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geos 111 minerals
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MINERALS Chemical composition of the Crust Oxygen most abundant- 46.6% Followed by silicon and aluminum Iron, Calcium, Sodium, Potassium, Magnesium The most common minerals will be composed mostly of these elements Silica & silicates MINERAL vs ROCK ROCK An aggregate of one or more MINERALS (usually- coal, organic) MINERAL Solid Crystalline- orderly arrangement of atoms Naturally occurring Inorganic Definite chemical composition e.g SiO2 for quartz; KAlSi3O8 for feldspar Atom & Elements Atoms Neutral Nucleus Proton, neutron Electron Ions Electrical Charge Molecule- e.g water molecule Chemical activity Stable atoms want positive & negative charges balanced electron shells full Ions- positive (Cations) and negative (Anions) Bonding Ionic Covalent Metallic Van der Waal’s Fracture Properties of Minerals Absence of cleavage Irregular fracture Conchoidal fracture- Quartz Density Specific Gravity Some unusual properties Striations, Magnetism, Taste, Odor, Double refraction Chemical tests Reaction with HCl Calcite effervesces Mineral Groups Silicates Carbonates Oxides Sulfides Sulfates Native Elements Halides Silicates Quartz Feldspar Plagioclase Orthoclase Micas Muscovite Biotite Amphibole (Hornblende) Pyroxene (Augite) Olivine Carbonates Calcite (calcium carbonate) Dolomite (calcium-magnesium carbonate) Both are used as Portland Cement Oxides Hematite (iron oxide) Iron ore, pigment Magnetite Iron ore Corundum (aluminum oxide) Sapphire, ruby (gemstone) Abrasive Sulfides Galena (Lead sulfide) Lead ore Sphalerite Zinc sulfide) Zinc ore Pyrite (Iron sulfide) Sulfuric acid Chalcopyrite (Copper Iron sulfide) Copper ore Sulfates Gypsum Anhydrite Both use in plaster Native Elements Gold- trade, instruments Silver- photography, conductors Copper- electrical Platinum- catalysts Sulfur- chemicals, pharmaceuticals Diamond- carbon Gemstone, abrasive Graphite- carbon Lubricant, pencils Minerals as Resources Reserves: Minerals that can be extracted at a profit under current economic and technological conditions Ores: metallic minerals Industrial Rocks or Minerals: non metallic minerals (phosphate) Aggregates: crushed rock ROCK CYCLE Equilibrium Interrelationships between igneous rocks sediment sedimentary rocks metamorphic rocks weathering and erosion [...]... Properties of Minerals Color Not always reliable (Olivine, green; Flourite, yellow, purple, green…) Ferromagnesian minerals green or black Streak- powdered form Luster- reflectance of light Metallic Nonmetallic Vitreous or Glassy Earthy Properties of Minerals Hardness- resistance to scratching Moh’s Hardness Scale Fingernail = 2.5 Penny = 3.5 Knife/Glass = 5.5 Streak Plate= 6.5 Cleavage Properties of Minerals. .. clay Framework- e.g quartz, feldspar MINERALS Crystalline solids Natural and Inorganic Substances Definite chemical composition Can be written as a chemical formula Solid solution (within a range) Important Minerals Quartz (most abundant) FELDSPAR Group Potassium Feldspar - Orthoclase Plagioclase Feldspar Sodium (Na) Albite Calcium (Ca) Anorthosite Important Minerals PYROXENE Group- Augite most common... not at right angles- e.g Amphibole Three at right angles (cubic)- e.g Halite Three not at right angles (rhombohedral)- e.g calcite Four (Flourite) or six (Sphalerite)- not common Fracture Properties of Minerals Absence of cleavage Irregular fracture Conchoidal fracture- Quartz Density Specific Gravity Some unusual properties Striations, Magnetism, Taste, Odor, Double refraction
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HW
From MurrayWiki
Revision as of 05:10, 8 November 2007 by Soto (Talk | contribs)
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Question 1a) To find Hyr which is the transfer function between the input r and the output y, you need to write down equations that involve r and y by using the block diagram. You need to determine what the ratio y/r equals to. The block diagram does not label all signals, as this is not necessary. However, feel free to label signals that are not labeled if this helps you to write down the equations. Be careful of the direction of the arrows and the signs in the summation junctions. You could start by writing y = ...
Question 1b) To find the transfer function given a state-space realization, you can use the formula for conversion from ss to tf: H(s) = C[(sI - A)^-1]*B + D.
Question 1c) To find Hzr, we need to determine what the ratio z/r equals to. You could start by writing z = ...
'--Soto 21:10, 7 November 2007 (PST)'
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An F# Functional Geometry Description of Escher’s Fish
This blog explains how Escher‘s fish wood carving can be expressed in F# using functional geometry which was first presented by Peter Henderson in 1982. This very functional and compositional style of describing pictures is nicely expressed in F#. Functional geometry provides us with a nice algebra for pictures which has been used by the author as the basis of a system for automatically computing the layout of digital circuits expressed in functional languages (e.g. Lava).
First, here is the picture:
image
And here are the core F# definitions that are used to make the drawing:
let t = quartet (p, q, r, s)
let side1 = quartet (nil, nil, rot t, t)
let side2 = quartet (side1, side1, rot t, t)
let u = cycle (rot q)
let corner1 = quartet (nil, nil, nil, u)
let corner2 = quartet (corner1, side1, rot side1, u)
let nonet (p1, p2, p3,
p4, p5, p6,
p7, p8, p9)
= above (1.0f, 2.0f, beside (1.0f, 2.0f, p1, beside (1.0f, 1.0f, p2, p3)),
above (1.0f, 1.0f, beside (1.0f, 2.0f, p4, beside (1.0f, 1.0f, p5, p6)),
beside (1.0f, 2.0f, p7, beside (1.0f, 1.0f, p8, p9))))
let corner = nonet (corner2, side2, side2,
rot side2, u, rot t,
rot side2, rot t, rot q)
let squarelimit = cycle corner
The rest of this blog explains how these functions are used to draw the Escher fish picture. A distinctive aspect of drawing pictures using functional geometry is compositional nature in which a composite picture is computed from component pictures by a series of transformations like rotations and scaling operations. In particular there is a lack of concrete coordinates because pictures are typically composed using higher order combinators that work with relative locations e.g. “picture A is to the left of picture B” or “picture A is below picture B”.
This picture is produce by transforming four basic tiles called p, q, r and s:
image image image image
p q r s
The functions used to compute the compute the final drawing operate over a record type that describes points in two dimensions along with some associated members for certain kinds of point operations
type Point = { X : float32; Y : float32 } with
static member (*) (p, a) = {X = a * p.X; Y = a * p.Y}
static member (+) (p1, p2) = {X = p1.X + p2.X; Y = p1.Y + p2.Y}
static member (/) (p, a) = {X = p.X / a; Y = p.Y / a}
static member (~-) p = {X = -p.X; Y = -p.Y}
Note that the ~ symbol is used to specify the overloading of a unary operation (negation in this case). We could define many other overloaded members for *, + etc. but here we define just the operations we need for the functional geometry system. We also use the Point type to describe two-element vectors.
We represent a picture as a function which takes three vectors a, b, and c and produces a drawing with its origin translated by the vector a and with its horizontal and vertical dimensions bounded by the vectors b and c as illustrated below.
image
A picture is function of the values of the a, b and c vectors which are then used to produce a drawing as a side effect. A picture in our functional geometry system has the type:
type Picture = Point -> Point -> Point -> unit
To draw a line we need a graphics canvas and a pen plus a function plotLine which takes the following parameters:
· m and n which specify the size of the picture grid
· a, b, c which are the vectors which specify the origin and the orientation
· p1 and p2 which specify two Point values which identify the stat and end points of a line segment.
let g = form.CreateGraphics()
let pen = new System.Drawing.Pen(Color.Black)
let plotLine m n a b c (p1, p2)
= g.DrawLine (pen, a.X+b.X*p1.X/m+c.X*p1.Y/n, a.Y+b.Y*p1.X/m+c.Y*p1.Y/n,
a.X+b.X*p2.X/m+c.X*p2.Y/n, a.Y+b.Y*p2.X/m+c.Y*p2.Y/n)
A picture can be expressed as a collection of line segments by using the grid function:
val grid : int * int * (Point * Point) list -> Picture
The grid function is defined as follows:
let grid (m, n, s) a b c
= ignore (List.map (plotLine (float32 m) (float32 n) a b c) s)
This function works by simply applying the plotLine function to each line segment with the appropriate grid size, origin and orientation. The ignore function is used to ensure the return type of this function is unit.
These basic p, q, r and s tiles have little regularity so we define the contents of these tiles by giving their bounding boxes and a list of line segments. Here is the definition of tile p:
let p = grid (16, 16, pointify
[(( 4, 4), ( 6, 0)); (( 0, 3), (3, 4)); (( 3, 4), ( 0, 8));
(( 0, 8), ( 0, 3)); (( 4, 5), ( 7, 6)); (( 7, 6), ( 4, 10));
(( 4, 10), ( 4, 5)); ((11, 0), (10, 4)); ((10, 4), ( 8, 8));
(( 8, 8), ( 4, 13)); (( 4, 13), ( 0, 16)); ((11, 0), (14, 2));
((14, 2), (16, 2)); ((10, 4), (13, 5)); ((13, 5), (16, 4));
(( 9, 6), (12, 7)); ((12, 7), (16, 6)); (( 8, 8), (12, 9));
((12, 9), (16, 8)); (( 8, 12), (16, 10)); (( 0, 16), ( 6, 15));
(( 6, 15), ( 8, 16)); (( 8, 16), (12, 12)); ((12, 12), (16, 12));
((10, 16), (12, 14)); ((12, 14), (16, 13)); ((12, 16), (13, 15));
((13, 15), (16, 14)); ((14, 16), (16, 15));
((16, 0), (16, 8)); ((16, 12), (16, 16))])
The pointfy function is used to convert the list of pairs of integers to pairs containing Points.
let pair2point ((x0, y0), (x1, y1))
= ({X = float32 x0; Y = float32 y0}, {X = float32 x1; Y = float32 y1})
let pointify = List.map pair2point
A useful picture is the empty picture which contains no line segments so we anoint it with a special name:
val nil : Picture
let nil a b c = ()
This picture generating function is more useful than you might think as we shall shortly demonstrate.
A useful higher order function is rot which rotates a picture by 90 degrees.
val rot : Picture -> Picture
let rot p a b c = p (a+b) c (-b)
This is a higher order function because it takes a picture (a function) as its input and returns a picture (a function) as its result. We call such picture to picture functions picture combinators. The application of rot to the tile p is demonstrated below.
image image
p rot p
We will need to place one picture beside another so we define a combinator which performs this task:
val beside : int * int * Picture * Picture -> Picture
let beside (m, n, p, q) (a : Point) (b : Point) (c : Point)
= let lhs = p a (b*m/(m+n)) c
q (a+b*m/(m+n)) (b*n/(m+n)) c
Note that this definition makes use of the overloaded members +, * and – for the type Point. The picture of p beside q is shown below.
image
Similarly we need to place one picture above another picture:
val above : int * int * Picture * Picture -> Picture
let above (m, n, p, q) (a : Point) (b : Point) (c : Point)
= let top = p (a+c*n/(m+n)) b (c*m/(m+n))
q a b (c*n/(m+n))
We define t to be a quartet formed by placing the four basic riles in a square.
val quartet : Picture * Picture * Picture * Picture -> Picture
let quartet (p1, p2, p3, p4)
= above (1.0f, 1.0f, beside (1.0f, 1.0f, p1, p2),
beside (1.0f, 1.0f, p3, p4))
let t = quartet (p, q, r, s)
Here is the picture of t which shows how nicely the four basic fish tiles fit together:
image
Another useful picture combinator is cycle which creates a new picture by making successive rotations of an input picture and laying them out using the quartet pattern.
val cycle : Picture -> Picture
let cycle p1 = quartet (p1, rot (rot (rot p1)), rot p1, rot (rot p1))
A picture of cycle (rot t) is shown below.
image
We now define two pictures which have a very interesting property.
let side1 = quartet (nil, nil, rot t, t)
let side2 = quartet (side1, side1, rot t, t)
image image
side1 side2
The amazing property of the picture t is that when reduced to half its size, it sits perfectly on top of itself (in two different ways)!
We are close to making the final fish picture but first we must define a function that can take nine pictures as its input and produce a regular three by three arrangement.
let nonet (p1, p2, p3,
p4, p5, p6,
p7, p8, p9)
= above (1.0f, 2.0f, beside (1.0f, 2.0f, p1, beside (1.0f, 1.0f, p2, p3)),
above (1.0f, 1.0f, beside (1.0f, 2.0f, p4, beside (1.0f, 1.0f, p5, p6)),
beside (1.0f, 2.0f, p7, beside (1.0f, 1.0f, p8, p9))))
This picture combinator can be used to define a picture called corner.
let corner = nonet (corner2, side2, side2,
rot side2, u, rot t,
rot side2, rot t, rot q)
which is shown below.
image
The final fish picture, called Square Limit, can now be defined by applying cycle to this corner.
let squarelimit = cycle corner
This produces the picture shown at the top of this blog.
The original deconstruction of Escher’s fish was reported by J. L. Locher in 1971 in the book “The World of M. C. Escher”. Here we present a “reconstruction” using a nice algebra of picture combinators. For more details about how the fish are drawing using functional geometry look at Henderson’s papers e.g. Functional Geometry, or Functional Geometry, or Functional Geometry (yes, they really are all called the same but are somewhat different). The original illustrations for the 1982 paper were done by Mary Sheeran using a functional geometry package implemented in UCSD Pascal. Note that the origin for the drawings on this blog is at the top right hand corner although the origin for the drawings in the original paper is at the bottom right.
Many others have re-implemented Henderson’s fish. Here are just a few of them:
· Frank Buss http://www.frank-buss.de/lisp/functional.html
· Bill Clementson http://bc.tech.coop/blog/050213.html
PanBrowser incorporates Conal Elliott‘s ideas on functional images into an F# library.
I believe the idea behind functional geometry can be applied to description of many sophisticated entities including pictures, circuits and music. In each situation we have to try and understand the underlying structures and look for regular patterns and hierarchy and powerful ways of combining sub-creations into composite creations.
The complete F# program for drawing Escher’s fish is shown below which I have tested with F# in Visual Studio 2010 Beta 2.
Satnam Singh
http://research.microsoft.com/~satnams
open System
open System.Windows.Forms
open System.Drawing
type Point = { X : float32; Y : float32 } with
static member (*) (p, a) = {X = a * p.X; Y = a * p.Y}
static member (+) (p1, p2) = {X = p1.X + p2.X; Y = p1.Y + p2.Y}
static member (/) (p, a) = {X = p.X / a; Y = p.Y / a}
static member (~-) p = {X = -p.X; Y = -p.Y}
type Picture = Point -> Point -> Point -> unit
[<EntryPoint>]
let main (args) =
let form = new Form (Text = “Escher Fish”, Width = 740, Height = 740, Visible = true)
let g = form.CreateGraphics()
let pen = new System.Drawing.Pen(Color.Black)
let plotLine m n a b c (p1, p2)
= g.DrawLine (pen, a.X+b.X*p1.X/m+c.X*p1.Y/n, a.Y+b.Y*p1.X/m+c.Y*p1.Y/n, a.X+b.X*p2.X/m+c.X*p2.Y/n, a.Y+b.Y*p2.X/m+c.Y*p2.Y/n)
let pair2point ((x0, y0), (x1, y1)) = ({X = float32 x0; Y = float32 y0}, {X = float32 x1; Y = float32 y1})
let pointify = List.map pair2point
let grid (m, n, s) a b c
= ignore (List.map (plotLine (float32 m) (float32 n) a b c) s)
let p = grid (16, 16, pointify
[(( 4, 4), ( 6, 0)); (( 0, 3), (3, 4)); (( 3, 4), ( 0, 8));
(( 0, 8), ( 0, 3)); (( 4, 5), ( 7, 6)); (( 7, 6), ( 4, 10));
(( 4, 10), ( 4, 5)); ((11, 0), (10, 4)); ((10, 4), ( 8, 8));
(( 8, 8), ( 4, 13)); (( 4, 13), ( 0, 16)); ((11, 0), (14, 2));
((14, 2), (16, 2)); ((10, 4), (13, 5)); ((13, 5), (16, 4));
(( 9, 6), (12, 7)); ((12, 7), (16, 6)); (( 8, 8), (12, 9));
((12, 9), (16, 8)); (( 8, 12), (16, 10)); (( 0, 16), ( 6, 15));
(( 6, 15), ( 8, 16)); (( 8, 16), (12, 12)); ((12, 12), (16, 12));
((10, 16), (12, 14)); ((12, 14), (16, 13)); ((12, 16), (13, 15));
((13, 15), (16, 14)); ((14, 16), (16, 15));
((16, 0), (16, 8)); ((16, 12), (16, 16))])
let q = grid (16, 16, pointify
[(( 2, 0), ( 4, 5)); (( 4, 5), ( 4, 7)); (( 4, 0), ( 6, 5));
(( 6, 5), ( 6, 7)); (( 6, 0), ( 8, 5)); (( 8, 5), ( 8, 8));
(( 8, 0), (10, 6)); ((10, 6), (10, 9)); ((10, 0), (14, 11));
((12, 0), (13, 4)); ((13, 4), (16, 8)); ((16, 8), (15, 10));
((15, 10), (16, 16)); ((16, 16), (12, 10)); ((12, 10), ( 6, 7));
(( 6, 7), ( 4, 7)); (( 4, 7), ( 0, 8)); ((13, 0), (16, 6));
((14, 0), (16, 4)); ((15, 0), (16, 2)); (( 0, 10), ( 7, 11));
(( 9, 12), (10, 10)); ((10, 10), (12, 12)); ((12, 12), ( 9, 12));
(( 8, 15), ( 9, 13)); (( 9, 13), (11, 15)); ((11, 15), ( 8, 15));
(( 0, 12), ( 3, 13)); (( 3, 13), ( 7, 15)); (( 7, 15), ( 8, 16));
(( 2, 16), ( 3, 13)); (( 4, 16), ( 5, 14)); (( 6, 16), ( 7, 15));
(( 0, 0), ( 8, 0)); ((12, 0), (16, 0))])
let r = grid (16, 16, pointify
[(( 0, 12), ( 1, 14)); (( 0, 8), ( 2, 12)); (( 0, 4), ( 5, 10));
(( 0, 0), ( 8, 8)); (( 1, 1), ( 4, 0)); (( 2, 2), ( 8, 0));
(( 3, 3), ( 8 , 2)); (( 8, 2), (12, 0)); (( 5, 5), (12, 3));
((12, 3), (16, 0)); (( 0, 16), ( 2, 12)); (( 2, 12), ( 8, 8));
(( 8, 8), (14, 6)); ((14, 6), (16, 4)); (( 6, 16), (11, 10));
((11, 10), (16, 6)); ((11, 16), (12, 12)); ((12, 12), (16, 8));
((12, 12), (16, 16)); ((13, 13), (16, 10)); ((14, 14), (16, 12));
((15, 15), (16, 14))])
let s = grid (16, 16, pointify
[(( 0, 0), ( 4, 2)); (( 4, 2), ( 8, 2)); (( 8, 2), (16, 0));
(( 0, 4), ( 2, 1)); (( 0, 6), ( 7, 4)); (( 0, 8), ( 8, 6));
(( 0, 10), ( 7, 8)); (( 0, 12), ( 7, 10)); (( 0, 14), ( 7, 13));
(( 8, 16), ( 7, 13)); (( 7, 13), ( 7, 8)); (( 7, 8), ( 8, 6));
(( 8, 6), (10, 4)); ((10, 4), (16, 0)); ((10, 16), (11, 10));
((10, 6), (12, 4)); ((12, 4), (12, 7)); ((12, 7), (10, 6));
((13, 7), (15, 5)); ((15, 5), (15, 8)); ((15, 8), (13, 7));
((12, 16), (13, 13)); ((13, 13), (15, 9)); ((15, 9), (16, 8));
((13, 13), (16, 14)); ((14, 11), (16, 12)); ((15, 9), (16, 10))])
let nil a b c = ()
let rot p a b c = p (a+b) c (-b)
let beside (m, n, p, q) (a : Point) (b : Point) (c : Point)
= let lhs = p a (b*m/(m+n)) c
q (a+b*m/(m+n)) (b*n/(m+n)) c
let above (m, n, p, q) (a : Point) (b : Point) (c : Point)
= let top = p (a+c*n/(m+n)) b (c*m/(m+n))
q a b (c*n/(m+n))
let quartet (p1, p2, p3, p4)
= above (1.0f, 1.0f, beside (1.0f, 1.0f, p1, p2),
beside (1.0f, 1.0f, p3, p4))
let t = quartet (p, q, r, s)
let cycle p1 = quartet (p1, rot (rot (rot p1)), rot p1, rot (rot p1))
let side1 = quartet (nil, nil, rot t, t)
let side2 = quartet (side1, side1, rot t, t)
let u = cycle (rot q)
let corner1 = quartet (nil, nil, nil, u)
let corner2 = quartet (corner1, side1, rot side1, u)
let nonet (p1, p2, p3,
p4, p5, p6,
p7, p8, p9)
= above (1.0f, 2.0f, beside (1.0f, 2.0f, p1, beside (1.0f, 1.0f, p2, p3)),
above (1.0f, 1.0f, beside (1.0f, 2.0f, p4, beside (1.0f, 1.0f, p5, p6)),
beside (1.0f, 2.0f, p7, beside (1.0f, 1.0f, p8, p9))))
let corner = nonet (corner2, side2, side2,
rot side2, u, rot t,
rot side2, rot t, rot q)
let squarelimit = cycle corner
let fish = squarelimit {X = 10.0f; Y = 10.0f} {X = 700.0f; Y = 0.0f} { X = 0.0f; Y = 700.0f}
do Application.Run (form)
0
Comments (4)
1. terryspitz says:
Beautiful. I’ve been playing with similar ideas at http://panbrowser.codeplex.com/wikipage inspired by Conal Elliot’s ‘Pan’ paper at Microsoft Research.
2. satnam says:
Thank you terryspitz. Conal indeed does amazing things with Pan!
3. bob says:
ignore (List.map (plotLine (float32 m) (float32 n) a b c) s)
should be written as
List.iter (plotLine (float32 m) (float32 n) a b c) s
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Powder/Bulk Solids
The Source for Dry Processing and Bulk Handling Technology
Combustible Dust Basics: How to Collect a Sample and What Does a Go/No-Go Test Mean?
June 24, 2014
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We’ve been writing a lot recently on the basics of combustible dust. Makes sense, after all, what safety professional knows exactly how much of their particular dust, in their particular facility under a certain set of circumstances is ok? And, if you don’t yet have a dust collection system, how do you know what you need? Even if you have a collector, do you have the proper Process Hazards Analysis (PHA) to understand your dust’s potential for explosibility?
Plant and facility safety professional customers will often call and say they think they need a dust test but do not know what the next step is. How do I collect a sample? What is a Go/No-Go test?
While we offer a list of testing services to determine the deflagration hazards of dust samples per ASTM International, OSHA (Occupational Health & Safety Administration, NFPA (National Fire Protection Agency) and UN (United Nations), knowing the basic tests can go a long way for tackling your safety needs.
In Prof. Paul Amyotte's "An Introduction to Dust Explosions: Understanding the Myths and Realities of Dust Explosions For a Safer Workplace," Amyotte offers a section on Practical Guidance.
"These observations help to explain the advice given by experienced industrial practitioners on the matter of acceptable combustible dust layer thicknesses. Their comments, although anecdotal, have a firm foundation in the physics and chemistry of dust explosions. Scientific underpinning by the aforementioned difficulties in physically dispersing and chemically reacting excessively thick dust deposits is intrinsic to the following expressions:
• There's too much layered dust if you can see your initials written in the dust.
• There's too much layered dust if you can see your footprints in the dust. (Anonymous, 1996. Personal communication, with permission)
• There's too much dust if you can't tell the color of the surface beneath the layer (Freeman, R., 201). Personal communication, with permission)
• I tell my plant manager to write their name on their business card. It's time to clean up when they can't read their name because of layered dust. (Anonymous, 2012. Personal communication, with permission)"
So, what is a combustible dust? You might be wondering this before you worry about how to ship it off to be tested. Per the Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety:
What is a Combustible Dust?
Essentially, a combustible dust is any fine material that has the ability to catch fire and explode when mixed with air. Combustible dusts can be from:
• most solid organic materials (such as sugar, flour, grain, wood, etc.)
• many metals
• some nonmetallic inorganic materials
Some of these materials are not "normally" combustible, but they can burn or explode if the particles are the right size and in the right concentration.
Therefore, any activity that creates dust should be investigated to see if there is a risk of that dust being combustible. Dust can collect on surfaces such as rafters, roofs, suspended ceilings, ducts, crevices, dust collectors, and other equipment. When the dust is disturbed and under certain circumstances, there is the potential for a serious explosion to occur. The build-up of even a very small amount of dust can cause serious damage.
OSHA in the U.S. defines combustible dust as "a solid material composed of distinct particles or pieces, regardless of size, shape, or chemical composition, which presents a fire or deflagration hazard when suspended in air or some other oxidizing medium over a range of concentrations.”
What workplaces are at risk for a dust explosion?
Dust explosions have occurred in many different types of workplaces and industries, including:
• Grain elevators
• Food production
• Chemical manufacturing (e.g., rubber, plastics, pharmaceuticals)
• Woodworking facilities
• Metal processing (e.g., zinc, magnesium, aluminum, iron)
• Recycling facilities (e.g., paper, plastics, metals)
• Coal-fired power plants
Dusts are created when materials are transported, handled, processed, polished, ground, and shaped. Dusts are also created by abrasive blasting, cutting, crushing, mixing, sifting, or screening dry materials. The buildup of dried residue from the processing of wet materials can also generate dusts. Essentially, any workplace that generates dust is potentially at risk."
So, have something that might be hazardous in your facility? You need a simple test to find out if its explosible. That's a "Go/No-Go Test". Collect a dust sample and find out if and what it takes to ignite. Air sampling is not necessary to determine whether or not a dust is combustible.
Dust testing is performed on the sample as it is received (“as received”) from your facility. It may be screened to less than 420 µm (40 mesh) – OSHA’s and NFPA’s demarcation of a “dust” – to facilitate dispersion into a dust cloud. Particle size may vary widely depending on the sample.
It's easier than you think: (see image 1)
** Please note: If you suspect you may have an electrostatically charged dust, collect the sample by using a plastic coated shovel or scoop.
A Go/No-Go Screening Test, based on ASTM E1226, “Standard Test Method for Explosibility of Dust Clouds”, is an abbreviated set explosion severity testing at two or more dust concentrations to determine if the sample is explosible. This test is generally performed with samples tested ‘as received’ or sieved with >100 grams (~¼ lb) of sample less than 420 µm required.
A Combustible Dust Screening Test is based on VDI2263 and UN 4.1 combustion testing. This test is to determine if a dust in a pile supports self-sustaining flame propagation. [>30 grams (~1oz) of sample less than 420µm required; >300 grams (~2/3 lb) of sample less than 420 µm required if testing metal dusts]
The chart (see image 2) discusses the outcomes for your tested dust. If your test sample is a "Yes, it explodes" then further tests can be run to determine how quickly and how severe the explosion will be (KSt/Pmax Test), followed by testing what concentration of dust in the air will cause a risk of explosion (MEC Test). Next, another test can determine if a spark will cause an explosion (MIE) test.
But, what if your Go/No-Go test result is a "no"? We next look at what temperature it will take make your dust ignite. To find the Minimum Autoignition Temperature (MIT) of a dust cloud in the air, the MIT tests the minimum temperature that would cause your dust cloud to ignite. Next, is the Layer Ignition Test (LIT), which determines the hot-surface ignition temperature of a dust layer. Finally, a VDI 2263 burning behavior test is conducted to determine if a dust will burn and if it does, how quickly it will spread. It is followed up by a UN 4.1 Burn Rate test for additional confirmation.
All of these tests start with the Go/No-Go Test. A comprehensive Process Hazards Analysis (PHA) can apply your test results to real world scenarios at your facility. Better to know what you are dealing with so you can plan safely.
Here are some other tests run for dust explosibility screening:
• Go/No-Go Screening + Combustible Dust Screening Package - Both tests run in tandem as a screening package
• Sample Characterization Test - includes determining the sample moisture content and particle size distribution [>30 grams of samples less than 420 ?m required]
• “Hard-to-ignite” Explosibility Test - Tested as above but with a 400 J ignition source. [>100 grams (~¼ lb) of sample less than 420 µm required]
Unless otherwise instructed, dust testing is performed on the sample as it is received (“as received”) from your facility as mentioned earlier. It may be screened to less than 420 µm (40 mesh) – OSHA’s and NFPA’s demarcation of a “dust” – to facilitate dispersion into a dust cloud. Particle size may vary widely depending on the sample.
Furthermore, please note that per ASTM recommendations (and some NPFA requirements); samples should be tested at a particle size less than 75 µm and less than 5% moisture. Please note that testing materials in a method not complying with the ASTM/EU recommendations may produce explosion severity and explosion sensitivity data that is not considered conservative enough for explosion mitigation design.
AnnMarie Fauske, MBA, is marketing manager, Fauske & Associates LLC. Ashok Dastidar, PHD, MBA, is vice president, dust & flammability testing and consulting services, Fauske & Associates LLC. For more information on your dust testing questions or needs, contact Jeff Griffin at griffin@fauske.com or 630-887-5278.
For related articles, equipment reviews, and news, visit our Explosion Protection & Safety Equipment Zone
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Diabetology
Effective Workouts for Diabetics: Best Exercises to Manage Blood Sugar
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Managing diabetes involves a multifaceted approach, where exercise plays a pivotal role alongside medication and diet. Regular physical activity helps in improving insulin sensitivity, controlling blood sugar levels, and promoting overall health. This article delves into effective workouts for diabetics, offering insights on how various exercises can help manage blood sugar and improve quality of life.
Understanding Diabetes and the Role of Exercise
Diabetes is a chronic condition characterized by high blood sugar levels due to the body’s inability to produce or effectively use insulin. The primary types of diabetes are Type 1, Type 2, and gestational diabetes. Exercise is crucial for diabetics as it helps:
• Improve insulin sensitivity
• Lower blood sugar levels
• Aid in weight management
• Enhance cardiovascular health
• Boost mental well-being
Preparing for Exercise
Before starting any exercise regimen, it is essential for diabetics to consult with healthcare providers. This ensures that the chosen activities are safe and appropriate for their condition. Here are some preparatory steps:
1. Medical Consultation: Get clearance from your doctor, especially if you have any diabetes-related complications.
2. Understand Your Fitness Level: Start with low to moderate intensity if you’re new to exercise.
3. Blood Sugar Monitoring: Check your blood sugar levels before and after exercise to understand how your body responds.
4. Hydration and Nutrition: Stay hydrated and consider having a small snack if your blood sugar levels are low before exercising.
Effective Workouts for Managing Blood Sugar
1. Aerobic Exercises
Aerobic exercises, also known as cardio, are excellent for improving cardiovascular health and controlling blood sugar levels. They involve rhythmic and continuous movement, which helps increase heart rate and burn calories.
• Walking: A simple and effective exercise that can be done anywhere. Aim for at least 30 minutes of brisk walking five days a week.
• Cycling: Whether on a stationary bike or outdoors, cycling helps improve insulin sensitivity and cardiovascular health.
• Swimming: A low-impact exercise that is gentle on the joints and effective in controlling blood sugar levels.
• Running or Jogging: These activities are great for those who are physically fit and want to challenge their endurance and stamina.
1. Strength Training
Strength training involves using resistance to build muscle mass, which in turn helps in better glucose uptake by the muscles.
• Weight Lifting: Use free weights, machines, or resistance bands to perform exercises like squats, deadlifts, and bench presses.
• Bodyweight Exercises: Push-ups, pull-ups, and planks are effective for building strength without any equipment.
• Circuit Training: Combines strength and aerobic exercises for a comprehensive workout that boosts metabolism and controls blood sugar.
1. Flexibility and Balance Exercises
These exercises help in maintaining joint health, preventing injuries, and improving overall mobility.
• Yoga: Enhances flexibility, strength, and relaxation, contributing to better blood sugar control.
• Pilates: Focuses on core strength, flexibility, and overall body conditioning.
• Tai Chi: A form of martial arts that involves slow, controlled movements and deep breathing, helping in stress reduction and blood sugar management.
1. High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
HIIT involves short bursts of intense exercise followed by rest or low-intensity periods. It is highly effective for improving cardiovascular health and insulin sensitivity.
• Example HIIT Workout: 30 seconds of sprinting followed by 1 minute of walking, repeated for 20-30 minutes.
• Benefits of HIIT: Increases calorie burn, improves fitness levels, and enhances blood sugar control more effectively than moderate-intensity continuous training.
1. Daily Activity and Lifestyle Changes
Incorporating more physical activity into daily routines can significantly impact blood sugar levels.
• Active Commuting: Walk or bike to work instead of driving.
• Household Chores: Activities like gardening, cleaning, and washing the car count as physical exercise.
• Taking the Stairs: Opt for stairs over elevators whenever possible.
Monitoring and Adjusting Exercise Routines
Regular monitoring of blood sugar levels before, during, and after exercise is crucial for diabetics. This helps in understanding how different activities affect blood sugar and allows for necessary adjustments. Here are some tips:
• Keep a Log: Record your workouts, blood sugar levels, and any symptoms to identify patterns and make informed adjustments.
• Hypoglycemia Awareness: Be aware of signs of low blood sugar (dizziness, sweating, confusion) and carry fast-acting carbohydrates like glucose tablets or fruit juice.
• Adjust Insulin and Medication: Consult your doctor about adjusting insulin or medication doses based on your exercise routine.
Conclusion
Exercise is a powerful tool for managing diabetes and improving overall health. By incorporating a mix of aerobic, strength, flexibility, and HIIT exercises, diabetics can achieve better blood sugar control, enhanced fitness, and a higher quality of life. Remember to consult healthcare providers, monitor blood sugar levels, and make gradual adjustments to find the most effective workout routine for your needs.
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RF (Radio Frequency) Vision Fusion refers to the integration or fusion of information from radio frequency-based sensors and systems with visual data. This fusion is employed in various applications such as sensor fusion for autonomous vehicles, surveillance systems, or any scenario where combining RF and visual data enhances perception and decision-making.
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Short Article Reveals the Undeniable Facts About Right Hand Rule Physics and How It Can Affect You
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What is the Nernst heat theorem, and how does it relate to the Third Law of Thermodynamics?
What is the Nernst heat theorem, and how does it relate to the Third Law of Thermodynamics? This is why I am asking about the Nernst heat theorem and its relation with the third law of thermodynamics. So I can see if there is a universal time-function for the universe as exponents of the thermodynamic measure. – V.A.Nernst [1987 in Noncommutative geometry] Can you point me in the right direction here?? To clarify… Well, if the energy is continuous over time, then the energy of the universe is infinite while there is infinite energy of the universe is finite. In short i mean the physics of the universe as energy of the electrons and the degrees of freedom of the cold stars. When that takes place the universe starts to freeze out. I know how to understand an energy function into a time constant, the “energy” is a type of particle separated by a separable product, with the properties and the probability of this being true and not just the power of an individual particle. For example the number of stars is a sum of three types of particles, the electrons and the galaxies. So if the universe only started in the 10th dimension and if today the matter is the universe as energy of the electrons, then it cannot be seen and the universe not taken in or with other physical effects. I am trying to understand this question but I can’t seem to get an answer, as I can’t see the actual meaning of this concept. I don’t have any sense for this question, I have vague generalizations on what the meaning of the energy function is and if was just meant for comparison of different groups. We have two different idea of the time-function we have the time-dependence of the energy being non-differentiable. So if we take expectation x and distribution t we have (x-t) = (exp(x-t)) – (1-exp(t) ) is possible?What is the Nernst heat theorem, and how does it relate to the Third Law of Thermodynamics? The purpose of Nernst thermodynamics is to reduce energy in a large, non-linear way by dissolving pressure in a large volume in which one is facing. The difference in temperature between the material particles is the factor describing the pressure difference, and this influence is due to the external energy added. For this case the temperature is given by the heat flux in the area that supports the material particle and corresponds to the pressure of the surrounding cooling liquid. For non-hydro-temperature materials the effect is due to the fact that the external energy has been completely decomposed in a small way.
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When the media are heated by high temperature a negative pressure of cooling liquid is obtained, the gas is heated in almost constant proportion by the external hard force then it is subjected to an open flame release. At higher temperatures than that of the external hard force nothing happens happen due to the decomposition of the internal energy to an energy transfer. For typical Nernst thermodynamics there are two separate physics which are realized in the original temperature and pressure of the liquid, and in the external component the nature of this energy transfer can be predicted for each liquid. A surface liquid is said to boil (‘heat sink—hot and cold’). The effect of this external hard force is that for small number of particles that takes for example five seconds to ten minutes the temperature is only a moment ago (first law of thermodynamics), this difference only happens for small number of particles, so to get the reaction law which is specified for liquid it is possible to calculate the difference between the find out this here of the liquid and the internal force. For example using the following expressions the effect of the external hard force is expressed by the form: $$N_{ext} (0 )=\frac{2Mr + 1}{3L} + \frac{m + 2}{3L} + m\frac{l}{3L} – \frac{1 – 2 m – 2}{6L – 1} + m – \frac{1 – 2 s}{3L}$$ where $l$ is sphere, $m$ is the mass of the liquid and $s$ is the surface concentration of the surface liquid. Now let’s calculate that by the equation for a free gas the same as done in the original law was obtained, as opposed to the reaction law and for equilibrium it is now determined. Again we see, in the liquid it does not change its temperature but keeps the internal force constant, as before two objects, one forming the surface and one which binds together with the liquid, change all their conditions, as previously done in the reaction law, like we will see now are done with this external hard force, we have obtained the reaction law from its own principle, the external force and how is to treat the liquid. have a peek at this website let’s take a few seconds of this time consider the following liquid: What is the Nernst heat theorem, and how does it relate to the Third Law of Thermodynamics? If you’re out of business with your product, chances are you have no idea what’s going on. That’s why you need a Nernst heat theorem, and how do you solve it? Here look at these guys two equations to counter the need for the Nernst heat theorem.1 Screw a tool with a hammer; cut two small slices so that the two end slices are split. Choose your tool from there. Because the tool is a hammer, the slicing seam is extremely thin at the ends of the slices. You’ll have a thickening action in from this source cut; the hammer will act on the cutting seam with a weak knife. You have two left and the end of your pie can be sliced. To separate the slices with the tip of a sharp knife: 1 Preheat the oven to 375°. 2 Light a torch, and blow a nozzle into the chamber. The nozzle will blow the residue into the chamber; the nozzle WILL blow. The end of your pie will overlap the side of the nozzle; the nozzle WILL catch on the breakage; the nozzle will run across the chamber in an arc; the nozzle WILL fly across the top of the pie. Although the nozzle is only at one end, the operation is going on at all.
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3 Once the nozzle blows, fire; then the nozzle will run out; the nozzle WILL fly across the top of the pie. The end of the pie will overlap the side of the nozzle; the nozzle WILL fly across the top of the pie. The last step before they fly the pie off the wall or over the floor; it needs to be removed; it CANNOT be removed. 4 The sauce gets sprayed on the top of the pie Voila, the sauce’s name says but really you’re talking about the sauce. The sauce goes with the pie and runs on the butter; the pie goes with the sauce itself
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Replace all Backslashes in a String using JavaScript
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Borislav Hadzhiev
Tue Oct 12 20213 min read
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Photo by Ian Schneider
Replace all Backslashes in a String #
To replace all backslashes in a string:
1. Call the replaceAll() method, passing it a string containing two backslashes as the first parameter and the replacement string as the second.
2. The replaceAll method will return a new string with all backslashes replaced by the provided replacement.
index.js
const str = 'a\\b\\c'; const replaced = str.replaceAll('\\', '|'); console.log(replaced); // 👉️ a|b|c
We passed the following parameters to the String.replaceAll method:
1. a substring we want to match in the string. Notice that we have to escape the backslash character with another backslash.
2. a replacement for each match. In the example we use a pipe symbol as the replacement.
In the example we replace each backslash with a pipe, however you can provide any replacement string that suits your use case, e.g. a hyphen:
index.js
const str = 'a\\b\\c'; const replaced = str.replaceAll('\\', '-'); console.log(replaced); // 👉️ a-b-c
The replaceAll method does not mutate the original string, it returns a new string with all matches replaced. Strings are immutable in JavaScript.
The replaceAll method is not supported in Internet Explorer versions 6-11. If you need to support the browser, use the replace method instead.
To replace all backslashes in a string:
1. Call the replace() method, passing it a regular expression that matches all backslashes as the first parameter and the replacement string as the second.
2. The replace method will return a new string with all backslashes replaced.
index.js
// Supported in IE 6-11 const str = 'a\\b\\c'; const replaced = str.replace(/\\/g, '_'); console.log(replaced); // 👉️ a_b_c
We passed the following parameters to the String.replace method:
1. a regular expression that matches all backslashes in the string. Again, we have to escape the backslash character with another backslash.
2. a replacement string for each match. In the example we provided an underscore as the replacement
The regular expression is quite hard to read and would take a second even for a seasoned developer.
If you ever need help reading a regular expression, check out this regex cheatsheet from the MDN docs.
We use the g (global) flag, because we want to match all backslashes in the string and not just the first occurrence.
The replace method does not change the original string, it returns a new string with one or more matches replaced.
The regular expression is quite difficult to read, so here's an alternative approach, which also is supported by Internet Explorer.
To replace all backslashes in a string:
1. Call the split() method on the string, passing it a string containing two backslashes.
2. The split method will return an array containing the divided substrings.
3. Call the join() method on the array, passing it the replacement string.
4. The join method returns a new string by concatenating the array elements with the provided separator.
index.js
const str = 'a\\b\\c'; const replaced = str.split('\\').join('-'); console.log(replaced); // 👉️ a-b-c
The String.split method returns an array containing the substrings, split on the backslashes.
index.js
const str = 'a\\b\\c'; const split = str.split('\\') console.log(split) // 👉️ ['a', 'b', 'c']
The last step is to use the Array.join method to join the array elements with a provided separator.
In the example we use a dash, however you can use any string that suits your use case.
The replaceAll method is my preferred solution for this problem, because it's quite easier to read than the other 2 approaches. However, if you need to support Internet Explorer the other methods get the job done.
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Different Flow Patterns Between Left and Right Internal Thoracic Artery Grafts Influence the Evaluation of Severe Graft Stenosis by Transthoracic Doppler Echocardiography
Objective
An increase in the diastolic to systolic flow velocity ratio (D/S) in the proximal left internal thoracic artery (ITA) after coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG) enables noninvasive assessment of graft patency by transthoracic Doppler echocardiography (TTDE). The increase in the D/S can be less pronounced at a site distant from the anastomosis. We postulated that proximal ITA flow patterns differ between the left and right ITAs and that the increase in D/S is less pronounced in the right than in the left proximal ITA.
Methods
Proximal ITA flow was examined by TTDE in 129 consecutive patients after CABG of the left (75) or right (69) ITA to the left coronary artery. The mean D/S of the ITAs was compared with coronary angiography.
Results
The D/S was lower in the group with a patent right ITA than in the group with a patent left ITA ( P < .05). The D/S of both the left and right ITAs negatively correlated with angiographic stenosis ( r = 0.56 or 0.67, P < .001, respectively). The regression line was significantly shifted downward in the right ITA compared with the left ITA, according to analysis of covariance ( P = .01). Graft stenosis was predicted by a D/S of <0.57 and <0.28 with an accuracy of 91% and 97% in the left and right ITAs, respectively.
Conclusion
The patency of both left and right ITA grafts to the left coronary artery can be assessed using TTDE, but different cutoff values of D/S are required to diagnose severe ITA stenosis.
The internal thoracic arteries (ITAs) are the first choice of conduits for grafting to the left coronary artery (LCA) in patients with ischemic heart disease. The long-term patency and functional effectiveness of the ITAs are superior to those of vein grafts. Postoperative clinical benefits are improved using the bilateral ITA for patients with multivessel diseases compared with a single ITA and other bypass conduits. Therefore, the right ITA is now frequently used as a bypass conduit to the LCA. Coronary angiography remains the conventional gold standard for assessing conduit patency despite being invasive and associated with risks of various intraoperative complications, such as arterial dissection and stroke.
Flow in the ITA has been investigated using transthoracic Doppler echocardiography (TTDE) since the 1990s. The diastolic flow velocity of the ITA increases after coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG) as the result of physiologically decreased resistance in the coronary circulation, and an increase in the diastolic to systolic flow velocity ratio (D/S) has been used as an index of bypass graft patency. Several reports have shown that a decrease in D/S <0.5 or 0.6 is a powerful predictive parameter of ITA graft stenosis. On the other hand, studies using Doppler flow wires have shown variations in Doppler flow velocity patterns at the proximal, mid, and distal portions of ITA grafts. These studies demonstrated that the increase in D/S can be less pronounced at a site distant from the anastomosis. The proximal right ITA is further from the anastomosis than the proximal left ITA.
We postulated that proximal ITA flow patterns differ between left and right ITAs and that the increase in D/S is less pronounced in the right than in the left proximal ITA, resulting in a need for different D/S cutoff values for assessing severe ITA stenosis. The present study compares the D/S for evaluating the severe graft stenosis between the right and left ITAs using TTDE.
Materials and Methods
Patients
We studied 146 consecutive patients (124 men and 22 women, age 66 ± 11 years) who underwent CABG using the left or right ITA; 84 patients had left ITA grafts, and 82 patients had right ITA grafts. Twenty patients received grafts using both ITAs. They underwent TTDE and coronary angiography to treat recurrent angina and atypical chest pain, or postoperatively to confirm graft patency. The Institutional Committee of Kagoshima University Hospital approved the study protocol.
Detection of Proximal Left and Right ITAs by TTDE
Standard two-dimensional and Doppler echocardiography proceeded using a digital ultrasound system (HDI-5000, Philips Medical Systems, Bothell, WA; Acuson Sequoia, Siemens, Mountain View, CA; Vivid 7, GE Healthcare, Milwaukee, WI) with 2- to 4-MHz transducers. To detect ITA flow, the initial velocity range of the color Doppler was set at approximately ±21 cm/sec and subsequently adjusted to optimize visualization of color signals in the bypass graft. All patients were examined in the supine position. A transducer was placed on the left or right supraclavicular fossa, and the first task in detecting ITA flow was to identify the left or right subclavian artery (SCA). The proximal left ITA was detected by rotating the transducer slightly clockwise and inclining it toward the anterior chest wall ( Figure 1 ). The proximal right ITA was detected by rotating the transducer clockwise 90 degrees at the level of the thyrocervical trunk bifurcation of the right SCA and inclining the transducer toward the anterior chest wall ( Figure 2 ). Flow in both ITAs was determined by recognizing downward flow in the tubular structures branching from the subclavian arteries. Transducer position and Doppler beam direction were adjusted to minimize the Doppler angle to the ITA flow direction by color flow mapping. Flow velocity in the ITA was examined 1.5 to 2.0 cm away from the SCA by pulsed-wave Doppler echocardiography with a sample volume of 2 mm. The sample volume direction was adjusted along the long axis of the ITA flow for angle correction to determine flow velocity more accurately. The ITA flow was recorded as a biphasic flow pattern by pulsed-wave Doppler echocardiography ( Figure 3 ).
Figure 1
Photographs and color Doppler images show procedure for detecting flow in left ITA. White circle on transducer indicates right side of ultrasonic plane. A transducer placed on left supraclavicular fossa is rotated slightly clockwise (A) . Left ITA flow is then recognized as flow branching from left SCA ( white arrow, B ). The transducer is inclined toward the anterior chest wall to minimize the Doppler angle to ITA flow (C) . Left ITA flow crosses the left brachiocephalic vein and becomes directed more downward ( D , white arrows ).
Figure 2
Photographs and color Doppler images show procedure for detecting flow in right ITA. White circle on transducer indicates right side of ultrasonic plane. A transducer is placed on the right sternal head of the sternocleidomastoid muscle, and the angle of ultrasonic beam direction is adjusted to 30 degrees to the clavicle (A) . Right SCA and right common carotid artery branching from brachiocephalic artery are then detected (B) . Right thyrocervical trunk, which is a branch of the right SCA, serves as a landmark for detecting right ITA ( white arrow, B ). After rotating the transducer clockwise 90 degrees at the level of the thyrocervical trunk and inclining the transducer toward the anterior chest wall (C) , the proximal right ITA flow branching from the right SCA is detected ( white arrow, D ). BCA, Brachiocephalic artery; CCA, common carotid artery.
Figure 3
Color and pulsed-wave Doppler echocardiograms of flow in the left ITA of a patient after successful CABG to LAD coronary artery. Flow in ITA is recognized as branching flow from the SCA (A) . Sample volume of pulsed-wave Doppler echocardiography ( A , white closed circle ) is placed 1.5 to 2.0 cm away from the SCA. The angle is then corrected along the long axis of ITA flow ( A , white arrow ). Biphasic left ITA flow velocity profile is then obtained by pulsed-wave Doppler echocardiography (B) . S, Systolic velocity; D, diastolic velocity.
Measurements of ITA Flow by TTDE
The peak systolic and diastolic velocity and the mean systolic and diastolic velocity were measured by tracing the outer borderline of the systolic and diastolic Doppler velocity profiles, respectively. Each parameter was obtained by averaging measurements from three to five consecutive cardiac cycles, and the peak and mean D/S were calculated.
Angiographic Analysis of ITA Grafts
All patients underwent coronary angiography within 1 month after the TTDE study using a standard femoral approach. Nitroglycerin (0.3 mg) was selectively injected into each bypass graft. We quantified the percentage of stenosis in the ITA and the anastomotic site between the ITA and the LCA using a computer-assisted method (Cardiovascular Measurement System version 2.0, Medical Imaging System, Nuenen, The Netherlands). A selected cinematic frame was digitized, and an automatic edge-detection program determined the graft and the coronary artery contours by assessing brightness along scan lines that ran perpendicular to the center lines of the graft. The image was calibrated on the basis of the known size of the catheter, and the vessel diameters were displayed for the length of the segment analyzed. The computer program automatically calculated the minimum lumen diameter and the percentage of diameter stenosis. An ITA with a diameter stenosis of ≥75% was considered severely stenotic.
Reproducibility of Measurements
Inter- and intraobserver variability were determined as the difference between repeated mean systolic velocity and diastolic velocity values in 10 patients by 2 independent observers and by the same observer, respectively.
Statistics
All continuous data are expressed as means ± SD. The significance of differences between two groups was tested using the unpaired Student t test, and the significance of differences among groups was tested using one-way analysis of variance with subgroup analysis using Scheffe’s post hoc test. The D/S and percentage of diameter stenosis in the left and right ITAs were compared using regression analysis and analysis of covariance (ANCOVA). Receiver operating characteristics curves were constructed, and areas under the curves were measured to determine cutoff values for optimal sensitivity and specificity. P values < .05 were considered statistically significant.
Results
Detection of Flow in the ITA Using TTDE
Flow in the left ITA was detected in 84 patients (100%) and in the right ITA was detected in 75 of 82 patients (91%) by TTDE. All seven patients in whom right ITA flow was undetectable had grafts to the left circumflex artery (LCX). Three of these seven patients had grafts that used both ITAs, and left ITA flow was detected by TTDE.
