when he came off the bench in the later stages of that game. Chris O'Grady signed on a three-year contract for an undisclosed fee. With Wednesday only having two first team forward's for their first game of the season, they desperately needed some attacking players. O'Grady made it three strikers at the club, and still needing more depth in that department, The Owls confirmed that Nigerian Danny Uchechi had signed on a six-month loan deal from fellow country team FC Dender. 21-year-old Uchechi had never made a first team professional appearance throughout his career, although having experience at several other English clubs, including Charlton Athletic, West Ham United and Leicester City. However, the next day Uchechi did make his first career appearance when The Owls were hosts to Blackpool in the Football League Cup. The game, which was live on ESPN, was made clear by manager Gary Megson of its unimportance to the club and its seasons expectations, with it possibly being a distraction in gaining promotion in the league. Megson therefore made several changes to the team's starting line-up including giving debuts to youngsters Cecil Nyoni, and Matthew Tumilty – who came off the bench. Blackpool being a league above The Owls were inevitably favourites, even though making several changes themselves. The match went without any goals throughout the full 90 minutes and extra time, even though Blackpool were reduced to ten men after Ashley Eastham was sent-off in the seventy-eighth minute. Wednesday went on to win 4–2 on penalties, after Blackpool missed their first two. Another signing for The Owls was made the same evening of the Blackpool game, this time in midfield with Chris Lines from Bristol Rovers on an undisclosed fee, and a contract lasting three-years. The end of a busy week for Wednesday was ended with their first away trip of the campaign, against AFC Bournemouth. Sheffield Wednesday continued their same away form as the end of the previous season – losing 2–0. Goals in each half from Adam Barrett and Harry Arter finished off The Owls. Wednesday were away again three days later in their first mid-week game of the season. An early goal from Ryan Lowe and a goal five minutes before half-time by Damien Mozika meant Bury led 2–0 at half-time. Although, Chris Sedgwick pulled a goal back for The Owls at the beginning of the second half, Wednesday could not grab another for a draw, the game ended 2–1 and meant a second consecutive loss for Sheffield Wednesday. Before the weekends game back at Hillsborough Stadium against Notts County, Wednesday confirmed the loan signing of winger Ben Marshall from Premier League club Stoke City. Marshall made his debut for Sheffield Wednesday in the 2–1 win against Notts County on the following Saturday. Jeff Hughes gave Notts County an early lead from the penalty spot on the tenth minute. It was not until the second half when Wednesday equalised through Julian Bennett, scoring his first goal for the club having joined in mid-July. Then Gary Madine got the winner fourteen-minutes later, giving The Owls two wins on the bounce at home. A second consecutive mid-week game saw Wednesday visit Premier League club Blackburn Rovers in the Football League Cup. Megson made several changes for the Football League Cup tie once again, and within the first seven-minutes The Owls were already 3–0 down. Although, Clinton Morrison did pull a goal back in the second half, the game finished 3–1, sending Wednesday out of the competition in the second round. The last league game in August saw Wednesday visit captain Rob Jones's former club, Scunthorpe United. With Scunthorpe United recently being relegated from the above division, it was expected to be the toughest opposition in the league yet. The game showed to be a close encounter, in front of a crowd of 16,862 at Hillsborough Stadium, the game finished 3–2 to The Owls. A double-brace from Gary Madine and a first goal in two appearances for Ben Marshall were the goal scorers for Wednesday, and Robert Grant and Mark Duffy both scoring for Scunthorpe United. On 30 August The Owls confirmed another loan signing, this time with defender David Kasnik being brought into the team from Slovenian side Olimpija Ljubljana for six months. The same day Sheffield Wednesday were to play live on Sky Sports in the Football League Trophy against Bradford City. Gary Megson's intentions for this competition were clear again, as just another unimportant fixture, of which was a distraction to the club. He gave a debut to youngster Ayo Obileye who became one of the youngest ever players to play for the club, at the age of 16 years and 363 days. The competition however states that a club has to start at least 'six first team players', so The Owls were unable to make as many changes as they would have liked, but instead three of their 'first team players' were subbed within the first seventeen minutes of the game. One player who did come on was Cecil Nyoni, who was given is second ever career appearance. The game finished goalless and went to penalties, with Bradford City going through 3–1 on penalties. Throughout that game there were many reports that Bury striker Ryan Lowe was in the later stages of signing for the club. It was confirmed after the game that he indeed had signed on a two-year contract for an undisclosed fee, rumoured to be around £1million. The next day saw the last day of the transfer window, The Owls let go Giles Coke on loan to Bury for six months, and Mark Beevers on loan to Milton Keynes Dons. September The beginning of September saw Sheffield Wednesday face promotion rivals Charlton Athletic away at The Valley. With Wednesday yet to gain any points away from home this season, The Owls were happy with the eventual outcome of a 1–1 draw. Bradley Wright-Phillips scored from outside the box into the low corner in just the third minute, but Clinton Morrison earned the point when he equalised in the second half, three-minutes after coming on in the fifty-third minute. In the course of this game, Ryan Lowe made his debut for the club when coming off the bench, but then had to be replaced after an injury. Ryan Lowe did however win the League One Player of the Month award four days later, after scoring seven goals in the opening month of the season for his previous side Bury. The first home game of the month saw another tough opponent of Milton Keynes Dons who held first place in the league. After a poor performance in the first half, the game was goalless and Jermaine Johnson was replaced, as he had only been back in training after injury days earlier. Things changed in the second half with Gary Madine scoring twice in ten minutes, before Angelo Balanta pulled one back for Milton Keynes Dons. With Milton Keynes Dons pushing forward in the later stages of the game, Wednesday hit them on the counter-attack with 19-year-old Scotland U-21 international Liam Palmer scoring his first goal for the club. On 12 September The Owls were sad to hear that Wednesday-supporter and goalkeeper Nicky Weaver was to be 'sidelined for three months', due to an ongoing problem with the cartilage in his knee. This meant second-choice goalkeeper was expected to have an opportunity to impress in several matches on the bounce for Wednesday. His first appearance with the absence of Nicky Weaver however was one to forget. In the mid-week match away to Stevenage The Owls lost 5–1, after four goals in the first half from Craig Reid, John Mousinho, Michael Bostwick, and Lawrie Wilson. Then another to make it five in the second-half by Darius Charles, before Gary Madine scored nothing but a consolation goal in the seventy-fourth minute. Wednesday included their first sending-off of the campaign to make matters worse in the later stages of the game when Jermaine Johnson was sent-off for an off-the-ball incident. After this terrible defeat, Gary Megson felt the squad still needed some improvement, especially with the club having several injuries, including striker Ryan Lowe. Midway through the month David McGoldrick was brought in on a one-month loan, as the emergency-loan window was still open for football league clubs below the Barclays Premier League. David McGoldrick made his debut for Sheffield Wednesday that weekend, in which he started the game away to Yeovil Town. Ten-minutes into the game David McGoldrick scored on his debut to give Wednesday the lead. However, Yeovil Town striker Kieran Agard hit two goals before half-time and The Owls found themselves behind. Having been humiliated the previous away game, Wednesday went out in the second-half hoping to finish the game with a win. Wednesday did exactly that with goals from defender Julian Bennett on the fifty-first minute and twenty-minutes later top scorer Gary Madine scored the winning goal with the game finishing 2–3. Although manager Gary Megson felt goalkeeper Richard O'Donnell was up to the job at first, due to first-choice keeper Nicky Weaver out for three-months, Megson did bring in Stephen Bywater on loan from Derby County for three-months, as The Owls had let in seven goals in two games. With new signing Chris O'Grady coming back from injury that week, and Ryan Lowe soon to be back, striker Clinton Morrison was sent out on loan to Milton Keynes Dons for one-month on an emergency loan deal. The Owls back at home on 24 September they played Exeter City, James O'Connor scored the opener, and a double-brace from Gary Madine, including one from the penalty-spot, made the game finish 3–0. October The beginning of October saw Wednesday travel to Hartlepool United. With an impressive record over Hartlepool United in previous encounters, The Owls built on this fact and scored on the thirty-third minute through Reda Johnson, whose goal turned out to be the winning goal with the game finishing 0–1. The next two games were the biggest of the season so far, with Wednesday facing rivals Chesterfield at home, and then there was the Steel City derby against Sheffield United at Bramall Lane. Going into the Chesterfield game Wednesday were without Liam Palmer who had been called up to the Scotland U-21 side, and defender Reda Johnson being called up to the Benin national football team. With Johnson scoring the winning goal in the previous game and being named in the team of the week, Wednesday would have to deal without him. Wednesday did go onto win the game comfortably in a 3–1 win, with goals from Lewis Buxton, Gary Madine, and loanee Ben Marshall, with former Sheffield Wednesday player Leon Clarke getting a consolation goal just before Wednesday's third. The win took The Owls into the automatic-promotion position of second. In the build-up to the biggest game of the season so far, the Steel City derby against Sheffield United, Wednesday had some good news with top scorer Gary Madine winning The Football League Young Player of the Month award for September. The highly anticipated first Steel City derby of the season was at Bramall Lane in front of over 28,000 fans, and an over a further 11,000 watched the game at Hillsborough Stadium on three large television screens. Wednesday started the game well, and was neutrally supported to have been unlucky to find themselves behind, but at half-time The Owls had not taken their chances and The Blades had taken their two, with Stephen Quinn and Ched Evans finding the net to make it 2–0. The second half was more of an even contest, but The Owls still seemed to be making more chances. Finally, their well and truly deserved goals came twice in four minutes with ten minutes of the game left to play, Chris O'Grady and Gary Madine both scored with headers. Captain Rob Jones nearly grabbed an amazing win in the final minutes but his header was straight at goalkeeper Steve Simonsen. The game finished 2–2, and although Megson felt 'over the course of the game' Wednesday deserved to win, although it was the Wednesday fans who went home the happier. The week after Wednesday's amazing comeback saw David McGoldrick go back to Nottingham Forest after spending one-month on loan, scoring one goal and making four appearances. Also, youngster Nathan Modest left the club by mutual consent on 18 October, after making four appearances in 2008 for the club, and unable to break into the side since, he later signed for local club Sheffield F.C. The Owls built on the Steel City derby result as they won Colchester United 2–0 the next weekend. Goals from captain Rob Jones and Reda Johnson in the second half won the game at Hillsborough. Tuesday 25 October saw Wednesday travel to Carlisle United. Unfortunately for The Owls they ended up dropping points and went two points behind second-place Huddersfield Town after losing 3–2. Impressive loanee Ben Marshall scored against his former club to open the game, before Carlisle United scored three in the second-half, with goals from Lee Miller, Rory Loy, and Liam Noble. To make matters worse, top scorer Gary Madine gained his second bookable offence and got sent-off, but still pushing to somehow get back in the game Rob Jones scored his second in two games, but it was not enough for Sheffield Wednesday. Wednesday were away again in the league at the weekend, this time against Wycombe Wanderers. Vice-captain Jose Semedo scored his first goal for the club to put The Owls in the lead. However, the lead just lasted six-minutes when a wonderful solo dribble and shot saw Jordon Ibe score. Jordon Ibe became the youngest ever player to score for Wycombe Wanderers at just an amazing 15 years and 244 days old on his first-start for the club. Another, first goal for a club came when Ryan Lowe scored to put Wednesday back in the lead, after recently coming back from injury. The goal was enough to seal a 2–1 victory for The Owls. The last piece of news in October was that Wednesday were drawn away in Round 1 to Morecambe in the 2011-12 FA Cup, with the game due to be played on the weekend of 12 November. November The FA Cup clash with Morecambe was announced to be live on ESPN on the first day of the month. Four days later, Sheffield Wednesday faced Brentford who ended The Owls' continuous run of winning games at home since the season started in a 0–0 draw. Morecambe was the next game for Wednesday which was a late kick-off on the Sunday. Former-Bristol Rovers midfielder Chris Lines got the opening with a low shot from outside the area, and in the second-half Chris O'Grady scored his first goal for the club to double the advantage. Laurence Wilson did scored for Morecambe from the penalty-spot on the sixty-second minute, but the home side could not take the game to a reply, finishing 1–2. In Round 2, The Owls were drawn at home to another Football League Two side, this time Aldershot Town. Back to the league and Wednesday were away to Tranmere Rovers. Everton loanee Jose Baxter gave Tranmere Rovers the lead before Chris Lines scored his second goal for Wednesday in two consecutive weeks on the brink of half-time. The Owls did manage to come out with a win though, as Ryan Lowe struck with ten-minutes to go. With the emergency-loan market to end soon, Megson brought in three new players in the last week of November. Firstly, right back James Tavernier was brought in for just over a month from Newcastle United as regular Lewis Buxton had picked up a hamstring injury. Also, with central defensive problems and injuries, Miguel Llera was brought in on loan from Football League Championship club Blackpool. The final addition to the squad came from Premier League club Arsenal as the highly anticipated youngster Sanchez Watt came in for a one-month loan, after top scorer Gary Madine was ruled out for three weeks with an injury. At Hillsborough Stadium on 26 November Sheffield Wednesday edged out a close encounter with Leyton Orient, but thanks to another goal from Benin international Reda Johnson on the nineteenth minute, The Owls won 1–0. December The first of many league games in December came at Hillsborough Stadium in the FA Cup against Aldershot Town. The Owls obviously went into the game favourites, due to Aldershot Town being a league below them. The game was a close encounter though and it was Ryan Lowe's goal that separated the sides meaning The Owls went through to the next round 1–0. Round 3 saw Sheffield Wednesday drawn against top Football League Championship side West Ham United at home. Sheffield Wednesday played Oldham Athletic away on 10 December. After, a very tense and tough first hour, Wednesday continued to battle away and got their award as David Prutton scored one of the club's goals of the season, then a penalty from Ryan Lowe put the game to bed with six-minutes to go, adding another win for The Owls. During the game, the Sheffield Wednesday supporters showed their appreciation to chairman Milan Mandaric, who took over the club one year previously. Mandaric had taken Wednesday out of much debt and chances of administration and up towards the top of the league by making managerial changes. Their fans showed their appreciation at the Oldham Athletic game through a large banner/sign across the away stand which said 'THIS CITY IS OURS – XBAЛA MILAN', with the end words translating to 'thank you Milan'. Mandaric's reacted 'emotionally' to this in which he explained in a statement towards his appreciation of the fans. The banner was put up at the next home game, which was the biggest home game of the season against West Yorkshire rivals Huddersfield Town. The games importance was not only the rivalry, but mainly due to league positions, and could prove to be an important factor in the outcome in the race to automatic promotion. Wednesday were one point ahead of Huddersfield Town in second, however Huddersfield Town had one game in hand, so the three points for either team was of much importance and could be pivotal at the end of the season. The game turned out to be one of the most, if not the most, dramatic and exciting games of the season. In front of the highest attendance of the season so far, and an away crowd filling the away stand The Owls started poorly and Scotland international Jordan Rhodes, the league's top scorer, opened the game to put Huddersfield Town 0–1 up. Just three minutes later and Huddersfield Town's second attack of the game saw Jordan Rhodes score his second of the afternoon and Wednesday were already feeling beaten. On the twenty-seventh minute however Rob Jones pulled one back for The Owls and then another three minutes later Reda Johnson astonishingly put Sheffield Wednesday back on level terms for half-time. Sheffield Wednesday came out into the second-half much like the end of the first-half – the better team. Finally, their award came and Wednesday had managed to come back from two goals behind and turn it into a 3–2 lead, when Ben Marshall took on two players and finished coolly into the bottom corner. So far quite an unbelievable game and to add to the games excitement so far Chris O'Grady scored his second goal for the club to put Wednesday into what was surely a comfortable 4–2 lead. With twelve minutes of the game to go however Wednesday Jordan Rhodes, son of Sheffield Wednesday's goalkeeping coach Andy Rhodes, scored his hat-trick to set up a very nervy last moments of the game. The Owls began to sit-back in order to defend their lead in such an important game and was shocked to hear seven minutes added time had been awarded at the end of the game, due to many yellow cards. Huddersfield Town were pushing closer and closer, and every time goalkeeper Stephen Bywater cleared the ball it went back into the possession of Huddersfield Town. And then in the dying moments a long-ball up field by the opposition keeper and a flick on found Jordan Rhodes threw on goal, with Reda Johnson, Lewis Buxton, and Jose Semedo all unable to catch him or make a tackle, Jordan Rhodes showed his complacency and scored in the ninety-seventh minute of the game. All Huddersfield Town's players went over to celebrate, while Wednesday were left devastated, even though it ended in a 4–4 draw. A total of nine yellow cards were handed out in the game with Wednesday getting five of them. After such an unbelievable game The Owls travelled to Walsall for their Boxing Day match. During the week between the games Wednesday were given a Christmas treat when they heard consistent centre back Danny Batth had extended his loan deal from Wolverhampton Wanderers until the end of the season. Wednesday took the lead at Bescot Stadium at the weekend on the hour mark thanks to Ryan Lowe. With nerves and thoughts being remembered by the club of the previous weeks last-minute goal, the defence looked 'shaky' and quite astonishingly conceded another goal in stoppage time for the second consecutive week when Claude Gnakpa scored in the ninety-first minute. After that blow Wednesday fell asleep and gave a free-kick away and the ball was floated into the box when Reda Johnson missed timed his jump for the ball by a long way and Emmanuele Smith scored at the far post in the ninety-third minute. Sheffield Wednesday had given away three vital points in the matter of minutes, at the dying moments of the game. After throwing away five points in stoppage time over the last two weeks, Wednesday somehow had still managed to hold onto that second spot. However, this can be seen as even more frustrating as The Owls could have been six points clear in the automatic promotion spot. The team's character and strength was shown though in the next game, when they was away at Preston North End and won 0–2. Goals from loanees Danny Batth and Ben Marshall in the first-half secured the points for The Owls on New Year's Eve. That same day the last piece of news about Sheffield Wednesday in 2011 was that Stephen Bywater had signed on a permanent deal from Derby County on a free transfer. Bywater had impressed manager Gary Megson, after spending the previous three months at the club due to usual first choice goalkeeper Nicky Weaver had been out with an injury. January The start of 2012 was highly anticipated by Sheffield Wednesday with knowledge of the possibility of being promoted to the Football League Championship at the end of season in May. The key aim was to gain automatic promotion and that was a task that had so far in the first half of the season been greatly helped by on loan winger Ben Marshall, who had probably been the best player for The Owls so far. However, the thing on all the fans' minds was Marshall's future at the club, as his loan from Stoke City was due to end during the middle of the month and his contract at Stoke City due to end in the summer. Only being 20 years of age, it was made clear by Gary Megson, known to be great friends with Stoke City manager Tony Pulis, the outcome would either be that 'Marshall will either sign a new contract at Stoke City and hopefully come back on loan to us (Sheffield Wednesday) or another club will snap him up and buy him'. Wednesday had a match to concentrate on however and their first game of 2012 came at home to Tranmere Rovers. The home game was first of four in a row for Wednesday. Sheffield Wednesday got off to a great start when Reda Johnson scored on just the second minute, then five minutes later Chris Lines scored his first home goal of the club to put The Owls 2–0 up. The game relaxed after this until the eighty-second minute when Ian Goodison scored from a corner to put a nervous last ten minutes of the game, with Sheffield Wednesday losing points in the final minutes of games just weeks earlier. However, Sheffield Wednesday managed to hold on and the game finished 2–1. On the Thursday after this game left back Mark Reynolds who had played only a few games since he joined the club at the beginning of the season was sent out on loan till the end of the season to Aberdeen. Sheffield Wednesday faced top of the Football League Championship West Ham United in the FA Cup the following weekend. Both teams made changes and was a very tight encounter even though the odds were stacked up on West Ham United to go through to the next round. It took a late goal to separate the sides when Chris O'Grady scored with two minutes to go of the ninety and sent Sheffield Wednesday through to the next round of the competition. The next day Sheffield Wednesday found they would be playing Blackpool away in Round 4 of the competition. With the transfer market open for the January month The Owls made their first signing when Miguel Llera, who had signed on loan for the month previously, signed on a two-year contract on a free transfer from Blackpool. Also, the club saw the introduction of Mike Jones a winger signed on an undisclosed fee for two-and-a-half years from fellow League One club Bury. In terms of departures, the club saw three when young goalkeeper Sean Cuff was sent out on loan to Cambridge United for a month, out-of-contract James O'Connor left for American club Orlando City, and Giles Coke went back on loan to Bury for the rest of the season. Back to matches and Sheffield Wednesday faced their toughest opponent of the season so far when the played top of the league Charlton Athletic at home, Charlton Athletic were five points clear of second place Sheffield Wednesday and had not dropped from the top of the league since October. The first goal was largely expected to be the key goal and the team who would go on to win the game. Sheffield Wednesday, unbeaten at home throughout the season and only having two draws at Hillsborough Stadium, started slightly on the back foot in front of a crowd of over 26,000 and were the first to concede when Charlton Athletic captain Johnnie Jackson curled a free-kick around the wall and into the net. That turned out to be the only goal of the game and Sheffield Wednesday were ended of their unbeaten run since the beginning of the season at home. Although with much of the season to go, the game was likely to end any chances of Sheffield Wednesday winning the league with Charlton Athletic now eight points clear of second place and Wednesday slipping down to fourth place with city rivals Sheffield United taking up second place four points ahead of The Owls, although they had played one extra game. The final of the four straight home games was against Hartlepool United and after a goalless first half it was Peter Hartley's goal that put Hartlepool United ahead two minutes into the second half. It took a goal by Jermaine Johnson when he took on four players on the right flank before finishing into the far, low bottom corner to put Sheffield Wednesday back on level terms. That goal lifted the fans in the stadium and the players reacted and scored a second with fifteen minutes to go with Gary Madine on the score sheet this time. However, again The Owls opted to start to defend their lead and then what seemed to be a goal out of nothing from outside the box and caught the keeper off his line, as Antony Sweeney's eighty-eighth minute effort meant Sheffield Wednesday could only manage a draw. With Wednesday reaching Round 3 of the FA Cup it meant that the game they would have played in the league on that same weekend was rescheduled to mid-week. This game was rescheduled to 24 January and was away to Scunthorpe United. After two disappointing results in a row Sheffield Wednesday were looking to bounce back. Sheffield Wednesday did exactly that when Chris O'Grady scored in under a minute after a long ball from Miguel Llera found the striker. Sheffield Wednesday then doubled their lead seventeen minutes later as Chris O'Grady grabbed his second. In the second half there was another goal from Jermaine Johnson, when he took on three players after running from the half-way line and slotted the ball coolly into the net when he found himself one-on-one. Jordan Robertson did pull one back for Scunthorpe United from a corner, but the game did finish 1–3 to The Owls. Sheffield Wednesday's next trip was in the FA Cup against Blackpool. Gary Megson made many changes to the side as he wanted to rest his key players ready for the tough mid-week tie in the league against fifth place MK Dons. One of those changes was striker Clinton Morrison who put The Owls unexpectedly ahead on the fifty-second minute. However, Sheffield Wednesday conceded yet another late, late goal, this time it was in the last minute of stoppage time again when Sheffield Wednesday conceded a penalty and Kevin Phillips scored from the spot in the ninety-minute, meaning a replay had to be played – something that neither team wanted due to their league focuses. The draw for the FA Cup saw the winner of the replay to play Premier League side Everton in the fifth round of the competition. After this Tottenham Hotspur young midfielder John Bostock join The Owls on loan until the end of the season. Mid-week and the last day of the month saw Sheffield Wednesday away to fifth place Milton Keynes Dons. Sheffield Wednesday were six points ahead of Milton Keynes Dons in fourth place; however they had played one more game than Milton Keynes Dons. An effort from distance saw the ball hit the bar and then hit goalkeeper Stephen Bywater's leg and roll into the net, giving Milton Keynes Dons the lead after seventeen minutes. Ten minutes later however a corner for Sheffield Wednesday saw Gary MacKenzie put the ball into his own net after the ball bounced off his knee, making it two own goals in the game. The game finished 1–1 and as a result Sheffield Wednesday went home happy with. However, the bad news of the month was Sheffield Wednesday were unable to extend key player Ben Marshall's loan until the end of the season. Marshall had made twenty-two appearances for the club, scoring five goals, and was signed by Football League Championship club Leicester City for over a million pounds. The loss of Marshall could have affected the team coming up to the 'business' and most crucial part of the season, and with Sheffield Wednesday only winning one of their last four gains with Ben Marshall, how much of an effect would his loss have on Sheffield Wednesday's automatic promotion hopes? February On the first weekend of February Sheffield Wednesday played Yeovil Town at Hillsborough Stadium. The game ended up being one of the toughest wins of the season, with Wednesday winning 2–1 after a first-half goal from almost nothing by Jonathan Obika gave Yeovil Town the lead, but Jermaine Johnson's shot from 25-yards equalised and then the other Johnson, Reda Johnson added another goal to the season with ten-minutes to go to win the game. In such an important part of the season, where points are so vital, there was a mid-week distraction for The Owls in the FA Cup replay against Blackpool, many changes were made and proved costly as The Owls went down 0–3, all goals coming in the first-half. Although Gary Megson did not see this as an unfortunate happening when Sheffield Wednesday were knocked out at the fourth round replay stage. Back to their only competition left, the League One they were away to relegation-threatened Exeter City, and although Wednesday were second in the league they had played two extra games than some of the teams around them, the most threatening of which was Sheffield United. Therefore, it was more important to get maximum points in the games in hope they can get far enough ahead that the games in hand Sheffield United and other teams have would not be enough to catch them. Having struggled the previous game but still came out with a win, Jermaine Johnson scored is fourth goal in as many matches when he struck in the second-half, however two minutes later on the sixty-eighth minute, Billy Jones equalised for Exeter City, before David Noble scored with six minutes to go and ending the game in a 2–1 loss for Wednesday. This gave teams around them a chance to catch up and Sheffield United were now one point behind them and their city rivals had two games in hand, meaning if they won those they would be five points clear in second, and probably ending any hopes Sheffield Wednesday had of automatic promotion. However, their next game was at home in Sheffield Wednesday's first mid-week home fixture of the season, and having only being beaten once at home against top of the table The Owls were hoping to bounce back. With city rivals Sheffield United breathing closely down Wednesday's backs, Sheffield Wednesday were hoping they would slip up on the same night as they played tough opposition against fourth place Huddersfield Town. However, it was a night to forget for Sheffield Wednesday as a goal from Scott Laird on the stroke of half-time saw The Owls lose for the second time at home this season against Stevenage and meanwhile Sheffield United won Huddersfield Town away 0–1. This meant Wednesday's city rivals went two points ahead with two games in hand. After three losses on the bounce in all competitions Sheffield Wednesday came across North Derbyshire rivals Chesterfield away. Chesterfield were second-to-bottom of the league, but in a derby game form usually 'goes out of the window'. Sheffield Wednesday conceded a penalty on the seventy-eighth minute that Dean Morgan finished and ended the game 1–0 to Chesterfield. Sheffield United won again and with it being the later stages of the season Sheffield Wednesday felt their automatic promotion chances were gone and rivals Sheffield United would beat them to it. Sheffield Wednesday in such a poor run of form, their poorest of the season, it could not have come at a worse time for the club as they face Sheffield United in the Steel City derby at the last weekend of February. Meanwhile, Gary Megson had signed Michail Antonio from Reading on loan until the end of the season after other winger Jermaine Johnson had been put aside injured. Rumours in the media had been suggesting that Gary Megson was not going to last much longer as manager of the club, although Wednesday fans dismissed this as the club still had the chance of getting promoted as they were third in the league even though the club had lost their last four matches in all competitions. Sheffield United were clear favourites having won their last three games, but saw themselves all level at 0–0 at half-time. A surprisingly even contest saw Sheffield Wednesday just having the better of the play in the second half in front of the largest crowd of the season of over 36,000. Then quite amazingly a ball down the right-hand side by debutant Michail Antonio saw Lewis Buxton cross the ball into the box first time and Chris O'Grady headed into the back of the net. The Sheffield Wednesday supporters went crazy and all the players went to celebrate with supposedly under-pressure manager Gary Megson. Although having conceded late goals in the past Wednesday went on to win 1–0. However, after that win Sheffield United were two points ahead of Sheffield Wednesday and if they won their games in hand it could potentially be eight points, leaving Sheffield Wednesday still with hardly any hope of reaching the automatic promotion spot. Mid-week saw Sheffield United win one of their games in hand to put them five points clear and that same night probably the most surprising and shocking news of the season was confirmed, Sheffield Wednesday manager Gary Megson had been sacked. March Megson had been sacked just days after his 'best win of my (Gary Megson) career', leaving the club third in the table with sixty points from thirty-three games. The news was a surprise to all supporters of football across the country and Sheffield Wednesday fans were unhappy with the dismissal of manager and Wednesday supporter himself Gary Megson. With Milan Mandaric taking such a big decision, it was in hope of 'still reaching the automatic promotion spot', although still with some games left it would prove to be a very difficult, and looking an almost impossible task for any manager. With rivals Sheffield United second in the league, having the potential to go eight points clear and although losing against Wednesday still seemingly in good form. And a team in such a high position in the league and having a much bigger goal difference the chances of Sheffield Wednesday catching them up and going ahead of them looked very slim. Assistant manager Chris Evans and first-team coach Neil Thompson were confirmed to take control of first-team affairs until a new appointment was made. Milan Mandaric was expected to make a quick appointment as a loss of such large possible consequences, it was sure a particular new manager was in mind. Also as well as the fans' anger, they were worried the effect of the dismissal of Megson would have on the players. After, scoring such a valuable and pride winning goal majority of the players went over to hug Gary Megson, showing a strong player-to-manager relationship. On 2 March Sheffield Wednesday announced a press conference where confirmed the expected appointment of new manager Dave Jones. Dave Jones was rumoured to take the job ever since and before Gary Megson's dismissal. The game against Rochdale the next day finished goalless with Dave Jones watching from the sidelines. Meanwhile, at Sheffield an amazing game took place at Bramall Lane, as Sheffield United were leading comfortably by 2–0 at half time before Oldham Athletic scored two in four minutes to equalise, and then The Blades went down to ten men and then nine as they conceded a penalty in the last minute of the game. Former-Sheffield Wednesday striker Shefki Kuqi scored from the spot and Oldham Athletic won 2–3. This meant Sheffield Wednesday caught up by one point. Dave Jones's first game in charge was shortly after his appointment in a mid-week game at Hillsborough Stadium against Bury. The Owls took an early lead on the eleventh minute with Michail Antonio getting his first goal for the club, Antonio went on to score another as Gary Madine and Ryan Lowe scored as Wednesday won 4–1, a great start to Dave Jones's Sheffield Wednesday managerial career. Meanwhile, Walsall won Sheffield United 3–2, The Owls catching-up by a further three points meaning they were one point behind, however Sheffield United still had a game in hand meaning they could potentially be four points ahead. A second consecutive home game saw Sheffield Wednesday face Bournemouth. Fans could not believe their eyes as goals from Danny Batth, Miles Addison (own goal), and Michail Antonio saw Wednesday 3–0 up inside ten minutes, but that is how the game finished. Sheffield Wednesday were disappointed however as Sheffield United managed to get back to winning ways as they won Brentford 0–2, their wonder top-scorer Ched Evans getting both. Mid-week saw The Blades play their game in hand and drew 1–1 with Colchester United and suddenly was only two points ahead after having the potential to be eight just weeks before. Also, young goalkeeper was loaned to Worksop Town for the rest of the season to get some experience around a first-team squad. Sheffield Wednesday however faced Notts County the next weekend away, and they were incredible form, having been 4–0 up on top of the league Charlton Athletic at just half-time. A tough battle as it was expected to be fortunately saw Sheffield Wednesday win 1–2, by far Dave Jones's toughest game yet. Goals from Ryan Lowe and Gary Madine, before Lloyd Sam pulled a late goal back for Notts County. At Bramall Lane Sheffield United only drew with Tranmere Rovers, meaning Sheffield Wednesday were now level on points, however The Blades had a significant better goal difference. Back at Hillsborough Stadium and The Owls faced Walsall, the team that brought back bad memories for Wednesday fans having conceded two goals in stoppage time the last time the teams met. At half-time it was goalless while Sheffield United were comfortably beating Notts County by a surprisingly large amount of 0–4. With The Blades bound to win their game, Sheffield Wednesday had to stay on track with them. However, Sheffield Wednesday found themselves 1–2 down and after pushing late for an equaliser, it was the last kick of the game as Gary Madine scored in the ninety-fifth minute against relegation-threatened Walsall. The fans went home disappointed as they felt it was a game they could have won, however it was seconds away from being a 'catastrophy' as Dave Jones described it. After not impressing in the team, loanee John Bostock was recalled by Tottenham Hotspur after making six appearances for the club, meanwhile as the emergency-loan transfer market came towards a close Dave Jones brought in Keith Treacy on loan from Burnley and Nile Ranger on loan from Newcastle United – both on loan until the end of the season. The next game was against Leyton Orient, Reda Johnson's goal won the game for The Owls, as both Keith Treacy and Nile Ranger made their debuts for the club after coming off the bench. Sheffield United did not play as their opponents Chesterfield played in the Football League Trophy, this meaning that Sheffield Wednesday temporarily went into second as Sheffield United played rivals Chesterfield mid-week and won 4–1. The last game of a quite long, but incredible month, came and Sheffield Wednesday featured in an early kick-off live on Sky Sports. They won 2–0, after a double-brace by Madine, while later Sheffield United also won again 0–1. Both teams in form, it set up a fantastic end of the season as April came closer and could decide the two fierce rivals between automatic promotion and who would have to settle for the play-offs. April The first week of April saw new Sheffield Wednesday manager Dave Jones win the Football League One Manager of the Month award, while Michail Antonio just missed out on Player of the Month award. 7 April saw another early kick-off with Sheffield Wednesday playing West Yorkshire rivals Huddersfield Town who were six points behind Sheffield Wednesday in fourth place and with a game in hand – meaning if they won Wednesday and their game in hand they would be above The Owls on goal difference. While Sheffield Wednesday of course were still trying to catch Sheffield United and every game was seen as a must win game. After a goalless first half Sheffield Wednesday seemed to be much of the better team, which was surprising considering the importance of the game for both teams, as well as both teams being next to each other in the table. It was a much closer contest in relation to goals, as the last meeting at Hillsborough Stadium finished an amazing 4–4. On the fifty-fourth minute Spaniard Miguel Llera struck a free-kick round the wall and into the bottom corner, scoring his first goal for Wednesday and giving them a well deserved lead. Then Nile Ranger found himself through on goal eighteen minutes later and having missed a 'sitter' and hitting the bar earlier, he showed composure to double The Owls' lead and the game finished 0–2. Sheffield Wednesday went home happy in knowledge of the importance of the game and the fact that they won comfortably compared to what was expected to be a very tough game. Sheffield United played later on in the day and again won as they edged out a 2–1 victory over Bournemouth. Two days later on the Bank Holiday Monday The Owls played their third consecutive early kick-off in a row as they played back at home and were live on Sky Sports against Oldham Athletic. Sheffield Wednesday had so far had similar results against the same clubs as their rivals Sheffield United, such as both losing at the likes of Carlisle United, Charlton Athletic, and Walsall, and both winning against teams such as Bournemouth, Bury etc. And with the knowledge of Sheffield United losing to Oldham Athletic earlier on in the season at home, Wednesday needed to ensure that this did not happen here. Gary Madine scored just before half-time and then Keith Treacy's two crosses with each foot secured victory for The Owls as Miguel Llera and Ryan Lowe headed home from them. Sheffield United again played later, this time a day after Sheffield Wednesday and they won bottom of the league Rochdale. With both rivals in such good form as they aim for automatic promotion it was likely to be who 'slipped' up first. And unfortunately for Sheffield Wednesday it was them as they drew with Colchester United, who had drawn their last four games at home. This game finished 1–1 after an early goal from Ian Henderson from a poor mistake by Michail Antonio and Miguel Llera equalised in the second half but The Owls were unable to pull off those three vital points and drew meaning with Sheffield United winning they were four points behind their rivals with three games to go – so although it had once before in the season looked like Sheffield United had secured the automatic promotion spot, it looked near enough confirmed this time as they had such a large goal difference as well. During the week though Sheffield United star striker and player Ched Evans was in court for the R v Evans and McDonald criminal prosecution case. Ched Evans on the Friday was found guilty of rape and was sentenced to five years in jail, meaning Sheffield United were without their best player of the season, who had led them to victory in so many games and scored over thirty goals throughout the season. However, with Sheffield United in such good form, there was still little doubts about the outcome of the season. The next day Sheffield Wednesday faced Carlisle United who were fighting for a play-off spot and was a must win game for them as well. While Sheffield United were away to in-form Milton Keynes Dons who lay in fifth place. Chris Lines's right-footed shot rolled into the bottom corner in the twenty-sixth minute of the match to put Sheffield Wednesday 1 goal up. Sheffield United however had conceded in their game to make things as they stood Wednesday one point behind their city rivals with two games to go. As Sheffield United were still trailing, Wednesday were cruelly punished for not finishing their chances within the game as James Berrett equalised to send Carlisle United into jubilation. As the Sheffield United game had finished Wednesday still had several minutes of stoppage time to play. And their deserved goal came as Michail Antonio who had injured his right foot and right shoulder during the game, continued to play and dribbled round one player and finished in a tight corner to send the Sheffield Wednesday fans absolutely crazy as Antonio's winning goal came in the ninety-fifth minute of the game. This goal still gave Wednesday a chance as they were now one point behind Sheffield United thanks to that late, late goal. With both Sheffield clubs playing teams who were likely to be relegated by the last game of the season, the second-to-last games of the season were seen to most as the decider in the automatic promotion race. It was Sheffield Wednesday who kicked off first at three o'clock on the Saturday of the last weekend of April. They faced another difficult challenge as Brentford who they were playing away, were desperate for maximum points as they looked to get into the final play-off place. In the first-half it was Brentford who were the better side as they missed one 'sitter' and hit the bar from four-yards out and should have been in front. However, a free-kick saw Keith Treacy pick out the bottom corner as the goalkeeper was not covering his near post and was caught unaware of that possibility. Wednesday went into the break ahead, although they had scored against the run of play. The second half was similar to the first but Wednesday were playing better, but Brentford still had the better of the play. And then in the sixty-second minute Mark Beevers conceded a penalty and was lucky not to be sent off after already having a yellow card. Clayton Donaldson scored and Sheffield Wednesday still being on the back foot, were looking unlikely to win even though they so desperately had to. Then up-jumped Miguel Llera to head the ball up into the net four minutes later to put Wednesday back in front. After several misses from Brentford, a one-on-one and a great save from Stephen Bywater, Sheffield Wednesday went home with a 2–1 win. Sheffield United had a late kick-off and was live on Sky Sports and was being viewed by all supporters of both rival clubs. They played Stevenage who were in an incredible run of form going into the game, as they pushed for the final play-off place themselves. Although, Sheffield United started brightly they were unable to convert any chances and was missing their star player Ched Evans. And then joy for Stevenage and Sheffield Wednesday fans alike as Joel Byrom scored and put Stevenage one nil up at half-time. Two minutes into the second half and Stevenage scored again, sending The Owls and Stevenage wild again. Sheffield United had to win to stay above Sheffield Wednesday and pulled a goal back and then Matthew Lowton equalised to make it 2–2 with five minutes to go plus stoppage time. It was the most tense and heart-racing moments of both Sheffield United and Sheffield Wednesday as they knew one goal for The Blades in those final moments could be the decisive goal in the automatic promotion race. A fabulous save from Chris Day in the final minutes was able to stop Sheffield United and they could only manage to draw. Meaning Sheffield Wednesday after such an amazing season, for fans of both clubs and the neutral, were now second and in the driving seat for automatic promotion. May May. Probably one of the most important months in Sheffield Wednesday's recent history. It could see them get promoted to the Football League Championship and from their, who knows, maybe even the Premier League. One game left in the league, one point ahead of their most fierce rivals Sheffield United and at the end of such an amazing season, with so many twists and turns, particularly in football in Sheffield, all Sheffield Wednesday had to do was win their last game. They played fourth-to-bottom placed Wycombe Wanderers who had already been relegated to the Football League Two the previous week. The game at Hillsborough Stadium was highly anticipated with Wycombe Wanderers fans only bringing around 200 fans, Wednesday supporters were given an extra 6,000 seats, including in the away end. Meaning over 37,000 Sheffield Wednesday fans would be cheering the team on to win the last game of the season and to get them promoted. Hillsborough Stadium was completely sold-out and was the biggest attendance of the season, at the last game of the season. Sheffield United were to play away to Exeter City who were second-to-bottom in the league and also already relegated. Both teams were expected to win. But with so many twists and turns in the season would there be one more on the final day of the season? Would this twist see Sheffield United promoted and Sheffield Wednesday heading for the play-offs? Or would Sheffield Wednesday stay concentrated on the game ahead and continue their unbeaten run under manager Dave Jones for one last important win? All would be told between ninety minutes of football kicking off at three o'clock on Saturday 5 May 2012. At Hillsborough Stadium within the first twenty-minutes, Jose Semedo blasted the ball over from close range and should have done better, while on the twenty-fourth minute of the Sheffield United game at St James Park striker Alan Gow put Exeter City in front, and a minute later even better news for Sheffield Wednesday as they took the lead as Michail Antonio did well as he finished with the ball bouncing awkwardly. Things were getting better and better for Wednesday on the most crucial game of the season as James Beattie got sent-off for Sheffield United for a professional foul. Hillsborough Stadium saw Lewis Buxton go down either in the penalty box or on the outside, the referee judged that the foul was committed outside the box and then Nile Ranger had a goal disallowed for offside. However, in the other game, even though The Blades were down to ten-men, just before half-time Lee Williamson equalised and put Sheffield United on level terms at the break, while Sheffield Wednesday were on the way to the Football League Championship as they were ahead by a goal to nil. After the break and Sheffield United came back fighting as Kevin McDonald put The Blades ahead and hoping Sheffield Wednesday would conceded. However, five minutes later on the fifty-second minute, Nile Ranger doubled Sheffield Wednesday's lead and put The Owls on course to promotion. Exeter City did equalise late on into added time but it would not even matter as Sheffield Wednesday won anyway and fans ran onto the pitch in celebration while the players did a lap of honour to show their appreciation. After catching Sheffield United the majority of the last half of the season, the table finished with Wednesday three points ahead in second-place and were automatically promoted to the Football League Championship. An end to quite a remarkable season, as Sheffield Wednesday looked upon games such as the 4–4 draw with Huddersfield Town – conceding in the ninety-seventh minute, being eight points behind their rivals, winning Sheffield United at home and so many other twists and turns. It was the perfect ending of the season for Sheffield Wednesday Football Club. A day after this saw the end of the season club awards. It proved to be a successful night for vice-Captain Jose Semedo as he won both the Fans' Player of the Season and the Players' Player of the Season. Semedo said 'This is a tremendous honour and one I will remember forever. I have to say thank you for everyone who voted for me and thank you everyone at the club. This season has been unbelievable for me and the team.'. Other awards saw Chris O'Grady's header at the Sheffield United home game named Goal of the Season. The Outstanding Contribution award was handed to chairman Milan Mandaric after he rescued Wednesday from the brink of administration, stabilised the club on all levels before steering the Owls to automatic promotion the Championship this season. Captain Rob Jones won the Owls' Player in the Community award, while youngster Jarrod Kyle lifted the Academy Player of the Year award. In further celebrations of promotion Wednesday were invited by the Lord Mayor of Sheffield to a Civic Reception in the centre of the city. Fans were packed out on the streets in their thousands to see the players and continue to celebrate the club's season success. Players and staff Current squad Players on loan Youth squad As of 25 February 2012. International Call-Ups Coaching and Medical Staff Manager: Dave Jones Assistant Manager: Terry Burton First Team Coach: Neil Thompson Goalkeeping Coach: Andy Rhodes Director of Performance: Alex Armstrong Head Physiotherapist: Paul Smith Assistant Physiotherapist: Dean Taylor Squad statistics Appearances and goals |- |colspan="14"|Players that have featured for Sheffield Wednesday in a match day squad this season who are out on loan: |- |colspan="14"|Players that have featured for Sheffield Wednesday in a match day squad this season who are not now at the club: |} Top scorers Assists Sheffield Wednesday Man of the Match Disciplinary record Matches Pre-season League One League Cup FA Cup Football League Trophy Transfers Awards Sheffield Wednesday End of Season Awards PFA Fans' League One Player of the Season BBC Football League One Team of the Season Northern Programme Club Independent View Programme of the Month Mascot of the Year 2012 Football League One Manager of the Month Football League One Player of the Month The Football League Young Player of the Month Wise Old Owls Award Sheffield Wednesday Player of the Month Award Football League One Team of the Week Sheffield Wednesday Man of the Matches League Football Education Goal of the Season League Football Education Goal of the Month Competitions Overall League One Classification Results summary Results by round References 2011-12 2011–12 Football League One by team