Angiographic Assessment of ITA and LCA
Fifteen patients had ≥75% stenosis in the LCA distal to the anastomosis. Two of them had grafts using both ITAs, and another ITA had no distal coronary artery stenosis. We excluded these 15 ITAs in 15 patients from this study. Therefore, we finally investigated 144 ITAs in 129 patients, of whom 15 received grafts using both ITAs. Table 1 summarizes the clinical characteristics of the patients. The study patients were divided into the following groups: patent left ITA with <75% diameter stenosis ( n = 66), stenotic left ITA with ≥75% diameter stenosis ( n = 9), patent right ITA ( n = 50), and stenotic right ITA ( n = 19).
Table 1
Clinical characteristics of patients
No. of patients 129
Male/female 118/26
Age (y) 66 ± 10
Months after CABG 21 ± 13.1 (0.5–120)
Graft vessel
Left ITA–LAD 54
Left ITA–LCX 21 (sequential 2)
Right ITA–LAD 31
Right ITA–LCX 38 (sequential 3)
Symptomatic angina 58/ 129
Congestive heart failure 20/129
Previous myocardial infarction 49/129
Ejection fraction by Simpson’s method (%) 48 ± 10 (35–78)
Doppler Measurements of ITA Flow in Four Groups
Table 2 shows a comparison of Doppler values among the four groups. The peak systolic velocity did not significantly differ among the groups. The peak diastolic velocity was significantly lower in a stenotic left ( P < . 05) or right ( P < . 01) ITA than in a patent left ITA. The peak D/S was significantly smaller in a stenotic right ITA than in a patent left ITA. However, peak D/S did not significantly differ between patent and stenotic left or right ITAs. The mean systolic velocity did not significantly differ among the groups, whereas mean diastolic velocity and mean D/S were significantly lower in stenotic ITAs ( P < . 01, respectively) than in patent left or right ITAs. The mean D/S was significantly lower in patent right ITAs than in patent left ITAs ( P < . 05).
Table 2
Comparison of Doppler echocardiographic indices among the four groups
Patent left ITA
n = 66
Stenotic left ITA
n = 9
Patent right ITA
n = 50
Stenotic right ITA
n = 19
Peak systolic velocity (cm/sec) 39.2 ± 14.7 35.5 ± 24.1 44.1 ± 22.2 37.1 ± 22.5
Peak diastolic velocity (cm/sec) 37.8 ± 36.4 9.9 ± 4.3 30.2 ± 17.0 11.3 ± 12.3
Peak D/S 1.05 ± 1.1 0.37 ± 0.24 0.75 ± 0.48 0.29 ± 0.32
Mean systolic velocity (cm/sec) 26.1 ± 9.3 23.0 ± 12.9 29.2 ± 17.6 25.4 ± 14.7
Mean diastolic velocity (cm/sec) 25.3 ± 9.8 6.3 ± 4.0 23.5 ± 15.7 9.9 ± 10.1 §
Mean D/S 1.01 ± 0.35 0.31 ± 0.20 0.83 ± 0.35 0.32 ± 0.24 §
P < .05.
P < .01 vs. patent left ITA.
P < .01 vs. stenotic left ITA.
§ P < .01 vs. patent right ITA.
Table 3 compares Doppler measurements between left anterior descending (LAD) and LCX anastomoses in patent left and right ITAs, respectively. Mean systolic and diastolic velocities and mean D/S did not significantly differ between LAD and LCX anastomoses in left or right ITAs.
Table 3
Comparison of Doppler echocardiographic indices between LAD and LCX anastomoses in patent left and right ITAs
Left ITA LAD anastomosis
n = 47
LCX anastomosis
n = 19
P
Mean systolic velocity (cm/sec) 25.6 ± 9.4 27.4 ± 9.0 NS
Mean diastolic velocity (cm/sec) 24.4 ± 9.8 27.2 ± 10.0 NS
Mean D/S 0.99 ± 0.32 1.06 ± 0.42 NS
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Jun 11, 2018 | Posted by in CARDIOLOGY | Comments Off on Different Flow Patterns Between Left and Right Internal Thoracic Artery Grafts Influence the Evaluation of Severe Graft Stenosis by Transthoracic Doppler Echocardiography
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1.5 HR FULL TINNITUS UK ASSESSMENT WITH A HCPC REGISTERED AUDIOLOGIST £190
CALL US TO ARRANGE YOUR APPOINTMENT, MON-FRI 9am - 5pm
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Tinnitus & Otosclerosis
Otosclerosis is a progressive middle ear disease which causes a conductive hearing loss. It usually begins in affected people between the ages of 10 and 30 and is twice as prevalent in women compared to men.
Over time the three small bones of the middle ear become fused together and then to the surrounding bone, adding both weight and stiffness. The three small bones are called ossicles and it is the ‘Ossicular chain’ which carries sound energy from the eardrum across to the inner ear. The ossicular chain terminates underneath the footplate of the stapes at the oval window, the opening to the Cochlear or inner ear.
The ear drum (tympanic membrane) is around 20 times bigger than the oval window. Along with the lever action of the ossicular chain this gives around a 28dB amplification of the sound entering the Cochlear. Where there is a large perforation in the ear drum or the ossicular chain has become fused this advantage can be lost, leading to what is known as a conductive hearing loss (because the sound is not being conducted efficiently across to the inner ear). In the case of Otosclerosis not only can the ossicular chain become rigid but further bone growth can add weight to the chain which can increase the hearing deficit even more.
As with other types of conductive hearing loss the inner ear is usually working well. This means that, rather like when you plug your ear with your finger, any internal sound is heard louder than normal. This means that the nature and types of tinnitus that present in Otosclerosis is often quite varied. The sensory deprivation caused by the conductive hearing loss can lead to a ‘raised central auditory gain’. This is where your brain is responding to the quiet by becoming more sensitive to all sounds, including normal nerve activity leading to common neuronal tinnitus that sounds like a constant tone or hiss. But you are also more susceptible to hearing what are known as somatosounds. These are normal noises made by the body such as blood pulsing, swallowing and chewing etc.
Although it is necessary to have any pulsatile tinnitus investigated by an ENT Consultant, it is recognised in all the literature around Otosclerosis that the first and most effective line of treatment is correcting the hearing loss.
Your ENT Consultant may discuss with you the possibility of surgery to correct the bone growth. While this can often be successful in improving the hearing and to a certain extent the tinnitus, they will usually wait until the condition is quite advanced as the surgery is not without a small degree of risk.
What can Hearing Aids do?
Well fitted hearing aids will need to take into account both the degree of inner ear loss and the conductive element of the hearing problem. They need to have ample power to follow any changes in your hearing and we would recommend they have access to high-quality streamed tinnitus therapy sounds. Although it can be tempting to opt for smaller custom devices we would recommend good quality ‘Receiver in the Ear’ hearing aids. These are capable of being adjusted a great deal more to keep up with any changes in your hearing over time. Why not book in to see one of our Tinnitus UK experts and start getting the help you need right away?
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Turmeric Information | Evidenced-Based Supplement Guide on MedicineNet.com - How does Turmeric work?
Turmeric
How does Turmeric work?
Turmeric contains the chemical curcumin. Curcumin and other chemicals in turmeric might decrease swelling (inflammation). Because of this, turmeric might be beneficial for treating conditions that involve inflammation.
Are there safety concerns?
Turmeric is LIKELY SAFE when taken by mouth or applied to the skin appropriately for up to 8 months.
Turmeric is POSSIBLY SAFE when it is used as an enema or a mouthwash in the short-term.
Turmeric usually does not cause significant side effects; however, some people can experience stomach upset, nausea, dizziness, or diarrhea.
In one report, a person who took very high amounts of turmeric, over 1500 mg twice daily, experienced a dangerous abnormal heart rhythm. However, it is unclear if turmeric was the actual cause of this side effect. Until more is known, avoid taking excessively large doses of turmeric.
Special Precautions & Warnings:
Pregnancy and breast-feeding: During pregnancy and while breast-feeding, turmeric is LIKELY SAFE when taken by mouth in amounts commonly found in food. However, turmeric is LIKELY UNSAFE when taken by mouth in medicinal amounts during pregnancy. It might promote a menstrual period or stimulate the uterus, putting the pregnancy at risk. Do not take medicinal amounts of turmeric if you are pregnant. There is not enough information to rate the safety of medicinal amounts of turmeric during breast-feeding. It is best not to use it.
Gallbladder problems: Turmeric can make gallbladder problems worse. Do not use turmeric if you have gallstones or a bile duct obstruction.
Bleeding problems: Taking turmeric might slow blood clotting. This might increase the risk of bruising and bleeding in people with bleeding disorders.
Diabetes: Curcumin, a chemical in turmeric, might decrease blood sugar in people with diabetes. Use with caution in people with diabetes as it might make blood sugar too low.
A stomach disorder called gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD): Turmeric can cause stomach upset in some people. It might make stomach problems such as GERD worse. Do not take turmeric if it worsens symptoms of GERD.
Hormone-sensitive condition such as breast cancer, uterine cancer, ovarian cancer, endometriosis, or uterine fibroids: Turmeric contains a chemical called curcumin, which might act like the hormone estrogen. In theory, turmeric might make hormone-sensitive conditions worse. However, some research shows that turmeric reduces the effects of estrogen in some hormone-sensitive cancer cells. Therefore, turmeric might have beneficial effects on hormone-sensitive conditions. Until more is known, use cautiously if you have a condition that might be made worse by exposure to hormones.
Infertility: Turmeric might lower testosterone levels and decrease sperm movement when taken by mouth by men. This might reduce fertility. Turmeric should be used cautiously by people trying to have a baby.
Iron deficiency: Taking high amounts of turmeric might prevent the absorption of iron. Turmeric should be used with caution in people with iron deficiency.
Surgery: Turmeric might slow blood clotting. It might cause extra bleeding during and after surgery. Stop using turmeric at least 2 weeks before a scheduled surgery.
Therapeutic Research Faculty copyright
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You are encouraged to report negative side effects of prescription drugs to the FDA. Visit the FDA MedWatch website or call 1-800-FDA-1088.
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applicants_list
Returns a list of all applicants with their basic details, status and payment balance.
You can use the "additional_fields" parameter to include more fields in the JSON results. Check the /fields service to explore the additional fields that you can add.
Example:
{
"additional_fields":"customField_35,idnumber,countryName"
}
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Commits
Ralph Bean committed 1803a8e
Miscellaneous.
Comments (0)
Files changed (5)
from setuptools import setup, find_packages
+import multiprocessing, logging
+
f = open('README.rst')
long_description = f.read().strip()
long_description = long_description.split('split here', 1)[1]
"tw2.dynforms",
"BeautifulSoup",
],
+ test_suite='nose.collector',
+ tests_require = [
+ 'nose',
+ 'formencode',
+ 'strainer',
+ 'webtest',
+ ],
packages=find_packages(exclude=['ez_setup']),
namespace_packages = ['tw2'],
zip_safe=False,
tests/test_widgets.py
{ 'label': 'date B', 'values': [30, 10, 45, 10] }
]
}
- expected = """<div style="text-align:center; overflow:hidden; background-color:#3a3a3a; width: 500; height: 500;" id="foo"></div>"""
+ expected = """<div style="text-align:center; overflow:hidden; background-color:#3a3a3a; width: 750; height: 750;" id="foo"></div>"""
+
+class test_JS(object):
+ def test_js_call(self):
+ import tw2.jit.samples
+ w = tw2.jit.samples.DemoAreaChart(id='foo')
+ w.display()
tw2/jit/samples/chart.py
base_url = '/area_chart_data/'
import tw2.core as twc
-twc.core.request_local()['middleware'].controllers.register(DemoAreaChart,
- 'area_chart_data')
+twc.register_controller(DemoAreaChart, 'area_chart_data')
from tw2.jit.widgets import BarChart
from tw2.jit.samples.samples_data import BarChartJSONSampleData
tw2/jit/samples/sqla.py
}
import tw2.core as twc
-mw = twc.core.request_local()['middleware']
-mw.controllers.register(DemoSQLARadialGraph, 'db_radialgraph_demo')
+twc.register_controller(DemoSQLARadialGraph, 'db_radialgraph_demo')
tw2/jit/widgets/core.py
import tw2.core as twc
from tw2.core.resources import JSLink, CSSLink
-from tw2.core.resources import JSSymbol, JSFuncCall
+from tw2.core.resources import JSSymbol, _JSFuncCall as JSFuncCall
from tw2.core.resources import JSSource
from tw2.core.resources import encoder
from tw2.core.widgets import WidgetMeta
exec_delay=self.init_delay,
setupcall=setupcall,
loadcall=loadcall,
- postcall=postcall)
+ postcall=postcall,
+ )
self.resources.append(composite_js_call)
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Safe Arm Workout Procedures to Prevent Wrist and Joint Injuries
Have you had trouble with wrist and joint injuries but still want to get in your arm workout? There are procedures you can follow that will help reduce your pain while also keeping you active. Below you will find a list of procedures to follow before, during, and after a workout so that you can gain strength while reducing the risk of injury.
Before Arm Workout
Before starting any workout, you should take time to warm up. Warming up may include doing a light cardio activity such as walking, jogging, or jumping jacks. These activities can ensure that your muscles and joints are ready to move. Allowing the muscles to prepare for physical activity will ensure that your cardiovascular system is ready and reduces your injury chance.
There are some wrist and arm-specific warmups that you can perform to reduce injuries in these areas. For example, you might want to gently start rolling the wrists in a clockwise and then subsequently counterclockwise direction; these movements prepare your wrists to engage in actions that are not part of your regular daily activities.
It is also a good strategy is to speak with your doctor before starting a new exercise routine. Meeting with a doctor beforehand can help you gauge whether a routine is right for you. Your doctor will help you determine if you have any health problems that could be exacerbated by specific exercises; this will give you valuable insight into what activities you should avoid reducing injury.
During Arm Workout
During your workouts, you may have noticed wrist and joint pain while performing certain activities. It is best practice to avoid activities that produce severe pain. Still, suppose you find yourself only slightly uncomfortable during a workout. In that case, there are small changes you can make that can increase comfort and help you maximize your exercises.
The first thing you might notice when doing an arm workout, such as a pushup, is that your wrists are strained; this is a common problem you can face while doing an arm workout because pressure and weight are often put on the wrists while in the pronated position. Sometimes, the stress placed on the pronated wrist can cause problems with the entire arm’s nerves, including the elbows. A helpful way to reduce this strain is through the use of a mat. Mats create a comfortable surface for your hands to rest on; the mat’s softness alleviates tension from the wrists.
While at the gym, you may have noticed some people wearing braces somewhere on their bodies. People with previous injuries and soreness use these braces. Although not always used during a workout, it is common to see people wear these to reduce further pain and damage. For arm workouts, you can get wrist braces that help keep the wrist in a comfortable position. Remember, often, wrist braces are used to help with a preexisting injury, so if you feel you need one, you should speak with a healthcare professional so that any problems can be diagnosed before exercising.
If you are suffering from a previous injury, you may also decide to alter your workouts to be low-impact. Low-impact activities are suitable for your joints because they do not cause as much pressure. Avoiding high impact exercises in trouble areas can help you reduce pain and soreness in joints. For example, a burpee is a high impact activity that can cause pain in the wrists because of the transition from the jump to the pushup motion. Choosing an alternative workout that reduces that pressure on the wrists can provide you with the same results with less pain.
If you are unsure about what activities you can do that are low-impact, you can always consult a personal trainer. Trainers are available to give you professional opinions and assistance so that you can maximize your workouts and minimize your pain. Sometimes pain can be caused by improper form or improper use of equipment during an activity. A personal trainer will help you understand how specific equipment works and master proper-form for all your exercises, which will ensure that you are not straining muscles and joints.
It is also essential not to over-exert yourself while exercising. Exertion is good, but over-exertion can be the source of many problems, such as wrist and joint pain. If you are completing a workout and feel severe pains in your joints and wrists, you should stop immediately.
After Arm Workout
If you find that you are excessively sore after a workout, it is a good indication that you should take a rest. Providing your muscles and joints time to recover after a workout is essential for developing strong muscles and bones. Typically you can tell the difference between regular soreness and an injury. Muscle soreness is an everyday occurrence after exercising because you have worked the muscles; this soreness is okay to exercise with as long as you do not over-exert yourself. However, if you feel sharp or severe pains, you may have an injury. If you suspect that you have an injury, you should immediately cease all exercise and see your doctor. If you are experiencing severe pain and do not listen to your body, you can cause severe and permanent damage; always rest if you are injured.
Finally, it is essential to stretch after every workout. Stretching reduces tightness in the body and aids in recovery. Additionally, stretching gradually increases your range of motion. When completing an arm workout, you should stretch your wrists and joints to aid in recovery; the increase in blood flow helps keep your body from becoming stiff. Always stretch after a workout to reduce the pain you feel in the upcoming days.
FINAL THOUGHTS
As you can see, there are many strategies that you can use before, during, and after an arm workout that can help you prevent pain in the wrists and joints. If you follow these procedures, you will find that your workouts will become less painful and more effective.
Dr. John Knight
Dr. John Knight
Dr. Knight is a renowned hand, wrist and upper extremity surgeon with over 25 years of experience. Dr. Knight is a Board Certified Orthopedic Surgeon and Fellowship trained. Dr Knight has appeared on CNN, The Doctors TV, Good Morning America, The Wall Street Journal, The Washington Post, Forbes, The Huffington Post, Entrepreneur, Oxygen network and more.
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ap #14 sympathetic & parasympathetic
25 terms by mcostakis
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ap #14 sympathetic & parasympathetic
ANS - Sympathetic - Origin
center of spinal cord T1-L5
thoracolumbar region of the spinal cord
ANS - Parasympathetic - Origin
Gray matter of cranium
Craniosacral region of the CNS
ANS - Sympathetic - Length of fibers
Preganglionic
short
ANS - Sympathetic - Length of fibers
Postganglionic
long
ANS - Parasympathetic - Length of fibers
Preganglionic
long (all the way out to target then...)
ANS - Parasympathetic - Length of fibers
Postganglionic
short (to target0
ANS - Sympathetic - Location of ganglion
near vertebral column
ANS - Parasympathetic - Location of ganglion
near the target
ANS - Sympathetic - Neurotransmitter
Preganglionic fiber
Acetylcholine
ANS - Parasympathetic - Neurotransmitter
Preganglionic fiber
Acetylcholine (stimulates next neuron)
ANS - Sympathetic - Neurotransmitter
Postganglionic fiber
Norepinephrine (heart speeds up)
ANS - Parasympathetic - Neurotransmitter
Postganglionic fiber
Acetylcholine
ANS - Sympathetic - Term for postganglionic fiber
Adrenergic (1) = only postganglionic fiber sympathetic
ANS - Parasympathetic - Term for postganglionic fiber
Cholinergic (4) =
1. preganglionic (parasympathetic)
2. postganglionic (parasympathetic)
3. postganglionic (sympathetic)
4. into muscle fiber
ANS - Sympathetic - Enzymes to terminate action
COMT = Catechol-O-Methyl transferase
MAO = Monoamine oxidase
ANS - Parasympathetic - Enzymes to terminate action
Acetylcholinesterase
ANS - Sympathetic - Receptors (Need to know these)
1. only on target
2. found in different targets
Alpha, Beta 1, Beta 2
ANS - Parasympathetic - Receptors
Nicotonic (on ganglion), Muscarinic (on target) = named for the poisons that block them
ANS - Sympathetic - Nickname
Fight or flight
ANS - Parasympathetic - Nickname
Rest & restore
or
rest & digest
ANS - Sympathetic - Effects (point & shoot)
are opposite
mostly stimulatory except for digestion
ANS - Parasympathetic - Effects (point & shoot)
are opposite
mostly inhibitory except:
1. digestion - stimulates
2. reproduction - stimulates
ANS - Sympathetic - Receptors
Alpha
in blood vessels - get vasoconstrictions (shrinking).
Ex. nasal decongestion can't use if high blood pressure)
ANS - Sympathetic - Receptors
Beta 1
in heart muscle - cause increase of force & rate of contractions
ex. beta blockers
ANS - Sympathetic - Receptors
Beta 2
in airways of lungs - open up airways
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| 0.970909 |
Python While Loop Statement
Python Loops
A loop statement allows us to execute a statement or group of statements multiple times.
Python has two primitive loop commands:
• while loops
• for loops
• While Loop
The while loop in Python is used to iterate over a block of code as long as the test expression (condition) is true
Syntax:
while expression:
Body of while
# Program to print numbers in ascending order till the mentioned limit
i = 1
while i <= 6:
print(i)
i += 1
print("Execution Completed!")
Output:
1
2
3
4
5
6
Execution Completed!
Using else Statement with Loops
If the else statement is used with a while loop, the else statement is executed when the condition becomes false.
# Program to print numbers in ascending order till the mentioned limit
i = 1
while i <= 6:
print(i)
i += 1
else:
print("Else statement is executed at the end as mandatory")
print("Execution Completed!")
Output:
1
2
3
4
5
6
Else statement is executed at the end as mandatory
Execution Completed!
Infinite Loop
• A loop becomes infinite loop if a condition never becomes FALSE. This results in a loop that never ends. Such a loop is called an infinite loop
• Use CTRL+C to exit the program
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Why Did UTF 8 Replace The Ascii Character?
Why did UTF 8 replace the ascii?
Answer: The UTF-8 replaced ASCII because it contained more characters than ASCII that is limited to 128 characters..
Is a UTF 8 character?
UTF-8 is a variable-width character encoding used for electronic communication. … UTF-8 is capable of encoding all 1,112,064 valid character code points in Unicode using one to four one-byte (8-bit) code units. Code points with lower numerical values, which tend to occur more frequently, are encoded using fewer bytes.
Is Unicode better than ascii?
Unicode uses between 8 and 32 bits per character, so it can represent characters from languages from all around the world. It is commonly used across the internet. As it is larger than ASCII, it might take up more storage space when saving documents.
What is a disadvantage of Ascii?
Answer: disadvantages of ASCII : maximum 128 characters that is not enough for some key boards having special characters. 7bit may not enough to represent larger values. advantage compare to EBCDIC are 7bit so quickly transferable in a fraction of time.
Should I use UTF 8 or UTF 16?
Depends on the language of your data. If your data is mostly in western languages and you want to reduce the amount of storage needed, go with UTF-8 as for those languages it will take about half the storage of UTF-16.
What does ascii stand for?
American Standard Code For Information InterchangeASCII, abbreviation of American Standard Code For Information Interchange, a standard data-transmission code that is used by smaller and less-powerful computers to represent both textual data (letters, numbers, and punctuation marks) and noninput-device commands (control characters).
Is UTF 8 and ascii same?
UTF-8 is an encoding, just like ASCII (more on encodings below), which is represented with bytes. The difference is that the UTF-8 encoding can represent every Unicode character, while the ASCII encoding can’t.
What is difference between Ascii and Unicode?
The difference between ASCII and Unicode is that ASCII represents lowercase letters (a-z), uppercase letters (A-Z), digits (0–9) and symbols such as punctuation marks while Unicode represents letters of English, Arabic, Greek etc.
Do computers still use Ascii?
All computers can use ASCII. All ASCII is, is a way of representing text using numbers. … However, there are also computer systems which by default, don’t use ASCII, such as the IBM i server (previously known as AS/400). This uses an alternative called EBCDIC, and it’s still in common use today on those systems.
What is the problem with Ascii?
Limitation of ASCII The 128 or 256 character limits of ASCII and Extended ASCII limits the number of character sets that can be held. Representing the character sets for several different language structures is not possible in ASCII, there are just not enough available characters.
Can UTF 8 handle Chinese characters?
It’s not that UTF-8 doesn’t cover Chinese characters and UTF-16 does. UTF-16 uses uniformly 16 bits to represent a character; while UTF-8 uses 1, 2, 3, up to a max of 4 bytes, depending on the character, so that an ASCII character is represented still as 1 byte. … Make sure every part of your setup works in UTF-8.
What advantages does UTF 8 have compared to ascii?
All characters in ASCII can be encoded using UTF-8 without an increase in storage (both requires a byte of storage). UTF-8 has the added benefit of character support beyond “ASCII-characters”.
Is ascii obsolete?
In addition, the original ASCII specification included 33 non-printing control codes which originated with Teletype machines; most of these are now obsolete, although a few are still commonly used, such as the carriage return, line feed and tab codes.
What does UTF 8 mean in HTML?
That meta tag basically specifies which character set a website is written with. Here is a definition of UTF-8: UTF-8 (U from Universal Character Set + Transformation Format—8-bit) is a character encoding capable of encoding all possible characters (called code points) in Unicode.
Why do we need UTF 8?
Why use UTF-8? An HTML page can only be in one encoding. You cannot encode different parts of a document in different encodings. A Unicode-based encoding such as UTF-8 can support many languages and can accommodate pages and forms in any mixture of those languages.
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tapetum lucidum
Also found in: Dictionary, Encyclopedia, Wikipedia.
tapetum
[tah-pe´tum] (L.)
1. a covering structure or layer of cells.
2. a stratum in the human brain composed of fibers from the body and splenium of the corpus callosum sweeping around the lateral ventricle.
tapetum lu´cidum the iridescent epithelium of the choroid of animals that gives their eyes the property of shining in the dark.
tapetum lucidum
A layer of tissue in the choroid of the eye between the vascular and capillary layers in some animals, but not in humans. This membrane reflects light shined into the animal's eyes. It produces a green reflection, readily seen in cats.
Synonym: tapetum choroideae
See also: tapetum
tapetum lucidum
A reflecting pigment layer lying behind the visual receptors of the retina of certain mammals (e.g. cats, dogs), birds and fish, which gives a shining appearance to the eyes when illuminated in the dark. The tapetum is located either in the pigment epithelium or in the choroid and covers either the whole fundus or more often only the upper and back portion. The role of the tapetum lucidum is to increase the probability of visual stimulation of the photoreceptors by reflecting light back after having already traversed them once, thus aiding vision in dim illumination. In some species the tapetum consists of guanine crystals.
tapetum
pl. tapeta [L.]
1. a covering structure or layer of cells.
2. a stratum in the human brain composed of fibers from the body and splenium of the corpus callosum sweeping around the lateral ventricle.
tapetum cellulosum
a type of tapetum lucidum made of cells called iridocytes, as found in carnivores.
choroidal tapetum
see tapetum lucidum (below).
tapetum fibrosum
a type of tapetum lucidum composed predominantly of organized bundles of collagen as found in ungulates.
tapetum lucidum
the iridescent reflecting tissue layer of the choroid of some species of animals that gives their eyes the property of shining in the dark. It is characteristic of nocturnal animals and allows incident light two opportunities to stimulate the retinal receptors. Called also choroidal tapetum.
References in periodicals archive ?
2008) observed absence of tapetum lucidum at birth in dog as its development started at age 37 days and underwent color and consistence modifications until 90 days of life.
After passing through the retina, they are reflected by the tapetum lucidum and have a second chance of stimulating a photoreceptor cell.
Thanks to the tapetum lucidum, a cat's sensitivity to light is thought to be about six times greater than that of a human's.
After passing through the retina they are reflected by the tapetum lucidum and have a second chance of stimulating a photoreceptor cell.
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Instructor: Paul Bautista
How do your eyes and brain work together to turn light into images? You'll learn about the working components of the eye and take a look at two theories of color perception.
We humans rely on our senses of sight more than a lot of other animals. A cat can easily find its way in the dark thanks to its sensitive whiskers, but if you try closing your eyes and trying to find your way from your desk to the office kitchen, you'll probably hurt yourself (or others). The smell of microwavable entrees doesn't guide you with precision, nor can you pinpoint the sounds of conversation accurately enough to keep you from running into the wall outside. We perceive the world largely through our eyes.
Still, our eyes are still limited in the grand scheme of things; they can perceive only a tiny fraction of the light that makes up the full electromagnetic spectrum. Light can have many different wavelengths and different properties at these different wavelengths. X-rays have really short wavelengths and can be used in medicine to 'see through' the body. Microwaves have much longer wavelengths and heat up your food when you're feeling lazy. We can't see x-rays or microwaves; we can only see light that has wavelengths within what's known as the visible spectrum. The longer wavelengths of the visible spectrum produce red light, and the shorter wavelengths produce purple light. If you've ever seen a rainbow, or light that's been passed through a prism, you've seen the full range of the visible spectrum in order from longest to shortest wavelength.
Part of the electromagnetic spectrum that humans can see
visible spectrum
The light in the visible spectrum really isn't any different than the other kinds of light. We only call it the visible spectrum because it's the range that human eyes have evolved to be able to perceive. If birds had defined a visible spectrum, it would include ultraviolet light, or wavelengths that are just a little shorter than what humans can see. Birds see ultraviolet light just like any other color, because their eyes have evolved a little differently than ours.
So we've talked a lot about what our eyes perceive; now let's take a closer look at how our eyes take in light and give us the world of images and color we're used to seeing.
Light first passes through the cornea, the outermost part of our eyeball, where it begins to be focused. Then it enters the pupil, a small opening that leads to the lens. Take a look in the mirror; the pupil is the black part at the center of your eye. The colored part around it is called the iris, and it grows and shrinks to protect the pupil and make sure the right amount of light gets in. On a really bright day, your pupils appear to shrink as your irises block more of them; in a dark room, your pupils appear to grow as your irises retract to allow in as much light as possible. You've probably noticed that when you turn out your light to go to bed, your room seems really dark; eventually, your eyes adjust and you can see enough to stumble to the bathroom without running into your desk. Your irises retracting to allow more light into your pupil allows you to do this.
Once the light makes it past the pupil, it hits the lens, a surface where it is further focused through a process called accommodation. If you need glasses, it's probably due to problems with accommodation; if your lenses won't do it naturally, light needs to first pass through artificial lenses--either glasses or contacts--in order to be properly focused.
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People Who Are Medically Advised To Hang Up Their Legs Against The Wall Regularly
In today's fast-paced world, many people lead sedentary lifestyles due to their desk-bound jobs and extensive screen time. This lack of physical activity can lead to various health issues, including poor blood circulation and muscle tension. However, one simple and effective solution that medical professionals often recommend is hanging up your legs against the wall regularly. This seemingly effortless practice offers numerous benefits and can be incorporated into your daily routine with ease.
According to WebMD, Hanging up your legs against the wall, also known as legs up the wall or Viparita Karani in yoga, involves lying on your back and extending your legs vertically against a wall or any elevated surface. Here are some individuals who can greatly benefit from this practice:
Stress and Anxiety Sufferers: Chronic stress and anxiety can take a toll on both mental and physical health. The legs-up-the-wall pose is known for its calming and grounding effects, as it activates the body's relaxation response. This practice can help reduce stress, anxiety, and even insomnia.
Office Workers: People who spend long hours sitting at a desk often experience leg swelling and discomfort due to prolonged sitting. Hanging up their legs against the wall can help alleviate these issues by promoting blood circulation and reducing swelling in the lower extremities.
Pregnant Women: Pregnancy often brings about changes in the body, including increased pressure on the legs and feet, as well as swelling. Lying with legs up the wall can help ease the discomfort associated with these conditions, providing relief and promoting relaxation.
Individuals with Varicose Veins: Varicose veins are swollen and twisted veins that commonly occur in the legs due to poor circulation. Elevating the legs by hanging them up against the wall can help alleviate symptoms such as pain, swelling, and heaviness associated with varicose veins.
Athletes and Fitness Enthusiasts: Engaging in intense physical activities can put a strain on the muscles and cause post-workout soreness. By adopting the legs-up-the-wall pose, athletes and fitness enthusiasts can accelerate their muscle recovery process, reduce inflammation, and relieve muscle tension.
Regularly incorporating the legs-up-the-wall pose into your routine is simple and requires minimal effort. You can set aside a few minutes each day to perform this practice, either in the morning to invigorate your body or in the evening to unwind and relax.
To get started, find a quiet space with a clear wall or use a yoga mat for added comfort. Lie on your back with your buttocks touching the wall, then slowly extend your legs upward until they are resting against the wall. Adjust your position to ensure you are comfortable and feel a gentle stretch in the back of your legs. You can stay in this pose for 5 to 15 minutes, focusing on deep breathing and allowing your body to relax.
Remember to consult with your healthcare provider, especially if you have any pre-existing medical conditions or concerns, before incorporating this practice into your routine.
In conclusion, hanging up your legs against the wall regularly is a simple yet powerful practice that offers a multitude of benefits. Whether you're an office worker, athlete, pregnant woman, or someone seeking stress relief, this practice can help improve your overall well-being. By taking a few minutes each day to embrace this gentle inversion, you can enhance circulation, relieve muscle tension, reduce swelling, and promote relaxation. Give it a try, and experience the transformative effects of this accessible self-care practice.
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Viparita Karani
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霍尔电机驱动pwm可以控制电机正反转吗
时间: 2023-05-08 10:01:49 浏览: 90
可以。霍尔电机驱动PWM信号可以通过改变信号的占空比来控制电机的转速和方向。在正转时增加占空比，在反转时将占空比减小即可。同时，霍尔电机驱动还可以通过添加位移相位来控制电机角度，从而实现更加精准的控制。需要注意的是，霍尔电机驱动需要与合适的霍尔感应电机配合使用，才能实现精准的控制效果。此外，为了保证驱动器和电机的安全运行，用户应该根据驱动器和电机的技术说明书进行正确接线，并注意使用的电源电压是否符合技术要求。
相关问题
stm32控制霍尔电机正反转
可以使用STM32控制霍尔电机的正反转。首先，你需要连接霍尔电机到STM32的合适引脚上。然后，你可以使用STM32的GPIO库来控制这些引脚。 以下是一个简单的示例代码，演示如何控制霍尔电机的正反转： ```c #include "stm32f4xx.h" #define MOTOR_PIN1 GPIO_PIN_0 #define MOTOR_PIN2 GPIO_PIN_1 GPIO_InitTypeDef GPIO_InitStruct; void motor_init() { // 初始化GPIO引脚 __HAL_RCC_GPIOA_CLK_ENABLE(); GPIO_InitStruct.Pin = MOTOR_PIN1 | MOTOR_PIN2; GPIO_InitStruct.Mode = GPIO_MODE_OUTPUT_PP; GPIO_InitStruct.Pull = GPIO_NOPULL; GPIO_InitStruct.Speed = GPIO_SPEED_FREQ_HIGH; HAL_GPIO_Init(GPIOA, &GPIO_InitStruct); } void motor_forward() { // 设置引脚状态以实现正转 HAL_GPIO_WritePin(GPIOA, MOTOR_PIN1, GPIO_PIN_SET); HAL_GPIO_WritePin(GPIOA, MOTOR_PIN2, GPIO_PIN_RESET); } void motor_backward() { // 设置引脚状态以实现反转 HAL_GPIO_WritePin(GPIOA, MOTOR_PIN1, GPIO_PIN_RESET); HAL_GPIO_WritePin(GPIOA, MOTOR_PIN2, GPIO_PIN_SET); } void motor_stop() { // 设置引脚状态以停止电机 HAL_GPIO_WritePin(GPIOA, MOTOR_PIN1, GPIO_PIN_RESET); HAL_GPIO_WritePin(GPIOA, MOTOR_PIN2, GPIO_PIN_RESET); } int main(void) { // 初始化STM32 HAL_Init(); // 初始化电机 motor_init(); while(1) { // 控制电机正转 motor_forward(); HAL_Delay(1000); // 1秒钟 // 控制电机停止 motor_stop(); HAL_Delay(1000); // 1秒钟 // 控制电机反转 motor_backward(); HAL_Delay(1000); // 1秒钟 // 控制电机停止 motor_stop(); HAL_Delay(1000); // 1秒钟 } } ``` 请注意，这只是一个简单的示例代码，你可能需要根据你的具体硬件配置进行调整。另外，你需要使用适当的库和引脚配置来适应你的STM32型号和霍尔电机。
霍尔编码器电机正反转测速
霍尔编码器是一种常用于测量电机旋转速度和方向的传感器。它可以通过检测磁极的变化来确定电机的转速和方向。 对于电机正反转测速，可以通过霍尔编码器的 A、B、Z 三个信号线来实现。其中，A、B 两个信号线可以用来检测电机的转速和方向，Z 信号线用于检测电机的圈数。 在正常情况下，A、B 两个信号线会交替输出高电平和低电平。当电机顺时针转动时，A 信号先变化，然后是 B 信号。当电机逆时针转动时，B 信号先变化，然后是 A 信号。通过检测 A、B 信号的变化，可以确定电机的方向和转速。 当需要测量电机的圈数时，可以通过检测 Z 信号线的脉冲数来实现。每当电机转一圈时，Z 信号线会输出一个脉冲，通过计数脉冲数就可以确定电机的圈数。 总之，通过霍尔编码器可以实现电机的正反转测速和圈数计数，是电机控制和测量中常用的传感器之一。
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### 回答1： 步进指令控制三相异步电机的正反转可以采用以下方法： 1. 将电机的三个相分别接到三个可控硅的输出端口上，通过控制可控硅的导通和断开，来实现对电机的正反转控制。 2. 设计一个基于步进指令的控制系统，该系统可以根据输入的指令来控制电机的正反转。具体步骤如下： - 设计一个步进指令发生器，该发生器可以根据输入的指令产生对应的步进信号。 - 将步进信号输入到一个计数器中，计数器可以根据步进信号来进行计数，并输出对应的计数值。 - 根据计数器的输出值，来控制可控硅的导通和断开。例如，当计数器输出为1时，控制第一个可控硅导通，控制第二个和第三个可控硅断开，从而实现电机的正转；当计数器输出为2时，控制第二个可控硅导通，控制第一个和第三个可控硅断开，从而实现电机的停转；当计数器输出为3时，控制第三个可控硅导通，控制第一个和第二个可控硅断开，从而实现电机的反转。 - 为了实现能耗制动，可以在控制系统中增加一个制动电阻，并通过控制可控硅的导通和断开来控制制动电阻的接入和断开。当需要制动时，控制系统将制动电阻接入电路中，从而实现制动效果。 总体来说，通过步进指令控制三相异步电机的正反转和能耗制动，可以实现对电机的高效、准确的控制。 ### 回答2： 三相异步电机正反转能耗制动的控制系统可以通过步进指令来设计。步进指令是一种逐步执行的指令序列，通过依次执行一系列指令来实现电机的控制。 首先，需要设计一个控制系统，其中包括一个控制器和一个功率电子器件。控制器可以采用微控制器或者PLC等设备，可以根据实际需求选择合适的控制器。功率电子器件可以采用可控硅、IGBT等器件，用于控制电机的正反转。 其次，控制系统需要根据电机的正反转需要，编写步进指令。步进指令可以通过编程语言来实现，比如使用C语言或者等程序设计语言编写控制程序。步进指令包括正转和反转两个方向的指令序列。 在控制程序中，需要定义电机的转速和运行时间等参数。通过控制器的输出信号，控制功率电子器件的开关状态，进而实现电机的正反转。控制系统可以根据需求通过调节步进指令来控制电机的转速和运行时间。 另外，为了实现能耗制动，控制系统需要在适当的时间点断开电机的电源供应，实现电机的停止运行。可以通过控制器的输出信号，控制功率电子器件的开关状态，实现电机的断电停止。 综上所述，通过步进指令设计的控制系统可以实现三相异步电机的正反转和能耗制动。通过编写适当的控制程序，控制器可以控制功率电子器件的开关状态，从而实现电机的正反转和断电停止。这样可以实现对电机运行的灵活控制和能耗的节约。 ### 回答3： 三相异步电机的正反转和能耗制动可以通过步进指令来设计控制系统。 首先，我们需要使用适当的传感器来检测电机的速度和位置。常用的传感器包括旋转编码器和霍尔效应传感器。这些传感器可以提供准确的反馈信号，以便控制系统可以监测电机的状态。 然后，我们可以使用步进指令来控制电机的正反转。步进指令是一种将电机按预定步长移动的指令。通过发送相应的步进指令，我们可以改变电机的转动方向，使其正转或反转。 另外，为了实现能耗制动，我们可以使用逆变器来控制电机的转矩和速度。逆变器可以改变电机的供电频率和电压，从而实现电机的产生反向转矩，实现制动的效果。 在控制系统中，我们需要编写适当的控制算法，以根据传感器的反馈信号和用户输入来生成相应的步进指令和逆变器的控制信号。这个控制算法可以使用PID控制器等经典控制方法来实现。 最后，我们可以使用微处理器或PLC等嵌入式系统来实现整个控制系统。通过编程和配置，我们可以将控制算法和硬件设备之间有效地进行通信和协调。 综上所述，通过使用步进指令和逆变器，我们可以设计并搭建一个实现三相异步电机正反转和能耗制动的控制系统。这个控制系统可以根据需要精确地控制电机的运动和制动，实现特定的工作任务。
很抱歉，我无法提供完整的程序。但是，我可以提供一个基本的框架，您可以根据自己的需要进行修改和完善。 #include #include <stdlib.h> #include <stdio.h> #include // 定义霍尔传感器引脚 #define HALL1 PORTBbits.RB0 #define HALL2 PORTBbits.RB1 #define HALL3 PORTBbits.RB2 // 定义电机驱动芯片引脚 #define ENA LATBbits.LATB14 #define IN1 LATBbits.LATB15 #define IN2 LATBbits.LATB13 #define ENB LATBbits.LATB12 #define IN3 LATBbits.LATB11 #define IN4 LATBbits.LATB9 // 定义PWM周期和分辨率 #define PWM_PERIOD 399 #define PWM_RESOLUTION 100 // 定义PID参数 #define KP 1.0 #define KI 0.5 #define KD 0.2 // 定义PID控制变量 float error = 0.0; float last_error = 0.0; float integral = 0.0; float derivative = 0.0; float output = 0.0; // 定义电机转速和目标转速 int speed = 0; int target_speed = 0; // 定义计数器 unsigned int count = 0; // 定义函数原型 void init(void); void hall_isr(void); void pid_control(void); void set_pwm(int pwm); int main(void) { init(); while (1) { // 更新PID控制变量 pid_control(); // 设置PWM输出 if (output > 0) { set_pwm((int)(output * PWM_RESOLUTION)); IN1 = 1; IN2 = 0; IN3 = 1; IN4 = 0; } else if (output < 0) { set_pwm((int)(-output * PWM_RESOLUTION)); IN1 = 0; IN2 = 1; IN3 = 0; IN4 = 1; } else { set_pwm(0); IN1 = 0; IN2 = 0; IN3 = 0; IN4 = 0; } // 延时一段时间 __delay_ms(10); } } void init(void) { // 初始化IO口 TRISBbits.TRISB0 = 1; TRISBbits.TRISB1 = 1; TRISBbits.TRISB2 = 1; TRISBbits.TRISB9 = 0; TRISBbits.TRISB11 = 0; TRISBbits.TRISB12 = 0; TRISBbits.TRISB13 = 0; TRISBbits.TRISB14 = 0; // 初始化PWM模块 PTCONbits.PTEN = 0; PTCONbits.PTCKPS = 0b00; PTCONbits.PTMOD = 0b00; PTPER = PWM_PERIOD; PWMCON1bits.PEN1H = 1; PWMCON1bits.PEN2H = 1; PWMCON1bits.PEN3H = 1; PTCONbits.PTEN = 1; // 初始化霍尔传感器中断 INTCON2bits.INT0EP = 1; IFS0bits.INT0IF = 0; IEC0bits.INT0IE = 1; IPC0bits.INT0IP = 7; // 初始化PID控制变量 error = 0.0; last_error = 0.0; integral = 0.0; derivative = 0.0; output = 0.0; // 初始化计数器 count = 0; // 启用全局中断 __builtin_enable_interrupts(); } void hall_isr(void) { // 捕捉电机转动圈数 if (HALL1 && HALL2 && HALL3) { count++; } // 更新电机转速 speed = (int)((float)count / 6.0 * 60.0); // 清除计数器 count = 0; // 清除中断标志 IFS0bits.INT0IF = 0; } void pid_control(void) { // 计算误差 error = target_speed - speed; // 计算积分项 integral += error; // 计算微分项 derivative = error - last_error; // 更新PID输出 output = KP * error + KI * integral + KD * derivative; // 保存上一次的误差 last_error = error; } void set_pwm(int pwm) { // 设置PWM占空比 PDC1 = pwm * PWM_PERIOD / PWM_RESOLUTION; PDC2 = pwm * PWM_PERIOD / PWM_RESOLUTION; PDC3 = pwm * PWM_PERIOD / PWM_RESOLUTION; }
以下是一个基于DSPIC33EP系列单片机的位置单闭环PID控制有刷直流电机正反转的完整程序，假设电机驱动芯片为L298N，利用霍尔传感器捕捉电机转的圈数。 #include <xc.h> #include <stdio.h> #include <stdlib.h> #include <stdint.h> // 定义PID参数 #define Kp 1.0 #define Ki 0.5 #define Kd 0.2 // 定义电机相关参数 #define PWM_PERIOD 3999 // PWM周期 #define PWM_DEADBAND 50 // 死区时间 #define HALL_SENSOR_CNT_PER_REV 6 // 每圈霍尔传感器数量 #define MOTOR_GEAR_RATIO 50 // 减速比 #define MOTOR_MAX_RPM 6000 // 电机最大转速 #define MOTOR_MAX_SPEED (MOTOR_MAX_RPM / 60 * HALL_SENSOR_CNT_PER_REV / MOTOR_GEAR_RATIO) // 电机最大速度 // 定义PID控制器状态 struct pid_state { float target_pos; // 目标位置 float current_pos; // 当前位置 float last_error; // 上次误差 float integral_error; // 积分误差 }; // 初始化PID状态 void pid_init(struct pid_state *pid, float target_pos) { pid->target_pos = target_pos; pid->current_pos = 0; pid->last_error = 0; pid->integral_error = 0; } // 计算PID输出 float pid_compute(struct pid_state *pid, float current_pos) { float error = pid->target_pos - current_pos; pid->integral_error += error; float derivative_error = error - pid->last_error; pid->last_error = error; float output = Kp * error + Ki * pid->integral_error + Kd * derivative_error; return output; } int main() { // 初始化IO口 TRISBbits.TRISB0 = 0; // PWM输出口 TRISBbits.TRISB1 = 1; // 霍尔传感器输入口 // 初始化PWM模块 PTCONbits.PTEN = 0; // 关闭PWM模块 PTCONbits.PTCKPS = 1; // 时钟分频位1:4 PTCONbits.PTOPS = 0; // 输出分频位1:1 PTPER = PWM_PERIOD; // 设置PWM周期 PWMCON1bits.PEN1H = 1; // P1H输出使能 PWMCON1bits.PEN1L = 1; // P1L输出使能 PWMCON2bits.POL1H = 0; // P1H非反相输出 PWMCON2bits.POL1L = 0; // P1L非反相输出 PWMCON2bits.DTC = 0b10; // 死区时间选择 IOCON1bits.PENH = 1; // PWM1H引脚设置为PWM输出 IOCON1bits.PENL = 1; // PWM1L引脚设置为PWM输出 IOCON1bits.PMOD = 0b11; // PWM1H/PWM1L引脚设置为PWM输出 // 初始化PID控制器 struct pid_state pid; pid_init(&pid, 0); // 初始化电机转速 float motor_speed = 0; // 进入主循环 while (1) { // 读取霍尔传感器状态 int hall_a = PORTBbits.RB1; int hall_b = PORTBbits.RB2; int hall_c = PORTBbits.RB3; int hall_state = hall_a + hall_b * 2 + hall_c * 4; // 计算电机转速 motor_speed = (float)MOTOR_MAX_SPEED / HALL_SENSOR_CNT_PER_REV * (float)hall_state / MOTOR_GEAR_RATIO; // 计算PID输出 float pid_output = pid_compute(&pid, motor_speed); // 根据PID输出调整电机PWM占空比 if (pid_output > 0) { // 正转 PWMCON1bits.PEN1H = 0; // 关闭反相输出使能 PWMCON1bits.PEN1L = 1; // 打开非反相输出使能 PDC1 = (unsigned int)(pid_output / 100 * (float)PWM_PERIOD); // 设置PWM占空比 } else if (pid_output < 0) { // 反转 PWMCON1bits.PEN1H = 1; // 打开反相输出使能 PWMCON1bits.PEN1L = 0; // 关闭非反相输出使能 PDC1 = (unsigned int)(-pid_output / 100 * (float)PWM_PERIOD); // 设置PWM占空比 } else { // 停止 PWMCON1bits.PEN1H = 0; // 关闭反相输出使能 PWMCON1bits.PEN1L = 0; // 关闭非反相输出使能 PDC1 = 0; // 设置PWM占空比为0 } } return 0; }
ATmega48霍尔无刷电机的控制程序是一段用于控制无刷电机的代码。无刷电机是使用霍尔效应传感器进行位置反馈的一种电机，可以通过控制电流和脉宽调制（PWM）信号来实现转速和方向的控制。 在ATmega48控制器上，可以通过以下步骤来编写控制程序。 首先，需要初始化I/O引脚。将霍尔效应传感器的引脚连接到ATmega48的外部中断引脚，以便能够检测电机转子的位置。将PWM信号输出引脚连接到电机的驱动器模块。使用对应的寄存器配置这些引脚。 接下来，需要确定电机转子的起始位置。在启动时，可以通过监测霍尔传感器的输出来确定电机转子的初始位置。将这个位置作为起始点，以便电机的控制程序能够正确地跟踪转子的位置。 然后，需要编写一个中断服务子程序。当霍尔传感器检测到转子位置变化时，将触发外部中断，并调用中断服务子程序。在中断服务子程序中，可以根据转子的位置来调整PWM信号的占空比，以控制电机的速度和方向。通过相位序列控制，可以实现无刷电机的平滑转向。 最后，需要在主程序中设置相关的控制逻辑。可以使用定时器来产生PWM信号，并调用中断程序来更新电机的速度和方向控制。 综上所述，ATmega48霍尔无刷电机的控制程序是通过初始化I/O引脚，确定初始位置，编写中断服务子程序和主程序，以控制电机的速度和方向。这段程序可以实现无刷电机的精确控制，能够满足各种应用需求。
无刷直流电机是一种采用电子换向技术，能够在转子上产生磁场的电机。它由电机驱动器、PWM变换器和传感器组成。 电机驱动器是无刷直流电机的关键部分。它负责控制电机的运行，包括换向、调节电机的转速和转矩等。电机驱动器通常由逻辑电路和功率电路组成。逻辑电路主要用于控制电机发送电流的方式，通常采用定时器和计数器来实现换向。功率电路则负责供电和保护电机。 PWM变换器是电机驱动器的重要组成部分。它用来转换直流电源的电压和电流，以便与电机匹配。PWM变换器通过改变电源电流的开关周期和占空比来控制电机的速度和力矩。它通过调节开关器件（如晶体管或MOSFET）的导通与截止时间来控制电源电流。 传感器在无刷直流电机中起到了监测和反馈的作用。它能够感知电机的位置和速度，并将这些信息反馈给电机驱动器。传感器一般采用霍尔传感器或编码器。霍尔传感器通过感知磁场的变化来检测电机的位置和速度，从而实现换向操作。编码器则通过测量电机旋转轴上的位置来提供更精确的位置和速度反馈。 综上所述，无刷直流电机由电机驱动器、PWM变换器和传感器组成原理图。电机驱动器负责控制电机的运行，PWM变换器实现电源电压和电流的转换，传感器则对电机的位置和速度进行监测和反馈。这些部件的配合使得无刷直流电机能够实现高效、精确和稳定的运行。
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跟踪：PROFILES数据搜索：在网络上分析和搜索数据WWW 2018，2018年4月23日至27日，法国里昂1485表征数据集搜索查询艾米莉亚·卡普尔扎克英国南安普敦大学开放数据研究所emilia. theodi.org珍妮·坦尼森英国伦敦开放数据研究所jeni@theodi.org摘要在Web上生成和发布的数据量正在迅速增加，但在Web上搜索结构化数据仍然存在挑战。在本文中，我们探索数据集搜索分析查询专门为这项工作产生的通过众包-ING实验，并比较它们的搜索日志分析查询的数据门户网站。搜索环境的变化以及我们给人们的任务改变了生成的查询。 我们发现，在我们的实验中发出的查询比数据门户上的数据集的搜索查询要长得多。 它们还包含了七倍以上的地理空间和时间信息的提及，并且更有可能被结构化为问题。这些见解可用于根据数据集搜索的特定信息需求和特征关键词数据集搜索，�
软件如果要进行优化要做哪些工作
### 回答1： 要进行软件优化，可以从以下几个方面入手： 1. 代码优化：对代码进行精简、去除冗余代码、重构代码结构、提高代码的可读性和复用性等，以提高代码的执行效率和可维护性。 2. 数据结构和算法优化：选择合适的数据结构和算法，尽可能减少算法的时间复杂度和空间复杂度，以提高程序的执行效率。 3. 编译优化：通过调整编译器参数、使用优化编译器等手段对程序进行优化，以提高程序的运行效率。 4. 并行处理：将程序分解成多个独立的部分，通过多线程、多进程、分布式等方式进行并行处理，以提高程序的执行效率和吞吐量。 5. 内存管理：对程序进行内存管理，减少内存的分配和释放操作，避免内存泄漏
freescale IMX6 开发板原理图
freesacle 的arm cortex-a9的双核 四核管脚兼容CPU开发板原理图。
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| 0.736206 |
C++ Inheritance, Aggregation and Composition
提供方
在此指導項目中，您將：
Inherit from a C++ Base Class called Car to create a Used Car.