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New York City has been called the media capital of the world. The media of New York City are internationally influential and include some of the most important newspapers, largest publishing houses, biggest record companies, and most prolific television studios in the world. It is a major global center for the book, magazine, music, newspaper, and television industries. New York is also the largest media market in North America (followed by Los Angeles, Chicago, and Toronto). Some of the city's media conglomerates include CNN (WMN&S), the Hearst Corporation, NBCUniversal, The New York Times Company, the Fox Corporation and News Corp, the Thomson Reuters Corporation, WarnerMedia, and ViacomCBS. Seven of the world's top eight global advertising agency networks are headquartered in New York. Three of the "Big Four" record labels are also headquartered or co-headquartered in the city. One-third of all American independent films are produced in New York. More than 200 newspapers and 350 consumer magazines have an office in the city and the book-publishing industry employs about 25,000 people. Two of the three U.S. national daily newspapers with the largest circulations in the United States are published in New York: The Wall Street Journal and The New York Times, which has won the most Pulitzer Prizes for journalism and is considered the U.S. media's "newspaper of record". Major tabloid newspapers in the city include The New York Daily News, which was founded in 1919 by Joseph Medill Patterson, and The New York Post, founded in 1801 by Alexander Hamilton. Newsday, a Long Island newspaper, is also widely circulated in the city. The city also has a major ethnic press, with 270 newspapers and magazines published in more than 40 languages. El Diario La Prensa is New York's largest Spanish-language daily and the oldest in the nation. The New York Amsterdam News, published in Harlem, is a prominent African-American newspaper. The Village Voice was the largest alternative newspaper until it ceased publishing in 2018. The television industry developed in New York and is a significant employer in the city's economy. The four major American broadcast networks, ABC, CBS, Fox, and NBC, are all headquartered in New York. Many cable channels are based in the city as well, including CNN, MSNBC, MTV, Fox News, HBO, and Comedy Central. In 2005 there were more than 100 television shows taped in New York City. New York is also a major center for non-commercial media. The oldest public-access cable television channel in the United States is the Manhattan Neighborhood Network, founded in 1971. WNET is the city's major public television station and a primary provider of national Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) programming. WNYC, a public radio station owned by the city until 1997, has the largest public radio audience in the United States. The City of New York operates a public broadcast service, NYC Media, that produces several original New York Emmy Award-winning shows covering music and culture in city neighborhoods, as well as city government-access television (GATV). New York City is home to a number of major online media companies, including Yahoo and its operations under the AOL brand, along with news and entertainment companies like BuzzFeed and VICE Media. Media industry profiles Book publishing The book publishing industry in the United States is based in New York. Publishing houses in the city range from industry giants such as Penguin Group (USA), HarperCollins, Random House, Scholastic, Simon & Schuster, and Macmillan to small niche houses like Melville House and Lee & Low Books. New York has also been the setting for countless works of literature, many of them produced by the city's large population of writers (which have included Paul Auster, Don DeLillo, Bret Easton Ellis, Jonathan Safran Foer, Jonathan Franzen, Jhumpa Lahiri, Jonathan Lethem, John O'Hara, Dorothy Parker, Thomas Pynchon, Susan Sontag and many others). The New York City metro area, home to the largest number of Jews and Italians outside Israel and Italy, respectively, has also been a flourishing scene for both Jewish American literature and Italian-American literature. New York is also home to PEN America, the largest of the 141 centers of PEN International, the world's oldest human rights organization and the oldest international literary organization. PEN America plays an important role in New York's literary community and is active in defending free speech, the promotion of literature, and the fostering of international literary fellowship. Author Jennifer Egan is its current president. Some of the most important literary journals in the United States are in New York. These include The Paris Review, The New York Review of Books, n+1, and New York Quarterly. Other New York literary publications include Circumference, Open City, The Manhattan Review, The Coffin Factory, Fence, and Telos. New York is also home to the US offices of Granta. Film New York is a prominent location for the American entertainment industry, with many films, television series, books, and other media being set there. , New York City was the second largest center for filmmaking and television production in the United States, producing about 200 feature films annually, employing 130,000 individuals; the filmed entertainment industry has been growing in New York, contributing nearly US$9 billion to the New York City economy alone as of 2015, and by volume, New York is the world leader in independent film production – one-third of all American independent films are produced in New York City. The Association of Independent Commercial Producers is also based in New York. In the first five months of 2014 alone, location filming for television pilots in New York City exceeded the record production levels for all of 2013, with New York surpassing Los Angeles as the top North American city for the same distinction during the 2013/2014 cycle. International film makers are featured prominently in New York City as well. In the earliest days of the American film industry, New York was the epicenter of filmmaking. However, the drier weather of Hollywood and tax incentives offered at the time by filming in Los Angeles made California a better choice for film production throughout much of the 20th century. The Kaufman Astoria Studios film studio, built during the silent film era, was used by the Marx Brothers and W.C. Fields, and has expanded its footprint in Queens. It has also been used for The Cosby Show, Sesame Street and the films of Woody Allen. The recently constructed Steiner Studios is a 15-acre (61,000 m2) modern movie studio complex in a former shipyard where The Producers and The Inside Man, a Spike Lee movie, were filmed. New York was, and to a certain extent still is, also important within the animation industry. Until 1938, it served as the home of Fleischer Studios (who produced the Popeye, Betty Boop, and Color Classics shorts for Paramount Pictures) as well as the Van Beuren Studios (who produced animated shorts for RKO Radio Pictures) until 1937. It would later be the home for Famous Studios (who replaced Fleischer Studios and continued the production of Popeye shorts for Paramount) from 1943 to the 1960s. Its current position in the animation world is as an alternative to Los Angeles (where most U.S. animation is produced), and the city now houses several schools and school programs concerning animation, and stands as a source of work for animators working for any medium, from advertising to film. Silvercup Studios has expanded in Long Island City, Queens with numerous soundstages, production and studio support space, offices for media and entertainment companies, stores, 1,000 apartments in high-rise towers, a catering hall and a cultural institution, built at the edge of the East River in Queens, overlooking Manhattan, and maintaining its status as the largest production house on the U.S. East Coast. Steiner Studios in Brooklyn still has the largest individual soundstage, however. Miramax Films, a Big Ten film studio, was the largest motion picture distribution and production company headquartered in the city until it moved to Burbank, California in January 2010. Many smaller independent producers and distributors are located in New York. Film-related lists List of film festivals in New York City List of New York City television and film studios Magazines New York City has a long history in American magazine publishing based in New York City. Billboard Bloomberg Businessweek Brooklyn Magazine The Brooklyn Rail City Limits Cosmopolitan Entertainment Weekly GO NYC Harper's Bazaar The L Magazine L'Idea Manhattan, inc. (defunct) New York The New Yorker Next Magazine Rolling Stone Seventeen The Real Deal Time Out NY Time Vogue Music In the 1930s, New York-based RCA was the nation's largest manufacturer of phonographs. In the late 19th and early 20th century, most sheet music in the United States—especially the popular songs of the day, many now standards—was printed at Tin Pan Alley, so called because the constant sound of new songs being tried out on pianos in the publishing houses was said to sound like a tin pan. By the early 1960s the radio and musical stars of the Golden Age of Broadway gave way to the Brill Building's "Brill Sound". Salsa music, which got its start in New York City in the mid-1960s, was popularized by the New York record label Fania Records, which developed a highly polished "Fania sound" that came to be synonymous with salsa. In the 1980s and 1990s, hip hop labels including Def Jam, Roc-A-Fella and Bad Boy Records were founded in New York, creating what is known as East Coast hip hop. These labels continue to be among the largest hip-hop labels in the world. Other influential New York-based hip hop labels, past and present, include Cold Chillin' Records, Jive Records, Loud Records, Rawkus Records and Tommy Boy Records. Two of the "Big Four" music labels are headquartered in the city: Sony Music Entertainment and Warner Music Group. The world headquarters of MTV is also in New York. Many major music magazines are headquartered in the city as well, including Blender Magazine, Punk Magazine, Spin and Rolling Stone. Newspapers New York City is home to 4 of the 10 largest papers in the United States. These include The New York Times (circulation 571,500), the New York Post (circulation 414,254), and the Daily News (circulation 227,352). The Wall Street Journal (circulation 2.2 million), published in New York City, is a national-scope business newspaper and the first or second most-read newspaper in the nation, depending on measurement method. El Diario La Prensa (circulation 265,000) is New York's largest Spanish-language daily and the oldest in the nation. There are also several borough-specific newspapers, such as The Brooklyn Daily Eagle and The Staten Island Advance. Free daily newspapers mainly distributed to commuters include amNewYork, Hoy and Metro New York. In addition to the print newspapers, BKLYNER is the leading daily digital news publication reporting on local news and events in Brooklyn. The city's ethnic press is large and diverse. Major ethnic publications include the Roman Catholic diocesan paper for Brooklyn-Queens, The Tablet and Jewish-American newspapers The Jewish Daily Forward (פֿאָרװערטס; Forverts, published in Yiddish and English) (founded in 1897), and African-American newspapers, including the long-time newspaper The New York Amsterdam News (founded in 1909) and Brooklyn-based Our Time Press. The Epoch Times, an international newspaper published by the Falun Gong, has English and Chinese editions in New York. There are seven dailies published in Chinese and four in Spanish. Multiple daily papers are published in Italian, Greek, Polish, and Korean, and other weekly newspapers serve dozens of different ethnic communities, with ten separate newspapers focusing on the African-American community alone. Many nationally distributed ethnic newspapers are based in Astoria, Chinatown or Brooklyn. Over 60 ethnic groups, writing in 42 languages, publishing over 200 non-English language magazines and newspapers in New York City, including newspapers in 95 non-English languages and local radio broadcasts in over 30 languages. Ethnic variation is not the only measure of the diversity of New York City's newspapers, with editorial opinions running from left-leaning at alternative papers like the Village Voice (before its closure in 2018), to conservative at the New York Post. New York Observer covers politics and the city's rich and powerful with unusual depth. The tradition of a free press owes much to John Peter Zenger, a New York publisher who was acquitted in his 1735 landmark court case, setting the precedent that truth was a legitimate defense against accusations of libel. Major newspapers emphasizing coverage of the New York metropolitan region outside the city include Newsday, which covers primarily Long Island but also New York City, (especially Brooklyn and Queens), The Journal News, which covers Westchester County, to the north along the Hudson River and The Bergen Record and The Star-Ledger, of Newark which cover northern New Jersey across the New York Bay and Hudson River to the west. Online media New York City's digital companies, sometimes described as "Silicon Alley", include both software companies and companies known primarily as content producers. Among the former are Tumblr (now owned by Automattic), Foursquare, and AOL. Among the latter are G/O Media, BuzzFeed (which now owns HuffPost since 2020) and Weblogs, Inc., which is currently part of Yahoo. The satirical newspaper The Onion (online-only since 2013) was based in New York from 2000 to 2012. Broadcast radio AM stations 570 WMCA New York City (Christian) 620 WSNR Jersey City, NJ (Russian/variety) 660 WFAN New York City (Sports)1 710 WOR New York City (Conservative talk)1 770 WABC New York City (Conservative talk)1 820 WNYC New York City (NPR/talk)† 880 WCBS New York City (All-news)1 930 WPAT Paterson, NJ (Brokered/ethnic) 970 WNYM Hackensack, NJ (Conservative talk) 1010 WINS New York City (All-news) 1050 WEPN New York City (Sports) 1100 WHLI Hempstead (Oldies)2 1130 WBBR New York City (Bloomberg Radio)1 1160 WVNJ Oakland, NJ (Relevant Radio)† 1190 WLIB New York City (Gospel) 1230 WFAS White Plains (Conservative talk)3 1240 WGBB Freeport (Multilingual brokered) 1280 WADO New York City (Spanish sports) 1330 WWRV New York City (Spanish Christian music, and teaching) 1380 WKDM New York City (Mandarin/Spanish) 1430 WNSW Newark, NJ (Relevant Radio)† 1460 WVOX New Rochelle (Brokered/Music of Your Life) 1480 WZRC New York City (Cantonese) 1520 WJDM Mineola (Spanish Christian)2 1560 WFME New York City (Family Radio)1† 1600 WWRL New York City (Black Information Network) 1660 WWRU Jersey City, NJ (Korean) 1710 WQFG689 Jersey City, NJ (Hudson County, NJ) (Travelers' information station) 1 clear-channel station 2 daytime-only station 3 station broadcasting in all-digital † non-commercial station FM stations Asterisk (*) indicates a non-commercial (public radio/campus/educational) broadcast. 88.1 WCWP Brookville (College/variety)* 88.3 WBGO Newark, NJ (NPR/jazz)* 88.7 WRHU Hempstead (College/variety)* 88.9 WSIA Staten Island (College/alternative rock)* 89.1 WNYU-FM New York City (College/variety)* 89.5 WSOU South Orange, NJ (College/rock)* 89.9 WKCR-FM New York City (College/variety)* 90.3 WKRB Brooklyn (College/CHR)* 90.7 WFUV New York City (NPR/AAA)* 91.1 WFMU Jersey City, NJ (College/freeform)* 91.5 WNYE New York City (NPR/variety)* 92.3 WNYL New York City (Alternative rock) 92.7 WFME-FM Garden City (Family Radio)* 93.1 WPAT-FM Paterson, NJ (Bachata/reggaetón/tropical) 93.5 WVIP New Rochelle (Caribbean) 93.9 WNYC-FM New York City (NPR/talk)* 94.7 WXBK Newark, NJ (Classic Hip Hop) 95.5 WPLJ New York City (K-Love)* 96.3 WXNY-FM New York City (Spanish rhythmic AC) 96.7 WARW Port Chester (Air1)* 97.1 WQHT New York City (Mainstream urban) 97.9 WSKQ-FM New York City (Tropical music) 98.3 WKJY Hempstead (Adult contemporary) 98.7 WEPN-FM New York City (Sports) 99.5 WBAI New York City (Pacifica Radio)* 100.3 WHTZ Newark, NJ (Contemporary hit radio) 100.7 WHUD Peekskill (Adult contemporary) 101.1 WCBS-FM New York City (Classic hits) 101.9 WFAN-FM New York City (Sports) 102.7 WNEW-FM New York City (Adult contemporary) 103.5 WKTU Lake Success (Rhythmic AC) 103.9 WFAS-FM Bronxville (Conservative talk) 104.3 WAXQ New York City (Classic rock) 105.1 WWPR-FM New York City (Mainstream urban) 105.5 WDHA-FM Dover, NJ (Mainstream rock) 105.9 WQXR-FM Newark, NJ (Classical)* 106.7 WLTW New York City (Adult contemporary) 107.1 WXPK Briarcliff Manor (AAA) 107.5 WBLS New York City (Urban AC) Defunct stations 2XG–WJX/New York City (1915–17, 1920–24) W2XEA–KE2XCC/Alpine, NJ (1945–54) W2XMN/Alpine, NJ (1936–49) W31NY–WFMN/Alpine, NJ (1941–53) WDT/New York City (1921–23) WDY/Roselle Park, NJ (1921–22) WJDM/Elizabeth, NJ (1970–2019) WGYN/New York City (1941–50) WJY/Hoboken, NJ (July 2, 1921) WJY/New York City (1923–27; merged into WJZ, now WABC) W63NY–WHNF–WMGM-FM/New York City (1942–55) WBBR–WPOW/New York City (1924–84; merged into WNYM, now WWRV) WNNJ–WPAT-FM/Paterson, NJ (1949–1951) WRNY/New York City (1928–34; merged into WHN, now WEPN) WWDX/Paterson, New Jersey (1947–49) Television New York City is the home of the three traditional major American television networks, ABC, CBS and NBC, as well as Spanish-language network Univision. They each have local broadcast owned and operated stations which serve as the flagship stations of their networks. It is also the headquarters of several large cable television channels, including MTV, Fox News, HBO, and Comedy Central. Silvercup Studios, located in Queens was the production facility for the popular television shows Sex and the City and The Sopranos. MTV broadcasts programming from its sound stage overlooking Times Square, several blocks away from The Ed Sullivan Theater, the theater housing the Late Show with Stephen Colbert. Saturday Night Live is broadcast from NBC's studios at 30 Rockefeller Center, where The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon, Late Night with Seth Meyers, NBC Nightly News and The Today Show is also taped. BET is headquartered on 57th Street. The Colbert Report is produced by Comedy Central on 54th Street, and The Daily Show, also produced by Comedy Central, is produced just a few blocks over on 11th avenue and West 53rd street. Glenn Beck's The Blaze TV has a studio in Manhattan. Over a thousand people are involved with producing the various Law & Order television series. In 2005 there were more than 100 new and returning television shows taped in New York City, according to the Mayor's Office of Film, Theater and Broadcasting. WNET, New York's largest public television station, is a primary national provider of PBS programming. The oldest public-access television network in the United States is the Manhattan Neighborhood Network, well known for its eclectic local origination programming that ranges from a jazz hour to discussion of labor issues to foreign language and religious programming. There are eight other Public-access television channels in New York, including Brooklyn Community Access Television (BCAT). As part of use of local rights-of-way, the cable operators in New York have granted Public, educational, and government access (PEG) organizations channels for programming. They also carry the New York State legislative channel available on cable packages with sufficient bandwidth. Another notable channel in the city is NY1, established in 1992 as Time Warner Cable's first local news channel and acquired with the rest of Time Warner Cable by Charter Communications in May 2016. NY1 is known for its beat coverage of city neighborhoods, and its coverage of City Hall and state politics is closely watched by political insiders. For years, several soap operas were filmed in the New York City area, including Another World, As the World Turns, Guiding Light, All My Children and One Life to Live. As of 2012, there are no New York soap operas left on the air. Broadcast Asterisk (*) indicates channel is a network owned-and-operated station. Two asterisks (**) indicates channel is a network flagship station. 2 WCBS New York City (CBS)** 4 WNBC New York City (NBC)** 5 WNYW New York City (Fox)** 7 WABC New York City (ABC)** 9 WWOR Secaucus, NJ (MyNetworkTV)** 11 WPIX New York City (The CW) 13 WNET Newark, NJ (PBS) 14 WNDT-CD New York City (FNX) 21 WLIW Garden City (PBS) 25 WNYE New York City (Non-commercial independent) 31 WPXN New York City (Ion Television)* 33 WJLP Middletown Township, NJ (MeTV)* 41 WXTV Paterson, NJ (Univision)** 46 WMBQ-CD New York City (FNX) 47 WNJU Linden, NJ (Telemundo)** 48 WRNN New Rochelle (ShopHQ) 49 WEDW Stamford, CT (PBS) 50 WNJN Montclair, NJ (PBS) 54 WTBY Jersey City, NJ (TBN)* 55 WLNY Riverhead (Independent) 63 WMBC Newton, NJ (Independent) 68 WFUT Newark, NJ (UniMás)* Defunct stations KC2XAK/Bridgeport, CT (1949–52) W26CE/New York City (1984–2021) WMUN-CD/New York City (1988–2017) WRTV/Asbury Park, NJ (1954–55) WNYJ-TV/West Milford, NJ (1996–2017) WWPS-LP/Kinnelon, NJ (1991–2016) Cable and internet CBSN New York CUNY TV NY1 News12 MSG Network SportsNet New York YES Network Portrayals of New York City in the media Because of its sheer size and cultural influence, New York City has been the subject of many different, and often contradictory, portrayals in mass media. From the sophisticated and worldly metropolis seen in many Woody Allen films, to the hellish and chaotic urban jungle depicted in such movies as Martin Scorsese's Taxi Driver (1976), New York has served as the unwitting backdrop for virtually every conceivable viewpoint on big city life. In the early years of film New York City was characterized as urbane and sophisticated. By the city's crisis period in the 1970s, however, films like Midnight Cowboy (1969), The French Connection (1971), and Death Wish (1974) showed New York as full of chaos and violence. With the city's renaissance in the 1990s came new portrayals on television; Seinfeld, Friends, and Sex and the City showed life in the city to be glamorous and interesting. Nonetheless, a disproportionate number of crime dramas, such as Law & Order and the Spider-Man film series, continue to use the city as their setting despite New York's status as the safest large city in the United States after plummeting crime rates over many years. An essay appearing in the Arts section of The New York Times in April 2006 quoted several filmmakers, including Sidney Lumet and Paul Mazursky, describing how modern cinema shows the city as far more "teeming, terrifying, exhilarating, unforgiving" than contemporary New York actually is, and the consequential challenge this poses for filmmakers. The article quotes Robert Greenhut, Woody Allen's producer, as saying that despite the increased sanitization of modern New York, "New Yorkers' personalities are different to Chicago. There's a certain kind of vibrancy and tone that you can't get elsewhere. The labor pool is more interesting than elsewhere — the salesgirl with one line, or the cop. That's who directors are looking for." Media-related lists List of books set in New York City List of films set in New York City List of journalists in New York City List of television shows set in New York City List of video games set in New York City See also Culture of New York City List of New York City newspapers and magazines Made in NY New Yorkers in journalism NYC Media Group References External links The Mayor's Office of Film, Theatre & Broadcasting – The city's film commission Manhattan Neighborhood Network – The first free public access channel in the United States Taxi Radio (Show for NYC taxi drivers) Radio NY Live – Manhattan Net-Radio New York, NY on American Radio Map (Radiomap.us) Communications in New York City New York

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Juan Mónaco (; born 29 March 1984), nicknamed "Pico", is a former tennis player from Argentina. He won nine singles titles, reached the semifinals of the 2010 Shanghai Masters and the 2012 Miami Masters, and achieved a career-high singles ranking of world no. 10 in July 2012. He announced his retirement from professional tennis on 15 May 2017. Biography Monaco comes from an indigenous Argentine background, and he started playing tennis at the age of six. His father, Héctor, is a businessman, while his mother, Cristina, is an architect. He has two siblings. He enjoys spending time at home in Tandil with family and friends. His favorite sports to follow are football and basketball. His favorite teams are Estudiantes de La Plata and the San Antonio Spurs. His favorite surface is clay. He counts Andre Agassi and countryman Mariano Zabaleta as his heroes. He also enjoys going to the cinema. His favorite movies are Gladiator and 300. He is also a fan of The Lord of the Rings books. Monaco used to be mentored by Luis Lobo of Argentina. Since the latter part of the 2010 season, Monaco was coached by Mariano Zabaleta. He added Gastón Etlis to his coaching team in February 2011. Career 2002–2003 In 2002, Monaco made his pro circuit debut. On February 12, he won his first tournament in Jamaica F20, Montego Bay by defeating Francisco Rodríguez of Paraguay. He ended the year ranked no. 470 in singles. In 2003, Monaco reached six finals, finishing as runner-up in two events in Jamaica F3, Montego Bay, losing to American Wayne Odesnik, and in Argentina F6, Buenos Aires losing to compatriot Diego Moyano. He however won four, all on clay, of his six finals. He won in Jamaica F4, Montego Bay, in Bolivia F1, La Paz, in Argentina F1, Buenos Aires, and Uruguay F2, Uruguay defeating Dmitri Sitak of Russia, and his compatriots Matias O'Neille, Carlos Berlocq, and Ignacio González King respectively. He ended the year ranked at no. 324 in singles. 2004-2006 Monaco started 2004 by winning in São Paulo–1, Brazil defeating Adrián García of Chile. He also made his ATP Debut in his home of Buenos Aires, Argentina in the 2004 Argentina Open, where he reached the quarterfinals (l. Guillermo Coria). He followed this up with a third-round result in his first Master Series event in the 2004 NASDAQ-100 Open, losing to Paradorn Srichaphan. He made his Grand Slam debut in the 2004 French Open as a qualifier, losing in the second round to eventual finalist and compatriot Guillermo Coria. He also reached the quarterfinals of the 2004 Swedish Open, losing to Chilean Fernando González. He got his best result of the year reaching his first semifinal in 2004 Idea Prokom Open in Sopot (l. to José Acasuso) and 2004 Campionati Internazionali di Sicilia in Paloma (l. to Filippo Volandri). He also made his 2004 US Open debut, but lost to compatriot Gastón Gaudio in the first round. He ended the year in the top 100 for the first time, ranked at no. 73 in singles. In 2005, Monaco made his 2005 Australian Open debut, losing in the first round to American Mardy Fish. He reached the second round of the 2005 Pacific Life Open and the quarterfinals in 2005 BMW Open, both times losing to compatriot David Nalbandian. He reached his first ATP finals in Casablanca at the 2005 Grand Prix Hassan II, but lost to compatriot Mariano Puerta. He reached the second round of 2005 Internazionali BNL d'Italia and the 2005 Hamburg Masters, losing to Guillermo Cañas and Jiří Novák, respectively. He lost in the first round of the 2005 French Open to Sébastien Grosjean. He made his Wimbledon debut, losing to Novak Djokovic. However, he got his first top-20 win, defeating Spaniard David Ferrer, but lost the next round to Tomáš Zíb in the 2005 Mercedes Cup Open. He reached the quarterfinals in the Vietnam Open, losing to Radek Štěpánek. He ended the year 12 places lower than the previous year, at no. 85. In 2006, Monaco recorded three first-round exits in the first two months in Buenos Aires, Santiago, Chile, and Adelaide and second-round exits at the Australian Open and the 2006 Medibank International. However, he rebounded by reaching the semifinals in the Brasil Open, losing to Nicolás Massú of Chile. Following the semifinal appearance, he lost four straight matches in Acapulco, the 2006 NASDAQ-100 Open, the 2006 U.S. Men's Clay Court Championships, and Morocco. He also lost in the first round of the 2006 Internazionali BNL d'Italia, losing to veteran French player Fabrice Santoro, and lost in the second round of the 2006 Hamburg Masters to Robin Söderling. Following these losses, Monaco achieved great results in the next four weeks, reaching the quarterfinals in Poertschach (l. to Luis Horna), the third round of Roland Garros (l. to Ivan Ljubičić), and the semifinals of the 2006 Mercedes Cup (l. to José Acasuso). Following this semifinal appearance. he lost four matches in a row again a second-round loss in the Orange Warsaw Open (l. to Nikolay Davydenko) and a first-round loss at the US Open, BCR Open Romania, and the Kingfisher Airlines Tennis Open. He reached the third round of the AIG Japan Open Tennis Championships, losing to Jarkko Nieminen. He ended the year ranked number no. 69 in singles. In doubles, he made two semifinal appearance in the 2007 Brasil Open partnering compatriot Agustín Calleri, and in the 2007 Mercedes Cup partnering José Acasuso. 2007 2007 was Monaco's most successful year. Monaco started the year with a quarterfinal appearance at the 2007 Heineken Open, losing to compatriot Agustín Calleri. He also reached the quarterfinals of the 2007 Brasil Open losing to another compatriot Juan Ignacio Chela. Monaco entered his home tournament of 2007 Copa Telmex in Buenos Aires ranked at no. 66, and exited with his first ATP title dominating Alessio di Mauro in the final in straight sets. However, he exited in the first round of his next three tournaments in the Acapulco, Indian Wells, and a Challenger event. He reached the second round of the 2007 Miami Masters, losing to David Ferrer. He also reached the quarterfinals of the 2007 U.S. Men's Clay Court Championships, losing to American James Blake and at the 2007 Estoril Open (l. to Paul-Henri Mathieu). He qualified for the Hamburg Masters, but lost to top seed and eventual champion Roger Federer in the second round in three tight sets. Following his good performance against Federer, he went on to compete in the 2007 Hypo Group Tennis International in Pörtschach and won the title against Gaël Monfils. In the 2007 Mercedes Cup in Stuttgart he lost to Rafael Nadal in straight sets in the quarterfinals. He won his third title of the year in the 2007 Austrian Open in Kitzbühel after defeating the top seed Tommy Robredo in the quarterfinals and Potito Starace in the final. In the 2007 Cincinnati Masters, he defeated a player in the top 5 for the first time and the highest-ranked player he has defeated the world no. 2 at the time Rafael Nadal, when Nadal retired. Monaco lost to Sam Querrey in the third round. He also reached the quarterfinals of the 2007 Stockholm Open, where he lost to Tommy Haas, and the third round of the 2007 Madrid Masters, after avenging his lost against Tommy Haas in the second round. In the Grand Slams, Monaco lost in the first round of the Australian Open and Wimbledon, losing to Nicolas Mahut and Kristof Vliegen, respectively. However, he reached the fourth round of the French Open and the US Open, losing to former French Open Champion Guillermo Cañas and Novak Djokovic. These results are the farthest he has gone at Grand Slams. He ended the year ranked no. 23, his highest year-end rank. 2008 In 2008, Monaco started the year with a semifinal appearance at the 2008 Heineken Open, losing to German Philipp Kohlschreiber. He also reached the third round of the 2008 Australian Open, the furthest he has reached so far, losing to Tomáš Berdych. In his first tournament after the Australian Open, he reached the final of the 2008 Movistar Open. He was scheduled to play Fernando González in the final, but Gonzalez was granted a walkover due to a left ankle injury sustained by Monaco during the doubles final. Despite this, his performance during the week elevated Monaco to a career-high ranking of world no. 14. At the 2008 Copa Telmex as the defending champion, Monaco lost in the first round. Shortly afterwards, he lost in the second round of the 2008 Abierto Mexicano Telcel in Acapulco. He also reached the third round of both the 2008 Pacific Life Open in Indian Wells, losing to Guillermo Cañas, and the 2008 Sony Ericsson Open in Miami, losing to Mario Ančić. He represented Argentina in the Davis Cup quarterfinal clash against Sweden and won his only match against Thomas Johansson. He reached the quarterfinals in Valencia and the second round of the 2008 Monte Carlo Masters and 2008 Rome Masters losing to Nicolás Almagro and Igor Andreev, respectively. He also reached the third round of the 2008 Hamburg Masters, losing to Andreas Seppi and the final, of 2008 Hypo Group Tennis International losing to top seed Nikolay Davydenko. He reached the semifinals of the 2008 Orange Warsaw Open, losing to Tommy Robredo. At the Beijing Olympics, Monaco lost to Marin Čilić in three tight sets 4–6, 7–6(7-5), 3–6, followed by successive defeats at the 2008 Pilot Pen Tennis and the 2008 US Open. He fell in the first round of the 2008 Mutua Madrileña Masters Madrid, losing to Radek Štěpánek, and the 2008 Grand Prix de Tennis de Lyon to Gilles Simon. He reached the second round of both the 2008 Stockholm Open and the 2008 BNP Paribas Masters after qualifying for both tournaments. Monaco ended the year ranked no. 46 in the world, 23 places lower than his year-end ranking in 2007. In doubles, Monaco started the year with a win in the 2008 Heineken Open partnering Luis Horna. He reached the semifinals of 2008 US Open, losing to Lukáš Dlouhý and Leander Paes. He also reached the final of the 2008 Movistar Open and won the 2008 Open de Tenis Comunidad Valenciana, all partnering fellow Argentine Máximo González. 2009 In 2009, Monaco started the year in 2009 Heineken Open losing to Serbian Viktor Troicki in the second round and a quarterfinal appearance in the 2009 Movistar Open. He lost in the first round of 2009 Brasil Open, the 2009 Australian Open, and Acapulco. He reached his first final of the year in Buenos Aires at the 2009 Copa Telmex, losing to Tommy Robredo in a tight three-setter. In doubles, he reached the third round of the 2009 Australian Open and the final of 2009 Brasil Open, both partnering Lucas Arnold Ker He represented Argentina in the Davis Cup, defeating Thiemo de Bakker of the Netherlands. He also reached the second round of the 2009 Sony Ericsson Open, losing to Andy Murray after winning the first set. He also reached the third round of the 2009 Monte-Carlo Rolex Masters, losing to German Andreas Beck, after defeating Tommy Robredo in the second round, and the 2009 Barcelona Open Banco Sabadell losing to Fernando González after defeating Marat Safin in the first round. He reached his first Masters quarterfinal at the 2009 Internazionali BNL d'Italia, entering as a qualifier and beating Andy Murray in the second round, Marin Čilić in the third round, but losing to Fernando González. He also reached the round of 16 at the 2009 Estoril Open and the 2009 Mutua Madrileña Madrid Open, where he faced three Spaniards losing to Fernando Verdasco after defeating Feliciano López and David Ferrer. He also represented Argentina along with Juan Martín del Potro and Máximo González at the 2009 ARAG World Team Cup, where he won his only singles match against Serbian Janko Tipsarević. He reached the second round of Roland Garros, losing to Jo-Wilfried Tsonga. He lost in the first round of Wimbledon, still failing to capture his first win there, losing to Nicolás Almagro in a match that lasted almost four hours. He represented Argentina once again in the quarterfinals of the 2009 Davis Cup against the Czech Republic, losing both his matches. He then competed in the 2009 Swedish Open, defeating eighth seed Máximo González and dominating in his next three matches against Victor Crivoi, top seed Fernando Verdasco, and third seed and defending champion Tommy Robredo, before losing to Robin Söderling in the final. In the 2009 International German Open, he defeated Mikhail Youzhny and José Acasuso. He then lost to David Ferrer in the third round. Monaco competed directly in the 2009 US Open without competing in any events in 2009 US Open Series. He lost to eventual champion Juan Martín del Potro in the first round. At the 2009 BCR Open Romania, Monaco reached his third final of the year, but once again ended as runner-up to Albert Montañés, after defeating qualifiers Júlio Silva and Pere Riba, eighth seed Pablo Cuevas, and German Simon Greul. Because of this final appearance he ended the year with 29 wins on clay, the most wins on clay by any player. In the 2009 Rakuten Japan Open Tennis Championships, he retired against Ernests Gulbis in the second round after defeating Guillermo García-López. He then lost to Victor Troicki in the first round of the 2009 Shanghai ATP Masters 1000. He lost to Joachim Johansson, after defeating Jan Hernych in the first round of the 2009 If Stockholm Open. He competed in the 2009 Grand Prix de Tennis de Lyon as the fourth seed, but was upset by Michaël Llodra in the second round after defeating Frenchman Josselin Ouanna in the first round. He lost in the second round of the 2009 Valencia Open 500 to Nikolay Davydenko. He then lost to Novak Djokovic, despite leading 5–3 in the second set, after defeating Jérémy Chardy in the 2009 BNP Paribas Masters. This was his last tournament of the year, reaching three finals; the most since winning three titles in 2007. He ended the year at no. 30. 2010 Monaco started 2010 with the Heineken Open, where he defeated Horacio Zeballos in the first round, but lost to eventual champion John Isner in three sets. He lost to sixth seed Nikolay Davydenko in the third round of the 2010 Australian Open, having defeated Ernests Gulbis and Michaël Llodra in five sets. He lost to Thomaz Bellucci in the final of the 2010 Movistar Open, after defeating Nicolas Massú, Juan Ignacio Chela, Peter Luczak, and João Souza. He lost to Juan Carlos Ferrero in the semifinals of the 2010 Copa Telmex just hours after defeating Horacio Zeballos in the quarterfinals, where he did not face a single break point. He also defeated Juan Ignacio Chela in the second round and Łukasz Kubot. He lost to Juan Carlos Ferrero in the semifinals of the 2010 Abierto Mexicano Telcel, retiring with an abdominal strain. He defeated top seed Fernando Verdasco in the quarterfinals, Juan Ignacio Chela for the second time in as many weeks, and Alberto Martín. He defeated Fabio Fognini in the second round of the 2010 BNP Paribas Open. He then faced Juan Carlos Ferrero in the third round; this was their third straight meeting, with Ferrero prevailing in the other two. He upset Ferrero for the first time in a match than lasted over 3 hours. He then defeated Guillermo García-López to reach his first hardcourt Master Series quarterfinal. He lost to eventual champion Ivan Ljubičić in a three-set match. In the 2010 Sony Ericsson Open, he lost in the third round to Fernando González, after defeating Marsel İlhan in the second round. In the 2010 Monte-Carlo Rolex Masters, he defeated qualifier Jarkko Nieminen for the first time in three meetings and was upset by Michael Berrer in the second round. His bad run continued as he was upset by Daniel Gimeno-Traver in the first round as the tenth seed of the 2010 Barcelona Open Banco Sabadell. He defeated Igor Andreev, but lost to Victor Hănescu in the second round of the 2010 Internazionali BNL d'Italia. In the 2010 Mutua Madrileña Madrid Open, he defeated Simon Greul and Thomaz Bellucci. He then lost to Nicolás Almagro. He then led Argentina to their second ARAG World Team Cup. In the final he defeated American Sam Querrey. At the 2010 French Open, he was upset by qualifier Grega Žemlja in four sets in the first round. He then withdrew from the 2010 Wimbledon Championships due to a wrist injury and missed two months of action. He made his return in the 2010 Western & Southern Financial Group Masters in a losing effort to Thiemo de Bakker. He then lost in the first round of 2010 Pilot Pen Tennis, the US Open, and the 2010 Rakuten Japan Open Tennis Championships. In October, he reached an ATP World Tour Masters 1000 semifinal for the first time in the 2010 Shanghai Rolex Masters 1000 by defeating Florent Serra 6–4, 7–6 Thiemo de Bakker 2–6, 6–3, 6–4, Mischa Zverev 6–2, 6–0 and Jürgen Melzer 6–7, 7–5, 6–2, but then lost to World No. 4 Andy Murray 6–4, 6–1. At the 2010 Valencia Open 500 he upset defending champion Andy Murray 6–2, 3–6, 6–2 in the second round but was then upset by Marcel Granollers 1–6, 6–3, 6–4 in the following round. Monaco, played his last tournament of the year at the BNP Paribas Masters where he defeated Sam Querrey 6–2, 7–6 but fell to no. 2 seed Novak Djokovic 6–4, 6–3 in the second round after failing to convert 7 of 8 break points. 2011 Monaco began his 2011 season at the 2011 Heineken Open as the fifth seed, but was upset by Adrian Mannarino. At the first Grand Slam of the year the Australian Open, he was upset by Robin Haase in the second round. In the South American clay season, he fell in the first round of 2011 Movistar Open to Máximo González and the quarterfinals of the 2011 Copa Claro and 2011 Abierto Mexicano Telcel, losing to Stanislas Wawrinka and David Ferrer, respectively. At the 2011 BNP Paribas Open, he was upset by American qualifier Ryan Sweeting in the second round after receiving a bye in the first round. At the 2011 Sony Ericsson Open, he fell to third seed Roger Federer in the third round. In the European clay season, Monaco didn't have a lot of success. At the 2011 Monte-Carlo Rolex Masters, he lost to Jo-Wilfried Tsonga. He then fell in the second round of the 2011 Barcelona Open Banco Sabadell to Simone Vagnozzi. He then lost to Feliciano López in the first round of the 2011 Serbia Open. At the 2011 Mutua Madrid Open and 2011 Internazionali BNL d'Italia, he lost to Tomáš Berdych on both occasions, in the third round and second round, respectively. He then represented Argentina at the 2011 Power Horse World Team Cup, where they fell in the final to Germany. At Roland Garros, Monaco suffered a first-round exit at the hands of Fernando Verdasco. At Wimbledon, he lost in five sets to Mikhail Youzhny in the first round. He then represented Argentina at the 2011 Davis Cup quarterfinal against Kazakhstan and won both his matches. He then had to withdraw from the second round 2011 Swedish Open due to a foot injury. At the 2011 International German Open, he reached the third round, losing to Florian Mayer. He then fell early at the 2011 Rogers Cup and 2011 Western & Southern Open. He then played at the 2011 Winston-Salem Open, losing to Andy Roddick in the quarterfinals. Monaco reached the fourth round of the US Open, before losing to Federer. He then lost three matches in a row, starting with the 2011 Davis Cup semifinal, in a dead rubber he retired to Janko Tipsarević after losing the first set 6–2, and the first round of the 2011 Rakuten Japan Open Tennis Championships and the 2011 Shanghai Rolex Masters. He then reached his first final in over a year and a half at the 2011 Valencia Open 500, but lost to Marcel Granollers after upsetting Nicolás Almagro in the first round and David Ferrer in the semifinals. He then continued his success at the 2011 BNP Paribas Masters, with wins over Gilles Simon and Mardy Fish, before losing to Roger Federer in the quarterfinals. He finished the year no. 26 in the world. 2012 Monaco began his 2012 campaign at the 2012 Australian Open as the 25th seed, but was upset by Philipp Kohlschreiber in the first round. He then competed in the 2012 VTR Open as the top seed. He received a first-round bye, then defeated Igor Andreev, Albert Montañés, Jérémy Chardy, and finally Carlos Berlocq in the final. This was his fourth title and first since 2007, It also ended his seven consecutive runner-up finishes. He then represented Argentina against Germany in the first round of the Davis Cup and won his only match against Philipp Petzschner. He then played at the 2012 Copa Claro, losing to compatriot David Nalbandian. He then retired in his first-round match at the 2012 Abierto Mexicano Telcel due to dehydration against Albert Ramos. At the first Masters of the year, the 2012 BNP Paribas Open, he fell in the third round to eventual finalist John Isner. At the 2012 Sony Ericsson Open, he fell to world no. 1 and defending champion Novak Djokovic in his second Masters semifinals, after wins over Lu Yen-hsun, 14th seed Gaël Monfils, 31st seed Andy Roddick, and 8th seed Mardy Fish. This performance pushed him to no. 16 in the world, his highest ranking since May 2008. He then played in the 2012 U.S. Men's Clay Court Championships as the 4th seed and wild card. He beat Tatsuma Ito, Kevin Anderson, and Michael Russell to advance to the final. In the final, he faced second seed John Isner and won, to claim his second title of the year and fifth overall. He also matched his career-high ranking of no. 14 in the world after the win. He then played at the 2012 Monte-Carlo Rolex Masters, where he retired due to a right ankle injury in his first-round match against Robin Haase while leading by a break in the third. The injury also forced him to withdraw from the Barcelona Open and the Mutua Madrid Open. He was seeded 14th in Rome and won his first two matches against Adrian Ungur, and Radek Štěpánek, before losing to defending champion and world no. 1 Novak Djokovic. At the French Open, he first faced Frenchman Guillaume Rufin. He then cruised passed Lukáš Rosol. In the third round he had a tough match against the big-serving Canadian Milos Raonic and converted 3/16 break points and saved all break points he faced, the Argentinian won the match. He made it to the fourth round, where he lost to Rafael Nadal. He was broken twice in the first set and pulled a double bagel in the second and third, although he had a couple of break opportunities of his own in the second. At the 2012 Wimbledon Championships, he finally notched his first career win on grass by beating compatriot Leonardo Mayer in the first round. He then followed it up with a win over Jérémy Chardy. In the third round, he lost to Viktor Troicki despite leading the 1st set by a break and coming back from a break in the second. Juan Mónaco then played the 2012 MercedesCup, he cruised past Tobias Kamke and Pavol Červenák in straight sets after receiving a bye in the first round. He then faced Guillermo García-López and was leading 5–0 in the third set; he then lost 5 games in a row but eventually won 7–5. In the final he lost to top seed Janko Tipsarević, even after coming back from 1–4 in the second and had momentum in the third. He then played at the 2012 International German Open, he first met Cedrik-Marcel Stebe in the first round and won in three tight sets, being down 5–4 in the final set with Stebe serving for the match. He then won in straight sets against Daniel Muñoz de la Nava and Jérémy Chardy. In the semifinals he faced top seed Nicolás Almagro losing the first set, he came back and won the second. He was down 4–2 in the third but won the last 4 games to advance to the final. In the final he faced local man and wild card Tommy Haas and won being 4–1 down in the first. With the win he entered the top ten for the first time in his career. He then played the Summer Olympics defeating David Goffin before losing to Feliciano López in the following round. He then suffered 4 loses in a row, losing in the second round of 2012 Rogers Cup to Mardy Fish, first round of the 2012 Western & Southern Open to Radek Štěpánek, first round of the 2012 US Open to Guillermo García-López despite bring with two sets and a break up. He lost his fourth match in a row in the 2012 Davis Cup to Tomáš Berdych, Monaco led 4-2 in the fourth set and came back on serve after being down 4-0 in the fifth. At the 2012 Proton Malaysian Open he defeated Jimmy Wang, and Vasek Pospisil. In the semifinals, he defeated Kei Nishikori after coming back 5-2 in the final set. In the final he faced Julien Benneteau and claimed his first hard-court title. He lost to Fernando Verdasco in the second round of the 2012 Shanghai Masters. 2012 proved to be Monaco's best year so far, with four singles titles. 2013 He lost in the first round of the Australian Open to Andrey Kuznetsov, suffering with a back injury. He then continued to play singles in the Davis Cup against Germany, where he won both matches defeating Florian Mayer and Tobias Kamke, and his team won 5-0. In doubles, he played with Rafael Nadal in his comeback and reached the final of the VTR Open, losing to Italians Paolo Lorenzi and Potito Starace. Monaco made five first-round exits in the main draw of ATP events. In the Davis Cup quarterfinals against France, he hit back with a solid win over Gilles Simon in the second rubber, but lost his second match to Jo-Wilfried Tsonga. He was the defending champion at the U.S. Men's Clay Court Championships, but in a rematch of the previous year's final, he lost to John Isner. He then followed it up with a third-round showing at the Monte-Carlo Rolex Masters, losing to eventual champion Novak Djokovic. At the Barcelona Open Banco Sabadell, he was able to reach the quarterfinals, losing to Nicolas Almagro. However, he fell early at the Mutua Madrid Open and the Internazionali BNL d'Italia. However, Mónaco bounced back, beating Jarkko Nieminen to win the inaugural Power Horse Cup, which was his first title of the year. However, in his next match at the French Open he lost in the first round to Daniel Gimeno-Traver having led by two sets to love. He had thus failed to win a single Grand Slam match since first entering the top 10 in the world rankings. Monaco ended this run at Wimbledon in 2013 by reaching the third round for the second year in succession, where he was defeated by Kenny de Schepper. He then made three consecutive quarterfinal appearances: at the Swedish Open, losing to Grigor Dimitrov, International German Open, losing to Nicolás Almagro, and at the Crédit Agricole Suisse Open Gstaad, losing to Mikhail Youzhny. He reached his second final of the year at the Bet-at-home Cup Kitzbühel, but lost to Marcel Granollers. He then withdrew from the Rogers Cup and lost in the second round of the Western & Southern Open to Novak Djokovic. At the Winston-Salem Open, he lost in the third round to Alexandr Dolgopolov. At the US Open, he retired in the first round with a stomachache and headache against Florian Mayer. In the Davis Cup semifinal against the Czech Republic, he lost his only match against Radek Štepánek. In his final tournament of the year at the Rakuten Japan Open Tennis Championships, he lost to Jarkko Nieminen. Mónaco withdrew from events for the rest of the year due to a wrist injury. As a result, he ended the year as no.42. 2014-2016 In 2014, Monaco failed to win consecutively until May in Düsseldorf, where he was the defending champion. He reach the quarterfinals after beating Benjamin Becker and Marcel Granollers. After the tournament, his ranking was down to no. 76 due to the loss of points he had been defending. At Gstaad, he defeated Guillermo García-López and Robin Haase on the way to the final, where he was beaten by Pablo Andújar. He reached the semifinals in Kitzbühel, where he was beaten by Dominic Thiem. He made a first-round exit at the US Open, falling to Jo-Wilfried Tsonga. He made it to the semifinals of the Shenzhen Open, beating Richard Gasquet in the quarterfinals, but unable to overcome Andy Murray. At the 2014 Shanghai Rolex Masters, he defeated João Sousa and eighth-seeded Milos Raonic to reach the third round, where he lost to Mikhail Youzhny. He ended the year at the Kremlin Cup, again losing to Youzhny in the second round. January 2015 was not a good month for Monaco, as he failed to make it past the first round of any tournament. In February, he made it to the quarterfinals of the Rio Open, falling to David Ferrer. He had continued success on the South American clay courts at the Argentina Open, making it to the final against Rafael Nadal, but unable to overcome him. Monaco made it to the third round at Indian Wells and the quarterfinals in Miami, falling to Thanasi Kokkinakis and Tomáš Berdych, respectively. He made a series of second-round exits on the European clay courts, until Nice, where he made the quarterfinals. Then, he made another series of second-round exits, including at Roland Garros and Wimbledon. He did not make past the second round for the rest of the year, and finished the year with a first round loss to Robin Haase. Monaco started 2016 with a second-round loss to Rafael Nadal in Buenos Aires and a first-round loss to Daniel Gimeno Traver in Rio de Janeiro. After two disappointing Masters 1000, Monaco won his first tournament since 2013 in Houston, beating Jack Sock in the final in three sets. In May, after losing at the Masters in Madrid, Monaco defeated Stan Wawrinka at the Rome Masters, but pulled out in the quarterfinals. The rest of the season was not successful, failing to make it past the second round in any tournament, save at the Japan Open, where he made it to the quarterfinals. He played one tie Argentina's successful Davis Cup campaign of 2016, losing his match in the Quarter Finals, but being a part of the team overall to win the 2016 Davis Cup. 2017: Retirement Monaco began his season at Indian Wells, losing in the first round to Adrian Mannarino. He was no more successful at the Miami Open, also losing in the first round, this time to Federico Delbonis. In April, Monaco lost to Dustin Brown in the first round in Houston, and announced his retirement the following month on the 15th of May. Endorsements Monaco wore Adidas sportswear, and played with a Yonex VCore Xi 98 racquet. ATP career finals Singles: 21 (9 titles, 12 runner-ups) Doubles: 6 (3 titles, 3 runner-ups) Team competition finals: 1 (1 runner-up) Performance timelines Singles 1Held as Hamburg Masters until 2008, Madrid Masters (clay) 2009-present. 2Held as Madrid Masters (hardcourt) from 2002–08, and Shanghai Masters 2009-present. Doubles Current through the 2014 Australian Open. Head-to-head against other players Monaco's win-loss record against certain players who have been ranked World No. 10 or better is as follows: Players who have been ranked World No. 1 are in boldface. Nicolás Almagro 5–6 Mario Ančić 0–1 Marcos Baghdatis 1–1 James Blake 0–2 Tomáš Berdych 0–7 Jonas Björkman 1–0 Guillermo Cañas 0–3 Marin Čilić 2–2 Arnaud Clément 0–2 Guillermo Coria 0–2 Albert Costa 1–0 Nikolay Davydenko 1–4 Juan Martín del Potro 1–1 Novak Djoković 0–8 Roger Federer 0–4 David Ferrer 4–5 Juan Carlos Ferrero 2–2 Mardy Fish 3–3 Gastón Gaudio 0–2 Fernando González 0–6 Tommy Haas 4–1 Lleyton Hewitt 0–1 John Isner 1–3 Joachim Johansson 1–2 Thomas Johansson 2–0 Nicolas Kiefer 1–0 Gustavo Kuerten 1–0 Nicolás Lapentti 2–0 Ivan Ljubičić 1–2 Nicolás Massú 3–2 Jürgen Melzer 7–1 Gaël Monfils 5–2 Carlos Moyá 1–1 Andy Murray 2–5 Rafael Nadal 1–7 David Nalbandian 1–3 Milos Raonic 2–1 Tommy Robredo 3–3 Andy Roddick 1–1 Marc Rosset 1–0 Marat Safin 2–0 Gilles Simon 3–4 Jack Sock 1–0 Robin Söderling 1–4 Paradorn Srichaphan 2–1 Radek Štěpánek 2–5 Janko Tipsarević 3–3 Jo-Wilfried Tsonga 0–6 Fernando Verdasco 7–5 Stanislas Wawrinka 1–4 Mikhail Youzhny 1–4 Top 10 wins ATP Tour career earnings As of April 8, 2013. Notes References External links Mónaco world ranking history Mónaco celebrated the first ATP title of his career (Juan Mónaco, Guillermo Vilas and Gabriela Sabatini together in Buenos Aires) at Clarín'' 1984 births Living people Argentine people of Italian descent Argentine male tennis players Olympic tennis players of Argentina People from Tandil Tennis players at the 2008 Summer Olympics Tennis players at the 2012 Summer Olympics Tennis players at the 2016 Summer Olympics

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The Sydney Roosters is an Australian professional rugby league football club based in the Eastern Suburbs (Sydney). The club competes in the National Rugby League (NRL) competition and is one of the oldest and most successful. The Roosters have won fifteen New South Wales Rugby League (NSWRL) and National Rugby League titles, and several other competitions. Founded as the Eastern Suburbs District Rugby League Football Club (ESDRLFC), it is the only club to have played in each and every season at the elite level, and since the 1970s has often been dubbed the glamour club of the league. The Sydney Roosters have won 15 premierships, equal to the record of the St George Dragons. Only the South Sydney Rabbitohs have won more premierships. The club holds the record for having won more matches than any other in the league, the most minor premierships and the most World Club Challenge trophies. The Sydney Roosters is one of only two clubs (the other being the St. George Illawarra Dragons in 1999) to finish runner-up in its inaugural season. Currently coached by Trent Robinson and captained by James Tedesco, the Roosters play home games at the Sydney Cricket Ground. The club was founded in 1908 in Paddington, Sydney, as Eastern Suburbs; in 1995 the club's name was changed to the Sydney City Roosters, and in 2000 to the Sydney Roosters. The team's Leagues Club is based in Bondi Junction and its home ground, administration and training facilities are located at nearby Moore Park. The Roosters have long-standing and fierce rivalries with other Sydney-based clubs, especially the South Sydney Rabbitohs, a fellow foundation club based in neighbouring Redfern. History The Eastern Suburbs District Rugby League Football Club (ESDRLFC) was formed on 24 January 1908 at a meeting at the Paddington Town Hall in Sydney after it was decided that the district should enter a team in the newly formed New South Wales Rugby Football League. The ESDRLFC was formed, under its articles of association with the NSWRFL, to represent the geographic areas in Sydney covering the Waverley, Randwick, Woollahra, Paddington, Darlinghurst and Vaucluse local government municipalities, as well as the eastern parts of the Sydney CBD. Indeed, the locality of Sydney, with postcode 2000, falls entirely within the official boundaries of the ESDRLFC. Unofficially nicknamed the "Tricolours" due to the red, white and blue playing strip, Eastern Suburbs won its first match, defeating Newtown 32–16 at Wentworth Oval on 20 April 1908. In 1913 it became the first club to win three consecutive premierships; the line-ups during this period included the likes of Dally Messenger, Harry "Jersey" Flegg and Sandy Pearce, all regarded as all-time rugby league greats. However, the club rapidly declined and failed to win the premiership for the next nine seasons. Eastern Suburbs missed the finals once from 1926 to 1942, and in that time won four titles and the minor premiership on seven occasions. During this period, Dave Brown set several point-scoring records that still stand. In 1935, the team lost just one game, and recorded the highest winning margin in their history, an 87–7 (equivalent to 106–8 using the modern scoring system) victory over Canterbury. In 1936, Eastern Suburbs became one of five teams in premiership history to remain undefeated for an entire season, a feat they repeated the following year. It is the only club to remain unbeaten for two consecutive seasons. Despite claiming the premiership in 1945, Eastern Suburbs failed to make the finals for the following seven seasons. A runners-up finish in 1960 was the closest the club came to claiming the premiership during this era. Eastern Suburbs were soundly defeated 31–6 in the grand final that year, by the famous record-beating St George outfit. In 1966, the club fell to new depths and was winless for the first time in its history. It was also the last occasion in which the Roosters won the wooden spoon until claiming it again in the 2009 season. It ended a poor run for Eastern Suburbs; from 1963 to 1966, they won 8 of 72 matches, finishing second to last in 1964 and last in the other three years. The club underwent a renaissance in 1967 after appointing Jack Gibson as coach (1967–68), and introducing a new emblem on the playing jerseys, the rooster. From 1972 to 1982, the Roosters won four minor premierships and played in four grand finals, winning two consecutively. Gibson, now dubbed as "Super Coach", returned to lead the team from 1974 to 1976. In 1974 and 1975, the team won 39 of 44 matches, both minor premierships, and both grand finals and set a premiership record of 19 consecutive wins. The 38–0 grand final victory in 1975 against St George was the largest margin in a first grade grand final, and the record stood for 33 years until superseded by Manly's 40–0 win over the Melbourne Storm in 2008. Although the 1975 grand final was played during an era of a now-obsolete scoring system - with 3 points awarded for a try - the scoreline using 4 points for tries would mean that the record winning margin for a grand final would still hold with an adjusted score of 46–0. With line-ups including Mark Harris, Elwyn Walters, John Brass, Bill Mullins, Russell Fairfax, Johnny Mayes, John Peard, Ron Coote, Ian Schubert and captain Arthur Beetson, the Centenary of Rugby League panel considered the Roosters of 1974 and 1975 to be among the greatest club teams of all time. Between 1984 and 1995, the Roosters reached the semi-finals once, and became known to critics as the "transit lounge", due to the high frequency of player purchases and releases. The club came close to reaching the premiership in 1987 under coach and favourite son Arthur Beetson, being defeated by eventual premiers Manly in a "bruising" major semi-final, 10–6. As the Super League war built up in the mid-1990s, the Roosters recruited high-profile coach Phil Gould and star five-eighth Brad Fittler, both from the Penrith Panthers. This helped to quickly send the Roosters back to the upper end of the ladder. Fittler's presence proved invaluable; during his reign, the Roosters competed in four grand finals in five years. In 2002, the club captured its 12th premiership – the first in 27 years – defeating Minor Premiers the New Zealand Warriors 30–8 in the 2002 NRL grand final. In the 2003 NRL grand final against the Penrith Panthers, the Roosters lost 18–6 in what was their heaviest defeat for the year. A decisive moment occurred midway through the second half: with the scores tied at 6-all, Roosters winger Todd Byrne made a clear break down the sideline and looked set to score a try before being chased down and tackled into touch by Penrith lock forward, Scott Sattler. From then on, the momentum of the game was with Penrith. The Roosters' made the Grand Final in 2004, when they ceded a 13–6 half-time lead to be defeated by the Bulldogs 16–13. The match was captain Fittler's last for the team. In 2007, the Roosters became the first club to play 100 seasons of first grade rugby league; having been the only outfit to play in each season since the competition's inception in 1908. They appointed Chris Anderson as coach in 2007 and 2008 following two relatively unsuccessful years under Ricky Stuart. On 9 July 2007, Anderson resigned after a 56–0 loss to the Manly-Warringah Sea Eagles. Assistant Coach Fittler acted as the caretaker for the remainder of the 2007 season, before being appointed in August to the top job for two years. With eight rounds remaining in a disappointing 2009 season in which the Roosters finished with the wooden spoon for the first time in 43 years, Fittler was informed he would not be the coach in 2010, his position to be taken by veteran coach Brian Smith. The Roosters wound up winning only five games for the entire season; twice against Cronulla and once against each of Canberra in Canberra, eventual grand finalists Parramatta and Newcastle in Newcastle. A year after finishing last, under the coaching of Brian Smith they reached the 2010 NRL Grand Final where the St. George Illawarra Dragons defeated them 32–8. The Roosters led 8–6 at half time but were overrun in the second half. What followed was another relatively disappointing season at Bondi Junction, with the Roosters finishing 11th in a 2011 season plagued by off-field issues involving 2010 Dally M Medallist Todd Carney (who was later sacked by the Roosters at season's end). However, a four-game winning streak to end the season brought hope for the 2012 season. Other high-profile players including Nate Myles, Mark Riddell, Jason Ryles, Kane Linnett and Phil Graham all left the club at season's end. The Roosters endured a disappointing 2012 season, finishing 13th. Brian Smith resigned from the coaching role shortly after the Roosters' season concluded with a loss to the Minor Premiers Canterbury, and also at season's end captain Braith Anasta left to join the Wests Tigers in 2013. The 2013 season saw new staff, a new coach, Trent Robinson, and several new players, including big signings Michael Jennings, James Maloney, Luke O'Donnell and Sonny Bill Williams, arrive at the club. This culminated in the Roosters finishing the 2013 season with a 24–12 win over the South Sydney Rabbitohs, securing the Minor Premiership for the 2013 season and were the NRL's best attacking and defensive team. The Roosters defeated the Manly-Warringah Sea Eagles 4–0, in week one of the finals, earning a week's rest. The Roosters defeated the Newcastle Knights 40–14 in week three of the NRL finals, progressing to the 2013 NRL grand final, facing the Manly-Warringah Sea Eagles, winning 26–18. It was a great comeback by the Roosters, down by 10 points in the second half they went on to score three consecutive tries to seal the win and their 13th premiership. They then went on to win the 2014 World Club Challenge against Wigan 36–14 to claim the treble of club titles. No team in premiership history had come from a lower ladder position to win the following season's title. In the 2014 season, the club finished first on the table winning the Minor Premiership. In the Preliminary Final against arch rivals Souths, Sydney lost the match 32–22 in what was retiring legend Anthony Minichiello's final game. In the 2015 season, Sydney finished first on the table and claimed their third consecutive Minor Premiership. The Roosters again made the Preliminary Final with Brisbane this time being the opponents. The Roosters ended up losing the match 31–12 in front of a sold-out crowd at Suncorp Stadium. In the 2016 season, the Roosters finished 15th on the table after enduring a horror season where star player Mitchell Pearce was suspended for 8 matches, fined $A125,000 and stripped of the captaincy following a pre season incident where Pearce was intoxicated, simulated a sex act with a dog which was filmed on another party goer's mobile phone. The club also struggled due to injuries to star players such as Boyd Cordner and Jared Waerea-Hargreaves. The Roosters finished 2nd at the end of the 2017 season and defeated Brisbane in week one of the finals earning the week off. Sydney's opponents in the Preliminary Final were North Queensland who had finished in 8th position on the table and produced upset victories over Cronulla and Parramatta. In a game that the Roosters were expected to win, the Cowboys surprised everyone winning the match 29–16. In 2018, the Sydney Roosters finished in first place during the regular season, claiming their 20th Minor Premiership. They beat Cronulla-Sutherland 21–12 in week one of the finals, earning the week off. The club then broke its preliminary final hoodoo by beating rivals South Sydney 12–4 in what was the last sports match ever played at the Sydney Football Stadium. They managed to keep Souths tryless, and the crowd was the largest ever recorded in a sporting match at the Sydney Football Stadium with 44,380 people in attendance. The Roosters played Melbourne in the 2018 NRL Grand Final, and won 21–6 to claim their 14th premiership. The Roosters started the 2019 NRL season with a round 1 loss against rivals Souths at the Sydney Cricket Ground. The club then went on an eight game winning run and defeated Melbourne 21–20 in the grand final rematch which was played at AAMI Park. The Roosters also scored impressive victories over Brisbane 36–4 and Wests 42–12 which were both played at the Sydney Cricket Ground. Midway through the 2019 NRL season, Sydney suffered a drop in form during the 2019 State of Origin series period before recovering by winning 7 of their last 8 matches of the season to finish 2nd behind minor premiers Melbourne. The Roosters would then go on to defeat rivals South Sydney and Melbourne to reach the 2019 NRL Grand Final. In the grand final, Sydney would go on to win their second consecutive premiership after a hard fought victory against Canberra at ANZ Stadium. It was the first time that a team had won consecutive premierships in a unified competition since Brisbane achieved the feat in the 1992 and 1993 seasons. The club began the 2020 NRL season once again as one of the teams to beat for the premiership but suffered back to back losses to start the year before the season was interrupted due to the Covid-19 Pandemic. After the return to play, the club won five matches in a row and only lost three matches between round 8 and round 20. The Roosters finished the season in 4th place and qualified for the finals. In week one of the finals, they were defeated by minor premiers Penrith which forced them into an elimination final match against Canberra. The Roosters quest for a third straight premiership was ended as they lost against Canberra 22-18 at the Sydney Cricket Ground. The club began the 2021 NRL season as one of the teams tipped to challenge for the premiership. In the opening two rounds of the year, the club defeated both Manly and the Wests Tigers by 40 points. Throughout the season however, the club suffered one of the biggest injury tolls in recent history losing Jake Friend, Boyd Cordner and Brett Morris to retirement and season ending injuries to Luke Keary, Lindsay Collins, Joseph Manu and Billy Smith. The Roosters were forced to blood nine debutants, including the likes of Sam Walker, Ben Marschke, Egan Butcher and Fletcher Baker and call upon players from the club's feeder side the North Sydney Bears. The club also suffered injuries and suspensions to other key players such as Victor Radley. The Roosters would end the 2021 NRL season in fifth place and qualified for the finals. In week one of the finals, the club defeated the Gold Coast 25-24. The following week, the Roosters season ended after losing 42-6 against Manly. Emblem Eastern Suburbs did not traditionally sport a crest on their jerseys in the first half of the 20th century. Other clubs occasionally sported simple designs on their strip; however, this was not seen consistently on all jerseys until the 1950s and 1960s. In 1967, the club introduced its first logo, displaying the mantra "Easts to Win", following a winless season. The crest also incorporated a rooster or cockerel in the design; one source suggested that this choice of mascot followed after the Roosters' jersey design was inspired by the French national team's jersey. Given that the French team's mascot was affectionately known to supporters as le coq, "the rooster", connections have been made as to the choosing of a rooster for Eastern Suburbs' mascot. In 1978, the mantra was replaced with the team's name, "Eastern Suburbs". This name was kept until 1994, when the club changed its team name to the "Sydney City Roosters" for the start of the 1995 season to appeal to the club's widening fan base. In 2000, the club shortened its name to the "Sydney Roosters". Although marketing names have changed, the Roosters are still registered with the National Rugby League competition as the Eastern Suburbs District Rugby League Football Club, the entity holding the NRL licence. Colours Red, white and blue have been the colours of every jersey design in the club's history; however, the jersey design has undergone several alterations. During World War II, the design of the jersey was modified because the dye used to colour jerseys was needed for the war effort. This saw Eastern Suburbs playing in different colours and an altered design. Instead of using the traditional hoops, the side used a sky-blue based jersey and a red and white V-strip around the collar. This is the only noted time in the club's history where the traditional deep blue, red and white combination was absent from the jersey. After the war, the V-strip design reverted to the original blue that had been present in the original jerseys, and the single red and white stripes around the shirt's chest were incorporated with a single white stripe surrounded by a red stripe on either side. This jersey appeared in the 1950s and remains the team's base design. Primary jerseys Rivals Main: South Sydney Rabbitohs, St. George Illawarra Dragons, Canterbury-Bankstown Bulldogs. Minor: Penrith Panthers, Manly Warringah Sea Eagles, Melbourne Storm, Brisbane Broncos, Canberra Raiders. Win–loss record Stadium Most sources suggest that the Royal Agricultural Ground was often used as a home venue between 1908 and 1910, before the club hosted matches at the Sydney Sports Ground from 1911 onwards. It was here that the team played almost all of their home games up until 1986, when the ground was demolished with the Sydney Cricket Ground No. 2 to make way for Sydney's main rectangular field, the Sydney Football Stadium. In 1987, games were moved away to the Newtown Jets' home ground, Henson Park, temporarily to await the completion of the Sydney Football Stadium. The team capitalised on this move, and under coach Arthur Beetson finished second in the regular season, and narrowly missed playing in the grand final. It was the only time between 1983 and 1995 that the Club reached the finals. In 1988, the club moved to the newly built Sydney Football Stadium on the site of the old Sydney Sports Ground, opening the season with a 24–14 defeat at the hands of the St George Dragons in front of 19,295 spectators on a wet night on 4 March 1988. At the Sydney Football Stadium, the Roosters have a 59% win record from 256 games with a 58% and 55% win record at their old grounds the Sydney Sports Ground and the Sydney Cricket Ground respectively. The Roosters played their last game at the Sydney Football Stadium on 22 September 2018 in front of a ground record crowd (44,380). In 2019 the Sydney Roosters home became the Sydney Cricket Ground while the Sydney Football Stadium (2022) is built. Supporters While the Roosters have supporters all around the world, its traditional fan base is in Sydney, which is most concentrated in its homeland in the affluent eastern suburbs. In 2013 the club tallied the fourth-highest home attendance of all National Rugby League clubs (behind the Brisbane Broncos) with an average of 19,368 spectators at the Sydney Football Stadium. At the club's home ground, the Sydney Football Stadium, the supporters congregate in distinct sections. The "Chook Pen", a designated area in Bay 35, is the preferred location for the most animated fans. Members of the Sydney Cricket and Sports Ground Trust are seated in the Members Pavilion, and season ticket holders are located in Bays 12–14. In 2021, the Roosters had over 16,853 paying members, in addition to the 46,486 members of the Easts Leagues Club, which is the major benefactor of the football club. The Easts Leagues Club and the Sydney Roosters "operate as one entity" known as the Easts Group. Under this arrangement, the Eastern Suburbs District Rugby League Football Club is the 'parent company' of the Easts Group. The Football Club delegates, however, overarching responsibility for both football and leagues club operations to a single general manager who oversees the group's performance. The leagues club provides financial support to the football club only when necessary as the football club's sponsorships and TV revenues are generally adequate to cover most Rugby League expenditures. Statistics and records Mitchell Aubusson holds the record for the most first grade games (306), having surpassed Anthony Minichiello's tally of 302 matches in round 24 of the 2020 season. Former team captain Craig Fitzgibbon holds the club record for scoring the most points, tallying 1,376 over his 210 matches. Fitzgibbon also broke the all-time point scoring record for a forward in the later rounds of 2006. Dave Brown's tally of 45 points (five tries and 15 goals) in a single match against Canterbury in 1935 remains a competition record after more than seven decades. Ivan Cleary scored 284 points in 1998, which at the time was an all-time points scoring record in a season. Bill Mullins, father of 2002 premiership player Brett, scored 104 tries in his 11-year, 190-game career with Eastern Suburbs between 1968 and 1978, meaning that on average, he scored at least one try every two games. Anthony Minichiello became the highest try scorer in the Roosters history when he scored his 105th try against the Newcastle at Ausgrid Stadium in June 2011. 'Mini' finally retired after the 2014 season, and ended his career with 139 tries. He is also the first fullback in 70 years to win the Grand Final (2013), while captaining the club. Rod O'Loan scored seven tries in a single match against Sydney University in 1935, and Dave Brown's 38 tries in 15 games in the same year remains a competition record. In 1975, the Eastern Suburbs Roosters set a record 19-match winning streak on their way to their 11th premiership. In a 1935 match against Canterbury, Dave Brown scored 45 points, the highest score and victory margin for the club (the 87–7 scoreline is equivalent to 106–8 under the contemporary scoring system). The winning margin is the second largest overall, behind St. George's 91–6 win over Canterbury a week earlier. The club's record attendance for a regular season game at its home ground—the Sydney Football Stadium—stands at 40,864, achieved in a match on ANZAC Day against the St George Illawarra Dragons in 2017. The club's record attendance for a regular season game at the SCG stands at 50,130 on 4 May 1974 against the Manly Sea Eagles The 2000 grand final between the Sydney Roosters and the Brisbane Broncos attracted 94,277 spectators to the Olympic Stadium. Squads Current squad Team of the Century In 2000, the Sydney Roosters named their "Team of the Century", which included players from 1908 to 2000. The official team is listed below along with their Sydney Roosters cap number. The Centurions In 2007, the Sydney Roosters announced "The Centurions", a team consisting of those regarded as the greatest players to have played 100 or more games for the club between 1908 and 2007. The team was selected by Ray Chesterton, Ian Heads, David Middleton and Alan Clarkson and was unveiled at the centenary season launch at the Michael Algeri Pavilion on 10 March 2007. Honours Titles Premierships – 151911, 1912, 1913, 1923, 1935, 1936, 1937, 1940, 1945, 1974, 1975, 2002, 2013, 2018, 2019 Runners-up – 151908, 1919, 1921, 1928, 1931, 1934, 1938, 1941, 1960, 1972, 1980, 2000, 2003, 2004, 2010 Minor Premierships – 201912, 1913, 1923, 1931, 1934, 1935, 1936, 1937, 1940, 1941, 1945, 1974, 1975, 1980, 1981, 2004, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2018 World Club Challenge – 51976, 2003, 2014, 2019, 2020 Amco Cup – 21975, 1978 City Cup – 31914, 1915, 1916 Auckland Nines – 12017 World Sevens – 11993 Youth/Pre-season Titles Club Championship – 121930, 1931, 1934, 1935, 1936, 1937, 1945, 1970, 1974, 1975, 2004, 2006 Second Grade – 91908, 1909, 1910, 1911, 1935, 1937, 1949, 1986, 2004 Third Grade/Under 23 – 111914, 1917, 1924, 1929, 1930, 1931, 1932, 1941, 1947, 1970, 1976 National Youth Competition – 12016 Jersey Flegg Cup – 31995, 2002, 2004 Presidents Cup – 161910, 1911, 1913, 1915, 1920, 1922, 1923, 1924, 1927, 1938, 1948, 1949, 1955, 1978, 1987, 1993 S. G. Ball Cup – 41997, 2008, 2010, 2014 Pre-Season Cup – 41974, 1977, 1979, 1981 NRL Women's Premiership team On 27 March 2018, the Sydney Roosters applied for, and won, a license to participate in the inaugural 2018 NRL Women's season. Adam Hartigan was named as the coach of the women's side. In June 2018, the club used up the maximum of fifteen marquee signings ahead of the inaugural season which will commence in September, including Karina Brown, Isabelle Kelly and Ruan Sims. The club finished runners-up in the inaugural NRL Women's Premiership, losing to the Brisbane Broncos by 34–12 in the 2018 NRL Women's Premiership Grand Final. Zahara Temara claimed the 2018 Player of the Season award. In 2019, Rick Stone took over as coach however the club failed to win a match, claiming the wooden spoon. Tallisha Harden was awarded the clubs Best & Fairest Player for the 2019 season. Jamie Feeney was appointed the head coach for the 2020 season and is determined to turn the clubs fortunes around. He will be assisted by Kylie Hilder and John Strange. Feeney immediately appointed Corban McGregor as the clubs new captain. The club also announced the big signing of Sevens Rugby star and 2016 Gold Medalist, Charlotte Caslick. Current squad Footnotes References External links National Rugby League clubs NRL Women's Premiership clubs Fan-owned football clubs Sydney Cricket Ground 1908 establishments in Australia NRL Women's Premiership Rugby clubs established in 1908

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doc-en-8747

The Trexler Nature Preserve is an 1,108 acre county park owned and maintained by Lehigh County, Commonwealth of Pennsylvania. The preserve is situated in Lowhill Township and North Whitehall Township and the land that comprises the preserve was originally purchased between 1901 and 1911 by local industrialist General Harry Clay Trexler. It was originally Trexler's desire to stock the preserve with big game animals such as bison, elk, and deer with the express goal of saving the North American Bison. When Trexler died in 1933, the preserve, by will, passed to the care of the County of Lehigh. Lehigh County assumed title in 1935 and has been in control of the site ever since. In May 1975, in an attempt to raise awareness of the preserve, the County launched a new initiative to draw visitors—the Lehigh Valley Zoo. Although the zoo returned some public use to the land, the great majority of the preserve remained closed to the general public and the herd sizes of bison and elk continued to dwindle. In 2004, Lehigh County suffering from an uncertainty of then-recent budgets, proposed to close the zoo portion of the preserve. A local group, the Lehigh Valley Zoological Society, formed to assume private control of the zoo under a lease arrangement with Lehigh County. Concurrent with the transfer of the zoo to private control, the Trexler Trust brought civil suit against the County of Lehigh demanding, under the terms of Trexler's will, that the entire preserve be opened to public use and that public funds be devoted to that public use. The county, under pressure from the Trexler Trust, acceded to a settlement in 2006. As part of this settlement, Lehigh County agreed to open the entire preserve to public use and to rename the non-zoo portion of the park from the "Trexler Game Preserve" to the "Trexler Nature Preserve". Since re-opening the entire preserve to public use, extensive efforts have been made to increase passive recreational activities, such as hiking and mountain biking (by building an extensive trail system) and archery hunting and fishing (by changing cull policies and stocking the Jordan Creek). In addition, efforts have been made to eradicate invasive plants which colonised large parts of the preserve after nearly a century of inartful range practices. History European settlers have used the land that is now the Trexler Nature preserve since at least the 1760s. In that decade, Micheal Mosser purchased a large tract of land in Lowhill Township and erected a gristmill on Mill Creek—giving the creek its name. This mill was one of the first of its kind in the county, and certainly the first in Lowhill township. In 1800, John Hollenbach started a competing mill on the creek's east side. These mills carried on throughout the nineteenth century and into the twentieth. In 1901 local industrialist General Harry Clay Trexler, began purchasing much of the surrounding farmland in order to form a "deer reservation". Trexler was native to the Lehigh Valley; he was born in Easton in 1854. He made his fortune in timber and concrete and by the turn of the twentieth century was a wealthy man. Trexler, like many well-to-do men of the age, enjoyed hunting and the wilderness. Trexler, an early environmentalist, believed that much of the large wild game in America had been hunted to the brink of extinction, and that efforts were needed to protect those that remained. Acting on this belief, he began to buy dozens of farmsteads in Lowhill Township and North Whitehall Township beginning in 1901 to create a game reservation. At its inception, this reservation was known as the "Trexler Deer Reservation". A contemporary source described the project as follows: In 1901 [Gen]. Harry C. Trexler embarked in a great agricultural enterprise which has attracted marked attention, not only in Lehigh county, but throughout the entire State of Pennsylvania. He then began to purchase farms in North Whitehall and Lowhill townships along the Jordan and Mill creeks in the vicinity of Schnecksville, ten miles northwest from Allentown, and until this year he has secured altogether twenty-four farms, which cover a total area, in contiguous tracts, amounting to 2,500 acres. He immediately began to turn up the soil of the hilly, unprofitable land and sow seeds in order to secure permanent pasture, and when these made their appearance he set apart about 1,000 acres, enclosed with an 8-foot wire fence, and placed there seventy deer and several buffaloes and elk. The deer reservation continued under the supervision of P.S. Fenstermacher, a prominent and politically connected Allentown farmer, until Trexler's untimely death in 1933. Trexler's will provided that the deer reservation be devised in fee simple to Lehigh County. The will also made provision that the land be "for use as a public park, by the citizens of [Lehigh] County[.]" Probate of Trexler's will was settled in 1935 and left the county owning the renamed "Trexler Game Preserve". For the next forty years, the preserve was open only on Sundays, with informal petting and feeding exhibits. In 1969, the game preserve commission engaged McFadzean, Everly & Associates to plan and develop a children's zoo at the site. This twenty-nine-acre zoo opened May 18, 1975. The exhibits became more formalized, and the animal collection was expanded to include exotic animals from Africa, Asia, and Australia. Construction costs for the zoo originally estimated at $400,000 quickly increased to more than $2,000,000. Admission projections, originally estimated to reach 650,000 by 1977, only reached 112,342 that year. As the legacy cost of construction increased and admissions stayed languid, budgets became increasingly stretched. In the early 2000s, Lehigh County floated the idea of closing the zoo. In 2004, the private Lehigh Valley Zoological Society was formed and brokered a lease with the county whereby the zoo would be maintained, but under private control. Concurrent with the transfer and lease of zoo operations, the Trexler Trust brought civil suit against the county claiming that the county was obliged to open the preserve land to the public. Lehigh County acceded to a $1.9 million settlement and the Trexler Trust committed to provide another $850,000. These monies were to be used to reopen the entire preserve to the general public. In the winter and spring of 2005 and 2006, respectively, interviews and public meetings were conducted to determine how to return the preserve to public use. The overwhelming response was that the land should be brought back to its natural state (much harmed after years of inartful range management) and that passive recreational facilities (such as hiking trails) should be constructed. In response to this input, Lehigh County commissioned and built a new trail system and, as of 2013, continues efforts to reclaim the land from damage caused by inartful range management. Topography The Trexler Nature Preserve is an 1,108 acre county park owned and maintained by Lehigh County, Commonwealth of Pennsylvania. The preserve is situated in Lowhill Township and North Whitehall Township. Most of the Preserve's distinctive topography is a consequence of water erosion by the Jordan Creek (and its tributaries) through the uplands of the Schochary Ridge. Geology The park's boundaries are on the far-east terminus of the Schochary Ridge; It marks the boundary of the "Game Preserve" fault line which separates the New Tripoli formation of the Schochary Ridge and the Martinsburg formations. The Schochary Ridge is an outcropping of rock which formed during the last stages of the Taconic orogeny. The long east–west-oriented ridge is several miles south of Kittatinny Ridge (within the otherwise flat and fertile Lehigh Valley) and is bisected, within the park, by Jordan Creek. The non-Schochary geology of the Nature Preserve is of the Martinsburg Formation, predominately made up of New Tripoli Member. The Martinsburg Formation developed during the Ordovician period (490 to 443 million years ago), and is characterized by dark grey shale and thin beds of siltstone and sandstone, with depths up to 12,000 feet. The New Tripoli group, the dominant geologic member in the preserve, is composed of shale and calcareous turbidites with sedimentary characteristics. Shale is largely impervious to water producing high surface runoff, but its weak structure is highly erodible, resulting in gentle slopes. Hydrology Jordan Creek, and its minor tributaries—Mill Creek, Hegel's Run, Elk Ridge Run, Macintosh Run, and Thicket Run—give the preserve its distinctive hill and valley character. The preserve is the easternmost extent of the Schochary Ridge which arises from the relatively flat Lehigh Valley. Over eons this elevation gave rise to gradients, allowing water flow to erode the ridge into its current topography. Mill Creek is a major perennial tributary, its watershed drains large portions of agricultural land in the Lowhill, southern Heidelberg and Washington Townships. Mill Creek does not enter the preserve but forms its geographic western boundary and joins with the Jordan Creek just short of the preserve. The creek, whose swift waters eroded the valley in which it flows, separates the preserve from the more westerly State Game Lands 205. Mill Creek also provides a perennial source of water which helps to maintain the thicket of deciduous trees (principally oak and maple) which grow on the preserve's north-western boundary. After the confluence of the Jordan and Mill Creeks, the Jordan enters the preserve and heads north-north-east. To its west, the Jordan is bounded by the imposing Mill Hill (along which the Theyken Ridge Trail runs). Further downstream, Mill Hill recedes straight north as the Jordan turns east—Mill Hill's proximity to the Jordan is further distanced by a valley cut by Hegel's Run. Hegel's Run is a perennial minor tributary of Jordan Creek, originating within skunk cabbage wetlands in the interior of the preserve. Flowing north to south, Hegel's Run continues out of the wetlands and parallel to the Fireman's trail where, along its course, it is fed by two smaller unnamed tributaries originating from springs on the sloping Mill Hill which are blanketed by a heavy canopy of autumn-olive and by a minor tributary originating to the northeast in the grassy Schantz valley. Hegel's Run flows further south where, after being crossed by the firemen's trail forms a confluence with Jordan Creek immediately upstream of Schlicher's Covered Bridge. After passing under Schlicher's Covered Bridge and a pedestrian footbridge, the Jordan Creek makes a hairpin curve, ultimately turning to flow straight south. To the east of the creek, in this section, arises Elk Ridge—the last and easterly most rise of the Schochary Ridge. The elevation rise from Jordan Creek to Elk Ridge is the steepest gradient and largest elevation gain in the park. The Jordan continues under a second pedestrian bridge—erected in 1997—and over the Zoo's ford. Elk Ridge Run, Macintosh Run and Thicket Run are all seasonally intermittent minor tributaries of the Jordan. Just before the ford, the Jordan is joined by Elk Ridge Run. This south flowing watercourse begins near the bison paddocks and drains the eastern slope of Elk Ridge and the western slope of the environmental center grasslands. After the ford, the Jordan Creek continues south until forming a confluence with Macintosh Run. Macintosh Run begins south of the composting center and drains much of the former orchard that used to occupy this location. It flows south, along Old Packhouse Road and mixes with the Jordan before the latter crosses under the Geiger Covered Bridge. After the bridge, the Jordan maintains its southerly course through thickets of conifer, Eastern Hemlock, and wildflowers. Just before passing under the Ruheton bridge (and out of the park), the Jordan is joined by Thicket Run. Thicket Run drains two small ponds in the South Range before flowing to the Jordan under a makeshift metal bridge which carries the Trexler Border Trail. The Jordan subsequently continues on its course and eventually joins the waters of the Little Lehigh River, the Lehigh River, and the Delaware River, before proceeding out to sea. Ranges Since 2006, the preserve has been split into three areas (known locally as ranges): the Northern, the Central, and the Southern Range. Each range is marked by its own distinctive topography and flora. The Northern Range begins in Schnecksville and is bounded in the east by Hegel's Run and in the south by Jordan Creek. It is best described as the "uplands" of the preserve. Starting from either Jordan Creek or Hegel's Run requires a steep northerly ascent up Mill Hill. Once on top of the ridge, there are sweeping views of the entire Lehigh Valley and, particularly, the Kittatinny Ridge. During summer, there can be some agriculture development of the uplands. In the early 2010s, the preserve attempted to grow both corn and turnips in its rocky and eroded soil. When the land is not under agricultural development, it consists mostly of grass lands whose territory is perpetually threatened by encroachment of autumn-olive. Since the early 2010s, the Northern Range has also been developed by the Valley Mountain Bikers. They have developed mountain biking trails through dense thickets of autumn-olive. The trails are open to the public and can be accessed via the North Range Utility Road and parking lot. The central Range is the largest of the three ranges; it also contains the greatest variation of topography. It is bounded on the north by the Jordan Creek and Hegel's Run and on the south by Old Packhouse Road—a portion of the southern end is occupied by the Lehigh County composting facility. The Central Range is subdivided into eastern and western sections by the Jordan Creek. The Eastern Central Range begins south of Hegel's Run and is centered around the dramatic Elk Ridge, which is the highest point in the preserve and also forms the extreme easterly extent of the Schochary Ridge. Elk Ridge is home to the preserve's bison and elk herds. The extreme eastern boundary which borders Lehigh Carbon County Community College is marked by a deciduous tree-line of walnut, oak, and maple receding into grasslands interspersed with autumn-olive. Atop a grassland ridge line in the Eastern Central Range is the post-modern Prairie School styled environmental education center. Opened in 2010, the Trexler Environmental Center is located in a 2,700-square-foot building that has been Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) certified. The center is on one of the highest parts of the preserve and features straight lines, a low profile, and muted colors which merge the building into dramatically rolling grasslands. It also has a rooftop observation area, a community room for environmental education programs and meetings, and restroom facilities for park visitors. The building also houses satellite offices for the Lehigh County Parks Department and the Pennsylvania Bureau of Forestry. The Western Central Range begins south of Jordan Creek and is centered around the Lehigh Valley Zoo. Because of the presence of the zoo, and the road connectivity (including the Jordan Ford), this is the most visited section of the preserve. This section has views of west-facing Lowhill Township grasslands. The lowland sections provide views of eastern Pennsylvania river valleys, and fishing opportunities. The Trexler Border Trail, as it descends off the western veld and down into the Jordan Creek Valley, is surrounded in spring and summer by fecund native wildflower, which draw abundant native butterfly and birds. The Trexler nature trail, which follows Jordan Creek from the ford has views of the river, as well as mixed deciduous and conifer forest and exposed shale formations which are often covered in damp mosses. There are bird blinds in this area for ornithologists. The Northern boundary of the Southern Range is Old Packhouse Road and its Southern the boundary of a commercial orchard. This range is the least visited and most ecologically precarious of the three with only a single trail leading into this area—the Trexler border trail. At one time, large parts of this range were in production as an apple orchard. Stands of old apple trees interspersed with autumn-olive dot this landscape. At the far south of the park is a large glade of Eastern Hemlock and other conifers which provides a distinctly different forest environment from elsewhere in the preserve. The confluence of Thicket Run and the Jordan Creek also create a moist lowland ideal for the growth of wildflowers and cattails. Flora and fauna Much of the preserve consists of rolling expanses of grassland, is characterized by landscape that is unnatural to eastern Pennsylvania and is dominated by non-native plant species. This is a consequence of the early history of the preserve as poorly managed reservation for large ruminant animals and as an experimental apple orchard. This landscape is not native to the humid temperate climate of eastern Pennsylvania. Such grassland in eastern Pennsylvania are typically only found in dairy and beef farming operations. These animal's feeding habits control the emergence of invasive plants preventing reclamation of the land by forests. Natural grasslands are typically limited to semi-arid areas of the world which have long periods of low humidity, intermittent rainfall, and large herds of wild ruminants. Such semi-arid, intermittent humidity climate is characteristic of the American Great Plains, home of the American bison which Trexler sought to protect by establishing the preserve. To establish grassland in his reservation, Trexler ordered marginal rocky lands plowed and the planting of grasses. In consequence large swaths of land were converted to grassland. The passive management of animals upon this new grassland was poor. Far too many animals were allowed to graze. By one count, in 1935, over 250 deer, elk, and bison occupied each square mile of the preserve. Modern game management aims for no more than twenty such animals per square mile. The result of this overgrazing on the native plant ecology and grassland was catastrophic. Animals selectively graze on plant species they co-evolved to consume. If an invasive, non-native plant species is introduced into an environment where there is no competition from animals, it will grow unchecked. This happened on a dramatic scale within the overgrazed preserve boundaries. With no natural competition, autumn-olive, stilt grass, garlic mustard, ailanthus, Japanese barberry, and oriental bittersweet grew without control. The preserve has taken efforts to restore native species since 2006. Efforts have included the mechanized destruction of autumn-olive thickets and the controlled archery hunting of the deer population. Despite the unchecked growth of non-native species in many areas of the preserve, some areas of the park remain somewhat unaffected. This is particularly true of the Southern range, the well-maintained and mowed grasslands of the central range, and places where thick deciduous or conifer forest prevented the growth of autumn-olive in the forest under story. In these areas large stands of oak, maple, walnut, hemlock, and pine still exist along with native wildflowers, mosses, and where moist, ferns. By far, the worst disruption to the park has been caused by autumn-olive which easily colonized the grasslands and deciduous under-story of all parts of the preserve—and particularly the steep hillsides of the Northern Range. Eradication of this autumn-olive is difficult because of the extremely dense thickets in which autumn-olive grows, the countless blunt thorns found on all areas of the plant, and the sometimes extremely steep topography on which it grows. Despite the difficulties, in October and November 2015, the Trexler Nature Preserve has stepped up efforts to mechanically clear hundreds of acres of autumn-olive from the northern range. This effort requires a pair bulldozers equipped with a mechanical grinder that slowly make their way up and down the steep hills grinding and pulverizing the thorny, bush like autumn-olive into rough mulch. The result is large swaths of the northern range that, as of, November 2015 are entirely denuded of vegetation. In spring 2016, the Preserve intends to use chemical herbicides to ensure that the autumn-olive has been eradicated and then replant native grasses and wildflowers to reestablish the unique rolling grasslands characteristic of the Preserve. The eradication efforts were funded by a grant from the Voluntary Public Access and Habitat Incentive Program. The preserve has also started a project to reintroduce American chestnut - a native tree that was nearly destroyed by blight at the end of the nineteenth century. Recreation The Trexler Nature Preserve has long served as a place of recreation for the people of Lehigh County. An account of the preserve in 1914 (when still privately owned by Trexler as the "Trexler Deer Preserve") noted that "[the animals] have become a great curiosity, and many persons are seen almost daily, especially on Sundays, driving or walking along the road from Schnecksville through the park for several miles, to see the wild animals grazing on the hill-sides." Trexler was aware of the importance of the preserve to valley residents, he noted: [i]f a trip through my preserve has opened to you a little wider the great outdoors, and nature has revealed something you may not before have seen or known, I shall feel repaid in my efforts to help conserve in its proper setting some of our wildlife. In contemplation of the importance of the preserve, Trexler devised the property to the County of Lehigh in fee simple with instructions that it should forever be maintained for the benefit of the citizens of Lehigh County. Through the 1960s, passive recreation in the preserve dwindled. It was only open on Sundays, and then only for informal petting and animal watching. The Lehigh Valley Zoo opened in 1975 after six years of planning; the new focus on the zoo further marginalized public interaction with the larger preserve. In 2006, as a settlement to litigation brought by the Trexler Trust, Lehigh County agreed to reopen the entire preserve for public use. An overwhelming majority of respondents to a survey indicated that the preserve should be used for passive recreation—activities including hiking, low-impact mountain biking and fishing. This survey response lead to construction of miles of trails within the park. Hiking Starting in the late 2000s, Lehigh County, with the assistance of the Trexler Trust undertook to build a new system of trails in the interior of the preserve. These trails sought to open large swaths of the preserve that were previously closed to the public. After construction, these trails were mapped by GPS and an interactive map is available as part of Google Maps. Nearly all the hiking trails can also be utilized for mountain biking and horse riding. In October 2015, the Trexler Nature Preserve finished construction of the 9-mile Trexler Border Trail by erecting a concrete and steel bridge across the Jordan Creek. The erection of this bridge now means that hikers no longer have to ford any river crossing to complete the hike. Mountain biking The Valley Mountain Bikers Association has teamed with the preserve to open large areas of the Northern Range to mountain biking. To date, of dedicated use mountain biking trails have been constructed in the Northern range. Much of this construction has occurred within dense thickets of autumn-olive. Public access to the mountain biking trails is available via the Northern Range Utility Road and parking lot. Lehigh Valley Zoo The Lehigh Valley Zoo, established in 1975, is now a privately run enterprise which leases its land and buildings from Lehigh County. Hunting and fishing For nearly a century, the preserve operated with a philosophy not to cull its deer population. This, combined with the bison and elk herds led to animal populations in excess of 250 animals per square mile. Modern game management aims to prevent populations from rising to above twenty animals per square mile. In an effort to reduce the deer population to acceptable ecological limits, the preserve permitted archery hunting for the first time during the 2007 deer season. The hunt yielded a substantial number of deer, including large bucks. Archery hunting is still permitted in some parts of the preserve, provided that the hunter is properly licensed by the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, that the hunt occurs during the normal archery season, and subject to all other Commonwealth hunting statutes and regulations. Beginning with the 2008 season, the Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission also began to stock Jordan Creek with trout. In addition, several hundred yards of easily accessible river front was set aside for children and the disabled. References External links Trexler Environmental Center Nature reserves in Pennsylvania Protected areas of Lehigh County, Pennsylvania Nature centers in Pennsylvania Articles containing video clips