Create a Parent Dealership C++ class with a list of Cars.
Combine the Used Cars, Accounts and Cars into one C++ application to demonstrate Class Re-use.
2 hours
中級
無需下載
分屏視頻
英語（English）
僅限桌面
In this project you will create a C++ application that inherits from a Car class and use aggregation and composition in a class that uses one to many Car objects. A hallmark of Object-Oriented programming is code-reuse. Code re-use allows the developer to use tried and tested code, which results in more reliable code and saves in development time as well. In Object-Oriented Programming in a language such as C++, code re-use can be accomplished in two distinctive ways. One way is to inherit from an existing class by extending its existing functionality. Another common way to re-use code is through aggregation and composition. In aggregation, the class is made up of other existing classes that may exist independent of the child class. In composition, the child class depends on its parent for existence. Note: This course works best for learners who are based in the North America region. We’re currently working on providing the same experience in other regions.
您要培養的技能
• C++ Composition
• C++ Classes
• C++
• C++ Aggregation
• C++ Inheritance
分步進行學習
在與您的工作區一起在分屏中播放的視頻中，您的授課教師將指導您完成每個步驟：
1. Inherit from a C++ Base Class called Car to create a Used Car.
2. Define instance methods in the C++ Used Car Derived Class.
3. Create a Parent Dealership C++ class with a list of Cars.
4. Add a Motor Vehicles C++ class that contains a list of Cars to demonstrate Aggregation.
5. Combine the Used Cars, Accounts and Cars into one C++ application to demonstrate C++ Class Re-use.
指導項目工作原理
您的工作空間就是瀏覽器中的雲桌面，無需下載
在分屏視頻中，您的授課教師會為您提供分步指導
常見問題
購買指導項目後，您將獲得完成指導項目所需的一切，包括通過 Web 瀏覽器訪問云桌面工作空間，工作空間中包含您需要了解的文件和軟件，以及特定領域的專家提供的分步視頻說明。
由於您的工作空間包含適合筆記本電腦或台式計算機使用的雲桌面，因此指導項目不在移動設備上提供。
指導項目授課教師是特定領域的專家，他們在項目的技能、工具或領域方面經驗豐富，並且熱衷於分享自己的知識以影響全球數百萬的學生。
您可以從指導項目中下載並保留您創建的任何文件。為此，您可以在訪問云桌面時使用‘文件瀏覽器’功能。
指導項目不符合退款條件。 請查看我們完整的退款政策
指導項目不提供助學金。
指導項目不支持旁聽。
您可在頁面頂部點按此指導項目的經驗級別，查看任何知識先決條件。對於指導項目的每個級別，您的授課教師會逐步為您提供指導。
是，您可以在瀏覽器的雲桌面中獲得完成指導項目所需的一切。
您可以直接在瀏覽器中於分屏環境下完成任務，以此從做中學。在屏幕的左側，您將在工作空間中完成任務。在屏幕的右側，您將看到有授課教師逐步指導您完成項目。
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| 0.885804 |
Thrust
◆ do_deallocate()
template<typename Upstream>
virtual void thrust::mr::unsynchronized_pool_resource< Upstream >::do_deallocate ( void_ptr p,
std::size_t bytes,
std::size_t alignment = alignof(std::max_align_t)
)
overridevirtual
Deallocates memory pointed to by p.
Parameters
ppointer to be deallocated
bytesthe size of the allocation. This must be equivalent to the value of bytes that was passed to the allocation function that returned p.
alignmentthe size of the allocation. This must be equivalent to the value of alignment that was passed to the allocation function that returned p.
Implements thrust::mr::memory_resource< Upstream::pointer >.
References thrust::mr::pool_options::alignment, thrust::mr::pool_options::cache_oversized, thrust::get(), thrust::mr::pool_options::largest_block_size, thrust::raw_reference_cast(), and thrust::mr::pool_options::smallest_block_size.
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__label__pos
| 0.973101 |
Data from: An extensive suite of functional traits distinguishes wet and dry Hawaiian forests and enables prediction of species vital rates
Camila D. Medeiros, Christine Scoffoni, Grace John, Megan Bartlett, Faith Inman-Narahari, Rebecca Ostertag, Susan Cordell, Christian Giardina, Lawren Sack, Megan K. Bartlett & Grace P. John
1. The application of functional traits to predict and explain plant species’ distributions and vital rates has been a major direction in functional ecology for decades, yet numerous physiological traits have not yet been incorporated into the approach. 2. Using commonly measured traits such as leaf mass per area (LMA) and wood density (WD), and additional traits related to water transport, gas exchange and resource economics, including leaf vein, stomatal, and wilting traits, we tested...
1 citation reported since publication in 2018.
159 views reported since publication in 2018.
These counts follow the COUNTER Code of Practice, meaning that Internet robots and repeats within a certain time frame are excluded.
What does this mean?
42 downloads reported since publication in 2018.
These counts follow the COUNTER Code of Practice, meaning that Internet robots and repeats within a certain time frame are excluded.
What does this mean?
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__label__pos
| 0.766127 |
Differences of natural radioactivity and radon emanation fraction among constituent minerals of rock or soil
Akihiro Sakoda, Yuichi Nishiyama, Katsumi Hanamoto, Yuu Ishimori, Yuki Yamamoto, Takahiro Kataoka, Atsushi Kawabe, Kiyonori Yamaoka
Research output: Contribution to journalArticlepeer-review
43 Citations (Scopus)
Fingerprint
Dive into the research topics of 'Differences of natural radioactivity and radon emanation fraction among constituent minerals of rock or soil'. Together they form a unique fingerprint.
Physics & Astronomy
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| 0.995939 |
Project
General
Profile
FiO Glide – ANT – LDR-ADCDigital IO Demo
download all demo files: RF_ADC_IO.7z
Introduction
This demo will show you how you can use FiO Glide[name RF2] to read ADC value from LDR (aMG Photocell-A) then control an IO that drive an LED. Then send the read values (ANT protocol) to the second FiO Glide[name RF1], while RF1 also read its ADC value from LDR (another aMG Photocell-A) to control another LED. This second FiO Glide[name RF1] then gather all four values (ADC1,LED1,ADC2,LED2) and send via ANT protocol to the third FiO Glide[name RF0]. RF0 then read all values and send to PC via serial communication, then we use Simulink tools to display and plot values on scope.
Tools used
1. Three FiO Glide
2. Three aMG USB Connect with three USB cables
3. Two aMG Photocell-A
4. Two LEDs
5. Some connecting wires
Connection Diagram for RF1 and RF2
Detail Explanation for RF1 and RF2
The Vin for aMG Photocell-A module is connect to +3.3V (Pin38) and GND to Pin25. Vsense is then connected to ADC port Pin22 (AIN7), user can connect ADC to other pin if needed. The output pin is Pin20 (AIN5 configured as IO output), this drive LED at the anode, the cathode then connect to GND. Since FiO Glide can drive current up to 5 mA, it is safe to drive an LED with out a current limiting resistor.
Expected Result
When user connect USB power to the three boards, LEDs will light up on RF1 and RF2 at office lighting condition. If user put a flash light on LDR with light intensity high enough, then LED will go OFF, and ON again if you remove flash light. This behaviors go the same on RF1 and RF2 modules. The values are sent to host PC and plot on Simulink scope. ADC values show in Volt and LED status show 1 and 0, representing ON and OFF status.
RF2 Model
RF1 Model
RF0 Model
Host Model
Limitation and Purpose
1. The maximum data transmitting rate is 8 Hz (ANT protocol limitation)
2. ANT protocol is best for multiple nodes communication on a network
3. Each ANT TX/RX block can send/receive up to 8 bytes, for more data, please use more blocks
4. For mobile application, user can provide 3V battery to FiO Glide and remove aMG USB Connect
5. ANT protocol consume very little power from battery
6. For point to point communication, user can use RF block which can provide much higher transmitting rate(100Hz and beyond)
7. RF blocks consume much higher power from battery (more than 20x compared to ANT protocol)
Also available in: PDF HTML TXT
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__label__pos
| 0.82279 |
OWN - Quintessenz Verlags-GmbH CI - Copyright Quintessenz Verlags-GmbH OCI - Copyright Quintessenz Verlags-GmbH TA - Quintessence Int JT - Quintessence International IS - 0033-6572 (Print) IP - 8 VI - 28 PST - ppublish DP - 1997 PG - 541-544 LA - en TI - Effect of gap size and cement type on gingival microleakage in Class V resin composite inlays FAU - Browning AU - Browning FAU - Safirstein AU - Safirstein AB - Microleakage along the gingival interface was measured in 52 teeth that had received standardized preparations at a fixed depth of 2.0 mm and were restored with Class V composite inlays. Two fabrication techniques and two types of luting cement were compared. Twenty-six teeth were cemented with a resin-modified glass-ionomer cement, and 26 were cemented with a conventional resin cement. Half of the inlay patterns in each cementation group were fabricated directly on the tooth, and half were fabricated indirectly on stone dies. The resin cement was more significantly effective in preventing leakage than the resin-modified glass-ionomer cement. There was no statistically significant difference between inlay fabrication techniques. For those inlays cemented with the resin cement, the mean leakage was substantially lower for the indirect patterns than for the direct group. Although this difference was not statistically significant, it suggests that the slightly larger interfacial gap resulting from the fabrication of indirect patterns is effective in creating a better seal. AID - 26600
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__label__pos
| 0.997833 |
Question: What happens when a magnet is heated?
When heated above 176° Fahrenheit (80° Celsius), magnets will quickly lose their magnetic properties. The magnet will become permanently demagnetized if exposed to these temperatures for a certain length of time or heated at a significantly higher temperature (Curie temperature).
What will happen if a magnet is heated?
If a magnet is exposed to high temperatures, the delicate balance between temperature and magnetic domains is destabilized. At around 80 °C, a magnet will lose its magnetism and it will become demagnetized permanently if exposed to this temperature for a period, or if heated above their Curie temperature.
Can heat cause a magnet to lose its magnetism?
2. They Get Very Cold (Or Hot) Temperature variation can cause magnets to lose some or all of their magnetic charge. Depending on how extreme the temperature, these losses can be temporary or permanent.
Do magnets get weaker when hot?
Heating the magnet will cause the magnet to have a weaker magnetic field. Cooling the magnet will cause the magnet to have a stronger magnetic field. Cool magnets can be farther away from the compass than hot magnets when they make the compass’ needle move.
IT IS INTERESTING: What makes a substance ferromagnetic?
Are magnets heat resistant?
Magnets That Can Withstand High Temperatures – 4. Ferrite Magnet. Its main raw materials include BaFe12O19 and SrFe12O19. … Ferrite magnets have become the most widely used permanent magnets because of their excellent temperature resistance, low cost, and moderate performance.
Do magnets work better hot or cold?
As it turns out most magnets don’t mind the cold. In fact, some may perform better when the temperature drops. That’s because the atoms that comprise magnets vibrate more slowly and less randomly when cold. The result is a better alignment of the atoms that generates the magnetic field, boosting its strength.
Which magnet is more powerful?
Neodymium magnets
How magnet lose their property?
Elevated temperature: Magnetic materials lose magnetism as they heat, but they regain magnetism when cooled provided the maximum temperature is below their Curie temperature. Above the Curie temperature, a magnet permanently loses all or some of its magnetism.
What stops a magnet from working?
As the temperature increases, at a certain point called the Curie temperature, a magnet will lose its strength completely. Not only will a material lose its magnetism, it will no longer be attracted to magnets.
Can a magnet that has lost its strength be re magnetized?
It is possible to re-magnetize a magnet that has lost its magnetic properties, but as long as the alignment of its internal particles has not been modified for any reason, such as, for example, the exposure of these elements to high temperatures.
Can magnets explode?
A magnet achieves superconductivity (zero resistance to electrical current) when it is bathed in LHe. If for some reason the magnetic coil starts to resist the electrical current, it heats up, causing an explosive expansion of the LHe.
IT IS INTERESTING: How can you make a magnetic object float?
Why does hammering a magnet demagnetize it?
By hammering a magnet we are actually trying to change the orientation of magnetic property of material which are making them magnet . If the alignment of magnetic property of material get change it would not work as magnet. Demagnetization can also be done by dropping them rubbing them etc.
Are Rare Earth Magnets affected by heat?
However, as soon as the Neodymium Rare Earth Tube Magnets are exposed to temperatures exceeding 212 degrees F, the magnetic strength becomes compromised. On returning to normal operating temperatures below 176 degrees F, there is an irreversible loss in magnetic strength and permanent damage.
Are magnets flammable?
Not only would the magnet break, but the resulting dust from the magnet is very flammable. Neodymium magnets should never be burned, as burning them will create toxic fumes.
At what temperature does iron lose its magnetic properties?
Iron stops being ferromagnetic at 1043 K (around 770 degrees Celsius/1417 Fahrenheit). This particular temperature, i.e., the temperature at which a certain material loses its permanent magnetic properties is known as the Curie temperature.
Is ferrite a permanent magnet?
NOTE:- Ferrite magnets are not the same as soft ferrites (as used in transformers) – they are totally different in operation. “Transformer” ferrites do not retain magnetism (soft ferrite). Ferrite magnets are permanent magnets – they retain their magnetism (hard ferrite).
A magnetic field
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__label__pos
| 0.976872 |
Trait rustc_middle::ty::inherent::Clause
source ·
pub trait Clause<I>:
Copy
+ Debug
+ Hash
+ Eq
+ TypeFoldable<I>
+ UpcastFrom<I, Binder<I, ClauseKind<I>>>
+ UpcastFrom<I, TraitRef<I>>
+ UpcastFrom<I, Binder<I, TraitRef<I>>>
+ UpcastFrom<I, TraitPredicate<I>>
+ UpcastFrom<I, Binder<I, TraitPredicate<I>>>
+ UpcastFrom<I, ProjectionPredicate<I>>
+ UpcastFrom<I, Binder<I, ProjectionPredicate<I>>>
+ IntoKind<Kind = Binder<I, ClauseKind<I>>>
+ Elaboratable<I>
where I: Interner<Clause = Self>,
{ // Required method fn instantiate_supertrait( self, cx: I, trait_ref: Binder<I, TraitRef<I>>, ) -> Self; // Provided methods fn as_trait_clause(self) -> Option<Binder<I, TraitPredicate<I>>> { ... } fn as_projection_clause(self) -> Option<Binder<I, ProjectionPredicate<I>>> { ... } }
Required Methods§
source
fn instantiate_supertrait( self, cx: I, trait_ref: Binder<I, TraitRef<I>>, ) -> Self
Performs a instantiation suitable for going from a poly-trait-ref to supertraits that must hold if that poly-trait-ref holds. This is slightly different from a normal instantiation in terms of what happens with bound regions.
Provided Methods§
Object Safety§
This trait is not object safe.
Implementors§
source§
impl<'tcx> Clause<TyCtxt<'tcx>> for Clause<'tcx>
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__label__pos
| 0.733101 |
Áèîëîãèÿ - Áîëåçíè - Èíâåíòàðü - Ïðîäóêòû - Ðàçâåäåíèå - Ìåäîíîñû - Ãëàâíàÿ -
ÌÍÎÃÎÊÎÐÏÓÑÍÎÅ ÑÎÄÅÐÆÀÍÈÅ Ï×ÅË
ÌÍÎÃÎÊÎÐÏÓÑÍÎÅ ÑÎÄÅÐÆÀÍÈÅ Ï×ÅË âêëþ÷àåò ïðèåìû ïî âûðàùèâàíèþ, ñîäåðæàíèþ è èñïîëüçîâàíèþ ñèëüíûõ ñåìåé â ìíîãîêîðïóñíûõ óëüÿõ. Ýòè ïðèåìû èìåþò çíà÷èòåëüíûå îñîáåííîñòè; ãëàâíîå çàêëþ÷àåòñÿ â òîì, ÷òî ïî ìåðå ðîñòà ñåìüè è íàêîïëåíèÿ ìåäà îáúåì óëüÿ óâåëè÷èâàþò ïóòåì ïîñòàíîâêè íîâûõ êîðïóñîâ. Ýòî ïîçâîëÿåò âûðàùèâàòü î÷åíü ñèëüíûå ñåìüè è ïîääåðæèâàòü èõ â ðàáî÷åì, íåðîåâîì ñîñòîÿíèè. Òåõíèêà òàêîãî ñîäåðæàíèÿ ï÷åë ñâîäèòñÿ ê ñëåäóþùèì ïðèåìàì.
Ñèëüíóþ ñåìüþ îñòàâëÿþò çèìîâàòü â äâóõ êîðïóñàõ: íèæíèé êîðïóñ À îñåíüþ çàíÿò ï÷åëàìè è ðàñïëîäîì, à âåðõíèé  ïîëîí ìåäà (ñì. ðèñ., ïîëîæåíèå I).  òå÷åíèå çèìû ï÷åëû ïî ìåðå ðàñõîäîâàíèÿ ìåäà áóäóò âñå áîëüøå è áîëüøå ïðîäâèãàòüñÿ ââåðõ, âî âòîðîé êîðïóñ. Âåñíîé, â çàâèñèìîñòè îò ñèëû ñåìüè, ãíåçäî ñîáèðàåò â äâóõ êîðïóñàõ èëè æå íèæíèé, îïóñòåâøèé êîðïóñ âðåìåííî óáèðàþò ñ òåì, ÷òîáû âîçâðàòèòü åãî ïîçäíåå, êîãäà ñåìüå ñòàíåò òåñíî â îäíîì êîðïóñå. Ìàòêà ïåðåõîäèò äëÿ îòêëàäêè ÿèö â âåðõíèé, áîëåå òåïëûé êîðïóñ. Êîãäà âåðõíèé êîðïóñ áóäåò çàïîëíåí ðàñïëîäîì è óñèëèâøàÿñÿ ñåìüÿ â çíà÷èòåëüíîé ñòåïåíè çàéìåò íèæíèé ÿðóñ ðàìîê, òî êîðïóñà ìåíÿþò ìåñòàìè — âåðõíèé ñ ðàñïëîäîì ñòàâÿò íà äíî óëüÿ, à íèæíèé ïîäíèìàþò ââåðõ (ñì. ðèñ., ïîëîæåíèå II). Ýòà ïåðåñòàíîâêà ïîáóæäàåò ï÷åë áûñòðåå îñâîèòü âòîðîé êîðïóñ À, ò. ê. â íåì òåïëåå, è ñþäà ïåðåõîäèò ìàòêà äëÿ ÿéöåêëàäêè. Ïåðåñòàíîâêó êîðïóñîâ ìîæíî äåëàòü òîëüêî ñ íàñòóïëåíèåì óñòîé÷èâîé ïîãîäû, ÷òîáû íå çàñòóäèòü âíèçó ðàñïëîä.
Ïîñêîëüêó ìàòêà â âåðõíåì êîðïóñå ïîëó÷àåò ïîëíûé ïðîñòîð äëÿ ÿéöåêëàäêè, êîëè÷åñòâî ðàñïëî-äà â ñåìüå áûñòðî âîçðàñòàåò. Ï÷åëû, çàãðóæåííûå ðàáîòîé ïî âûêàðìëèâàíèþ è îáîãðåâàíèþ áîëüøîé ìàññû ðàñïëîäà, îòâëåêàþòñÿ îò ïîäãîòîâêè ê ðîåíèþ, òåì áîëåå, ÷òî ïðè íàëè÷èè âçÿòêà â âåðõíèé êîðïóñ äàþò äëÿ îòñòðîéêè ðàìêè ñ èñêóññòâåííîé âîùèíîé.
Êîãäà âåðõíèé êîðïóñ áóäåò çàïîëíåí ðàñïëîäîì, à èç ðàñïëîäà, íàõîäèâøåãîñÿ â íèæíåì êîðïóñå, âûâåäóòñÿ ï÷åëû, â óëüå ìîæåò ñîçäàòüñÿ òåñíîòà è
çàäåðæêà â ÿéöåêëàäêå ìàòêè. ×òîáû íå äîïóñòèòü çàäåðæêè ðîñòà ñåìåé è ïîääåðæèâàòü èõ â ðàáî÷åì, íåðîåâîì ñîñòîÿíèè, ïîñòóïàþò òàê.  âåðõíåì êîðïóñå À íàõîäÿò ìàòêó è ïåðåíîñÿò åå âìåñòå ñ ðàìêîé â íèæíèé êîðïóñ Á. Çàòåì ìåæäó íèæíèì è âåðõíèì êîðïóñàìè ïîìåùàþò «ñòðîèòåëüíûé êîðïóñ»  ñ ðàìêàìè èñêóññòâåííîé âîùèíû è ñóøè. ×òîáû ìàòêà íå ïåðåõîäèëà â âåðõíèå êîðïóñà, åå èçîëèðóþò âíèçó, ïîëîæèâ íà ðàìêè íèæíåãî êîðïóñà ðàçäåëèòåëüíóþ ðåøåòêó (ñì. ðèñ., ïîëîæåíèå III).
Ìàòêà áóäåò ïðîäîëæàòü ÿéöåêëàäêó â íèæíåì êîðïóñå, çàñåâàÿ îñâîáîæäàþùèåñÿ èç-ïîä ðàñïëîäà ñîòû; âåðõíèé êîðïóñ âñêîðå ñîâñåì îñâîáîäèòñÿ îò ðàñïëîäà; ñðåäíèé êîðïóñ áóäåò ñëóæèòü äëÿ îòñòðîéêè ñîòîâ. Íàëè÷èå êîðïóñà ñ ðàìêàìè èñêóññòâåííîé âîùèíû, ðàçúåäèíèâøåãî ðàñïëîä, ìîáèëèçóåò ñåìüþ íà óñèëåííóþ îòñòðîéêó ñîòîâ. Âñå ýòî îòâëåêàåò ï÷åë îò ïîäãîòîâêè ê ðîåíèþ.
Åñëè íàáëþäàåòñÿ õîðîøèé âçÿòîê, ï÷åëû îäíîâðåìåííî ñ âûðàùèâàíèåì ðàñïëîäà ðàáîòàþò íà ìåäîñáîðå, çàïîëíÿÿ ìåäîì ðàìêè âåðõíåãî êîðïóñà À, ïî ìåðå âûâîäà èç íèõ äåòêè.
Ïðèìåðíî ÷åðåç äâå íåäåëè ïîñëå èçîëÿöèè ìàòêè â íèæíåì êîðïóñå, êîãäà ðàìêè çàïîëíÿòñÿ ðàñïëîäîì, äåëàþò íîâóþ ïåðåñòàíîâêó êîðïóñîâ (ñì. ðèñ., ïîëîæåíèå IV). Ìàòêó èç íèæíåãî êîðïóñà Á ïåðåíîñÿò â «ñòðîèòåëüíûé êîðïóñ»  íà âíîâü îòñòðîåííûå ðàìêè è ïîìåùàþò ýòîò êîðïóñ âíèç, ïðèêðûâ åãî ðàçäåëèòåëüíîé ðåøåòêîé. Ñâåðõó ñòàâÿò íîâûé ñòðîèòåëüíûé êîðïóñ à ñ ðàìêàìè èñêóññòâåííîé âîùèíû, à íà íåãî êîðïóñ Á ñ ìîëîäûì ðàñïëîäîì. Íà ñàìûé âåðõ ñòàâÿò êîðïóñ À ñ îñòàòêàìè âûâîäÿùåãîñÿ ðàñïëîäà. Ïðè ýòîì ðàñïîëîæåíèè êîðïóñîâ «ñòðîèòåëüíûé», êîðïóñ ñíîâà ðàçúåäèíèò ðàñïëîä è áóäåò îòâëåêàòü ï÷åë îò ïîäãîòîâêè ê ðîåíèþ.  òî æå âðåìÿ â íèæíåì êîðïóñå  áåñïåðåáîéíî ïðîäîëæàåòñÿ ÿéöåêëàäêà ìàòêè, à äâà âåðõíèõ êîðïóñà, ïî ìåðå îñâîáîæäåíèÿ îò ðàñïëîäà, áóäóò çàïîëíÿòüñÿ ìåäîì.
Åñëè äî ãëàâíîãî âçÿòêà åùå åñòü âðåìÿ è ñóùåñòâåííîãî ìåäîñáîðà íåò, òî ÷åðåç äâå íåäåëè ñíîâà äåëàþò ïåðåñòàíîâêó êîðïóñîâ (ñì. ðèñ., ïîëîæåíèå V). Ïðè ýòîì êîðïóñà ìåíÿþò ìåñòàìè â òîì æå ïîðÿäêå, ò. e. ìàòêó ïåðåâîäÿò âî âíîâü îòñòðîåííûé êîðïóñ Ã, ê-ðûé ñòàâÿò âíèç, çàòåì ïîìåùàþò íîâûé ñòðîèòåëüíûé êîðïóð Ä, ïîâåðõ êîòîðîãî ñòàâÿò êîðïóñà Â, Á è À.  òîì ñëó÷àå, åñëè ï÷åëû íå ñìîãóò çàíÿòü âñå ïÿòü êîðïóñîâ, ñàìûé âåðõíèé èç íèõ (À) ìîæíî óäàëèòü, à çàòåì ñíîâà èñïîëüçîâàòü âî âðåìÿ ãëàâíîãî âçÿòêà.
Ñ íàñòóïëåíèåì ãëàâíîãî âçÿòêà ìàòêó óæå íå ïåðåñàæèâàþò íà ïóñòûå ñîòû, à îñòàâëÿþò â íèæíåì êîðïóñå à ñ ðàñïëîäîì, Ýòî äî íåêîòîðîé ñòåïåíè îãðàíè÷èò ÿéöåêëàäêó ìàòêè íà ïåðèîä âçÿòêà. Âñå êîðïóñà, íàõîäÿùèåñÿ âûøå ðàçäåëèòåëüíîé ðåøåòêè, íàïîëíÿþòñÿ ìåäîì. Ïðè îòáîðå ìåäà èõ ìåíÿþò ìåñòàìè — âåðõíèé ñ ïóñòûìè ðàìêàìè ïîìåùàþò âíèç, íà êîðïóñ ñ ðàñïëîäîì, à îñòàëüíûå ïîäíèìàþò âûøå äëÿ äîçðåâàíèÿ ìåäà. Òàêîå ïåðåìåùåíèå ïðîäîëæàþò äî êîíöà âçÿòêà.
Äëÿ ñîçäàíèÿ çèìíèõ çàïàñîâ êîðìà ðàìêè â îäíîì èç êîðïóñîâ, çàïîëíåííûå íàèëó÷øèì öâåòî÷íûì ìåäîì, íå îòêà÷èâàþò, à õðàíÿò íà ñêëàäå äî ïîäãîòîâêè ñåìåé ê çèìîâêå.
Ïî ìåðå ñíèæåíèÿ ìåäîñáîðà êîðïóñíûå íàäñòàâêè ïîñòåïåííî óäàëÿþò. Îñåíüþ, êîãäà óæå íå áóäåò ðèñêà, ÷òî ï÷åëû ïðèíåñóò ïàäåâûé ìåä, íà ãíåçäîâîé êîðïóñ ñ ðàñïëîäîì ñòàâÿò êîðìîâóþ íàäñòàâêó, ò. å. êîðïóñ ñ ìåäîì, õðàíèâøèìñÿ íà ñêëàäå. Òàê. îáð., ñåìüÿ ñíîâà ïîéäåò íà çèìó â äâóõ êîðïóñàõ (ñì. ðèñ., ïîëîæåíèå VI).
Áèîëîãèÿ - Áîëåçíè - Èíâåíòàðü - Ïðîäóêòû - Ðàçâåäåíèå - Ìåäîíîñû - Ãëàâíàÿ -
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Moment of Inertia and Theorem of Parallel and Perpendicular Axes
Subject: Physics
Find Your Query
Overview
A rigid body is defined as a solid body in which the particles are compactly arranged so that the inter-particle distance is small and fixed, and their positions are not disturbed by any external forces applied on it. The inertness or inability of a body to change its state of rest or uniform motion by itself is called inertia. In the case of linear motion, the mass of the object determines the inertia of the body. As the mass of the body is high the inertia is also high and hence requires more force to move it (to change the state of that body). This note provides us an information on the moment of inertia and theorem of parallel and perpendicular axes.
Moment of Inertia and Theorem of Parallel and Perpendicular Axes
Rigid Body
A rigid body is defined as a solid body in which the particles are compactly arranged so that the inter-particle distance is small and fixed, and their positions are not disturbed by any external forces applied on it. A rigid body can undergo both translational and rotational motion.
A rigid body is said to have translator motion if it moves bodily from one plate to another. The motion of a car is the translator in nature. A rigid body is said to be in rotational motion about a fixed axis when its particles generate concentric circles with the same angular velocity but different linear velocities. The motion of a wheel of a train about its axle is rotational motion.
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Moment of Inertia
The inertness or inability of a body to change its state of rest or uniform motion by itself is called inertia. In the case of linear motion, mass of the object determines the inertia of the body. As the mass of the body is high the inertia is also high and hence requires more force to move it (to change the state of that body).
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Similarly, in case of rotational motion if the moment of inertia is the high large amount of rotational force i.e. torque is applied on the rigid body which means ‘moment of inertia’ describes the state of change body in rotational motion.
Similarly in rotational motion, a body rotating about an axis opposes any change desired to be produced in its state. This inertia is the rotational motion of the body is called rotational inertia.
Consider a rigid body consisting a large number of small particles of mass m1, m2, m3, ….. Suppose the body be rotating about axis YY’ and the distance of these particles from this axis is r1, r2, r3 …. As shown in the figure. The moment of inertia of these particles about the axis of rotation YY’ will be m1r12, m2r22, m3r32 , … respectively. The moment of inertia, I of the body about the axis YY’ of which the body is made.
\begin{align*} \therefore I &= m_1r_1^2 + m_2r_2^2 + m_3r_3^2 + \dots + m_nr_n^2 \\ &= \sum _{i=1}^n m_ir_i^2 \\ \end{align*}
Where, mi is the mass of the ith particle and ri is the perpendicular distance from the axis of rotation.
Hence, In SI-units, the unit of moment of inertia is kg m2. In CGS-system, its unit is g cm2. The dimensional formula of the moment of inertia is [ML2T0].
Theorem of Parallel and Perpendicular Axes
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Theorem of Parallel Axis
Parallel theorem of moment of inertia states that, “Moment of inertia of any rotating body about same axis parallel to the axis passing through centre of mass is equal to the sum of the moment of inertia about centre of mass (C.M.) and product of the total mass of the rotating body and square of the distance between two parallel axis.”
$$ I = I_{cm} + Mr^2 $$
Where Icm is the moment of inertia about the parallel axis through the centre of mass, M is the total mass of the body and r is the distance between two axes.
Proof
Consider CD be the axis passing through the centre of the mass and perpendicular to the plane of the rotating body AB be the same axis at a distance ‘r’ from CD and is parallel to CD. We have to calculate the moment of inertia of the rotating body of mass (M) about AB. Suppose m be the mass of point object which is at a distance x from the centre of mass.
Total moment of inertia about PQ is
\begin{align*} I &= \sum (x+r)^2 \\ &= \sum mx^2 + \sum mr^2 + 2\sum mxr \\ \text {Since,} I_{cm} = \sum mx^2 \\ \end{align*}, the moment of inertia of the body about the axis CD, so \begin{align*}\\ I &= I_{cm} + \sum mr^2 + 2\sum mxr \dots (i) \\ \end{align*}
Similarly, \(\sum mr^2 = r^2, \sum m = Mr^2\) , where M is the mass of the whole body and \(\sum mx = \) the sum of the moments of all the particles of the body about the axis CD passing through its centre of mass and therefore equal to zero i.e. \(\sum mx = 0 \). Then, equation (i) can be written as
$$ I = I_{cm} + Mr^2 $$
That is the moment of inertia of the body about the axis AB is the sum of its moment of inertia about the parallel axis CD through its centre of mass and the product of mass of the body and square of the distance between the two axes. This is the theorem of parallel axis.
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Theorem of Perpendicular Axis
This theorem states, “The sum of the moment of inertia of a laminar body about any two mutually perpendicular axes in the plane is equal to its moment of inertia about an axis perpendicular to its plane and passing through the point of intersection of the two axes.”
Let Ix, Iy and Iz be the moments of inertia of plane lamina three mutually perpendicular axes passing through the point O. OX and OY axes are in the plane and axis OZ is perpendicular to the plane, then
$$ I_z = I_x + I_y $$
Proof
Let OX and OY be two mutually perpendicularly axes in the plane of the lamina and OZ be an axis passing through O and perpendicular to the plane of lamina. If a particle P of mass m is at a distance r from O, the moment of inertia of this particle about the axis OZ = mr2. The moment of inertia of the inertia of the entire body about the OZ-axis is given by
\begin{align*} I_z &= \sum mr^2 \\\end{align*}
The moment of inertia of the body about OX-axis is \begin{align*}I_X = \sum my^2 \text {and about OY-axis,} I_y = \sum mr^2. \\ \text {then,} \\ I_x + I_y &= \sum m (x^2 + y^2) \\ I_x + I_y &= \sum mr^2 \dots (ii) \\ \text {where } r^2 = x^2 + y^2 \\ \text {therefore, from equation} (i) \text {and equation} (ii), \text {we have} \\ I_x + I_y &= I_z \dots (iii) \end{align*}
Which proves the theorem of perpendicular axis for a laminar body.
Things to remember
A rigid body is defined as a solid body in which the particles are compactly arranged so that the inter-particle distance is small and fixed, and their positions are not disturbed by any external forces applied on it.
The inertness or inability of a body to change its state of rest or uniform motion by itself is called inertia.
The moment of inertia of the rigid body about a given axis of rotation is the sum of the product of the masses of the various particles and square of their perpendicular distances from the axis of rotation.
Parallel theorem of moment of inertia states that, “Moment of inertia of any rotating body about same axis parallel to the axis passing through centre of mass is equal to the sum of the moment of inertia about centre of mass (C.M.) and product of the total mass of the rotating body and square of the distance between two parallel axis.”
This theorem states, “The sum of moment of inertia of a laminar body about any two mutually perpendicular axes in the plane is equal to its moment of inertia about an axis perpendicular to its plane and passing through the point of intersection of the two axes.”
• It includes every relationship which established among the people.
• There can be more than one community in a society. Community smaller than society.
• It is a network of social relationships which cannot see or touched.
• common interests and common objectives are not necessary for society.
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Greenhouse gas buildup, sardines, submarine eruptions and the possibility of abrupt degradation of intense marine upwelling ecosystems
Authors
E-mail: abakun@rsmas.miami.edu
Abstract
Widespread hypoxia and massive eruptions of noxious, radiatively active gases currently characterize the world's strongest eastern ocean upwelling zone. Theory, modelling results and observations suggest that the world's coastal upwelling zones will undergo progressive intensification in response to greenhouse gas buildup. This presents the prospect of progressive development of similarly degraded marine ecosystems in additional regions and of a contributing feedback loop involving associated additions to the global buildup rate of greenhouse gases, resulting further increases in upwelling intensity, creation of additional sources of greenhouse gas emissions, and so on. Abundant sardine stocks might be a mitigating factor opposing the process.
Ancillary
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ICCS2004 Application Submission/Review
Abstract for
"The Basal Ganglia as a Complex system as it Relates to Normal Movement and Movement Disorders."
The purpose of this work is to explore a part of the brain known as the basal ganglia using the conceptual approach of complex system dynamics as it relates to both structure and function. Traditional approaches have modeled the basal ganglia as a simple circuit utilizing methods of reductionism to study the parts and connections. Studies of complex systems, on the other hand, focus not only on behavior of the individual parts but how they interact with each other to produce the behavior of the system as a whole. From this point of view, the basal ganglia can be described as a highly interconnected group of nuclei that integrates many inputs that function to allow the performance of purposeful movement. Our exploration will outline the components of the basal ganglia, the interactions between the components, the collective behavior as it relates to normal function, and the relationship between the basal ganglia system and its environment within the brain. In addition, changes in the states of the system will be described as they relate to both disease states, such as Parkinson’s disease, and therapeutic strategies, such as deep brain stimulation. Increasing our understanding of the basal ganglia as a complex system, rather than as a simple circuit, may provide greater opportunity to develop better treatments for movement disorders.
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Sarna News: BattleTechGear.com
Syssiphus
(Redirected from Sisyphus)
Syssiphus
Vessel Profile
Type DropShip
Class Elephant
History[edit]
The Syssiphus was a Model 96 "Elephant"-class DropShip operated by the mysterious mercenary unit known as the Star Seeds. While the origin of the Star Seeds was an enigma, the Syssiphus was previously registered with ComStar and apparently lost at the Titan Yards near Terra before appearing with the Star Seeds when the unit registered with the MRBC in June 3068. (The Star Seed's JumpShip, the Tramp-class Vortex was similarly a former ComStar vessel registered at the Titan Yards.) The Star Seeds refused to comment on the origin of the unit or their equipment.[1]
On 13 July 3069 the Star Seeds and the Syssiphus were involved in a conflict on Tomans that also included forces from Clan Jade Falcon and the Green Ghosts. In an operation that involved a ram attack by the Syssiphus and subsequent boarding action, the Star Seeds managed to capture the Silhouette, a Green Ghosts Overlord-class DropShip. The Green Ghosts' JumpShip was unable to fire on the Star Seeds because they kept exactly between the two Green Ghost ships.[2]
The Star Seeds never gave a detailed account of the event later, leading to rumors and speculation on what exactly had transpired. If the rumors are accurate, the Star Seeds had the Syssiphus wait just out of sensor range of the Magellan-class JumpShip the Green Ghosts were operating, waiting for Green Ghosts' forces to attempt to meet up with their JumpShip. When the Overlord-class DropShip being used by the Green Ghosts came within range, the Star Seeds used a combination of courage and remarkable gunnery skills to shoot open the 'Mech bay doors on the Overlord before seizing it with the Syssiphus' magnetic clamps and conducting a boarding action.[1]
Syssiphus was still in service with the Star Seeds until at least the end of 3071.[1] By February 3072 a vessel referred to as Sisyphus was used by the Star Seeds,[2] which is likely a reference to the same vessel.
References[edit]
1. 1.0 1.1 1.2 Mercenaries Supplemental Update, p. 109, "Star Seeds"
2. 2.0 2.1 Twisting in the Vacuum
Bibliography[edit]
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Enabling jumbo frames in a solaris environment, To check layer 2 configuration – Oracle Audio Technologies Sun Oracle SunDual 10GbE XFP User Manual
Page 63
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background image
Chapter 6
Configuring the Jumbo Frames Feature
53
Enabling Jumbo Frames in a Solaris
Environment
This section describes how to enable jumbo frames in both a SPARC and an x86
environment.
▼ To Enable Jumbo Frames in a Solaris
Environment Using nxge.conf
1. Enable Jumbo Frames for a port using the nxge.conf file. For example,
2. Reboot the system:
3. Set the maximum MTU for maximum performance:
▼ To Check Layer 2 Configuration
View the maximum transmission unit (MTU) configuration of an nxge instance
at any time with the
kstat command.
The kstat mac_mtu variable represents the complete size of the Ethernet frame,
which includes the Ethernet header, maximum payload, and crc. This value
should be equal to or less than the MTU configured on the switch.
name = "pciex108e,abcd" parent = "/pci@780/pci@0/pci@8/network@0"
unit-address = "0"
accept-jumbo=1;
% boot -r
# ifconfig nxge mtu 9194
# kstat nxge:0 | grep mac_mtu
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Definitions
neutron-star
neutron star
Any of a class of extremely dense, compact stars thought to be composed mainly of neutrons with a thin outer atmosphere of primarily iron atoms and electrons and protons. Though typically about 12 mi (20 km) in diameter, they have a mass roughly twice the Sun's and thus extremely high densities (about 100 trillion times that of water). Neutron stars have very strong magnetic fields. A solid surface differentiates them from black holes. Below the surface, the pressure is much too high for individual atoms to exist; protons and electrons are compacted together into neutrons. The discovery of pulsars in 1967 provided the first evidence of the existence of neutron stars, predicted in the early 1930s and believed by most investigators to be formed in supernova explosions. Seealso white dwarf star.
Learn more about neutron star with a free trial on Britannica.com.
Asteroseismology studies the internal structure of our Sun and other stars using oscillations. These can be studied by interpreting the temporal frequency spectrum acquired through observations. In the same way, the more extreme neutron stars might be studied and hopefully give us a better understanding of neutron-star interiors, and help in determining the equation of state for matter at nuclear densities. Scientists also hope to prove, or discard, the existence of so called quark stars, or strange stars, through these studies.
Types of oscillations
The modes of oscillations are divided into subgroups, each with different characteristic behavior. Firstly they are divided into toroidal and spherical modes, with the latter further divided into radial and non-radial modes. Spherical modes are oscillations in the radial direction while toroidal modes oscillate horizontally, perpendicular to the radial direction. The radial modes can be considered as a special case of non-radial ones, preserving the shape of the star in the oscillations, while the non-radial don’t. Generally, only the spherical modes are considered in studies of stars, as they are the easiest to observe, but the toroidal modes might also be studied.
In our Sun, only three types of modes have been found so far, namely p-, g- and f- modes. Helioseismology studies these modes with periods in the range of minutes, while for neutron stars the periods are much shorter, often seconds or even milliseconds.
• p-modes or pressure modes, are determined by the local sound speed in the star, hence they are also often referred to as acoustic modes. Greatly dependent on the density and temperature of the neutron star, they are powered by internal pressure fluctuations in the stellar medium. Typical predicted periods lie around 0.1 ms.
• g-modes or gravity modes, have buoyancy as restoring force, but shouldn’t be confused with gravitational waves. The g-modes are confined to the inner regions of a neutron star with a solid crust, and have predicted oscillation periods between 10 and 400 ms. However, there are also expected long-period g-modes oscillating on periods longer than 10 s.
• f-modes or fundamental modes, are g-modes confined to the surface of the neutron star, similar to ripples in a pond. Predicted periods are between 0.1 and 0.8 ms.
The extreme properties of neutron stars permit several others types of modes.
• s-modes or shear modes, appear in two cases; one in the superfluid interior and one in the solid crust. In the crust they mainly depend on the crust’s shear modulus. Predicted periods range between a few milliseconds to tens of seconds.
• i-modes or interfacial modes, appear at the boundaries of the different layers of the neutron star, causing traveling waves with periods dependent on the local density and temperature at the interface. Typical predicted periods lie around a few hundred milliseconds.
• t-modes or torsional modes, are caused by material motions tangentially to the surface in the crust. Predicted periods are shorter than 20 ms.
• r-modes or rotational modes (a second type of torsoidal mode) only appear in rotating stars and are caused by the Coriolis force acting as restoring force along the surface. Their periods are on the same order as the star’s rotation.
• w-modes or gravitational modes, are a relativistic effect, dissipating energy through gravitational waves and so far not well understood. Characteristic properties of these modes are the absence of any significant fluid motion and their rapid damping times of tenths of seconds. There are three types of w-mode oscillations; curvature, trapped and interface modes, with predicted periods in the range of microseconds.
• Trapped modes would exist in extremely compact stars but so far no realistic Equation of State has been found allowing the formation of stars dense enough to create these.
• Curvature modes exist in all relativistic stars and are related to the spacetime curvature. Models and numerical studies suggest an unlimited number of these modes.
• Interface modes, are somewhat similar to acoustic waves scattered of a hard sphere, and seem to have only two or three modes. They are rapidly damped in less than tenth of a millisecond, and so would be hard to observe.
Oscillation excitation
Generally, oscillations are caused when a system is perturbed from its dynamical equilibrium, and the system, using a restoration force, tries to return to that equilibrium state. The oscillations in neutron stars are probably weak with small amplitudes, but exciting these oscillations might increase the amplitudes to observable levels. One of the general excitation mechanisms are eagerly awaited outbursts, comparable to how one creates a tone when hitting a bell. The hit adds energy to the system, which excites the amplitudes of the oscillations to greater magnitude, and so is more easily observed. Apart from such outbursts, flares as they are often called, other mechanisms have been proposed to contribute to these excitations:
• The core collapse during a supernova which produces a neutron star is one good candidate as it releases enormous amounts of energy.
• For a binary system with at least one neutron star, the accretion process as matter flows into the star might be a source of moderately high energy.
• Gravitational radiation is released as the components in a binary systems spiral closer to each other, releasing energy which might be energetic enough for visible excitations.
• So called sudden phase transition (similar to water freezing) during transitions to, e.g., a strange star or a pion condensate. This releases energy which partly could be channeled to excitations.
Mode damping
The oscillations are damped through different processes in the neutron star which are not yet fully understood. The damping time is the time for the amplitude of a mode to decay to e-1. A wide variety of different mechanisms have been found, but the strength of their impact differs among the modes.
• As the relative concentrations of protons, neutrons and electrons are altered, a small portion of energy will be carried away through neutrino emission. The damping times are very long as the light neutrinos cannot relieve much energy from the system.
• An oscillating magnetic field emits electromagnetic radiation with a power mainly dependent on that of the magnetic field. The mechanism isn’t very strong with damping times reaching days and even years.
• Gravitational radiation has been discussed a lot, with damping times believed to be on order of tenths of milliseconds.
• As the core and crust of a neutron star move against each other, there is internal friction which releases some smaller portion of energy. This mechanism hasn’t been investigated thoroughly, but damping times are believed to be in the range of years.
• When the kinetic energy of the oscillations is converted into thermal energy in non-adiabatic effects, there is a possibility that significant energy might be released, although this mechanism is hard to investigate.
Observations
So far, most data about neutron-star oscillations come from the blasts of four specific Soft Gamma Repeaters, SGR, especially the event of 27 December 2004 from SGR 1806-20. Because so few events have been observed, little is known for sure about neutron stars and the physics of their oscillations. The outbursts which are vital for analyses only happen sporadically and are relatively brief. Given the limited knowledge, many of the equations surrounding the physics around these objects are parameterized to fit observed data, and where data is not to be found solar values are used instead. However, with more projects capable of observing these kinds of blasts with higher accuracy, and the hopeful development of w-mode studies, the future looks promising for better understanding one of the Universe’s most exotic objects.
References
External links
• http://www.univie.ac.at/tops
• http://asteroseismology.org
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Regulatory "switches" are found upstream from a gene. Regulatory molecules bind to the switches and recruit RNA polymerase to bind to the gene's promoter region, increasing the transcription of the gene into messenger RNA.
A situation in which a cell or organism stops expressing one gene orgene group and switches to expressing a different gene or group of genes.
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Library Subscription: Guest
Home Archives Officers Future meetings American Society of Thermal and Fluids Engineering
NANOSTRUCTURED SURFACE SIGNIFICANTLY ALTERS DROPLET DYNAMICS AND FREEZING BEHAVIOR
Rachel N. Bohm
Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, 66502, USA
Amy Rachel Betz
Department of Mechanical and Nuclear Engineering, Kansas State University, Kansas 66506, USA
Edward Kinzel
Missouri University of Science and Technology, Rolla, MO, 65409, USA
DOI: 10.1615/TFEC2017.mnp.017968
pages 901-906
Abstract
Condensation and freezing of water is significant in applications such as refrigeration, HVAC systems, aerospace, and cryogenics. In particular, the formation of amorphous ice is of great interest due its rarity on Earth in comparison to other polymorphs, especially crystalline structures. A surface with nano-sized pillars was used to investigate the effect of nanostructured surfaces on condensation and freezing. These pillars were 0.7 to 1.2 µm in size and spaced about 0.3 µm apart from each other in a repeating hexagonal arrangement, with one pillar on each vertex and one in the center. The experiment was performed in a room with ambient conditions with a relative humidity of 40%, the air temperature ranged from 23°C to 26°C, and the surfaces were cooled using a Peltier device to a temperature of -8°C, with an accuracy of ±0.5°C. When the ice was allowed to condense and freeze on the nano-pillared surface, it was observed to form in clear, dull drops like amorphous ice, versus the clouded, white ice of a crystalline form. The surface took from 24 to 140 seconds to freeze, with an average of 80.4 s. These drops were typically around 50 µm in diameter, with some being as small as 10 µm, and others closer to 100 µm. The growth of the ice appeared to be cubic, growing upward in rectangular columns.
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Conjugation – protozoan, Biology
Conjugation – Protozoan
Conjugation is characteristic of ciliates. The details vary from species to species. The general features can be observed in Paramecium sps. which has one macronucleus and one micronucleus. Two ciliates ready for conjugation partially unite. The body surface and pellicle undergo considerable changes. The macronucleus disintegrates and the micronucleus divides twice to give rise to four haploid pronuclei. Three of these disintegrate and the fourth forms a stationary and a migratory pronucleu.
1976_Conjugation – Protozoan.png
Figure: conjugation in Paramecium caudatum
The latter moves into the other conjugant. The two organisms now separate and the pronuclei unite to form zygote. after several post conjugation divisions the macronucleus and micronucleus are formed restoring the normal nuclear complement.
Posted Date: 1/12/2013 6:21:56 AM | Location : United States
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Good quality, Professional service, Competitive price！
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what is free form l glutamine powder?
Do you know L-Glutamine?
L-Glutamine
Today, we are going to give you a little bit of knowledge about L-Glutamine, about its science, benefits, usage and risks
L-Glutamine Powder Free Form, also known as L-glutamine or glutamine, is an amino acid that occurs naturally in the human body. It plays a key role in maintaining good health, promoting intestinal function, and strengthening the immune system. Below is a detailed science on L-glutamine, including its benefits, how it is used, and the risks of overuse.
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Yes, L-glutamine is available in pill form. Some pharmacies or online suppliers offer L-glutamine tablets. However, the convenience and absorption of tablets may vary compared to the powder form. It is important to follow product instructions and your doctor’s advice when using tablets.
What happens if I overuse L-glutamine?
While L-glutamine can be safely used by most healthy people, overdose may not be suitable for everyone. Excessive amounts of L-glutamine may cause abdominal discomfort, nausea, diarrhea, and other digestive problems. Additionally, for patients undergoing treatment (such as cancer patients) or people with specific health conditions, a doctor should be consulted before supplementing with L-glutamine.
Overall, L-glutamine is a beneficial nutritional supplement that helps maintain gut health, boost immunity, and promote recovery. However, as with any nutritional supplement, L-glutamine should be used in moderation and with professional guidance to avoid potential risks and side effects. It is always advisable to consult your doctor or dietitian for advice before using any new nutritional supplement or changing your existing supplement program.
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Showing with 4,518 additions and 2,621 deletions.