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doc-en-11877

Korean nationalism can be viewed in two different contexts. One encompasses various movements throughout history to maintain a Korean cultural identity, history, and ethnicity (or "race"). This ethnic nationalism was mainly forged in opposition to foreign incursion and rule. The second context encompasses how Korean nationalism changed after partition in 1945. Today, the former tends to predominate. The term "pure blood" refers to the belief that Korean people are a pure race descended from a single ancestor. Invoked during the period of resistance to colonial rule, the idea gave Koreans a sense of ethnic homogeneity and national pride, and a potential catalyst for racial discrimination and prejudice. The dominant strand of nationalism in South Korea, tends to be romantic in nature (specifically ethnic or "racial"), rather than civic. This form of romantic nationalism often competes with and weakens the more formal and structured civic national identity. South Koreans' lack of state-derived nationalism (i.e. patriotism) manifests itself in various ways. For example, there is no national holiday solely commemorating the state itself and many South Koreans do not know the exact date their country was founded (i.e. 15 August 1948). Romantic ethnic nationalism in North Korea has strong salience as well, though unlike in South Korea, civic nationalism and ethnic nationalism do not compete but rather co-exist and reinforce each other. This can be attributed to the state-sponsored ideology of Juche, which utilizes ethnic identity to enhance state power and control. Ethnic nationalism is likely to play a large part in the unification of the two Koreas, should that ever occur. History Historically, the central objectives of Korea's nationalist movement were the advancement and protection of Korea's ancient culture and national identity from foreign influence, and the fostering of the independence movement during Japanese rule. In order to obtain political and cultural autonomy, it first had to promote Korea's cultural dependency. For this reason, the nationalist movement demanded the restoration and preservation of Korea's traditional culture. The Donghak (Eastern Learning) peasant movement, also known as the Donghak Peasant Revolution, that began in the 1870s, could be seen as an early form of what would become the Korean nationalist resistance movement against foreign influences. It was succeeded by the Righteous Army movement and later a series of Korean resistance movements that led, in part, to the current status of the two Korean nations. National resistance movements Nationalism in late 19th century Korea was a form of resistance movements, but with significant differences between the north and south. Since the intrusion by foreign powers in the late 19th century, Koreans have had to construct their identity in ways that pitted them against foreigners. They have witnessed and participated in a wide range of nationalist actions over the past century, but all of them have been some form of resistance against foreign influences. During the colonial period, the Korean nationalists carried on the struggle for independence, fighting against Imperial Japan in Korea, China particularly Manchuria and China Proper and Far East Russia. They formed 'governments in exile', armies, and secret groups to fight the imperial Japanese wherever they are. Partition of Korea Korea was divided at the 38th parallel between north and south by the Allied powers in 1945 as part of the disarmament of Imperial Japan, and the division persists to this day. The split is perpetuated by rival regimes, opposing ideologies, and global politics; it is further deepened by a differing sense of national identity derived from the unique histories, polities, class systems, and gender roles experienced by Koreans on different sides of the border. As a result, Korean nationalism in the late 20th century has been permeated by the split between North and South. Each regime espouses its own distinctive form of nationalism, different from the opposing side's, that nonetheless seeks to encompass the entire Korean Peninsula in its scope. Korean reunification With regard to Korean nationalism, the reunification of the two Koreas is a highly related issue. Ethnic nationalism that is prevalent in Korean society is likely to play a significant role in the unification process, if it does occur. As Gi-Wook Shin claims, “Ethnic consciousness would not only legitimize the drive for unification but it could also be a common ground, especially in the early stages of the unification process, that is needed to facilitate a smooth integration of the two systems.” Korean reunification (Korean: 남북통일) refers to the hypothetical future reunification of North and South Korea under a single government. South Korea had adopted a sunshine policy towards the North that was based on the hope that one day, the two countries would be re-united in the 1990s. The process towards this was started by the historic June 15th North–South Joint Declaration in August 2000, where the two countries agreed to work towards a peaceful reunification in the future. However, there are a number of hurdles in this process due to the large political and economic differences between the two countries and other state actors such as China, Russia, and the United States. Short-term problems such as a large number of refugees that would migrate from the North into the South and initial economic and political instability would need to be overcome. State-aligned nationalism North Korea In North Korea, nationalism is incorporated as part of the state-sponsored ideology of Juche. The Juche Idea teaches that "man is the master of everything and decides everything", and the Korean people are the masters of Korea's revolution. Juche is a component of North Korea's political system. The word literally means "main body" or "subject"; it has also been translated in North Korean sources as "independent stand" and the "spirit of self-reliance". The Juche Idea gradually emerged as a systematic ideological doctrine in the 1960s. Kim Il-sung outlined the three fundamental principles of Juche as being: "independence in politics" (자주, 自主, chaju). "self-sustenance in the economy" (자립, 自立, charip). "self-defense in national defense" (자위, 自衛, chawi). Unlike South Koreans, North Koreans generally believe that their (North Korean) state and the "Korean race" (, minjok) are analogous. Thus they strengthen each other rather than undermining the other like in South Korea: Even North Koreans who may not particularly admire their country's leaders will still be patriotic towards their state. The North Korean state's symbols, such as the national emblem and flag, have been cited as an example of North Korea's attempt to build a civic-based nationalism, in contrast to South Korea's state symbols, which utilize overtly racialized motifs and ethnic symbolism. South Korea State-based nationalism (or patriotism) in South Korea is weak, compared with the more salient race-based nationalism. As a result, some commentators have described the South Korean state in the eyes of South Koreans as constituting "an unloved republic". Whereas in North Korea, most of its citizens view their state and race as being the same thing, most South Koreans on the other hand tend to see the "Korean race" and their (South Korean) state as being separate entities due to the existence of a competing Korean state in North Korea. According to Korea scholar Brian Reynolds Myers, a professor at Dongseo University, while race-based nationalism in North Korea strengthens patriotism towards the state and vice versa, in South Korea it undermines it: Due to traditional state support for race nationalism fostered during the 20th century, South Koreans have come to view positive achievements as being a result of inherent racial characteristics, whereas negative events are attributed to the incompetence, malevolence, and inherent inferiority of the South Korean state: It is said that one of the reasons the South Korean state during the 20th century decided to extol race-based nationalism over civic nationalism was that being an authoritarian military junta at the time, it did not want to extol republican principles that might be used to criticize it in turn. That said, civic state-based nationalism was said to have been stronger during those years than in contemporary post-democratization South Korea, albeit still tenuous. Ironically, though fostered by a right-wing regime at the time, today race nationalism in South Korea is shared across the political spectrum. For instance, when the South Korean pledge of allegiance was reworded in 2007 to use less racialist language, it was left-leaning South Koreans who notably objected to a change. South Koreans' lack of state-based nationalism (or patriotism) manifests itself in various ways in the country's society. For example, there is no national holiday solely commemorating the state itself and many South Koreans do not know the exact date their country was founded. The closest analogue, Constitution Day, ceased to be a federal holiday in 2008. The Liberation Day holiday, which is celebrated each August, shares its date with the establishment of the South Korean state. However, celebrations during the holiday choose to forgo commemorations of the South Korean state or its establishment in favor of focusing and extolling other aspects. As a result, many South Koreans do not know the exact date their own state was established, in contrast to North Koreans, who do. In contrast, a holiday marking the mythological formation of the "Korean race" in 2333 BC is commemorated with a national holiday in South Korea each October. The "Hell Chosun" phenomenon and a desire among many South Koreans to immigrate have also been cited as an example of South Koreans' general lack of nationalistic patriotism towards their state. The lack of state-based nationalism manifests itself in diplomacy as well; the lack of a strong, resolute response by South Korea to North Korea's attacks against it in 2010 (i.e. the sinking of ROKS Cheonan and the bombardment of Yeonpyeong) has been attributed to the former's lack of state-aligned nationalistic sentiment, as these attacks were viewed as mere affronts against the state. In contrast, Japanese claims to South Korean-claimed territory are seen as affronts against the Korean race and are thus responded to with more vigor from South Koreans. Even state symbols that are ostensibly civic in nature, such as the national anthem, state emblem, and national flag contain racial nationalist references (such as the mugunghwa flower) instead of republican or civic ones. Thus, the South Korean flag is often seen by South Koreans as representing the "Korean race" rather than merely South Korea itself. As a result, the vast majority of South Koreans will almost always treat their national flag with reverence and respect, compared to other countries where citizens would desecrate their own national flags as political statements or in protest. This weak state-based nationalism was reflected in the pre-2011 South Korean military oath and pre-2007 pledge of allegiance, both of which pledged allegiance to the "Korean race" over the state. One of the reasons put forth to explain South Koreans' lack of support or affinity for the South Korean state is due to a popular misconception that only North Korea purged its regime of pro-Japanese collaborators of the colonial period and that South Korea did not, while in reality the former did not do so. Another reason given is that South Koreans view their interactions with their state in negative contexts, such as when having to report for mandatory military service or paying fines. Particular issues Anti-Japanese sentiment Contemporary Korean nationalism, at least in South Korea, often incorporates anti-Japanese sentiment as a core component of its ideology, even being described by some scholars as constituting an integral part of South Korea's civil religion. The legacy of the colonial period of Korean history continues to fuel recriminations and demands for restitution in both Koreas. North and South Korea have both lodged severe protests against visits by Japanese officials to the Yasukuni Shrine, which is seen as glorifying the Class A war criminals whose remains are held there. South Koreans claim that a number of Korean women who worked near Japanese military bases as comfort women were forced to serve as sex slaves against their will for Japanese soldiers during World War II which had been a persistent thorn in the side of Japan-South Korea relations from the 1990s to the 2010s. Disagreements over demands for reparations and a formal apology still remain unresolved despite the previous agreement and compensation in 1965, South Koreans started peaceful vigils in 1992 held by survivors on a weekly basis. Recent Japanese history textbook controversies have emerged as a result of what some see as an attempt at historical negationism with the aim of whitewashing or ignoring Japan's war crimes during World War II. These issues continue to separate the two countries diplomatically, and provide fuel for nationalism in both Koreas as well as anti-Japanese sentiment. According to Robert E. Kelly, a professor at Pusan National University, anti-Japanese sentiment in South Korea stems not just from Japanese atrocities during the occupation period, but also from the Korean Peninsula's division. As a result, Kelly says, South Koreans take out their anger, whether rising from Korean division or otherwise, against Japan, as due to the racialized nature of Korean nationalism it is considered gauche for South Koreans to be overly hostile towards North Korea. This view is supported by another professor, Brian Reynolds Myers of Dongseo University. Liancourt Rocks dispute The Liancourt Rocks dispute has been ongoing since the end of World War II after the United States rejected Korea's claim to give sovereignty of the Liancourt Rocks islands, known as Dokdo or Tokto (독도/獨島, literally "solitary island") in Korean and Takeshima in Japanese, to Korea in the 1951. Since 1954, the South Koreans have administered the islands but bickering on both sides involving nationalism and lingering historical acrimony has led to the current impasse. Adding to this problem is political pressure from conservative politicians and nationalist groups in both South Korea and Japan to have more assertive territorial policies. With the introduction of the 1994 UN Law of the Sea Convention, South Korea and Japan began to set their new maritime boundaries, particularly in overlapping terrain in the Sea of Japan (East Sea), where some exclusive economic zone (EEZ) borders was less than apart. Tensions escalated in 1996 when both governments declared a EEZ that encompassed the island, which brought Japan-South Korean relations to an all-time low. This has not only complicated bilateral relations but heightened nationalist sentiments on both sides. In spite of generational change and the passage of time, the institutionalization of Korean collective memory is causing young Koreans to be as anti-Japanese, if not more so, than the older generation. For Koreans, "historical memory and feelings of han (resentment) run deeply and can influence Korea's relations with its neighbors, allies, and enemies in ways not easily predicted by models of policy-making predicated on realpolitik or other geo-strategic or economic concerns." Due to Korea's colonial past, safeguarding the island has become equivalent to safeguarding the nation-state and its national identity. A territory's value and importance is not limited to its physical dimensions but also the psychological value it holds as a source of sovereignty and identity. Triggered by perceptions and strong feelings of injustice and humiliation, Korean nationalistic sentiment has become involved in the dispute. The island itself has become to symbolize South Korean national identity and pride, making it an issue even more difficult to resolve. South Korea's claim to the island holds emotional content that goes beyond material significance, and giving way on the island issue to Japan would be seen as compromising the sovereignty of the entire peninsula. The dispute has taken on the form of a national grievance rather than a simple territorial dispute. The South Korean government has also played a role in fanning nationalism in this dispute. President Roh Moo-hyun began a speech on Korea-Japan relations in April 2006 by bluntly stating, “The island is our land” and “for Koreans, the island is a symbol of the complete recovery of sovereignty.” The issue of the island is clearly tied to the protection of the nation-state that was once taken away by Japan. President Roh emphasizes this point again by saying: “Dokdo for us is not merely a matter pertaining to territorial rights over tiny islets but is emblematic of bringing closure to an unjust chapter in our history with Japan and of the full consolidation of Korea's sovereignty.” Later on in his speech Roh also mentions the Yasukuni Shrine and Japanese history textbook controversy, saying that they will be dealt with together. Having placed the Liancourt Rocks issue "in the context of rectifying the historical record between Korea and Japan" and "the safeguarding of [Korea's] sovereignty", compromise becomes impossible. As the French theorist Ernest Renan said, "Where national memories are concerned, griefs are of more value than triumphs, for they impose duties, and require a common effort." The Liancourt Rocks dispute has affected the Korean and Japanese perceptions of each other. According to a 2008 survey by Gallup Korea and the Japan Research Center, 20% of Koreans had friendly feelings towards Japan and 36% of Japanese the same towards Korea. When asked for the reason of their antipathy, most Koreans mentioned the territorial dispute over the island, and the Japanese the anti-Japanese sentiment in Korea. This is in contrast to a 2002 survey (post 2002 FIFA World Cup) conducted by the Chosun Ilbo and Mainichi Shimbun, where 35% of Koreans and 69% of Japanese had friendly views of the other country. Anti-U.S. sentiment Anti-Americanism in Korea began with the earliest contact between the two nations and continued after the division of Korea. In both North Korea and South Korea, anti-Americanism after the Korean War has focused on the presence and behavior of American military personnel (USFK), aggravated especially by high-profile accidents or crimes by U.S. servicemembers, with various crimes including rape and assault, among others. The 2002 Yangju highway incident especially ignited Anti-American passions. The ongoing U.S. military presence in South Korea, especially at the Yongsan Garrison (on a base previously used by the Imperial Japanese Army during Colonial Korea) in central Seoul, remains a contentious issue. While protests have arisen over specific incidents, they are often reflective of deeper historical resentments. Robert Hathaway, director of the Wilson Center's Asia program, suggests: "the growth of anti-American sentiment in both Japan and South Korea must be seen not simply as a response to American policies and actions, but as reflective of deeper domestic trends and developments within these Asian countries." Korean anti-Americanism after the war was fueled by American occupation of USFK troops and support for the authoritarian rule of Park Chung-hee, and what was perceived as an American endorsement of the brutal tactics used in the Gwangju massacre. Speaking to the Wilson Center, Katherine Moon was noted by Hathaway as suggesting that "anti-Americanism also represents the collective venting of accumulated grievances that in many instances have lain hidden for decades", but that despite the "very public demonstrations of anger toward the United States [...] the majority of Koreans of all age groups supports the continuation of the American alliance." Manchuria and Gando disputes Historical Korean claims of Manchuria can be traced back to the late Joseon dynasty. It was common in late Joseon dynasty to write about old lands of Goguryeo, an expression of nostalgia for the north. In the early 20th century, Korean nationalist historians like Shin Chaeho, advocated a complete unification of Korean peninsula and Manchuria in order to restore the ancient lands of Dangun. Today, Irredentist Korean nationalist historians have claimed that Manchuria (now called Northeast China), in particular Gando (known in China as Jiandao), a region bordering China, North Korea, and Russia, and home to the Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture should be part of Korea, based on ancient Gojoseon, Goguryeo and Balhae control of the area. The term Greater Korea, sometimes used in nationalist works, usually enompasses those regions located. The claim for Gando is said to be stronger than the claim for the whole of Manchuria, due to later Balhae presence in Gando after the fall of the Koguryo kingdom, the current area population's consisting of 1/3 ethnic Koreans, and the circumstances of the 1909 Gando Convention that relegated the area to Chinese control. While the Manchurian claims have not received official attention in South Korea, claims for Gando were the subject of a bill introduced in 2004, at a time when China had been claiming that Balhae and Koguryo had been "minority states" within China and the resulting controversy was at its height. The legislation proposed by 59 South Korean lawmakers would have declared the Gando Convention signed under Japanese rule to be "null and void". Later that year, the two countries reached an understanding that their governments would refrain from further involvement in the historical controversy. Ethnic nationalism Ethnic nationalism emphasizes descent and race. Among many Koreans, both in the North and South, ethnicity is interpreted on a racial basis, with "blood", and is usually considered the key determinant in defining "Koreanness" in contemporary Korean nationalist thought. In South Korea, ethnic nationalism has salience to the point where it has been described as being a part of the country's civil religion. Despite its contemporary salience, ethnic Korean nationalism is a relatively recent development. Importance of blood The term "pure blood" refers to the belief that Korean people are a pure race descended from a single ancestor. First invoked during the period of resistance to colonial rule, the idea of having pure blood gave Koreans an impetus for developing a sense of ethnic homogeneity and national pride, as well as a potential catalyst for racial discrimination and prejudice. As a way of resisting colonial rule, Shin Chaeho published his book Joseon Sanggosa in the 1920s, proclaiming that Korean descent is based on the Goguryeo kingdom, formed from the intermingling of the descendants of Dangun Joseon with the Buyeo kingdom. This raised a sense of ethnic homogeneity which persists as a major element in the politics and foreign relations of both Koreas. A survey in 2006 showed that 68.2% of respondents considered "blood" the most important criterion of defining the Korean nation, and 74.9% agreed that "Koreans are all brothers and sisters regardless of residence and ideology." Noted Korea scholar Brian Reynolds Myers argues in his 2010 book The Cleanest Race: How North Koreans See Themselves and Why It Matters that the North Korean ideology of a purest race arose from 20th century Japanese fascism. Japanese collaborators are said to have introduced the notion of racial unity in an effort to assert that Japanese and Koreans came from the same racial stock. After Japan relinquished control of Korea, Myers argues, the theory was subsequently adjusted to promote the idea of a pure Korean race. A poll by the Asan Institute for Policy Studies in 2015 found that only 5.4% of South Koreans in their twenties said they saw North Koreans as people sharing the same bloodline with South Koreans The poll also found that only 11 percent of South Koreans associated North Korea with Koreans, with most people associating them with words like military, war or nuclear weapons. It also found that most South Koreans expressed deeper feelings of "closeness" with Americans and Chinese than with North Koreans. Nationalist historiography Shin Chaeho was the first historian to focus on the Korean minjok (민족, 民族, "race" or ethnicity) or Kyŏre(겨레), and narrated Korean history in terms of its minjok history. There is no direct English language equivalent for the word minjok, though commentators have offered "race" and "ethnicity" as being the closest analogues. For Shin, minjok and history were mutually defining and as he says in the preface of the Doksa Sillon, “if one dismisses the minjok, there is no history.” Shin emphasized the ancientness of the Korean minjok history, elevated the status of the semi-legendary figure, Dangun, as the primordial ancestor of the Korean people and located the host minjok, Puyo. Shin launched a vision of the Korean nation as a historically defined minjok or ethnicity entity. In an attempt to counter China's controversial Northeast Project and Goguryeo controversies that ensued, the South Korean government in 2007 incorporated the founding of Gojoseon of the year 2333 BCE into its textbooks. See also Hanchongryun History of Korea Korean ethnic nationalism Racism in South Korea Sojunghwa (Korean ethnocentrism) VANK Gukppong References Bibliography Journals News Academic/Educational Lee, Chong-Sik (1963). The Politics of Korean Nationalism (Berkeley: University of California Press). This can also be found as a chapter in a book called "Power and the Past: Collective Memory and International Relations". - Presented at U.S.-Korea Relations in the 21st Century Challenges and Prospects, Washington, D.C. Books External links Korean society Foreign relations of North Korea Foreign relations of South Korea North Korea–South Korea relations Politics of Korea Nationalist movements in Asia Korean irredentism Pan-nationalism Cultural regions