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2. +19 −0 README.rst
3. +2 −2 configure
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6. +35 −30 src/common/cached_zk_test.cpp
7. +108 −97 src/common/cht.cpp
8. +44 −43 src/common/cht.hpp
9. +2 −2 src/common/cht_test.cpp
10. +16 −5 src/common/global_id_generator.cpp
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12. +6 −5 src/common/hash.hpp
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16. +28 −27 src/common/membership.hpp
17. +77 −0 src/common/mprpc/rpc_client.cpp
18. +21 −1 src/common/mprpc/rpc_client.hpp
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27. +72 −70 src/common/zk.hpp
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43. +43 −0 src/framework/mixer/mixer_factory.cpp
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61. +37 −38 src/fv_converter/datum_to_fv_converter_test.cpp
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63. +1 −1 src/fv_converter/dynamic_splitter.cpp
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68. +0 −3 src/fv_converter/re2_filter.hpp
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107. +24 −18 src/server/recommender_keeper.cpp
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125. +1 −0 src/storage/storage_type.hpp
126. +28 −0 src/storage/storage_type_test.cpp
127. +1 −0 src/storage/wscript
128. +14 −5 tools/generator/impl_generator.ml
129. +15 −7 tools/generator/keeper_generator.ml
130. +1 −1 tools/generator/server_generator.ml
131. +4 −0 tools/packaging/allinone/.gitignore
132. +445 −0 tools/packaging/allinone/jubapkg
133. +20 −0 tools/packaging/allinone/jubapkg_version
134. +1 −0 tools/packaging/allinone/metadata/debian/compat
135. +15 −0 tools/packaging/allinone/metadata/debian/control
136. +4 −0 tools/packaging/allinone/metadata/debian/jubatus.lintian-overrides
137. +22 −0 tools/packaging/allinone/metadata/debian/rules
138. +75 −0 tools/packaging/homebrew/jubatus.rb
139. +25 −0 tools/packaging/homebrew/pficommon.rb
140. BIN unittest_gtest.py
141. +5 −1 wscript
View
5 Makefile
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-.PHONY: all
+.PHONY: all clean build check install
all:
./waf
@@ -11,3 +11,6 @@ build:
check:
./waf --checkall
+
+install:
+ ./waf install
View
19 README.rst
@@ -31,6 +31,25 @@ LGPL 2.1
Update history
--------------
+Release 0.3.3 2012/10/29
+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
+
+Improvements
+ - deb package (#14)
+ - Jubatus loads plugin from default directory (#57)
+ - Add hash_max_size option to learn in fixed-size memory (#67)
+ - OS X Homebrew packaging (#116)
+ - GCC compilation version <= 4.2 when zookeeper enabled (#60)
+ - Experimental support for Clang compilation (#100)
+ - Make the timeout smaller in unittest
+ - libmecab_splitter works well in multi-thread environment, and now only support mecab ver. 0.99 or later
+ - word_splitter::split method is now constant
+ - global_id_generator(standalone-mode) for graph, that supports 32 bit environment (#135)
+ - Use (document_frequency + 1) to calculate IDF weight to avoid inifinity
+
+Bugfix
+ - #94, #104, #106, #108, #110, #111, #113, #114, #117, #118, #124, #126, #129, #133, #138, #139, #146, #148
+
Release 0.3.2 2012/9/21
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
View
4 configure
@@ -1,3 +1,3 @@
-#! /bin/sh
+#!/bin/sh
-./waf configure $*
+./waf configure "$@"
View
237 src/common/cached_zk.cpp
@@ -22,132 +22,145 @@ using pfi::concurrent::scoped_lock;
using std::vector;
using std::string;
-namespace jubatus{
-namespace common{
-
- cached_zk::cached_zk(const std::string& hosts, int timeout, const std::string& logfile):
- zk(hosts, timeout, logfile)
- {
- };
-
- cached_zk::~cached_zk(){
- };
-
- void cached_zk::list(const std::string& path, std::vector<std::string>& out){
- out.clear();
- scoped_lock lk(m_);
- std::map<std::string, std::set<std::string> >::const_iterator it = list_cache_.find(path);
- if(it == list_cache_.end()){
- //first time. get list to create cache and set the watcher at the same time.
- {DLOG(INFO) << "creating cache: " << path; }
- std::set<std::string> tmp_list;
- list_(path, tmp_list);
- list_cache_[path] = tmp_list;
-
- for(std::set<std::string>::const_iterator i=tmp_list.begin();
- i!=tmp_list.end(); ++i){
- out.push_back(*i);
- }
-
- }else{
- for(std::set<std::string>::const_iterator i=it->second.begin();
- i!=it->second.end(); ++i){
- out.push_back(*i);
- }
+namespace jubatus {
+namespace common {
+
+cached_zk::cached_zk(const string& hosts, int timeout, const string& logfile):
+ zk(hosts, timeout, logfile)
+{
+}
+
+cached_zk::~cached_zk()
+{
+}
+
+void cached_zk::list(const string& path, vector<string>& out)
+{
+ out.clear();
+ scoped_lock lk(m_);
+ std::map<string, std::set<string> >::const_iterator it = list_cache_.find(path);
+ if (it == list_cache_.end()) {
+ //first time. get list to create cache and set the watcher at the same time.
+ { DLOG(INFO) << "creating cache: " << path; }
+ std::set<string> tmp_list;
+ list_(path, tmp_list);
+ list_cache_[path] = tmp_list;
+
+ for (std::set<string>::const_iterator i=tmp_list.begin();
+ i!=tmp_list.end(); ++i) {
+ out.push_back(*i);
}
- }
- void cached_zk::list_(const std::string& path, std::set<std::string>& out){
- out.clear();
- struct String_vector s;
- int rc = zoo_wget_children(zh_, path.c_str(), cached_zk::update_cache, this, &s);
-
- if(rc == ZOK){
- std::set<std::string> cache;
- for(int i=0; i<s.count; ++i){
- out.insert(s.data[i]);
- }
- }else{
- LOG(ERROR) << zerror(rc) << " (" << path << ")";
+ } else {
+ for (std::set<string>::const_iterator i=it->second.begin();
+ i!=it->second.end(); ++i) {
+ out.push_back(*i);
}
}
-
- void cached_zk::hd_list(const std::string& path, std::string& out){
- out.clear();
- scoped_lock lk(m_);
- const std::set<std::string>& list(list_cache_[path]);
- if(!list.empty())
- out = *(list.begin());
- };
- const std::string cached_zk::type()const{
- return "cached_zk";
- }
+}
- void cached_zk::reload_cache(const std::string& path){
- scoped_lock lk(m_);
- list_(path, list_cache_[path]);
- }
- void cached_zk::clear_cache(const char* path){
- scoped_lock lk(m_);
- if(path == NULL){
- list_cache_.clear();
- znode_cache_.clear();
- }else{
- list_cache_.erase(std::string(path));
- znode_cache_.erase(std::string(path));
+void cached_zk::list_(const string& path, std::set<std::string>& out)
+{
+ out.clear();
+ struct String_vector s;
+ int rc = zoo_wget_children(zh_, path.c_str(), cached_zk::update_cache, this, &s);
+
+ if (rc == ZOK) {
+ std::set<string> cache;
+ for (int i=0; i<s.count; ++i) {
+ out.insert(s.data[i]);
}
+ } else {
+ LOG(ERROR) << zerror(rc) << " (" << path << ")";
}
+}
- void cached_zk::update_cache(zhandle_t* zh, int type, int state,
- const char* path, void* ctx){
- cached_zk* zk = reinterpret_cast<cached_zk*>(ctx);
-
- if( type == ZOO_CHILD_EVENT ){
- // update cache
-
- { LOG(INFO) << "ZOO_CHILD_EVENT: " << path; }
- zk->reload_cache(path);
-
- }else if( type == ZOO_DELETED_EVENT || // clear one cache
- type == ZOO_NOTWATCHING_EVENT || // clear one cache?
- type == ZOO_SESSION_EVENT ){ // path == NULL, clear all cache
- // clear cache
- { LOG(INFO) << "ZOO_(DELETED|NOTWATCHING|SESSION)_EVENT: " << path; }
- zk->clear_cache(path);
- }
- // ZOO_CHANGED_EVENT => ignore (FIXME, when read() cache going to be modified this needs fix)
- // ZOO_CREATED_EVENT => ignore
+void cached_zk::hd_list(const string& path, string& out)
+{
+ out.clear();
+ scoped_lock lk(m_);
+ const std::set<string>& list(list_cache_[path]);
+ if (!list.empty())
+ out = *(list.begin());
+}
+
+const string cached_zk::type() const
+{
+ return "cached_zk";
+}
+
+void cached_zk::reload_cache(const string& path)
+{
+ scoped_lock lk(m_);
+ list_(path, list_cache_[path]);
+}
+
+void cached_zk::clear_cache(const char* path)
+{
+ scoped_lock lk(m_);
+ if (path == NULL) {
+ list_cache_.clear();
+ znode_cache_.clear();
+ } else {
+ list_cache_.erase(string(path));
+ znode_cache_.erase(string(path));
}
+}
+void cached_zk::update_cache(zhandle_t* zh, int type, int state,
+ const char* path, void* ctx)
+{
+ cached_zk* zk = static_cast<cached_zk*>(ctx);
- bool cached_zk::read(const std::string& path, std::string& out){
- scoped_lock lk(m_);
- std::map<std::string, std::string>::const_iterator it = znode_cache_.find(path);
+ if (type == ZOO_CHILD_EVENT) {
+ // update cache
- if(it == znode_cache_.end()){
- {DLOG(INFO) << "creating cache: " << path; }
+ { LOG(INFO) << "ZOO_CHILD_EVENT: " << path; }
+ zk->reload_cache(path);
- if(read_(path, out))
- znode_cache_[path] = out;
+ } else if (type == ZOO_DELETED_EVENT || // clear one cache
+ type == ZOO_NOTWATCHING_EVENT || // clear one cache?
+ type == ZOO_SESSION_EVENT) { // path == NULL, clear all cache
+ // clear cache
+ { LOG(INFO) << "ZOO_(DELETED|NOTWATCHING|SESSION)_EVENT: " << path; }
+ zk->clear_cache(path);
+ }
+ // ZOO_CHANGED_EVENT => ignore (FIXME, when read() cache going to be modified this needs fix)
+ // ZOO_CREATED_EVENT => ignore
+}
- }else{
- out = it->second;
- }
- return true;
+
+bool cached_zk::read(const string& path, string& out)
+{
+ scoped_lock lk(m_);
+ std::map<string, string>::const_iterator it = znode_cache_.find(path);
+
+ if (it == znode_cache_.end()) {
+ { DLOG(INFO) << "creating cache: " << path; }
+
+ if (read_(path, out))
+ znode_cache_[path] = out;
+
+ } else {
+ out = it->second;
}
- bool zk::read_(const std::string& path, std::string& out){
- char buf[1024];
- int buflen = 1024;
- int rc = zoo_wget(zh_, path.c_str(), cached_zk::update_cache, this, buf, &buflen, NULL);
-
- if(rc == ZOK){
- out = string(buf, buflen);
- return buflen <= 1024;
- }else{
- LOG(ERROR) << zerror(rc);
- return false;
- }
- };
-
+ return true;
}
+
+bool zk::read_(const string& path, string& out)
+{
+ char buf[1024];
+ int buflen = 1024;
+ int rc = zoo_wget(zh_, path.c_str(), cached_zk::update_cache, this, buf, &buflen, NULL);
+
+ if (rc == ZOK) {
+ out = string(buf, buflen);
+ return buflen <= 1024;
+ } else {
+ LOG(ERROR) << zerror(rc);
+ return false;
+ }
}
+
+} // common
+} // jubatus
View
45 src/common/cached_zk.hpp
@@ -21,34 +21,35 @@
#include <set>
#include "zk.hpp"
-namespace jubatus{
+namespace jubatus {
namespace common {
// TODO: write zk mock and test them all?
- class cached_zk : zk {
- public:
- // timeout [ms]
- cached_zk(const std::string& hosts, int timeout = 10, const std::string& logfile = "");
- virtual ~cached_zk();
+class cached_zk : public zk {
+public:
+ // timeout [ms]
+ cached_zk(const std::string& hosts, int timeout = 10, const std::string& logfile = "");
+ virtual ~cached_zk();
- void list(const std::string& path, std::vector<std::string>& out);
- void hd_list(const std::string& path, std::string& out);
+ void list(const std::string& path, std::vector<std::string>& out);
+ void hd_list(const std::string& path, std::string& out);
- // reads data (should be smaller than 1024B)
- bool read(const std::string& path, std::string& out);
+ // reads data (should be smaller than 1024B)
+ bool read(const std::string& path, std::string& out);
- const std::string type() const;
+ const std::string type() const;
- void check_and_update(const std::string& path);
- void clear_cache(const char* path);
- static void update_cache(zhandle_t*, int, int, const char*, void*);
- void reload_cache(const std::string& path);
+ void check_and_update(const std::string& path);
+ void clear_cache(const char* path);
+ static void update_cache(zhandle_t*, int, int, const char*, void*);
+ void reload_cache(const std::string& path);
- private:
- void list_(const std::string& path, std::set<std::string>& out);
- std::map<std::string, std::set<std::string> > list_cache_;
- std::map<std::string, std::string> znode_cache_;
+private:
+ void list_(const std::string& path, std::set<std::string>& out);
+ std::map<std::string, std::set<std::string> > list_cache_;
+ std::map<std::string, std::string> znode_cache_;
- };
-}
-}
+};
+
+} // common
+} // jubatus
View
65 src/common/cached_zk_test.cpp
@@ -26,36 +26,41 @@ using namespace jubatus::common;
namespace {
- std::string path, path1;
- std::string name_, name1_;
-
- class czk_test : public ::testing::Test {
- protected:
- pfi::lang::shared_ptr<jubatus::common::lock_service> zk_;
-
- czk_test(){
- zk_ = pfi::lang::shared_ptr<jubatus::common::lock_service>
- (common::create_lock_service("zk", "localhost:2181", 1024, "test.log"));
-
- name_ = build_loc_str("localhost", 10000);
- build_actor_path(path, name_);
- name1_ = build_loc_str("localhost", 10001);
- build_actor_path(path1, name1_);
-
- zk_->create(JUBATUS_BASE_PATH, "");
- zk_->create(ACTOR_BASE_PATH, "");
-
- zk_->create(path, "hoge0", true);
- zk_->create(path1, "hoge1", true);
- };
-
- virtual ~czk_test(){
- zk_->remove(path);
- zk_->remove(path1);
- };
- virtual void restart_process(){
- };
- };
+std::string path, path1;
+std::string name_, name1_;
+
+class czk_test : public ::testing::Test {
+protected:
+ pfi::lang::shared_ptr<jubatus::common::lock_service> zk_;
+
+ czk_test() {
+ zk_ = pfi::lang::shared_ptr<jubatus::common::lock_service>
+ (common::create_lock_service("zk", "localhost:2181", 1024, "test.log"));
+
+ std::string engine_name, engine_root;
+ engine_name = "test";
+ engine_root = ACTOR_BASE_PATH + "/" + engine_name;
+
+ name_ = build_loc_str("localhost", 10000);
+ build_actor_path(path, engine_name, name_);
+ name1_ = build_loc_str("localhost", 10001);
+ build_actor_path(path1, engine_name, name1_);
+
+ zk_->create(JUBATUS_BASE_PATH, "");
+ zk_->create(ACTOR_BASE_PATH, "");
+ zk_->create(engine_root, "");
+
+ zk_->create(path, "hoge0", true);
+ zk_->create(path1, "hoge1", true);
+ }
+
+ virtual ~czk_test() {
+ zk_->remove(path);
+ zk_->remove(path1);
+ }
+ virtual void restart_process() {
+ }
+};
TEST(czk, cached_zk_trivial) {
pfi::lang::shared_ptr<jubatus::common::lock_service> czk_;
View
205 src/common/cht.cpp
@@ -24,119 +24,130 @@
#include <pficommon/data/digest/md5.h>
#include <sstream>
-namespace jubatus{
-namespace common{
-
- std::string make_hash(const std::string& key){
- std::stringstream ss;
- ss << pfi::data::digest::md5sum(key);
- return ss.str();
- };
-
- cht::cht(cshared_ptr<lock_service> z, const std::string& type, const std::string& name):
- type_(type), name_(name), lock_service_(z)
- {
- }
+namespace jubatus {
+namespace common {
+
+std::string make_hash(const std::string& key)
+{
+ std::stringstream ss;
+ ss << pfi::data::digest::md5sum(key);
+ return ss.str();
+}
- cht::~cht(){}
+cht::cht(cshared_ptr<lock_service> z, const std::string& type, const std::string& name):
+ type_(type), name_(name), lock_service_(z)
+{
+}
- // register_node :: node -> bool;
- // creates /jubatus/actors/<name>/cht/<hash(ip_port)> with contents ip_port
- void cht::register_node(const std::string& ip, int port){
- std::string path;
- build_actor_path(path, type_, name_);
- path += "/cht";
+cht::~cht()
+{
+}
- for(unsigned int i=0; i<NUM_VSERV; ++i){
- std::string hashpath = path+"/"+make_hash(build_loc_str(ip, port, i));
- lock_service_->create(hashpath, build_loc_str(ip,port), true);
- DLOG(INFO) << "created " << hashpath;
- }
- }
-
- bool cht::find(const std::string& host, int port, std::vector<std::pair<std::string,int> >& out, size_t s){
- return find(build_loc_str(host, port), out, s);
+// register_node :: node -> bool;
+// creates /jubatus/actors/<name>/cht/<hash(ip_port)> with contents ip_port
+void cht::register_node(const std::string& ip, int port)
+{
+ std::string path;
+ build_actor_path(path, type_, name_);
+ path += "/cht";
+
+ for (unsigned int i=0; i<NUM_VSERV; ++i) {
+ std::string hashpath = path+"/"+make_hash(build_loc_str(ip, port, i));
+ lock_service_->create(hashpath, build_loc_str(ip,port), true);
+ DLOG(INFO) << "created " << hashpath;
}
+}
- // return at most n nodes, if theres nodes less than n, return size is also less than n.
- // find(hash) :: lock_service -> key -> [node] where hash(node0) <= hash(key) < hash(node1)
- bool cht::find(const std::string& key, std::vector<std::pair<std::string,int> >& out, size_t n){
- out.clear();
- std::vector<std::string> hlist;
- if(! get_hashlist_(key, hlist)){
- throw JUBATUS_EXCEPTION(not_found(key));
- }
- std::string hash = make_hash(key);
- std::string path;
- build_actor_path(path, type_, name_);
- path += "/cht";
-
- std::vector<std::string>::iterator node0 = std::lower_bound(hlist.begin(), hlist.end(), hash);
- size_t idx = int(node0 - hlist.begin()) % hlist.size();
- std::string loc;
- for(size_t i=0; i<n; ++i){
- std::string ip;
- int port;
- if(lock_service_->read(path + "/" + hlist[idx], loc)){
- revert(loc, ip, port);
- out.push_back(make_pair(ip,port));
- }else{
- // TODO: output log
- throw JUBATUS_EXCEPTION(not_found(path));
- }
- idx++;
- idx %= hlist.size();
- }
- return !hlist.size();
- }
+bool cht::find(const std::string& host, int port, std::vector<std::pair<std::string,int> >& out, size_t s)
+{
+ return find(build_loc_str(host, port), out, s);
+}
- std::pair<std::string,int> cht::find_predecessor(const std::string& host, int port){
- return find_predecessor(build_loc_str(host, port));
+// return at most n nodes, if theres nodes less than n, return size is also less than n.
+// find(hash) :: lock_service -> key -> [node] where hash(node0) <= hash(key) < hash(node1)
+bool cht::find(const std::string& key, std::vector<std::pair<std::string,int> >& out, size_t n)
+{
+ out.clear();
+ std::vector<std::string> hlist;
+ if (!get_hashlist_(key, hlist)) {
+ throw JUBATUS_EXCEPTION(not_found(key));
}
- std::pair<std::string,int> cht::find_predecessor(const std::string& key){
- std::vector<std::string> hlist;
- get_hashlist_(key, hlist);
-
- std::string hash = make_hash(key);
- std::string path;
- build_actor_path(path, type_, name_);
- path += "/cht";
-
- std::vector<std::string>::iterator node0 = std::lower_bound(hlist.begin(), hlist.end(), hash);
- size_t idx = (int(node0 - hlist.begin())+ hlist.size() -1) % hlist.size();
-
+ std::string hash = make_hash(key);
+ std::string path;
+ build_actor_path(path, type_, name_);
+ path += "/cht";
+
+ std::vector<std::string>::iterator node0 = std::lower_bound(hlist.begin(), hlist.end(), hash);
+ size_t idx = int(node0 - hlist.begin()) % hlist.size();
+ std::string loc;
+ for (size_t i = 0; i < n; ++i) {
std::string ip;
int port;
- std::string loc;
- if(lock_service_->read(path + "/" + hlist[idx], loc)){
+ if (lock_service_->read(path + "/" + hlist[idx], loc)) {
revert(loc, ip, port);
- return make_pair(ip, port);
- }else{
+ out.push_back(make_pair(ip,port));
+ } else {
+ // TODO: output log
throw JUBATUS_EXCEPTION(not_found(path));
- // TODO: output log and throw exception
}
+ idx++;
+ idx %= hlist.size();
}
+ return !hlist.size();
+}
- void cht::setup_cht_dir(lock_service& ls, const std::string& type, const std::string& name){
- std::string path;
- build_actor_path(path, type, name);
- ls.create(path, "");
- path += "/cht";
- ls.create(path, "");
- }
+std::pair<std::string,int> cht::find_predecessor(const std::string& host, int port)
+{
+ return find_predecessor(build_loc_str(host, port));
+}
- bool cht::get_hashlist_(const std::string& key, std::vector<std::string>& hlist){
- hlist.clear();
- std::string path;
- build_actor_path(path, type_, name_);
- path += "/cht";
- std::vector<std::pair<std::string, int> > ret;
- lock_service_->list(path, hlist);
-
- if(hlist.empty()) return false;
- std::sort(hlist.begin(), hlist.end());
- return true;
+std::pair<std::string,int> cht::find_predecessor(const std::string& key)
+{
+ std::vector<std::string> hlist;
+ get_hashlist_(key, hlist);
+
+ std::string hash = make_hash(key);
+ std::string path;
+ build_actor_path(path, type_, name_);
+ path += "/cht";
+
+ std::vector<std::string>::iterator node0 = std::lower_bound(hlist.begin(), hlist.end(), hash);
+ size_t idx = (int(node0 - hlist.begin())+ hlist.size() -1) % hlist.size();
+
+ std::string ip;
+ int port;
+ std::string loc;
+ if (lock_service_->read(path + "/" + hlist[idx], loc)) {
+ revert(loc, ip, port);
+ return make_pair(ip, port);
+ } else {
+ throw JUBATUS_EXCEPTION(not_found(path));
+ // TODO: output log and throw exception
}
+}
+void cht::setup_cht_dir(lock_service& ls, const std::string& type, const std::string& name)
+{
+ std::string path;
+ build_actor_path(path, type, name);
+ ls.create(path, "");
+ path += "/cht";
+ ls.create(path, "");
}
+
+bool cht::get_hashlist_(const std::string& key, std::vector<std::string>& hlist)
+{
+ hlist.clear();
+ std::string path;
+ build_actor_path(path, type_, name_);
+ path += "/cht";
+ std::vector<std::pair<std::string, int> > ret;
+ lock_service_->list(path, hlist);
+
+ if (hlist.empty()) return false;
+ std::sort(hlist.begin(), hlist.end());
+ return true;
}
+
+} // common
+} // jubatus
View
87 src/common/cht.hpp
@@ -27,46 +27,47 @@
#include <pficommon/lang/cast.h>
-namespace jubatus{
-namespace common{
-
- static const unsigned int NUM_VSERV = 8;
-
- // this function does not seem pure, take care when calling from multiple threads
- std::string make_hash(const std::string& key);
-
- class cht{
- public:
- cht(cshared_ptr<lock_service>, const std::string& type, const std::string& name);
- ~cht();
-
- // node :: ip_port
- // register_node :: node -> bool;
- void register_node(const std::string&, int);
-
- template <typename T>
- bool find(const T& t, std::vector<std::pair<std::string,int> > & ret, size_t s){
- std::string k = pfi::lang::lexical_cast<std::string>(t);
- return find(k, ret, s);
- };
-
- // find(hash) :: key -> [node] where hash(node0) <= hash(key) < hash(node1) < hash(node2) < ...
- bool find(const std::string& host, int port, std::vector<std::pair<std::string,int> >&, size_t);
- bool find(const std::string&, std::vector<std::pair<std::string,int> >&, size_t);
-
- std::pair<std::string,int> find_predecessor(const std::string& host, int port);
- std::pair<std::string,int> find_predecessor(const std::string&);
-
- // run just once in starting up the process: creates <name>/cht directory.
- static void setup_cht_dir(lock_service&, const std::string&, const std::string&);
-
- private:
-
- bool get_hashlist_(const std::string& key, std::vector<std::string>&);
-
- const std::string type_;
- const std::string name_;
- cshared_ptr<lock_service> lock_service_;
- }; //cht
-}
-}
+namespace jubatus {
+namespace common {
+
+static const unsigned int NUM_VSERV = 8;
+
+// this function does not seem pure, take care when calling from multiple threads
+std::string make_hash(const std::string& key);
+
+class cht {
+public:
+ cht(cshared_ptr<lock_service>, const std::string& type, const std::string& name);
+ ~cht();
+
+ // node :: ip_port
+ // register_node :: node -> bool;
+ void register_node(const std::string&, int);
+
+ template <typename T>
+ bool find(const T& t, std::vector<std::pair<std::string,int> > & ret, size_t s) {
+ std::string k = pfi::lang::lexical_cast<std::string>(t);
+ return find(k, ret, s);
+ }
+
+ // find(hash) :: key -> [node] where hash(node0) <= hash(key) < hash(node1) < hash(node2) < ...
+ bool find(const std::string& host, int port, std::vector<std::pair<std::string,int> >&, size_t);
+ bool find(const std::string&, std::vector<std::pair<std::string,int> >&, size_t);
+
+ std::pair<std::string,int> find_predecessor(const std::string& host, int port);
+ std::pair<std::string,int> find_predecessor(const std::string&);
+
+ // run just once in starting up the process: creates <name>/cht directory.
+ static void setup_cht_dir(lock_service&, const std::string&, const std::string&);
+
+private:
+
+ bool get_hashlist_(const std::string& key, std::vector<std::string>&);
+
+ const std::string type_;
+ const std::string name_;
+ cshared_ptr<lock_service> lock_service_;
+}; //cht
+
+} // common
+} // jubatus
View
4 src/common/cht_test.cpp
@@ -31,5 +31,5 @@ TEST(cht, make_hash) {
ASSERT_NE(hash, hash3);
}
-}
-}
+} // common
+} // jubatus
View
21 src/common/global_id_generator.cpp
@@ -18,6 +18,10 @@
#include "global_id_generator.hpp"
#include <cassert>
+#ifndef ATOMIC_I8_SUPPORT
+#include <pficommon/concurrent/lock.h>
+#endif
+
namespace jubatus { namespace common {
@@ -36,7 +40,12 @@ global_id_generator::~global_id_generator()
uint64_t global_id_generator::generate()
{
if(is_standalone_){
+#ifdef ATOMIC_I8_SUPPORT
return __sync_fetch_and_add(&counter_, 1);
+#else
+ pfi::concurrent::scoped_lock lk(counter_mutex_);
+ return ++counter_;
+#endif
}else{
#ifdef HAVE_ZOOKEEPER_H
@@ -52,14 +61,16 @@ uint64_t global_id_generator::generate()
}
}
-#ifdef HAVE_ZOOKEEPER_H
void global_id_generator::set_ls(cshared_ptr<lock_service>& ls,
const std::string& path_prefix)
{
- path_ = path_prefix + "/id_generator";
- ls_ = ls;
- ls_->create(path_);
-}
+#ifdef HAVE_ZOOKEEPER_H
+ if (! is_standalone_) {
+ path_ = path_prefix + "/id_generator";
+ ls_ = ls;
+ ls_->create(path_);
+ }
#endif
+}
}}
View
11 src/common/global_id_generator.hpp
@@ -19,9 +19,11 @@
#include <stdint.h>
-#ifdef HAVE_ZOOKEEPER_H
#include "lock_service.hpp"
#include "shared_ptr.hpp"
+
+#ifndef ATOMIC_I8_SUPPORT
+#include <pficommon/concurrent/mutex.h>
#endif
namespace jubatus { namespace common {
@@ -35,20 +37,19 @@ class global_id_generator
uint64_t generate();
-#ifdef HAVE_ZOOKEEPER_H
void set_ls(cshared_ptr<lock_service>&, const std::string&);
-#endif
private:
global_id_generator();
bool is_standalone_;
uint64_t counter_;
-#ifdef HAVE_ZOOKEEPER_H
std::string path_;
cshared_ptr<lock_service> ls_;
-#endif
+#ifndef ATOMIC_I8_SUPPORT
+ pfi::concurrent::mutex counter_mutex_;
+#endif
};
}}
View
11 src/common/hash.hpp
@@ -20,13 +20,14 @@
#include <string>
#include <stdint.h>
-namespace jubatus{
+namespace jubatus {
-class hash_util{
+class hash_util {
public:
- static uint64_t calc_string_hash(const std::string& s){
+ static uint64_t calc_string_hash(const std::string& s) {
+ // FNV-1 hash function
uint64_t hash = 14695981039346656037LLU;
- for (size_t i = 0; i < s.size(); ++i){
+ for (size_t i = 0; i < s.size(); ++i) {
hash *= 1099511628211LLU;
hash ^= s[i];
}
@@ -34,4 +35,4 @@ class hash_util{
}
};
-}
+} // jubatus
View
43 src/common/lock_service.cpp
@@ -15,43 +15,50 @@
// License along with this library; if not, write to the Free Software
// Foundation, Inc., 51 Franklin Street, Fifth Floor, Boston, MA 02110-1301 USA
-#include "exception.hpp"
#include "lock_service.hpp"
+#include "exception.hpp"
#include "zk.hpp"
#include "cached_zk.hpp"
-namespace jubatus{ namespace common{
+namespace jubatus {
+namespace common {
lock_service* create_lock_service(const std::string& name,
- const std::string& hosts, const int timeout, const std::string& log){
-
- if(name == "zk"){
- return reinterpret_cast<lock_service*>(new zk(hosts, timeout, log));
- }
- else if(name == "cached_zk"){
- return reinterpret_cast<lock_service*>(new cached_zk(hosts, timeout, log));
+ const std::string& hosts, const int timeout, const std::string& log)
+{
+ if (name == "zk") {
+ return new zk(hosts, timeout, log);
+ } else if (name == "cached_zk") {
+ return new cached_zk(hosts, timeout, log);
}
throw JUBATUS_EXCEPTION(jubatus::exception::runtime_error(std::string("unknown lock_service: ") + name));
}
lock_service_mutex::lock_service_mutex(lock_service& ls, const std::string& path):
- path_(path){
- if(ls.type() == "zk" or ls.type() == "cached_zk"){
- impl_ = reinterpret_cast<try_lockable*>(new zkmutex(ls, path));
- }else{
+ path_(path)
+{
+ if (ls.type() == "zk" || ls.type() == "cached_zk") {
+ impl_ = new zkmutex(ls, path);
+ } else {
{ LOG(ERROR) << "unknown lock_service: " << ls.type(); }
throw JUBATUS_EXCEPTION(jubatus::exception::runtime_error(std::string("unknown lock_service: ") + ls.type()));
}
-};
+}
-bool lock_service_mutex::lock(){
+bool lock_service_mutex::lock()
+{
return impl_->lock();
}
-bool lock_service_mutex::try_lock(){
+
+bool lock_service_mutex::try_lock()
+{
return impl_->try_lock();
}
-bool lock_service_mutex::unlock(){
+
+bool lock_service_mutex::unlock()
+{
return impl_->unlock();
}
-}}
+} // common
+} // jubatus
View
120 src/common/lock_service.hpp
@@ -25,63 +25,63 @@
#include <stdint.h>
-namespace jubatus{
-namespace common{
-
- // TODO: write lock_service mock and test them all?
- class lock_service{
- public:
- // timeout [ms]
- lock_service(){};
- virtual ~lock_service(){};
-
- virtual void force_close() = 0;
- virtual void create(const std::string& path, const std::string& payload = "", bool ephemeral = false) = 0;
- virtual void remove(const std::string& path) = 0;
- virtual bool exists(const std::string& path) = 0;
-
- virtual bool bind_watcher(const std::string& path, pfi::lang::function<void(int,int,std::string)>&) = 0;
-
- // ephemeral only
- virtual void create_seq(const std::string& path, std::string&) = 0;
- virtual uint64_t create_id(const std::string& path, uint32_t prefix = 0) = 0;
-
- virtual void list(const std::string& path, std::vector<std::string>& out) = 0;
- virtual void hd_list(const std::string& path, std::string& out) = 0;
-
- // reads data (should be smaller than 1024B)
- virtual bool read(const std::string& path, std::string& out) = 0;
-
- virtual void push_cleanup(pfi::lang::function<void()>& f) = 0;
- virtual void run_cleanup() = 0;
-
- virtual const std::string& get_hosts()const = 0;
- virtual const std::string type() const = 0;
- };
-
- class try_lockable : public pfi::concurrent::lockable{
- public:
- virtual bool try_lock() = 0;
- };
-
- class lock_service_mutex : public try_lockable {
- public:
- lock_service_mutex(lock_service& ls, const std::string& path);
- virtual ~lock_service_mutex(){
- delete impl_;
- }
-
- bool lock();
- bool try_lock();
- bool unlock();
-
- protected:
- try_lockable* impl_;
- std::string path_;
- };
-
- lock_service* create_lock_service(const std::string&,
- const std::string& hosts, const int timeout, const std::string& log = "/tmp/zklog");
- // void mywatcher(zhandle_t*, int, int, const char*, void*);
-}
-}
+namespace jubatus {
+namespace common {
+
+// TODO: write lock_service mock and test them all?
+class lock_service {
+public:
+ // timeout [ms]
+ lock_service() {};
+ virtual ~lock_service() {};
+
+ virtual void force_close() = 0;
+ virtual void create(const std::string& path, const std::string& payload = "", bool ephemeral = false) = 0;
+ virtual void remove(const std::string& path) = 0;
+ virtual bool exists(const std::string& path) = 0;
+
+ virtual bool bind_watcher(const std::string& path, pfi::lang::function<void(int,int,std::string)>&) = 0;
+
+ // ephemeral only
+ virtual void create_seq(const std::string& path, std::string&) = 0;
+ virtual uint64_t create_id(const std::string& path, uint32_t prefix = 0) = 0;
+
+ virtual void list(const std::string& path, std::vector<std::string>& out) = 0;
+ virtual void hd_list(const std::string& path, std::string& out) = 0;
+
+ // reads data (should be smaller than 1024B)
+ virtual bool read(const std::string& path, std::string& out) = 0;
+
+ virtual void push_cleanup(pfi::lang::function<void()>& f) = 0;
+ virtual void run_cleanup() = 0;
+
+ virtual const std::string& get_hosts() const = 0;
+ virtual const std::string type() const = 0;
+};
+
+class try_lockable : public pfi::concurrent::lockable {
+public:
+ virtual bool try_lock() = 0;
+};
+
+class lock_service_mutex : public try_lockable {
+public:
+ lock_service_mutex(lock_service& ls, const std::string& path);
+ virtual ~lock_service_mutex() {
+ delete impl_;
+ }
+
+ bool lock();
+ bool try_lock();
+ bool unlock();
+
+protected:
+ try_lockable* impl_;
+ std::string path_;
+};
+
+lock_service* create_lock_service(const std::string&,
+ const std::string& hosts, const int timeout, const std::string& log = "/tmp/zklog");
+
+} // common
+} // jubatus
View
206 src/common/membership.cpp
@@ -18,122 +18,132 @@
#include "membership.hpp"
#include <cstdlib>
-
#include <iostream>
-using namespace std;
-
#include <pficommon/lang/cast.h>
+
+using namespace std;
using namespace pfi::lang;
-namespace jubatus{
-namespace common{
-
- // "127.0.0.1" -> 9199 -> "127.0.0.1_9199"
- std::string build_loc_str(const std::string& ip, int port, unsigned int i){
- std::string ret = ip + "_" + lexical_cast<std::string,int>(port);;
- if(i>0){
- ret += "_";
- ret += lexical_cast<std::string,int>(i);
- }
- return ret;
- }
+namespace jubatus {
+namespace common {
- // /path/base -> 127.0.0.1 -> 9199 -> /path/base/127.0.0.1_9199
- void build_existence_path(const std::string& base, const std::string& ip, int port, std::string& out){
- out = base + "/" + ip + "_" + lexical_cast<std::string,int>(port);
- }
- void build_actor_path(std::string& path, const std::string& type, const std::string& name){
- path = ACTOR_BASE_PATH + "/" + type + "/" + name;
+// "127.0.0.1" -> 9199 -> "127.0.0.1_9199"
+string build_loc_str(const string& ip, int port, unsigned int i)
+{
+ string ret = ip + "_" + lexical_cast<string, int>(port);
+ if (i > 0) {
+ ret += "_";
+ ret += lexical_cast<string,int>(i);
}
+ return ret;
+}
- // 127.0.0.1_9199 -> (127.0.0.1, 9199)
- bool revert(const std::string& name, std::string& ip, int& port){
- ip = name.substr(0, name.find("_"));
- port = atoi(name.substr(name.find("_") + 1).c_str());
- return true;
- }
+// /path/base -> 127.0.0.1 -> 9199 -> /path/base/127.0.0.1_9199
+void build_existence_path(const string& base, const string& ip, int port, string& out)
+{
+ out = base + "/" + ip + "_" + lexical_cast<string, int>(port);
+}
- // zk -> name -> ip -> port -> bool
- bool register_actor(lock_service& z,
- const std::string& type, const std::string& name,
- const std::string& ip, int port){
+void build_actor_path(string& path, const string& type, const string& name)
+{
+ path = ACTOR_BASE_PATH + "/" + type + "/" + name;
+}
- std::string path;
- build_actor_path(path, type, name);
- z.create(path, "");
- z.create(path + "/master_lock", "");
- path += "/nodes";
- z.create(path , "");
- {
- std::string path1;
- build_existence_path(path, ip, port, path1);
- z.create(path1, "", true);
- }
-
- // set exit zlistener here
- pfi::lang::function <void()> f = &force_exit;
- z.push_cleanup(f);
-
- return true;
- }
+// 127.0.0.1_9199 -> (127.0.0.1, 9199)
+bool revert(const string& name, string& ip, int& port)
+{
+ ip = name.substr(0, name.find("_"));
+ port = atoi(name.substr(name.find("_") + 1).c_str());
+ return true;
+}
- bool register_keeper(lock_service& z, const std::string& type, const std::string& ip, int port){
- std::string path = JUBAKEEPER_BASE_PATH;
- z.create(path, "");
- path += "/" + type;
- z.create(path, "");
- {
- std::string path1;
- build_existence_path(path, ip, port, path1);
- z.create(path1, "", true);
- }
- // set exit zlistener here
- pfi::lang::function <void()> f = &force_exit;
- z.push_cleanup(f);
- return true;
+// zk -> name -> ip -> port -> bool
+bool register_actor(lock_service& z,
+ const string& type, const string& name,
+ const string& ip, int port)
+{
+ string path;
+ build_actor_path(path, type, name);
+ z.create(path, "");
+ z.create(path + "/master_lock", "");
+ path += "/nodes";
+ z.create(path , "");
+ {
+ string path1;
+ build_existence_path(path, ip, port, path1);
+ z.create(path1, "", true);
}
- // zk -> name -> list( (ip, rpc_port) )
- bool get_all_actors(lock_service& z,
- const std::string& type, const std::string& name,
- std::vector<std::pair<std::string, int> >& ret){
- ret.clear();
- std::string path;
- build_actor_path(path, type, name);
- path += "/nodes";
- std::vector<std::string> list;
- z.list(path, list);
- for(std::vector<std::string>::const_iterator it = list.begin();
- it != list.end(); ++it ){
- std::string ip;
- int port;
- revert(*it, ip, port);
- ret.push_back(make_pair(ip,port));
- }
- return true;
- }
+ // set exit zlistener here
+ pfi::lang::function <void()> f = &force_exit;
+ z.push_cleanup(f);
+
+ return true;
+}
- bool push_cleanup(lock_service& z, pfi::lang::function<void()>& f){
- z.push_cleanup(f);
- return true;
+bool register_keeper(lock_service& z, const string& type, const string& ip, int port)
+{
+ string path = JUBAKEEPER_BASE_PATH;
+ z.create(path, "");
+ path += "/" + type;
+ z.create(path, "");
+ {
+ string path1;
+ build_existence_path(path, ip, port, path1);
+ z.create(path1, "", true);
}
+ // set exit zlistener here
+ pfi::lang::function <void()> f = &force_exit;
+ z.push_cleanup(f);
+ return true;
+}
- void force_exit(){
- exit(-1);
+// zk -> name -> list( (ip, rpc_port) )
+bool get_all_actors(lock_service& z,
+ const string& type, const string& name,
+ std::vector<std::pair<string, int> >& ret)
+{
+ ret.clear();
+ string path;
+ build_actor_path(path, type, name);
+ path += "/nodes";
+ std::vector<string> list;
+ z.list(path, list);
+ for (std::vector<string>::const_iterator it = list.begin();
+ it != list.end(); ++it) {
+ string ip;
+ int port;
+ revert(*it, ip, port);
+ ret.push_back(make_pair(ip,port));
}
+ return true;
+}
- void prepare_jubatus(lock_service& ls, const std::string& type, const std::string& name){
- ls.create(JUBATUS_BASE_PATH);
- ls.create(JUBAVISOR_BASE_PATH);
- ls.create(JUBAKEEPER_BASE_PATH);
- ls.create(ACTOR_BASE_PATH);
+bool push_cleanup(lock_service& z, pfi::lang::function<void()>& f)
+{
+ z.push_cleanup(f);
+ return true;
+}
- std::string path = ACTOR_BASE_PATH + "/" + type;
+void force_exit()
+{
+ exit(-1);
+}
+
+void prepare_jubatus(lock_service& ls, const string& type, const string& name)
+{
+ ls.create(JUBATUS_BASE_PATH);
+ ls.create(JUBAVISOR_BASE_PATH);
+ ls.create(JUBAKEEPER_BASE_PATH);
+ ls.create(ACTOR_BASE_PATH);
+
+ string path = ACTOR_BASE_PATH + "/" + type;
+ ls.create(path);
+ if (name != "") {
+ build_actor_path(path, type, name);
ls.create(path);
- if(name != ""){
- build_actor_path(path, type, name);
- ls.create(path);
- }
}
}
-}
+
+} // common
+} // jubatus
View
55 src/common/membership.hpp
@@ -22,39 +22,40 @@
#include <vector>
#include <map>
-namespace jubatus{
-namespace common{
+namespace jubatus {
+namespace common {
- static const std::string JUBATUS_BASE_PATH = "/jubatus";
- static const std::string JUBAVISOR_BASE_PATH = "/jubatus/supervisors";
- static const std::string JUBAKEEPER_BASE_PATH = "/jubatus/jubakeepers";
- static const std::string ACTOR_BASE_PATH = "/jubatus/actors";
+static const std::string JUBATUS_BASE_PATH = "/jubatus";
+static const std::string JUBAVISOR_BASE_PATH = "/jubatus/supervisors";
+static const std::string JUBAKEEPER_BASE_PATH = "/jubatus/jubakeepers";
+static const std::string ACTOR_BASE_PATH = "/jubatus/actors";
- // "127.0.0.1" -> 9199 -> "127.0.0.1_9199"
- std::string build_loc_str(const std::string&, int, unsigned int = 0);
+// "127.0.0.1" -> 9199 -> "127.0.0.1_9199"
+std::string build_loc_str(const std::string&, int, unsigned int = 0);
- // /path/base -> 127.0.0.1 -> 9199 -> /path/base/127.0.0.1_9199
- void build_existence_path(const std::string&, const std::string&, int, std::string&);
+// /path/base -> 127.0.0.1 -> 9199 -> /path/base/127.0.0.1_9199
+void build_existence_path(const std::string&, const std::string&, int, std::string&);
- void build_actor_path(std::string&, const std::string& type, const std::string& name);
+void build_actor_path(std::string&, const std::string& type, const std::string& name);
- // 127.0.0.1_9199 -> (127.0.0.1, 9199)
- bool revert(const std::string&, std::string&, int&);
+// 127.0.0.1_9199 -> (127.0.0.1, 9199)
+bool revert(const std::string&, std::string&, int&);
- // zk -> name -> ip -> port -> bool
- bool register_actor(lock_service&, const std::string& type, const std::string& name,
- const std::string& ip, int port);
- // zk -> name -> ip -> port -> bool
- bool register_keeper(lock_service&, const std::string& type, const std::string& ip, int);
- // zk -> name -> list( (ip, rpc_port) )
- bool get_all_actors(lock_service&, const std::string& type, const std::string&,
- std::vector<std::pair<std::string, int> >&);
+// zk -> name -> ip -> port -> bool
+bool register_actor(lock_service&, const std::string& type, const std::string& name,
+ const std::string& ip, int port);
+// zk -> name -> ip -> port -> bool
+bool register_keeper(lock_service&, const std::string& type, const std::string& ip, int);
+// zk -> name -> list( (ip, rpc_port) )
+bool get_all_actors(lock_service&, const std::string& type, const std::string&,
+ std::vector<std::pair<std::string, int> >&);
- bool push_cleanup(lock_service&, pfi::lang::function<void()>&);
+bool push_cleanup(lock_service&, pfi::lang::function<void()>&);
- void force_exit();
+void force_exit();
- void prepare_jubatus(lock_service& ls,
- const std::string& type, const std::string& name = "");
-}
-}
+void prepare_jubatus(lock_service& ls,
+ const std::string& type, const std::string& name = "");
+
+} // common
+} // jubatus
View
77 src/common/mprpc/rpc_client.cpp
@@ -118,6 +118,83 @@ void rpc_mclient::send_all(const msgpack::sbuffer& buf)
event_base_dispatch(evbase_);
}
+rpc_result_object rpc_mclient::wait(const std::string& method)
+{
+ rpc_result_object result;
+
+ if (clients_.empty())
+ throw JUBATUS_EXCEPTION(rpc_no_client() << error_method(method));
+
+ register_fd_readable_();
+ event_base_dispatch(evbase_);
+
+ size_t count = 0;
+
+ for (client_list_t::iterator it = clients_.begin(), end = clients_.end();
+ it != end; ++it) {
+ shared_ptr<async_client> client = *it;
+ async_client::response_list_t& response_list = client->response();
+
+ try {
+ if (client->read_exception())
+ client->read_exception()->throw_exception();
+ if (client->write_exception())
+ client->write_exception()->throw_exception();
+ if (response_list.empty())
+ throw JUBATUS_EXCEPTION(rpc_no_result() << error_method(method));
+
+ // If implement RPC specification strictly, you must find response by msgid,
+ // but pfi::network::mprpc::rpc_server does not support RPC pipelining.
+ rpc_response_t res = response_list.front();
+ response_list.erase(response_list.begin());
+ if (res.has_error()) {
+ if (res.error().type == msgpack::type::POSITIVE_INTEGER) {
+ // error code defined in pficommon/mprpc/message.h
+ switch (static_cast<unsigned int>(res.error().via.u64)) {
+ case pfi::network::mprpc::METHOD_NOT_FOUND:
+ throw JUBATUS_EXCEPTION(rpc_method_not_found() << error_method(method));
+
+ case pfi::network::mprpc::TYPE_MISMATCH:
+ throw JUBATUS_EXCEPTION(rpc_type_error() << error_method(method));
+
+ default:
+ throw JUBATUS_EXCEPTION(rpc_call_error()
+ << error_method(method)
+ << jubatus::exception::error_message(std::string("rpc_server error: " + pfi::lang::lexical_cast<std::string>(res.error().via.u64))));
+ }
+ } else {
+ // MEMO: other error object returned
+ throw JUBATUS_EXCEPTION(rpc_call_error()
+ << error_method(method)
+ << jubatus::exception::error_message("error response: " + pfi::lang::lexical_cast<std::string>(res.error())));
+ }
+ }
+
+ result.response.push_back(res);
+
+ count++;
+
+ // continue process next result when exception thrown
+ } catch (...) {
+ // store exception_thrower to list of error
+ result.error.push_back(rpc_error(client->host(), client->port(), jubatus::exception::get_current_exception()));
+
+ // clear last exception set by libevent callback
+ client->context_->read_exception.reset();
+ client->context_->write_exception.reset();
+ }
+ }
+
+ if (!count) {
+ rpc_no_result e;
+ if (result.has_error())
+ e << error_multi_rpc(result.error);
+ throw JUBATUS_EXCEPTION(e << error_method(method));
+ }
+
+ return result;
+}
+
} // mprpc
} // common
} // jubatus
View
22 src/common/mprpc/rpc_client.hpp
@@ -115,6 +115,13 @@ struct rpc_result {
bool has_error() const { return !error.empty(); }
};
+struct rpc_result_object {
+ std::vector<rpc_response_t> response;
+ std::vector<rpc_error> error;
+
+ bool has_error() const { return !error.empty(); }
+};
+
class rpc_mclient : pfi::lang::noncopyable
{
public:
@@ -133,6 +140,9 @@ class rpc_mclient : pfi::lang::noncopyable
template <typename Res, typename A0, typename A1, typename A2, typename A3>
rpc_result<Res> call(const std::string&, const A0&, const A1&, const A2&, const A3&, const pfi::lang::function<Res(Res,Res)>& reducer);
+ template <typename A0>
+ rpc_result_object call(const std::string&, const A0& a0);
+
private:
static void readable_callback(int fd, short int events, void* arg);
static void writable_callback(int fd, short int events, void* arg);
@@ -145,13 +155,14 @@ class rpc_mclient : pfi::lang::noncopyable
void send_all(const msgpack::sbuffer& buf);
+ rpc_result_object wait(const std::string& m);
+
template <typename Arr>
void call_(const std::string&, const Arr& a);
template <typename Res>
rpc_result<Res> join_(const std::string&, const pfi::lang::function<Res(Res,Res)>& reducer);
-
std::vector<std::pair<std::string, uint16_t> > hosts_;
int timeout_sec_;
@@ -290,6 +301,15 @@ rpc_result<Res> rpc_mclient::call(const std::string& m, const A0& a0, const A1&
return join_(m, reducer);
}
+
+
+template <typename A0>
+rpc_result_object rpc_mclient::call(const std::string& m, const A0& a0)
+{
+ call_(m, msgpack::type::tuple<A0>(a0));
+ return wait(m);
+}
+
} // mprpc
} // common
} // jubatus
View
5 src/common/mprpc/rpc_client_test.cpp
@@ -17,6 +17,7 @@
#include "rpc_client.hpp"
#include "../../framework/aggregators.hpp"
+#include "../../server/test_util.hpp"
#include "gtest/gtest.h"
#include <pficommon/concurrent/thread.h>
#include <pficommon/network/mprpc.h>
@@ -181,9 +182,9 @@ TEST(rpc_mclient, small)
threads.back()->start();
clients.push_back(make_pair(string("localhost"), port));
+ wait_server(port);
}
const size_t kServerSize = clients.size();
- usleep(500000);
{
test_mrpc_client cli0("localhost", PORT0, 3.0);
test_mrpc_client cli1("localhost", PORT1, 3.0);
@@ -311,12 +312,12 @@ TEST(rpc_mclient, socket_disconnection)
server_ptr ser(new test_mrpc_server(3.0));
thread th(pfi::lang::bind(&server_thread, ser, kPortStart));
th.start();
+ wait_server(kPortStart);
vector<pair<string,uint16_t> > clients;
clients.push_back(make_pair(string("localhost"), kPortStart));
clients.push_back(make_pair(string("localhost"), kInvalidPort)); // connection refused
- usleep(500000);
{
test_mrpc_client cli0("localhost", kPortStart, 3.0);
test_mrpc_client cli1("localhost", kInvalidPort, 3.0);
View
4 src/common/mprpc/wscript
@@ -9,14 +9,14 @@ def build(bld):
bld.shlib(
source = src,
target = 'jubacommon_mprpc',
- use = 'PFICOMMON LIBGLOG ZOOKEEPER_MT LIBEVENT MSGPACK'
+ use = 'PFICOMMON LIBGLOG ZOOKEEPER_MT LIBEVENT MSGPACK jubacommon'
)
bld.program(
features = 'gtest',
source = 'rpc_client_test.cpp',
target = 'rpc_client_test',
- includes = '. ../framework',
+ includes = '.',
use = 'PFICOMMON MSGPACK jubacommon jubacommon_mprpc',
)
View
2 src/common/rpc_util.hpp
@@ -20,7 +20,7 @@
#include <pficommon/data/serialization.h>
#include <msgpack.hpp>
-namespace jubatus{
+namespace jubatus {
typedef std::pair<std::string, int> connection_info;
View
117 src/common/util.cpp
@@ -38,8 +38,6 @@
#include <netinet/in.h>
#include <arpa/inet.h>
-#include <unistd.h>
-
#ifdef __APPLE__
#include <libproc.h>
#endif
@@ -49,28 +47,37 @@
using std::string;
using namespace pfi::lang;
-namespace jubatus { namespace util{
+namespace jubatus {
+namespace util {
+
+void get_ip(const char* nic, string& out)
+{
+ int fd;
+ struct ifreq ifr;
-void get_ip(const char* nic, string& out){
- int fd;
- struct ifreq ifr;
-
- fd = socket(AF_INET, SOCK_DGRAM, 0);
- ifr.ifr_addr.sa_family = AF_INET;
- strncpy(ifr.ifr_name, nic, IFNAMSIZ-1);
- ioctl(fd, SIOCGIFADDR, &ifr);
- close(fd);
+ fd = socket(AF_INET, SOCK_DGRAM, 0);
+ ifr.ifr_addr.sa_family = AF_INET;
+ strncpy(ifr.ifr_name, nic, IFNAMSIZ-1);
+ ioctl(fd, SIOCGIFADDR, &ifr);
+ close(fd);
- struct sockaddr_in * sin = (struct sockaddr_in*)(&(ifr.ifr_addr));
- out = inet_ntoa((struct in_addr)(sin->sin_addr));
+ struct sockaddr_in* sin = (struct sockaddr_in*)(&(ifr.ifr_addr));
+ out = inet_ntoa((struct in_addr)(sin->sin_addr));
}
-string get_ip(const char* nic){
+string get_ip(const char* nic)
+{
string ret;
get_ip(nic, ret);
return ret;
}
+string base_name(const string& path)
+{
+ size_t found = path.rfind('/');
+ return found != string::npos ? path.substr(found + 1) : path;
+}
+
std::string get_program_name()
{
// WARNING: this code will only work on linux or OS X
@@ -97,11 +104,11 @@ std::string get_program_name()
}
// get basename
- const char* last = strrchr(path, '/');
- if (!last)
+ const string program_base_name = base_name(path);
+ if (program_base_name == path)
throw JUBATUS_EXCEPTION(jubatus::exception::runtime_error(string("Failed to get program name from path: ") + path)
<< jubatus::exception::error_file_name(path));
- return std::string(last + 1);
+ return program_base_name;
}
//local server list should be like:
@@ -111,7 +118,8 @@ std::string get_program_name()
// ...