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Oktyabrsky (; masculine), Oktyabrskaya (; feminine) or Oktyabrskoye (; neuter) is the name of several inhabited localities in Russia. Modern localities Republic of Adygea As of 2012, one rural locality in the Republic of Adygea bears this name: Oktyabrsky, Republic of Adygea, a khutor in Maykopsky District; Altai Krai As of 2012, nine rural localities in Altai Krai bear this name: Oktyabrsky, Aleysky District, Altai Krai, a settlement in Aleysky Selsoviet of Aleysky District; Oktyabrsky, Kamensky District, Altai Krai, a settlement in Prigorodny Selsoviet of Kamensky District; Oktyabrsky, Kulundinsky District, Altai Krai, a settlement in Oktyabrsky Selsoviet of Kulundinsky District; Oktyabrsky, Kytmanovsky District, Altai Krai (or Oktyabrskoye), a settlement in Oktyabrsky Selsoviet of Kytmanovsky District; Oktyabrsky, Suyetsky District, Altai Krai, a settlement in Verkh-Suyetsky Selsoviet of Suyetsky District; Oktyabrsky, Troitsky District, Altai Krai, a settlement in Gordeyevsky Selsoviet of Troitsky District; Oktyabrsky, Zmeinogorsky District, Altai Krai, a settlement in Oktyabrsky Selsoviet of Zmeinogorsky District; Oktyabrsky, Zonalny District, Altai Krai, a settlement in Oktyabrsky Selsoviet of Zonalny District; Oktyabrskoye, Altai Krai (or Oktyabrsky), a selo in Sibirsky Selsoviet of Pervomaysky District; Altai Republic As of 2012, one rural locality in the Altai Republic bears this name: Oktyabrskoye, Altai Republic, a settlement in Gorbunovskoye Rural Settlement of Ust-Koksinsky District; Amur Oblast As of 2012, two rural localities in Amur Oblast bear this name: Oktyabrsky, Amur Oblast, a selo in Oktyabrsky Rural Settlement of Zeysky District Oktyabrskoye, Amur Oblast, a selo in Kovrizhsky Rural Settlement of Konstantinovsky District Arkhangelsk Oblast As of 2012, one urban locality in Arkhangelsk Oblast bears this name: Oktyabrsky, Arkhangelsk Oblast, a work settlement in Ustyansky District Astrakhan Oblast As of 2012, one rural locality in Astrakhan Oblast bears this name: Oktyabrsky, Astrakhan Oblast, a settlement in Lebyazhinsky Selsoviet of Kamyzyaksky District; Republic of Bashkortostan As of 2012, seven inhabited localities in the Republic of Bashkortostan bear this name: Urban localities Oktyabrsky, Republic of Bashkortostan, a city incorporated as a city of republic significance; Rural localities Oktyabrsky, Duvansky District, Republic of Bashkortostan, a village in Duvansky Selsoviet of Duvansky District; Oktyabrsky, Iglinsky District, Republic of Bashkortostan (or Oktyabrskoye), a village in Nadezhdinsky Selsoviet of Iglinsky District; Oktyabrsky, Karaidelsky District, Republic of Bashkortostan, a village in Kirzinsky Selsoviet of Karaidelsky District; Oktyabrsky, Ufimsky District, Republic of Bashkortostan, a selo in Shemyaksky Selsoviet of Ufimsky District; Oktyabrskoye, Iglinsky District, Republic of Bashkortostan (or Oktyabrsky), a village in Tavtimanovsky Selsoviet of Iglinsky District; Oktyabrskoye, Sterlitamaksky District, Republic of Bashkortostan, a selo in Oktyabrsky Selsoviet of Sterlitamaksky District; Belgorod Oblast As of 2012, two inhabited localities in Belgorod Oblast bear this name: Urban localities Oktyabrsky, Belgorodsky District, Belgorod Oblast, a settlement in Belgorodsky District; Rural localities Oktyabrsky, Gubkinsky District, Belgorod Oblast, a khutor in Gubkinsky District; Bryansk Oblast As of 2012, five rural localities in Bryansk Oblast bear this name: Oktyabrsky, Bryansky District, Bryansk Oblast, a settlement in Zhurinichsky Rural Administrative Okrug of Bryansky District; Oktyabrsky, Pochepsky District, Bryansk Oblast, a settlement in Baklansky Rural Administrative Okrug of Pochepsky District; Oktyabrsky, Unechsky District, Bryansk Oblast, a settlement in Ivaytensky Rural Administrative Okrug of Unechsky District; Oktyabrskoye, Bryansky District, Bryansk Oblast, a selo in Dobrunsky Rural Administrative Okrug of Bryansky District; Oktyabrskoye, Surazhsky District, Bryansk Oblast, a selo in Vlazovichsky Rural Administrative Okrug of Surazhsky District; Republic of Buryatia As of 2012, one rural locality in the Republic of Buryatia bears this name: Oktyabrsky, Republic of Buryatia, a settlement in Bolshekudarinsky Selsoviet of Kyakhtinsky District Chechen Republic As of 2012, two rural localities in the Chechen Republic bear this name: Oktyabrskoye, Groznensky District, Chechen Republic, a selo in Oktyabrskaya Rural Administration of Groznensky District Oktyabrskoye, Vedensky District, Chechen Republic, a selo in Vedenskaya Rural Administration of Vedensky District Chelyabinsk Oblast As of 2012, seven rural localities in Chelyabinsk Oblast bear this name: Oktyabrsky, Miass, Chelyabinsk Oblast, a settlement under the administrative jurisdiction of the City of Miass Oktyabrsky, Bredinsky District, Chelyabinsk Oblast, a settlement in Belokamensky Selsoviet of Bredinsky District Oktyabrsky, Kizilsky District, Chelyabinsk Oblast, a settlement in Granitny Selsoviet of Kizilsky District Oktyabrsky, Krasnoarmeysky District, Chelyabinsk Oblast, a settlement in Berezovsky Selsoviet of Krasnoarmeysky District Oktyabrsky, Kusinsky District, Chelyabinsk Oblast, a settlement in Zlokazovsky Selsoviet of Kusinsky District Oktyabrsky, Uysky District, Chelyabinsk Oblast, a settlement in Uysky Selsoviet of Uysky District Oktyabrskoye, Chelyabinsk Oblast, a selo in Oktyabrsky Selsoviet of Oktyabrsky District Chuvash Republic As of 2012, two rural localities in the Chuvash Republic bear this name: Oktyabrskoye, Mariinsko-Posadsky District, Chuvash Republic, a selo in Oktyabrskoye Rural Settlement of Mariinsko-Posadsky District Oktyabrskoye, Poretsky District, Chuvash Republic, a selo in Oktyabrskoye Rural Settlement of Poretsky District Republic of Crimea As of 2012, four inhabited localities in Republic of Crimea bear this name: Urban localities Oktyabrskoye, Krasnogvardeysky District, Republic of Crimea, an urban-type settlement in Krasnogvardeysky District Rural localities Oktyabrskoye, Leninsky District, Republic of Crimea, a selo in Leninsky District Oktyabrskoye, Pervomaysky District, Republic of Crimea, a selo in Pervomaysky District Oktyabrskoye, Sovetsky District, Republic of Crimea, a selo in Sovetsky District Republic of Dagestan As of 2012, two rural localities in the Republic of Dagestan bear this name: Oktyabrskoye, Khasavyurtovsky District, Republic of Dagestan, a selo in Oktyabrsky Selsoviet of Khasavyurtovsky District; Oktyabrskoye, Kizlyarsky District, Republic of Dagestan, a selo in Kizlyarsky Selsoviet of Kizlyarsky District; Irkutsk Oblast As of 2015, four inhabited localities in Irkutsk Oblast bear this name: Urban localities Oktyabrsky, Chunsky District, Irkutsk Oblast, a work settlement in Chunsky District Rural localities Oktyabrsky, Kuytunsky District, Irkutsk Oblast, a settlement in Kuytunsky District Oktyabrsky, Nizhneudinsky District, Irkutsk Oblast, an area in Nizhneudinsky District Oktyabrsky, Usolsky District, Irkutsk Oblast, a settlement in Usolsky District Ivanovo Oblast As of 2012, three rural localities in Ivanovo Oblast bear this name: Oktyabrsky, Kineshemsky District, Ivanovo Oblast, a selo in Kineshemsky District Oktyabrsky, Komsomolsky District, Ivanovo Oblast, a selo in Komsomolsky District Oktyabrsky, Zavolzhsky District, Ivanovo Oblast, a selo in Zavolzhsky District Jewish Autonomous Oblast As of 2012, one rural locality in the Jewish Autonomous Oblast bears this name: Oktyabrskoye, Jewish Autonomous Oblast, a selo in Leninsky District Kabardino-Balkar Republic As of 2012, two rural localities in the Kabardino-Balkar Republic bear this name: Oktyabrskoye, Maysky District, Kabardino-Balkar Republic (or Oktyabrsky), a selo in Maysky District; Oktyabrskoye, Zolsky District, Kabardino-Balkar Republic, a selo in Zolsky District; Kaliningrad Oblast As of 2012, four rural localities in Kaliningrad Oblast bear this name: Oktyabrskoye, Bagrationovsky District, Kaliningrad Oblast, a settlement in Pogranichny Rural Okrug of Bagrationovsky District Oktyabrskoye, Polessky District, Kaliningrad Oblast, a settlement in Zalesovsky Rural Okrug of Polessky District Oktyabrskoye, Pravdinsky District, Kaliningrad Oblast, a settlement under the administrative jurisdiction of the town of district significance of Pravdinsk in Pravdinsky District Oktyabrskoye, Slavsky District, Kaliningrad Oblast, a settlement in Timiryazevsky Rural Okrug of Slavsky District Republic of Kalmykia As of 2012, three rural localities in the Republic of Kalmykia bear this name: Oktyabrsky, Priyutnensky District, Republic of Kalmykia, a settlement in Oktyabrskaya Rural Administration of Priyutnensky District; Oktyabrsky, Yashaltinsky District, Republic of Kalmykia, a settlement in Oktyabrskaya Rural Administration of Yashaltinsky District; Oktyabrsky, Yustinsky District, Republic of Kalmykia, a settlement in Yustinskaya Rural Administration of Yustinsky District; Kaluga Oblast As of 2012, one rural locality in Kaluga Oblast bears this name: Oktyabrsky, Kaluga Oblast, a settlement in Ferzikovsky District Kamchatka Krai As of 2012, one rural locality in Kamchatka Krai bears this name: Oktyabrsky, Kamchatka Krai, a settlement in Ust-Bolsheretsky District Karachay-Cherkess Republic As of 2012, one rural locality in the Karachay-Cherkess Republic bears this name: Oktyabrsky, Karachay-Cherkess Republic, a settlement in Prikubansky District; Republic of Karelia As of 2012, one rural locality in the Republic of Karelia bears this name: Oktyabrskaya, Republic of Karelia, a village in Pudozhsky District Kemerovo Oblast As of 2012, six rural localities in Kemerovo Oblast bear this name: Oktyabrsky, Belovsky District, Kemerovo Oblast, a settlement in Bekovskaya Rural Territory of Belovsky District; Oktyabrsky, Prokopyevsky District, Kemerovo Oblast, a settlement in Kuzbasskaya Rural Territory of Prokopyevsky District; Oktyabrsky, Promyshlennovsky District, Kemerovo Oblast, a settlement in Kalinkinskaya Rural Territory of Promyshlennovsky District; Oktyabrsky, Topkinsky District, Kemerovo Oblast, a settlement in Zarubinskaya Rural Territory of Topkinsky District; Oktyabrsky, Tyazhinsky District, Kemerovo Oblast, a settlement in Novovostochnaya Rural Territory of Tyazhinsky District; Oktyabrsky, Yashkinsky District, Kemerovo Oblast, a settlement in Polomoshinskaya Rural Territory of Yashkinsky District; Khabarovsk Krai As of 2012, three inhabited localities in Khabarovsk Krai bear this name: Urban localities Oktyabrsky, Vaninsky District, Khabarovsk Krai, a work settlement in Vaninsky District Rural localities Oktyabrsky, Komsomolsky District, Khabarovsk Krai, a settlement in Komsomolsky District Oktyabrsky, imeni Poliny Osipenko District, Khabarovsk Krai, a settlement in imeni Poliny Osipenko District Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Okrug As of 2012, one urban locality in Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Okrug bears this name: Oktyabrskoye, Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Okrug, an urban-type settlement in Oktyabrsky District Kirov Oblast As of 2012, eight rural localities in Kirov Oblast bear this name: Oktyabrsky, Falyonsky District, Kirov Oblast, a settlement in Medvezhensky Rural Okrug of Falyonsky District; Oktyabrsky, Murashinsky District, Kirov Oblast, a settlement in Bezbozhnikovsky Rural Okrug of Murashinsky District; Oktyabrsky, Slobodskoy District, Kirov Oblast, a settlement in Oktyabrsky Rural Okrug of Slobodskoy District; Oktyabrsky, Sovetsky District, Kirov Oblast, a settlement in Rodyginsky Rural Okrug of Sovetsky District; Oktyabrsky, Zuyevsky District, Kirov Oblast, a settlement in Oktyabrsky Rural Okrug of Zuyevsky District; Oktyabrskoye, Kirov Oblast (or Oktyabrskaya), a selo in Yumsky Rural Okrug of Svechinsky District; Oktyabrskaya (railway station), Lesnoy, Verkhnekamsky District, Kirov Oblast, a railway station under the administrative jurisdiction of Lesnoy Urban-Type Settlement in Verkhnekamsky District; Oktyabrskaya (village), Lesnoy, Verkhnekamsky District, Kirov Oblast, a village under the administrative jurisdiction of Lesnoy Urban-Type Settlement in Verkhnekamsky District; Komi Republic As of 2012, one urban locality in the Komi Republic bears this name: Oktyabrsky, Komi Republic, an urban-type settlement under the administrative jurisdiction of Severny Urban-Type Settlement Administrative Territory under the administrative jurisdiction of the city of republic significance of Vorkuta; Kostroma Oblast As of 2012, two rural localities in Kostroma Oblast bear this name: Oktyabrsky, Kologrivsky District, Kostroma Oblast, a settlement in Ileshevskoye Settlement of Kologrivsky District; Oktyabrsky, Manturovsky District, Kostroma Oblast, a settlement in Oktyabrskoye Settlement of Manturovsky District; Krasnodar Krai As of 2012, twenty rural localities in Krasnodar Krai bear this name: Oktyabrsky, Goryachy Klyuch, Krasnodar Krai, a settlement in Kutaissky Rural Okrug under the administrative jurisdiction of the Town of Goryachy Klyuch; Oktyabrsky, Krasnodar, Krasnodar Krai, a khutor in Kalininsky Rural Okrug under the administrative jurisdiction of Prikubansky Okrug under the administrative jurisdiction of the City of Krasnodar; Oktyabrsky, Kavkazsky District, Krasnodar Krai, a settlement in Mirskoy Rural Okrug of Kavkazsky District; Oktyabrsky, Krasnoarmeysky District, Krasnodar Krai, a settlement in Oktyabrsky Rural Okrug of Krasnoarmeysky District; Oktyabrsky, Kurganinsky District, Krasnodar Krai, a settlement in Oktyabrsky Rural Okrug of Kurganinsky District; Oktyabrsky, Kushchyovsky District, Krasnodar Krai, a settlement in Pervomaysky Rural Okrug of Kushchyovsky District; Oktyabrsky, Leningradsky District, Krasnodar Krai, a settlement in Novoumansky Rural Okrug of Leningradsky District; Oktyabrsky, Novopokrovsky District, Krasnodar Krai, a settlement in Nezamayevsky Rural Okrug of Novopokrovsky District; Oktyabrsky, Pavlovsky District, Krasnodar Krai, a settlement in Srednechelbassky Rural Okrug of Pavlovsky District; Oktyabrsky, Primorsko-Akhtarsky District, Krasnodar Krai, a settlement in Olginsky Rural Okrug of Primorsko-Akhtarsky District; Oktyabrsky, Seversky District, Krasnodar Krai, a settlement under the administrative jurisdiction of Chernomorsky Settlement Okrug in Seversky District; Oktyabrsky, Tbilissky District, Krasnodar Krai, a settlement in Tbilissky Rural Okrug of Tbilissky District; Oktyabrsky, Temryuksky District, Krasnodar Krai, a settlement under the administrative jurisdiction of the Town of Temryuk in Temryuksky District; Oktyabrsky, Timashyovsky District, Krasnodar Krai, a settlement in Poselkovy Rural Okrug of Timashyovsky District; Oktyabrsky, Tuapsinsky District, Krasnodar Krai, a settlement in Oktyabrsky Rural Okrug of Tuapsinsky District; Oktyabrsky, Ust-Labinsky District, Krasnodar Krai, a khutor under the administrative jurisdiction of the Town of Ust-Labinsk in Ust-Labinsky District; Oktyabrsky, Vyselkovsky District, Krasnodar Krai, a settlement in Gazyrsky Rural Okrug of Vyselkovsky District; Oktyabrsky, Yeysky District, Krasnodar Krai, a settlement in Yeysky Rural Okrug of Yeysky District; Oktyabrskaya, Belorechensky District, Krasnodar Krai (or Oktyabrsky, Oktyabrskoye), a stanitsa in Bzhedukhovsky Rural Okrug of Belorechensky District; Oktyabrskaya, Krylovsky District, Krasnodar Krai (or Oktyabrsky), a stanitsa in Oktyabrsky Rural Okrug of Krylovsky District; Krasnoyarsk Krai As of 2012, two rural localities in Krasnoyarsk Krai bear this name: Oktyabrsky, Boguchansky District, Krasnoyarsk Krai, a settlement in Oktyabrsky Selsoviet of Boguchansky District Oktyabrsky, Idrinsky District, Krasnoyarsk Krai, a settlement in Dobromyslovsky Selsoviet of Idrinsky District Kurgan Oblast As of 2012, two rural localities in Kurgan Oblast bear this name: Oktyabrsky, Kurgan Oblast, a settlement in Barinovsky Selsoviet of Shatrovsky District; Oktyabrskoye, Kurgan Oblast, a selo in Oktyabrsky Selsoviet of Petukhovsky District; Kursk Oblast As of 2012, four rural localities in Kursk Oblast bear this name: Oktyabrsky, Dmitriyevsky District, Kursk Oblast, a settlement in Melovsky Selsoviet of Dmitriyevsky District Oktyabrsky, Lgovsky District, Kursk Oblast, a khutor in Gorodensky Selsoviet of Lgovsky District Oktyabrskoye, Rylsky District, Kursk Oblast, a selo in Oktyabrsky Selsoviet of Rylsky District Oktyabrskoye, Sovetsky District, Kursk Oblast, a selo in Oktyabrsky Selsoviet of Sovetsky District Leningrad Oblast As of 2012, one rural locality in Leningrad Oblast bears this name: Oktyabrskoye, Leningrad Oblast, a settlement in Polyanskoye Settlement Municipal Formation of Vyborgsky District; Lipetsk Oblast As of 2012, one rural locality in Lipetsk Oblast bears this name: Oktyabrskoye, Lipetsk Oblast, a selo in Oktyabrsky Selsoviet of Usmansky District; Mari El Republic As of 2012, three rural localities in the Mari El Republic bear this name: Oktyabrsky, Krasnovolzhsky Rural Okrug, Gornomariysky District, Mari El Republic, a settlement in Krasnovolzhsky Rural Okrug of Gornomariysky District; Oktyabrsky, Vilovatovsky Rural Okrug, Gornomariysky District, Mari El Republic, a vyselok in Vilovatovsky Rural Okrug of Gornomariysky District; Oktyabrsky, Morkinsky District, Mari El Republic, a settlement in Oktyabrsky Rural Okrug of Morkinsky District; Republic of Mordovia As of 2012, two rural localities in the Republic of Mordovia bear this name: Oktyabrsky, Ardatovsky District, Republic of Mordovia, a settlement in Oktyabrsky Selsoviet of Ardatovsky District; Oktyabrsky, Ichalkovsky District, Republic of Mordovia, a settlement in Ladsky Selsoviet of Ichalkovsky District; Moscow Oblast As of 2012, five inhabited localities in Moscow Oblast bear this name: Urban localities Oktyabrsky, Lyuberetsky District, Moscow Oblast, a work settlement in Lyuberetsky District; Rural localities Oktyabrsky, Istrinsky District, Moscow Oblast, a settlement in Bukarevskoye Rural Settlement of Istrinsky District; Oktyabrsky, Odintsovsky District, Moscow Oblast, a settlement under the administrative jurisdiction of the Town of Golitsyno in Odintsovsky District; Oktyabrsky, Stupinsky District, Moscow Oblast, a settlement under the administrative jurisdiction of Mikhnevo Work Settlement in Stupinsky District; Oktyabrskoye, Moscow Oblast, a selo in Zarudenskoye Rural Settlement of Kolomensky District; Republic of North Ossetia-Alania As of 2012, two rural localities in the Republic of North Ossetia-Alania bear this name: Oktyabrskoye, Mozdoksky District, North Ossetia–Alania, a selo in Tersky Rural Okrug of Mozdoksky District; Oktyabrskoye, Prigorodny District, North Ossetia–Alania, a selo in Oktyabrsky Rural Okrug of Prigorodny District; Novgorod Oblast As of 2012, one rural locality in Novgorod Oblast bears this name: Oktyabrsky, Novgorod Oblast, a settlement in Kalininskoye Settlement of Moshenskoy District Novosibirsk Oblast As of 2012, five rural localities in Novosibirsk Oblast bear this name: Oktyabrsky, Iskitimsky District, Novosibirsk Oblast, a settlement in Iskitimsky District; Oktyabrsky, Krasnozyorsky District, Novosibirsk Oblast, a settlement in Krasnozyorsky District; Oktyabrsky, Moshkovsky District, Novosibirsk Oblast, a settlement in Moshkovsky District; Oktyabrsky, Ust-Tarksky District, Novosibirsk Oblast (or Oktyabrskoye), a settlement in Ust-Tarksky District; Oktyabrskoye, Novosibirsk Oblast (or Oktyabrsky), a selo in Karasuksky District; Omsk Oblast As of 2012, four rural localities in Omsk Oblast bear this name: Oktyabrsky, Omsky District, Omsk Oblast, a settlement in Kalininsky Rural Okrug of Omsky District; Oktyabrsky, Tyukalinsky District, Omsk Oblast, a settlement in Oktyabrsky Rural Okrug of Tyukalinsky District; Oktyabrskoye, Gorkovsky District, Omsk Oblast, a selo in Oktyabrsky Rural Okrug of Gorkovsky District; Oktyabrskoye, Okoneshnikovsky District, Omsk Oblast, a village in Krasovsky Rural Okrug of Okoneshnikovsky District; Orenburg Oblast As of 2012, five rural localities in Orenburg Oblast bear this name: Oktyabrsky, Buguruslansky District, Orenburg Oblast, a settlement in Yelatomsky Selsoviet of Buguruslansky District Oktyabrsky, Kvarkensky District, Orenburg Oblast, a settlement in Kvarkensky Selsoviet of Kvarkensky District Oktyabrsky, Sorochinsky District, Orenburg Oblast, a settlement in Roshchinsky Selsoviet of Sorochinsky District Oktyabrskoye, Oktyabrsky District, Orenburg Oblast, a selo in Oktyabrsky Selsoviet of Oktyabrsky District Oktyabrskoye, Severny District, Orenburg Oblast, a selo in Rychkovsky Selsoviet of Severny District Oryol Oblast As of 2012, one rural locality in Oryol Oblast bears this name: Oktyabrsky, Oryol Oblast, a settlement in Berezovsky Selsoviet of Dmitrovsky District; Penza Oblast As of 2012, six rural localities in Penza Oblast bear this name: Oktyabrsky, Belinsky District, Penza Oblast, a settlement in Studensky Selsoviet of Belinsky District Oktyabrsky, Kamensky District, Penza Oblast, a settlement in Fedorovsky Selsoviet of Kamensky District Oktyabrsky, Narovchatsky District, Penza Oblast, a settlement in Novopichursky Selsoviet of Narovchatsky District Oktyabrskoye, Neverkinsky District, Penza Oblast, a selo in Oktyabrsky Selsoviet of Neverkinsky District Oktyabrskoye, Serdobsky District, Penza Oblast, a settlement in Roshchinsky Selsoviet of Serdobsky District Oktyabrskaya, Penza Oblast, a village in Krasnopolsky Selsoviet of Penzensky District Perm Krai As of 2012, five inhabited localities in Perm Krai bear this name: Urban localities Oktyabrsky, Oktyabrsky District, Perm Krai, a work settlement in Oktyabrsky District Rural localities Oktyabrsky, Dobryanka, Perm Krai, a settlement under the administrative jurisdiction of the town of krai significance of Dobryanka Oktyabrsky, Ilyinsky District, Perm Krai, a settlement in Ilyinsky District Oktyabrsky, Kochyovsky District, Perm Krai, a settlement in Kochyovsky District Oktyabrsky, Permsky District, Perm Krai, a settlement in Permsky District Primorsky Krai As of 2012, one rural locality in Primorsky Krai bears this name: Oktyabrskoye, Primorsky Krai, a selo in Khankaysky District Rostov Oblast As of 2012, six rural localities in Rostov Oblast bear this name: Oktyabrsky, Aksaysky District, Rostov Oblast, a settlement in Shchepkinskoye Rural Settlement of Aksaysky District; Oktyabrsky, Krasnosulinsky District, Rostov Oblast, a settlement in Udarnikovskoye Rural Settlement of Krasnosulinsky District; Oktyabrsky, Millerovsky District, Rostov Oblast, a khutor in Pervomayskoye Rural Settlement of Millerovsky District; Oktyabrsky, Rodionovo-Nesvetaysky District, Rostov Oblast, a khutor in Kuteynikovskoye Rural Settlement of Rodionovo-Nesvetaysky District; Oktyabrsky, Verkhnedonskoy District, Rostov Oblast, a settlement in Meshkovskoye Rural Settlement of Verkhnedonskoy District; Oktyabrskoye, Rostov Oblast, a selo in Gulyay-Borisovskoye Rural Settlement of Zernogradsky District; Ryazan Oblast As of 2012, two inhabited localities in Ryazan Oblast bear this name: Urban localities Oktyabrsky, Ryazan Oblast, a work settlement in Mikhaylovsky District Rural localities Oktyabrskoye, Ryazan Oblast, a selo in Oktyabrsky Rural Okrug of Pronsky District Sakhalin Oblast As of 2012, one rural locality in Sakhalin Oblast bears this name: Oktyabrskoye, Sakhalin Oblast, a selo in Dolinsky District Samara Oblast As of 2012, two rural localities in Samara Oblast bear this name: Oktyabrsky, Pokhvistnevo, Samara Oblast, a settlement under the administrative jurisdiction of the town of oblast significance of Pokhvistnevo Oktyabrsky, Kinelsky District, Samara Oblast, a settlement in Kinelsky District Saratov Oblast As of 2012, seven rural localities in Saratov Oblast bear this name: Oktyabrsky, Arkadaksky District, Saratov Oblast, a settlement in Arkadaksky District Oktyabrsky, Balashovsky District, Saratov Oblast, a settlement in Balashovsky District Oktyabrsky, Dergachyovsky District, Saratov Oblast, a settlement in Dergachyovsky District Oktyabrsky, Krasnopartizansky District, Saratov Oblast, a settlement in Krasnopartizansky District Oktyabrsky, Lysogorsky District, Saratov Oblast, a settlement in Lysogorsky District Oktyabrsky, Perelyubsky District, Saratov Oblast, a settlement in Perelyubsky District Oktyabrsky, Yershovsky District, Saratov Oblast, a settlement in Yershovsky District Smolensk Oblast As of 2012, four rural localities in Smolensk Oblast bear this name: Oktyabrsky, Smolensk Oblast, a village in Yushkovskoye Rural Settlement of Vyazemsky District Oktyabrskoye, Khislavichsky District, Smolensk Oblast, a village in Kozhukhovichskoye Rural Settlement of Khislavichsky District Oktyabrskoye, Slobodskoye Rural Settlement, Monastyrshchinsky District, Smolensk Oblast, a selo in Slobodskoye Rural Settlement of Monastyrshchinsky District Oktyabrskoye, Tatarskoye Rural Settlement, Monastyrshchinsky District, Smolensk Oblast, a village in Tatarskoye Rural Settlement of Monastyrshchinsky District Stavropol Krai As of 2012, one rural locality in Stavropol Krai bears this name: Oktyabrskoye, Stavropol Krai, a selo in Oktyabrsky Selsoviet of Ipatovsky District Sverdlovsk Oblast As of 2012, eight rural localities in Sverdlovsk Oblast bear this name: Oktyabrsky, Beryozovsky, Sverdlovsk Oblast, a settlement under the administrative jurisdiction of the Town of Beryozovsky Oktyabrsky, Beloyarsky District, Sverdlovsk Oblast, a settlement in Kochnevsky Selsoviet of Beloyarsky District Oktyabrsky, Kamensky District, Sverdlovsk Oblast, a settlement in Sosnovsky Selsoviet of Kamensky District Oktyabrsky, Kamyshlovsky District, Sverdlovsk Oblast, a settlement in Oktyabrsky Selsoviet of Kamyshlovsky District Oktyabrsky, Nizhneserginsky District, Sverdlovsk Oblast, a settlement under the administrative jurisdiction of Bisert Work Settlement in Nizhneserginsky District Oktyabrsky, Sysertsky District, Sverdlovsk Oblast, a settlement in Oktyabrsky Selsoviet of Sysertsky District Oktyabrsky, Talitsky District, Sverdlovsk Oblast, a settlement in Chupinsky Selsoviet of Talitsky District Oktyabrskoye, Sverdlovsk Oblast, a selo in Cheremissky Selsoviet of Rezhevsky District Tambov Oblast As of 2012, one rural locality in Tambov Oblast bears this name: Oktyabrskoye, Tambov Oblast, a selo in Podlesny Selsoviet of Sosnovsky District Republic of Tatarstan As of 2012, two rural localities in the Republic of Tatarstan bear this name: Oktyabrsky, Verkhneuslonsky District, Republic of Tatarstan, a settlement in Verkhneuslonsky District Oktyabrsky, Zelenodolsky District, Republic of Tatarstan, a settlement in Zelenodolsky District Tomsk Oblast As of 2012, two rural localities in Tomsk Oblast bear this name: Oktyabrsky, Tomsk Oblast, a settlement in Alexandrovsky District Oktyabrskoye, Tomsk Oblast, a selo in Tomsky District Tula Oblast As of 2012, eight rural localities in Tula Oblast bear this name: Oktyabrsky, Arsenyevsky District, Tula Oblast, a settlement in Belokolodezsky Rural Okrug of Arsenyevsky District Oktyabrsky, Kireyevsky District, Tula Oblast, a settlement in Oktyabrsky Rural Okrug of Kireyevsky District Oktyabrsky, Leninsky District, Tula Oblast, a settlement in Oktyabrsky Rural Okrug of Leninsky District Oktyabrsky, Plavsky District, Tula Oblast, a settlement in Oktyabrsky Rural Okrug of Plavsky District Oktyabrsky, Shchyokinsky District, Tula Oblast, a settlement in Lomintsevskaya Rural Administration of Shchyokinsky District Oktyabrsky, Venyovsky District, Tula Oblast, a settlement in Belkovsky Rural Okrug of Venyovsky District Oktyabrsky, Kozminsky Rural Okrug, Yefremovsky District, Tula Oblast, a settlement in Kozminsky Rural Okrug of Yefremovsky District Oktyabrsky, Oktyabrsky Rural Okrug, Yefremovsky District, Tula Oblast, a settlement in Oktyabrsky Rural Okrug of Yefremovsky District Tver Oblast As of 2012, two rural localities in Tver Oblast bear this name: Oktyabrsky, Tver Oblast, a settlement in Solnechnoye Rural Settlement of Vyshnevolotsky District Oktyabrskoye, Tver Oblast, a village in Voroshilovskoye Rural Settlement of Penovsky District Tyumen Oblast As of 2012, five rural localities in Tyumen Oblast bear this name: Oktyabrsky, Aromashevsky District, Tyumen Oblast, a settlement in Aromashevsky Rural Okrug of Aromashevsky District Oktyabrsky, Ishimsky District, Tyumen Oblast, a settlement in Karasulsky Rural Okrug of Ishimsky District Oktyabrsky, Tobolsky District, Tyumen Oblast, a settlement in Verkhnearemzyansky Rural Okrug of Tobolsky District Oktyabrsky, Uporovsky District, Tyumen Oblast, a settlement in Yemurtlinsky Rural Okrug of Uporovsky District Oktyabrskaya, Tyumen Oblast, a village in Krasnoorlovsky Rural Okrug of Armizonsky District Udmurt Republic As of 2012, five rural localities in the Udmurt Republic bear this name: Oktyabrsky, Glazovsky District, Udmurt Republic, a selo in Oktyabrsky Selsoviet of Glazovsky District Oktyabrsky, Sarapulsky District, Udmurt Republic, a selo in Sarapulsky District Oktyabrsky, Vavozhsky District, Udmurt Republic, a village in Kakmozhsky Selsoviet of Vavozhsky District Oktyabrsky, Zavyalovsky District, Udmurt Republic, a selo in Oktyabrsky Selsoviet of Zavyalovsky District Oktyabrskaya, Udmurt Republic, a village in Mikhaylovsky Selsoviet of Kambarsky District Ulyanovsk Oblast As of 2012, three rural localities in Ulyanovsk Oblast bear this name: Oktyabrsky, Cherdaklinsky District, Ulyanovsk Oblast, a settlement in Oktyabrsky Rural Okrug of Cherdaklinsky District Oktyabrsky, Radishchevsky District, Ulyanovsk Oblast, a settlement in Oktyabrsky Rural Okrug of Radishchevsky District Oktyabrskoye, Ulyanovsk Oblast, a selo in Kholstovsky Rural Okrug of Pavlovsky District Vladimir Oblast As of 2012, two rural localities in Vladimir Oblast bear this name: Oktyabrsky, Vladimir Oblast, a settlement in Vyaznikovsky District Oktyabrskaya, Vladimir Oblast, a village in Vyaznikovsky District Volgograd Oblast As of 2012, three inhabited localities in Volgograd Oblast bear this name: Urban localities Oktyabrsky, Oktyabrsky District, Volgograd Oblast, a work settlement in Oktyabrsky District Rural localities Oktyabrsky, Kalachyovsky District, Volgograd Oblast, a settlement in Sovetsky Selsoviet of Kalachyovsky District Oktyabrsky, Olkhovsky District, Volgograd Oblast, a settlement in Oktyabrsky Selsoviet of Olkhovsky District Vologda Oblast As of 2012, three rural localities in Vologda Oblast bear this name: Oktyabrsky, Totemsky District, Vologda Oblast, a settlement in Matveyevsky Selsoviet of Totemsky District Oktyabrsky, Vashkinsky District, Vologda Oblast, a settlement in Ivanovsky Selsoviet of Vashkinsky District Oktyabrsky, Vytegorsky District, Vologda Oblast, a settlement in Saminsky Selsoviet of Vytegorsky District Voronezh Oblast As of 2012, four rural localities in Voronezh Oblast bear this name: Oktyabrsky, Ertilsky District, Voronezh Oblast, a settlement in Pervomayskoye Rural Settlement of Ertilsky District Oktyabrsky, Paninsky District, Voronezh Oblast, a settlement in Oktyabrskoye Rural Settlement of Paninsky District Oktyabrsky, Povorinsky District, Voronezh Oblast, a settlement in Dobrovolskoye Rural Settlement of Povorinsky District Oktyabrskoye, Voronezh Oblast, a selo in Oktyabrskoye Rural Settlement of Povorinsky District Yaroslavl Oblast As of 2012, one rural locality in Yaroslavl Oblast bears this name: Oktyabrsky, Yaroslavl Oblast, a settlement in Oktyabrsky Rural Okrug of Rybinsky District Zabaykalsky Krai As of 2012, one rural locality in Zabaykalsky Krai bears this name: Oktyabrsky, Zabaykalsky Krai, a settlement in Krasnokamensky District Abolished localities Oktyabrsky, Murmansk Oblast, an inhabited locality under the administrative jurisdiction of Kirovsk Town with Jurisdictional Territory in Murmansk Oblast; abolished in April 2013 Oktyabrsky, Sakha Republic, a selo in Oymyakonsky District of the Sakha Republic; abolished in August 2007 Oktyabrskaya, Irkutsk Oblast, a village in Ekhirit-Bulagatsky District; abolished in June 2015 Alternative names Oktyabrsky, alternative name of Krasnooktyabrsky, a settlement in Maykopsky District of the Republic of Adygea; Oktyabrsky, alternative name of Takhtamukay, an aul in Takhtamukaysky District of the Republic of Adygea; Oktyabrsky, alternative name of Oktyabrsk, a village in Alegazovsky Selsoviet of Mechetlinsky District in the Republic of Bashkortostan; Oktyabrsky, alternative name of Novoye Lidzhe, a selo in Araksky Selsoviet of Tabasaransky District in the Republic of Dagestan; Oktyabrsky, alternative name of Khosheut, a settlement in Khosheutovskaya Rural Administration of Oktyabrsky District in the Republic of Kalmykia; Oktyabrskoye, alternative name of Oktyabr, a selo under the administrative jurisdiction of Podosinovets Urban-Type Settlement in Podosinovsky District of Kirov Oblast; Oktyabrsky, alternative name of Popovka, a settlement in Karasuksky District of Novosibirsk Oblast; Oktyabrskoye, alternative name of Novomoshkovskoye, a selo in Moshkovsky District of Novosibirsk Oblast; Notes

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Smooth muscle is an involuntary non-striated muscle, so-called because it has no sarcomeres and therefore no striations. It is divided into two subgroups, single-unit and multiunit smooth muscle. Within single-unit muscle, the whole bundle or sheet of smooth muscle cells contracts as a syncytium. Smooth muscle is found in the walls of hollow organs, including the stomach, intestines, bladder and uterus; in the walls of passageways, such as blood, and lymph vessels, and in the tracts of the respiratory, urinary, and reproductive systems. In the eyes, the ciliary muscle, a type of smooth muscle, dilate and contract the iris and alter the shape of the lens. In the skin, smooth muscle cells such as those of the arrector pili cause hair to stand erect in response to cold temperature or fear. Structure Gross anatomy Most smooth muscle is of the single-unit variety, that is, either the whole muscle contracts or the whole muscle relaxes, but there is multiunit smooth muscle in the trachea, the large elastic arteries, and the iris of the eye. Single unit smooth muscle, however, is most common and lines blood vessels (except large elastic arteries), the urinary tract, and the digestive tract. However, the terms single- and multi-unit smooth muscle represents an oversimplification. This is due to the fact that smooth muscles for the most part are controlled and influenced by a combination of different neural elements. In addition, it has been observed that most of the time there will be some cell to cell communication and activators/ inhibitors produced locally. This leads to a somewhat coordinated response even in multiunit smooth muscle. Smooth muscle differs from skeletal muscle and cardiac muscle in terms of structure, function, regulation of contraction, and excitation-contraction coupling. However, smooth muscle tissue tends to demonstrate greater elasticity and function within a larger length-tension curve than striated muscle. This ability to stretch and still maintain contractility is important in organs like the intestines and urinary bladder. Smooth muscle in the gastrointestinal tract is activated by a composite of three types of cells – smooth muscle cells (SMCs), interstitial cells of Cajal (ICCs), and platelet-derived growth factor receptor alpha (PDGFRα) that are electrically coupled and work together as an SIP functional syncytium. Microanatomy Smooth muscle cells Smooth muscle cells known as myocytes, are spindle-shaped with a wide middle and tapering ends, and like striated muscle, can tense and relax. In the relaxed state, each cell is 30–200 micrometers in length. There are no myofibrils present but much of the cytoplasm is taken up by the proteins of myosin and actin which together have the capability to contract. Myosin Myosin is primarily class II in smooth muscle. Myosin II contains two heavy chains (MHC) which constitute the head and tail domains. Each of these heavy chains contains the N-terminal head domain, while the C-terminal tails take on a coiled-coil morphology, holding the two heavy chains together (imagine two snakes wrapped around each other, such as in a caduceus). Thus, myosin II has two heads. In smooth muscle, there is a single gene (MYH11) that codes for the heavy chains myosin II, but there are splice variants of this gene that result in four distinct isoforms. Also, smooth muscle may contain MHC that is not involved in contraction, and that can arise from multiple genes. Myosin II also contains 4 light chains (MLC), resulting in 2 per head, weighing 20 (MLC20) and 17 (MLC17) kDa. These bind the heavy chains in the "neck" region between the head and tail. The MLC20 is also known as the regulatory light chain and actively participates in muscle contraction. Two MLC20 isoforms are found in smooth muscle, and they are encoded by different genes, but only one isoform participates in contraction. The MLC17 is also known as the essential light chain. Its exact function is unclear, but it's believed that it contributes to the structural stability of the myosin head along with MLC20. Two variants of MLC17 (MLC17a/b) exist as a result of alternative splicing at the MLC17 gene. Different combinations of heavy and light chains allow for up to hundreds of different types of myosin structures, but it is unlikely that more than a few such combinations are actually used or permitted within a specific smooth muscle bed. In the uterus, a shift in myosin expression has been hypothesized to avail for changes in the directions of uterine contractions that are seen during the menstrual cycle. Actin The thin filaments that are part of the contractile machinery are predominantly composed of α- and γ-actin. Smooth muscle α-actin (alpha actin) is the predominant isoform within smooth muscle. There is also a lot of actin (mainly β-actin) that does not take part in contraction, but that polymerizes just below the plasma membrane in the presence of a contractile stimulant and may thereby assist in mechanical tension. Alpha actin is also expressed as distinct genetic isoforms such as smooth muscle, cardiac muscle and skeletal muscle specific isoforms of alpha actin. The ratio of actin to myosin is between 2:1 and 10:1 in smooth muscle. Conversely, from a mass ratio standpoint (as opposed to a molar ratio), myosin is the dominant protein in striated skeletal muscle with the actin to myosin ratio falling in the 1:2 to 1:3 range. A typical value for healthy young adults is 1:2.2. Other associated proteins Smooth muscle does not contain the protein troponin; instead calmodulin (which takes on the regulatory role in smooth muscle), caldesmon and calponin are significant proteins expressed within smooth muscle. Tropomyosin is present in smooth muscle, spanning seven actin monomers and is laid out end to end over the entire length of the thin filaments. In striated muscle, tropomyosin serves to block actin–myosin interactions until calcium is present, but in smooth muscle, its function is unknown. Calponin molecules may exist in equal number as actin, and has been proposed to be a load-bearing protein. Caldesmon has been suggested to be involved in tethering actin, myosin and tropomyosin, and thereby enhance the ability of smooth muscle to maintain tension. Also, all three of these proteins may have a role in inhibiting the ATPase activity of the myosin complex that otherwise provides energy to fuel muscle contraction. Dense bodies The actin filaments are attached to dense bodies. Dense bodies are rich in α-actinin, and also attach intermediate filaments (consisting largely of vimentin and desmin), and thereby appear to serve as anchors from which the thin filaments can exert force. Dense bodies also are associated with β-actin, which is the type found in the cytoskeleton, suggesting that dense bodies may coordinate tensions from both the contractile machinery and the cytoskeleton. Dense bodies appear darker under an electron microscope, and so they are sometimes described as electron dense. The intermediate filaments are connected to other intermediate filaments via dense bodies, which eventually are attached to adherens junctions (also called focal adhesions) in the cell membrane of the smooth muscle cell, called the sarcolemma. The adherens junctions consist of large number of proteins including α-actinin, vinculin and cytoskeletal actin. The adherens junctions are scattered around dense bands that are circumfering the smooth muscle cell in a rib-like pattern. The dense band (or dense plaques) areas alternate with regions of membrane containing numerous caveolae. When complexes of actin and myosin contract, force is transduced to the sarcolemma through intermediate filaments attaching to such dense bands. Contraction During contraction, there is a spatial reorganization of the contractile machinery to optimize force development. part of this reorganization consists of vimentin being phosphorylated at Ser56 by a p21 activated kinase, resulting in some disassembly of vimentin polymers. Also, the number of myosin filaments is dynamic between the relaxed and contracted state in some tissues as the ratio of actin to myosin changes, and the length and number of myosin filaments change. Isolated single smooth muscle cells have been observed contracting in a spiral corkscrew fashion, and isolated permeabilized smooth muscle cells adhered to glass (so contractile proteins allowed to internally contract) demonstrate zones of contractile protein interactions along the long axis as the cell contracts. Smooth muscle-containing tissue needs to be stretched often, so elasticity is an important attribute of smooth muscle. Smooth muscle cells may secrete a complex extracellular matrix containing collagen (predominantly types I and III), elastin, glycoproteins, and proteoglycans. Smooth muscle also has specific elastin and collagen receptors to interact with these proteins of the extracellular matrix. These fibers with their extracellular matrices contribute to the viscoelasticity of these tissues. For example, the great arteries are viscolelastic vessels that act like a Windkessel, propagating ventricular contraction and smoothing out the pulsatile flow, and the smooth muscle within the tunica media contributes to this property. Caveolae The sarcolemma also contains caveolae, which are microdomains of lipid rafts specialized to cell signaling events and ion channels. These invaginations in the sarcoplasm contain a host of receptors (prostacyclin, endothelin, serotonin, muscarinic receptors, adrenergic receptors), second messenger generators (adenylate cyclase, phospholipase C), G proteins (RhoA, G alpha), kinases (rho kinase-ROCK, protein kinase C, protein Kinase A), ion channels (L type calcium channels, ATP sensitive potassium channels, calcium sensitive potassium channels) in close proximity. The caveolae are often close to sarcoplasmic reticulum or mitochondria, and have been proposed to organize signaling molecules in the membrane. Excitation-contraction coupling A smooth muscle is excited by external stimuli, which causes contraction. Each step is further detailed below. Inducing stimuli and factors Smooth muscle may contract spontaneously (via ionic channel dynamics) or as in the gut special pacemakers cells interstitial cells of Cajal produce rhythmic contractions. Also, contraction, as well as relaxation, can be induced by a number of physiochemical agents (e.g., hormones, drugs, neurotransmitters – particularly from the autonomic nervous system). Smooth muscle in various regions of the vascular tree, the airway and lungs, kidneys and vagina is different in their expression of ionic channels, hormone receptors, cell-signaling pathways, and other proteins that determine function. External substances For instance, blood vessels in skin, gastrointestinal system, kidney and brain respond to norepinephrine and epinephrine (from sympathetic stimulation or the adrenal medulla) by producing vasoconstriction (this response is mediated through alpha-1 adrenergic receptors). However, blood vessels within skeletal muscle and cardiac muscle respond to these catecholamines producing vasodilation because they possess beta-adrenergic receptors. So there is a difference in the distribution of the various adrenergic receptors that explains the difference in why blood vessels from different areas respond to the same agent norepinephrine/epinephrine differently as well as differences due to varying amounts of these catecholamines that are released and sensitivities of various receptors to concentrations. Generally, arterial smooth muscle responds to carbon dioxide by producing vasodilation, and responds to oxygen by producing vasoconstriction. Pulmonary blood vessels within the lung are unique as they vasodilate to high oxygen tension and vasoconstrict when it falls. Bronchiole, smooth muscle that line the airways of the lung, respond to high carbon dioxide producing vasodilation and vasoconstrict when carbon dioxide is low. These responses to carbon dioxide and oxygen by pulmonary blood vessels and bronchiole airway smooth muscle aid in matching perfusion and ventilation within the lungs. Further different smooth muscle tissues display extremes of abundant to little sarcoplasmic reticulum so excitation-contraction coupling varies with its dependence on intracellular or extracellular calcium. Recent research indicates that sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) signaling is an important regulator of vascular smooth muscle contraction. When transmural pressure increases, sphingosine kinase 1 phosphorylates sphingosine to S1P, which binds to the S1P2 receptor in plasma membrane of cells. This leads to a transient increase in intracellular calcium, and activates Rac and Rhoa signaling pathways. Collectively, these serve to increase MLCK activity and decrease MLCP activity, promoting muscle contraction. This allows arterioles to increase resistance in response to increased blood pressure and thus maintain constant blood flow. The Rhoa and Rac portion of the signaling pathway provides a calcium-independent way to regulate resistance artery tone. Spread of impulse To maintain organ dimensions against force, cells are fastened to one another by adherens junctions. As a consequence, cells are mechanically coupled to one another such that contraction of one cell invokes some degree of contraction in an adjoining cell. Gap junctions couple adjacent cells chemically and electrically, facilitating the spread of chemicals (e.g., calcium) or action potentials between smooth muscle cells. Single unit smooth muscle displays numerous gap junctions and these tissues often organize into sheets or bundles which contract in bulk. Contraction Smooth muscle contraction is caused by the sliding of myosin and actin filaments (a sliding filament mechanism) over each other. The energy for this to happen is provided by the hydrolysis of ATP. Myosin functions as an ATPase utilizing ATP to produce a molecular conformational change of part of the myosin and produces movement. Movement of the filaments over each other happens when the globular heads protruding from myosin filaments attach and interact with actin filaments to form crossbridges. The myosin heads tilt and drag along the actin filament a small distance (10–12 nm). The heads then release the actin filament and then changes angle to relocate to another site on the actin filament a further distance (10–12 nm) away. They can then re-bind to the actin molecule and drag it along further. This process is called crossbridge cycling and is the same for all muscles (see muscle contraction). Unlike cardiac and skeletal muscle, smooth muscle does not contain the calcium-binding protein troponin. Contraction is initiated by a calcium-regulated phosphorylation of myosin, rather than a calcium-activated troponin system. Crossbridge cycling causes contraction of myosin and actin complexes, in turn causing increased tension along the entire chains of tensile structures, ultimately resulting in contraction of the entire smooth muscle tissue. Phasic or tonic Smooth muscle may contract phasically with rapid contraction and relaxation, or tonically with slow and sustained contraction. The reproductive, digestive, respiratory, and urinary tracts, skin, eye, and vasculature all contain this tonic muscle type. This type of smooth muscle can maintain force for prolonged time with only little energy utilization. There are differences in the myosin heavy and light chains that also correlate with these differences in contractile patterns and kinetics of contraction between tonic and phasic smooth muscle. Activation of myosin heads Crossbridge cycling cannot occur until the myosin heads have been activated to allow crossbridges to form. When the light chains are phosphorylated, they become active and will allow contraction to occur. The enzyme that phosphorylates the light chains is called myosin light-chain kinase (MLCK), also called MLC20 kinase. In order to control contraction, MLCK will work only when the muscle is stimulated to contract. Stimulation will increase the intracellular concentration of calcium ions. These bind to a molecule called calmodulin, and form a calcium-calmodulin complex. It is this complex that will bind to MLCK to activate it, allowing the chain of reactions for contraction to occur. Activation consists of phosphorylation of a serine on position 19 (Ser19) on the MLC20 light chain, which causes a conformational change that increases the angle in the neck domain of the myosin heavy chain, which corresponds to the part of the cross-bridge cycle where the myosin head is unattached to the actin filament and relocates to another site on it. After attachment of the myosin head to the actin filament, this serine phosphorylation also activates the ATPase activity of the myosin head region to provide the energy to fuel the subsequent contraction. Phosphorylation of a threonine on position 18 (Thr18) on MLC20 is also possible and may further increase the ATPase activity of the myosin complex. Sustained maintenance Phosphorylation of the MLC20 myosin light chains correlates well with the shortening velocity of smooth muscle. During this period there is a rapid burst of energy utilization as measured by oxygen consumption. Within a few minutes of initiation the calcium level markedly decrease, MLC20 myosin light chains phosphorylation decreases, and energy utilization decreases and the muscle can relax. Still, smooth muscle has the ability of sustained maintenance of force in this situation as well. This sustained phase has been attributed to certain myosin crossbridges, termed latch-bridges, that are cycling very slowly, notably slowing the progression to the cycle stage whereby dephosphorylated myosin detaches from the actin, thereby maintaining the force at low energy costs. This phenomenon is of great value especially for tonically active smooth muscle. Isolated preparations of vascular and visceral smooth muscle contract with depolarizing high potassium balanced saline generating a certain amount of contractile force. The same preparation stimulated in normal balanced saline with an agonist such as endothelin or serotonin will generate more contractile force. This increase in force is termed calcium sensitization. The myosin light chain phosphatase is inhibited to increase the gain or sensitivity of myosin light chain kinase to calcium. There are number of cell signalling pathways believed to regulate this decrease in myosin light chain phosphatase: a RhoA-Rock kinase pathway, a Protein kinase C-Protein kinase C potentiation inhibitor protein 17 (CPI-17) pathway, telokin, and a Zip kinase pathway. Further Rock kinase and Zip kinase have been implicated to directly phosphorylate the 20kd myosin light chains. Other contractile mechanisms Other cell signaling pathways and protein kinases (Protein kinase C, Rho kinase, Zip kinase, Focal adhesion kinases) have been implicated as well and actin polymerization dynamics plays a role in force maintenance. While myosin light chain phosphorylation correlates well with shortening velocity, other cell signaling pathways have been implicated in the development of force and maintenance of force. Notably the phosphorylation of specific tyrosine residues on the focal adhesion adapter protein-paxillin by specific tyrosine kinases has been demonstrated to be essential to force development and maintenance. For example, cyclic nucleotides can relax arterial smooth muscle without reductions in crossbridge phosphorylation, a process termed force suppression. This process is mediated by the phosphorylation of the small heat shock protein, hsp20, and may prevent phosphorylated myosin heads from interacting with actin. Relaxation The phosphorylation of the light chains by MLCK is countered by a myosin light-chain phosphatase, which dephosphorylates the MLC20 myosin light chains and thereby inhibits contraction. Other signaling pathways have also been implicated in the regulation actin and myosin dynamics. In general, the relaxation of smooth muscle is by cell-signaling pathways that increase the myosin phosphatase activity, decrease the intracellular calcium levels, hyperpolarize the smooth muscle, and/or regulate actin and myosin muscle can be mediated by the endothelium-derived relaxing factor-nitric oxide, endothelial derived hyperpolarizing factor (either an endogenous cannabinoid, cytochrome P450 metabolite, or hydrogen peroxide), or prostacyclin (PGI2). Nitric oxide and PGI2 stimulate soluble guanylate cyclase and membrane bound adenylate cyclase, respectively. The cyclic nucleotides (cGMP and cAMP) produced by these cyclases activate Protein Kinase G and Protein Kinase A and phosphorylate a number of proteins. The phosphorylation events lead to a decrease in intracellular calcium (inhibit L type Calcium channels, inhibits IP3 receptor channels, stimulates sarcoplasmic reticulum Calcium pump ATPase), a decrease in the 20kd myosin light chain phosphorylation by altering calcium sensitization and increasing myosin light chain phosphatase activity, a stimulation of calcium sensitive potassium channels which hyperpolarize the cell, and the phosphorylation of amino acid residue serine 16 on the small heat shock protein (hsp20)by Protein Kinases A and G. The phosphorylation of hsp20 appears to alter actin and focal adhesion dynamics and actin-myosin interaction, and recent evidence indicates that hsp20 binding to 14-3-3 protein is involved in this process. An alternative hypothesis is that phosphorylated Hsp20 may also alter the affinity of phosphorylated myosin with actin and inhibit contractility by interfering with crossbridge formation. The endothelium derived hyperpolarizing factor stimulates calcium sensitive potassium channels and/or ATP sensitive potassium channels and stimulate potassium efflux which hyperpolarizes the cell and produces relaxation. Invertebrate smooth muscle In invertebrate smooth muscle, contraction is initiated with the binding of calcium directly to myosin and then rapidly cycling cross-bridges, generating force. Similar to the mechanism of vertebrate smooth muscle, there is a low calcium and low energy utilization catch phase. This sustained phase or catch phase has been attributed to a catch protein that has similarities to myosin light-chain kinase and the elastic protein-titin called twitchin. Clams and other bivalve mollusks use this catch phase of smooth muscle to keep their shell closed for prolonged periods with little energy usage. Specific effects Although the structure and function is basically the same in smooth muscle cells in different organs, their specific effects or end-functions differ. The contractile function of vascular smooth muscle regulates the lumenal diameter of the small arteries-arterioles called resistance arteries, thereby contributing significantly to setting the level of blood pressure and blood flow to vascular beds. Smooth muscle contracts slowly and may maintain the contraction (tonically) for prolonged periods in blood vessels, bronchioles, and some sphincters. Activating arteriole smooth muscle can decrease the lumenal diameter 1/3 of resting so it drastically alters blood flow and resistance. Activation of aortic smooth muscle doesn't significantly alter the lumenal diameter but serves to increase the viscoelasticity of the vascular wall. In the digestive tract, smooth muscle contracts in a rhythmic peristaltic fashion, rhythmically forcing foodstuffs through the digestive tract as the result of phasic contraction. A non-contractile function is seen in specialized smooth muscle within the afferent arteriole of the juxtaglomerular apparatus, which secretes renin in response to osmotic and pressure changes, and also it is believed to secrete ATP in tubuloglomerular regulation of glomerular filtration rate. Renin in turn activates the renin–angiotensin system to regulate blood pressure. Growth and rearrangement The mechanism in which external factors stimulate growth and rearrangement is not yet fully understood. A number of growth factors and neurohumoral agents influence smooth muscle growth and differentiation. The Notch receptor and cell-signaling pathway have been demonstrated to be essential to vasculogenesis and the formation of arteries and veins. The proliferation is implicated in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis and is inhibited by nitric oxide. The embryological origin of smooth muscle is usually of mesodermal origin, after the creation of muscle cells in a process known as myogenesis. However, the smooth muscle within the Aorta and Pulmonary arteries (the Great Arteries of the heart) is derived from ectomesenchyme of neural crest origin, although coronary artery smooth muscle is of mesodermal origin. Related diseases Multisystemic smooth muscle dysfunction syndrome is a genetic condition in which the body of a developing embryo does not create enough smooth muscle for the gastrointestinal system. This condition is fatal. Anti-smooth muscle antibodies (ASMA) can be a symptom of an auto-immune disorder, such as hepatitis, cirrhosis, or lupus. Smooth muscle tumors are most commonly benign, and are then called leiomyomas. They can occur in any organ, but the usually occur in the uterus, small bowel, and esophagus. Malignant smooth muscle tumors are called leiomyosarcomas. Leiomyosarcomas are one of the more common types of soft-tissue sarcomas. Vascular smooth muscle tumors are very rare. They can be malignant or benign, and morbidity can be significant with either type. Intravascular leiomyomatosis is a benign neoplasm that extends through the veins; angioleiomyoma is a benign neoplasm of the extremities; vascular leiomyosarcomas is a malignant neoplasm that can be found in the inferior vena cava, pulmonary arteries and veins, and other peripheral vessels. See Atherosclerosis. See also Atromentin has been shown to be a smooth muscle stimulant. Skeletal muscle Cardiac muscle References External links BBC – baby born with smooth muscle condition has 8 organs transplanted Smooth muscle antibody Stomach smooth muscle identified using antibody "Smooth Muscle" Smooth muscle histology photomicrographs Where smooth muscle tissue is found in the body (medlineplus.gov) Muscular system Muscle tissue