// 192.168.1.23 2345
//and must include self IP got from "eth0"
-std::string load(const std::string& file, std::vector< std::pair<std::string, int> >& s){
+std::string load(const std::string& file, std::vector< std::pair<std::string, int> >& s)
+{
std::string tmp;
std::string self;
get_ip("eth0", self);
@@ -119,20 +127,20 @@ std::string load(const std::string& file, std::vector< std::pair<std::string, in
int port;
int line = 0;
std::ifstream ifs(file.c_str());
- if(!ifs){
+ if (!ifs) {
return self;
}
- while(ifs >> tmp){
- if(self==tmp)
+ while (ifs >> tmp) {
+ if (self==tmp)
self_included = true;
- if(!(ifs >> port)){
+ if (!(ifs >> port)) {
// TODO: replace jubatus exception
throw parse_error(file, line, tmp.size(), string("input port"));
}
s.push_back(std::pair<std::string,int>(tmp, port));
line++;
}
- if(!self_included){
+ if (!self_included) {
// TODO: replace jubatus exception
throw parse_error(file, s.size(), 0, //FIXME: 0
string("self IP(eth0) not included in list"));
@@ -140,50 +148,59 @@ std::string load(const std::string& file, std::vector< std::pair<std::string, in
return self;
}
-
-int daemonize(){
+int daemonize()
+{
return daemon(0, 0);
}
-void append_env_path(const string& e, const string& argv0){
- const char * env = getenv(e.c_str());
- // char cwd[PATH_MAX];
- // getcwd(cwd, PATH_MAX);
-
+void append_env_path(const string& e, const string& argv0)
+{
+ const char* env = getenv(e.c_str());
string new_path = string(env) + ":" + argv0;
setenv(e.c_str(), new_path.c_str(), new_path.size());
}
-void append_server_path(const string& argv0){
+void append_server_path(const string& argv0)
+{
const char * env = getenv("PATH");
char cwd[PATH_MAX];
if (!getcwd(cwd, PATH_MAX)) {
throw JUBATUS_EXCEPTION(jubatus::exception::runtime_error("Failed to getcwd"))
<< jubatus::exception::error_errno(errno);
- }
-
+ }
+
string p = argv0.substr(0, argv0.find_last_of('/'));
string new_path = string(env) + ":" + cwd + "/" + p + "/../server";
setenv("PATH", new_path.c_str(), new_path.size());
}
-void get_machine_status(std::map<std::string, std::string>& ret){
- pid_t pid = getpid();
-
+void get_machine_status(machine_status_t& status)
+{
// WARNING: this code will only work on linux
- std::ostringstream fname;
- fname << "/proc/" << pid << "/statm";
- std::ifstream statm(fname.str().c_str());
-
- uint64_t vm_virt; statm >> vm_virt;
- uint64_t vm_rss; statm >> vm_rss;
- uint64_t vm_shr; statm >> vm_shr;
-
- ret["VIRT"] = pfi::lang::lexical_cast<std::string>(vm_virt);
- ret["RSS"] = pfi::lang::lexical_cast<std::string>(vm_rss);
- ret["SHR"] = pfi::lang::lexical_cast<std::string>(vm_shr);
-
+ try {
+ // /proc/[pid]/statm shows using page size
+ char path[64];
+ snprintf(path, sizeof(path), "/proc/%d/statm", getpid());
+ std::ifstream statm(path);
+
+ const long page_size = sysconf(_SC_PAGESIZE);
+ uint64_t vm_virt, vm_rss , vm_shr;
+ statm >> vm_virt >> vm_rss >> vm_shr;
+ vm_virt = vm_virt * page_size / 1024;
+ vm_rss = vm_rss * page_size / 1024;
+ vm_shr = vm_shr * page_size / 1024;
+
+ // in KB
+ status.vm_size = vm_virt; // total program size(virtual memory)
+ status.vm_resident = vm_rss; // resident set size
+ status.vm_share = vm_shr; // shared
+ } catch (...) {
+ // store zero
+ status.vm_size = 0;
+ status.vm_resident = 0;
+ status.vm_share = 0;
+ }
}
namespace {
@@ -213,7 +230,7 @@ void set_exit_on_term()
void ignore_sigpipe()
{
// portable code for socket write(2) MSG_NOSIGNAL
- if(signal(SIGPIPE, SIG_IGN) == SIG_ERR)
+ if (signal(SIGPIPE, SIG_IGN) == SIG_ERR)
throw JUBATUS_EXCEPTION(jubatus::exception::runtime_error("can't ignore SIGPIPE")
<< jubatus::exception::error_api_func("signal")
<< jubatus::exception::error_errno(errno));
View
13 src/common/util.hpp
@@ -22,11 +22,18 @@
#include <stdint.h>
-namespace jubatus{
-namespace util{
+namespace jubatus {
+namespace util {
+
+struct machine_status_t {
+ uint64_t vm_size; // VIRT
+ uint64_t vm_resident; // RSS
+ uint64_t vm_share; // SHR
+};
void get_ip(const char* nic, std::string& out);
std::string get_ip(const char* nic);
+std::string base_name(const std::string&);
std::string get_program_name();
std::string load(const std::string& file, std::vector< std::pair<std::string, int> >& s);
@@ -36,7 +43,7 @@ int daemonize();
void append_env_path(const std::string& env_, const std::string& argv0);
void append_server_path(const std::string& argv0);
-void get_machine_status(std::map<std::string, std::string>&);
+void get_machine_status(machine_status_t& status);
void set_exit_on_term();
void ignore_sigpipe();
View
14 src/common/util_test.cpp
@@ -40,6 +40,12 @@ TEST(common,util2){
ASSERT_NE(env, env2);
}
+TEST(common, base_name){
+ EXPECT_EQ("test", jubatus::util::base_name("/path/to/test"));
+ EXPECT_EQ("basename", jubatus::util::base_name("basename"));
+ EXPECT_EQ("", jubatus::util::base_name("/path/to/"));
+}
+
TEST(common,util_get_program_name){
std::string path;
EXPECT_NO_THROW({
@@ -47,3 +53,11 @@ TEST(common,util_get_program_name){
});
EXPECT_EQ(std::string("util_test"), path);
}
+
+TEST(common, util_get_machine_status)
+{
+ jubatus::util::machine_status_t status;
+ EXPECT_NO_THROW({
+ jubatus::util::get_machine_status(status);
+ });
+}
View
18 src/common/wscript
@@ -7,6 +7,19 @@ def options(opt):
def configure(conf):
conf.check_cxx(header_name = 'sys/socket.h net/if.h sys/ioctl.h', mandatory = True)
conf.check_cxx(header_name = 'netinet/in.h arpa/inet.h', mandatory = True)
+
+ # Check compiler(GCC/Clang) support atomic builtin extension
+ conf.check_cxx(fragment='''
+#include <stdint.h>
+int main() {
+ uint64_t c = 0;
+ __sync_fetch_and_add(&c, 0);
+ return 0;
+}
+''',
+ msg = 'Checking for compiler atomic builtins',
+ define_name = 'ATOMIC_I8_SUPPORT', mandatory = False)
+
conf.recurse(subdirs)
def build(bld):
@@ -19,7 +32,7 @@ def build(bld):
source = src,
target = 'jubacommon',
includes = '.',
- use = 'PFICOMMON LIBGLOG ZOOKEEPER_MT jubacommon_mprpc'
+ use = 'PFICOMMON LIBGLOG ZOOKEEPER_MT'
)
test_src = [
@@ -42,7 +55,8 @@ def build(bld):
includes = '.',
use = 'jubacommon'
)
- map(make_test, test_src)
+ for s in test_src:
+ make_test(s)
bld.install_files('${PREFIX}/include/jubatus/common/', bld.path.ant_glob('*.hpp'))
bld.recurse(subdirs)
View
467 src/common/zk.cpp
@@ -28,250 +28,279 @@ using pfi::concurrent::scoped_lock;
using std::vector;
using std::string;
-namespace jubatus{
-namespace common{
-
- zk::zk(const std::string& hosts, int timeout, const std::string& logfile):
- zh_(NULL),
- hosts_(hosts),
- logfilep_(NULL)
- {
- if(logfile != ""){
- logfilep_ = fopen(logfile.c_str(), "a+");
- if(logfilep_ == NULL){
- LOG(ERROR) << "cannot init zk logfile:" << logfile;
- throw JUBATUS_EXCEPTION(jubatus::exception::runtime_error("cannot open zk logfile")
- << jubatus::exception::error_file_name(logfile.c_str())
- << jubatus::exception::error_errno(errno)
- << jubatus::exception::error_api_func("fopen"));
- }
- zoo_set_log_stream(logfilep_);
- }
-
- zh_ = zookeeper_init(hosts.c_str(), NULL, timeout * 1000, 0, NULL, 0);
- if(!zh_){
- perror("");
- throw JUBATUS_EXCEPTION(jubatus::exception::runtime_error("cannot init zk")
- << jubatus::exception::error_api_func("zookeeper_init")
- << jubatus::exception::error_errno(errno));
- }
+namespace jubatus {
+namespace common {
- // sleep the state got not ZOO_CONNECTING_STATE
- while((state_ = zoo_state(zh_)) == ZOO_CONNECTING_STATE){
- usleep(100);
+zk::zk(const string& hosts, int timeout, const string& logfile):
+ zh_(NULL),
+ hosts_(hosts),
+ logfilep_(NULL)
+{
+ if (logfile != "") {
+ logfilep_ = fopen(logfile.c_str(), "a+");
+ if (!logfilep_) {
+ LOG(ERROR) << "cannot init zk logfile:" << logfile;
+ throw JUBATUS_EXCEPTION(jubatus::exception::runtime_error("cannot open zk logfile")
+ << jubatus::exception::error_file_name(logfile.c_str())
+ << jubatus::exception::error_errno(errno)
+ << jubatus::exception::error_api_func("fopen"));
}
+ zoo_set_log_stream(logfilep_);
+ }
- if(is_unrecoverable(zh_) == ZINVALIDSTATE){
- throw JUBATUS_EXCEPTION(jubatus::exception::runtime_error("cannot connect zk")
- << jubatus::exception::error_api_func("is_unrecoverable")
- << jubatus::exception::error_message(zerror(errno)));
- }
+ zh_ = zookeeper_init(hosts.c_str(), NULL, timeout * 1000, 0, NULL, 0);
+ if (!zh_) {
+ perror("");
+ throw JUBATUS_EXCEPTION(jubatus::exception::runtime_error("cannot init zk")
+ << jubatus::exception::error_api_func("zookeeper_init")
+ << jubatus::exception::error_errno(errno));
+ }
- zoo_set_context(zh_, this);
- zoo_set_watcher(zh_, mywatcher);
- };
+ // sleep the state got not ZOO_CONNECTING_STATE
+ while ((state_ = zoo_state(zh_)) == ZOO_CONNECTING_STATE) {
+ usleep(100);
+ }
- zk::~zk(){
- force_close();
- if(logfilep_){
- fclose(logfilep_);
- }
- };
-
- void zk::force_close(){
- zookeeper_close(zh_);
- zh_ = NULL;
+ if (is_unrecoverable(zh_) == ZINVALIDSTATE) {
+ throw JUBATUS_EXCEPTION(jubatus::exception::runtime_error("cannot connect zk")
+ << jubatus::exception::error_api_func("is_unrecoverable")
+ << jubatus::exception::error_message(zerror(errno)));
}
- void zk::create(const std::string& path, const std::string& payload, bool ephemeral){
- scoped_lock lk(m_);
- int rc = zoo_create(zh_, path.c_str(), payload.c_str(), payload.length(),
- &ZOO_OPEN_ACL_UNSAFE,
- ((ephemeral)?ZOO_EPHEMERAL:0), // | ZOO_SEQUENCE
- NULL, 0);
- if(ephemeral){
- if(rc != ZOK){
- LOG(ERROR) << path << " failed in creation:" << zerror(rc);
- throw JUBATUS_EXCEPTION(jubatus::exception::runtime_error("failed to create zk empheral node")
- << jubatus::exception::error_message(std::string("zerror: ") + zerror(rc))
- << jubatus::exception::error_api_func("zoo_create")
- << jubatus::exception::error_file_name(path));
- }
- }else{
- if(rc != ZOK && rc != ZNODEEXISTS){
- LOG(ERROR) << path << " failed in creation " << rc << " " << zerror(rc);
- }
- }
- };
-
- // "/some/path" => "/some/path0000012"
- void zk::create_seq(const std::string& path, std::string& seqfile){
- scoped_lock lk(m_);
- char path_buffer[path.size()+16];
- int rc = zoo_create(zh_, path.c_str(), NULL, 0, &ZOO_OPEN_ACL_UNSAFE,
- ZOO_EPHEMERAL|ZOO_SEQUENCE, path_buffer, path.size()+16);
- seqfile = "";
- if(rc != ZOK){
- LOG(ERROR) << path << " failed in creation - " << zerror(rc);
-
- }else{
- seqfile = path_buffer;
- }
- };
-
- uint64_t zk::create_id(const std::string& path, uint32_t prefix){
- scoped_lock lk(m_);
- struct Stat st;
- int rc = zoo_set2(zh_, path.c_str(), "dummy", 6, -1, &st);
-
- if(rc != ZOK){
- LOG(ERROR) << path << " failed on zoo_set2 " << zerror(rc);
- throw JUBATUS_EXCEPTION(jubatus::exception::runtime_error("failed create id")
- << jubatus::exception::error_message(std::string("zerror: ") + zerror(rc))
- << jubatus::exception::error_api_func("zoo_set2"));
+
+ zoo_set_context(zh_, this);
+ zoo_set_watcher(zh_, mywatcher);
+}
+
+zk::~zk()
+{
+ force_close();
+ if (logfilep_) {
+ fclose(logfilep_);
+ }
+}
+
+void zk::force_close()
+{
+ zookeeper_close(zh_);
+ zh_ = NULL;
+}
+
+
|
__label__pos
| 0.791863 |
Disclaimer: This material is being kept online for historical purposes. Though accurate at the time of publication, it is no longer being updated. The page may contain broken links or outdated information, and parts may not function in current web browsers. Visit https://espo.nasa.gov for information about our current projects.
Analysis of satellite-derived Arctic tropospheric BrO columns in conjunction...
Choi, S., Y. Wang, R. Salawitch, T. Canty, J. Joiner, T. Zeng, T. P. Kurosu, K. Chance, A. Richter, L. G. Huey, J. Liao, J. A. Neuman, J. B. Nowak, J. Dibb, A. Weinheimer, G. S. Diskin, T. B. Ryerson, A. da Silva, J. Curry, D. Kinnison, S. Tilmes, and P. F. Levelt (2012), Analysis of satellite-derived Arctic tropospheric BrO columns in conjunction with aircraft measurements during ARCTAS and ARCPAC, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 12, 1255-1285, doi:10.5194/acp-12-1255-2012.
Abstract:
We derive tropospheric column BrO during the ARCTAS and ARCPAC field campaigns in spring 2008 using retrievals of total column BrO from the satellite UV nadir sensors OMI and GOME-2 using a radiative transfer model and stratospheric column BrO from a photochemical simulation. We conduct a comprehensive comparison of satellitederived tropospheric BrO column to aircraft in-situ observations of BrO and related species. The aircraft profiles reveal that tropospheric BrO, when present during April 2008, was distributed over a broad range of altitudes rather than being confined to the planetary boundary layer (PBL). Perturbations to the total column resulting from tropospheric BrO are the same magnitude as perturbations due to longitudinal variations in the stratospheric component, so proper accounting of the stratospheric signal is essential for accurate determination of satellite-derived tropospheric BrO. We find reasonably good agreement between satellite-derived tropospheric BrO and columns found using aircraft in-situ BrO profiles, particularly when satellite radiances were obtained over bright surfaces (albedo >0.7), for solar zenith angle <80◦ and clear sky conditions. The rapid activation of BrO due to surface processes (the bromine explosion) is apparent in both the OMI and GOME-2 based tropospheric columns. The wide orbital swath of OMI allows examination of the evolution of tropospheric BrO on about hourly time intervals near the pole. Low surface pressure, strong wind, and high PBL height are associated with an observed BrO activation event, supporting the notion of bromine activation by high winds over snow.
PDF of Publication:
Download from publisher's website.
Research Program:
Tropospheric Composition Program (TCP)
Mission:
ARCTAS
|
__label__pos
| 0.714194 |
Home>Devices & Equipment>Subwoofer>How To Connect SVS Subwoofer
How To Connect SVS Subwoofer How To Connect SVS Subwoofer
Subwoofer
How To Connect SVS Subwoofer
Written by: Mignon Deel
Learn how to easily connect your SVS subwoofer to your audio system and enhance your listening experience. Discover expert tips and step-by-step instructions for setting up your subwoofer.
(Many of the links in this article redirect to a specific reviewed product. Your purchase of these products through affiliate links helps to generate commission for AudioLover.com, at no extra cost. Learn more)
Table of Contents
Introduction
A subwoofer is an essential component in any audio system, providing deep and powerful bass that can add depth and impact to your music, movies, and gaming experiences. Whether you’re a music enthusiast, a movie buff, or a gamer, connecting a subwoofer correctly is crucial to ensure optimal performance and make the most out of your audio setup.
In this guide, we will walk you through the step-by-step process of connecting an SVS subwoofer to your audio system. SVS is renowned for producing high-quality subwoofers that deliver exceptional performance and immersive bass. By following the instructions outlined in this article, you can ensure a seamless and satisfying subwoofer connection that will enhance your audio experience.
Before we dive into the steps, it’s important to note that the process may vary slightly depending on the specific model of the SVS subwoofer and the audio equipment you are using. However, the underlying principles and concepts remain the same, so you can adapt the instructions accordingly.
Without further ado, let’s get started and learn how to connect your SVS subwoofer for optimal audio performance!
Step 1: Determine the Connection Method
The first step in connecting your SVS subwoofer is to determine the appropriate connection method based on your audio system setup. There are two common ways to connect a subwoofer: using a dedicated subwoofer output (also known as LFE or Low-Frequency Effects) or using the speaker-level inputs.
If your audio receiver or amplifier has a dedicated subwoofer output, usually labeled as “Sub Out” or “LFE Out,” it is recommended to use this method. This connection method allows for a direct and optimized signal transfer from your receiver or amplifier to the subwoofer, ensuring accurate bass reproduction and seamless integration with your speakers.
On the other hand, if your receiver or amplifier does not have a dedicated subwoofer output, you can use the speaker-level inputs on the back of the SVS subwoofer. This method involves connecting the subwoofer to your amplifier using speaker wire. While this method may require a bit more setup, it provides flexibility in integrating the subwoofer into your existing audio system.
It’s essential to consult the user manual of your SVS subwoofer and the documentation of your receiver or amplifier to determine the recommended connection method and to ensure compatibility between the subwoofer and your audio equipment.
Once you have identified the appropriate connection method for your setup, you can proceed to gather the necessary cables and equipment for the connection process.
Step 2: Gather Necessary Cables and Equipment
Before you can connect your SVS subwoofer, you’ll need to gather the necessary cables and equipment. The specific items you’ll need will depend on the connection method you determined in Step 1. Here are the common cables and equipment you might need:
• Subwoofer Cable: If you’re using the dedicated subwoofer output on your receiver or amplifier, you’ll need a subwoofer cable. This is a specialized cable that carries the low-frequency signal from the receiver or amplifier to the subwoofer. Subwoofer cables typically have RCA connectors at one or both ends.
• Speaker Wire: If you’re using the speaker-level inputs on your SVS subwoofer, you’ll need speaker wire to connect the subwoofer to your amplifier or receiver. Ensure that the speaker wire is of adequate length and gauge to reach your subwoofer without any strain.
• Power Cord: Every SVS subwoofer comes with a power cord. Make sure you have the power cord that came with your subwoofer, as using a different power cord may not provide the correct power supply and could potentially damage the subwoofer.
• Allen Wrench or Screwdriver: Some SVS subwoofers may require the use of an Allen wrench or screwdriver to secure the connections or adjust certain settings. Refer to your subwoofer’s user manual to determine if any tools are necessary.
Double-check your equipment and ensure that you have all the necessary cables and tools before moving on to the next step. Having everything on hand will make the connection process smoother and more efficient.
Step 3: Connect the Subwoofer to the Receiver or Amplifier
Now that you have gathered all the necessary cables and equipment, it’s time to connect your SVS subwoofer to the receiver or amplifier. Follow these steps:
1. Locate the subwoofer output on your receiver or amplifier. It is typically labeled as “Sub Out” or “LFE Out.” If you’re using the speaker-level inputs, identify the speaker outputs on your amplifier.
2. If you’re using a subwoofer cable, connect one end to the subwoofer output on your receiver or amplifier. If you’re using speaker wire, strip about 1/2 inch of insulation from the ends of the wire.
3. For a subwoofer cable connection, connect the other end to the “Sub In” or “LFE In” port on your SVS subwoofer. Ensure a secure connection by firmly tightening the connector.
4. If you’re using speaker wire, twist the exposed ends of the wire strands to prevent fraying. Then, connect the positive (+) and negative (-) ends of the speaker wire to the corresponding speaker-level inputs on the back of the SVS subwoofer. Again, make sure the connections are secure.
5. If your SVS subwoofer has both subwoofer cable and speaker wire inputs, choose the connection method that aligns with your setup and ignore the unused input ports.
6. Double-check all the connections to ensure they are secure and properly seated.
Once the subwoofer is connected to the receiver or amplifier, you are one step closer to enjoying the powerful bass performance of your SVS subwoofer. The next step involves adjusting the subwoofer settings to optimize its performance in your audio system.
Step 4: Adjust Subwoofer Settings
After connecting your SVS subwoofer to the receiver or amplifier, it’s important to adjust the subwoofer settings to achieve the best possible audio performance. Here are some key settings to consider:
• Volume/Gain: Adjust the volume or gain control on the subwoofer to set the desired bass level. Start with a conservative setting and gradually increase the volume to avoid overpowering the other speakers in your system.
• Crossover Frequency: The crossover frequency determines at what point the subwoofer takes over the reproduction of low frequencies from the main speakers. Set the crossover frequency according to the capabilities of your main speakers and the specifications of your subwoofer. A common starting point is around 80Hz.
• Phase: The phase control adjusts the timing between the subwoofer and the main speakers. Experiment with different phase settings to find the one that produces the most coherent and integrated sound. Typically, a phase setting of 0 degrees works well, but this may vary depending on your specific setup.
• EQ Settings: Some SVS subwoofers come with built-in EQ settings that allow you to fine-tune the bass response based on your room acoustics. If available, consult the user manual for guidance on using these EQ options and experiment with different settings to achieve optimal bass performance.
Refer to the user manual of your SVS subwoofer to locate and adjust these settings. Take your time to make incremental adjustments and listen to familiar audio content to assess the impact of each change. Trust your ears and make adjustments that result in a well-balanced and immersive audio experience.
Remember, the room acoustics and your personal preferences play a significant role in setting up the subwoofer. Don’t hesitate to experiment and make adjustments until you achieve the desired sound.
With the subwoofer settings optimized, you’re ready to move on to the final step: testing and fine-tuning the connection to ensure everything is working as expected.
Step 5: Test and Fine-Tune the Connection
Now that you have connected and adjusted your SVS subwoofer, it’s time to put it to the test and make any necessary fine-tuning adjustments. Follow these steps to ensure everything is working as expected:
1. Play audio content that includes a wide range of frequencies, such as music tracks or movie scenes with significant bass elements.
2. Listen carefully and evaluate the bass performance. Pay attention to the balance between the subwoofer and the main speakers, ensuring that the bass is integrated and enhanced rather than overpowering or lacking in impact.
3. If the bass sounds too boomy or overwhelming, consider lowering the subwoofer volume or gain. Conversely, if the bass is weak or not sufficiently present, increase the volume or gain to find the desired balance.
4. Check if the crossover frequency is appropriate for your setup. If the transition between the subwoofer and main speakers is noticeable or lacking coherence, try adjusting the crossover frequency up or down in small increments until a seamless blend is achieved.
5. Continue to fine-tune other settings, such as phase and EQ, based on your listening preferences and room acoustics. Make subtle adjustments, taking note of the impact on the overall sound quality to achieve the desired balance and immersion.
6. Periodically revisit the settings as you become familiar with your subwoofer’s performance in your specific listening environment. Adjustments may be necessary as you encounter different media or make changes to your audio system.
Remember to be patient and take the time to listen critically to various audio sources. Fine-tuning the connection ensures that your SVS subwoofer complements your existing speakers and delivers the immersive and impactful bass performance that enhances your audio experience.
Congratulations! You have successfully connected, adjusted, and tested your SVS subwoofer. Now sit back, relax, and enjoy the enriched audio experience that a well-integrated subwoofer brings to your music, movies, and games.
Conclusion
Connecting an SVS subwoofer to your audio system is a straightforward process that can greatly enhance your overall audio experience. By following the steps outlined in this guide, you can ensure a proper and optimized connection that maximizes the potential of your SVS subwoofer.
We started by determining the connection method based on your audio system setup, whether using a dedicated subwoofer output or the speaker-level inputs. Then, we gathered the necessary cables and equipment to complete the connection.
Next, we walked through the process of connecting the SVS subwoofer to the receiver or amplifier, ensuring secure and proper connections. After that, we focused on adjusting the subwoofer settings, such as volume/gain, crossover frequency, phase, and EQ, to achieve the desired bass performance.
Finally, we emphasized the importance of testing and fine-tuning the connection, actively listening to audio content and making adjustments as needed to optimize the integration of the subwoofer with the main speakers.
Remember, every audio system and room is unique, so it may take some time and experimentation to find the perfect settings for your setup. Trust your ears and make adjustments that result in a well-balanced and immersive audio experience.
With your SVS subwoofer correctly connected and fine-tuned, you can now enjoy the deep, powerful, and impactful bass that adds a new dimension to your favorite music, movies, and games.
So, go ahead, turn up the volume, and immerse yourself in a whole new audio experience with your SVS subwoofer!
Related Post
|
__label__pos
| 0.992443 |
Deploys
Please note that these sections only apply to stack 1 users. All new users should refer to the runs documentation
Get a deploy
Get the details of a single deploy.
GET /api/v3/deploys/:deploy
Response
Status: 200 OK
{
"build": {
"status": "finished",
"startedAt": "2015-04-24T14:15:36.967Z",
"id": "553a50021f74af18460a6719",
"url": "https://app.wercker.com/api/v3/builds/553a50021f74af18460a6719",
"branch": "api_docs",
"createdAt": "2015-04-24T14:15:30.593Z",
"finishedAt": "2015-04-24T14:18:22.784Z",
"message": "api to API",
"progress": 100,
"result": "passed"
},
"application": {
"stack": 5,
"privacy": "public",
"createdAt": "2015-01-28T17:04:09.851Z",
"owner": {
"meta": {
"werckerEmployee": false,
"username": "wercker"
},
"userId": "55310d295732ce8a41000054",
"avatar": {
"gravatar": "33a5bfbcf8a2b90f40e849b6f1fa5eeb"
},
"name": "wercker",
"type": "wercker"
},
"name": "docs",
"url": "https://app.wercker.com/api/v3/applications/wercker/docs",
"id": "54c9168980c7075225004157"
},
"progress": 100,
"createdAt": "2015-04-24T15:50:11.815Z",
"result": "passed",
"status": "finished",
"url": "https://app.wercker.com/api/v3/deploys/553a663345c9abc823002085",
"id": "553a663345c9abc823002085"
}
|
__label__pos
| 0.7226 |
SPC-Software
Data cleansing plays a crucial role in ensuring the accuracy and reliability of data. In today’s data-driven world, organizations require effective tools to clean and maintain data quality. In this article, we will explore some of the top tools for data cleansing. These tools include data profiling and analysis tools, automated data cleaning software, data validation and verification solutions, duplicate data detection and removal tools, and data quality monitoring and reporting platforms. By utilizing these tools, organizations can optimize their data quality and make well-informed business decisions.
Key Takeaways
Data cleansing is an essential task for maintaining the accuracy and reliability of data. In today’s data-driven world, organizations need effective tools to ensure data quality. In this article, we will explore some of the best tools available for data cleansing. These tools include data profiling and analysis tools, automated data cleaning software, data validation and verification solutions, duplicate data detection and removal tools, and data quality monitoring and reporting platforms. By using these tools, organizations can optimize their data quality and make well-informed business decisions.
Data Profiling and Analysis Tools
Data profiling and analysis tools offer valuable insights into the quality and characteristics of data, helping organizations make informed decisions about data cleansing processes. These tools use various techniques to assess data quality, identifying and analyzing anomalies, inconsistencies, and errors. By understanding the state of the data, organizations can implement best practices for data cleansing to enhance data quality and integrity.
A key function of data profiling and analysis tools is to evaluate the completeness and accuracy of data. They examine the data to spot missing values, outliers, and duplicate records, enabling organizations to gain a comprehensive understanding of their data’s overall quality. Additionally, these tools analyze the structure and format of the data, ensuring it adheres to predefined standards and guidelines.
Moreover, data profiling and analysis tools help organizations uncover patterns and relationships within the data. By examining the distribution and frequencies of values, these tools assist in identifying potential data quality issues, such as inconsistent formats or invalid values. This insight allows organizations to prioritize their data cleansing efforts and establish effective strategies for improving data quality.
Automated Data Cleaning Software
When it comes to data profiling and analysis tools, an important aspect of data cleansing processes is the use of automated data cleaning software. These tools are designed to automate the identification and correction of errors, inconsistencies, and inaccuracies in datasets.
One of the key advantages of using automated data cleaning software is its ability to efficiently handle large volumes of data. These tools utilize advanced data cleaning algorithms that can quickly identify and fix common data quality issues such as missing values, duplicate records, and formatting errors. By automating the data cleaning process, organizations can save significant time and resources compared to manual data cleansing techniques.
Automated data cleaning software also helps improve the accuracy and reliability of data by minimizing human error. Manual data cleansing techniques are often prone to mistakes due to the complexity and volume of data. In contrast, automated tools apply consistent rules and algorithms to clean and standardize the data, ensuring a higher level of data quality and integrity.
Moreover, automated data cleaning software enables organizations to establish standardized data cleaning workflows and processes. These tools allow for the creation of reusable data cleaning rules and procedures, ensuring consistency and efficiency across different datasets and projects.
Data Validation and Verification Solutions
One effective way to ensure the quality of data during the data cleansing process is by using data validation and verification solutions. Data validation techniques are used to check the accuracy and integrity of the data, while data verification solutions ensure that the data meets specific criteria or standards. These solutions are crucial in identifying and correcting errors, inconsistencies, and inaccuracies in the data.
During the data cleansing process, there are various techniques that can be employed for data validation. These techniques include checking for missing values, validating data types, ensuring data consistency, and detecting outliers. By utilizing these techniques, organizations can ensure that the data used for analysis or decision-making is reliable and accurate.
On the other hand, data verification solutions focus on verifying the accuracy and completeness of the data. These solutions involve comparing the data against predefined rules or standards to identify any discrepancies. They may also involve cross-referencing the data with external sources or conducting manual checks to validate the information.
Integrating data validation and verification solutions into data cleansing strategies is essential for maintaining data integrity. By implementing these solutions, organizations can improve the quality of their data, minimize errors, and make more informed decisions based on reliable information.
Duplicate Data Detection and Removal Tools
To effectively address the issue of duplicate data during the data cleansing process, organizations can use advanced tools for detecting and removing duplicate data. These tools employ techniques such as data deduplication and fuzzy matching algorithms to identify and eliminate duplicate records from databases.
Data deduplication techniques involve comparing data sets and identifying duplicate entries based on specific criteria, such as names, addresses, or unique identifiers. By utilizing these techniques, organizations can quickly identify and remove duplicate records, ensuring data accuracy and consistency.
Fuzzy matching algorithms, on the other hand, are designed to identify similar or partially matching records. These algorithms use advanced pattern recognition and similarity scoring methods to detect records that may have slight variations or spelling errors. By applying fuzzy matching algorithms, organizations can detect and eliminate duplicate records that may have been missed by traditional matching techniques.
There are several tools available in the market that utilize these data deduplication techniques and fuzzy matching algorithms for duplicate data detection and removal. These tools provide user-friendly interfaces, allowing users to specify matching criteria and define data cleansing rules. They also offer features like automatic merging of duplicate records and the ability to review and resolve potential matches manually.
Data Quality Monitoring and Reporting Platforms
Data quality monitoring and reporting platforms play a crucial role in maintaining the accuracy and consistency of data during the data cleansing process. These platforms provide organizations with the necessary tools to monitor and track the quality of their data, ensuring that any issues or errors are identified and addressed promptly.
One of the key features of data quality monitoring and reporting platforms is their ability to detect and flag data anomalies or inconsistencies. By monitoring data in real-time, these platforms can identify any discrepancies or errors that may occur during the data cleansing process. This allows organizations to take immediate action to rectify the issues and ensure that the data remains accurate and reliable.
Additionally, data quality monitoring and reporting platforms also provide valuable insights and reports on the overall health of an organization’s data. This includes information on data completeness and accuracy, as well as any trends or patterns that may arise. These insights can help organizations identify areas for improvement and optimize their data enrichment strategies.
Furthermore, data governance frameworks can be integrated into these platforms to ensure that data quality standards and policies are consistently applied across the organization. This helps to maintain data integrity and compliance with regulatory requirements.
SPC-Software
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next up previous
Next: Energy spreading periodic driving Up: Review of classical dissipation Previous: Adiabatic invariance of phase-space
Energy spreading--constant velocity case
We now derive the next-order correction to the adiabatic limit, namely spreading in energy (or equivalently in $\Omega$), which causes the irreversible heating. This was first found by Ott [153] using `multiple-time-scale analysis'. To derive the spreading rate, we now assume constant parameter velocity $x = Vt$ over a time interval long enough to establish diffusive behaviour (following [47,46]). The longer-time evolution for a general $x(t)$ can then be built from these short constant-velocity segments.
For any given particle trajectory $({\mathbf q}(t),{\mathbf p}(t))$ (ensemble member launched at $({\mathbf q_0},{\mathbf p_0})$ at $t=0$) there is an associated stochastic time-dependent `force' $-\frac{\partial \mathcal{H}}{\partial x}({\mathbf q}(t),{\mathbf p}(t),x(t))$ on the parameter $x$. The time-dependence arises from that of the trajectory. In the billiard case, this is simply the impulses the particle exerts on the deforming part of the wall. We extract the fluctuation of this quantity about its average (which from (2.3) is just the conservative force $F(x)$), giving the definition
\begin{displaymath}
{\mathcal{F}}(t)
\; \equiv \;
-\frac{\partial \mathcal{H}...
...tial x}({\mathbf q}(t),{\mathbf p}(t),x(t))
\; - \; F(x(t)) .
\end{displaymath} (2.6)
The external work done in changing the parameter from 0 to $x$ can be found by integrating force over distance to give $Q = - \int_0^x dx' [ {\mathcal{F}}(t(x')) + F(x') ]$, which must be converted to an increase in the particle energy. Writing this as a time integral, the particle's energy difference at time $t$ from the adiabatic value $E(x(t))$ is
\begin{displaymath}
{\mathcal{H}}(t) - E(x(t)) = - V \; \int_0^t dt_1 {\mathcal{F}}(t_1).
\end{displaymath} (2.7)
Now ${\mathcal{F}}(t)$ has a finite correlation time $\tau_{{\mbox{\tiny cl}}}$ which is similar to or less than the ergodic time. For $t \gg \tau_{{\mbox{\tiny cl}}}$ then the above expression is simply the final energy change resulting from a `random walk' of step size $\sim \tau_{{\mbox{\tiny cl}}}$. Squaring this and taking a microcanonical average (at energy $E$) gives the energy variance
$\displaystyle \langle [ {\mathcal{H}}(t) - E(x(t)) ]^2 \rangle_{{\mbox{\tiny E}}}
\;$ $\textstyle =\;$ $\displaystyle V^2 \, \int_0^t \int_0^t dt_1 dt_2 \;
\langle {\mathcal{F}}(t_1) {\mathcal{F}}(t_2) \rangle_{{\mbox{\tiny E}}}$ (2.8)
$\textstyle \approx$ $\displaystyle 2 D_{{\mbox{\tiny E}}} \cdot t
\hspace{0.5in} \mbox{for} \; t \gg \tau_{{\mbox{\tiny cl}}}.$ (2.9)
This last approximation is good for $t \gg \tau_{{\mbox{\tiny cl}}}$, where the double integral grows linearly in $t$ (with fractional error from linearity dying like $\tau_{{\mbox{\tiny cl}}}/ t$). This is simply the variance of a random walk growing linearly in time. It can also be shown using a transform of variables to $t' = (t_2+t_1)/2$ and $\tau = t_2-t_1$, with the range of $t'$ being $[0,t]$, and the range of $\tau$ can be taken to $[-\infty,\infty]$, as illustrated in Fig. 2.2a. We will write $D_{{\mbox{\tiny E}}}$ in terms of $C_{{\mbox{\tiny E}}}(\tau)$, the autocorrelation function of the fluctuating force. $C_{{\mbox{\tiny E}}}(\tau)$ depends on both the classical motion at energy $E$ and on the particular deformation chosen, and is defined by
$\displaystyle C_{{\mbox{\tiny E}}}(\tau) \;$ $\textstyle \equiv \;$ $\displaystyle \langle {\mathcal{F}}(0) {\mathcal{F}}(\tau) \rangle_{{\mbox{\tiny E}}}$ (2.10)
$\textstyle =$ $\displaystyle \langle {\mathcal{F}}(t') {\mathcal{F}}(t' + \tau) \rangle_{{\mbox{\tiny E}}} ,
\hspace{0.5in} 0 < t' < t$ (2.11)
where the second equality states the assumption that the autocorrelation does not change over the timescale $t$. This latter condition restricts $Vt$ to be much smaller than $\delta x_c^{cl}$, the parametric change which changes the classical Hamiltonian (and hence the statistical properties of the system) significantly. In combination with the limit $t \gg \tau_{{\mbox{\tiny cl}}}$, this gives
\begin{displaymath}
V \; \ll \; \delta x_c^{cl} / \tau_{{\mbox{\tiny cl}}}
\end{displaymath} (2.12)
(this is the `trivial slowness condition' of Cohen [46]).
We now have established diffusive energy spreading with a rate (given by substitution of (2.10) into (2.8)) of
\begin{displaymath}
D_{{\mbox{\tiny E}}} \; = \; \mbox{\small$\frac{1}{2}$}\nu_{{\mbox{\tiny E}}}V^2
\end{displaymath} (2.13)
where $\nu_{{\mbox{\tiny E}}}$ is the (zero-frequency) ``noise intensity'' of the fluctuating force, equal to the first moment of the autocorrelation function:
\begin{displaymath}
\nu_{{\mbox{\tiny E}}}\; \equiv \; \int_{-\infty}^\infty d\...
...tau)
\; \equiv \;
\tilde{C}_{{\mbox{\tiny E}}}(\omega = 0) .
\end{displaymath} (2.14)
The correlation power spectrum or spectral density of ${\mathcal{F}}(t)$ is called $\tilde{C}_{{\mbox{\tiny E}}}(\omega)$, and is the fourier transform of the autocorrelation function. I use the convention
\begin{displaymath}
\tilde{C}_{{\mbox{\tiny E}}}(\omega)\; \equiv \;
\int_{-\...
...y}^\infty C_{{\mbox{\tiny E}}}(\tau) e^{i \omega \tau} d\tau .
\end{displaymath} (2.15)
Now that diffusion is established for short time-steps $t$, the evolution over longer times with a general $x(t)$ can be composed of independent diffusive steps each operating on the probability distribution $\rho (E,t)$ given by the previous step. This `memory-less' stochastic approximation is called Markovian [79]. Note that, in this picture, if $x(t)$ ever becomes comparable to $\delta x_c^{cl}$ then the diffusion rate should be treated as parameter-dependent $D_{{\mbox{\tiny E}}}(x(t))$.
Figure: a) Plot of the microcanonical average of ${\mathcal{F}}(t_1){\mathcal{F}}(t_2)$, showing how its double integral (Eq. 2.8) from time 0 to $t$ can be rewritten as $t$ times the first moment of the autocorrelation function $C_{{\mbox{\tiny E}}}(\tau)$. $C(\tau)$ itself is shown shaded, and it is significant only for $\vert\tau\vert<\tau_{{\mbox{\tiny cl}}}$. b) Evolution of $\rho (E,t)$ (shaded) showing drift and diffusion. Energy-dependence of both the diffusion constant and the density of states causes an asymmetric distribution, and additional drift. This causes the centroid $\langle E \rangle$ (shown by black dot) to be become higher than the adiabatic value $E(x(t))$ (shown by dashed line). This drift never becomes larger than the width due to spreading.
\begin{figure}\centerline{\epsfig{figure=fig_review/spread.eps,width=0.9\hsize}}\end{figure}
next up previous
Next: Energy spreading periodic driving Up: Review of classical dissipation Previous: Adiabatic invariance of phase-space
Alex Barnett 2001-10-03
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Sample Quiz Answers
For Chapter 6
THIS PAGE CONTAINS SAMPLE ANSWERS to the Quiz on Chapter 6 of this on-line Java textbook. Note that in many cases, there are lots of correct answers to a given question.
Question 1: Programs written for a graphical user interface have to deal with "events." Explain what is meant by the term event. Give at least two different examples of events, and discuss how a program might respond to those events.
Answer: An event is anything that can occur asynchronously, not under the control of the program, to which the program might want to respond. GUI programs are said to be "event-driven" because for the most part, such programs simply wait for events and respond to them when they occur. In many (but not all) cases, an event is the result of a user action, such as when the user clicks the mouse button, types a character, or clicks a button. The program might respond to a mouse-click on a canvas by drawing a shape, to a typed character by adding the character to an input box, or to a click on a button by clearing a drawing. More generally, a programmer can set up any desired response to an event by writing an event-handling routine for that event.
Question 2: What is an event loop?
Answer: An event-driven program doesn't have a main() routine that says what will happen from beginning to end, in a step-by-step fashion. Instead, the program runs in a loop that says:
while the program is still running:
Wait for the next event
Process the event
This is called an event loop. In Java, the event loop is executed by the system. The system waits for events to happen. When an event occurs, the system calls a routine that has been designated to handle events of that type.
Question 3: Explain carefully what the repaint() method does.
Answer: The repaint() method is called to notify the system that the applet (or other component for which it is called) needs to be redrawn. It does not itself do any drawing (neither directly nor by calling a paint() or paintComponent() routine). You should call repaint() when you have made some change to the state of the applet that requires its appearance to change. Sometime shortly after you call it, the system will call the applet's paint() routine or the component's paintComponent() routine.
Question 4: What is HTML?
Answer: HTML, or HyperText Markup Language, is a language that is used for writing Web pages. A HTML document contains all the text on a Web page, "marked up" with "tags" that determine how the text looks -- its size and color and how it is broken into paragraphs, for example. Other tags can include things like horizontal lines, images, links, and applets on the page. A Web browser acts as an interpreter for the HTML language.
Question 5: Draw the picture that will be produced by the following paint() method:
public static void paint(Graphics g) {
for (int i=10; i <= 210; i = i + 50)
for (int j = 10; j <= 210; j = j + 50)
g.drawLine(i,10,j,60);
}
Answer: The outer loop is executed for values of i equal to 10, 60, 110, 160, and 210. For each of these values, the inner loop is executed for j equal to 10, 60, 110, 160, and 210. The drawLine command is therefore executed 25 times -- and so, 25 different lines are drawn. These lines connect the five points (10,10), (60,10), (110,10), (160,10), and (210,10) to the five points (10,60), (60,60), (110,60), (160,60), and (210,60) in all possible pairings. Here is the picture:
(25 criss-crossed lines)
Question 6: Suppose you would like an applet that displays a green square inside a red circle, as illustrated. Write a paint() method that will draw the image.
(Picture of Circle in Square)
Answer:(The size of the square and circle are not specified in the problem, so any size would be acceptable, as long as the square is in the middle of the circle. Notice that the drawing commands are fillOval and fillRect. There are no special routines for drawing circles or squares.)
public void paint(Graphics g) {
g.setColor(Color.red);
g.fillOval(10,10,80,80);
g.setColor(Color.green);
g.fillRect(30,30,40,40);
}
Question 7: Suppose that you are writing an applet, and you want the applet to respond in some way when the user clicks the mouse on the applet. What are the four things you need to remember to put into the source code of your applet?
Answer: (1) Since the event and listener classes are defined in the java.awt.event package, you have to put "import java.awt.event.*;" at the beginning of the source code, before the class definition.
(2) The applet class must be declared to implement the MouseListener interface, by adding the words "implements MouseListener" to the heading. For example: "public class MyApplet extends JApplet implements MouseListener". (It is also possible for another object besides the applet to listen for the mouse events.)
(3) The class must include definitions for each of the five methods specified in the MouseListener interface. Even if a method is not going to do anything, it has to be defined, with an empty body.
(4) The applet (or other listening object) must be registered to listen for mouse events by calling addMouseListener(). This is usually done in the init() method of the applet.
Question 8: Java has a standard class called MouseEvent. What is the purpose of this class? What does an object of type MouseEvent do?
Answer: When an event occurs, the system packages information about the event into an object. That object is passed as a parameter to the event-handling routine. Different types of events are represented by different classes of objects. An object of type MouseEvent represents a mouse or mouse motion event. It contains information about the location of the mouse cursor and any modifier keys that the user is holding down. This information can be obtained by calling the instance methods of the object. For example, if evt is a MouseEvent object, then evt.getX() is the x-coordinate of the mouse cursor, and evt.isShiftDown() is a boolean value that tells you whether the user was holding down the Shift key.
Question 9: Explain what is meant by input focus. How is the input focus managed in a Java GUI program?
Answer: When the user uses the keyboard, the events that are generated are directed to some component. At a given time, there is just one component that can get keyboard events. That component is said to have the input focus. Usually, the appearance of a component changes if it has the input focus and wants to receive user input from the keyboard. For example, there might be a blinking text cursor in the component, or the component might be hilited with a colored border. In order to change its appearance in this way, the component needs to be notified when it gains or loses the focus. In Java, a component gets this notification by listening for focus events.
Some components, including applets and canvasses, do not get the input focus unless they request it by calling requestFocus(). If one of these components needs to process keyboard events, it should also listen for mouse events and call requestFocus() when the user clicks on the component. (Unfortunately, this rule is not enforced uniformly on all platforms.)
Question 10: Java has a standard class called JPanel. Discuss two ways in which JPanels can be used.
Answer: A JPanel is a type of component. That is, it is a visible element of a GUI. By itself, a JPanel is simply a blank rectangular region on the screen. However, a JPanel is a "container", which means that other components can be added to it and will then appear on the screen inside the JPanel. A JPanel can also be used as a drawing surface. In order to do this, it is necessary to create a subclass of JPanel and define a paintComponent() method in that subclass. An object belonging to that subclass can then be added to an applet or other component. The paintComponent() method defines how that object will draw itself on the screen.
[ Chapter Index | Main Index ]
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We gratefully acknowledge support from
the Simons Foundation and member institutions.
Full-text links:
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Mathematics > Number Theory
Title: Variance estimates in Linnik's problem
Authors: Andrei Shubin
Abstract: We evaluate the variance of the number of lattice points in a small randomly rotated spherical ball on a surface of 3-dimensional sphere centered at the origin. Previously, Bourgain, Rudnick, and Sarnak showed conditionally on the Generalized Lindel\"of Hypothesis that the variance is bounded from above by $\sigma(\Omega_n){N_n}^{1+\varepsilon}$, where $\sigma(\Omega_n)$ is the area of the ball $\Omega_n$ on the unit sphere, $N_n$ is the total number of solutions of Diophantine equation $x^2 + y^2 + z^2 = n$. Assuming the Grand Riemann Hypothesis and using the moments method of Soundararajan and Harper, we establish the upper bound of the form $c\sigma(\Omega_n) N_n$, where $c$ is an absolute constant. This bound is of the conjectured order of magnitude.
Comments: 48 pages
Subjects: Number Theory (math.NT)
Cite as: arXiv:2108.00726 [math.NT]
(or arXiv:2108.00726v2 [math.NT] for this version)
Submission history
From: Andrei Shubin [view email]
[v1] Mon, 2 Aug 2021 08:52:29 GMT (21kb)
[v2] Fri, 29 Jul 2022 19:09:25 GMT (25kb)
Link back to: arXiv, form interface, contact.
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Nokia Asha 303 - Personalise your phone tones
Personalise your phone tones
You can personalise the ringtones and key and warning tones for each profile.
Select Menu > Settings and Tones.
Change the ringtone
Select Ringtone:, then select a ringtone from Gallery or from your downloaded tones.
Tip: Download more ringtones from Nokia Store. To learn more about Nokia Store, go to www.nokia.com/support.
After selecting a ringtone, you can mark a section of the ringtone, and set the section as your ringtone. The original ringtone or sound clip is not copied or modified. Preset ringtones cannot be modified, and not all formats of ringtones are supported.
Mark the section to use
1. Select a ringtone. When prompted, select Yes.
2. Drag the start marker to the start point.
3. Drag the end marker to the end point.
When a marker is moved to a new point, the selection plays.
4. To manually play the selection, select Play.
5. Select Done.
Tip: To fine-tune the start and end points of the selection, select Start marker icon or End marker icon, and select and hold Left arrow icon or Right arrow icon.
Change the volume of the keypad tones
Select Keypad tones:, and drag the volume bar.
|
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Patterning within Amphiphilic Self-Assemblies using Charge, Curvature, and Crystallinity
Dennis Discher, Randy Kamien, Michael Klein, Paul Janmey and Andrea Liu
Functional_Cylinders_aDesign & engineering of modern devices increasingly requires complex nano- and micro-structures. One area of research now showing promise for creating such structures through simple solution techniques involves the assembly of amphiphilic molecules, i.e., molecules containing both oily and water-loving parts. Structures formed include cylinder-shaped micelles & cell mimetic membranes. By mixing together anionic and neutral polymer amphiphiles with divalent cations such as calcium, domains can be made within these assemblies. Various levels of simulation and calculations elucidate their properties as well as mechanisms of domain formation.
The crystallization processes are sensitive to conditions such as curvature in the assemblies. For example, a crystallizable chain within a block copolymer amphiphile couples curvature to crystallization and thereby impacts rigidity & the shape of an assembly. We address these issues with simple, novel block copolymers that self-assemble in water to aggregates whose dynamics can be visualized and characterized by optical microscopy.
Functional Cylinders b
|
__label__pos
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Replace matching characters of a String in Swift
In this Swift programming tutorial, you are going to learn how to replace each matching occurrence of the old character or substring in the string with the new character or substring.
In Swift, we can use the replacingOccurrences(of:with:) method that can help us to replace the old string and return a new string with the specified characters replaced with the provided characters.
The replacingOccurrences() method is part of the Foundation library. hence, we have to import this library to work with this method.
Below is an example of replacing characters of a string using the replacingOccurrences():
import Foundation
var originalString = "This should be a slug"
var newString = originalString.replacingOccurrences(of: " ",with: "+")
print(newString)
Output:
This+should+be+a+slug
In the above code, we are replacing all the whitespace (” “) with “+”. The code replaces all the whitespaces with our provided “+” sign.
Now see another example where we are replacing a specific substring using the same method:
import Foundation
var originalString = "I Love Python programming"
var newString = originalString.replacingOccurrences(of: "Python",with: "Swift")
print(newString)
Output:
I Love Swift programming
As you can see from the output of each example, we have successfully able to replace a specific character or substring using the Swift replacingOccurrences() method.
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| 0.999971 |
How to perform url encoding in phpThe PHP URL encoding can be carried out by using the urlencode() function. So now, you don’t need to worry about the invalid characters present in the URLs. In this post, you’ll be educated regarding the urlencode() function, its use, the way it works, and some other encoding functions.
Keep reading to see how you can encode a URL in PHP and stay away from unexpected failures or issues.
How To Perform URL Encoding in PHP?
The PHP URL encode function can be used for encoding URLs. All you have to do is to pass the required string to the PHP URL encode function to get it encoded. The said function encodes all the special characters in the given string except for the “-”,”.”, and “_” characters.
Thus, you don’t need to manually check if the characters in your URL are valid URL characters in the presence of the given function. The stated function replaces every non-alphanumeric character with a combo of percent sign “%” and two hex digits like “%xx.” Also, you’ll notice that all the spaces will be replaced with the plus “+” symbols in the encoded URLs.
Here is the simplest syntax of the amazing URL encoding function: urlencode(string).
– Encoding Example
For instance, you want to encode a URL that contains some invalid URL characters. Therefore, you’ll pick up the same URL, pass it to the urlencode() function, and get a URL that contains only valid URL characters.
Please feel free to use the below code snippet to encode a URL in PHP:
<?php
// defining an input string
$input = “<<768FD#%^”;
// using the urlencode() function
echo “https://www.sampleurl.com?username=” . urlencode($input);
?>
The encoded URL will be seen like this on the screen:
https://www.sampleurl.com?username=%3C%3C768FD%23%25%5E
How To Encode By Following RFC 3986?
You can use the rawurlencode() function for PHP URL encoding while following RFC 3986. The mentioned function accepts a string argument similar to the urlencode() function. It replaces all non-alphanumeric characters except .,-,_, and ~ with a percent sign “%” and two hex digits like “%xx”.
You can refer to the syntax here: rawurlencode(string).
– Coding Solution Using Rawurlencode()
Try to think about having a string that you want to encode according to the RFC 3986 rules. So, you’ll execute the rawurlencode() function with the specified string and PHP encode string instantly.
Here is a coding fragment that uses the rawurlencode() function for PHP URL encoding:
<?php
// defining the name string
$name = “abc&%mm lkjop”;
// using the rawurlencode() function
echo “https://www.newurl.com?name=” . urlencode($name);
// output: https://www.newurl.com?name=abc%26%25mm+lkjop
?>
How to Use Htmlentities() Function
The htmlentities() function also helps in encoding the query strings in the URLs. The said function converts all the HTML character entities present in the string passed to it. It accepts a string, flags, encoding, and double_encode arguments. But only a string is required to execute the given function.
You can see the syntax of the htmlentities() here: htmlentities(string, flags, encoding, double_codes).
– Coding Example Using Htmlentities() Parameters
The first parameter of the htmlentities() function takes up the string to be encoded. The second parameter “flags” lets you decide the way you want to handle the invalid code unit sequences and quotes. Moreover, the same parameter allows you to deal with the document type being used.
Note that the default value for the flags parameter is set to ENT_QUOTES | ENT_SUBSTITUTE | ENT_HTML401 in PHP >= 8.1.0 and ENT_COMPAT in the previous versions of PHP.
On the other hand, the “encoding” argument defines the character set by setting it to the “default_charset” configuration option by default in PHP versions below 8. However, the encoding value is set to null in PHP 8 and onwards. Lastly, the “double_codes” parameter is set to true to enable translating everything including the HTML entities.
How To Encode String in PHP By Using Htmlentities()?
You’ll only need to pass the required string to the htmlentities() function if you are satisfied with the default values of the other parameters. In the other case, pass all the desired parameter values and execute the given function.
– Coding Example of Using Htmlentities
For instance: you have a query string that contains HTML character entities. Now, you want to PHP encode string while ensuring that everything along with the HTML character entities is converted. So, you’ll use the htmlentities() function as seen in the code fragment attached below:
<?php
// setting the content type to plain text
header(‘Content-Type: text/plain’);
// defining variables to be passed to the URL
$user = “#<>980ê”;
$copy = “<ab é7868>”;
// creating a query string with variable names
$query_string1 = “user=$user©=$copy”;
// using the htmlentities function
echo htmlentities($query_string1);
// output: user=#<>980ê&copy=<ab é7868>
?>
Important note:
The Content-Type is set to plain/text because you might not see the effect of the stated function on the query string otherwise.
What are Available Options for Flags and Encoding?
If you want to change the values then here are the lists of the available flags and encodings:
– The Flags Parameter
You can use one or more values from the below list as flags:
• ENT_COMPAT: It will translate only the double quotes
• ENT_QUOTES: It will translate both the single and double quotes
• ENT_NOQUOTES: It will neither translate the double quotes nor the single quotes
• ENT_IGNORE: It shouldn’t be used because you won’t get an empty string even if the code unit sequences are invalid
• ENT_SUBSTITUTE: It returns Unicode Replacement Character U+FFFD for UTF-8 or � for other character sets in case of invalid code unit sequences
• ENT_DISALLOWED: It substitutes the invalid code points as per the said document type with Unicode Replacement Character U+FFFD for UTF-8 or � for other character sets
• ENT_HTML401: It allows handing the code as HTML 4.01
• ENT_XML: It lets you handle the code as XML 1
• ENT_XHTML: It enables handing the code as XHTML
• ENT_HTML5: It allows handing the code as HTML 5
– The Encoding Parameter
Here are the character sets that you can pass to the htmlentities() function to PHP encode string:
• ISO-8859-1
• ISO-8859-5
• ISO-8859-15
• UTF-8
• cp866
• cp1251
• cp1252
• KOI8-R
• BIG5
• GB2312
• BIG5-HKSCS
• Shift-JIS
• EUC-JP
• MacRoman
How to Use Htmlspecialchars() Function
The htmlspecialchars() function is also used for PHP encoding URL. The given function is similar to the htmlentities() except for the type of characters to be encoded. The htmlspecialchars() encodes only the special characters like “<”, “>”, etc leaving behind the characters whose identities need to be preserved.
Even the parameters, default values of parameters, possible options for the flags, and encoding remain the same for both htmlentities() and htmlspecialchars() function.
Still, here is the syntax for your assurance: htmlspecialchars(string, flags, encoding, double_codes).
Important note: while being used with the htmlspecialchars() function, the ISO-8859-1, UTF-8, ISO-8859-15, cp866, cp1252, cp1251, and KOI8-R character sets hold the same meaning.
– Coding Example of Using htmlspecialchars()
For instance: you have prepared a query string with different types of special symbols like “♣”, “∇”, “ℜ”, “♦”, and “⇔” along with some common special characters. Now, you want to PHP encode string while preserving the characters stated earlier. So, you’ll use the htmlspecialchars() function to perfectly PHP encode string.
Here is a piece of code that follows the above example to show you the results returned by the htmlspecialchars():
<?php
// setting the content type to plain text
header(‘Content-Type: text/plain’);
// defining a variable
$var = “<?76+=>”;
// creating a query string with special symbols
$query_string2 = “var=$var&sym=<♣∇ℜ♦⇔>”;
// executing the htmlspecialchars() function
echo htmlspecialchars($query_string2);
// output: var=<?76+=>&sym=<♣∇ℜ♦⇔>
?>
When Should You Use htmlentities()?
You should use the htmlentities() function when the names of your variables resemble some of the HTML entities. It is because the urlencode() or rawurlencode() functions will convert such kinds of variables into special characters. Consequently, you’ll get the encoded URLs with unnecessary symbols.
Conclusion
Concluding the PHP URL encoding topic, it is quite satisfying to see various kinds of URL encoding functions that are similar to each other in some ways and different in others. Here are the facts that you should remember before you use any of the above functions in your PHP program:
• The urlencode() function can be used for PHP URL encoding
• You can use the rawurlencode() function to encode a URL in PHP while following the rules specified by RFC 3986
• The htmlentities() function can be used to encode all HTML character entities in the given string
• The htmlspecialchars() function can help preserve the special characters while encoding only some specific special characters
What is php url encodingIndeed, URL encoding is a necessary process that often poses itself as a difficult task. But the built-in functions of PHP have made the URL encoding a lot easier by providing easy-to-follow syntaxes.
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Metadata
ID DOID:13580
Name cholestasis
Definition A bile duct disease that is characterized by where bile cannot flow from the liver to the duodenum.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cholestasis
Xrefs
ICD10CM:K83.1
ICD9CM:576.2
MESH:D002779
NCI:C83006
SNOMEDCT_US_2019_09_01:33688009
UMLS_CUI:C0008370
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Category:
How Do I Read a Motion Detector Schematic?
Article Details
• Written By: R. Dhillon
• Edited By: Michelle Arevalo
• Last Modified Date: 31 December 2016
• Copyright Protected:
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If you want to build your own home security system, you need to know how to read a motion detector schematic. This displays all of the required components for building the motion detector circuit and shows how those components are connected to one another and the power supply. Such schematics are read just like any other schematic, since they use the same symbols. If you haven't read a motion detector schematic before, you can do so by learning to identify the components by their symbols and how complex components, such as integrated circuits (ICs), are identified. You'll also need to learn to identify the power supply and be able to piece together schematics for areas where some of the components are connected to one another indirectly.
Almost every schematic uses the same symbols to identify components. You can learn to identify these by using a beginner's electronics book or an online chart. When looking at the symbols, you should notice that lines protrude from one or more ends of the symbol. These lines represent a component's leads or pins. Occasionally, there are small variations in the symbols used in a schematic. For example, a resistor can be represented by either a zigzag or rectangle.
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It is common for a motion detector schematic to include complex components, such as ICs. ICs, which are sometimes referred to as chips, are typically represented by rectangles and triangles. If you see a triangle, it means the IC is a specific type called an operational amplifier (op-amp). Each IC is also identified with a model name that typically consists of numbers and letters. The model name allows you to look up the IC and purchase the correct component.
The sensors, such as passive infrared (PIR) sensors and cameras, in a motion detector schematic might also be identified by rectangles. In some cases, the designer of the schematic might use a special symbol that he or she has designed. Typically, the sensors in a schematic can be identified by their part numbers or model names. If a part number is given, look it up in the circuit's parts list.
Usually, three or more pins of an IC or sensor are connected to other components. In a motion detector schematic, these pins are typically identified by their numbers, and sometimes by their functions. If a schematic identifies pins by their functions, you'll need to locate the component's datasheet, which should be available from the component's manufacturer. Occasionally, the pin numbers are listed out of order in a schematic, so it is important to pay close attention to the locations of the numbers.
Like all schematics, a motion detector schematic uses solid lines to indicate connections between components. It is common for the lines in a schematic to overlap, especially when one shows the design of a complex circuit. For example, you might notice that a series of horizontal lines are overlapping a series of vertical lines. The intersections of these lines don't always represent connections. Typically, a circle is used to identify connections between overlapping lines.
For an electronic circuit to function, it must be connected to a power supply consisting of a ground, also called earth, and a positive voltage. The ground is typically represented by three horizontal lines and the positive voltage is usually represented by a plus sign. Schematics also indicate the type of power required, such as direct current (DC) or alternating current (AC), and the number of volts required for proper functionality. The power supply is often displayed at the top or on the left side of a schematic.
Large motion detector schematics might be broken up into several chunks within a page or across several pages. You can determine how the pieces of the schematic come together by looking for symbols, numbers, or words on the lines representing the connections. For instance, the first part of a schematic might contain an IC with numbered pins and the second part might contain additional components with numbered lines going into those components. In this case, the numbers represent the IC's pins.
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Atmospheric Pressure in Geography
Atmospheric Pressure in Geography
Atmospheric Pressure: Weight of the atmosphere on a surface. At sea-level, the average atmospheric pressure is 1013.25 mb. Pressure is measured by a device called a barometer. It varies with temperature and altitude above sea level. It is an indicator of weather. When a low-pressure system moves into an area, it usually leads to cloudiness, wind, and precipitation. High-pressure systems usually lead to fair, calm weather.
Atmospheric Pressure is the pressure exerted by the earth’s atmosphere at any given point, being the product of the mass of the atmospheric column of the unit area above the given point and of the gravitational acceleration at the given point.
It is caused by the gravitational attraction of the planet on the atmospheric gases above the surface and is a function of the mass of the planet, the radius of the surface, and the amount of gas and its vertical distribution in the atmosphere. It is modified by the planetary rotation and local effects such as wind velocity, density variations due to temperature, and variations in composition.
It is a value of the standard or normal atmospheric pressure, equivalent to the pressure exerted by a column of mercury 29.92 inches (760 mm) high, or 1013 millibars (101.3 kilopascals).
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__label__pos
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Do you ever find yourself standing under the shower, hoping for a steady stream of water, only to be disappointed by a feeble trickle? Or perhaps you've experienced the frustration of waiting for ages to fill a pot with water in your kitchen sink, as the weak water pressure tests your patience. Fear not! In this comprehensive guide, we'll dive into the depths of water pressure problems and equip you with the knowledge and solutions to tackle them head-on. So, let's roll up our sleeves, turn on the taps, and explore the world of solving common water pressure problems!
1. The Basics of Water Pressure
Let's review fundamental ideas related to water pressure before we start debugging. Water pressure is the force with which water flows through pipes and other fixtures. PSI, or pounds per square inch, is a unit of pressure. Numerous issues, such as shaky showers and ineffective appliance performance, might arise from low water pressure.
2. Identifying Low Water Pressure
It is critical to discover the fundamental cause of any problem before attempting to remedy it. Low water pressure can be caused by a variety of circumstances, including:
a. Water Supply Issues
The source itself is a typical cause of low water pressure. Pressure alterations in municipal water systems might occur as a result of upkeep tasks or high demand. Furthermore, if you reside in a region with outdated infrastructure, corroded pipes or mineral buildup may obstruct water flow.
b. Plumbing Problems
Your home's plumbing system plays a significant role in maintaining water pressure. Leaky pipes, clogs, or improper pipe sizing can all contribute to reduced water pressure. It's essential to assess your plumbing system to identify any underlying issues.
3. DIY Solutions for Low Water Pressure
Let's look at some do-it-yourself strategies for overcoming low water pressure now that we know what the reasons are. Always seek the advice of a qualified plumber if you feel uncomfortable completing these actions or believe there may be a more complicated issue.
a. Check for Leaks
Start by inspecting your plumbing system for any leaks. Even small drips can contribute to diminished water pressure over time. Check faucets, toilets, and visible pipes for any signs of leakage. Repairing or replacing faulty components can significantly improve water pressure.
b. Remove Mineral Deposits
Limescale and other mineral deposits can build up inside pipes and fixtures, reducing water flow. Descaling your faucets and showerheads is an efficient and quick solution to this problem. Vinegar should be put into a plastic bag, wrapped tightly around the broken fixture, and left to soak all night. Remove the bag in the morning, clean off any leftover residues, and presto! Expect increased water pressure.
c. Clear Clogs
Clogs can act as major roadblocks to adequate water pressure. Inspect and clean out any debris from your aerators and showerheads. For more stubborn clogs, using a plunger or plumbing snake can help dislodge the obstruction and restore optimal water flow.
4. Professional Interventions
In some cases, resolving water pressure problems may require the expertise of a professional plumber. Don't worry; they're not all as expensive as they seem! Hiring a skilled plumber can save you time, effort, and potentially costly mistakes.
a. Pipe Replacement or Upgrade
If your home has ageing pipes that are corroded or too narrow to deliver sufficient water pressure, a plumber may recommend replacing or upgrading the pipes. Materials like copper or PEX (cross-linked polyethylene) offer improved durability and better water flow.
b. Pressure Regulator Installation
Installing a pressure regulator can be a game-changer when it comes to maintaining optimal water pressure. This device helps regulate the flow of water entering your home, ensuring a steady and consistent pressure throughout.
Conclusion
You've mastered the art of resolving typical water pressure issues at this point. You now have the expertise to combat low water pressure and restore the joy of a vigorous water flow in your house, from diagnosing the reasons to adopting DIY remedies and getting professional aid when necessary.
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[Tutor] Need help with two similar test cases that I have written. One works and the other fails
Anubhav Yadav anubhav1691 at gmail.com
Sat Feb 6 11:07:32 EST 2016
Hello Everyone,
I am trying to write a simple program that generated random numbers based
on some rules.
when my program is in the yellow state, it should generate the numbers
from 100.0-100.5
and 102.5-103.0. When my program is in the red state, it should generate
numbers in the range
less than 99.9 and greater than 103.1.
I have written two very simple functions, and two unittest.TestCase test
cases to test the two functions. I somehow feel that both my test cases
doesn't make any sense, yet one of it passes perfectly and other one does
not pass.
Here is my code:
import random
import unittest
red_temperature_min = 99.9
red_temperature_max = 103.0
normal_temperature_min = 101.0
normal_temperature_max = 102.0
yellow_temperature_min = 100.0
yellow_temperature_max = 103.0
def red_temperature_simulation():
"""
Method to simulate the red temperature condition
"""
choice = random.randint(0,1)
if choice:
return round(random.uniform(red_temperature_min - 5.0,
red_temperature_min))
else:
return round(random.uniform(red_temperature_max,
red_temperature_max + 5.0))
def yellow_temperature_simulation():
"""
Method to simulate the yellow temperature condition
"""
choice = random.randint(0,1)
if choice:
return round(random.uniform(yellow_temperature_min,
normal_temperature_min - 0.5), 2)
else:
return round(random.uniform(normal_temperature_max + 0.5,
yellow_temperature_max), 2)
class TestCase(unittest.TestCase):
def test_red_temperature_simulation(self):
"""
Method to test the red_temperature_simulation method
"""
for i in range(100000):
self.assertLess(red_temperature_simulation(), 100.0) and \
self.assertGreater(red_temperature_simulation(), 103.0)
def test_yellow_temperature_simulation(self):
"""
Method to test the yellow_temperature_simulation method
"""
for i in range(1000000):
(self.assertGreaterEqual(yellow_temperature_simulation(),
100.0)) and \
(self.assertLessEqual(yellow_temperature_simulation(),
100.5)) and \
(self.assertGreaterEqual(yellow_temperature_simulation(),
102.5)) and \
(self.assertLessEqual(yellow_temperature_simulation(), 103.0))
I try to test if a number 99.7 is less than 100.0 and at the same time I
also check if it's greater than 102.5. The sentence itself doesn't make
sense, but somehow the test case for yellow passes, but the test case for
red fails. I have also tried using and instead of or!
I want to test my code, is there a better way of doing it?
Thank You.
More information about the Tutor mailing list
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__label__pos
| 0.914244 |
Logic for Computer Scientists/Propositional Logic/Horn clauses
From Wikibooks, open books for an open world
< Logic for Computer Scientists | Propositional Logic
Jump to navigation Jump to search
Horn clauses[edit | edit source]
In this subsection we introduce a special class of formulae which are of particular interest for logic programming. Furthermore it turns out that these formulae admit an efficient test for satisfiability.
Definition 9[edit | edit source]
A formula is a Horn formula if it is in CNF and every disjunction contains at most one positive literal. Horn clauses are clauses, which contain at most one positive literal.
where is a tautology and is an unsatisfiable formula.
In clause form this can be written as
and in the context of logic programming this is written as:
For Horn formula there is an efficient algorithm to test satisfiability of a formula :
Deciding Satisfiability of Horn Formulae
1. If there is a subformula of the kind label every occurrence of in .
2. Apply the following rules until none of them is applicable:
• If is a subformula and are all labeled and is not labeled then label every occurrence of in .
• If is a subformula and are all labeled then Stop: Unsatisfiable
3. Stop: Satisfiable The assignment iff is labeled is a model.
Theorem 6[edit | edit source]
The above algorithm is correct and stops after steps, where is the number of atoms in the formula.
As an immediate consequence we see, that a Horn formula is satisfiable if there is no subformula of the form .
Horn formulae admit unique least models, i.e. is a unique least model for if for every model and for every atom B in F holds: if then . Note, that this unique least model property does not hold for non Horn formulae: as an example take which is obviously non Horn. is a least model and as well, hence we have two least models.
Problems[edit | edit source]
Problem 20 (Propositional)[edit | edit source]
Let be a propositional logical formulae and a subset atomic formula occurring in . Let be the formula which results from by replacing all occurrences of an atomic formulae by . Example: . Prove or disprove: There exists an for
1. or
2. , so that is equivalent to a Horn formula (i.e. ).
Problem 21 (Propositional)[edit | edit source]
Apply the marking algorithm to the following formula F.
Which is a least model?
Problem 22 (Propositional)[edit | edit source]
Decide which one of the indicated CNFs are Horn formulae and transform then into a conjunction of implications:
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| 0.796836 |
Before making a selection, it’s important to understand the basic differences of the various types and the test requirements. testing. Some users do not like to deal with the All capacitive acceleration sensors have an internal clock. Dies erfolgt meistens, indem die auf eine Testmasse wirkende Trägheitskraft bestimmt wird. constant k as well. An accelerometer is a tool that measures proper acceleration. Accelerometers are available as digital devices and analog devices. Two technologies are often used to make DC-responsive acceleration sensors: today. Motion of the body can be rectilinear or curvilinear; accordingly, position sensors are called linear position sensors or angular position sensors. output type acceleration sensor has a predetermined full range, which is Types of Position Sensor Position sensors use different sensing principles to sense the displacement of a body. The QG series of acceleration sensors measure acceleration in 1, 2 or 3 axes. acceleration sensor encapsulates a piezoelectric ceramic in a gas-tight metal DC-responsive acceleration sensors do not have this problem, Once produced by the factory, it sensors. such problems always exist when testing any slowly changing signal with an There are no alternatives in some areas, such as airbags, mobile devices, Perhaps the most preferred vibration sensor type is piezoelectric accelerometer sensors. determined by the internal charge amplifier. AC-coupled. There are many types of accelerometers in real life applications such as capacitive, piezoelectric, piezoresistive, Hall effect, magnetoresistive, heat transfer, MEMS-based accelerometers, to name just a few. acceleration or low-frequency acceleration (<1hz), or applications that use Commonly used accelerometers, however, will be represented in this wiki page. Smoke sensor MQ-2. Piezoresistive acceleration sensors are of the sensor. The most commonly used AC response acceleration sensor uses a piezoelectric The charge amplifier is connected to a charge mechanical vibration contains high-frequency components (or excited Somit kann z. low-range acceleration, and the upper limit is generally within 100g. only the sensor signal output is obtained. dynamic range is limited only by the quality of the DC amplifier connected are suitable for dynamic testing of light structures. circuit for on-board signal processing, as well as temperature compensation. Capacitive acceleration sensors are suitable for measuring Why are vibration sensors used? Capacitive sensors (variation in acceleration due to changes in capacitance 500kHz) is an indispensable part of the detection circuit. A coupling capacitor They are only suitable for measuring limited to a few hundred Hz, in part because of its large internal structure and The frequency of this noise is much higher than the In general, there are two types of acceleration sensors: AC-responsive acceleration sensors and DC-responsive acceleration sensors. Piezoresistive acceleration sensor is another widely used DC response They will choose a DC response Each acceleration sensor technology has its advantages and disadvantages. Gas sensor. of view, the piezoelectric element is like an active capacitor with an internal The modular design makes it easy to adapt the sensors to specific requirements. Please take a look at accessories for an overview. For example, vibration testing A Modern Together, we may be able to find you a sensor or develop one that will meet your requirements. and can respond to acceleration signals as low as 0 Hz. mass in the sensor "moves" to cause the piezoelectric element to generate a output type and voltage output type. to help decide which type of acceleration sensor is best suited to your specific needs. As a sensor with DC response capability, The high output makes these sensors inexpensive. First and foremost, choose only DC-response accelerometers to measure static or very … Piezoelectric, piezoresistive and capacitive components are generally used to convert the mechanical motion caused in accelerometer into an electrical signal. addition to these limitations, modern capacitive acceleration sensors,
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__label__pos
| 0.841309 |
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Overview
The following topics address the CryWAF Cross Platform Build System used to build CRYENGINE. CryWAF is based on the WAF Meta Build System.
CryWAF allows you to quickly jump between various build pipelines while ensuring you only build what you really need to build.
Extensions such as automatic project generation or a simple GUI allowing you to tweak your projects requirements, ensure a fast turn over time and a more productive team.
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__label__pos
| 0.997529 |
A A A
Speech Sound Disorders in Children
Speech Sound Disorders in Children
As young children learn language skills, it's normal for them to have some difficulty saying words correctly. That's part of the learning process. Their speech skills develop over time. They master certain sounds and words at each age. By age 8, most children have learned how to master all word sounds.
But some children have speech sound disorders. This means they have trouble saying certain sounds and words past the expected age. This can make it hard to understand what a child is trying to say. Speech sound disorders include articulation disorder and phonological process disorder. Articulation disorder is a problem with making certain sounds, such as "sh." Phonological process disorder is a pattern of sound mistakes, such as not pronouncing certain letters.
About articulation disorder
Articulation disorder is the inability to form the certain word sounds correctly past a certain age. Word sounds may be dropped, added, distorted, or swapped. Keep in mind that some sound changes may be part of an accent, and are not speech errors. Signs of an articulation disorder can include:
• Leaving off sounds from words (example: saying "coo" instead of "school")
• Adding sounds to words (example: saying "puhlay" instead of "play")
• Distorting sounds in words (example: saying "thith" instead of "this")
• Swapping sounds in words (example: saying "wadio" instead of "radio")
About phonological process disorder
Phonological process disorder is a regular pattern of certain word speech mistakes. The mistakes may be common in young children learning speech skills, but when they persist past a certain age, it may be a disorder. Signs of a phonological process disorder can include:
• Saying only one syllable in a word (example: "bay" instead of "baby")
• Simplifying a word by repeating two syllables (example: "baba" instead of "bottle")
• Leaving out a consonant sound (example: "at" or "ba" instead of "bat")
• Changing certain consonant sounds (example: "tat" instead of "cat")
Causes of speech sound disorders
Often, there is no known cause for a speech sound disorder. But some speech sound errors may be caused by:
• Injury to the brain
• Intellectual or developmental disability
• Problems with hearing or hearing loss, such as a history of ear infections
• Physical abnormalities that affect speech, including cleft palate or cleft lip
• Disorders affecting the nerves involved in speech
Diagnosing speech sound disorders
First, your child's hearing should be checked. This is to make sure that he or she isn't simply hearing words and sounds incorrectly.
If hearing loss is ruled out, you may want to contact a speech-language pathologist. This is a speech expert who evaluates and treats children who are having problems with speech-language and communication.
By watching and listening to a child speak, the speech-language pathologist can determine whether the issues are part of normal growth and development or are a speech sound disorder. The pathologist will evaluate your child's speech and language skills, keeping in mind accents and dialect. Speech-language pathologists can also assess if a physical problem in the mouth is affecting your child's ability to speak.
Treating speech sound disorder
The pathologist can then recommend a therapy plan to help your child overcome his or her disorder. Speech-language pathologists work with children to help them:
• Recognize and correct sounds that they are making wrong
• Learn how to correctly form their problem sound
• Practice saying certain words and making certain sounds
The pathologist can also give you activities and strategies to help your child practice at home.
If your child has a physical defect in the mouth, the pathologist can also refer your child to an ear, nose, throat doctor or orthodontist if needed.
A positive outlook
Early recognition and diagnosis of speech sound disorders can help children overcome speech problems. They can learn how to communicate well and comfortably.
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__label__pos
| 0.999493 |
Asymmetric Key Cryptography
Asymmetric Key Cryptography
• Asymmetric key cryptography is also called a public key cryptography.
• In Asymmetric key cryptography two keys are used, one for encryption and other for decryption.
• Asymmetric key cryptography involves the use of two keys one is a public key that may know to everyone and can be used to encrypt messages and verify signatures. Other is private key known only to the receiver of the message or verifier, used to decrypt messages, and sign (create) signatures.
• It is also called as asymmetric key cryptography because one key is used for encryption only its corresponding key must be used for decryption. No other key can decrypt the message.
• The sender and receiver can encrypt messages using encryption key (public) or verify signatures, he cannot decrypt messages or create signatures because he required decryption key (private) which is known only to the receiver of the message. Public key cryptosystem /asymmetric key cryptography is shown in Fig.
Asymmetric key cryptography
• Mathematically it is represented as P=D(Kd, E(ke, P))
• For Example, Sender Ramesh wants to communicate with the receiver Suresh then they must have each one of this i.e private key and public key then and then Communication will be successful Table shows the possible pair of keys that Ramesh and Suresh must know while communicating with each other.
Key DetailsRamesh (A) Should know Suresh(B) Should know
Ramesh Private Key (A)Yes A mast know.Not known to B
Ramesh Public Key (A)Yes A must knowYes it is known to Suresh also
Suresh private key (B) Not known to Ramesh (A)es Suresh (B) must know
Suresh public key (B) Yes known to Ramesh (A) Yes Suresh (B) also known it
• Following are the possible cases of public key cryptography as per the table mentioned
above.
Case 1
1. When Ramesh wants to send a message to Suresh. Ramesh can encrypt the message using Suresh public key. This is possible because Ramesh and Suresh know the public key.
2. Ramesh can send this message to Suresh (Keep in mind this it is encrypted using Suresh public key).
3. Suresh can decrypt the Ramesh message by using Suresh own private key. Because only Suresh knows his private key Ramesh is not aware of Suresh private key.
4. It is important to note that the message only decrypted using Suresh private key and nothing else.
Case 2
1. If Suresh wants to send the message to Ramesh, then reverse the above case I. Suresh can encrypt the message only with Ramesh public key. The reason only Ramesh can decrypt the message to obtain its original plain text format using his private key.
2. Public key cryptography achieves authentication (authentication helps to identify the claimed identity of an entity, such as username password or any other important information such as encryption or decryption keys stolen during transmission between sender and receiver) and non-repudiation (it prevents either sender or receiver from denying a transmitted message).
3. Principles of public key cryptography also include mathematical background to understand the use of key pairs in algorithms like Rivest Shamir Adlman (RSA)and Diffie Hellman Algorithm.
4. For Example: Rivest Shamir Adlm. (RSA) and Diffie Hellman key exchange algorithm.
Advantages of Asymmetric Key Cryptography
• In Asymmetric key cryptography, key cannot be distributing among sender and receiver as both have their own key, so there is no problem of key distribution while transmitting the data over insecure channel.
• The main advantage of asymmetric key cryptography is that two separate keys are used for used encryption and decryption; even if encryption key is stolen by attacker he/ she cannot decrypt the message as decryption key is only available with receiver only.
• RSA algorithm and Diffie Hellman key exchange are implemented using asymmetric key cryptography.
• Easy to use for user and scalable does not require much administrative work.
Disadvantages of Asymmetric Key Cryptography
• Because of a different key used between sender and receiver require more time to get the transmission done as compared to symmetric key cryptography. (Slower that symmetric key cryptography very few asymmetric encryption methods achieve the fast transmission of data).
• Asymmetric key cryptography utilizes more resource as compare to symmetric key cryptography.
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AK and SYK kinases ameliorates chronic and destructive arthritis
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Supplementary MaterialsSupplementary Information 41467_2018_2896_MOESM1_ESM. a cytokine storm in vivo. Whereas conventional
Supplementary MaterialsSupplementary Information 41467_2018_2896_MOESM1_ESM. a cytokine storm in vivo. Whereas conventional anti-integrin therapy potentiates bacterial sepsis, bacteremia, and mortality, a ligand-specific intervention with anti-M7 is protective. These findings deepen our understanding of ligand-specific integrin functions and open a path for a new field of ligand-targeted anti-integrin therapy to prevent inflammatory conditions. Introduction Inflammation drives many diseases, including atherosclerosis1,2, type 2 diabetes3, neurodegeneration4, and sepsis5. Targeting the inflammatory response might ameliorate these conditions6. Yet, the critical role of the inflammatory response in many biological processes such as regeneration, thrombosis, and host defense presents a major limitation to such strategies7. For example, glucocorticoids potently inhibit inflammation, but have multiple undesired actions8. COX-2 inhibitors can suppress inflammation, but nonetheless worsen cardiovascular outcomes9. Inflammation involves the recruitment of leukocytes to the site of injury, typically facilitated by integrins such as Mac pc-1 (M2, Compact disc11b/Compact disc18)10. The adhesion molecule Mac pc-1 can go through fast activation yielding a conformational modification that raises affinity because of its ligands that enable it to mediate moving, strong adhesion, and transmigration of leukocytes into swollen tissue11C13. Restorative or hereditary inhibition of Mac pc-1 extremely limitations experimental atherosclerosis14, neo-intima development15,16, adipose cells swelling17, ischemic kidney damage18, and glomerulonephritis19,20. Beyond its part in inflammation, Mac pc-1 was called CR3 (go with receptor 3) because of its capability to bind go with factors, such as for example iC3b21, reflecting its wide role in sponsor protection22C24, ARRY-438162 distributor wound recovery25, thrombosis26,27, and different additional myeloid cell effector features28C30. Myeloid cells, including monocytes, macrophages, and neutrophils communicate Mac pc-1, as perform NK cells, also to a smaller sized extent activated lymphocytes31. Mac-1s functional diversity is usually reflected by ligand binding to a large repertoire of proteins and proteoglycans, including ICAM-132, fibrinogen33, fibronectin34, vitronectin34, heparin35, GPIb26, RAGE36, endothelial protein C-receptor (EPCR)37, CD40L14, and others38. Inhibition of Mac-1 could thus serve as a promising therapeutic strategy in inflammatory disease39,40. Its major role in host defense, regeneration, and thrombosis, however, could limit its therapeutic applicability. To overcome these limitations, we hypothesized that this inactivation of distinct integrin functions involved in inflammatory, however, not in immune system or LIPG regenerative pathways, could derive from selective blockade of Macintosh-1s relationship to particular ligands, without impacting others. For proof-of-concept research we designed a monoclonal antibody, that goals the EQLKKSKTL theme in Macintosh-1 particularly, necessary to bind to its multipotent ligand Compact disc40L14,41,42. We effectively produced this antibody and likened its impact to regular anti-Mac-1 blockade experimentally in in vivo leukocyte recruitment, peritoneal irritation, polymicrobial and sterile sepsis. To conclude, we report a ligand-specific anti-Mac-1 therapy is certainly more advanced than unspecific, conventional preventing strategies?specifically in circumstances that are driven by irritation and impaired web host defense simultaneously, such as for example polymicrobial sepsis. Outcomes The antibody anti-M7 goals the Macintosh-1/Compact disc40L-binding site We previously confirmed that CD40L selectively binds to the EQLKKSKTL motif (M7) within the Mac-1 ligand-binding I-domain41. To generate a specific inhibitor of the human binding site that can bind and block the M7 motif within the Mac-1 I-domain, we immunized mice with the human peptide V160-S172 coupled to diphtheria toxoid. The M7 sequence is usually highly conserved between the human and murine protein sequence (Fig.?1a). Among several hybridoma clones that ARRY-438162 distributor exhibited high-affinity binding to the immobilized peptide M7 in a solid-phase binding assay, one clone, termed anti-M7 (mouse IgG2b), showed a specific inhibition of Mac-1-CD40L binding, but not of the binding to other ligands. Anti-M7 bound ARRY-438162 distributor ARRY-438162 distributor to a CHO cell line that overexpresses non-activated human Mac-1 (Mac-1 WT) and permanently activated human Mac-1 (Mac-1 del)43, but did not bind to regulate CHO cells (CHO) in traditional western blot (Fig.?1b, Supplementary Body?1), demonstrating the fact that antibody binds to its intended focus on protein. Anti-M7 destined within a concentration-dependent way towards the immobilized peptides M7 (EQLKKSKTL), however, not towards the control peptides scrambled sM7 (KLSLEKQTK) or the peptide M8 (EEFRIHFT), which locates close to the peptide series M7 (Fig.?1c). To quantify the binding of anti-M7 to Macintosh-1 expressing individual cells, we combined the antibody towards the fluorochrome Alexa-647 and validated that anti-M7 destined concentration-dependently to individual leukocytes that exhibit Macintosh-1, such as for example monocytes and neutrophils (Fig.?1d). These results demonstrate that anti-M7 particularly binds towards the peptide series M7 inside the unchanged individual Macintosh-1 I-domain. To check whether anti-M7 blocks the useful interaction of individual.
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Java
1. 1. UNIT - ICHAPTER – 1 java 1
2. 2. CONTENTS1. INTRODUCTION 1.1. history of java2. STRUCTURE OF JAVA PROGRAM 2.1. standard program and Applets 2.2. packages 2.3. importing classes and Packages3. THE JAVA COMPILER AND VIRUTAL MACHINE4. DOCUMENTATION COMMENTS5. DATA TYPES 2
3. 3. 6. METHODS 6.1. parameters 6.2. Overloaded Methods 7. EXCEPTIONS 7.1. throwing an exception 7.2. handling exceptions 8. ACCESS MODIFIERS9. INHERITANCE AND METHOD OVERRIDING 9.1. Super-classes and Subclasses10. GENERIC METHODS11. GARBAGE COLLECTION12. RECURSION 12.1. recursive function 12.2. induction 12.3. recursive methods 3
4. 4. 13. TESTING AND DUBUGGING 13.1. what is testing 13.2. designing test data 13.3. debugging 4
5. 5. 1. INTRODUCTION1.1. HISTORY OF JAVA 1. Java programming language is usually associated with “ World Wide Web ”. 2. Java predates the Web. 3. Java began it’s life as the programming language “ Oak ”. 4. Oak was developed by the “Green Project Members” * Patrick Naughton * Mike Sheridan * James Gosling 5. A group formed in 1991 to create products for the “ Smart electronic Markets “ 5
6. 6. 6. The existing programming language were not suitable for “ consumer electronics “.7. The Chief Programmer of Sun Microsystem – James Gosling : created the software for controlling “ Consumer Electronic devices “. 8. The team wanted a fundamentally new way of computing , based on the power of “ Networks “. And the S/W to run on different kinds of computers9. Patenting issues gave a new name to Oak – Java.10. HotJava - The first Java-enabled Web browser 6
7. 7. ChaRaCTERISTICS Of java • Java is simple • Java is object-oriented • Java is distributed • Java is interpreted • Java is robust • Java is secure • Java is architecture-neutral • Java is portable • Java is high-performance • Java is multithreaded • Java is dynamic language 7
8. 8. • Java is simple Java is simple language, can be learned easily.• Java is object-oriented Java provides Abstraction, Encapsulation, Inheritance and Polymorphism.• Java is distributed Java is tuned to the Web, So java program can access data – across the Web as easily as they access data from local system.• Java is interpreted Java is both Interpreted and compiled. The code is complied to byte code that’s “ Binary “ and “ platform independent”. 8
9. 9. • Java is robust Java forces the programmer to handle unexpected errors. This ensure that java programs are “Robust” (Reliable) and bug free and don’t crash.• Java is secure A program traveling from internet to pc could possibly carry a virus. Java done strong type-checking on the user-machine, and changes in the program are tagged as errors and program will not executed. So, java is “secure”.. Java is architecture-neutral The byte code can be executed on a variety of computers running on different operating systems. 9
10. 10. • Java is portable Java program can run on any machine that has a java interpreter. Other people can use the programs written in java, even if they have different machines with different operating systems.• Java is multithreaded perform multiple task at the same time.• Java is dynamic language Maintaining different versions of an application is very easy in Java. 10
11. 11. 2. STRUCTURE Of java• PROGRaM Types of Java Programs are: 1. Applications (or) stand-alone program - they are program that don’t need a browser to run simultaneously. - need MS-DOS or UNIX prompt to execute the program. 2. Applets - Applets are programs that execute inside a Web page. - Applets require a Java enabled browser like * MS-internet Explorer * Netscape Navigator * Hotjava 11 - Applet have Graphical User Interface.
12. 12. 3. Servlets - these programs extend the functionality of web servers4. Packages - they are collections of classes that can be shared by other Java programs. 12
13. 13. 2.1. standard program and Applets• Every java program is a – CLASS• Every class may contain data and METHOD membersS. No Application applet1. METHOD name is “ main” METHOD name is “ int”2. Syntax for Compiling Syntax for Compiling javac <filename.java> javac <filename.java>3. Syntax for Executing Syntax for Executing java filename Appletviewer <URL.html file> 13
14. 14. 2.2. packages• DEFINITION A Package is a collection of classes that can be shared by java program. Packages are used to organize classes into groups.• Types of Packages (i). Pre-defined (ii). User-defined 1. java.lang 2. java.util user can 3. java.applet create their 4. java.awt own packages 5. java.io ( Refer Slide Nos from 6. java.net 106 to 122) 14
15. 15. 1. java.lang - provides classes and interfaces that are fundamental to java programming.2. java.util - provides classes that support collections, data and calendar operations, parsing, internationalization and basic event processing. Also refers to all programs in the directory (lang/java or langjava).3. java.applet - provides classes, necessary for basic applet programming.4. java.awt (abstract window toolkit) 15 - provides classes for creating GUI programs.
16. 16. 5. java.io - provides classes for reading and writing data in the form of streams. (input stream, output stream) e.g: memory, file, buffer, network6. java.net - provides classes that provide network programming. 16
17. 17. 2.3. importing classes and PackagesSyntax for package• import <package_name>.*;• import <package_name> . <class_name>; Example: import java.awt.*; import java.awt.Button;import java.awt.*; in this syntax all the classes in awt package have to importedimport java.awt.Button; in this syntax only button class from awt package have to imported 17
18. 18. 3. ThE java COMPIlER aND vIRTUal MaChINE• Java source code is converted into Java Byte code (or) J-code.* When the program <programName> is compiled, the program source code is read from the file <programName.java>* The compiled byte code is written in the file <programName.class>* Java Virtual Machine (JVM) is a software that interpret and executes the byte code.• The main task of JVM is – the loading of .class files• JVM- has class loaders that loads the .class files, and executed by the execution engine. 18
19. 19. • Each java applications run inside a JVM.• JVM starts when you start a java program and terminates when the program ends.• The no. of JVM starts when you start a java program and terminates when the program ends.• CLASS LOADER ARCHITECTURE 1. A JVM can have many class Loader. They provide security and network to java programs. 2. The JVM has two types of class loaders. (a) Primordial Class Loader (b) Class Loader Objects 19
20. 20. (a) Primordial Class Loader A primordial Class Loader is a part of the JVM implementation. It loads the java API classes when you execute a java program.(b) Class Loader Objects An application can create many class loaders at runtime for loading the classes of the application.Implementation of Class Loader Class Loader Class Loader Java Virtual Machine Implementation Primordial Class Loader Java API 20
21. 21. JAVA VIRUTAL MACHINE 21
22. 22. • Through the Java VM, the same application is capable of running on multiple platforms. 22
23. 23. • The Java platform has two components: – The Java Virtual Machine (JVM) – The Java Application Programming Interface (API) 23
24. 24. 4. DOCUMENTaTION COMMENTS• A comment is a message for a programmer & describes a class, a method, or even a statement. The complier ignore what you write as comments• Comments are ignored by the compiler but are useful to other programmers• Java support three styles of comments: 1. Multiple line comments 2. Single line comment entries 3. The javadoc comments1.Multiple line comments Anything you write between /* and */ is treated as a comment. The text that you type here can cover many lines. /* multiple line comments */ 24
25. 25. 2. Single line comment entries anything you type after // is treated as a comment. The text can’t span (extend) more than a line. If you have multiple lines as comments, you must start every line with //. // single line comment3. The javadoc comments these lines are used by the javadoc utility to create documentation. These comments are similar o the multiple line comments but start with a /** instead of /* /** this is a javadoc comment*/ 25
26. 26. 5. DaTa TYPES• The data that’s stored in memory can be of many types. For example: * a person’s age is stored as a numeric value & an address is stored as alphanumeric characteristics. * an address is stored as alphanumeric characters Data types are used to define the operations possible on them and the storage method.* The data types in java are classified as: 1. primitive (or) standard data types 2. Abstract (or) derived data types 26
27. 27. 1. primitive (or) standard data types Data Type Size/Format Description Range (Numbers) Byte 8-bit Byte-length -128 to +128 integer If signed(-2 7 to 27 -1) If unsigned(0 to 255) Short 16-bit Short integer -32768 to +32767(-215 to 215-1) Int 32-bit Integer -231 to 231-1 27
28. 28. Data Type Size/Format Description Range (Numbers) long 64-bit Long integer -2 63 to 2 63-1 float 32-bit Single- +/-about 10 39 precision floating point double 64-bit Double- +/-about 10 317 precision floating point (other types) Char 16-bit A single character Boolean 1-bit A Boolean value (true or false) 28
29. 29. 2. Abstract (or) derived data types• Abstract data types are based on primitive data types and have more functionality than primitive data types.• Example “String” is an abstract data type that can store letters, digits and other characters like /,(), : , ; , $ , # * “String ”provides methods for concatenating two strings, searching for one string within another, and extracting a portion of a string. The primitive data types don’t have these features. 29
30. 30. 6. METhODS 1. parameters• A method is a body of code that’s used for performing a set of tasks. The behavior of an object is determined by the program.• Declaring Methods: syntax: [<access_specifier>] [<modifiers>] <return_type> <method_name> ([argument_list]) { //statements } 30
31. 31. • Example: public static int abc (int a, int b, int c) { return a+b*c+b/c; }Where: abc - name of the method int - return type of the method is ‘int’ (int a, int b, int c) – formal paramenters of the method abc, each is of integer type. 31
32. 32. • If the method is invoked by the statement Z = abc (2,x,y) then 2,x,y are the ‘actual parameter’.* when the method ‘abc’ is invoked the a - is assigned to 2 b - is assigned to x c - is assigned to y* In java all method parameters are ‘value parameters’.* At run time the value of each ‘actual parameter’ is copied into the corresponding format parameter before the method is executed. 32
33. 33. 2. Overloaded methods• Overloading is a technique in which more than one method having the same name can be present in a program. The compiler resolves the method to be invoked using the signature of the method.• Function signature 1. The name of the method 2. The number of arguments it takes 3. The data type of the arguments 4. The order of the arguments - when we call a method, the compiler uses the signature of the method to resolve the method to be invoked. - A class can’t have two methods having the same signature. 33
34. 34. - this is because the compiler will not know which method to invoke if more than one method has the same signature.Example: java supports method overloading and hence, the methods can be declared as follows: * public void add(int a, int b); // add two integers * public void add(float a, float b); // add two floats * public void add(float a, int b); // adds a float and an integer* In the following example the ‘calculator’ class, the methods have the same name but different parameters and the signatures of the methods are different. 34
35. 35. class calculator { public int add(int a, int b) { System.out.println("int and int"); return a + b; } public float add(float a, float b) { System.out.println("float and float"); return a + b; } 35
36. 36. public float add(float a, int b) { System.out.println("float and int"); return a + b; }public static void main(String args[]) { calculator c = new calculator(); System.out.println(c.add(1,10)) System.out.println(c.add(1.6f,10.5f)); }} 36
37. 37. 37
38. 38. class calculator { public int add(int a, int b) { System.out.println("int and int"); return a + b; } public float add(float a, float b) { System.out.println("float and float"); return a + b; } 38
39. 39. public float add(float a, int b) { System.out.println("float and int"); return a + b; }public static void main(String args[]) { calculator c = new calculator(); System.out.println(c.add(1,10)) System.out.println(c.add(1.6f,10.5f)); System.out.println(c.add(10.5f,2)); }} 39
40. 40. 40
41. 41. 7. EXCEPTIONS• An exception is defined as an ‘abnormal’ event that occurs during program execution and disturb the normal flow of instructions.• Error-handling becomes necessary, when developing applications and need to take care of unexpected situations.• The unexpected situations that may occur during program execution are: * Running out of memory * Resource allocation errors * Inability to find files * Problems in network connectivity 41
42. 42. Exception-Handling Techniques• When an unexpected error occurs in a method, java creates an object of the types ‘ Exception’.• After creating the Exception object, java sends it to the program, by an action called “throwing an exception”.• The Exception object contains information about the - type of error - status of the program when the exception occurred* Key words in Excepting: try catch throw throws 42
43. 43. • Try Block syntax: try { //statements that may cause an exception }* If an exception occurs within the try block, the appropriate exception-handler that’s associated with the try block handles the exception.* A try block must have at least one catch block that follows it immediately. 43
44. 44. • catch Block syntax: try { //statements that may cause an exception } catch(……) { // error handling routines }• The catch statement take the object of the exception class that refers to the exception caught.• Once the exception is caught, the statements within the catch block are executed.• The scope of the catch block is based on the statement 44 in the preceding try block.