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Adrian Belew (born Robert Steven Belew, December 23, 1949) is an American musician, songwriter and record producer. A multi-instrumentalist primarily known as a guitarist and singer, Belew is noted for his unusual and impressionistic approach to his guitar tones (which, rather than relying on standard instrumental tones, often resemble sound effects or noises made by animals and machines). Widely recognized as an "incredibly versatile player", Belew is perhaps best known for his long career as singer and guitarist in the progressive rock group King Crimson between 1981 and 2009. He has also released nearly twenty solo albums for Island Records and Atlantic Records in a range of blended or alternated styles including art rock, New Wave, Beatles-inspired pop-rock, progressive rock and experimental noise. In addition, Belew has been a member of the intermittently-active pop band the Bears, and fronted GaGa in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Belew has worked extensively as a session, guest and touring musician, including periods with the Frank Zappa and David Bowie bands, Talking Heads, Laurie Anderson, and Nine Inch Nails, as well as contributing to hit singles by Paul Simon, Tom Tom Club, and others. He scored a Top 10 hit single of his own in 1989 with "Oh Daddy," and his 2005 single "Beat Box Guitar" was nominated for a Grammy in the Best Rock Instrumental Performance category. Belew has also worked in instrument design and multimedia, collaborating with Parker Guitars to help design his own Parker Fly signature guitar, and designing his own iOS mobile apps, "FLUX by belew" and "FLUX:FX, the multi-effect audio processor app." Biography Early life and musical development Robert Steven Belew was born in Covington, Kentucky, to a middle-class family. Initially known to friends and classmates as "Steve Belew", he played drums in his teen years (playing with the Ludlow High School marching band) and later with the high-school cover band The Denems. Inspired by Jimi Hendrix, he took up guitar when he was bedridden for several months with mononucleosis. At the age of seventeen, he was further inspired by a club performance of blues-rock guitar soloing pioneer Lonnie Mack, who became a lifelong personal friend. Not inclined to formal music study, Belew was nonetheless a quick developer and rapidly became a high-school guitar hero. Mostly teaching himself by listening to records, he was ignorant of the studio trickery and sound manipulation used to create particular guitar lines, and so found ways of replicating them himself manually using unusual playing techniques and a growing interest in effects and treatments. While maturing as a player and mastering various playing styles, Belew became increasingly preoccupied with ways to avoid "sounding like everybody else". He eventually found his own sound and style by learning how to make his guitar mimic sound effects such as car horns, animal noises, or industrial sounds and then applying those sounds to relatively standard songs. In the mid-1970s (and having now formally changed his first name to "Adrian", a name he had always liked and wanted to use), Belew moved to Nashville, Tennessee, to pursue a full-time career as a professional musician. By 1977, he was playing with the regionally popular cover band Sweetheart, but wondering whether (at age 27) he had missed his chance to make a living with original music. Work with Frank Zappa (1977–1978) In 1977, while playing at a Sweetheart gig at Fanny's Bar in Nashville, Belew was discovered by Frank Zappa, who had been tipped off regarding the band's talents by his chauffeur. Zappa approached Belew and discussed auditioning him for an upcoming tour, although Belew did not receive an official invitation to audition for the better part of a year. During this time Sweetheart split up. Once the formal invitation came, Belew flew out to Los Angeles and found himself auditioning alongside more formally trained musicians. Believing that he'd messed up his first audition, Belew persuaded Zappa to give him a second one. Belew's second audition was a more intimate one-on-one experience which took place in Zappa's living room. Zappa was impressed enough to hire Belew on a handshake deal for a year. Belew toured with the Zappa band and appeared on Zappa's 1979 album Sheik Yerbouti, most notably performing a Bob Dylan impersonation on the song "Flakes." He also appeared in Zappa's 1979 concert film, Baby Snakes, a document of the October 1977 Halloween week shows at New York City's Palladium. While with Zappa, Belew was mostly credited as a rhythm guitarist although he also played lead, melody, or noise lines, as well as singing lead on two songs ("Jones Crusher" and "City of Tiny Lites"). Belew has described his year in Zappa's band as a "crash course" in music theory due to Zappa's rigorous rehearsals and often technically demanding music, and has commented, "I went to the Frank Zappa School of Rock." Work with David Bowie (1978–1979) On the recommendation of musician/producer Brian Eno, after seeing a Zappa concert in Cologne, Germany, David Bowie offered to hire Belew once the Zappa tour was finished. Belew accepted the offer, as Zappa intended to spend four months editing the film Baby Snakes. Belew then played on Bowie's Isolar II Tour in 1978; he played on the double-live album Stage, and also contributed to Bowie's next album, Lodger. Twelve years later, he returned to working with Bowie, acting as musical director on the 1990 Sound+Vision Tour, while also playing guitar and singing. Talking Heads, GaGa and The Tom Tom Club (1979–1982) In 1980, Belew formed a new band, GaGa (based in his then-current hometown of Urbana, Illinois), for which he served as the singer, guitarist and primary songwriter (as well as, via backing tapes, the drummer). By now a frequent visitor to New York City, Belew had also become friends with the up-and-coming new wave/art-rock band Talking Heads. Invited to join the band onstage for performances of their signature song "Psycho Killer," Belew impressed them with his wild and unorthodox guitar soloing and became an occasional guest performer at live concerts. Around this time, Belew also met King Crimson guitarist Robert Fripp at a Steve Reich concert. In July of that year, GaGa was invited to open several New York-area concerts for Fripp's band, the League of Gentlemen. At the same time, Belew had been tapped by Talking Heads and their producer Brian Eno (with whom he'd worked on Lodger) to add guitar solos to several tracks on the Remain in Light album. He was subsequently added to the expanded nine-piece Talking Heads live band for tours in late 1980 and early 1981. These concerts were documented in the DVD Live in Roma and in the second half of the band's 1982 live album, The Name of This Band is Talking Heads. Belew's involvement with Talking Heads extended to playing on the band's spin-off projects. He played on keyboard player/guitarist Jerry Harrison's debut album, The Red and the Black, and on several tracks on David Byrne's soundtrack to the Twyla Tharp dance piece, The Catherine Wheel (with his guitar noises credited, amongst other things, as "beasts"). At the time, the internal relationships in Talking Heads were particularly strained. The band's married rhythm section, Tina Weymouth and Chris Frantz, allegedly approached Belew with the suggestion that he should replace Byrne as the band's frontman, an offer which Belew immediately but politely turned down. (In his book "Remain in Love", Frantz denied that this offer was ever made.) Belew did, however, go on to work with Weymouth and Frantz on their own spin-off project, Tom Tom Club. Joining them for recordings at Compass Point Studios in Nassau, Bahamas, Belew played rhythm guitar on the sessions for the band's debut album, as well as adding his trademark processed solos (and even performing the entire instrumentation for the track "L'Elephant"). Unfortunately, Belew's experience with Tom Tom Club was less harmonious than his previous work with Talking Heads. Tom Tom Club's recording engineer, Steven Stanley, was vocal about his dislike of distorted guitar and erased the majority of Belew's solos during the mixing sessions. Worse was to follow when Belew queried Weymouth about songwriting credits, having co-written several of the album's songs in addition to his playing. He was apparently "ghosted", with Weymouth no longer returning his phone calls. Belew did not play live with Tom Tom Club or contribute to any further sessions. Recalling the situation when interviewed twenty years later, he claimed that he had opted to pursue other work rather than involve himself in legal or personal struggles with Weymouth and Frantz, and that he had chosen not to let it bother him, as several other, more promising projects were happening for him at the same time. Beginning of solo career (1981) By now Belew's rising profile had gained him a solo record contract with Island Records. During the recording of the debut Tom Tom Club album, members of GaGa had joined Belew at Compass Point and backed him on a set of parallel sessions which would result in Belew's first solo album, 1982's Lone Rhino. The album provided a home for various GaGa songs and blended various elements of Belew's work over the past decade, including snappy and noisy Zappa/Byrne-influenced songs, dabblings in world music, opportunities for animal/mechanical sounds on guitar, and sonic experiments reminiscent of Jimi Hendrix or The Beatles. It also included an instrumental duet between Belew and his four-year-old daughter Audie (the latter improvising on acoustic piano, with Belew adding a processed guitar counterpoint). King Crimson (1981–2013) Adrian Belew was the singer, second guitarist and frontman (as well as occasional drummer) for King Crimson from 1981 to 2009, one of the longest tenures in King Crimson by anyone other than founder Robert Fripp. He maintained this position despite several splits or hiatuses in group activity, and notwithstanding a brief period in the early 1990s when Fripp unsuccessfully invited singer David Sylvian to front a possible new version of the band. Belew's involvement with the band began while he was still involved with Talking Heads. Having been impressed by Belew's work with GaGa and David Bowie, Fripp asked Belew to join his new four-piece band (at that time called Discipline) as singer and second guitarist. At the time, Belew was busy not just with Talking Heads but also with the imminent Tom Tom Club sessions and the recording of his debut solo album. However, he realized that Talking Heads' internal politics would eventually either sideline or obstruct him (coupled with the fact that the band looked as if it would be on hiatus for a while). Belew opted to uncouple himself from Talking Heads and join Fripp, with whom he would have more opportunities to develop and express himself. One of his conditions for joining the new band was that he would be allowed time to continue and develop his new solo career, to which Fripp agreed. The Discipline lineup was completed by the former King Crimson drummer Bill Bruford and the New York session ace Tony Levin on bass guitar and Chapman Stick. During initial touring, the members of the band discussed the possibility of renaming themselves King Crimson. This had not been the original intention for the band, but all members generally agreed that this would be both appropriate and useful. This made Belew the first guitarist to formally play alongside Fripp within King Crimson on an equal footing (although both Ian McDonald and John Wetton had occasionally contributed extra guitar to previous King Crimson recordings). He was also the first King Crimson singer to write all of his own lyrics. The renamed band released and toured the well-received Discipline album later in 1981, bringing Belew further acclaim. The follow-up, 1982's Beat, proved harder to record. Finding himself responsible for the bulk of the band's songwriting and dealing with the extra pressures of being the frontman in a high-level group, Belew squabbled with Fripp over the group's approach and sound. Disagreements were mostly resolved and the band continued to find success as a live act. However, 1984's Three of a Perfect Pair proved tortuous to write, and although King Crimson eventually created another successful album (including some Belew experiments with fretless guitar), Fripp opted to split the band in 1984. The live album Absent Lovers: Live in Montreal (originally a radio broadcast, released as an album in 1998) captured the band in full force on their last gig. Despite the disagreements of the time, the members of the 1981–1984 King Crimson maintained enough camaraderie and mutual respect to reunite in 1994 (adding second drummer Pat Mastellotto and Warr guitarist Trey Gunn) with Belew continuing as the band's singer, guitarist, and frontman. The six-piece King Crimson toured successfully and were together until 1997, releasing the THRAK album and several live recordings. From 1997 onward, Belew participated in several of the ProjeKcts, a series of instrumental and experimental King Crimson side projects active during the band's hiatuses, in which he predominantly played electronic drums. Belew was a member of the slimmed-down quartet version of King Crimson (minus Bruford and Levin) which played and recorded between 2000 and 2004, releasing the construKction of light and The Power to Believe (in addition to several live albums and EPs), as well as touring as an opening act for Tool in 2001. After a further four-year hiatus, the band returned to active work in 2008 as a five-piece (with the addition of Porcupine Tree drummer Gavin Harrison, and Levin returning to replace Gunn). From 2000 through 2008, King Crimson used Belew's studio at his home outside Mount Juliet, Tennessee, for rehearsals and recording. In September 2013, following yet another four-year band hiatus, Fripp announced the formation of a new seven-piece King Crimson which did not include Belew. Belew stated on his Facebook page that Fripp had told him that he "would not be right" for what Fripp had in mind for the new version of the band. Solo career, part two (1983–1986) Following the release of his first solo album Lone Rhino in 1982, Belew recorded a 1983 follow-up called Twang Bar King, which once again featured GaGa as backing band (now augmented by former Elvis Presley drummer Larrie Londin). His next solo album was recorded in 1986, and was an experimental all-instrumental album of processed guitar, guitar synthesizer, and percussion called Desire Caught By the Tail. Belew has subsequently claimed that the record cost him his contract with Island Records due to its highly uncommercial nature. From 1986 to 1989, Belew's solo career was on hold while he concentrated on The Bears. The Bears (1985–1989, 1997–present) Following King Crimson's breakup/entry into hiatus in 1984, Belew formed the pop band The Bears with fellow guitarist and singer Rob Fetters, drummer Chris Arduser, and bass guitarist Bob Nyswonger. All three were close friends of Belew whom he'd met during his Sweetheart days in the mid-1970s, and were also ex-members of The Raisins, a Cincinnati-based band that had some local success in the early 1980s and had an album produced by Belew. As a band, The Bears was a conscious attempt to create a more unified and collective group, with Belew and Fetters sharing lead vocal duties. Although Belew's guitar skills were still in evidence, they took second place to the band's commitment to songs. Signing to the I.R.S. Records subsidiary Primitive Man Recording Company, The Bears recorded and released two albums, 1987's The Bears, and 1988's Rise and Shine. After three years of constant recording, promotion, and touring, the band broke up in 1989 following the collapse of PMRC. The success of Belew's solo hit single "Oh Daddy" led to him touring with David Bowie. The remaining three Bears regrouped as psychodots. All four musicians remained friends, stayed in contact with each other, and continued to help each other. Arduser drummed on Belew's 1992 solo album, Inner Revolution (with Fetters joining the 1992 touring band). On the tour supporting Belew's Here album in 1994, psychodots played as both the opening act and as Belew's backing band. Belew would also co-write two songs on Rob Fetters' Lefty Loose - Righty Tight album in 1998. Since 1997, The Bears have regularly reunited in the studio for intermittent recording sessions. This has resulted in two further albums to date, 2001's Car Caught Fire, and 2007's Eureka. The band perform short tours to promote the releases and continue to work together around the varied schedules of all four members. Solo career, part three (1989–present) Belew revived his solo career with 1989's Mr. Music Head, on which he played virtually all the instruments (with the exception of double bass). The album was split between relatively straightforward pop and more experimental songs, with a strong emphasis on Belew's signature electric tones, plus plenty of percussion and an unusual approach to acoustic production. Mr. Music Head also generated a hit single (No. 5 on the US Modern Rock chart) in the shape of "Oh Daddy," on which Belew duetted with his 11-year-old daughter Audie. In 1990, Belew produced a similar follow-up with Young Lions. This featured a number of cover versions, plus two guest appearances by his past and current employer David Bowie, who'd hired Belew as musical director for his then-current Sound+Vision Tour. The album generated another US Modern rock chart hit (No. 2) with the Belew-and-Bowie duet "Pretty Pink Rose," and a minor hit on the same chart with the subsequent single, "Men In Helicopters" (No. 17). The following year, Belew released Desire of the Rhino King, a compilation of digitally remastered material from his first three (now out-of-print) albums. The next phase in Belew's career saw him pursuing a more traditional singing and songwriting style (albeit with his trademark unusual guitar tones), which owed a lot to his old heroes The Beatles. 1992's Inner Revolution, and 1994's Here (as well as 1993's self-explanatory and back-catalogue-revisiting The Acoustic Adrian Belew) were all heavily song-oriented and accessible, but sold less than Belew expected. 1996's Op Zop Too Wah blended Belew's solid songwriting approach with more avant-garde instrumental coloration. In parallel to Belew's work with a revived King Crimson, he released the first in a proposed Experimental Guitar Series, The Guitar as Orchestra: Experimental Guitar Series, Vol. 1, in 1997. A return to the all-instrumental avant-garde territories of Desire Caught by the Tail, this was an album of atonal contemporary classical music entirely realized on MIDI guitar using digital models of orchestral instruments. Belew has mentioned plans for releasing more records in the Experimental Guitar series, including one called The Animal Kingdom, but to date, no more have been released (probably due to the modest sales of the first volume). Belew's subsequent releases were two more acoustic albums, 1998's Belew Prints: The Acoustic Adrian Belew, Vol. 2, and the 1999 Salad Days compilation, as well as the Coming Attractions album of works-in-progress. In 2004, he collaborated on a spoken-word-and-instrumentation album with Kevin Max, called Raven Songs 101. Between 2005 and 2007, Belew released the Side series of albums: 2005's Side One and Side Two, 2006's Side Three, and 2007's Side Four, with a variety of guest performers, including Tool's Danny Carey and Primus' Les Claypool. In April and May 2006, Adrian toured Australia with local musicians John Prior from Matt Finish playing drums, and Al Slavik playing bass guitar and Stick (as well as singing backing vocals). In August 2006, he performed in Atlanta, Georgia, on The Acoustic Planet Tour with Bela Fleck & The Flecktones and Umphrey's McGee. Later in 2006, Belew formed a new long-term trio, which his fans rapidly christened "The Adrian Belew Power Trio", featuring former Paul Green School of Rock students Eric Slick on drums and Julie Slick on bass. This band featured on the 2007 live recording Side Four and the 2009 download-only Live Overseas. In 2008, Belew played at the Adelaide Guitar Festival. In June 2009, the Adrian Belew Power Trio released an all-new studio record titled simply e., featuring a five-part long-form Belew instrumental composition. During the same month, Belew released A Cup of Coffee and a Slice of Time, an album credited to "Clay & Belew." This was an album of improvised classical-based interpretations of Belew songs (both solo and from King Crimson) mostly performed by pianist Michael Clay, with additional guitar, cello, and music concrete contributions from Belew. On February 25, 2013, Trent Reznor of the band Nine Inch Nails named Belew the new Nine Inch Nails touring guitarist. Belew was going to perform with the band on a new Nine Inch Nails tour from the summer of 2013 into 2014. On June 7, 2013, Belew posted an update on Facebook stating that "it didn't work." Despite this, Belew was credited as a session musician on the 2013 Nine Inch Nails album Hesitation Marks. On January 16, 2019, Belew announced an expansion of his "Power Trio" to a quartet and 2019 tour. Band members are Jordan Perlson on drums, Saul Zonana on keyboards, guitar, and vocals, and bassist Julie Slick. FLUX apps Most recently, Belew has moved into working with mobile app platforms via his self-designed iOS apps FLUX:FX - the professional audio multi-effects app and FLUX by belew™, which contain over three hundred audio tracks and pieces of artwork that he describes as "never playing the same twice." FLUX:FX is a real-time audio manipulation app for the iPad that he said "lets me make sounds that I can't get with any other gear." Both apps have gathered significant industry recognition, including being honored twice in the 2015 Webby Awards and receiving a 'best of the best' at the 2015 Red Dot Design Awards. Musical style Although he has frequently worked as a lead singer, Belew is best known as a guitar player with a highly unusual but accessible playing style (featuring bizarre electronic tones, unorthodox playing techniques, and a wide variety of sonic effects, including guitar-based impressions of animals, birds, insects, vehicles, and mechanical noise). Among his best-known guitar playing is the riff to Tom Tom Club's "Genius of Love," the overdriven solos on Talking Heads' "The Great Curve," the wild whammy-bar melodies on his own Top 10 hit "Oh Daddy," and the careening elephant impressions on King Crimson's "Elephant Talk." Part of Belew's sound creation involves physical techniques including tapping, pick scrapes, bending the neck, unorthodox use of the guitar slide, and occasional employment of objects (such as files) to attack the strings. In his riffs, he generally includes fret intonation work, and is even known to produce sounds from off the fret board, including the stringed portion of the nut and bridge. He is widely considered to be a master of the tremolo arm (whammy bar), something which he humorously referred to in his song "Twang Bar King" (which itself features a whammy-bar solo). Belew uses a wide variety of heavily synthesized and electronically altered guitar tones. Over the years he has become known for playing various guitars processed through an immense array of electronic effects devices ("I'm surrounded by guitar pedals, though. I can't step out the ring I'm surrounded in without stepping on a pedal," he told Adelaide.now in 2008.) He has also stated that he composes specifically for certain amps and effects. Lamenting the demise of one specific amplifier made by now-defunct Johnson Amplification, he said, "I wrote specific sounds and types of looping and things that I just can't seem to make other amps do." While he has used many brands of effects pedals, Electro Harmonix was one of his mainstays. Belew is a pioneer of guitar synthesizers, having been one of the first players to bring them to, and consistently use them in, popular music. In the late 1970s and early 1980s, he was a user of the Roland GR300 (alongside Andy Summers, Pat Metheny, and Robert Fripp). In the late 1980s and the 1990s, he used the Roland GR1. He now favors the Line 6 Variax digital modelling system. In the early 1980s, Belew was notable for owning and using a rare Roland GR505 fretless guitar synthesizer. Belew's first guitar was a Gibson Firebird that he bought for $170. Belew now has a signature Parker Fly guitar, the company's first. Belew has also been seen playing an extraordinarily flexible rubber-neck guitar in the Laurie Anderson film Home Of The Brave and in the video for his 1989 single "Oh Daddy." In 2007, he revealed that the guitar's neck was rubber containing "metal vertebrae" and that it was solely a visual (and unplayable) prop. As a singer, Belew is noted for the distinct, nasal, sometimes manic feel of his vocals. His singing voice is often compared to that of Talking Heads' David Byrne, with whom Belew worked between 1979 and 1981. In addition to his singing and guitar playing talents, Belew is an accomplished drummer and percussionist, and also plays bass guitar, upright bass, keyboards, and cello. Belew has cited Jimi Hendrix, The Beatles, Jeff Beck, Igor Stravinsky, and George Gershwin as particular influences. He has also cited Spike Jones as an influence for the goofy and absurdist humor that occasionally appears in his lyrics. Equipment setup In 2010, Guitar Geek interviewed Belew's guitar technician André Cholmondeley, creating a list and diagram of Belew's guitar setup at the time. An instructional video from 1984 shows he also used an A/DA Flanger, an Electro-Harmonix Octave Multiplexer, an Electro-Harmonix 16 Second Digital Delay, an Electro-Harmonix Frequency Analyzer, two Foxx Tone Machine Fuzzes, a Boss DM-2 Delay, an Electro-Harmonix Micro Synthesizer, an MXR Dyna Comp, a Pitch-Voltage Synthesizer, 3 Boss Volume Pedals, two MXR 10 band graphic equalizers, a Roland GR-300 Guitar Synthesizer, a Boss pedal switcher, an Electro-Harmonix Big Muff, an Electro-Harmonix Foot Controller, a tape loop machine, and an Electro-Harmonix Stereo Polychorus. Belew is always adjusting his live setup, and according to audio engineer Daniel Rowland, he uses an Axe-FX II, Liquid Foot 12+ controller, Roland VG-99, Kemper profiling amp, a Keeley Compressor pedal, Ableton Live (running on an Apple Macbook), Soundblox Multi-wave distortion, DigiTech HarmonyMan, iConnectMidi 4+, MOTU Ultralite 3 hybrid, Keith Mcmillen Instruments Softstep 2, and his own NOIISE FLUX:FX iPad app through the Bose L1 and Atomic monitoring wedges. This was the rig seen by fans on his 2019 tour. Legacy Many artists have expressed their admiration for Belew or have cited him as an influence, including Adam Jones of Tool, Steven Wilson, Henry Rollins, St. Vincent, Anneke van Giersbergen of The Gathering, Garry Roberts of The Boomtown Rats, William Rees of Mystery Jets, Nick Reinhart of Tera Melos, Josh Christian of Toxik, and Sean Worrell of Nero di Marte. In a 1994 interview with Guitar Player magazine, Trent Reznor described Adrian Belew as "the most awesome musician in the world." Session credits and other work Belew is well regarded for his contributions, particularly on guitar, to various other artists' recordings. In the 1980s, following his work with Talking Heads, he became an in-demand session player. Among the albums he contributed to during this period were Ryuichi Sakamoto's Left-handed Dream in 1981, Joan Armatrading's The Key in 1983, Peter Wolf's Lights Out and Jean Michel Jarre's Zoolook (both in 1984), Cyndi Lauper's True Colors and Paul Simon's Graceland (both in 1986), and Mike Oldfield's Earth Moving in 1989. During the mid-1980s, he frequently worked with Laurie Anderson, appearing on 1983's Mister Heartbreak album and her subsequent concert film, Home of the Brave (in which, among other things, he mimed playing on a specially constructed rubber-neck guitar and wore a paper bag over his head). In his 1984 instructional video Electronic Guitar, Belew explained and demonstrated the technology and techniques used to create some of his signature music. In 1993, Belew played "synthesized guitar" on the song "God Shuffled His Feet" by Crash Test Dummies and also contributed to Sara Hickman's Necessary Angels album. In 1994, he first established himself as Trent Reznor's guest guitarist of choice, contributing to four Nine Inch Nails albums over the next nineteen years (The Downward Spiral, The Fragile, Ghosts I-IV, and Hesitation Marks). He worked again with Laurie Anderson on her 1994 album, Bright Red. During the 2000s, Belew was prominently featured on Tori Amos's 2001 album of cover versions, Strange Little Girls, and played on William Shatner's second musical album, Has Been, in 2004. In 2005, he featured as "primary guitarist" on the album Habitat by progressive rock band Man on Fire and contributed two solos to Porcupine Tree's album Deadwing. In 2006 and 2007, Belew contributed to two Pink Floyd tribute albums produced by Billy Sherwood: Back Against The Wall, and Return to the Dark Side of the Moon. In 2016, Belew scored the Pixar short film Piper, which was shown before Finding Dory in theaters. He also featured on the album The News by Italian progressive/eclectic rock band N.y.X. Belew as producer In 1983, Belew produced the eponymous debut album for The Raisins. In 1985, he produced The Elvis Brothers's second album, Adventure Time. During the 1990s, he began making more of a name for himself as a producer, most notably producing two tracks on Jars of Clay's debut album in 1995 (including the crossover Christian hit "Flood"), but also producing The Irresponsibles' 1999 album, When Pigs Fly. Belew has also produced and played on albums by three Mexican rock bands: Caifanes's 1992 album, El silencio; Santa Sabina's 1994 album, Símbolos, and Jaguares' 2005 album, Cronicas de un Laberinto. Belew was credited as co-producer and musician on Kevin Max's 2001 album, Stereotype Be. Belew as instrument designer Belew has also worked in instrument design, collaborating with Parker Guitars to help design his own Parker Fly signature guitar. This guitar is noticeably different from the standard design, containing advanced electronics, such as a sustainer pickup and a Line 6 Variax guitar modelling system. It is also MIDI-capable, allowing it to be used with any synthesizer with MIDI connectivity. Appearances in other media Belew has appeared in a series of Japanese advertisements promoting the chemical and electronics company Daikin in which he emulated animal noises with his guitar and appeared as the conductor, conducting a symphony in which all the members were versions of himself playing guitar. Discography Studio albums Lone Rhino (1982) Twang Bar King (1983) Desire Caught By the Tail (1986) Mr. Music Head (1989) Young Lions (1990) Inner Revolution (1992) The Acoustic Adrian Belew (1993) Here (1994) The Experimental Guitar Series Volume 1: The Guitar as Orchestra (1995) Op Zop Too Wah (1996) Belew Prints: The Acoustic Adrian Belew, Vol. 2 (1998) Salad Days (1999) Side One (2004) Side Two (2005) Side Three (2006) e (2009) Pop-Sided (2019) Elevator (2021) Live albums Side Four (2007) Live Overseas (2009) Compilations Desire of the Rhino King (1991) - compilation derived from first three albums Coming Attractions (2000) Idiom' on Classwar Karaoke 0031 Survey (2015) Other releases with Kevin Max: Raven Songs 101 (2004) as Clay & Belew: A Cup Of Coffee And A Slice of Time (2009) with The New Czars: Doomsday Revolution (2010) via iOS application: "FLUX by belew" (2014) FLUX by belew. Volume One (2016) FLUX by belew. Volume Two (2017) Contributions (selection) with Frank Zappa 1979: Sheik Yerbouti ("Flakes", "Jones Crusher", "City of Tiny Lites") 1983: Baby Snakes Soundtrack 1992: You Can't Do That on Stage Anymore, Vol. 6 [2CD] ("The Poodle Lecture", "Is That Guy Kidding Or What?", "White Person", "Tryin' To Grow A Chin") 2008: One Shot Deal ("Heidelberg", recorded Feb. 24, 1978) 2010: Hammersmith Odeon (recorded Jan-Feb 1978) [3CD] with David Bowie 1978: Stage (recorded Apr-May 1978) [2CD] 1979: Lodger ("Fantastic Voyage", "Move On", "Red Sails", "DJ", "Boys Keep Swinging", "Repetition", "Red Money") with Talking Heads & David Byrne 1980: Remain in Light 1981: The Catherine Wheel 1982: The Name of This Band Is Talking Heads with King Crimson 1981: Discipline 1982: Beat 1984: Three of a Perfect Pair 1994: Vrooom EP 1995: Thrak 1996: Thrakattak 2000: the construKction of light 2001: Vrooom Vrooom 2003: The Power to Believe with Herbie Hancock 1981: Magic Windows with Tom Tom Club 1981: Tom Tom Club with Ryuichi Sakamoto 1981: Left-Handed Dream 1990: The Arrangement 1994: Soundbytes with Joe Cocker 1982: Sheffield Steel with Jean Michel Jarre 1984: Zoolook with Laurie Anderson 1984: Mister Heartbreak 1986: Home of the Brave (soundtrack) 1994: Bright Red with Cyndi Lauper 1986: True Colors with Paul Simon 1986: Graceland 1990: The Rhythm of the Saints with The Bears 1987: The Bears 1988: Rise and Shine 2001: Car Caught Fire 2007: Eureka! with Mike Oldfield 1989: Earth Moving with Nine Inch Nails 1994: The Downward Spiral 1999: The Fragile 2008: Ghosts I-IV 2013: Hesitation Marks with Sara Hickman 1998 Two Kinds of Laughter with Béla Fleck & the Flecktones 2000: Outbound with William Shatner 2004: Has Been with Porcupine Tree 2005: Deadwing with Tony Levin 2006: Resonator with N.y.X 2016: The News with Gizmodrome 2017: Gizmodrome Singles References Further reading External links Adrian Belew Interview NAMM Oral History Library (2015) 1949 births American rock guitarists American male guitarists American session musicians Avant-garde guitarists Discipline Global Mobile artists Island Records artists Atlantic Records artists Caroline Records artists King Crimson members Lead guitarists Living people Progressive rock guitarists Rock musicians from Kentucky Nine Inch Nails members People from Covington, Kentucky Tom Tom Club members Songwriters from Kentucky Singers from Kentucky Guitarists from Kentucky 20th-century American guitarists Gizmodrome members

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The American state of New Jersey is located in the Northeastern and Mid-Atlantic region. Official symbols New Jersey does not have a state song. The square dance is "the American Folk Dance of the State of New Jersey". Indigenous music The Lenape people were the original inhabitants of present-day New Jersey and surrounding areas to the north, south, and west. Social tribal songs were often named after things such as animals, other tribes or groups, and even food. These songs were performed in groups and were usually not long. However, the performances and dancing would linger. A significant amount of this part of Lenape culture was lost as Dutch and later British settlers moved into the region and pushed the Lenape west. Eventually the U.S. Government resettled the majority of the Lenape in Oklahoma. The Ramapough Mountain Indians and the Nanticoke Lenni-Lenape are Lenape descendants that are recognized as tribes by the State of New Jersey, but not the U.S. Government. The Powhatan Renape Nation are descendants of the Powhatan people of Virginia. A group of the Powhatan migrated to present day southern New Jersey and are recognized as a tribe by the New Jersey, but not Federal, government. Classical and operatic music The New Jersey Symphony Orchestra, based at the New Jersey Performing Arts Center, the New Jersey State Opera, The Baroque Orchestra of New Jersey, and the New Jersey Ballet are all located in the Newark area. These groups regularly travel to different venues throughout the state to give performances. The Cape May Music Festival is held every year at the Mid-Atlantic Center for Arts and Humanities in Cape May, New Jersey, featuring classical and chamber music. The South Orange Performing Arts Center in South Orange, New Jersey, features classical soloists and ensembles. Other classical music performing groups throughout New Jersey include The Bay-Atlantic Symphony Orchestra, the Garden State Philharmonic, the Philharmonic of Southern New Jersey, and the Princeton Symphony Orchestra. These music groups perform throughout the state, as well as present shows at several universities which serve as home base for some of these groups. American composer John Philip Sousa would perform concerts on the lawn of the historic Congress Hall (Cape May hotel). World-famous opera singer Frederica von Stade was born in Somerville, New Jersey. In 1796, William Dunlap of Perth Amboy wrote the first professional opera in the United States called, The Archers. Folk and bluegrass music The Folk and Bluegrass scene in New Jersey consists of performances at festivals and small venues throughout the state, mostly in small cities and college towns with more active music scenes. Some of these towns and cities are Montclair, Hoboken, New Brunswick, and Princeton. There is little information about early folk music in New Jersey. One of the more documented regions for early folk music in the colonial era is from the Pine Barrens and shore regions of southern New Jersey. It was there, in the sandy, dense forests and small shore towns, that the earliest settlers played musical elements of their home countries as well as sang stories of the new land they called home. Some examples ranged from Scots/Irish fiddle tunes to Yiddish and Lithuanian songs. It was in this region that stories were sung and legends like the Jersey Devil were born. Various workshops, music development institutions, and festivals throughout New Jersey have celebrated folk and bluegrass music for decades. The Folk Project has hosted many folk music singers in the past years including; Richard Shindell, Bob Franke, and Odetta. The New Jersey Folk Festival is held every year at Rutgers University, celebrating a variety of artists, both nationally or locally known. Jim Murphy and The Pine Barons have been playing bluegrass at venues in southern New Jersey for over forty years. The Delaware Valley Bluegrass Festival takes place annually at the Salem County Fairgrounds in Woodstown, New Jersey. The Hurdy Gurdy Folk Music Club celebrates folk music in the northern part of the state. The Irish festival at the Jersey Shore celebrates Irish folk music every summer in Sea Girt. John Dull, a Rutherford native, is a well known folk artist who has worked with a wide variety of musicians in many genres. Progressive bluegrass band Railroad Earth hails from Stillwater, New Jersey. Hunterdon County, New Jersey native Sharon Van Etten is an acclaimed singer of folk and indie rock music, performing solo as well as with many other famous artists. David Grisman, born in Hackensack, is a celebrated mandolinist and Newgrass composer. Another highly respected New Jersey folk artist is Meg Baird. John Gorka, a leader of the New Folk movement, was born in Edison. New Jersey folk singer and activist Catherine Moon has released several critically acclaimed independent albums. Atlantic City native and folk singer Jim Albertson sings songs that tell stories of South Jersey. The variety of folk and bluegrass music reflects the cultural past of America and New Jersey, including stories of the widely varied ethnic groups in the state, as well as revivalist styles. Jazz In the early 20th century, Newark was an important center for jazz innovation with other smaller New Jersey towns also providing talent. James P. Johnson of New Brunswick and other pioneers helped invent stride. Willie "The Lion" Smith, who grew up in Newark, played stride as well as other styles of jazz piano. Donald Lambert of Princeton was another famous jazz pianist. Jazz alto saxophonist Richie Cole grew up and began playing in Mercer County. Other famous New Jersey jazzmen include bandleader Count Basie, saxmen Hank Mobley, Wayne Shorter and James Moody, vocalist Babs Gonzales, trumpeter Woody Shaw of Newark, trumpeter Johnny Coles of Trenton, and trumpeter Dizzy Gillespie who lived in Englewood from 1965 until his death in 1993. Newark was also the birthplace and home of the jazz singer Sarah Vaughan – one of jazz's most esteemed vocalists. Viola Wells, also known as, "Miss Rhapsody," was a Newark native who began her career singing jazz, blues, and religious songs at clubs in Newark, and eventually throughout the United States and Europe. Bill Evans was born in Plainfield and attended North Plainfield High School. One of the more popular jazz venues in Newark in the first half of the Twentieth century was the Grand Hotel on West Market Street. Savoy Records, an early important jazz record label, was located in Newark. Casa Blanca on Broad Street and The Cadillac Club are just two of the many Newark live jazz venues that have showcased performers in the Twentieth century. The Institute of Jazz Studies at the Newark campus of Rutgers University has the largest library of jazz and jazz related items in the world. The Newark Museum has annual summer jazz concert series featuring world known artists. Atlantic City, beginning in the 1920s, was a world-famous venue for jazz performers, as well as other music. The Paradise Club on Illinois Avenue was billed as the world's first nightclub and hosted a wide variety of famous artists. Since 1979, Newark has been home to WBGO, the only 24/7 jazz radio station in the New York/Jersey City/Newark metro area. Other well known jazz instrumentalists from the Garden State include Max Weinberg, drummer for Bruce Springsteen, Leigh Howard Stevens, a marimba musician who re-invented the way the instrument is played by pioneering the "Musser-Stevens Grip, "Nick Lucas, Joe Pass, Jimmy Lyons, Larry Young, Steve Swallow, George Van Eps, Buster Williams, Tony Scott, Bucky Pizzarelli, John Pizzarelli, David S. Ware, Al Di Meola, and Steve Swell. Hundreds of jazz albums for Blue Note Records were recorded in Alfred Lion's home studio Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey. The Jersey Shore Jazz & Blues Foundation (JSJBF) Festival ran annually in Red bank until 2004 when the local Chamber of Commerce turned it into a food festival. The JSJBF now runs free summer jazz and blues concerts along several shore towns. The Liberty Jazz Festival also occurs every year in Liberty State Park in Jersey City. New Jersey continues to be a place that many jazz and blues musicians call home including Steve Turre, Frank Fontaine, Wallace Roney, and Tom "Bones" Malone. R&B Blues is still rich along the Jersey shore. The Jersey Shore Jazz & Blues Foundation (JSJBF) not only organizes up to three free music festivals every summer, but it is also involved in the free weekly Sunday evening outdoor summer blues concerts in the West End section of Long Branch, and the monthly year-round blues venue in the Red Bank Woman's Club. Keb Mo, Kim Wilson, Poppa Chubby and many others have played here. George Ker produced "New Jersey Soul" groups such as Whatnauts(from Baltimore) and the Escorts. Sylvia Robinson composed The Moments big hit "Love on a Two Way Street". Paul Kyser produced Soul Generation and Jimmy Briscoe & the Little Beavers. Hip-hop Hip hop group Sugar Hill Gang, artists behind one of the earliest major commercial hip-hop songs "Rapper's Delight" is from New Jersey, as is Redman. Hip-hop trio Naughty by Nature originated in East Orange, New Jersey in 1987, originally under the group name The New Style. Rapper/Singer and Actress Queen Latifah was born in Newark, New Jersey, and grew up in nearby East Orange. Rapper and Actor Ice-T was also born in Newark, and grew up in Summit, New Jersey. House music See New Jersey house Rock Rock & roll and classic rock Frankie Valli and the Four Seasons were rock and roll stars in the 1960s, scoring hits with "Sherry", "Big Girls Don't Cry", and "Walk Like a Man". The Shirelles, formed in Passaic, were a girl group popular in the early 1960s. Unknown band The Doughboys are a garage rock band formed in Plainfield in 1965; other New Jersey garage bands included Richard and the Young Lions from Newark, and The Myddle Class from Berkeley Heights. Figures of Light were a garage rock band formed in New Brunswick in 1970. Bruce Springsteen and the E-Street Band became one of New Jersey's most successful rock groups with the release of their Born to Run album in 1975. Springsteen's friends and fellow Jersey Shore natives, Southside Johnny and the Asbury Jukes, also saw commercial success. Donald Fagen of Steely Dan was born in Passaic and grew up in South Brunswick. New Brunswick band Looking Glass scored a number one hit with "Brandy (You're a Fine Girl)" in 1972. Punk and alternative Punk rock and hardcore have played an important role in the music of New Jersey, with many contributing artists who have gained popularity. Several punk and new wave musicians originated from the state. Blondie frontwoman Debbie Harry and drummer Clem Burke both grew up in New Jersey (Hawthorne and Bayonne, respectively). Patti Smith grew up in Deptford Township, Tom Verlaine, founder and frontman of the punk/new wave group Television, is from Morristown, and Richie Ramone, the Ramones' drummer from '84-'89, hails from Passaic. The Feelies were formed in Haledon in 1976 Arguably the most famous and influential punk band from New Jersey is The Misfits founded in 1977 in Lodi, New Jersey, by singer and songwriter Glenn Danzig, who in 1983 broke from the band and formed Samhain and in 1988 Danzig. Among the early hardcore bands was Rosemary's Babies. also from Lodi, whose drummer Eerie Von, would become bassist for both Samhain and Danzig. Adrenalin O.D. is usually credited with igniting the early N.J. hardcore scene at the dawn of the 1980s as is U.S. Chaos for the entire continent of North America for Skinhead and OI Predating as The Radicals in 1978. All Hailing from East Paterson, Bergen and Passaic counties. Emerging in 1983 after the breakup of three-piece Impossible Task, seminal skate punk band Hogan's Heroes was founded in South-Central New Jersey in 1984. The Smithereens were formed in Carteret and built up a following in the state, becoming an early success in the alternative genre with songs like "A Girl Like You" and "Behind the Wall of Sleep". Other alternative bands, such as Wayne's Dramarama (of "Anything, Anything" fame) and Westfield's Whirling Dervishes, saw success during the 1980s and 1990s. Indie rock band Yo La Tengo formed in Hoboken in the mid-1980s. Power pop band and New Jersey natives Fountains of Wayne based their name on a shop from their hometown of Wayne. Emo band My Chemical Romance, formed in Jersey City, New Jersey in late 2001, had a number 2 album on the Billboard 200 with their 2006 album The Black Parade. The Early November formed in 1999 in Hammonton, NJ, and after a 4-year hiatus beginning in 2007, reunited in 2011. Often referred to as modern progenitors of the Jersey Shore sound popularized by Bruce Springsteen, The Gaslight Anthem came together in New Brunswick in 2005 and released 5 studio albums to a mix of critical acclaim and high chart positions, including two Top 5 records with Handwritten and Get Hurt. Hard rock and heavy metal Hair metal group Bon Jovi has been one of the most popular bands in the world since the mid-1980s. Beginning in the 1980s, Bon Jovi has experimented with other genres, such as country rock. Skid Row is a New Jersey-based heavy-metal band formed in the mid-1980s and reached the height of its success in the early 1990s. Sebastian Bach, formerly of Skid Row, is a Canadian singer who has lived in New Jersey for almost two decades and still fronts bands. Since the early 1980s, the New Jersey bands Overkill and Hades have been recording and performing thrash metal around the world. Trixter is a glam metal band also from New Jersey. Monster Magnet is a very well known stoner rock metal band from Red Bank with releases on labels such as elektra. Ripping Corpse is a well known Thrash Metal band from Red Bank. Blues Traveler was formed in Princeton in 1987. In the early and mid 1980s the New Jersey nightclub culture realized tremendous popularity with various live acts playing hard rock, heavy metal and dance oriented New Wave music. Some of the more notable acts touring the club circuit was Twisted Sister fronted by lead singer Dee Snider. In 1984 the Crossover Thrash Metal band, Method Of Destruction was formed with Stormtroopers Of Death former frontman, Billy Milano. The 1987 debut, U.S.A. For M.O.D. was released on NJ based label, Megaforce Records and entered the Billboard Top 200 charts soon after. The Dillinger Escape Plan from Morris Plains and The Number Twelve Looks Like You from Paramus were essential in solidifying the state as a forerunner of the mathcore and experimental metal scenes as well as several of the members of Candiria. New Jersey is also home to the highly acclaimed progressive power metal band Symphony X, and funeral doom metal band Evoken. Brielle native Mark Tornillo was the lead singer for New Jersey metal band T.T. Quick and is now the lead singer for the German metal band Accept. Jeff Janiak, vocalist of British hardcore punk groups Discharge and Broken Bones was born in Livingston and has lived in Irvington and Toms River. Zack Wylde, the founder of Black Label Society and guitarist for Ozzy Osbourne, was born in Bayonne and grew up in Jackson, New Jersey. Jersey City is the birthplace of both hard rock band Rye Coalition and psychedelic rock group The Black Hollies. New Jersey Stoner rock band Core had success with two albums in the 1990s. Hard rock band The Parlor Mob is from Red Bank. Soulfly guitarist Marc Rizzo grew up in Carlstadt. Venues and events The State of New Jersey has a diverse population that produces a significant number of music institutions, events, and live music venues. The Annual Atlantic City Mothers Day Music Festival is held at Boardwalk Hall. The Spring Camp Jam in The Pines is held every year, allowing people to camp on farms in southern New Jersey and enjoy a variety of live music performances. The final American concert of the A Conspiracy of Hope Amnesty International tour was broadcast live on MTV from Giants Stadium on June 15, 1986. The concert was twelve hours long and featured multiple acts including; U2, Lou Reed, Joan Baez, Bryan Adams, Peter Gabriel, and a reunited The Police. Live Earth, a worldwide television and Internet-streamed benefit music event promoting causes to stop what supporters contend is global warming, took place during the spring of 2007 in the state. It used Giants Stadium in East Rutherford as the stage for its American concert venue. A wide array of performers, from a variety of music genres, took part in raising proceeds. Former Vice President Al Gore helped organize the effort. Asbury Park, is home of Convention Hall, the Asbury Lanes, The Wonder Bar, The Saint, House of Independents and The Stone Pony, where Bruce Springsteen, Bon Jovi, and Southside Johnny and the Asbury Jukes frequented early in their careers. Atlantic City has been a well known destination for famous musical acts for over a century. This seaside resort city has many venues that provide world-famous entertainment. The Velvet Underground gave their first performance as a band at Summit High School in Summit, New Jersey. The Izod Center (formerly the Brendan Byrne Arena and the Continental Airlines Arena) is located in East Rutherford. The Folk Project has hosted many local and internationally known folk music acts such as Richard Shindell, Bob Franke, and Odetta. The Prudential Center in Newark hosts concerts. The New Jersey Performing Arts Center, home of the New Jersey Symphony Orchestra, is also located in Newark. The Count Basie Theatre in Red Bank, New Jersey, is an historic venue that has hosted a variety of musical and performing artists over the past decades. MetLife Stadium is located in East Rutherford. Studio 1, which was located on Verona Avenue in Newark's North Ward, hosted many rock and metal acts in the 1980s and 1990s. City Gardens Calhoun St. Trenton, New Jersey Famous Punk venue 1978–1998. The Capitol Theatre in Passaic hosted a number of famous acts in the late 1970s and early 1980s, including The Clash, Motörhead, Ozzy Osbourne, Van Halen, and Bruce Springsteen. The concert DVD R40 by the rock band RUSH features several songs performed by the band at the venue in 1976. The Rustic Cabin, which was located on Route 9W in Englewood Cliffs, was the roadhouse where Frank Sinatra was discovered in 1939. The New Jersey Folk Festival is held annually by undergraduates of Rutgers University at the Douglass campus. Outpost in the Burbs in Montclair features rock and folk live performances. Mexicali Live in Teaneck hosts many local bands as well as nationally known acts. The Appel Farm Arts and Music Center in Salem County, New Jersey, offers educational programs as well as performances of a wide variety of the arts. The Susquehanna Bank Center in Camden is an outdoor amphitheater located on the Delaware River. The Osprey Hotel in Manasquan has hosted many Jersey Shore acts for years. The legendary band Salvation played a record 11 summers there from 1969 to 1980. Mainstage in Pompton Lakes, NJ hosted many punk and metal bands from 2007 until it was shut down by the police in 2009 The PNC Bank Arts Center in Holmdel is an outdoor amphitheater that hosts concerts and events. The Rainbow's End in Wood-Ridge on Hackensack Street hosted famous country music acts in the 1970s and early 1980s and was owned by steel guitarist Mack Sullivan. The Palomino Club (1979–1995) in Wallington, New Jersey, which was also owned by Sullivan, hosted country acts. Dingbatz in Clifton is a venue for hard rock and metal bands. Palisades Amusement Park in Fort Lee/Cliffside Park staged major concerts at its famous music pavilion, featuring current pop/rock acts and teen idols, throughout the 1960s. They were hosted by then-WABC (AM) Musicradio disc jockey Cousin Brucie, a.k.a. Bruce Morrow. The attraction closed permanently in 1971. Coincidentally, the park's popularity inspired the monster 1962 rock hit, "Palisades Park," by Freddy Cannon. The tune was written by Chuck Barris, before his days as a pioneering TV game show producer. The song was covered by the Ramones on their 1989 album, Brain Drain. Bloomfield Ave Cafe is located in Montclair on Bloomfield Ave. Aldo's Hideaway (1977–2004), which was located on the NW corner of Marin Avenue and Orient Way in Lyndhurst hosted punk and alternative acts. The club was destroyed by fire. The Pipeline in Newark hosted massive punk, skinhead, ska, alternative industrial and Goth acts in the 1980s and 1990s. The Bergen Performing Arts Center is located in Englewood. The Paper Mill Playhouse in Millburn, New Jersey, is a venue famous throughout the state for presenting musicals. The State Theatre is located in New Brunswick. Another live music venue in New Brunswick is The Court Tavern. The Crossroads in Garwood hosts a variety of live music. The Wellmont Theatre is located in Montclair. Starland Ballroom is located in Sayreville. Maxwell's on Washington Ave., opened in 1978, was the center of the live music scene in Hoboken for decades. The club closed in July 2013. The venue opened under new management in 2014 as Maxwell's Tavern. Bruce Springsteen and the E Street Band played a record setting ten dates in a row at Giants Stadium in 2003. The Monsters of Rock tour in 1988, headlined by Van Halen, had one of its stops at Giants Stadium. Waterloo Village in Byram Township was one of the locations where the Lollapalooza Festival occurred in the early 1990s. The first Orion Music + More festival was a large two-day music festival hosted by Metallica in June 2012 at Bader Field in Atlantic City. The three-day All Points West Music and Arts Festival was held in the summers of 2008 and 2009 at Liberty State Park in Jersey City. The Skate And Surf Festival is an annual event that originated in Asbury Park. The organizers later started The Bamboozle festival which replaced this. However, the Skate And Surf was brought back from 2013 onwards. The Bamboozle was an annual three-day event that has a wide variety of musical acts and comedians. This festival has been held at the MetLife Sports complex as well as in Asbury Park. Bands vary from being independent label acts to acts known throughout the world. This was last held in 2012 and it is currently unknown whether it will make a return in the future. The Aquifer Music Venue in Clinton, NJ Hosted highly acclaimed Metalcore and Hardcore acts from all over the world in a suburban town off of Interstate 78. Albert Hall in Waretown features live bluegrass bands every Saturday Night and has other bluegrass festivals. The Mayo Performing Arts Center (MPAC) in Morristown has live music performances. The Galaxy Night Club Somerdale NJ – Where some of the hottest 1980s metal bands were scouted and signed including Bon Jovi, Skid Row, Cinderella and Brittany Fox. Frank Sinatra (from Hoboken, died 1998) had at least one #1 Billboard Hot 100 hit with "Strangers in the Night" in 1966. Frankie Valli (who was portrayed in the play Jersey Boys) had 7 #1 Hot 100 hits in the 1960s and 1970s, including "December 1963 (Oh, What a Night)". Kool & the Gang had a #1 Hot 100 hit with "Celebration" in 1981. Bon Jovi had 4 #1 Hot 100 hits, including "Living on a Prayer" in 1987. Whitney Houston (died 2012) had 11 #1 Hot 100 hits in the 1980s and 1990s, including "I Will Always Love You" in 1992. P.M. Dawn had one #1 hit with "Set Adrift on Memory Bliss" in 1991. Lauryn Hill of the Fugees had a #1 Hot 100 hit with "Doo Wop (That Thing)" in 1998. Akon (who moved to Jersey City) had 2 #1 Hot 100 hits in the 2000s, including "I Wanna Love You" in 2006. The Jonas Brothers had one #1 Hot 100 hit with "Sucker" in 2019. Halsey has had 2 Hot 100 #1 hits like "Closer" with the Chainsmokers, in 2016. Audio broadcasting Music is broadcast in New Jersey by terrestrial radio stations, cable FM, local wire networks, satellite and the Internet. Radio stations WFMU from Jersey City, WSOU from Seton Hall in South Orange, New Jersey (winner of awards from publications such as Friday Morning Quarterback, the College Music Journal and Album Network) and WPRB from Princeton are three of the most well known independent/college radio stations in America. Newark's WBGO is one of the country's most important independent jazz stations. WRPR in Mahwah has also gained relevance for its rock programming. WDHA-FM "The Rock of New Jersey," is located in the Dover area and has a long history of providing North Jersey with both classic and modern rock. Madison, New Jersey native Eddie Trunk worked at WDHA early in his career. WGHT Radio is located in Northern New Jersey, and is a spring board for a long list on On Air Radio Talent. WGHT, formally known as WKER-AM, has been broadcasting at 1500-AM since the early 1960s. Jimmy Howes is currently WGHT's morning show host and Program Director. WNNJ in Newton, New Jersey, provides rock music to the Skylands Region of the state. WMGM (FM) in Atlantic City broadcasts rock music to South Jersey. WWNJ in Toms River, WWCJ in Cape May, and WWFM at the West Windsor campus of Mercer County Community College all broadcast classical music. The long running free form program Anything Anything with Rich Russo airs on both WDHA-FM and WRAT-FM. WDVR is a community radio station based in Sergeantsville, NJ broadcasting a variety of music, talk, and educational programming. Internet radio stations also contribute to New Jersey's music scene. For example, Blowupradio.com, an Internet station devoted to underground Jersey rock, has been contributing to New Jersey's music scene since 2000. Other internet radio stations in New Jersey that contribute to New Jersey's music scene include ThePenguinRocks.com and AltrokRadio.com and DJJD's Metallicave on NuclearRockRadio.com See also List of people from New Jersey References Sources Andrea Witting, (2007) All Grown Up The Movie, U.S. Chaos cited interview, extensive. Blush, Steven (2001). American Hardcore: A Tribal History. Los Angeles, CA: Feral House. . External links BlowUpRadio.com – New Jersey based online radio station playing NJ Bands JerseyMic.com – Open mic reviews from all over New Jersey. Fallout Entertainment Group – The Fallout Entertainment Group Presents:New Jersey Artists and artist development Central NJ Musicians Jersey music.com The Penguin – New Jersey based online radio station "Beyond the Palace" -- daily radio show featuring Jersey artists NJ Hall of Fame timeline Musicians from New Jersey American music by state

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United States intervention in Chilean politics started during the War of Chilean Independence (1812–1826). The influence of the United States of America in both the economic and the political arenas of Chile has since gradually increased over the last two centuries, and continues to be significant. Chilean independence The arrival of Joel Roberts Poinsett, in 1811, marked the beginning of U.S. involvement in Chilean politics. He had been sent by President James Madison in 1809 as a special agent to the South American Spanish colonies (a position he filled from 1810 to 1814) to investigate the prospects of the revolutionaries, in their struggle for independence from Spain. War of the Pacific The United States tried to bring an early end to the War of the Pacific, lasting from 1879 until 1884, mainly because of US business and financial interests in Peru. Moreover, its leaders also worried that the United Kingdom would take economic control of the region through Chile. Peace negotiations failed when a stipulation required Chile to return the conquered lands. Chileans suspected the new US initiative was tainted with a pro-Peruvian bias. As a result, relations between Chile and the United States took a turn for the worse. Chile instead asked that the United States remain neutral. The United States Pacific Squadron only contained a few wooden vessels, and Chile had two new armored warships. The U.S. knew they were unable to match Chilean naval power and backed down. War scare of 1891 During the 1891 Chilean Civil War, the U.S. backed President José Manuel Balmaceda, as a way to increase their influence in Chile, while the UK backed the Congressional forces. After the defeat of Balmaceda, the U.S. was determined to assert their influence in Chilean domestic affairs (then dominated by the victorious Congress) by any means, including war, pushing out British interests in the region. Itata incident The Itata incident concerned an attempted arms shipment by the ship Itata from the U.S. to Chile in 1891, destined to assist the insurgent Congressional forces. The Itata Incident was the direct cause of the Baltimore Crisis and is one of the reasons that Benjamin Harrison was not reelected to a second term as the President of the United States. Baltimore crisis After the Itata left Iquique to return to the U.S., the crew of the Baltimore took shore leave at Valparaiso. During the US sailors' shore leave on 16 October 1891, a mob of enraged Chileans angry about the Itata's capture (among other possible motives), attacked the sailors from the Baltimore. Two sailors were killed, and several were seriously wounded. That Valparaiso riot prompted saber rattling from enraged US officials, threatening war against Chile, which by now was controlled by victorious Congressional forces. A war between the U.S. and Chile was ultimately averted when the Chilean government bowed, and while maintaining that the seamen were to blame for the riot offered to pay an indemnity of $75,000 to the victims' families. First half of the 20th century United States involvement in Chilean affairs intensified in the early decades of the 20th century. After World War I, the United States replaced Britain as the leading superpower controlling most of Chile's resources, as most economic activity in the country lay in US hands. Such a change prevented Chile from profiting as a result of the war and gaining its financial independence. The dependence on the United States formally began in the early years of the 1920s as two major US companies Anaconda and Kennecott took control of the valuable resources. Up until the 1970s, "both industries controlled between 7% to 20% of the country's Gross Domestic Product". The conclusion of World War II brought more of the same as Chile could not even exploit the "excess of copper they produced as almost all the copper was marketed through subsidiaries of United States copper firms established in Chile for whom the allied government fixed a ceiling price upon copper products during the course of the war." As the working class demanded an improvement in their standard of living, higher wages and improved working conditions, the notion that a leftist government could be the solution for the people began to take form. 1950s and 1960s During the 1950s and 1960s, the United States put forward a variety of programs and strategies, ranging from funding political campaigns to funding propaganda, aimed at impeding the presidential aspirations of leftist candidate Salvador Allende, who served as President of the Senate (1966-1969) before running a final time to become the 28th President of Chile, which lasted until his death in 1973. Throughout these two decades, left-wing parties in Chile failed to gain power, potentially due to the fact that the United States was, verifiably, impeding through various means. In the 1958 presidential election, Jorge Alessandri – a nominal independent with support from the Liberal and Conservative parties – defeated Allende by nearly 33,500 votes to claim the presidency. His laissez-faire policies, endorsed by the United States, were regarded as the solution to the country's inflation problems. Under recommendations from the United States, Alessandri steadily reduced tariffs starting in 1959, a policy that caused the Chilean market to be overwhelmed by American product. These governmental policies angered the working class of Chile, who demanded higher wages, and the repercussions of this massive discontent were felt in the 1961 congressional elections. The president suffered terrible blows,[clarification required] sending the message that laissez-faire policies were not desired. As the "grand total of $130 million from the U.S. banking Industry, the U.S. Treasury Department, the IMF and the ICA" accepted by Alessandri illustrates, laissez-faire policies may have induced the opposite of the intended effect – making Chile more dependent on the United States, not less. Presidential candidate Salvador Allende was a top contender in the 1964 election. The US, through the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), covertly spent three million dollars campaigning against him, before and after the election, mostly through radio and print advertising. The Americans viewed electing Christian Democratic contender Eduardo Frei Montalva as vital, fearing that Alessandri's failures would lead the people to support Allende. Allende was feared by the Americans because of his warm relations with Cuba and his open criticism of the Bay of Pigs Invasion. Furthermore, clandestine aid to Frei was put forward through John F. Kennedy's Latin American Alliance for Progress, which promised "$20 billion in public and private assistance in the country for the next decade." The 1970 election According to a U.S. Senate select committee, publishing a Church Commission Report in 1975 to describe international abuses committed by the CIA, NSA, and FBI, covert United States involvement in Chile in the decade between 1963 and 1973 was "extensive and continuous". The CIA spent $8 million in the three years between 1970 and the military coup of September 1973, with over $3 million allocated toward Chilean intervention in 1972 alone. Covert American activity was present in almost every major election in Chile in the decade between 1963 and 1973, but its tangible effect on electoral outcomes is not altogether clear. Chile, more than any of its South American neighbors, had a long-standing democratic tradition dating back to the early 1930s, and it has been difficult to gauge how successful CIA tactics were in swaying voters.[needs citation] A declassified file from August 19, 1970 reveals the minutes of high-level officials in the CIA known as the "Special Review Group." It was chaired by Henry Kissinger and was sanctioned by then-president Nixon. This was one of several documents released as part of the Foreign Relations of the United States (FRUS) series dedicated toward US-Chilean interventionalism – collectively known as Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969–1976, Volume XXI, Chile, 1969–1973 and Foreign Relations, 1969–1976, Volume E–16, Documents on Chile, 1969–1973 – that revealed a detailed account of correspondences between each of these officials, telegrams from the Chilean embassy, memorandums, and "Special Reports" concerning the state of affairs in Chile. For instance, a National Intelligence Estimate from January 28, 1969 stated the problems and conclusions that senior officials in Washington identified over the proliferating crisis in Chile. The document indicates that the 1970 election stood above all other issues as of critical importance, with Chile's political and economic stability depending heavily on that particular election's outcome; the document notes the possibility of out of control economic stagnation and inflation in Chile as concerns. The conclusions of the document suggest that factionalism needed to be addressed, and expounded on United States interests in copper extraction companies operating in Chile. The election represented the potential for important economic relations to collapse or continue. The document further focuses on potential ramifications if the election outcome were to not align with US interests. At a 8 September 1970 meeting of the 40 Committee, the chairman of the committee asked for an analysis of where the US/CIA stood in terms of taking action to prevent Allende from becoming President of Chile. William Broe, a high-ranking CIA officer, said Eduardo Frei Montalva, the 29th President of Chile, was essential to the situation in Chile, regardless of the type of involvement — military or congressional. The 40 Committee asked that the CIA collect information and create more intelligence reports to see what could be further done in Chile. The committee decided it was unlikely they were going to be able to influence the 24 Oct, congressional election to go against Allende. Helms was also concerned about Allende supporters in the Chilean military, as it seemed they would support Allende in the event of a coup. As a result of all this information, the Committee decided they wanted a full analysis of two things: (1.) a cost versus benefit analysis of organizing a military (Chilean) coup; (2.) a cost versus benefit analysis of organizing future oppositions to Allende to topple his influence. This presented two options for Henry Kissinger: political maneuvering or outright force. Four days after the 8 September 1970 meeting of the 40 Committee, a cable between Richard Helms and Henry Kissinger discussed the lack of morale that the US embassy had in Chile according to the American Ambassador to Chile, Edward Korry. Kissinger stated in response that he would call another 40 Committee Meeting for the following Monday. Kissinger further noted: "We will not let Chile go down the drain." Allende presidency Salvador Allende ran again in the 1970 presidential election, winning a narrow victory plurality vote (near 37%). United States president Richard Nixon feared that Chile could become "another Cuba" and the US cut off most of its foreign aid to Chile. The US government believed that Allende would become closer to socialist countries, such as Cuba and the Soviet Union. They feared that Allende would push Chile into socialism, and therefore lose all of the US investments made in Chile. On 15 September 1970; before Allende took office, Richard Nixon gave the order to overthrow Allende. According to a declassified document from the NSA, the handwritten notes from Richard Helms (CIA director at the time) state: "1 in 10 chance perhaps, but save Chile!; worth spending; not concerned; no involvement of embassy; $10,000,000 available, more if necessary; full-time job--best men we have; game plan; make the economy scream; 48 hours for plan of action." These notes came from a meeting Helms had with President Nixon, indicating the administration's willingness to stage a coup in Chile and the extent to which Nixon was willing to go to do so. On 5 November 1970, Henry Kissinger advised President Nixon against peaceful coexistence with the Allende administration and instead advocated one of two positions. The U.S. government had two approaches to fighting Marxism as represented by Allende. "Track I" was a State Department initiative designed to thwart Allende by subverting Chilean elected officials within the bounds of the Chilean constitution and excluded the CIA. Track I expanded to encompass some policies whose ultimate goal was to create the conditions that would encourage a coup. "Track II" was a CIA operation overseen by Henry Kissinger and CIA's director of covert operations, Thomas Karamessines. "Track II" excluded the State Department and Department of Defense. The goal of Track II was to find and support Chilean military officers that would support a coup. Immediately after the Allende government came into office, the U.S. sought to place pressure on the Allende government to prevent its consolidation and limit its ability to implement policies contrary to U.S. and hemispheric interests, such as Allende's total nationalization of several U.S. corporations and the copper industry. Nixon directed that no new bilateral economic aid commitments be undertaken with the government of Chile. The US supported Allende's opponents in Chile during his presidency, intending to encourage either Allende's resignation, his overthrow, or his defeat in the election of 1976. The Nixon administration covertly funded independent and non-state media and labor unions. Track I Track I was a U.S. State Department plan designed to persuade the Chilean Congress, through outgoing Christian Democratic President Eduardo Frei Montalva, to confirm conservative runner-up Jorge Alessandri as president. Alessandri would resign shortly after, rendering Frei eligible to run against Allende in new elections. As part of the "Track I" strategy to block Allende from assuming office after the 4 September election, the CIA needed to influence a Congressional run-off vote required by the Constitution since Allende did not win the absolute majority. Track II The CIA had also drawn up a second plan, Track II. The agency would find military officers willing to support a coup and support them. They could then call new elections in which Allende could be defeated. In September 1970, President Nixon found that an Allende government in Chile would not be acceptable and authorized $10 million to stop Allende from coming to power or unseat him. As part of the Track II initiative, the CIA used false flag operatives to approach Chilean military officers, to encourage them to carry out a coup. A first step to overthrowing Allende required removing General René Schneider, the army chief commander. Schneider was a constitutionalist and would oppose a coup d'état. To assist in the planned kidnapping of Schneider, the CIA provided "$50,000 in cash, three submachine guns, and a satchel of tear gas, all approved at headquarters ..." The submachine guns were delivered by diplomatic pouch. A group was formed, led by a retired general, General Roberto Viaux. Viaux was considered unstable by the U.S. and had been discouraged from attempting a coup alone. The CIA encouraged him to join forces with an active duty general, General Camilo Valenzuela, who had also been approached by CIA operatives. They were joined by an Admiral, Hugo Tirado, who had been forced into retirement after the Tacnazo insurrection. On 22 October, Viaux went ahead with a plan to kidnap General René Schneider. Schneider drew a handgun to protect himself from his attackers, who shot him in four vital areas. He died in Santiago's military hospital three days later. This attempted kidnapping and death of Schneider shocked the public and increased support for the Chilean Constitution. This ultimately led to an extreme contrast to the expected outcome of a coup. The Chilean people rallied around their government which, in turn, overwhelmingly ratified Allende on 3 November 1970. On 25 November 1970, Henry Kissinger issued a memorandum that detailed the Covert Action Program that the US would spearhead in Chile. In the memorandum, Kissinger stated that there were five principles of the program. The US would continue to have contacts in the Chilean military, take steps to divide Allende's supporters, cooperate with the media to run anti-Allende propaganda campaigns, support non-communist political parties in Chile, and publish materials that stated that Allende did not adhere to the democratic process and also wanted to form connections with Cuba and the Soviet Union. A CIA and White House cover-up obscured American involvement, despite Congressional investigative efforts. The Church Committee, which investigated U.S. involvement in Chile during this period, determined that the weapons used in the debacle "were, in all probability, not those supplied by the CIA to the conspirators." After Schneider's death, the CIA recovered the submachine guns and money it had provided. Both Valenzuela and Viaux were arrested and convicted of conspiracy after Schneider's assassination. One member of the coup plotters that escaped arrest requested assistance from the CIA, and was paid $35,000, so "The CIA did, in fact, pay "hush" money to those directly responsible for the Schneider assassination—and then covered up that secret payment for thirty years." In 1970, the U.S. manufacturing company ITT Corporation owned 70% of Chitelco, the Chilean Telephone Company, and funded El Mercurio, a Chilean right-wing newspaper. The CIA used ITT as a conduit to financially aid opponents of Allende's government. On 28 September 1973, ITT's headquarters in New York City, was bombed by the Weather Underground for the alleged involvement of the company in the overthrow of Allende. On 10 September 2001, a suit was filed by the family of Schneider, accusing former U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger of arranging Schneider's 1970 murder because he would have opposed a military coup. CIA documents indicate that while the CIA had sought his kidnapping, his killing was never intended. Kissinger said he had declared the coup "hopeless" and had "turned it off". However, the CIA claimed that no such "stand-down" order was ever received. 1973 coup In the Chilean coup of 1973, Augusto Pinochet rose to power, overthrowing the democratically elected president Salvador Allende. A subsequent September 2000 report from the CIA, using declassified documents related to the military coup, found that the CIA "probably appeared to condone" the 1973 coup, but that there was "no evidence" that the US actually participated in it. This view has been challenged by some authors, who have stated that the covert support of the United States was crucial to the preparation for the coup, the coup itself, and the consolidation of the regime afterward. It seemed to the CIA that, even if this coup did not come together, Allende would still have a very difficult political future. This point of view has been supported by non-scholarly commentary. According to the CIA document "CIA Activities in Chile", dated 18 September 2000, the local CIA station suggested during late summer 1973 that the US commit itself to support a military coup. In response, CIA Headquarters reaffirmed to the station that "there was to be no involvement with the military in any covert action initiative; there was no support for instigating a military coup." On the issue of CIA involvement in the 1973 coup, the CIA document is equally explicit: On 10 September 1973 -- the day before the coup that ended the Allende government -- a Chilean military officer reported to a CIA officer that a coup was being planned and asked for US government assistance. He was told that the US Government would not provide any assistance because this was strictly an internal Chilean matter. The Station Officer also told him his request would be forwarded to Washington. CIA learned of the exact date of the coup shortly before it took place. During the attack on the Presidential Palace and its immediate aftermath, the Station's activities were limited to providing intelligence and situation reports. The report of the Church Committee, published in 1975, stated that during the period leading up to the coup, the CIA received information about potential coup plots. The intelligence network continued to report throughout 1972 and 1973 on coup plotting activities. During 1972 the Station continued to monitor the group which might mount a successful coup, and it spent a significantly greater amount of time and effort penetrating this group than it had on previous groups. This group had originally come to the Station's attention in October 1971. By January 1972 the Station had successfully penetrated it and was in contact through an intermediary with its leader. Intelligence reporting on coup plotting reached two peak periods, one in the last week of June 1973 and the other during the end of August and the first two weeks in September. It is clear the CIA received intelligence reports on the coup planning of the group which carried out the successful September 11 coup throughout the months of July, August, and September 1973. The Church report also considered the allegation that the US government involved itself in the 1973 coup: Was the United States DIRECTLY involved, covertly, in the 1973 coup in Chile? The Committee has found no evidence that it was. There is no hard evidence of direct U.S. assistance to the coup, despite frequent allegations of such aid. Rather the United States - by its previous actions during Track II, its existing general posture of opposition to Allende, and the nature of its contacts with the Chilean military- probably gave the impression that it would not look with disfavor on a military coup. And U.S. officials in the years before 1973 may not always have succeeded in walking the thin line between monitoring indigenous coup plotting and actually stimulating it. Transcripts of a phone conversation between Kissinger and Nixon reveal that they did not have a hand in the final coup. They do take credit for creating the conditions that led to the coup. Kissinger says that "they created the conditions as great as possible." Nixon and Kissinger also discussed how they would play this event with the media and lamented the fact that, if this were the era of Eisenhower, then they would be seen as heroes. There was a PDB that had a section on Chile dated 11 September 1973 that is still completely censored, as was an entire page on Chile provided to Nixon on 8 September 1973. Additionally, a cable from CIA operative Jack Devine dated 10 September 1973, confirmed to top U.S. officials that the coup would take place the following day. In collaboration with the coup, a Defense Intelligence Agency summary, also dated on 8 September and classified "Top Secret Umbra", provided detailed information on an agreement among the Chilean Army, Navy, and Air Force to move against Allende on 10 September. As the CIA denies its involvement in the coup, another cable sent from the agency on 8 September classified "Secret" had information on the Chilean Navy time and date to overthrow the government of President Allende. The cable also identified key Chilean officials who were supporting the coup. The cables from around this time with another one stating that the coup was postponed in order to improve tactical coordination and would attempt the coup on 11 September. A CIA intelligence report 25 October 1973, concerning General Arellano Stark, noted that Arellano had ordered the deaths of 21 political prisoners. Also, the disappearances of 14 other prisoners were also believed to be on the order of Arellano. General Arellano was considered Pinochet's right-hand man after the coup. Historian Peter Winn has argued that the role of the CIA was crucial to the consolidation of power that followed the coup; the CIA helped fabricate a conspiracy against the Allende government, which Pinochet was then portrayed as preventing. He states that the coup itself was possible only through a three-year covert operation mounted by the United States. He also points out that the US imposed an "invisible blockade" that was designed to disrupt the economy under Allende, and contributed to the destabilization of the regime. Peter Kornbluh, director of the National Security Archive's Chile Documentation Project, argues in his book The Pinochet File that the US was extensively involved and actively "fomented" the 1973 coup. Authors Tim Weiner, in his book, Legacy of Ashes, and Christopher Hitchens, in his book, The Trial of Henry Kissinger similarly argue the case that US covert actions actively destabilized Allende's government and set the stage for the 1973 coup. Joaquin Fermandois criticized Kornbluh's "black and white" and "North American centered conception of world affairs", stating that a variety of internal and external factors also played a role and that a careful reading of the documentary record reveals the CIA was largely "impotent". Conservative scholar Mark Falcoff alleged that Cuba and the Soviet Union supplied several hundred thousand dollars to the socialist and Marxist factions in the government. Peter Winn noted that "the Chilean revolution always kept to its peaceful road, despite counterrevolutionary plots and violence." Moreover, this strong emphasis on nonviolence was precisely to avoid revolutionary terror which had blemished the reputations of the French, Russian and Cuban revolutions. Overall, 1973 was when the Chilean president was overthrown. The president later committed suicide, an article in The Atlantic stating "he committed suicide under mysterious circumstances as troops surrounded his place, ushering in more than 15 years of military dictatorship under Augusto Pinochet". A former CIA agent who was active in the CIA agency during the time of the Coup recently reported that the decision to overthrow Chile's president was not the CIA's decision, but rather the decision of the White House, particularly President Nixon. The coup and U.S. involvement remain an important episode, as a New York Times report in October 2017 indicates. Pinochet regime The U.S. provided material support to the military regime after the coup, although criticizing it in public. A document released by the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) in 2000, titled "CIA Activities in Chile", revealed that the CIA actively supported the military junta after the overthrow of Allende and that it made many of Pinochet's officers into paid contacts of the CIA or U.S. military, even though some were known to be involved in human rights abuses. CIA documents show that the CIA had close contact with members of the Chilean secret police, DINA, and its chief Manuel Contreras (paid asset from 1975 to 1977 according to the CIA in 2000). Some have alleged that the CIA's one-time payment to Contreras is proof that the U.S. approved of Operation Condor and military repression within Chile. The CIA's official documents state that at one time, some members of the intelligence community recommended making Contreras into a paid contact because of his closeness to Pinochet; the plan was rejected based on Contreras' poor human rights track record, but a single payment was made due to a miscommunication. In the description of the CIA's activities in Chile, it is acknowledged that one of their high-level contacts was more predisposed to committing abuse: "although the CIA had information indicating that a high-level contact was a hard-liner and therefore more likely to commit abuses, contact with him was allowed to continue in absence of concrete information about human rights abuses." A report dated 24 May 1977 also describes the newfound human rights abuses that may have been occurring in Chile: "reports of gross violation of human rights in Chile, which had nearly ceased earlier this year, are again on the rise...the Pinochet government is reverting to the practices that jeopardized its international standing since the 1973 coup." The document also details how these human rights violations could have caused a worsening of Chile's status on the international stage. It seems that the United States was unable to plan around these violations, as is referred to with the document's mention of high-ranking officials taking parts in the abuses also. On 6 March 2001, the New York Times reported the existence of a recently declassified State Department document revealing that the United States facilitated communications for Operation Condor. The document, a 1978 cable from Robert E. White, the U.S. ambassador to Paraguay, was discovered by Professor J. Patrice McSherry of Long Island University, who had published several articles on Operation Condor. She called the cable "another piece of increasingly weighty evidence suggesting that U.S. military and intelligence officials supported and collaborated with Condor as a secret partner or sponsor." In the cable, Ambassador White relates a conversation with General Alejandro Fretes Davalos, chief of staff of Paraguay's armed forces, who told him that the South American intelligence chiefs involved in Condor "keep in touch with one another through a U.S. communications installation in the Panama Canal Zone which covers all of Latin America". This installation is "employed to co-ordinate intelligence information among the southern cone countries." White, whose message was sent to Secretary of State Cyrus Vance, was concerned that the U.S. connection to Condor might be revealed during the then ongoing investigation into the deaths of the 44 year old former Chilean diplomat Orlando Letelier and his American colleague Ronni Moffitt. Her husband Michael Moffit was in the car during the bombing, but was the only survivor. "It would seem advisable," he suggests, "to review this arrangement to insure that its continuation is in U.S. interest." The document was found among 16,000 State, CIA, White House, Defense, and Justice Department records released in November 2000 on the nearly 17-year long Pinochet dictatorship in Chile, and Washington's role in the violent coup that brought his military regime to power. The release was the fourth and final batch of records released under the Clinton Administration's special Chile Declassification Project. During the Pinochet regime, four American citizens were killed: Charles Horman, Frank Teruggi, Boris Weisfeiler, and Ronni Karpen Moffit. Later on, in late August 1976, the United States Government stated in a State Department Secret Memorandum, that the United States Government did play an indirect role in the death of one of the four American citizens, Charles Horman. The Secret Memorandum states: "Based on what we have, we are persuaded that: The GOC sought Horman and felt threatened enough to order his immediate execution. The GOC might have believed this American could be killed without negative fall-out from the USG. There is some circumstantial evidence to suggest: U.S. intelligence may have played an unfortunate part in Horman's death. At best, it was limited to providing or confirming information that helped motivate his murder by the GOC. At worst, U.S. intelligence was aware the GOC saw Horman in a rather serious light and U.S. officials did nothing to discourage the logical outcome of GOC paranoia."- Department of State, Secret Memorandum, "Charles Horman Case," 25 August 1976 (uncensored version) On 30 June 2014, a Chilean court ruled that the United States played a key role in the murders of Charles Horman and Frank Teruggi. According to Judge Jorge Zepeda, U.S. Navy Capt. Ray E. Davis, who commanded the U.S. Military Mission in Chile, gave information to the Chilean government about Horman and Teruggi that resulted in their arrest and execution in the days following the coup. The Chilean Supreme Court sought to have Davis extradited from Florida to stand trial, but he was secretly living in Santiago and died in a nursing home in 2013. In a document declassified under the Obama administration's Chilean declassification project, documents were released stating that the CIA suspected Pinochet himself of personally giving the order for the assassination of Ronni Moffitt and Orlando Letelier. Although they were unable to gather enough intelligence that proved that he gave the order, they received shocking evidence from the Chilean Major, Armando Fernandez, who they convinced to come to the capital to provide them information, that Pinochet was directly involved in covering up the incident. Another declassified copy of a CIA special intelligence assessment on Pinochet's role in the Letelier and Moffitt assassinations were presented to the Chilean President Bachelet in 2016. That document asserts the CIA believed that Pinochet, "personally ordered his intelligence chief to carry out the murder.” Even with the evidence that they had, the Secretary of State George Shultz did not feel that there was enough to indict Pinochet but instead used the information to try to convince Reagan to change their policy with Chile. Pinochet stepped down from power in 1990 and died on 10 December 2006, without facing trial. Politics in the 21st century U.S. President Bill Clinton ordered the release of numerous documents relating to U.S. policy and actions toward Chile. The documents produced by various U.S. agencies were opened to the public by the U.S. State Department in October 1999. The collection of 1,100 documents dealt with the years leading up to the military coup. Regarding Pinochet's rise to power, the CIA concluded in a report issued in 2000 that: "The CIA actively supported the military junta after the overthrow of Allende but did not assist Pinochet to assume the Presidency." However, the 2000 report also stated that: "The major CIA effort against Allende came earlier in 1970 in the failed attempt to block his election and accession to the Presidency. Nonetheless, the U.S. Administration's long-standing hostility to Allende and its past encouragement of a military coup against him were well known among Chilean coup plotters who eventually took activities of their own to oust him." A White House press release in November 2000 acknowledged that "actions approved by the U.S. government during this period aggravated political polarization and affected Chile's long tradition of democratic elections" In a 2003 town hall with students, high school student James Doubek asked Secretary of State Colin Powell about the United States support for the coup, to which Powell replied that "it is not a part of American history that we're proud of". During U.S. President Barack Obama's visit to Chile in 2011, the center-left coalition of Chilean political parties asked Obama to apologize for past U.S. support of Pinochet. An interview with the Associated Press, Mr Piñera said his government was "categorically committed to contribute to the search for truth so that justice is done in all of these human rights cases". Obama did not respond to requests for an apology but said during a press conference that U.S. relations with Latin America had at times been "extremely rocky," and that people needed to learn from and understand history, but not be trapped by it. In February 2018, in an effort to create a "lasting counterpoint", a statue honoring the slain Chilean diplomat and think tank policy analyst Orlando Letelier was erected on Massachusetts Avenue in Washington, D.C., near the location where Letelier was killed in a 1976 car bombing on the orders of Pinochet. The attack also claimed the life of Ronnie Karpen Moffitt, Letelier's 25-year-old American co-worker. Michael Moffitt, husband of Ronnie Moffitt and also in the vehicle, survived the attack. The Chilean-orchestrated assassination had brought state-sponsored terrorism by an American-backed ally to the cradle of American dominion. Three of Letelier's sons and a granddaughter whom Letelier had never been afforded the opportunity to meet attended the unveiling. The unveiling of Letelier's commemorative statue came less than two years after the Obama administration had released a "long classified CIA analysis...[that] cited 'convincing evidence that President Pinochet personally ordered his intelligence chief to carry out the murder.'" Letelier had served as Chile's ambassador to the United States under Chile's democratically elected Allende government. After Pinochet's 1973 coup, Letelier became a political prisoner and sought political asylum in the United States, where he eventually came to spearhead the economic policy mission of a D.C.-based think tank, the Institute for Policy Studies, as well as organize international condemnation of Pinochet's regime. The Institute for Policy Studies has long incorporated the advancement of human rights into the core of its mission. See also Project FUBELT History of Chile Chile under Allende David H. Popper, US ambassador to Chile (1974–77) Family Jewels (Central Intelligence Agency) Foreign electoral intervention Military dictatorship of Chile (1973–90) - aftermath of the coup Latin America–United States relations Foreign interventions by the United States United States involvement in regime change References Further reading John Dinges (2005). The Condor Years: How Pinochet And His Allies Brought Terrorism To Three Continents. New York: The New Press. . Kristian Gustafson, (2007) Hostile Intent: U.S. Covert Operations in Chile, 1964–1974 (Dulles: Potomac Books) Tanya Harmer, (2011) Allende's Chile and the Inter-American Cold War (2011) online Jonathan Haslam (2005) Nixon Administration and the Death of Allende's Chile: A Case of Assisted Suicide (2005). Thomas Karamessines (1970). Operating guidance cable on coup plotting in Chile, Washington: National Security Council. Jeane Kirkpatrick (1979). "Dictatorships and Double Standards," Commentary, November, pp34–45. Henry Kissinger (1970). National Security Decision 93: Policy Towards Chile, Washington: National Security Council. Peter Kornbluh. The Pinochet File: A Declassified Dossier on Atrocity and Accountability. New York: The New Press. . James F. Petras & Morris H. Morley (1974). How Allende fell: A study in U.S.–Chilean relations, Nottingham: Spokesman Books. Lubna Z. Qureshi (2009). Nixon, Kissinger, and Allende: U.S. Involvement in the 1973 Coup in Chile. Lexington Books. Zakia Shiraz, "CIA Intervention in Chile and the Fall of the Allende Government in 1973." Journal of American Studies (2011) 45#3 pp 603–613. online at JSTOR; also online free summarizes the scholarly historiography External links Church Report. Covert Action in Chile 1963-1973 (FOIA) National Security Archive's Chile Documentation Project which provides documents obtained from FOIA requests regarding U.S. involvement in Chile, beginning with attempts to promote a coup in 1970 and continuing through U.S. support for Pinochet "Make the Economy Scream" famous instruction of Nixon to the CIA about Chile CIA activities in Chile (detailed report by the CIA itself) Chile and the United States: Declassified Documents relating to the Military Coup, 1970-1976 Central Intelligence Agency operations History of the foreign relations of Chile History of the foreign relations of the United States Presidency of Salvador Allende Chile Chile–United States military relations Foreign electoral intervention