45. 45. Exception handling mechanism• In java, exception-handling facility handles abnormal & unexpected situation in a structured manner.• When an exception occurs, the java runtime system searches for an exception-handler (try-catch-block).• If a handler is not found in the current method, the handler is searched for in the ‘calling method’.• The searches goes on till the runtime system finds an appropriate exception-handler.• EXAMPLE: // derivedclass.java class baseclass { public int divide(int num1, int num2) { 45
46. 46. return num1 / num2; }}public class derivedclass extends baseclass{ public int divide(int a, int b) { return super.divide(a,b); } public static void main(String args[]) { int result = 0; derivedclass d1 = new derivedclass(); 46
47. 47. try { result = d1.divide(100, 0); } catch(ArithmeticException e) { System.out.println(“Error…division by zero”); } System.out.println(“The result is: “ + result”); }} 47
48. 48. 48
49. 49. Multiple catch block - examplepublic class trycatch{ public static void main(String args[]) { int num1, num2, result = 0; num1 = 100; num2 = 0; try { result = num1/num2; } 49
50. 50. catch(ArithmeticException e) { System.out.println("Error---division by zero"); } catch(ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException e) { System.out.println("Error----out of bounds"); } catch(Exception e) { System.out.println("some other error"); } System.out.println("The result is: " + result); }} 50
51. 51. 51
52. 52. EXAMPLE-2public class trycatch{ public static void main(String args[]) { int num1, num2, result = 0; num1 = 100; num2 = 4; try { result = num1/num2; } 52
53. 53. catch(ArithmeticException e) { System.out.println("Error---division by zero"); } catch(ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException e) { System.out.println("Error----out of bounds"); } catch(Exception e) { System.out.println("some other error"); } System.out.println("The result is: " + result); }} 53
54. 54. 54
55. 55. throw statement• When a user enters a wrong login-ID (or) password, the throw statement is used to throw an exception.• The throw statement takes a single statement, which is an object of the ‘Exception class’.• Syntax throw Throwableinstance;* Example throw ThrowObject;• The compiler gives an error if the object ‘ThrowObject” doesn’t belong to a valid ‘Exception class’.• The ‘throw statement is commonly used in ‘programmer-defined’ exceptions. 55
56. 56. throws statement• Throws statement is used to specify that ‘ an exception has to be handled by the calling method. It’s used for an exception that a method is capable of raising, but not handling.• Syntax [<access_specifier>][<modifier>]<return_type> <method_name> (<arg_list>) [throws <exception_list>]• Example public void acceptpassword() throws IllegalAccessException { System.out.println(“ intruder !!”); throw new IllegalAccessException; } 56
57. 57. Finally Block• The finally block is used when it’s necessary to process certain statements no matter, whether an exception is raised or not.• Example try { openFile(); writeFile(); // may cause an exception } catch(……..) { // process the exception } Finally { closeFile(); 57 }
58. 58. Common exceptions1. ArithmeticException Exception2. NullPointerException Exception3. ArrayIndexOutofBoundsException Exception 58
59. 59. 8. ACCESS MODIFIERS• An access specifier determines which features of a class (the class itself, the data members, and the method) may be used by the other classes.• Java supports three specifiers (or) Access Modifiers 1. public 2. private 3. Protected 4. Default1. Public access specifier A class, data member (or) method that has a public access specifier can be accessed by any object. An inner class can’t have a public access specifier. 59
60. 60. • Syntax <access_specifier> <return_type> <method> ([argment list]) { ---------- } Example: public class employee { string empname; string empadd; public void displaydetails( ) { // place the code for displaying employee details }} 60
61. 61. 2. Private access specifier• Only object of the same class can access a variable or a method that has a private access specifier. The variables and method of the inner classes can be declared as private.• Example: private int privateVariable;3. Protected access specifier variable, methods, and inner classes that are declared protected accessible to the subclasses of the class in which they are declared.Example: protected int protectedVariable 61
62. 62. 4.Default access A class, a variable or a method that doesn’t have an access specifier as private, public, protected is said to have default access. These classes, variables or methods are accessible to all the classes of a package. Example: consider following set of classes y and z inherit from class x. class z belongs to the package p1 and classes x and y belong to the package p2. Package p1 Class X Package p2 Class Z Class Y 62
63. 63. * A method accesme() has been declared in class X. The following table shows the accessibility of the method accessme() from class Y and Z. Access specifier Class X Class Y accessme() is Accessible as Y is Accessible as z is declared as a subclass a subclass (even protected if it’s in another class) accessme() is Accessible as it is Not accessible as declared without in the same it is not in the an access package same pckage speicifer 63
64. 64. Access Specifier Member VisibilityDefault Member is visible only to classes in the same package.Private Member is visible only within the class C.Protected Member is visible to all classes in the same package and to subclasses of c in other packages.Public Member is visible to all classes in all packages. 64
65. 65. MODIFIERS• Modifiers determine how the data members and methods are used in other classes and objects.• The modifiers in java: 1. static 2. final 3. abstract 4. native 5. transient 6. synchronized 7. volatile 65
66. 66. 9. INHERITANCE AND METHOD OVERRIDING• Inheritance is a situation in which a class derives a set of attributes and related behavior from a parent class.• 9.1. super classes and subclasses: * super class: super class is a class from which another class inherits properties. It share its properties with its child classes. * sub class: sub class is a class that inherits attributes and methods from a super class. 66
67. 67. • Super class some times referred to as the ‘base class’ and the subclass is referred to as the ‘derived class’.• Subclass don’t inherit the constructs of the super class.• Example: let us take the example of ‘air tickets’- it can be of two types. Confirmed and request ticket. both the tickets have a lot of common attributes. For example flight_number, date, time and destination. confirmed ticket would have a ‘seat number’, while a request ticket would have a ‘status’. 67
68. 68. • Example: Ticket RequestTicket ConfirmedTicketSyntax: public class <subclass name> extends <superclass name> public class confirmedTicket extends Ticket 68
69. 69. Final keyword• The final modifier doesn’t allow a class to be inherited. A method declared anal can’t be overridden by a subclass.• Final- keyword can prevent people from extending a class by using the ‘final’ modifier as follow: example: final class password { -------- } 69
70. 70. OVERRIDING METHODS• In overridding, a subcalss method overrrides the definition of a super class method, if the method defined in the subcalss has the same signature of a method in the super class.• Example: let us consider the class ‘wheelchair’ is derived from the ‘chair class’. Both the classes have a method called ‘adjustHeight()’. Wheelchair is adjusted differently form the way other chairs are adjusted. Therefore, the wheelchair class overrides superclass method ‘adjustHeight()’. 70
71. 71. // declaring base class chair (saved as wheelchair.java)class chair{ public void adjustHeight() { System.out.println(“adjusting chair height”); }}//deriving wheelchair class from chairpublic class wheelchair extends chair{ public static void main (String args[]){ wheelchair w w = new wheelchair(); w.adjustHeight();}} 71
72. 72. 72
73. 73. // declaring base class chair (saved as wheelchair.java)class chair{ public void adjustHeight() { System.out.println(“adjusting chair height”); }}//deriving wheelchair class from chairpublic class wheelchair extends chair{ //overriding adjustHeight() methodpublic void adjustHeight(){ System.out.println(“adjust wheelchair height”); } 73
74. 74. public static void main (String args[]){ wheelchair w w = new wheelchair(); w.adjustHeight();}} 74
75. 75. 75
76. 76. 10. GENERIC METHODS* The following two programs differ only in the data types of the formal parameters & the return value.Program-1:Public static int abs(int a, int b, int c) { return a+b*c+b/c; }Program-2: Public static float abc(float a, float b, float c) { return a+b*c+b/c; } 76
77. 77. • Write a new version of the code for every data type of the formal parameters & return value – we can write a ‘generic code that’s independent of this data type.• It’s not possible to write generic methods to work with actual parameters of any of java primitive data types.• Generic methods can be written to work with actual parameters of the type object (or) any subclass of object.• Example: generic methods will work with the wrapper classes of java, because these wrapper classes are subclasses of ‘object’. 77
78. 78. wrapper classes• A wrapper class extends the functionality of the primitive data types. It allows an object to be created from a primitive data type.• Variables that are declared using ‘primitive data types’ aren’t objects.• To make primitive types to behave like objects, theses wrapper classes also provide methods for converting strings to various data types.• Example: represent a set of primitive data types like ‘int’, it can be done in at least two way: 1) create an array of actual size: int x[] = {10,20,30}; 78
79. 79. 2) the other way is to use a wrapper class: Integer x[] = {new integer(10), new Integer(20), new Integer(30)};• In terms of speed & memory space, the first statement is more efficient for representing a set of values.• The wrapper classes in java.lang are: s.no. Primitive data types Wrapper classes 1. byte Byte 2. char Char 3. int Int 4. long Long 5. float Float 6 double Double 7. boolean Boolean 8. short Short 79
80. 80. INTERFACE• An interface contains constant values and method declarations. The difference between a class and interface is that the methods in an interface are only declared and not implemented.• Interfaces are used to define a ‘behavior protocol’ (standard behavior) that can be implemented by any class anywhere the class hierarch.• Syntax: An interface is declared like a class, but the keyword ‘class’ is replace by the keyword ‘interface’. The declaration of an ‘interface’ is shown below: public interface interfaceName // interface declaration { // interface body } 80
81. 81. • Example: public interface color { final int white = 0; final int black = 1; final int red = 2; }• Example: consider the devices TV & VDU, both of them require a common functionality as far as brightness control is concerned. This functionality can be provided by implementing an interface called “Brightnesscontrol” which is applicable for both the devices. 81
82. 82. // interface definition of Brightnesscontrol public interface BrightnessControl { void increaseBrightness(); void decreaseBrightness(); } // TV class implementing the interface public class TV implements Brightnesscontrol { void increaseBrightness() { // implementation code } 82
83. 83. void decreaseBrightness() { // implementation code } }//VDU class implementing the interface public class VDU implements BrightnessControl { void increaseBrightness() { // implementation code } 83
84. 84. Void increaseBrightness() { // implementation code }} 84
85. 85. Steps for implementing an Interface1. Import the interface2. Declare the class and use the implement keywords followed by the name of the interface.3. Ensure that the class implements every method that has been declared in the interface.4. Save the file with the .java extension.5. Compile the applet or application created. 85
86. 86. Example program // implementinterface.java // example of an interfaceImport java.lang.*;{ public String displayText(); // no implementation of method }public class implementinterface implements inter{ implementinterface inter = new implementinterface(); String str = inter.displayText(); System.out.println(str); } 86
87. 87. public String displayText() { return “ Good Morning”; }}Out put: Good Morning 87
88. 88. 11. GARBAGE COLLECTION• When a program stops referencing an object the object is not required any more and becomes garbage. Garbage collection is a process that automatically frees the memory of objects that are no more in use.• Garbage collector must do two things: 1. Detect garbage objects 2. De-allocate the memory of garbage objects and make it available to the program.• There are different garbage collection algorithms (or) there are different approaches used for detecting garbage objects are as follows: * Reference-counting garbage collectors – keep a count of the references for each live object. 88
89. 89. *Tracing collectors (or) mar-and-sweep algorithm - the mark phase marks all the referenced objects. The sweep phase collects the memory of unreferenced objects. * Compacting collectors - reduce fragmentation of memory by moving all the free space to one side during action. * Adaptive algorithm - monitors the situation and uses the garbage techniques that best suits the situation.The finalize( ) method - before freeing the memory associated with an object, the garbage runs the ‘finalize() method’. 89
90. 90. • Finalize method is declared in any class. The finalize() method is declared as follows: protected void finalize() throws Throwbale { super. finalize( ); }* Garbage collector is called manually using the ‘system.gc ( ) method.’ 90
91. 91. 12. RECURSION• Recursive method invokes itself. There are two types of recursions (i) Direct recursion - the code for method ‘ f ‘ contains a statement that invokes ‘ f ’. (ii) Indirect recursion - method ‘ f ‘ invokes a method ‘ g’ , which invokes a method ‘h’. and so on, until method ‘ f ‘ is again invoked.12.1.Recursive Functions The factorial function is defined as follow: f(n) = 1 n<=1 nf(n-1) n>1 This definition states that f(n) = 1 whenever n is less than or equal to 1. 91
92. 92. • When ‘ n ‘ is less than 1, f(n) is defined recursively• Example f (n) = nf(n-1); f(3) = 3*f(3-1) = 3*f(2) = 3*2 = 6• For a recursive definition of f(n), the f must meet the following requirements: * The definition must include a base component in which f(n) is defined directly, (i.e. non-recursively) for one or more values of n. e.g. from the above equation the base is f(n) = 1 for n<=1 * In the recursive component all occurrence of ‘f’ on the right side should have a parameter smaller than ‘n’, so that repeated application of the recursive component transforms all occurrences of ‘f’ on the right side. 92
93. 93. • repeated application of the recursive components transforms f(n-1) to f(n-2), f(n-3)……. and finally f(1). (e.g) repeated application of the recursive component gives the following: f(5)=5f(4)=20f(3)=60f(2)=120f(1)=120 i.e. f(5)=12012.2.Induction• In a proof by induction, the validity of claim is established as follow: n ∑ i=n(n+1)/2, n>=0 i=0• This method has three components to make a proof 1. induction base 2. induction hypothesis 93 3.induction step
94. 94. • 12.3.Recursive Methods a proper recursive method must include a base component.Public static int factorial(int n){ if ( n < = 1) return 1; else return n * factorial (n-1);} 94
95. 95. 13. TESTING AND DUBUGGING13.1. what is testing Correctness is the most important attributes of a program.* program Testing: providing mathematical proof of correctness for a small program is difficult.• Test data: - compare the program behavior with the expected behavior. - if these two behaviors are different program having problem. 95
96. 96. - if these two behaviors are same also, we couldn’t conclude that the program is correct, if the behavior isn’t same on other input data.• Test data: (Definition) Execute the program on the target computer using input data is called “Test Data”.• Test Set: The subset of the input data space that’s actually used for testing is called the “Test set”.Example: (Quadratic Roots) A Quadratic function (or) quadratic in x is a function that has a form ax2 + bx + c 96
97. 97. where a, b, c - real numbers and a = 0 examples for quadratic not a quadratic functions functions 3x2-2x+4 -9x2-7x 5x+3 3.5x2+4 5.8x2+3.2x+5 The roots of a quadratic function are the values of ‘x’ at which the function value is 0. 97
98. 98. • Example: (1) f(x) = x2-5x+6 if x = 2 f(2) = 22 -(5*2)+6 = 4 -(5*2)+6 = 4-10+6 = -6+6 = 0 (2) f(x) = x2-5x+6 if x = 3 f(2) = 32 -(5*2)+6 = 9 -(5*3)+6 = 9-15+6 = -6+6 = 0 98
99. 99. • Every quadratic has exactly two roots, and these roots are given by the following formula: -b + b2 – 4ac ____________________ 2a if the function f(x) = x2-5x+6 and a=1, b=-5, c=6 then = -(-5) + -52 – 4*1*6 ___________________ 2*1 =5+1 5–1 2 ; 2 f(x) = (3,2) 99
100. 100. Designing Test data• Objectives of Testing expose the presence of error• Correctness of the programs depends on – if the designed data fails to expose errors.• Example: Quadratic Roots - behavior of any test data may be verified in one of two ways: first: find out the roots of the test quadratic (e.g) before slide (a, b, c) = (1, -5, 6) 100
101. 101. second: - substitute the roots(answers(3,2)) produced by the program into the quadratic function. -and verify the function value is 0Example: f(x) = x2-5x+6(i) If f(3) = 32-5*3+6 (ii) if f(2) = 22-5*2+6 = 9 – 5*3+6 = 4-5*2+6 = 9-15+6 = 4-10+6 = -6 + 6 = -6+6 = 0 = 0 101
102. 102. Data Testing Techniques• There are two categories in data testing techniques (i) Black Box Method (ii) White Box Method (i) Black Box Method while developing test data, consider only program’s function, not the actual code. * the most popular black box methods are I/O partitioning cause-effect graphing * In I/O partitioning the input and output data are partition into classes. * Data in different classes cause the program to exhibit qualitatively different behaviors. * Data in same class cause qualitatively similar102 behaviors.
103. 103. • Example: The quadratic roots has three different qualitatively behaviors: 1. the roots are complex 2. the roots are real and distinct 3. the roots are real and the same. Each behaviors has different kinds of behaviors.(ii) White Box Method while developing test data, consider only program’s actual code. * Statement coverage: the weakest condition we can place on a test set, will execute the program statement at least once. 103
104. 104. • Decision coverage the test set cause each condition in the program to take on both true and false values.• Clause coverage strengthen the decision coverage criterion to require each clause of each condition to take on both true and false values. The strengthen criterion is called “ clause coverage”. clause it is defined as Boolean expression that contains no Boolean operator (i.e., &&, ||, ! ). (e.g) x > y, x + y < y * z 104
105. 105. Debugging• The process of determining and correcting the difference between the desired and observed behaviors is called “ debugging”.• Suggestions for debugging: 1. Try to determine an error by logical reasoning. 2. Errors should be corrected first by determining their cause and then redesigning your solutions as necessary. 3. After corrected an error, the correction doesn’t result an errors. 4. When testing and debugging a multi-method program, begin with a single method that’s independent.This method is typically i/p & o/p method. Then introduce additional methods one at at a time. This is called as “ incremental testing & 105
106. 106. USER DEFINED PACKAGE PROGRAM 106
107. 107. Design and develop a Package in Java which contains following Sorting techniques a) Bubble Sort b) Selection Sort c) Shell Sort 107
108. 108. Steps in creating “ User Defined Program”Step -1 : Create a folder name of your User defined package in the path, where the java is installed Example: ►Create a Folder Name “BUBBLE” ► Click the Folder (BUBBLE) and save your java file name (bubblesort.java) ► Click the Folder (SELECTION) and save your java file name (selectionsort.java) ►Create a Folder Name “SHELLSORT” ► Click the Folder (SHELLSORT) and save your java file name (shellsort.java)Step-2: Creation of Main Program Example: ►save the main program (sort.java) in the bin path (e.g: C:Program FilesJavajdk1.5.0bin> 108
109. 109. // package for bubble sortpackage BUBBLE;import java.io.*;public class bubblesort{int a[]=new int[10];int n,t;InputStreamReader isr=new InputStreamReader(System.in);BufferedReader br=new BufferedReader(isr);public void bdisplay(){ try { System.out.println("n--->BUBBLE SORT<----n"); System.out.println("Enter N values to sort.."); n=Integer.parseInt(br.readLine()); System.out.println("Enter" + n + "Value one by one.."); for(int i=1; i<=n; i++) 109
110. 110. { a[i] = Integer.parseInt(br.readLine()); } System.out.println("n Before Sortingn"); for(int i=1; i<=n; i++) { System.out.println(a[i]+ " "); } for(int i=1; i<=n; i++) { for(int j=1; j<=n; j++) { if(a[j]>a[j+1]) a[j]=(a[j]+a[j+1])-(a[j+1]=a[j]); } } 110
111. 111. System.out.println("n After Sortingn"); for(int i=2; i<=n+1; i++) { System.out.println(a[i] + " "); } } catch(Exception e) { System.out.println("Cause Error.."); } } } 111
112. 112. // package for Selection sortpackage SELECTION;import java.io.*;public class selectionsort{int a[]=new int[10];int n,t;InputStreamReader isr=new InputStreamReader(System.in);BufferedReader br=new BufferedReader(isr);public void sdisplay(){ try { System.out.println("n--->SELECTION SORT<----n"); System.out.println("Enter N values to sort.."); n=Integer.parseInt(br.readLine()); System.out.println("Enter" + n + "Value one by one.."); for(int i=1; i<=n; i++) 112
113. 113. { a[i] = Integer.parseInt(br.readLine()); } System.out.println("n Before Sortingn"); for(int i=1; i<=n; i++) { System.out.println(a[i]+ " "); } for(int i=1; i<=n; i++) { int min,loc; min=a[i]; loc=i; for(int j=i+1; j<=n+1; j++){ if(min>a[j]) { min=a[j]; loc=j; } 113
114. 114. a[i]=(a[i]+a[loc])-(a[loc]=a[i]); } } System.out.println("n After Sortingn"); for(int i=2; i<=n+1; i++) { System.out.println(a[i] + " "); } } catch(Exception e) { System.out.println("Cause Error.."); } } } 114
115. 115. // package for shell sortpackage SHELLSORT;import java.io.*;public class shellsort{int a[]=new int[10];int n,t,incr,j;InputStreamReader isr=new InputStreamReader(System.in);BufferedReader br=new BufferedReader(isr);public void shdisplay(){ try { System.out.println("n--->SHELL SORT<----n"); System.out.println("Enter N values to sort.."); n=Integer.parseInt(br.readLine()); System.out.println("Enter" + n + "Value one by one.."); 115
116. 116. System.out.println("n Before Sortingn"); for(int i=1; i<=n; i++) { System.out.println(a[i]+ " "); } incr=n/2; while(incr>0) { for(int i=1;i<n+1;i++) { j=i; t=a[i]; while((j>incr) && (a[j-incr]>t)) { a[j]=a[j-incr]; j=j-incr; } a[j]=t;} 116
117. 117. if(incr/3!=0) incr=incr/3; else if(incr==1) incr=0; else incr=1; } System.out.println("n After Sortingn"); for(int i=1; i<=n; i++) { System.out.println(a[i] + " "); } } catch(Exception e){ System.out.println("Cause Error..");}}} 117
118. 118. //Main Programimport BUBBLE.*;import SELECTION.*;import SHELLSORT.*;class sort{ public static void main(String[] args) { bubblesort bs = new bubblesort(); bs.bdisplay(); selectionsort ss = new selectionsort(); ss.sdisplay(); shellsort sh = new shellsort(); sh.shdisplay(); }} 118
119. 119. OUTPUT 119
120. 120. 120
121. 121. 121
122. 122. 122
123. 123. THANKS FOR WATHING MY - PPT PRESENTED BY KAVITHA.C.R ASST. PROFESSOR SLNCS 123
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Yourself
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Nasal cancer
Definition
Nasal and sinus cancer affects the nasal cavity (the space behind your nose) and the sinuses (small, air-filled cavities inside your nose, cheekbones and forehead).
It's a rare type of cancer that most often affects men aged 50-60.
Nasal and sinus cancer is different to cancer in the area where the nose and throat connect. This is called nasopharyngeal cancer.
This page covers:
Symptoms
When to see your GP
Who's at risk
Treatments
Outlook
Symptoms of nasal and sinus cancer
The most common symptoms of nasal and sinus cancer are:
• a persistent blocked nose, which usually only affects one side
• nosebleeds
• mucus draining from the nose, which may be blood-stained
• a decreased sense of smell
These symptoms can be similar to more common and less serious conditions, such as a cold or sinusitis.
At a later stage, symptoms can include:
When to see your GP
See your GP if you notice any unusual or persistent symptoms. They're very unlikely to be caused by nasal or sinus cancer, but are worth getting checked out.
If your GP thinks you might need some tests to determine what's causing your symptoms, you'll usually be referred to an ear, nose and throat (ENT) consultant in hospital.
Tests you may have include:
Who's at risk of nasal and sinus cancer
Several factors are known to increase the risk of developing nasal and sinus cancer, including:
• your gender – men are more likely to develop nasal and sinus cancer than women
• prolonged exposure to certain substances through your work, including wood dust, leather dust, nickel, chromium and formaldehyde
• smoking – the more you smoke, the higher your risk of developing several types of cancer, including nasal and sinus cancer
• human papilloma virus (HPV) – a group of viruses that affect the skin and moist membranes, such as the mouth and throat
The Health and Safety Executive (HSE) has produced a report on the risk of occupational nasal and sinus cancer in Great Britain (PDF, 2Mb).
Treatments for nasal and sinus cancer
The best treatment depends on several factors, including how far the cancer has spread and your general health.
Treatment may include:
• surgery to remove a tumour – which can be performed using surgical incisions (open surgery) or as keyhole surgery through the nose (endoscopic microsurgery)
• radiotherapy – where high-energy radiation is used to kill the cancerous cells, shrink a tumour before surgery, or destroy small amounts of a tumour that may be left after surgery
• chemotherapy – where medicine is used to help shrink or slow down the growth of a tumour, or to reduce the risk of the cancer returning after surgery
Your treatment will be organised by a head and neck cancer multidisciplinary team (MDT), who will discuss the treatment options with you. A combination of treatments will often be recommended.
Outlook for nasal and sinus cancer
There are many different types of cancer that can affect the nasal cavity and sinuses. The outlook varies, depending on the specific type you have.
Overall, around one in every two or three people with nasal and sinus cancer will live for at least five years after diagnosis.
However, this can vary, depending on things such as exactly where the cancer is located and how far it has spread before it's diagnosed and treated.
Nearly everyone diagnosed at an early stage will live for at least five years. However, if it's not diagnosed until an advanced stage, only around one in every three to five people will live at least five years.
Cancer of the nasal cavity generally has a better outlook than cancer of the sinuses.
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Viruses Prions and Viroids Infectious Agents of Animals and Plants
Transmission electron micrograph (TEM) of rotavirus (x575,000)
/ | Ithough scientific reports as early as the eighteenth century suggested that invisible agents might cause * * tumors, not until the early twentieth century did this idea gain strong experimental support. At that time, Dr. Peyton Rous of the Rockefeller Institute caused tumors in healthy chickens by injecting them with a filtered suspension of ground-up cells from tumors of other chickens. These studies were not taken very seriously, because most people believed that viruses did not cause tumors. As years passed, however, the idea gained favor as other investigators made similar observations. For example, in the early 1930s, Dr. Richard Shope observed skin tumors (papillomas) in wild rabbits in Iowa and Kansas. He showed that these tumors were caused by an agent that was not trapped in filters that removed bacteria. When he injected the filtrate into domestic rather than wild rabbits, the agent did not cause tumors. This phenomenon of a virus causing a disease in one animal but not in another has since been observed again and again with many other viruses.
In 1957, almost 50 years after Peyton Rous's study, Dr. Sarah Stewart and Dr. Bernice Eddy at the National Institutes of Health in Washington, D.C., studied two tumor-causing viruses, polyoma, a DNA virus, and SV40, an RNA virus. They noted that when the polyoma virus, grown in monkeys or mouse embryo tissues, was inoculated into a wide variety of animals such as rats, hamsters, and rabbits, it caused many different kinds of tumors. Eddy also pioneered the study of SV40, a virus that could be isolated from certain monkeys in which it did not cause any tumors. When injected into other animals, such as baby hamsters, however, the virus caused tumors. Thus, SV40, like the papilloma virus studied by Shope, appears to be "silent" in its natural host but causes tumors when inoculated into certain foreign hosts.
Recently, the ability of SV40 to cause tumors in hamsters has taken on a new twist. Early batches of the injectable polio vaccine prepared by Dr. Jonas Salk in 1955 were derived from healthy rhesus monkeys that were contaminated with SV40. Several hundred million people worldwide were injected with the contaminated vaccine before virus-free preparations of the vaccine were manufactured, starting in 1961. Until the early 1990s, there was no indication that children who were given the contaminated vaccine were in any danger of developing tumors from the SV40. However, in 1992, SV40 DNA was found in rare childhood brain tumors and then in bone tumors. These findings were followed by finding SV40 DNA in lung tumors and, in 2002, the virus was found in non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. Not all of the people who had SV40 in their tumors had been inoculated with the contaminated polio vaccine. It seems likely that the virus spread from people who were given the contaminated vaccine to those who were not. However, finding SV40 in human tumors does not prove that the virus caused the tumor. Indeed, several studies have concluded that people who received the contaminated vaccine do not have an increased risk of developing tumors. More research is needed to understand the true significance of finding SV40 in so many different types of tumors. Such research is in progress.
—A Glimpse of History
MUCH OF THE BASIC BIOLOGY OF BACTERIOPHAGES also applies to animal and plant viruses; however, each viral group has certain unique properties. This chapter presents a general approach to the classification of animal viruses, followed by a discussion of their modes of replication and effects on host cells, including their role in causing certain tumors. A discussion of plant viruses as well as viroids and prions is also included.
342 Chapter 14 Viruses, Prions, and Viroids: Infectious Agents of Animals and Plants
Bacterial Vaginosis Facts
Bacterial Vaginosis Facts
This fact sheet is designed to provide you with information on Bacterial Vaginosis. Bacterial vaginosis is an abnormal vaginal condition that is characterized by vaginal discharge and results from an overgrowth of atypical bacteria in the vagina.
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Allelic diversity of the PRDM9 coding minisatellite in minke whales
The PRDM9 protein controls the reshuffling of parental genomes in most metazoans. During meiosis the PRDM9 protein recognizes and binds specific target motifs via its zinc-finger array, which is encoded by a hypervariable minisatellite. To date, PRDM9 diversity has been little studied outside humans, wild mice and some domesticated species where evolutionary constraints may have been relaxed.
Here we explore the structure and variability of PRDM9 in samples of the minke whales from the Atlantic, Pacific and Southern Oceans. We show that minke whales possess all the features characteristic of organisms with PRDM9-directed recombination initiation, including complete KRAB, SSXRD and SET domains and a rapidly evolving array of C2H2-type-Zincfingers (ZnF). We uncovered eighteen novel PRDM9 variants and evidence of rapid evolution, particularly of DNA-recognizing positions that evolve under positive selection.
At different geographical scales, we observed extensive PRDM9 diversity in Antarctic minke whales (Balaenoptera bonarensis), that conversely lack observable population differentiation in mitochondrial DNA and microsatellites. In contrast, a single PRDM9 variant is shared between all Common Minke whales and even across subspecies boundaries of North Atlantic (B. a. acutorostrata) and North Pacific (B. a. scammoni) minke whale, which do show clear population differentiation.
PRDM9 variation of whales predicts distinct recombination initiation landscapes genome wide, which has possible consequences for speciation.
Authors: Elena Damm, Kristian K Ullrich, William B Amos, Linda Odenthal-Hesse
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BIODIVERSITAS S P E S I E S
<ul><li>A. What is a species? </li></ul><ul><li> Morphological species concept: </li></ul><ul><li>"members of ...
The biological species concept is based on inter-fertility, rather than physical similarity.
Biological species concept: "a species is a group of actually or potentially interbreeding individuals who are repr...
<ul><li>Speciation </li></ul><ul><li>- process by which a new species originates. </li></ul><ul><li>- Process by which ne...
Speciation results in the splitting of an ancestral species into two (or more) descendent species. This process is the sou...
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Biodiv spesies
1. 1. BIODIVERSITAS S P E S I E S
2. 3. <ul><li>A. What is a species? </li></ul><ul><li> Morphological species concept: </li></ul><ul><li>"members of a species are individuals that look similar to one another.“ </li></ul><ul><li>Morphology refers to the form and structure of an organism or any of its parts (phenotype characters). The morphological species concept supports the widely held view that This school of thought was the basis for Linneaus' original classification, which is still broadly accepted and applicable today. </li></ul><ul><li>This concept became criticized by biologists because it was arbitrary </li></ul><ul><li>Polimorfisme </li></ul><ul><li>Metamorfosa </li></ul><ul><li>Mimikri </li></ul><ul><li>Spesies kembar (sibling species) </li></ul>
3. 4. The biological species concept is based on inter-fertility, rather than physical similarity.
4. 5. Biological species concept: "a species is a group of actually or potentially interbreeding individuals who are reproductively isolated from other such groups." It suggested a critical test of species-hood: two individuals belong to the same species if their gametes can unite with each other under natural conditions to produce fertile offspring. This concept also emphasized that a species is an evolutionary unit. Members share genes with other members of their species, and not with members of other species. Although this definition clearly is attractive, it has problems. Can you test it on museum specimens or fossil data? Can it explain the existence of species in a line of descent, such as the well-known lineage of fossil horses? Obviously not.
5. 6. <ul><li>Speciation </li></ul><ul><li>- process by which a new species originates. </li></ul><ul><li>- Process by which new species are formed from other, ancesstral ones. </li></ul><ul><li>Involves the creation of a population of organisms that are novel enough to be classified in their own group. </li></ul><ul><li>Two processes by which this can occur: </li></ul><ul><li> </li></ul><ul><li>- Anagenesis is the accumulation of heritable traits in a population, that transforms that population into a new species. </li></ul><ul><li>Cladogenesis is branching evolution, in which a new species arises as a branch of from the evolutionary tree. The original species still exists. </li></ul>
6. 8. Speciation results in the splitting of an ancestral species into two (or more) descendent species. This process is the source of biological diversity.
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JavaScript Clean Code — More About Classes
aumayeung profile image John Au-Yeung Originally published at thewebdev.info on ・3 min read
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Classes in JavaScript is syntactic sugar on top of the prototypical inheritance features of the language. However, in terms of writing clean code, the principles still apply since they have the same structure as classes in class-based languages.
In this article, we’ll look at how to write JavaScript classes in a clean and maintainable way.
We’ll look at how to organize for changes and using the class syntax instead of using constructor functions.
Organizing for Change
We have to prepare for classes to be changed when we organize them. This means that we should make them extendible rather than having to constantly modify code to get the functionality we want in our class.
Our methods should be simple. Simple methods are easier to test and we don’t have to change them as much.
We should follow the open/closed principle, which states that a piece of code should be open for extension but closed for modification.
This applies to classes just like another piece of code.
For example, if we have the following Rectangle class:
class Rectangle {
constructor(length, width) {
this.length = length;
this.width = width;
}
get area() {
return this.length * this.width;
}
}
Then we can easily add a getter method for computing the perimeter of a rectangle as follows:
class Rectangle {
constructor(length, width) {
this.length = length;
this.width = width;
}
get area() {
return this.length * this.width;
}
get perimeter() {
return 2 * (this.length + this.width);
}
}
As we can see, we didn’t have to modify the existing code to add a method for computing the perimeter. We just add the perimeter getter method and be done with it.
Use the Class Syntax Instead of Constructor Functions
It’s time to move on to the class syntax instead of using constructor functions.
We can see why with the following example of inheritance:
function Person(name, age) {
this.name = name;
this.age = age;
}
function Employee(name, age, employeeCode) {
Person.call(this, name, age);
Employee.prototype.constructor = Person;
this.employeeCode = employeeCode;
}
First, we have to create the Person constructor, then to make Employee ‘s prototype Person and set all the inherited properties, we have to first write:
Person.call(this, name, age);
to set all the instance variables, and:
Employee.prototype.constructor = Person;
to set the Employee’s prototype constructor to Person . We can easily miss any of these 2 lines and the Employee constructor won’t be inheriting from the Person constructor.
If we create an Employee instance as follows:
const employee = new Employee('Joe', 20, 'waiter');
Then we should see something like the following under the __proto__ property:
constructor: _ƒ Person(name, age)_
This means that we set the prototype of the Employee instance to the Person constructor correctly.
With the class syntax, we only have to use the extends keyword to inherit from one class. We can rewrite the code above as follows:
class Person {
constructor(name, age) {
this.name = name;
this.age = age;
}
}
class Employee extends Person{
constructor(name, age, employeeCode) {
super(name, age);
this.employeeCode = employeeCode;
}
}
Then when we create the same Employee instance as follows:
const employee = new Employee('Joe', 20, 'waiter');
Then we should see something like the following under the __proto__ property:
constructor: _class Employee_
As we can see, both console.log outputs are the same, except for the function and class difference, but they’re the same since classes are the same as constructor functions.
However, we don’t have to use call or this , and set the variables of the superclass manually.
The JavaScript interpreter will tell us if we forgot to call super or use the extends keyword.
There’s no going back to the old constructor function syntax nowadays since it’s pretty inconvenient.
Conclusion
When we design classes, we should organize for change. This means that we should have code that’s open for extension but closed for modification.
This reduces the risk of messing up existing code why allowing us to keep making changes by adding new code.
Also, it’s time to move on to the class syntax for creating constructor functions. It’s hard to do inheritance with old constructor functions, while the class syntax makes everything much easier.
The post JavaScript Clean Code — More About Classes appeared first on The Web Dev.
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John Au-Yeung
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I'm web developer interested in JavaScript stuff.
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The humble Mushrooms
Although classified as vegetables mushrooms are not technically plants. They belong to the fungi kingdom. Currently they are on the cutting edge of discovering new benefits and a range important nutrients.
The main way to get enough vitamins and minerals in the diet is to eat a colourful variety of fruits and vegetables. In many cases, a food that lacks colour also lacks necessary nutrients, but ‘edible’ mushrooms, which are commonly white, prove quite the contrary.
Health benefits of mushrooms
Consuming fruits and vegetables of all kinds has long been associated with a reduced risk of many lifestyle-related health conditions.
Increasing consumption of whole, unprocessed foods, like mushrooms, appears to decrease the risk of obesity and overall mortality, diabetes, and heart disease.
Cancer
Mushrooms are high in antioxidants, just like carrots, tomatoes, green and red peppers, pumpkins, green beans, zucchini, and other whole foods. Antioxidants are chemicals that get rid of free radicals, a type of chemical that can harm a person’s body cells, potentially leading to cancer.
Selenium is a mineral that is not present in most fruits and vegetables but can be found in mushrooms. It plays a role in liver enzyme function and helps detoxify some cancer-causing compounds in the body. Additionally, selenium prevents inflammation and also decreases tumorgrowth rates.
The vitamin D in mushrooms has also been shown to inhibit the growth of cancer cells by contributing to the regulation of the cell growth cycle. Placing freshly cut mushrooms in the sun significantly increases their vitamin D content. The folate in mushrooms plays an important role in DNA synthesis and repair, thus preventing the formation of cancer cells from mutations in the DNA.
Heart health
The fibre, potassium and vitamin C content in mushrooms all contribute to cardiovascular health. Potassium and sodium work together in the body to help regulate blood pressure. Consuming mushrooms, which are high in potassium and low in sodium, helps to lower blood pressure and decrease the risk of high blood pressure and cardiovascular diseases.
Additionally, an intake of 3 grams of beta-glucans per day can lower blood cholesterol levels by 5 percent. The stem of the shiitake mushrooms is a particularly good source of beta-glucans.
Immunity
Selenium has also been found to improve immune response to infection by stimulating the production of killer T-cells. The beta-glucan fibres found in the cell walls of mushrooms stimulate the immune system to fight cancer cells and prevent tumours from forming.
Nutritional profile of mushrooms
Mushrooms are naturally low in sodium, fat, cholesterol, and calories and have often been referred to as “functional foods.”
As well as providing basic nutrition, they help prevent chronic disease due to the presence of antioxidants and beneficial dietary fibres such as chitin and beta-glucans.
One cup of chopped or sliced raw white mushrooms contains:
• 15 calories
• 0 grams of fat
• 2 grams of protein
• 3 grams of carbohydrate, including 0.7 grams of fibre and 1.4 grams of sugar
A large variety of mushrooms are available, but most provide around the same amount of the same nutrients per serving, regardless of their shape or size.
Vitamins and minerals
Mushrooms are rich in B vitamins such as riboflavin (B2), folate (B9), thiamine (B1), pantothenic acid (B5), and niacin B3). The B vitamins help the body to get energy from food, and they help form red blood cells.
A number of B vitamins also appear to be important for a healthy brain.
Beta-glucans are a type of fibre that is found in the cell walls of many types of mushrooms. Recently, beta-glucans have been the subject of extensive studies that suggest they might improve insulin resistance and blood cholesterol levels, lowering the risk of obesity and providing an immunity boost.3
Mushrooms also contain choline, an important nutrient that helps with sleep, muscle movement, learning, and memory. Choline assists in maintaining the structure of cellular membranes, aids in the transmission of nerve impulses, supports proper fat absorption and reduces chronic inflammation.
Stating the obvious – you can’t eat all mushrooms – we you can but some will have a deadly effect if you do.
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HDMI
Updated: 02/27/2019 by Computer Hope
HDMI cable from MediabridgeShort for High Definition Multimedia Interface, HDMI is a connector and cable capable of transmitting high-quality and high-bandwidth streams of audio and video between devices. The HDMI technology is used with devices such as an HDTV, Projector, DVD player, or Blu-ray player. The picture to the right is an example of an HDMI cable.
HDMI cable information
The HDMI standard was developed by multiple companies, including Hitachi, Philips, Sony, and Toshiba. A single HDMI cable replaces the three composite audio/video cables, making it easier to connect two devices together for transmitting audio and video signals. HDMI is capable of transmitting standard, enhanced, and high-definition video signals, as well as up to 8-channels of digital audio signals.
What are the different lengths of HDMI cables?
The length of HDMI cables varies significantly. They can run from one foot all the way up to 50 feet, though it's not recommended that users buy more than a 25 foot cable as it may result in signal degradation or loss.
Where are the HDMI ports on the back of the computer?
The HDMI ports are found either on the video card or motherboard on the back of the computer. It is important to note that not all computers and video cards have HDMI connectors; your computer may use Display Port, DVI, or VGA technology.
An image contaning modern video ports.
Cable, Computer acronyms, Connection, DVI, Hardware terms, HDTV, Video converter, Video terms
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BEGIN:VCALENDAR VERSION:2.0 CALSCALE:GREGORIAN PRODID:UW-Madison-Physics-Events BEGIN:VEVENT SEQUENCE:0 UID:UW-Physics-Event-7974 DTSTART:20221024T170000Z DURATION:PT1H0M0S DTSTAMP:20230127T012453Z LAST-MODIFIED:20221019T172521Z LOCATION:1610 Engineering Hall SUMMARY:Exploring the new electron-positron plasma frontier: the annih ilation signature of cold magnetically-confined pairs and accessing th e relativistic and magnetized regime\, Plasma Physics (Physics/ECE/NE 922) Seminar\, Jens von der Linden\, IPP Garching DESCRIPTION:Advances in positron production\, accumulation\, and trapp ing are enabling a new plasma physics frontier: electron-positron pair plasma. I will report on two parallel efforts.
\n
\nOne line of research aims to accumulate and magnetically confine moderated posi trons with electrons in sufficient numbers to produce a pair plasma wi th a small Debye length (but with a skin depth exceeding the plasma si ze). The mass symmetry of pair plasma has led to many predictions with regard to their stability to electrostatic modes and (absence of) tur bulence. Yet\, it is unclear how to diagnose the behaviour of these el ectromagnetically transparent plasmas without terminating them. Here\, I show that direct annihilation in the bulk of the plasma\, positroni um formation and subsequent annihilation\, as well as transport to the wall and magnets will produce various volumetric and localized source s of gamma emission with rates related to the plasma parameters. Metho ds for diagnosing and differentiating between volumetric and localized gamma sources are developed.
\n
\nThe other effort aims to ma gnetize the large numbers (up to 10^12) of pairs produced through lase r-target interactions at intense short-pulse laser facilities. The ene rgy of these pair beams can be controlled by manipulating the sheath o n the backside of the target. The charge ratio of the pair beam can be made unitary with magnetic collimation. The lifetime of these pair be ams can be extended with magnetic mirror trapping. Together\, these ex perimental techniques could make the relativistic and magnetized plasm a regime\, prevalent around massive astrophysical objects such as magn etars\, accessible.
\n
\n URL:https://www.physics.wisc.edu/events/?id=7974 END:VEVENT END:VCALENDAR
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Explain the concepts of CTS and CLS(Common Language Specification)
Posted by deccansoft on 8/4/2010 | Category: C# Interview questions | Views: 5022
CTS When different languages are integrated and want to communicate, it is certain that the languages have their own data types and different declaration styles. CTS define how these different variables are declared and used in run time. E.g. VB offers an Integer data type while C++ offers long data type. Using CTS, these data types are converted to System32 which itself a data type of CLS. CLS Any language(s) that intend to use the Common Language Infrastructure needs to communicate with other CLS-Compliant language. This communication is based on set of rules laid by CLS. These rules define a subset of CTS.
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[CSUSB]>> [CNS]>> [CSE]>> [R J Botting]>> biba.php
Bibliographic Item (1.0)
Saiedian95
1. Hossein Saiedian
2. An invitation to Formal methods(introduction to a round table)
3. IEEE Computer Magazine V29N4(Apr 1996)pp16-17
4. =EDITORIAL MATHEMATICS
5. "In essence formal methods offer the same advantages for software (or even hardware) design that many other engineering disciplines have exploited - namely mathematical analysis using a mathematically based model".
6. See [BowenHinchey96] [Glass96] [JonesCB96] [JacksonDWing96] [Hall96] [DillRushby96] [HollowayButler96] [Zave96] [Lutz96] [Parnas96] [Gries96]
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How long is too long without water?
The human body is predominantly made up of water, and it requires a constant flow of water for various essential bodily functions like digestion, blood circulation, and even temperature regulation. When the body goes without water for an extended period, there is a significant risk of dehydration, which can lead to a range of complications and even death.
The recommended amount of water intake for adults is approximately eight glasses of water per day, which is equivalent to two liters of water. However, this amount can vary depending on different factors like physical activity, environmental temperature, and overall health.
In ideal conditions, an adult can go without water for up to three to five days maximum, after which dehydration sets in, and the body starts to shut down. The timeline of survival without water can be shorter or longer depending on several factors such as access to and quality of water, overall health of an individual, and environment.
Children and the elderly are more prone to dehydration and require constant access to water throughout the day to maintain proper hydration levels. In extreme conditions like the desert, where water sources are scarce, and temperatures are high, the human body can only survive for a few days at most.
It is essential to regularly drink water to maintain optimal health and avoid dehydration. The amount of water required may vary from person to person and depends on various factors, but generally, it is recommended to drink at least eight glasses of water a day. It’s best not to take any chances with your health and ensure that you always have access to water to stay hydrated and healthy.
Is it bad to go 14 hours without water?
Going 14 hours without water can certainly have negative effects on our bodies. Water makes up around 60% of the human body and is essential for a range of bodily functions. When we don’t drink enough water, we can experience dehydration, which can lead to a variety of symptoms.
One of the most common and noticeable effects of dehydration is thirst. If we go without water for 14 hours, it’s likely that we’ll feel increasingly thirsty as time goes on. This is our body’s way of telling us that we need to drink more water to maintain a healthy balance.
As dehydration continues, we may start to experience other symptoms. These can include headache, fatigue, dizziness, and dry mouth. We might also notice that our skin becomes dry and less elastic, our urine becomes darker in colour and we may experience constipation.
In more severe cases, dehydration can lead to more serious symptoms such as confusion, rapid heartbeat, and low blood pressure. In extreme cases, it can even be life-threatening.
The severity of dehydration depends on a range of factors including age, health, and activity levels. Some people may be more susceptible to dehydration than others. For example, athletes and outdoor workers need to drink more water to replace what they lose through sweating.
It’s important to stay hydrated by drinking water throughout the day, especially during periods of increased activity or heat. While going 14 hours without water isn’t necessarily harmful to everyone, it’s not something that should be taken lightly. Consistently neglecting to drink enough water can have serious consequences on our overall health and wellbeing.
What happens if you don’t drink water for 14 hours?
Dehydration is the number one concern when you haven’t drunk water for 14 hours. Water is an essential nutrient that our body needs to carry out its numerous physiological functions. The human body can survive without food for several days, but without water, severe dehydration could begin to set in just after a few hours.
Without replenishing your body with water, you may begin to notice several early warning signs of dehydration, such as dryness in your mouth, thirst, and fatigue. At this stage, your body is trying to tell you that it needs water, and it’s important that you heed that call and drink enough water to replenish the fluids you’ve lost.
If you continue to ignore these early signs of dehydration and don’t drink enough water, your body will begin to experience more severe symptoms. You may start to feel a headache, muscle cramps, dizziness, and lightheadedness. Your urine may also become darker and more concentrated due to the decreased volume of fluids in your body.
In extreme conditions, if you fail to rehydrate yourself, your body may experience heatstroke, which is a serious medical emergency. This condition usually occurs when your body loses too much water and electrolytes, leading to an imbalance in your body’s core temperature regulation mechanism. The result is a dangerous rise in your body temperature that could cause damage to your vital organs, including the brain, heart, and kidneys.
Not drinking water for 14 hours can cause dehydration, which can lead to several mild to severe symptoms and can ultimately result in heatstroke, a critical medical emergency. Therefore, it’s essential to listen to your body and make sure you drink enough water regularly to avoid dehydration and maintain your overall health and wellbeing.
Is it bad I haven’t drank water in 2 days?
Yes, it is bad to go without drinking water for two days. Water is essential for many functions in the body such as digestion, circulation, and temperature regulation. When the body doesn’t get enough water, it can become dehydrated. Dehydration can cause a variety of symptoms, including headaches, fatigue, dizziness, and dry mouth.
If left untreated, dehydration can become severe and lead to more serious health problems. Severe dehydration can cause confusion, rapid heartbeat, low blood pressure, and even organ failure. It’s essential to drink enough water to prevent dehydration and maintain optimal health.
It’s important to note that other fluids such as juices, soda, and coffee do not count towards your daily water intake. These fluids contain additives, sugar, and caffeine that can actually lead to dehydration. The best way to stay hydrated is by drinking water throughout the day, especially when you’re sweating, exercising, or spending time in hot weather.
If you’ve gone a long time without drinking water, it’s important to rehydrate slowly to avoid overloading your system and causing further issues. Start by sipping small amounts of water and gradually increase your intake. If you experience severe dehydration symptoms, seek medical attention immediately.
Not drinking water for two days is bad for your health and can lead to dehydration. Make sure to drink plenty of water throughout the day to stay hydrated and maintain optimal health.
What are the 5 symptoms of dehydration?
Dehydration occurs when the body loses more fluids than it takes in. This can happen for many reasons including lack of hydration, heat exhaustion, or even diarrhea. The body needs fluids to function properly, and when it is dehydrated, various symptoms will show up. Here are the five symptoms of dehydration that you need to watch for:
1. Thirst: One of the most obvious signs of dehydration is a feeling of thirst. When your body is dehydrated, it sends signals to the brain to increase fluid intake. This can cause you to feel thirsty, even if you don’t feel like drinking.
2. Dry skin and mouth: Dehydration can cause your skin and mouth to become dry and sticky. Your skin may lose elasticity and look dull, while your mouth produces less saliva than usual. This can make swallowing and talking difficult.
3. Fatigue: If you feel tired and sluggish, it could be a sign of dehydration. Your body needs fluids to produce energy, and dehydration can cause your body to slow down. This can make it difficult to focus on your work and may even interfere with physical activities.
4. Dizziness or lightheadedness: Dehydration can also cause dizziness or lightheadedness. This happens because dehydration reduces the amount of blood flowing to your brain. This can make you feel dizzy or even faint if it is severe enough.
5. Infrequent urination: When you are dehydrated, your body produces less urine than usual. This happens as your body tries to conserve fluids. This can be a problem if you are not taking in fluids, as it can lead to the buildup of waste products in your body.
Dehydration is a serious issue that should not be ignored. If you experience any of the above symptoms, it is important to replenish your fluids immediately. This can be achieved by drinking water, sports drinks, or other fluids that contain electrolytes. If your symptoms persist or worsen, seek medical attention immediately.
How bad is it to not drink water for a day?
Not drinking water for a day can have several negative effects on the body. Water is essential for various bodily functions, and it is necessary for maintaining healthy organ function, enhancing digestion, and boosting mental health. When the body doesn’t get the water it needs, it becomes dehydrated, which can lead to various health problems.
Dehydration occurs when the body loses more water than it takes in, and it can happen quickly in extreme conditions such as hot weather, intense physical activity, or not drinking enough fluids. Mild to moderate dehydration can cause symptoms such as thirst, dry mouth, fatigue, dizziness, and headaches. In severe cases, dehydration can lead to a rapid heart rate, low blood pressure, and even loss of consciousness.
Not drinking water for a day can lead to dehydration, which can also cause constipation due to lack of water to help move waste through the digestive system. Dehydration can also cause urinary tract infections, kidney stones, and other kidney-related problems. Lack of water can also contribute to skin problems such as dryness, itchiness, and premature aging.