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Philippa York (born Robert Millar on 13 September 1958) is a Scottish journalist and former professional road racing cyclist. York, who competed when known as Robert Millar, is one of Britain's most successful cyclists. York won the "King of the Mountains" competition in the 1984 Tour de France and finished fourth overall. This success was the first time a British rider won a major Tour classification, and was unsurpassed as the highest Tour finish for a Briton for over 20 years until Bradley Wiggins was retrospectively placed third in the 2009 Tour de France. York rode the Tour de France eleven times, completing the race eight times. York finished second in the 1987 Giro d'Italia and also won the King of the Mountains classification. This was the highest finish by a Briton in the Giro d'Italia until Chris Froome won the 2018 race. As well as the Giro second-place finish, York finished second in two other Grand Tours: the 1985 and 1986 Vuelta a España. The second place at the 1985 Vuelta came after losing the leader's jersey on the penultimate stage, in what is widely thought to have been collusion by the Spanish-speaking teams. Further victories came at the 1985 Volta a Catalunya, the 1989 Tour of Britain and the 1990 Critérium du Dauphiné Libéré. After retiring in 1995, York moved into journalism, as well as spending a year as a coach for British Cycling. She reduced her public commitments in 2000 following hostile stories regarding rumours of her gender transition, and after an appearance as Millar at the 2002 Commonwealth Games left public life altogether. In the 2010s, having transitioned to living as York, she returned to journalism, publishing under the name of Robert Millar, until a decision to reveal her transition publicly by appearing on television in 2017 in a commentary role. Early life and amateur career York was born and raised in Glasgow, Scotland, as Robert Millar. At one time destined for a career as a factory engineer, York attended Shawlands Academy in the south of the city. In 2017, York revealed that she had first felt "different" aged five, but was unaware that this difference came from discomfort with having a male body. She initially began riding for Glenmarnock Wheelers cycling club and quickly established herself as a leading amateur road racing rider. As Robert Millar, she was a relatively small man meaning she had comparatively less weight to carry uphill and she excelled as a specialist hill and mountain cyclist. She won the Scottish junior title in 1976 and was Scottish hill-climb champion the following year. In 1978, York established herself on the British scene. She was twenty-first in the Milk Race, and won the British amateur road race championship. She moved to France in 1979 to join the Athletic Club de Boulogne Billancourt (A.C.B.B.), one of Europe's top amateur teams, and quickly began winning races such the Grand Prix de la Ville de Lillers. In 1979, after retaining her British road title, taking fourth place in the world amateur road championship, claiming five wins in France and winning the French 'Best Amateur' Trophy, she turned professional for the Peugeot cycling team, and as a climbing specialist focused on single-day road races and stage races in hilly or mountainous terrain. York was happy to travel abroad and wasn't homesick. As Millar, she married a French woman and lived with her in France. Professional career 1980–1982: Early years York's 1980 debut pro season included second in the Tour du Vaucluse to Michel Laurent and eighth in a race in which she would finish in the top ten overall in her career seven times, the Tour de Romandie. Returning home for the UK National Championship, she finished fifth. In 1981 she improved one place on the year before with her seventh place in the Tour de Romandie. 1981 was her first prominent finish in another race in which she would again consistently impress, the Critérium du Dauphiné Libéré. York finished seventh as per the Tour de Romandie and was the first of six occasions in which she would end the Dauphiné in the top ten in the General Classification.1982 saw York again finish seventh in the Tour de Romandie. In the second year of the under-23 Tour de l'Avenir being opened to professionals, York finished second to Greg LeMond. 1983: Tour de France debut In 1983 York came second in the Critérium du Dauphiné Libéré with LeMond again finishing a place above her. With her impressive June showing in the Dauphine, York was selected for the Tour de France for the first time. Any hopes of a high placing in the tour General Classification ended on stage three when she crashed losing seventeen minutes. 11 July was that year's tour first mountainous race crossing the Aubisque, Tourmalet, Aspin, and Peyresourde in the Pyrenees on stage ten. The only Pyrenean stage of that tour, York won the day six seconds ahead of Pedro Delgado. York finished fourteenth overall, twenty-three minutes behind the winner, Laurent Fignon and sandwiched in between two riders who would figure prominently in her career, Stephen Roche in thirteenth and Delgado in fifteenth. York's debut grand tour gave her third in the mountains classification, one place above Delgado like in the General Classification with Lucien Van Impe taking the polka dot jersey. 1984: York's best Tour de France 1984 saw continued improvement. In the early season Paris–Nice, she and her team-mates finished second in the stage four team time trial. Two days later York finished second on a stage ending on Mont Ventoux putting her in the overall lead at that point. She ended the race in sixth overall behind winner Sean Kelly, Stephen Roche, Bernard Hinault, Michel Laurent and Phil Anderson. In the Tour de Romandie second stage at Crans Montana she beat Pascal Simon into second place. Roche won the race with York finishing in fifth. York took the mountains competition. York also enjoyed success in the Grand Prix du Midi Libre winning a stage and finishing fourth overall. Then came York's best Tour de France. Stage eleven again began at Pau. After crossing the climbs of the Portet d'Aspet, Core and Latrape, York won the stage finishing with a climb to Guzet-Neige ski station. She was forty-one seconds ahead of Luis Herrera with Delgado a further twenty seconds behind in third. York finished fourth overall (surpassing Tom Simpson's sixth place in the 1960s as the best British finish at the time) with Fignon winning for the second successive year and Hinault and LeMond also ahead of York. Kelly was a place behind York in fifth. York won the "King of the Mountains" polka dot jersey, the first time a native English speaker had won this jersey. On 2 September was York's best finish in the UCI World Championships. Raced in Barcelona, York finished sixth with winner Claude Criquielion, Claudio Corti and Steve Bauer taking the podium places. Other races that year included second in the Tour du Haut Var to Eric Caritoux and second in Nice–Alassio to Stephen Roche. York finished seventh in the Volta a Catalunya, won by Kelly. 1985: The “stolen Vuelta” In 1985, the Vuelta a España was still held in its April–May slot as the first of the three grand tours of the season. York took over the race lead on stage ten, a stage won by Kelly. York held the lead going into what has become one of the most infamous days' racing in the history of the event. York started the day just ten seconds ahead of Francisco Rodríguez with Spain's Pello Ruiz Cabestany 65 seconds further behind in third. With the following day's last stage of the race little more than ceremonial, York said to the press, "I just have to stick to Pacho Rodríguez's wheel and it's done." A mountainous stage with three major climbs, Rodriguez tried but was unable to make any inroads on York on the first climb of the day, the Morcuera. At the foot of the second climb, the Cotos, York punctured, meaning once the puncture had been tackled York had to chase to get back to Rodriguez and Cabestany. By the time riders reached the third climb, Los Leones, York had not only reached Rodriguez and Cabestany but was also taking their congratulations, indicating their acceptance of the race being effectively over as a contest. However, York was unaware that Delgado, in the mountains around his Segovia home town that he knew so well, had launched an attack. None of the riders in York's group made York aware of the attack by Delgado, an elite specialist climber like York, with the knowledge of the roads allowing him to descend aggressively. Delgado had support in his break from a second rider, Jose Recio. Delgado had started the day in sixth place and six minutes behind York. Working with Recio, Delgado was now nearly seven minutes ahead of York on the road. York had no team-mates in the group with Rodriguez and Cabestany as they had been unable to keep up. Recio won the stage and Delgado took overall lead of the race by thirty-six seconds from York. With the race being referred to as "The Stolen Vuelta', from the collusion among the Spanish-speaking riders, York finished second overall. Peugeot directeur sportif, Roland Berland, said "It's rotten, the whole peloton was against us. It seems a Spaniard had to win at all costs." L'Équipe's Philip Bouvet stated York was "the victim of a formidable Spanish coalition". York said afterwards "I'll never return to Spain". In the television documentary on the career of Robert Millar, "The High Life", York criticised Berland for his handling of the situation on the road when Delgado attacked, stating that Berland had been unable to negotiate support from other non-Spanish speaking teams during the stage to give York the required support to chase down Delgado's lead. Earlier that year, York had come sixth once more in the early season Paris–Nice, with Kelly again winning in his run of seven successive victories in the event. In the Tour de France, York finished eleventh. In September, York was overall winner of the Volta a Catalunya, taking the leader's jersey on the penultimate stage, a individual time trial at Tortosa. York beat Sean Kelly, the previous overall winner, by three seconds. In the Giro del Piemonte, York finished third behind Charly Mottet. In the Tour du Haut Var, York ended seventh, with Mottet again the victor. York was fourth in the Grand Prix de Wallonie (won by Marc Madiot). York was sixth in two races won by Stephen Roche, the Tour Midi-Pyrenees – now known as the Route du Sud – and the Critérium International. In the Critérium du Dauphiné Libéré, York placed ninth behind a winning Phil Anderson. 1986: Vuelta runner up again York changed teams in 1986 to ride for Panasonic. Despite her previous comment after the 1985 race, she again rode in the Vuelta a España. York won stage six from Santander to Lagos de Covadonga putting her into the leader's jersey. On stage eleven however, a time trial at Valladolid, Alvaro Pino took over the lead and retained this to the finish with York finishing second overall like she had the year before. The winning margin was one minute and six seconds. In the Tour de France York was racing well even before the race reached the mountains with a third in the team time trial and ninth in the individual time trial on stage nine. York was placed tenth at this point. This improved further in the Pyrenees on stage thirteen from Pau crossing the Tourmalet, the Aspin, the Peyresourde and finishing at Superbagneres. York finished second on the day to eventual winner of the race, Greg Lemond. This placed York in fourth overall at this point and in the lead in the mountains competition. She retained this to the end of stage seventeen between Gap and Serre Chevalier. However York was battling illness and began to spiral down the placings in a struggle just to stay in the race. In the stage twenty time trial, in contrast to the ninth place in the earlier time trial, York placed 112th over ten minutes behind the stage winner (Hinault). York started stage twenty-one in fifteenth overall but climbed off her bike to abandon the race before the conical final climb of the day up the Puy de Dôme. In other races, York finished second overall in the Tour de Suisse behind Andrew Hampsten. York was sixth in the Vuelta a Aragón and seventh in the Escalada a Montjuïc. 1987: Giro d'Italia In 1987 York rode the Giro d'Italia for the only time in her career. The race provided high drama due to the controversy between two riders on the same Carrera team, Roberto Visentini and Roche. The two teammates battled each other, but the presence of York and her own Panasonic team-mate, Erik Breukink, challenging for the race made this risky. York won stage 21 in a three-man breakaway with Roche and Marino Lejarreta. The result moved her up to second overall and gave Roche the win as Visentini fell, broke his wrist and lost six more minutes on what was to be his last day in the race. York also took the climber's green jersey. In the Tour de Romandie, York finished fourth, a race won by Roche as was the Tour de France. York finished nineteenth in the Tour de France, although at the end of stage fourteen from Pau to Luz Ardiden York again enjoyed her zenith in the race when she was fifth overall. Like the year before she had been helped by a strong showing in the first individual time trial. However, York slipped to fifth, then sixth, before on stage nineteen she lost over fifteen minutes to slide out of contention. Elsewhere York was fifth in Liège–Bastogne–Liège with Moreno Argentin winning for the third year running. York was sixth in the Tour of the Mediterranean (Gerrit Solleveld won) and seventh in the Setmana Catalana de Ciclisme behind winner Vicent Belda. 1988 In 1988, York joined the French Fagor team as had Roche and Schepers. York managed her best position in a one-day 'Monument' Classic, third in Liège–Bastogne–Liège behind Adri van der Poel. York returned to the Vuelta a Espana and finished sixth overall with Kelly winning. In the Tour de France, after struggling in the Alps, on stage fourteen she lost the opportunity of a repeat Pyrenees stage win in Guzet-Neige. York led over each of the first two climbs from Blagnac. In sprinting uphill to the finish with Phillipe Bouvatier, both riders mistook a gendarme's signals, took a wrong turn and ceded the win to Massimo Ghirotto. York finished in second on the day two seconds behind. The next day York was again riding at the front when leading over the second climb but cracked and finished twenty-one minutes behind. Stage seventeen was the last she would complete that year. High placings that year were second in the Bicicleta Vasca included third in each of the Critérium International and the Route de Sud (Ronan Pensec won). York was eighth in Volta a Catalunya] and ninth in Paris–Nice. 1989: A third Tour stage win York returned to one of her previous teams, Z-Peugeot as it was now known and was second overall behind Mottet after winning stage seven in the Critérium du Dauphiné Libéré. York was a stage winner in the Tour de Romandie and a runner-up in the Grand Prix de Wallonie to Thomas Wegmüller. She rode only one grand tour for the first time since 1984, and she had her best placing in the tour since the 1984 race. She won stage ten of the 1989 Tour de France from Cauterets to Superbagnères. York was first to the top of all four of that day's climbs scaling the Tourmalet, Aspin, and Peyresourde before the Superbagneres finish. Charly Mottet was dropped from the three-man group approaching the finish leaving York to out sprint Delgado at the line. York was placed eighth at this point and ended that year's tour in tenth. In the autumn York was overall winner in the Tour of Britain with her decisive move coming in a long two-man breakaway with Mauro Gianetti into Cardiff. Gianetti took the sprint for the stage but York comfortably stayed in yellow for the rest of the race. Other top ten placings included eighth in the Tour de Vaucluse (Rooks won) and ninth in the Grand Prix of the Americas. 1990: Dauphiné Libéré Victory in the Critérium du Dauphiné Libéré arrived in 1990. York was in a stage six, two-person breakaway with Thierry Claveyrolat. Both riders finished in the top five in the leading group the next day. Stage eight was an individual time trial and despite strong time trialists being in the peloton such as Roche and Toni Rominger, York took the overall title with Claveyrolat the runner up. York was runner up for a second time in the Tour de Suisse with Kelly the victor that year. York was a stage winner in the Tour de Romandie (Mottet took overall prize). York took fourth place in the Giro di Lombardia behind Gilles Delion. In between, she also took second place in the 1990 Tour of Britain hampered by a crash on the last day. In the Tour de France York rode as part of the team intended to support the previous year's winner and reigning world champion, Greg LeMond. The Z team not only helped deliver the yellow jersey for LeMond but also won the team competition. York though was denied the yellow cap award from the competition her team led from stage ten onwards. Stage fourteen was the last she completed on the tour that year. This was York's third and last withdrawal from the eleven times she rode the tour. Other placings in the top ten that year included fourth in the Vuelta a Andalucía and ninth in La Flèche Wallonne. 1991 York won a stage in the 1991 Tour de Suisse and finished fifth overall. That year was her best overall finish in the Tour de Romandie, second, with Rominger the man denying York the title. She was second in the debut edition of the Classique des Alpes, fourth in the Critérium du Dauphiné Libéré, fourth in the Tour of Britain and fifth in the Grand Prix of the Americas. She finished the Tour de France in seventy-second place, the only one of her eight finishes in the tour that was outside the top twenty-five. 1992–95: Later racing career In 1992, York revealed her vegetarianism, which was an intention to improve her performance on the bike. "It's not a principle – it's a personal thing. I've read a lot of books about it". York completed the Tour de France in 1992 (18th) and 1993 (24th), and the Vuelta in 1992 (20th) and 1993 (15th). In a time when doping was common and bans shorter, York tested positive for testosterone after a stage of the Vuelta a España, in 1992. She was fined £1,100, lost her third place on the stage, incurred a 10-minute time penalty and was given a three-month suspended ban. In the final years of her career, she achieved top ten finishes in the Setmana Catalana de Ciclisme, Giro del Piemonti and Liege – Bastogne–Liege (all in 1992), and the Classiques des Alpes and the Midi Libre (both in 1993). However, further victories largely eluded her. Her final major victory came in June 1995 when she won the National Road Race Championship. However, soon afterwards, her French team Le Groupement went bust and York retired from racing. After racing In 1997, York became the coach of the British national team, and in 1998 managed the Scottish team in the Tour of Britain, an eight-day round-Britain stage race. She also worked in journalism, writing for several cycling magazines. Absence from public life York and her wife were believed to have separated in the late 1990s. In 2000, a tabloid news story reported that York, still known publicly as Robert Millar, was now living as a woman. The story hurt York, who reduced her connections with cycling, though still kept up some writing and appeared at the 2002 Commonwealth Games as Millar. Following this, however, she receded further from view and cut her ties with cycling. In 2007, journalist Richard Moore wrote a biography of York titled In Search of Robert Millar. After initially refusing to respond, York did answer some of Moore's questions via email, though dramatically cut off contact. At the time, Moore wrote that "It is impossible to put a date on Millar's disappearance. It was more a fade-out than a vanishing act ... These days, Millar is in very occasional email contact with one or two former acquaintances but his whereabouts are a mystery". Re-emergence York partially returned to journalism in the 2010s, writing a blog for Cyclingnews and later writing occasionally for other publications including The Guardian. She remained a private figure, but following her announcement of her gender transition joined the ITV4 commentary team for the 2017 Tour de France. In popular culture During the mid-1980s Millar appeared in television commercials for Kellogg's 'Start' cereal. A one-hour Granada Television documentary about Millar's 1985 racing season, entitled The High Life, which also included appearances by Allan Peiper and music by Steve Winwood, was screened in Britain on the eve of the 1986 Tour de France. Robert Millar – The High Life was rediscovered and screened, simultaneously with the release of the book, at Edinburgh Bike Week Film Festival on 26 June 2007. A DVD version of the documentary was released in 2008. In 2011, Millar authored analytical opinions for Cyclingnews during the Tour de France. In June 2021, a large mural was created by artist Rogue-One on a gable wall in Lennoxtown, Scotland depicting an image of York as Robert Millar in the polka-dot jersey; the building is located at the edge of the Campsie Fells where she trained as a cyclist specialising in hill-climbing. Personal life As Millar, York married a French woman, Sylvie Transler, in December 1985. No one from York's family was in attendance, nor any team-mates, who had no idea he even had a girlfriend. Panasonic team-mate Phil Anderson commented, "He didn't seem to have the skills for getting on with men, let alone women". The couple were believed to have separated by the late 1990s. As a cyclist, York had a reputation for being taciturn and could be uncooperative with the media. Jeff Connor, author of Wide Eyed & Legless: Inside the Tour de France was told to "fuck off" when requesting an interview during the 1987 Tour de France. When told this, commentator Phil Liggett replied, "That sounds like Millar, he's been really awkward with us in the past. Personally, I think it's a disgrace. He has a duty to his sponsor to represent the team and you don't do that by telling journalists to 'fuck off'." During commentary for Stage 23 of the 1987 Tour de France, Liggett stated "[It has been a] very disappointing Tour for Robert. He has lost a lot of popularity, too, one has to say. He won't speak to journalists and the team itself [Panasonic] is also becoming discontented with Robert this year." York subsequently left Panasonic at the end of the 1987 season, to join Fagor. York's disappearance during the 2000s was at the time attributed to these characteristics of insularity and eccentricity. At the time, rumours of a gender transition were largely disregarded. On 6 July 2017, in a statement on Cyclingnews, York confirmed her gender transition. She wrote that: York is the first former professional cyclist to have publicly transitioned. She is not related to David Millar, a fellow road cyclist from the west of Scotland whose main success came in the mid-2000s. Career achievements Major results Source: 1976 1st Road race, Scottish Junior Road Championships 1978 1st Road race, National Amateur Road Championships 1st Overall Tour of the Peak 1st Scottish Hill-Climb Championship 2nd Overall Premier Calendar 1979 1st Road race, National Amateur Road Championships 1st Overall Merlin Plage Trophy 1st Paris–Evreux 1st Overall Route de France (Under-23) 1st GP de la Ville de Lillers 1st GP de la Boucherie 4th Road race, UCI Amateur Road World Championships 1980 2nd Overall Tour du Vaucluse 8th Overall Tour de Romandie 10th Tour du Haut Var 1981 5th Overall Tour de l'Aude 5th GP du Canton d'Argovie 6th Overall Critérium du Dauphiné Libéré 7th Overall Tour de Romandie 1982 2nd Overall Tour de l'Avenir 7th Overall Tour de Romandie 7th Overall Circuit de la Sarthe 1983 1st Stage 10 Tour de France 2nd Overall Critérium du Dauphiné Libéré 1984 2nd Overall Tour du Haut Var 2nd Nice–Alassio 4th Overall Tour de France 1st Mountains classification 1st Stage 11 4th Overall Grand Prix du Midi Libre 1st Stage 4 5th Overall Tour de Romandie 1st Stage 2 6th Overall Paris–Nice 1st Stage 11 6th Road race, UCI Road World Championships 7th Overall Volta a Catalunya 9th Clásica de San Sebastián 1985 1st Overall Volta a Catalunya 2nd Overall Vuelta a España 1st Combination classification 3rd Giro del Piemonte 4th Grand Prix de Wallonie 6th Overall Paris–Nice 6th Overall Critérium International 6th Overall Tour Midi-Pyrénées 7th Overall Tour du Haut Var 8th Overall Tour Méditerranéen 9th Overall Critérium du Dauphiné Libéré 10th Road race, UCI Road World Championships 10th Clásica de San Sebastián 1986 2nd Overall Vuelta a España 1st Stage 6 2nd Overall Tour de Suisse 6th Overall Vuelta a Aragón 10th Grand Prix d'Isbergues 1987 2nd Overall Giro d'Italia 1st Mountains classification 1st Stage 21 4th Overall Tour de Romandie 5th Liège–Bastogne–Liège 6th Overall Tour Mediterranean 1st Stage 1 7th Overall Setmana Catalana de Ciclisme 1988 2nd Overall Bicicleta Vasca 3rd Overall Critérium International 3rd Overall Route du Sud 3rd Liège–Bastogne–Liège 6th Overall Vuelta a España 8th Overall Volta a Catalunya 9th Overall Paris–Nice 10th Overall Nissan Classic 1989 1st Overall Tour of Britain 2nd Overall Critérium du Dauphiné Libéré 1st Mountains classification 1st Stage 6b (ITT) 2nd Grand Prix de Wallonie 3rd Overall Tour de Romandie 1st Stage 4 7th GP Bessèges 8th Paris–Camembert 9th Grand Prix des Amériques 10th Overall Tour de France 1st Stage 10 1990 1st Overall Critérium du Dauphiné Libéré 2nd Overall Tour de Romandie 1st Stage 5 2nd Overall Tour de Suisse 1st Mountains classification 2nd Overall Tour of Britain 1st Mountains classification 4th Overall Vuelta a Andalucia 4th Giro di Lombardia 4th GP Ouest–France 7th Grand Prix de Rennes 9th La Flèche Wallonne 1991 2nd Overall Tour de Romandie 2nd Classique des Alpes 4th Overall Critérium du Dauphiné Libéré 4th Overall Tour of Britain 5th Overall Tour de Suisse 1st Stage 5 (ITT) 5th Grand Prix des Amériques 1992 6th Giro del Lazio 7th Giro del Piemonte 9th Overall Tour of Britain 9th Overall Setmana Catalana de Ciclisme 9th Liège–Bastogne–Liège 1993 2nd Overall Vuelta a los Valles Mineros 6th Overall Grand Prix du Midi Libre 7th Overall Vuelta a Asturias 9th Classique des Alpes 1994 6th Coppa Placci 7th Coppa Sabatini 9th Overall Tour of Galicia 1995 1st Road race, National Road Championships 9th Classique des Alpes General classification results timeline Honours Scottish Sports Hall of Fame: 2003 British Cycling Hall of Fame: 2009 See also List of British cyclists List of Tour de France secondary classification winners List of people from Glasgow References Bibliography External links Former Tour de France cyclist Philippa York on her transition from Robert Millar, Telegraph online 7 July 2017, retrieved 11 Apr 2018. There was no easy way of becoming Philippa, The Daily Telegraph, 11 Apr 2018, Sport pp 10–12. 1958 births Living people British cycling road race champions British Giro d'Italia stage winners British Tour de France stage winners British Vuelta a España stage winners Cycling journalists People educated at Shawlands Academy Scottish cyclists Scottish cycling coaches Cyclists from Glasgow Transgender and transsexual sportspeople Transgender and transsexual women Tour de Suisse stage winners LGBT sportspeople from Scotland LGBT cyclists

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Network Rail Limited is the owner (via its subsidiary Network Rail Infrastructure Limited, which was known as Railtrack plc before 2002) and infrastructure manager of most of the railway network in Great Britain. Network Rail is an "arm's length" public body of the Department for Transport with no shareholders, which reinvests its income in the railways. Network Rail's main customers are the private train operating companies (TOCs), responsible for passenger transport, and freight operating companies (FOCs), who provide train services on the infrastructure that the company owns and maintains. Since 1 September 2014, Network Rail has been classified as a "public sector body". To cope with fast-increasing passenger numbers, () Network Rail has been undertaking a £38 billion programme of upgrades to the network, including Crossrail, electrification of lines and upgrading Thameslink. In May 2021, the Government announced its intent to replace Network Rail in 2023 with a new public body called Great British Railways. History Pre-2002 Britain's railway system was built by private companies, but it was nationalised by the Transport Act 1947 and run by British Railways until re-privatisation which was begun in 1994 and completed in 1997. Infrastructure, passenger and freight services were separated at that time. Between 1994 and 2002 the infrastructure was owned and operated by Railtrack. The Hatfield train crash on 17 October 2000 was a defining moment in the collapse of Railtrack. The immediate major repairs undertaken across the whole British railway network were estimated to have cost in the order of £580 million and Railtrack had no idea how many more 'Hatfields' were waiting to happen because it had lost considerable in-house engineering skill following the sale or closure of many of the engineering and maintenance functions of British Rail to external companies; nor did the company have any way of assessing the consequence of the speed restrictions it was ordering, which all but brought the railway network to a standstill. The costs of modernising the West Coast Main Line were also spiralling. In 2001, Railtrack announced that, despite making a pre-tax profit before exceptional expenses of £199m, the £733m of costs and compensation paid out over the Hatfield crash had plunged Railtrack from profit into a loss of £534m, and it approached the government for funding, which it then used to pay a £137m dividend to its shareholders in May 2001. Network Rail Ltd. took over control by buying Railtrack plc, which was in "railway administration", from Railtrack Group plc for £500 million; Railtrack plc was then renamed and reconstituted as Network Rail Infrastructure Ltd. The purchase was completed on 3 October 2002. The former company had thus never ceased to exist but continued under another name: for this reason Network Rail Infrastructure Ltd was the defendant in later prosecutions in respect of events which had occurred in the days of Railtrack. 2002 onwards Following an initial period in which Network Rail established itself and demonstrated its competence in addressing the principal challenges of improving asset condition, reducing unit costs and tackling delay, the Government's Rail Review in 2004 said that Network Rail should be given responsibility for whole-industry performance reporting, timetable development, specification of small and medium network enhancements, and the delivery of route-specific utilisation strategies (RUS). Some of these are functions which Network Rail already had; others – such as the obligation to devise route utilisation strategies – were transferred to Network Rail from the Strategic Rail Authority, a non-departmental public body, part of the UK government. The SRA was abolished in November 2006. The company moved its headquarters to Kings Place, 90 York Way, from 40 Melton Street, Euston, in August 2008. In October 2008, Sir Ian McAllister announced that he would not stand for re-election as chairman of Network Rail. He had held the position for six years. He noted that as Network Rail moved to a "new phase in its development" it was appropriate for a new chairman to lead it there. Many track safety initiatives have been introduced in the time Network Rail has been responsible for this area. The latest, announced in December 2008, known as "All Orange", states that all track personnel must not only wear orange hi-vis waistcoats or jackets, but must also wear orange hi-vis trousers at all times when working on or near the track. This ruling came into force in January 2009 for maintenance and property workers and in April 2009 for infrastructure and investment sites. Allegations of misuse of public funds and discrimination In 2009, allegations appeared in the media from the Transport Salaried Staffs' Association concerning treatment of Network Rail employees. Former chief executive Iain Coucher was also accused of financial impropriety involving unspecified payments to his business partner Victoria Pender during his tenure at Network Rail. An internal investigation held by Network Rail in 2010, vetted by its auditors PricewaterhouseCoopers, uncovered no evidence of wrongdoing. An independent enquiry headed by Anthony White QC in 2011 further examined the claims, but also exonerated Coucher. Knighthood of John Armitt Critical commentary appeared in the media concerning the knighthood awarded to John Armitt in the 2012 New Year Honours for services to engineering and construction. Armitt was Chief Executive of Network Rail at the time of the 2007 Grayrigg derailment and the family of a victim of the accident criticised the award, which coincidentally was conferred on the same day that Network Rail were prosecuted for the accident. Regional reorganisation In 2011 the company began the process of reorganising its operational structure into nine semi-autonomous regional entities, each with their own managing director; the first two units to be created were Scotland and Wessex regions. The reorganisation has been interpreted as a move back towards vertical integration of track and train operations. Great Western Electrification Network Rail's project to electrify the Great Western Main Line had been dogged by poor planning and cost overruns. The projected cost had increased from £1.2 billion to £2.8 billion by the end of 2015 and the project was eventually delayed to the point where the government asked Hitachi to retrofit the new Intercity Express Programme trainsets with diesel engines as well as electric traction, as the electrification had been scaled back. Sharing of responsibility with TOCs In December 2016, the Transport Secretary, Chris Grayling announced that Network Rail would lose sole control of track maintenance and repairs, and instead would share this with the Train Operating Companies. Responsibilities Network Rail owns the infrastructure, including the railway tracks, signals, overhead wires, tunnels, bridges, level crossings and most stations, but not the passenger or commercial freight rolling stock. It however owns a fleet of departmental stock. Although it owns over 2,500 railway stations, it manages only 20 of the biggest and busiest of them, all the other stations being managed by one or other of the various train operating companies (TOCs). Network Rail has a 15-year lease on Square One in Manchester with 800 staff in one of Manchester's largest refurbished office spaces. Network Rail should not be confused with 'National Rail'. National Rail is not an organisation, but merely a brand, used to explain and promote a Great Britain-wide network of passenger railway services. The majority of Network Rail lines also carry freight traffic; some lines are freight only. A few lines that carry passenger traffic are not part of the National Rail network (for example the Tyne and Wear Metro (between Pelaw and Sunderland) and the London Underground). Conversely, a few National Rail services operate over track which is not part of the Network Rail network. For example, Chiltern Railways services run on track owned by London Underground between Harrow-on-the-Hill and Amersham. The current Chairman is Sir Peter Hendy, and Andrew Haines was appointed as the Chief Executive in August 2018. Planned demise In May 2021, the Government announced that Network Rail is to superseded by a new body, Great British Railways, in 2023. Funding Network Rail is a not-for-profit organisation. The majority of funding comes from a mix of direct grants and borrowing from the UK and Scottish Governments, payments from train and freight operators and a small amount of income from commercial property estate. Network Rail works in five-year funding cycles called "Control Periods" (CP for short). The government specifies what is needed from Network Rail and sets out how much the government can afford to contribute. The Office of Rail and Road (ORR) then sets the level of fixed income that Network Rail is allowed to charge and assesses the amount of money needed by Network Rail to run efficiently. The last Control Period ran from 2014 to 2019; 1 April 2019 was the start of Control Period 6. In 2019, government funding for train operating companies amounted to £4.1 billion, paying access charges to use the rail network, £2.1 billion and freight £58 million. In 2019, it spent £3.1 billion on renewals (restoring existing infrastructure back to how it was when new) and £3.2 billion on enhancements, with the rest spent on maintenance and other costs. Assets Infrastructure Network Rail covers 20,000 miles of track, and 40,000 bridges and tunnels. In October 2003 Network Rail announced that it would take over all infrastructure maintenance work from private contractors, following concerns about the quality of work carried out by certain private firms, and spiralling costs. February 2004 saw the opening of an operations centre at Waterloo station in London, operated jointly by Network Rail and South West Trains. This was the first full collaboration of its kind since privatisation, and it is regarded as a model for other areas of the network, with a further six integrated Network Rail + TOC Control Centres having opened since then, at Blackfriars, Croydon (Leading Control for Thameslink), , , Glasgow and, most recently, Liverpool Street and South Wales based in Cardiff Canton. Track renewal, the ongoing modernisation of the railway network by replacing track and signalling, continues to be carried out by private engineering firms under contract. The biggest renewals projects include the multibillion-pound upgrade of the London – Glasgow West Coast Main Line, which was completed in 2008, the Thameslink Programme to upgrade the north–south railway through London and work on the part of Crossrail which is operated by Network Rail. Network Rail initially sub-contracted much of the work and the site to private infrastructure maintenance companies such as Carillion and First Engineering. Other sub-contractors are used on site for specialist work or additional labour. These include Prima Services Group, Sky Blue, Balfour Beatty, Laboursite, BCL, Atkins (Atkins Rail) and McGinleys. Since 2003 Network Rail has been building up significant in-house engineering skills, including funding of apprenticeship and foundation degree schemes. Network Rail reports significant savings resulting from the initial transfers of work away from contracting companies. Additional contracts were taken back by Network Rail after the serious accident at Potters Bar and other accidents at Rotherham and King's Cross led Jarvis to pull out of the track repair business. Shortly after this, and due to other failures by maintenance companies, Network Rail took control of many more maintenance duties. Telecomms maintenance came full circle in April 2009 with the bringing in house of the staff of Thales Telecom Services Ltd (formerly British Rail Telecommunications (BRT)). In 2006, Network Rail made public a high-tech plan to combat the effects of slippery rail. This plan involves the use of satellites for tracking trouble areas, water-jetting trains and crews using railhead scrubbers, sand sticks and a substance called Natrusolve, which dissolves leaf mulch. All workers working on or near the line or trackside have to pass a medical assessment and a drug and alcohol test. They must also sit a Personal Track Safety training course and undergo assessment to be issued with a PTS card (reassessment is required every two years). Network Rail workers undergo periodic assessments as part of the AITL process (Assessment in the Line). The AITL requires each worker to go through questions on a computer based program on all the competencies held. A line closure for engineering or renewal works is known as a possession. In 2007 it was announced that the number of track renewal contractors will be reduced to four from the current six. These are now Amey/SECO, Balfour Beatty, Babcock First Engineering and Jarvis plc. Jarvis went into administration in March 2010, with the bulk of its work commitments being picked up by Babcock. Stations Network Rail owns more than 2,500 railway stations, divided into six categories. Management and operation of most of them is carried out mostly by the principal train operating company serving that station; however, in a few cases the train operating company does not serve the station. For example, is served by CrossCountry, but it is managed by East Midlands Railway. As of April 2018, Network Rail manages 20 stations directly, with Clapham Junction and Guildford becoming managed stations on 1 April 2018. The stations Network Rail operate are: National Central London stations London Bridge London Cannon Street London Liverpool Street London Paddington London St Pancras International London Victoria London Waterloo Glasgow Central and Liverpool Lime Street stations are divided into high and low-level stations – the high-level stations are all termini used primarily by the main inter-city services to those stations. The low-level stations are through routes on local commuter networks that are largely separate from other routes to the main station; these platforms are not managed by Network Rail, but instead the rail operator that primarily uses them (Abellio ScotRail and Merseyrail respectively). Network Rail operated station until January 2012 when it was transferred to Southern, and until November 2014 when it was transferred to c2c. Network Rail took over management of Bristol Temple Meads and Reading in April 2014. A DfT franchise report in 2014 stated Network Rail's intention to subsume more major stations into Network Rail's directly operated portfolio. The report earmarked for Network Rail management, as well as Manchester Oxford Road and Manchester Victoria which are currently undergoing major rebuilding as part of the Northern Hub. However the two Manchester stations remained under the operatorship of Arriva Rail North. Training facilities Network Rail has several training and development sites around Britain. These include sites in York, Peterborough, Derby, Leeds, Walsall and Larbert which provide refresher courses, and train staff in new equipment. Advanced Apprentice Scheme trainees are trained at Network Rail's Westwood training centre for the first five months of their apprenticeship and then are trained further at HMS Sultan in Gosport over seven 2-week periods or five 3-week periods (throughout their second and third year) of their apprenticeship, using a combination of Royal Navy facilities and a specially installed training centre. All courses are taught by VT Flagship (part of Babcock International) in the first year but apprentices are trained by Network Rail staff in the second and third years. Network Rail bought a residential centre from Cable and Wireless in the Westwood Business Centre near Coventry for leadership development. The company and other industry partners such as VolkerRail and Balfour Beatty also operate a Foundation Degree in conjunction with Sheffield Hallam University. In 2008, Network Rail piloted its first qualification in "track engineering". It has been given permission to develop courses equivalent to GCSE and A-levels. Telecoms assets Network Rail operates various essential telecommunication circuits for signalling and electrification control systems, train radio systems, lineside communications, level crossing CCTV, station information and security systems as well as more general IT and business telephony needs. The fixed bearer network infrastructure comprises transmission systems and telephone exchanges linked by a fibre optic and copper cable network that is located mainly within trackside troughing routes on the former British Rail Telecommunications network. (It is the largest private telecoms network in the UK). Network Rail operates several analogue radio networks that support mobile communication applications for drivers and lineside workers which consist of base stations, antenna systems and control equipment. The National Radio Network (NRN) was developed specifically for the operational railway; it provides radio coverage for 98% of the rail network through 500 base stations and 21 radio exchanges. The Radio Electronic Token Block RETB system is based on similar technology as the NRN and ORN but provides data communication for signalling token exchange as well as voice communication. Fixed communication at trackside is provided by telephone. These are primarily provided for signallers to communicate with train crew, via telephones mounted on signal posts, and with the public through telephones located at level crossings. GAI-Tronics provides many of the telephones sited on trackside and at level crossings. They also provide Public Access Help Points on platforms and stations to provide passengers with easy access to Information and Emergency control centres. GSM-R radio systems are being introduced across Europe under EU legislation for interoperability. In the UK, as of March 2014, Network Rail is well underway in the UK implementation of GSM-R to replace its legacy National Radio Network (NRN) and Cab Secure Radio (CSR) systems currently in use. Network Rail has an internal infrastructure database known as GEOGIS. The system uses codes for four-digit Track IDs to identify which line at any location is referred to. The first number refers to track direction, with values of 1 (Up), 2 (Down), 3 (Reversible/Bi-directional), or 4 (Merry Go Round Loop). The second number refers to track use, which can be 1 (Main or Fast), 2 (Slow, Local or Relief), 3 (Goods), 4 (Single line), 5 (Loop), 6 (Terminal or Bay), 7 (Crossover), 8 (Other or Engine), or 9 (Single Siding). The third and fourth numbers refer to the track number, which can be any number from 00 to 99 inclusive, and are usually numbered sequentially. Rolling stock Network Rail operates a large variety of DMUs, locomotives and rolling stock to perform safety checks and maintenance (this fleet is not to be confused with the combined rolling stock assets of Rail Delivery Group members who work in combination as National Rail). As well as the multiple units and locomotives detailed below, Network Rail own and operate a large stock of rolling stock for particular testing duties and track maintenance. Network Rail also hire freight locomotives from various freight operators including DB Cargo UK, Freightliner, Colas Rail and GB Railfreight amongst others to operate engineers' trains in support of maintenance and renewal work. Network Rail's Infrastructure Monitoring fleet of test trains is operated by Colas Rail, primarily using locomotives from Colas' and Network Rail's own fleets, but also using locomotives hired from other companies such as Direct Rail Services, GB Railfreight and Europhoenix as required. Development Current investment programme From 1997 to 2014 (inclusive), passenger numbers have more than doubled, following little growth in the previous decades. To cope with the increasing passenger numbers, Network Rail is currently undertaking a £38 billion programme of upgrades to the network, including Crossrail, electrification of lines, in-cab signalling, new inter-city trains, upgrading Thameslink, and a new high-speed line. The GRIP process For investment projects, as opposed to routine maintenance, Network Rail has developed an eight-stage process designed to minimise and mitigate risks. This is known as the Governance for Railway Investment Projects (GRIP), previously known as “Guide to Rail Investment Projects”. The stages are as follows: output definition; pre-feasibility; option selection; single option development; detailed design; construction, test and commission; scheme hand back; project close out. Each stage delivers an agreed set of outputs to defined quality criteria. The process has been criticised as cumbersome by some and it is proposed to replace it with a new process with the acronym PACE- Project Acceleration in a Controlled Environment. Control periods For financial and other planning purposes, Network Rail works within 5-year "Control Periods", each one beginning on 1 April and ending on 31 March to coincide with the financial reporting year. These periods were inherited from Railtrack, so that the earlier ones are retrospective, and not necessarily of 5 years duration. They are as follows: Control Period 1 (CP1): 1995–1999 Control Period 2 (CP2): 1999–2004 Control Period 3 (CP3): 2004–2009 Control Period 4 (CP4): 2009–2014 Control Period 5 (CP5): 2014–2019 Control Period 6 (CP6): 2019–2024 Control Period 7 (CP7): 2024–2029 Control Period 8 (CP8): 2029–2034 The Secretary of State for Transport regularly issues a High-Level Output Specification (HLOS) indicating what work the Government wishes to be undertaken during a given Control Period. Route plans Network Rail regularly publishes a Strategic Business Plan detailing their policies, processes and plans, as well as financial expenditure and other data. The most recent complete business plan was published in January 2013. Within these plans the rail network is divided into ten “devolved routes” or “operational routes”, with a Route Plan for each being published annually. Each route or other plan covers a number of railway lines usually defined by geographical area and the routes are further subdivided into 17 “strategic routes”, each divided into Strategic Route Sections (SRS) and given an SRS number and name. The plans also detail the geography of routes, stations, major junctions, capacity constraints and other issues and provide data on freight gauge, electrification, line speed, number of tracks, capacity and other information. The plans also detail the expected future demand and development of each route, their predicted expenditure and their maintenance and investment requirements. The devolved routes were introduced in 2011, and the 17 strategic routes labelled "A" to "Q" were introduced in 2010. From 2004 to 2009, the network had been divided into 26 strategic routes numbered "1" to "26". In 2003, the network had been divided into 41 strategic routes numbered "1" to "41". The 2011 devolved routes and strategic routes are organised as in the table below. Electricity Network Rail opened the world's largest solar-powered bridge, adjacent to the remains of the old Blackfriars Railway Bridge, across the River Thames in January 2014. The roof of the new railway bridge is covered with 4,400 photovoltaic panels, providing up to half of the energy requirement for London Blackfriars station. Governance structure and accountability Formal governance structure The company is accountable to a body of members through its corporate constitution, to its commercial train operator customers through its contracts with them (the contracts are subject to regulatory oversight), and to the public interest through the statutory powers of the Office of Rail and Road (ORR). Since Network Rail does not have shareholders, its members hold the board of directors to account for their management of the business. From 1 July 2015 all the members were removed leaving the special member, the Secretary of State for Transport, as the sole member of Network Rail. Previously at any one time there were around 100 members in total, drawn from a wide range of industry partners and members of the public. There were two general categories of membership, industry members comprising any organisation holding a licence to operate on the railway or preferred bidder for a railway franchise, and public members who were drawn from the wider stakeholder community. Members were appointed by an independent panel and served a three-year term. They had a number of statutory rights and duties which included attending annual general meetings, receiving the Annual Report and Accounts, and approving the appointment or re-appointment of Network Rail's directors. Members had a duty to act in the best interests of the company without personal bias. They received no payments other than travel expenses. Setting the strategic direction and the day-to-day management of Network Rail is the responsibility of the company's board of directors. That direction must be consistent with the regulatory jurisdiction of the ORR, and with the requirements of its contracts. The ORR in turn operates within the overall transport policy set by the UK Department for Transport and the Scottish government, including as to what the government wants the railway industry to achieve and how much money the government is prepared to put into the industry. This means that the degree of government influence and control over the company is higher than it was before these enlargements of the powers and role of the government were introduced by the Railways Act 2005. Monitoring Network Rail's performance The Office of Rail and Road (ORR) monitors Network Rail's performance on a continuous basis against targets established by the regulatory authority in the most recent access charges review (2003), against obligations in the company's network licence and against forecasts in its own business plan. If performance is poor, the company will face criticism and possible enforcement action from its commercial customers (under their contracts) and from the ORR (enforcing the company's network licence). It may also be criticised by its members in general meeting. In the annual report 2014/15, the ORR reported that the Public Performance Measure (PPM) was 89.6%, 1.4 percentage points (pp) below target in England and Wales, and PPM in Scotland was 90.5%, 1.5pp below its regulatory performance target of 92%. Informal governance groups Railway Industry Planning Group (RIPG) The Railway Industry Planning Group (RIPG), chaired by Network Rail, has as its purpose railway industry input into the structure and development of the national railway strategic planning processes. Its members are drawn from railway funders, operators and users, and the group meets quarterly to consider: rail industry liaison with regional and local government Regional (and Scotland and Wales) Planning Assessments Route Utilisation Strategies specification of passenger operator franchises High Level Output Specifications and Network Rail's Strategic Business Plan Network Rail's Business Planning Criteria, Business Plan and Route Plans. Directors Current board Previous chairmen Previous chief executives Safety While generally good, the safety record of the company was marred in February 2007 when a Virgin express derailed at Grayrigg in Cumbria. Network Rail admitted responsibility for the incident. The RAIB investigation concluded in 2009 that a faulty set of points had caused the derailment. In 2012 the Office of Rail Regulation announced that Network Rail was to be prosecuted under the Health and Safety Act for "failure to provide and implement suitable and sufficient standards, procedures, guidance, training, tools and resources for the inspection and maintenance of fixed stretcher bar points". Network Rail pleaded guilty and were fined £4.1 million including legal costs. In December 2005 two young girls were killed by a train as they were crossing the railway line via a pedestrian level crossing at in Essex. Network Rail was prosecuted for breaching health and safety law and fined £1 million in March 2012. The court heard that risk assessments carried out by Network Rail staff in 2002 had identified potential dangers with the crossing and recommended the installation of gates that would lock automatically as trains approached, but this was not acted upon. Private versus public-sector status In 2001, the then Labour government denied that it had nationalised the rail network in order to prevent Railtrack's shareholders claiming, via the European Court of Human Rights, the four-year average price of Railtrack, about £10 per share. Instead, Railtrack's shareholders were given only £2.60. The Times reported that Gordon Brown's aide, Shriti Vadera e-mailed Stephen Byers in July 2001 asking: "Can we engineer the solution through insolvency ... and therefore avoid compensation under the Human Rights Act?" Railtrack plc was placed into railway administration under the Railways Act 1993 on 7 October 2001, following an application to the High Court by the then Transport Secretary, Stephen Byers. It was reported in November 2001 that a further £3.5 billion might be needed to keep the national railway network running, a sum disputed by Ernst & Young, the administrators. To get Railtrack out of administration, the government had to return to the High Court and present evidence that the company was no longer insolvent. The principal reason given by the government to the court for this assertion was the decision of the rail regulator in 2002 to carry out an interim review of the company's finances, with the potential to advance significant additional sums to the company. The High Court accepted that the company was not insolvent, and the railway administration order was discharged in October 2002. Until 2013, there was discussion over whether Network Rail should be classified as a public-sector or a private-sector entity. Although it was officially a private sector organisation, the fact that its debts were underwritten by the government, and it was partly funded by the government, led to the description of "nationalisation in all but name". It was also claimed that the government is keen for Network Rail not to be classified as a public-sector organisation, as this would mean that the company's debt would be counted as public expenditure liabilities. The Office for National Statistics (ONS) repeatedly clashed with the National Audit Office and the Statistics Commission over whether the successor to Railtrack should be considered a private company – as the ONS believed – or included on the Government's books, as the National Audit Office argued. The NAO said that as the Government is bearing the risk that would normally be borne by equity capital, and as it can appoint, through the SRA, a director who cannot be removed by members, Network Rail is effectively a subsidiary of the Government-controlled SRA. In December 2013, the ONS announced that Network Rail would be classified as a "government body" from September 2014. As a result, the company's debt of £34 billion was added to the national debt. In the 2016–17 financial year, Network Rail's net debt rose from £41.6 billion to £46.3 billion. National Centre The new national centre, known as "The Quadrant:MK", is in Milton Keynes about five minutes' walk from . Construction of the centre was completed in June 2012. There are four buildings connected to a central street, accommodating more than 3,000 people. , the engineering, logistics, operations including timetable planning, IT, procurement, planning and finance departments, and Route Services Supply Chain operations were all planned to move to the Quadrant. Photography competition Network Rail organises the Landscape Photographer of the Year competition. Shortlisted photos are displayed at London Waterloo and other major stations. See also Campaign to Bring Back British Rail Northern Ireland Railways Financing of the rail industry in Great Britain References External links Government-owned companies of the United Kingdom Post-privatisation British railway companies Railway companies established in 2002 Railway infrastructure companies 2002 establishments in England Department for Transport Non-departmental public bodies of the United Kingdom government Government-owned railway companies

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