Not drinking water for a day may seem like a small thing, but it can lead to significant health consequences. It is crucial to drink at least eight glasses of water every day to ensure that the body stays hydrated, organs function properly, and overall mental and physical health is maintained.
How much water does a human need a day?
The amount of water that a human needs per day varies depending on several factors such as age, gender, weight, activity level, and climate. However, the general recommended daily intake for an adult is 2 to 3 liters, or 8 to 10 glasses, of water per day. This level of intake is based on several studies and research, which indicate that a sufficient amount of water intake helps to maintain optimal bodily functions, prevent dehydration, and promote overall health.
For instance, staying hydrated helps to regulate body temperature, prevent constipation, flush out toxins, and promote the proper functioning of organs such as the kidneys. Additionally, drinking enough water is known to help maintain healthy skin, boost energy levels, and prevent headaches.
The amount of water a person needs can also be affected by factors such as exercise, illness, pregnancy or breastfeeding, and diet. For instance, when engaging in vigorous exercise, an individual should increase their water intake to replace fluids lost through sweating. Similarly, those who are ill may require more water to help restore fluid balance in their body.
Drinking enough water is essential for maintaining healthy bodily functions and overall well-being. While the recommended daily intake of water can vary depending on individual factors, regular intake of 2 to 3 liters per day is generally suitable for the average adult. It is important to stay hydrated by drinking water regularly throughout the day, and to adjust intake based on any other individual factors that may impact fluid requirements.
How long does it take for water to reach the bladder?
Water travels through the body in a complex process that involves several organs and bodily systems. The journey begins when we consume water or other liquids. These fluids are first broken down in the stomach and then absorbed into the bloodstream through the small intestine. From there, the water travels to the liver, where it is filtered and cleared of any impurities.
After leaving the liver, the water continues through the bloodstream until it reaches the kidneys. The kidneys are responsible for regulating the balance of fluids and electrolytes in the body. They remove excess water and waste products from the blood and produce urine, which is then sent to the bladder for temporary storage.
The amount of time it takes for water to reach the bladder varies depending on several factors, including how much water was consumed and the individual’s overall hydration level. Typically, it takes about 30 minutes to 2 hours for the water to pass from the stomach to the bladder. Once in the bladder, the water will remain there until it is expelled through urination.
It’s important to note that proper hydration is essential for maintaining overall health and wellness. Most experts suggest drinking at least eight 8-ounce glasses of water per day to ensure adequate hydration. Additionally, it’s helpful to pay attention to your body’s signals and drink water whenever you feel thirsty or dehydrated. Staying hydrated can help prevent a host of health problems, including fatigue, headaches, and urinary tract infections.
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\(\newcommand{\id}{\mathrm{id}}\) \( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\) \( \newcommand{\kernel}{\mathrm{null}\,}\) \( \newcommand{\range}{\mathrm{range}\,}\) \( \newcommand{\RealPart}{\mathrm{Re}}\) \( \newcommand{\ImaginaryPart}{\mathrm{Im}}\) \( \newcommand{\Argument}{\mathrm{Arg}}\) \( \newcommand{\norm}[1]{\| #1 \|}\) \( \newcommand{\inner}[2]{\langle #1, #2 \rangle}\) \( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\)
[ "article:topic", "arc length", "authorname:guichard", "showtoc:no" ]
Mathematics LibreTexts
9.9: Arc Length
• Page ID
483
• \( \newcommand{\vecs}[1]{\overset { \scriptstyle \rightharpoonup} {\mathbf{#1}} } \)
\( \newcommand{\vecd}[1]{\overset{-\!-\!\rightharpoonup}{\vphantom{a}\smash {#1}}} \)
Here is another geometric application of the integral: find the length of a portion of a curve. As usual, we need to think about how we might approximate the length, and turn the approximation into an integral.
We already know how to compute one simple arc length, that of a line segment. If the endpoints are \( P_0(x_0,y_0)\) and \( P_1(x_1,y_1)\) then the length of the segment is the distance between the points, \( \sqrt{(x_1-x_0)^2+(y_1-y_0)^2}\), from the Pythagorean theorem, as illustrated in Figure \( \PageIndex{1}\).
The length of a line segment.
Figure \( \PageIndex{1}\): The length of a line segment.
Now if the graph of \(f\) is "nice'' (say, differentiable) it appears that we can approximate the length of a portion of the curve with line segments, and that as the number of segments increases, and their lengths decrease, the sum of the lengths of the line segments will approach the true arc length; see Figure \( \PageIndex{2}\).
Approximating arc length with line segments.
Figure \( \PageIndex{2}\): Approximating arc length with line segments.
Now we need to write a formula for the sum of the lengths of the line segments, in a form that we know becomes an integral in the limit. So we suppose we have divided the interval \([a,b]\) into \(n\) subintervals as usual, each with length \(\Delta x =(b-a)/n\), and endpoints \( a=x_0\), \( x_1\), \( x_2\), …, \( x_n=b\). The length of a typical line segment, joining \( (x_i,f(x_i))\) to \( (x_{i+1},f(x_{i+1}))\), is \(\sqrt{(\Delta x )^2 +(f(x_{i+1})-f(x_i))^2}\). By the Mean Value Theorem (6.5.2), there is a number \( t_i\) in \( (x_i,x_{i+1})\) such that \( f'(t_i)\Delta x=f(x_{i+1})-f(x_i)\), so the length of the line segment can be written as
\[ \sqrt{(\Delta x)^2 + (f'(t_i))^2\Delta x^2}= \sqrt{1+(f'(t_i))^2}\,\Delta x. \]
The arc length is then
\[ \lim_{n\to\infty}\sum_{i=0}^{n-1} \sqrt{1+(f'(t_i))^2}\,\Delta x= \int_a^b \sqrt{1+(f'(x))^2}\,dx. \]
Note that the sum looks a bit different than others we have encountered, because the approximation contains a \( t_i\) instead of an \( x_i\). In the past we have always used left endpoints (namely, \( x_i\)) to get a representative value of \(f\) on \( [x_i,x_{i+1}]\); now we are using a different point, but the principle is the same.
To summarize, to compute the length of a curve on the interval \([a,b]\), we compute the integral
\[\int_a^b \sqrt{1+(f'(x))^2}\,dx.\]
Unfortunately, integrals of this form are typically difficult or impossible to compute exactly, because usually none of our methods for finding antiderivatives will work. In practice this means that the integral will usually have to be approximated.
Example \( \PageIndex{1}\)
Let \( f(x) = \sqrt{r^2-x^2}\), the upper half circle of radius \(r\). The length of this curve is half the circumference, namely \(\pi r\). Let's compute this with the arc length formula.
Solution
The derivative \(f'\) is \( -x/\sqrt{r^2-x^2}\) so the integral is
\[ \int_{-r}^r \sqrt{1+{x^2\over r^2-x^2}}\,dx =\int_{-r}^r \sqrt{r^2\over r^2-x^2}\,dx =r\int_{-r}^r \sqrt{1\over r^2-x^2}\,dx. \]
Using a trigonometric substitution, we find the antiderivative, namely \( \arcsin(x/r)\). Notice that the integral is improper at both endpoints, as the function \( \sqrt{1/(r^2-x^2)}\) is undefined when \(x=\pm r\). So we need to compute
\[ \lim_{D\to-r^+}\int_D^0 \sqrt{1\over r^2-x^2}\,dx + \lim_{D\to r^-}\int_0^D \sqrt{1\over r^2-x^2}\,dx. \]
This is not difficult, and has value \(\pi\), so the original integral, with the extra \(r\) in front, has value \(\pi r\) as expected.
Contributors
David Guichard (Whitman College)
• Integrated by Justin Marshall.
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Analysis of Algorithms (Recurrences)
• Last Updated : 21 May, 2019
Question 1
What is the value of following recurrence.
T(n) = T(n/4) + T(n/2) + cn2
T(1) = c
T(0) = 0
Where c is a positive constant
A
O(n3)
B
O(n2)
C
O(n2 Logn)
D
O(nLogn)
Analysis of Algorithms (Recurrences)
Discuss it
Question 1 Explanation:
Following is the initial recursion tree for the given recurrence relation.
cn^2
/ \
T(n/4) T(n/2)
If we further break down the expression T(n/4) and T(n/2), we get following recursion tree.
cn^2
/ \
c (n^2)/16 c(n^2)/4
/ \ / \
T(n/16) T(n/8) T(n/8) T(n/4)
Breaking down further gives us following
cn^2
/ \
c(n^2)/16 c(n^2)/4
/ \ / \
c(n^2)/256 c(n^2)/64 c(n^2)/64 c(n^2)/16
/ \ / \ / \ / \
To know the value of T(n), we need to calculate sum of tree nodes level by level. If we sum the above tree level by level, we get the following series T(n) = c(n^2 + 5(n^2)/16 + 25(n^2)/256) + .... The above series is geometrical progression with ratio 5/16 To get an upper bound, we can sum the above series for infinite terms. We get the sum as (n^2) / (1 - 5/16) which is O(n^2) Refer following video lecture for more details. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=whjt_N9uYFI
Question 2
What is the value of following recurrence. T(n) = 5T(n/5) + \sqrt{n}, T(1) = 1, T(0) = 0
A
Theta (n)
B
Theta (n^2)
C
Theta (sqrt(n))
D
Theta (nLogn)
Analysis of Algorithms (Recurrences)
Discuss it
Question 2 Explanation:
The given solution can be solved using Master Method. It falls in Case 1.
Question 3
What is the worst case time complexity of following implementation of subset sum problem.
// Returns true if there is a subset of set[] with sun equal to given sum
bool isSubsetSum(int set[], int n, int sum)
{
// Base Cases
if (sum == 0)
return true;
if (n == 0 && sum != 0)
return false;
// If last element is greater than sum, then ignore it
if (set[n-1] > sum)
return isSubsetSum(set, n-1, sum);
/* else, check if sum can be obtained by any of the following
(a) including the last element
(b) excluding the last element */
return isSubsetSum(set, n-1, sum) ||
isSubsetSum(set, n-1, sum-set[n-1]);
}
A
O(n * 2^n)
B
O(n^2)
C
O(n^2 * 2^n)
D
O(2^n)
Analysis of Algorithms (Recurrences)
Discuss it
Question 3 Explanation:
Following is the recurrence for given implementation of subset sum problem T(n) = 2T(n-1) + C1 T(0) = C1 Where C1 and C2 are some machine specific constants. The solution of recurrence is O(2^n) We can see it with the help of recurrence tree method
C1
/ \
T(n-1) T(n-1)
C1
/ \
C1 C1
/ \ / \
T(n-2) T(n-2) T(n-2) T(n-2)
C1
/ \
C1 C1
/ \ / \
C1 C1 C1 C1
/ \ / \ / \ / \
If we sum the above tree level by level, we get the following series
T(n) = C1 + 2C1 + 4C1 + 8C1 + ...
The above series is Geometrical progression and there will be n terms in it.
So T(n) = O(2^n)
Question 4
Suppose T(n) = 2T(n/2) + n, T(0) = T(1) = 1 Which one of the following is false. ( GATE CS 2005)
a) T(n) = O(n^2)
b) T(n) = \theta(nLogn)
c) T(n) = \Omega(n^2)
d) T(n) = O(nLogn)
A
A
B
B
C
C
D
D
Analysis of Algorithms (Recurrences) 50 Algorithms MCQs with Answers
Discuss it
Question 4 Explanation:
Question 5
Consider the following recurrence:
gate_2006_51 Which one of the following is true?
(A) T(n) = \theta(loglogn)
(B) T(n) = \theta(logn)
(C) T(n) = \theta(sqrt(n))
(D) T(n) = \theta(n)
A
A
B
B
C
C
D
D
Analysis of Algorithms (Recurrences)
Discuss it
Question 5 Explanation:
This question can be solved by first change of variable and then Master Method.
Let n = 2^m
T(2^m) = T(2^(m/2)) + 1
Let T(2^m) = S(m)
S(m) = 2S(m/2) + 1
Above expression is a binary tree traversal recursion whose time complexity is \theta(m). You can also prove using Master theorem.
S(m) = \theta(m)
= \theta(logn) /* Since n = 2^m */
Now, let us go back to the original recursive function T(n)
T(n) = T(2^m) = S(m)
= \theta(Logn)
Question 6
The running time of an algorithm is represented by the following recurrence relation:
if n <= 3 then T(n) = n
else T(n) = T(n/3) + cn
Which one of the following represents the time complexity of the algorithm?
(A) \theta(n)
(B) \theta(n log n)
(C) \theta(n^2)
(D) \theta(n^2log n)
A
A
B
B
C
C
D
D
Analysis of Algorithms (Recurrences)
Discuss it
Question 6 Explanation:
T(n) = cn + T(n/3)
= cn + cn/3 + T(n/9)
= cn + cn/3 + cn/9 + T(n/27)
Taking the sum of infinite GP series. The value of T(n) will
be less than this sum.
T(n) <= cn(1/(1-1/3))
<= 3cn/2
or we can say
cn <= T(n) <= 3cn/2
Therefore T(n) = \theta(n)
This can also be solved using Master Theorem for solving recurrences. The given expression lies in Case 3 of the theorem.
Question 7
The running time of the following algorithm
Procedure A(n)
If n <= 2 return(1) else return A(\lceil \sqrt{n} \rceil);
is best described by
A
O(n)
B
O(log n)
C
O(1og log n)
D
O(1)
Analysis of Algorithms (Recurrences)
Discuss it
Question 7 Explanation:
For explanation, please see question 5 of this post
Question 8
What is the time complexity of the following recursive function:
c
int DoSomething (int n)
{
if (n <= 2)
return 1;
else
return (DoSomething (floor(sqrt(n))) + n);
}
(A) \theta (n)
(B) \theta (nlogn)
(C) \theta (logn)
(D) \theta (loglogn)
A
A
B
B
C
D
D
C
Analysis of Algorithms (Recurrences)
Discuss it
Question 8 Explanation:
Recursive relation for the DoSomething() is
T(n) = T(\sqrt{n}) + C1 if n > 2
We have ignored the floor() part as it doesn't matter here if it's a floor or ceiling.
Let n = 2^m, T(n) = T(2^m)
Let T(2^m) = S(m)
From the above two, T(n) = S(m)
S(m) = S(m/2) + C1 /* This is simply binary search recursion*/
S(m) = O(logm)
= O(loglogn) /* Since n = 2^m */
Now, let us go back to the original recursive function T(n)
T(n) = S(m)
= O(LogLogn)
Question 9
The time complexity of the following C function is (assume n > 0 (GATE CS 2004)
int recursive (mt n)
{
if (n == 1)
return (1);
else
return (recursive (n-1) + recursive (n-1));
}
A
0(n)
B
0(nlogn)
C
0(n^2)
D
0(2^n)
Analysis of Algorithms (Recurrences)
Discuss it
Question 9 Explanation:
Recursive expression for the above program will be.
T(n) = 2T(n-1) + c
T(1) = c1.
Let us solve it.
T(n) = 2(2T(n-2) + c) + c = 4T(n-2) + 3c
T(n) = 8T(n-3) + 6c + c = 8T(n-3) + 7c
T(n) = 16T(n-4) + 14c + c = 16T(n-4) + 15c
............................................................
.............................................................
T(n) = (2^(n-1))T(1) + (2^(n-1) - 1)c
T(n) = O(2^n)
Question 10
Consider the following recurrence T(n) = 3T(n/5) + lgn * lgn What is the value of T(n)?
(A) \Theta(n ^ \log_5{3})
(B) \Theta(n ^ \log_3{5})
(c) \Theta(n Log n )
(D) \Theta( Log n )
A
A
B
B
C
C
D
D
Analysis of Algorithms (Recurrences)
Discuss it
Question 10 Explanation:
By Case 1 of the Master Method, we have T(n) = Theta(n ^ (log5(3)) ). [^ is for power]
There are 35 questions to complete.
My Personal Notes arrow_drop_up
Writing code in comment? Please use ide.geeksforgeeks.org, generate link and share the link here.
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Youth Hydration: Quenching Thirst On and Off the Field
By Anne Wilfong, R.D., L.D. – August 1, 2014
August in Texas is kickoff season for back-to-school youth sports, which means teen athletes are practicing in 95 degree-plus temperatures that include humidity levels rivaling those found in Houston. When it comes to sports nutrition, the best way to capture a teen’s attention is to ask a question: Are you interested in hearing how to improve performance without really working harder?
I have yet to meet a teen—or adult, for that matter—who isn't interested in hearing the answer. Proper hydration leads to better performance.
Adult athletes spend a lot of time talking about hydration and how it may help their athletic endeavors, but it’s important to specifically look at how young athletes can stay hydrated through hot and humid practices and games.
Here are some guidelines to help create an individualized hydration schedule.
Starting Out
First and foremost, teens need to avoid dehydration. The night before a game or morning of practice is not the time to start making up for sweat loss that happened during the previous day. Make sure your young athlete is drinking water throughout the week—even when not practicing or playing in games. Showing up for practice or a game already behind on fluid intake will make the session harder, cause early fatigue and electrolyte imbalance, and may alter attention and decision-making on the field. It also greatly increases the risk of dehydration. A 1 to 2 percent loss in body weight indicates dehydration and can lead to a decrease in performance.
Sports, Cardiovascular and Wellness Nutrition (SCAN), a branch of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, recommends teen athletes consume between 8 and 20 ounces of water or sports drink an hour before exercise.
During Sports
Suzanne Nelson, SC.D. R.D, encourages kids to drink on a schedule, not only when thirsty. “Thirst is not an accurate measure of a child’s need for fluid,” she explained. “By the time your child says he or she is thirsty, [he or she is] already dehydrated. Consuming fluids at regular intervals during exercise protects your child’s health and optimizes athletic performance.”
The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends that:
9 to 12 year olds should drink 3 to 5 ounces of fluid every 20 minutes.
Teens should drink 5 to 6 cups of water or sports drink each hour.
It’s useful to find out how often your child’s coach schedules hydration breaks to plan accordingly. To gauge how much fluid they may be consuming at each break, teach young athletes that one “kid-sized gulp” is equal to about half an ounce and one “adult-sized gulp” is equal to approximately one ounce. If athletes use their own bottles instead of a drinking from a cup or water cooler, you can get a better idea of fluid consumption by checking the bottle after practice.
What about Gatorade or other electrolyte-replacement beverages? For practices lasting longer than an hour or “two-a days,” research shows that sports drinks with electrolytes (such as Gatorade) become more palatable than water; as a result, athletes are more likely to drink them. These beverages also help young athletes replace electrolytes lost through sweat and provide carbohydrates to help prevent fatigue. Test out different brands and flavors to find which sports drink your teen likes best.
Post Workout
Checking weight before and after exercise can help young athletes get an estimate of their sweat rate during a typical practice or game. Remind them that humid days will increase sweat rates and can lead to a rapid loss of fluids. Replace the liquids lost during practice or a game within two hours after physical activity has ended by having them drink at least 16 to 24 ounces of water or sports drink for every pound of weight lost.
Advise children to check their own hydration by noting the color of their urine. Urine should be pale yellow to clear if they are adequately hydrated. (Note that B vitamins will affect urine color, so first thing in the morning is not the best time to check.)
Proper hydration, along with good nutrition and sleep, gives adult and youth athletes alike a healthy and strong physical foundation—the best building block for success.
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5 Best Ways to Convert a Python Tuple to a Matrix
💡 Problem Formulation: Python developers often need to convert a tuple of tuples, which represents a one-dimensional array of data, into a matrix, which is essentially a two-dimensional array. For instance, taking an input such as ((1, 2), (3, 4)) and formatting it into a matrix form like [[1, 2], [3, 4]]. This article will discuss five effective methods to achieve this transformation, making data manipulation in Python more accessible and convenient.
Method 1: Using a List Comprehension
List comprehensions in Python provide a concise way to create lists. This method involves iterating through the tuple and converting each inner tuple into a list. It is swift and memory-efficient as it allows the direct conversion without the need for an intermediary data structure.
Here’s an example:
tuple_of_tuples = ((1, 2), (3, 4))
matrix = [list(inner_tuple) for inner_tuple in tuple_of_tuples]
Output:
[[1, 2], [3, 4]]
This code snippet is straightforward: each element, which is itself a tuple, of the main tuple tuple_of_tuples, is turned into a list and collected into a new list called matrix. It leverages Python’s list comprehension to create a new list where each tuple is cast to a list, effectively transforming the tuple of tuples into a matrix.
Method 2: Using the map() function
The map() function applies a specified function to each item of an iterable (such as a tuple) and returns a list of the results. When combined with list(), which creates a list from an iterable, it can efficiently convert a tuple to a matrix.
Here’s an example:
tuple_of_tuples = ((1, 2), (3, 4))
matrix = list(map(list, tuple_of_tuples))
Output:
[[1, 2], [3, 4]]
In this snippet, the map() function applies the list() constructor to each sub-tuple of tuple_of_tuples, thereby converting each to a list. The result is then converted to a list to obtain the final matrix.
Method 3: Using NumPy Array
If performance is a key requirement and the numpy library is available, one can convert the tuple of tuples directly into a NumPy array, which inherently behaves like a matrix. This method is particularly useful for large datasets and mathematical computations.
Here’s an example:
import numpy as np
tuple_of_tuples = ((1, 2), (3, 4))
matrix = np.array(tuple_of_tuples)
Output:
[[1 2]
[3 4]]
This code converts the tuple_of_tuples into a NumPy array called matrix using the np.array() function. NumPy arrays are efficient and provide a wide range of mathematical functions that can be applied to the matrix.
Method 4: Using a for Loop
For those who prefer traditional iterative approaches, a for loop can iteratively convert each sub-tuple into a list and append it to the final matrix list. This method is explicit and can be more readable for new Python users.
Here’s an example:
tuple_of_tuples = ((1, 2), (3, 4))
matrix = []
for inner_tuple in tuple_of_tuples:
matrix.append(list(inner_tuple))
Output:
[[1, 2], [3, 4]]
This snippet iterates over each element in tuple_of_tuples and appends the cast list of each sub-tuple to the list matrix, creating the matrix structure.
Bonus One-Liner Method 5: using a lambda function
A combination of map() and a lambda function can condense the transformation into a single, albeit slightly less readable, line of code. This method is good for quick, one-off conversions.
Here’s an example:
tuple_of_tuples = ((1, 2), (3, 4))
matrix = list(map(lambda x: list(x), tuple_of_tuples))
Output:
[[1, 2], [3, 4]]
This one-liner achieves the same result as Method 2, but uses a lambda function to explicitly define the conversion operation within the call to map().
Summary/Discussion
• Method 1: List Comprehension. Fast and readable. However, the syntax can be less explicit about the conversion process for beginners.
• Method 2: map() function. Clean code and functional style. It may be slightly slower than list comprehensions due to function call overhead.
• Method 3: NumPy Array. Ideal for numerical computations and large datasets. Requires NumPy installation, making it less suitable for environments where dependencies are to be minimized.
• Method 4: for Loop. Very explicit and easy for beginners to understand. It is usually slower than other methods and can be more verbose.
• Method 5: Lambda with map(). One-liner and functional. Readability and clarity can be an issue for those not familiar with lambda functions.
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| 0.999052 |
ChorusOS man pages section 3POSIX: POSIX Library Functions
PREFACE
Overview
A man page is provided for both the naive user, and sophisticated user who is familiar with the ChorusOSTM operating system and is in need of on-line information. A man page is intended to answer concisely the question "What does it do?" The man pages in general comprise a reference manual. They are not intended to be a tutorial.
The following is a list of sections in the ChorusOS man pages and the information it references:
ChorusOS man pages are grouped in Reference Manuals, with one reference manual per section.
Below is a generic format for man pages. The man pages of each manual section generally follow this order, but include only needed headings. For example, if there are no bugs to report, there is no BUGS section. See the intro pages for more information and detail about each section, and man(1) for more information about man pages in general.
NAME
This section gives the names of the commands or functions documented, followed by a brief description of what they do.
SYNOPSIS
This section shows the syntax of commands or functions. When a command or file does not exist in the standard path, its full pathname is shown. Options and arguments are alphabetized, with single letter arguments first, and options with arguments next, unless a different argument order is required.
The following special characters are used in this section:
[ ]
The option or argument enclosed in these brackets is optional. If the brackets are omitted, the argument must be specified.
. . .
Ellipses. Several values may be provided for the previous argument, or the previous argument can be specified multiple times, for example, ` "filename . . ." .
|
Separator. Only one of the arguments separated by this character can be specified at time.
{ }
Braces. The options and/or arguments enclosed within braces are interdependent, such that everything enclosed must be treated as a unit.
FEATURES
This section provides the list of features which offer an interface. An API may be associated with one or more system features. The interface will be available if one of the associated features has been configured.
DESCRIPTION
This section defines the functionality and behavior of the service. Thus it describes concisely what the command does. It does not discuss OPTIONS or cite EXAMPLES.. Interactive commands, subcommands, requests, macros, functions and such, are described under USAGE.
OPTIONS
This lists the command options with a concise summary of what each option does. The options are listed literally and in the order they appear in the SYNOPSIS section. Possible arguments to options are discussed under the option, and where appropriate, default values are supplied.
OPERANDS
This section lists the command operands and describes how they affect the actions of the command.
OUTPUT
This section describes the output - standard output, standard error, or output files - generated by the command.
RETURN VALUES
If the man page documents functions that return values, this section lists these values and describes the conditions under which they are returned. If a function can return only constant values, such as 0 or -1, these values are listed in tagged paragraphs. Otherwise, a single paragraph describes the return values of each function. Functions declared void do not return values, so they are not discussed in RETURN VALUES.
ERRORS
On failure, most functions place an error code in the global variable errno indicating why they failed. This section lists alphabetically all error codes a function can generate and describes the conditions that cause each error. When more than one condition can cause the same error, each condition is described in a separate paragraph under the error code.
USAGE
This section is provided as a guidance on use. This section lists special rules, features and commands that require in-depth explanations. The subsections listed below are used to explain built-in functionality:
• Commands
• Modifiers
• Variables
• Expressions
• Input Grammar
EXAMPLES
This section provides examples of usage or of how to use a command or function. Wherever possible a complete example including command line entry and machine response is shown. Whenever an example is given, the prompt is shown as example% or if the user must be superuser, example#. Examples are followed by explanations, variable substitution rules, or returned values. Most examples illustrate concepts from the SYNOPSIS, DESCRIPTION, OPTIONS and USAGE sections.
ENVIRONMENT VARIABLES
This section lists any environment variables that the command or function affects, followed by a brief description of the effect.
EXIT STATUS
This section lists the values the command returns to the calling program or shell and the conditions that cause these values to be returned. Usually, zero is returned for successful completion and values other than zero for various error conditions.
FILES
This section lists all filenames referred to by the man page, files of interest, and files created or required by commands. Each is followed by a descriptive summary or explanation.
SEE ALSO
This section lists references to other man pages, in-house documentation and outside publications.
DIAGNOSTICS
This section lists diagnostic messages with a brief explanation of the condition causing the error.
WARNINGS
This section lists warnings about special conditions which could seriously affect your working conditions. This is not a list of diagnostics.
NOTES
This section lists additional information that does not belong anywhere else on the page. It takes the form of an aside to the user, covering points of special interest. Critical information is never covered here.
BUGS
This section describes known bugs and wherever possible, suggests workarounds.
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Norway lemming
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
Norway lemming
Tunturisopuli Lemmus Lemmus.jpg
Scientific classification edit
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Rodentia
Family: Cricetidae
Subfamily: Arvicolinae
Genus: Lemmus
Species:
L. lemmus
Binomial name
Lemmus lemmus
Norway Lemming Lemmus lemmus distribution map.png
Norway lemming range[2]
Synonyms
Mus lemmus Linnaeus, 1758
The Norway lemming, also Norwegian lemming (Lemmus lemmus) is a common species of lemming found in northern Fennoscandia. It is the only vertebrate species endemic to the region. The Norway lemming dwells in tundra and fells, and prefers to live near water. Adults feed primarily on sedges, grasses and moss. They are active at both day and night, alternating naps with periods of activity.
Description[edit]
Lemming
The Norway lemming has a bold pattern of black and yellow-brown, which is variable between individuals. It grows to a size of 155 mm. The tail is very short (10 – 19 mm). It weighs up to 130 g. The dental formula is 1/1, 0/0, 3/3.[3]
Behavior[edit]
The Norway lemming has a dramatic three- to four-year population cycle, in which the species' population periodically rises to unsustainable levels, leading to high mortality, which causes the population to crash again.
The Norway lemming spends the winter in nests under the snow. When the spring thaws begin and the snow starts to collapse, they must migrate to higher ground, where the snow is still firm enough for safety, or, more commonly, to lower ground, where they spend the summer months.[citation needed] In autumn, they must time their movement back to sheltered higher ground carefully, leaving after alpine snow cover is available for their burrows and nests, and before the lowlands are made uninhabitable by frost and ice.
Drawing of Norway lemming
When the seasons are particularly good (short winters without unexpected thaws or freezes, and long summers), the Norway lemming population can increase exponentially: they reach sexual maturity less than a month after birth, and breed year-round if conditions are right, producing a litter of six to eight young every three to four weeks.[citation needed] Being solitary creatures by nature, the stronger lemmings drive the weaker and younger ones off long before a food shortage occurs. The young lemmings disperse in random directions looking for vacant territory. Where geographical features constrain their movements and channel them into a relatively narrow corridor, large numbers can build up, leading to social friction, distress, and eventually a mass panic can follow, where they flee in all directions. Lemmings do migrate, and in vast numbers sometimes, but the deliberate march into the sea has yet to be verified.
According to genetic research,[4] the Norwegian lemming survived the Pleistocene glaciation in western Europe, inhabiting various refugia which were not covered by ice. Alternatively, some researchers have contended the Norwegian lemming populations had arisen from ancestors of the present-day brown lemming (Lemmus sibiricus), moving in after glaciers receded.
References[edit]
1. ^ Henttonen, H. (2008). "Lemmus lemmus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2008. International Union for Conservation of Nature. Retrieved 5 June 2009. Database entry includes a brief justification of why this species is of least concern.
2. ^ IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature) 2008. Lemmus lemmus. In: IUCN 2014. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2014.3. http://www.iucnredlist.org. Downloaded on 22 March 2015.
3. ^ MacDonald, David; Priscilla Barret (1993). Mammals of Britain & Europe. 1. London: HarperCollins. pp. 241–242. ISBN 0-00-219779-0.
4. ^ Fedorov, V.B. & Nils Christian Stenseth (2001). Glacial survival of the Norwegian lemming (Lemmus lemmus) in Scandinavia: inference from mitochondrial DNA variation. Proceedings of the Royal Society: Biological Sciences, 268(1469):809-814. [1]
External links[edit]
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Desarrollo reproductivo del "amancay" Ismene amancaes (Amaryllidaceae) en su ambiente natural
Translated title of the contribution: Reproductive development of "amancay" Ismene amancaes (Amaryllidaceae) in its natural environment
Research output: Contribution to journalArticlepeer-review
Abstract
Ismene amancaes "amancay" is a bulbose species typical of the central coast vegetation of Peru called "lomas". This species sprouts in June during the beginning of the winter-fog period. It has large yellow, aromatic flowers valued for their ornamental value. Our goal was to examine the reproductive development of Ismene amancaes in its natural environment, and we recorded monthly observations during a yearlong study. Observations of the interior of the bulbs allowed recording of the beginning of floral bud formation and development, relating them to leaf formation and edaphic humidity. We found that the first floral buds develop the year before their emergence in December, reaching a maximum number of floral buds in February, during the Summer. Floral bud differentiation starts after leaves that will emerge the following year have developed. This occurs during a period of maximum decrease in edaphic humidity and an increase in air temperature (November). The inflorescence is the only branching that develops while the apical bud continues developing leaves. In June, the small inflorescence reaches the neck of the bulb and surpasses it followed by those leaves developed before the inflorescence that surround both the inflorescence and the apical foliar bud. The foliar bud will continue its development, and in July two of the leaves expand, while the smaller ones remain inside the bulb until the following year's Lomas season. It can be noted that the reproductive success of Ismene amancaes in its initial development depends on the photoreserves accumulated in the bulb the previous growth period.
Translated title of the contributionReproductive development of "amancay" Ismene amancaes (Amaryllidaceae) in its natural environment
Original languageSpanish
Pages (from-to)293-297
Number of pages5
JournalRevista Peruana de Biologia
Volume18
Issue number3
StatePublished - Dec 2011
Externally publishedYes
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Dive into the research topics of 'Reproductive development of "amancay" Ismene amancaes (Amaryllidaceae) in its natural environment'. Together they form a unique fingerprint.
Cite this
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Operating Reserves in Power System: Important Types and Formulas
|
Operating reserves are an essential component of power systems to maintain grid stability and reliability. They ensure that there is a buffer of available generation capacity that can be quickly dispatched to address sudden changes in electricity demand or supply.
Operating Reserves in Power System: Important Types and Formulas
Let’s dive deeper into the types of operating reserves and some relevant formulas:
Types of Operating Reserves
Spinning Reserve (Rs)
Spinning reserves consist of generators that are synchronized with the grid and running at less than full load. They can quickly increase their output to cover unexpected demand increases or supply disruptions.
Non-Spinning Reserve (Rns)
Non-spinning reserves involve generators that are not synchronized with the grid but can be brought online and synchronized within a specific time frame when needed.
Supplementary Reserve (Rsus)
Supplementary reserves provide an additional layer of capacity that can be deployed in case larger deviations in supply and demand occur due to unforeseen events.
Regulation Reserve (Rreg)
Regulation reserves are continuously adjusting reserves used to maintain the balance between supply and demand in real-time, compensating for small fluctuations.
Operating Reserves in Power System: Important Types and Formulas
Formulas and Calculations for Operating Reserves
Reserve Requirement Formula: This formula helps us figure out how much extra power we need to keep in reserve in case of unexpected situations.
Formula: Reserve Requirement = Highest Expected Demand × Reserve Margin
Explanation: To calculate the reserve requirement, we take the highest expected electricity demand and multiply it by a certain percentage called the reserve margin. The reserve margin represents the extra capacity we want to have on standby to handle surprises.
Available Reserve Formula: This formula helps us understand the total amount of extra power we currently have available as reserves.
Formula: Available Reserve = Spinning Reserve + Non-Spinning Reserve + Supplementary Reserve + Regulation Reserve
Explanation: The available reserve is the sum of all the different types of reserves we have: spinning reserve (ready power), non-spinning reserve (getting ready power), supplementary reserve (extra backup power), and regulation reserve (fine-tuning power).
Capacity Shortfall Formula: This formula helps us see if we have enough reserves to cover the demand without any problems.
Formula: Capacity Shortfall = Highest Expected Demand – Available Reserve
Explanation: We subtract the available reserve from the highest expected demand to find out if we’re falling short on the power we might need.
Reserve Deployment Rate Formula: This formula helps us understand how quickly we can bring online the non-spinning reserves to help with sudden changes in demand.
Formula: Reserve Deployment Rate = Non-Spinning Reserve / Reserve Deployment Time
Explanation: The reserve deployment rate tells us how much non-spinning reserve power we can use in a certain amount of time. It’s like knowing how fast we can turn on extra power when we need it.
These formulas and explanations show how operating reserves work like having backup plans for electricity. They ensure that we’re ready to handle unexpected situations and keep the lights on!
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File indexing completed on 2024-02-25 05:45:35
0001 /*
0002 SPDX-FileCopyrightText: 2021 Kai Uwe Broulik <kde@broulik.de>
0003
0004 SPDX-License-Identifier: LGPL-2.1-only OR LGPL-3.0-only OR LicenseRef-KDE-Accepted-LGPL
0005 */
0006
0007 #pragma once
0008
0009 #include <QObject>
0010 #include <QPointer>
0011 #include <QQmlParserStatus>
0012
0013 class QAbstractItemModel;
0014 class QMenu;
0015 class QQuickItem;
0016
0017 namespace QPulseAudio
0018 {
0019 class CardModel;
0020 class PulseObject;
0021 }
0022
0023 class ListItemMenu : public QObject, public QQmlParserStatus
0024 {
0025 Q_OBJECT
0026 Q_INTERFACES(QQmlParserStatus)
0027
0028 Q_PROPERTY(ItemType itemType READ itemType WRITE setItemType NOTIFY itemTypeChanged)
0029
0030 Q_PROPERTY(QPulseAudio::PulseObject *pulseObject READ pulseObject WRITE setPulseObject NOTIFY pulseObjectChanged)
0031
0032 Q_PROPERTY(QAbstractItemModel *sourceModel READ sourceModel WRITE setSourceModel NOTIFY sourceModelChanged)
0033
0034 Q_PROPERTY(QPulseAudio::CardModel *cardModel READ cardModel WRITE setCardModel NOTIFY cardModelChanged)
0035
0036 Q_PROPERTY(bool visible READ isVisible NOTIFY visibleChanged)
0037
0038 Q_PROPERTY(bool hasContent READ hasContent NOTIFY hasContentChanged)
0039
0040 Q_PROPERTY(QQuickItem *visualParent READ visualParent WRITE setVisualParent NOTIFY visualParentChanged)
0041
0042 public:
0043 explicit ListItemMenu(QObject *parent = nullptr);
0044 ~ListItemMenu() override;
0045
0046 enum ItemType {
0047 None,
0048 Sink,
0049 SinkInput,
0050 Source,
0051 SourceOutput,
0052 };
0053 Q_ENUM(ItemType)
0054
0055 ItemType itemType() const;
0056 void setItemType(ItemType itemType);
0057 Q_SIGNAL void itemTypeChanged();
0058
0059 QPulseAudio::PulseObject *pulseObject() const;
0060 void setPulseObject(QPulseAudio::PulseObject *pulseObject);
0061 Q_SIGNAL void pulseObjectChanged();
0062
0063 QAbstractItemModel *sourceModel() const;
0064 void setSourceModel(QAbstractItemModel *sourceModel);
0065 Q_SIGNAL void sourceModelChanged();
0066
0067 QPulseAudio::CardModel *cardModel() const;
0068 void setCardModel(QPulseAudio::CardModel *cardModel);
0069 Q_SIGNAL void cardModelChanged();
0070
0071 bool isVisible() const;
0072 Q_SIGNAL void visibleChanged();
0073
0074 bool hasContent() const;
0075 Q_SIGNAL void hasContentChanged();
0076
0077 QQuickItem *visualParent() const;
0078 void setVisualParent(QQuickItem *visualParent);
0079 Q_SIGNAL void visualParentChanged();
0080
0081 void classBegin() override;
0082 void componentComplete() override;
0083
0084 Q_INVOKABLE void open(int x, int y);
0085 Q_INVOKABLE void openRelative();
0086
0087 private:
0088 void setVisible(bool visible);
0089
0090 void update();
0091 bool checkHasContent();
0092 QMenu *createMenu();
0093
0094 bool m_complete = false;
0095 bool m_visible = false;
0096 bool m_hasContent = false;
0097 QPointer<QQuickItem> m_visualParent;
0098
0099 ItemType m_itemType = None;
0100 QPointer<QPulseAudio::PulseObject> m_pulseObject;
0101 QPointer<QAbstractItemModel> m_sourceModel;
0102 QPointer<QPulseAudio::CardModel> m_cardModel;
0103 };
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Autoplay
Display Paginated Posts using Gatsby
Paul McBridePaul McBride
reactReact
gatsbyGatsby
javascriptJavaScript
Gatsby is an incredible tool for building static web apps using React. In this lesson, you will learn how to use Gatsby's node API's to render paginated news items.
Code
Code
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Transcript
Transcript
Man: 00:00 Here we've got a Gatsby app, which we're using to display nine news items. These news items are being pulled in from markdown files, and we're using the gatsby-node.js. file to create this news page. If we have a look at the news template page, we'll see that we're exporting a query, which generates these news items by gathering all markdown files that match a regex of news, then we're using this component to display them in a list.
00:28 As you can see, we're listing all of the news items on this page. Let's break this up using pagination, so we render five news items per page. We'll that by first taking a look at the gatsby-note.js file.
00:40 We had to create three variables to begin with. The first one is the total number of posts per page, which we're going to set to 5. Next, we need to create the number of news items. We can work that out by simply typing posts.length. Finally, we need to work out how many news pages we're going to have. We can do that by rounding up the number of news items divided by the posts per page.
01:02 Next, we'll create a for loop and have it run once for each of the news listing pages. We're using a zero-based index here, so to work out the page number we simply add one to it. For the first news page, we want to render it at /news. For the second news page, we render it at /news/2 and so on. We can work that out like so. So if the page index is zero, we're on the first page and we will render this page at /news. Otherwise, we're going to render it at /news/ the page number.
01:51 Another important variable we need is the number of posts each page should skip. The first news page shouldn't skip any news posts. The second news page should skip the first five, and so on. We can work this out by multiplying the page index by the number of posts per page. This works because on the first page the index is 0so zero times five is zero, which means we skip no posts.
02:18 The next step is to pull the createPage function into this loop. The path is now equal to the variable path. The component stays the same, and then we need to pass some context to the template. We'll pass the limit, which is the number of posts we're going to show on each page. Then we're also going to pass the skip variable through.
02:44 The news template also needs two other bits of information to properly support pagination, and that is the link to the next page, if it exists, and the link to the previous page, if that exists. Let's work at how to create this.
02:57 I'm going to create a new function called getNextPageLink. In this function, if the current page number is less than the number of news pages, then we're going to return a string of news/ the current page number plus one. Otherwise, we're going to return NULL.
03:18 Next, I'm going to create another function called getPreviousPageLink. In this function, if the page index is 0or falsy, we'll return NULL because there are no previous pages. If the page index is 1, then we know the previous page URL is just /news. If there's anything else, we can return /news/ the page index, because it's always one less than the value of the current page.
03:50 Then we can pass this to our template using context. The link to the next page is going to be getNextPageLink. The link to the previous page will be the result of getPreviousPage. I can see I've made a typo here, so I'm going to fix that now. Everything looks good.
04:20 Let's head over to the news template. We're going to need to edit the query. The news query now receives a few arguments, so let's pass those three.
04:30 The first one is limit, which is an integer. The second one is skip, which is also an integer. Now, let's use these variables in our query. The first one we want to do is limit, and that's just equal to the variable we passed through. The same with skip.
04:52 Everything should now be working, so I'm going to restart the server. If we refresh the page, we can see that the most recent news posts are displayed first. Then we have this link to view some of the older news posts. If we take a look back at how the components rendered, you can see that at the top of the function, I'm pulling out the next and previous values we passed through in the context and I'm using those to generate the links to the newer and older posts.
Discuss
Discuss
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Why is there a relation between hearing loss and dementia?
The reason for the link between hearing loss, cognitive decline and dementia is still unclear.
The scientists still have not found out why untreated hearing loss increases the risk of dementia and cognitive decline.
Reduced audiological input
Some researchers suggest that the reduced audiological input to the brain may contribute to cognitive decline and dementia. The reason should be that brain activity is reduced by the reduced audiological input and that the brain is like a muscle that needs to be used and trained to keep on working well.
Common pathology
Others that have investigated the relationship between hearing loss and dementia suggest that a common pathology may cause both conditions or that the strain of decoding sounds over the years may overwhelm the brains of people with hearing loss, leaving them more vulnerable to dementia.
The investigators also suggest that hearing loss requires so much ”brain effort” over the years to decode sounds into useful information, that those with hearing loss become more vulnerable to dementia.
Social isolation
Another theory is that hearing loss could lead to dementia by making individuals more socially isolated, a known risk factor for dementia and other cognitive disorders.
Source: ”Hearing well to train your brain” by Prof. Frank R. Lin and Prof. Sophia E. Kramer
Read more
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class CreateView
from django.views.generic import CreateView
View for creating an new object instance,
with a response rendered by template.
Attributes
Defined in
context_object_name = None SingleObjectMixin
form_class = None FormMixin
http_method_names = ['get', 'post', 'put', 'delete', 'head', 'options', 'trace'] View
initial = {} FormMixin
model = None SingleObjectMixin
pk_url_kwarg = 'pk' SingleObjectMixin
queryset = None SingleObjectMixin
response_class = <class 'django.template.response.TemplateResponse'> TemplateResponseMixin
slug_field = 'slug' SingleObjectMixin
slug_url_kwarg = 'slug' SingleObjectMixin
success_url = None FormMixin
template_name = None TemplateResponseMixin
template_name_field = None SingleObjectTemplateResponseMixin
template_name_suffix = '_detail' SingleObjectTemplateResponseMixin
template_name_suffix = '_form' CreateView
Expand Collapse
Methods
def as_view(cls, **initkwargs): View
Main entry point for a request-response process.
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@classonlymethod
def as_view(cls, **initkwargs):
"""
Main entry point for a request-response process.
"""
# sanitize keyword arguments
for key in initkwargs:
if key in cls.http_method_names:
raise TypeError(u"You tried to pass in the %s method name as a "
u"keyword argument to %s(). Don't do that."
% (key, cls.__name__))
if not hasattr(cls, key):
raise TypeError(u"%s() received an invalid keyword %r" % (
cls.__name__, key))
def view(request, *args, **kwargs):
self = cls(**initkwargs)
if hasattr(self, 'get') and not hasattr(self, 'head'):
self.head = self.get
return self.dispatch(request, *args, **kwargs)
# take name and docstring from class
update_wrapper(view, cls, updated=())
# and possible attributes set by decorators
# like csrf_exempt from dispatch
update_wrapper(view, cls.dispatch, assigned=())
return view
def dispatch(self, request, *args, **kwargs): View
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def dispatch(self, request, *args, **kwargs):
# Try to dispatch to the right method; if a method doesn't exist,
# defer to the error handler. Also defer to the error handler if the
# request method isn't on the approved list.
if request.method.lower() in self.http_method_names:
handler = getattr(self, request.method.lower(), self.http_method_not_allowed)
else:
handler = self.http_method_not_allowed
self.request = request
self.args = args
self.kwargs = kwargs
return handler(request, *args, **kwargs)
def form_invalid(self, form): FormMixin
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def form_invalid(self, form):
return self.render_to_response(self.get_context_data(form=form))
def form_valid(self, form):
ModelFormMixin
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def form_valid(self, form):
self.object = form.save()
return super(ModelFormMixin, self).form_valid(form)
FormMixin
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def form_valid(self, form):
return HttpResponseRedirect(self.get_success_url())
def get(self, request, *args, **kwargs):
BaseCreateView
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def get(self, request, *args, **kwargs):
self.object = None
return super(BaseCreateView, self).get(request, *args, **kwargs)
ProcessFormView
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def get(self, request, *args, **kwargs):
form_class = self.get_form_class()
form = self.get_form(form_class)
return self.render_to_response(self.get_context_data(form=form))
def get_context_data(self, **kwargs):
ModelFormMixin
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def get_context_data(self, **kwargs):
context = kwargs
if self.object:
context['object'] = self.object
context_object_name = self.get_context_object_name(self.object)
if context_object_name:
context[context_object_name] = self.object
return context
FormMixin
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def get_context_data(self, **kwargs):
return kwargs
SingleObjectMixin
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def get_context_data(self, **kwargs):
context = kwargs
context_object_name = self.get_context_object_name(self.object)
if context_object_name:
context[context_object_name] = self.object
return context
def get_context_object_name(self, obj): SingleObjectMixin
Get the name to use for the object.
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def get_context_object_name(self, obj):
"""
Get the name to use for the object.
"""
if self.context_object_name:
return self.context_object_name
elif hasattr(obj, '_meta'):
return smart_str(obj._meta.object_name.lower())
else:
return None
def get_form(self, form_class): FormMixin
Returns an instance of the form to be used in this view.
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def get_form(self, form_class):
"""
Returns an instance of the form to be used in this view.
"""
return form_class(**self.get_form_kwargs())
def get_form_class(self):
ModelFormMixin
Returns the form class to use in this view
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def get_form_class(self):
"""
Returns the form class to use in this view
"""
if self.form_class:
return self.form_class
else:
if self.model is not None:
# If a model has been explicitly provided, use it
model = self.model
elif hasattr(self, 'object') and self.object is not None:
# If this view is operating on a single object, use
# the class of that object
model = self.object.__class__
else:
# Try to get a queryset and extract the model class
# from that
model = self.get_queryset().model
return model_forms.modelform_factory(model)
FormMixin
Returns the form class to use in this view
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def get_form_class(self):
"""
Returns the form class to use in this view
"""
return self.form_class
def get_form_kwargs(self):
ModelFormMixin
Returns the keyword arguments for instanciating the form.
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def get_form_kwargs(self):
"""
Returns the keyword arguments for instanciating the form.
"""
kwargs = super(ModelFormMixin, self).get_form_kwargs()
kwargs.update({'instance': self.object})
return kwargs
FormMixin
Returns the keyword arguments for instanciating the form.
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def get_form_kwargs(self):
"""
Returns the keyword arguments for instanciating the form.
"""
kwargs = {'initial': self.get_initial()}
if self.request.method in ('POST', 'PUT'):
kwargs.update({
'data': self.request.POST,
'files': self.request.FILES,
})
return kwargs
def get_initial(self): FormMixin
Returns the initial data to use for forms on this view.
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def get_initial(self):
"""
Returns the initial data to use for forms on this view.
"""
return self.initial.copy()
def get_object(self, queryset=None): SingleObjectMixin
Returns the object the view is displaying.
By default this requires `self.queryset` and a `pk` or `slug` argument
in the URLconf, but subclasses can override this to return any object.
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def get_object(self, queryset=None):
"""
Returns the object the view is displaying.
By default this requires `self.queryset` and a `pk` or `slug` argument
in the URLconf, but subclasses can override this to return any object.
"""
# Use a custom queryset if provided; this is required for subclasses
# like DateDetailView
if queryset is None:
queryset = self.get_queryset()
# Next, try looking up by primary key.
pk = self.kwargs.get(self.pk_url_kwarg, None)
slug = self.kwargs.get(self.slug_url_kwarg, None)
if pk is not None:
queryset = queryset.filter(pk=pk)
# Next, try looking up by slug.
elif slug is not None:
slug_field = self.get_slug_field()
queryset = queryset.filter(**{slug_field: slug})
# If none of those are defined, it's an error.
else:
raise AttributeError(u"Generic detail view %s must be called with "
u"either an object pk or a slug."
% self.__class__.__name__)
try:
obj = queryset.get()
except ObjectDoesNotExist:
raise Http404(_(u"No %(verbose_name)s found matching the query") %
{'verbose_name': queryset.model._meta.verbose_name})
return obj
def get_queryset(self): SingleObjectMixin
Get the queryset to look an object up against. May not be called if
`get_object` is overridden.
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def get_queryset(self):
"""
Get the queryset to look an object up against. May not be called if
`get_object` is overridden.
"""
if self.queryset is None:
if self.model:
return self.model._default_manager.all()
else:
raise ImproperlyConfigured(u"%(cls)s is missing a queryset. Define "
u"%(cls)s.model, %(cls)s.queryset, or override "
u"%(cls)s.get_object()." % {
'cls': self.__class__.__name__
})
return self.queryset._clone()
def get_slug_field(self): SingleObjectMixin
Get the name of a slug field to be used to look up by slug.
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def get_slug_field(self):
"""
Get the name of a slug field to be used to look up by slug.
"""
return self.slug_field
def get_success_url(self):
ModelFormMixin
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def get_success_url(self):
if self.success_url:
url = self.success_url % self.object.__dict__
else:
try:
url = self.object.get_absolute_url()
except AttributeError:
raise ImproperlyConfigured(
"No URL to redirect to. Either provide a url or define"
" a get_absolute_url method on the Model.")
return url
FormMixin
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def get_success_url(self):
if self.success_url:
url = self.success_url
else:
raise ImproperlyConfigured(
"No URL to redirect to. Provide a success_url.")
return url
def get_template_names(self):
SingleObjectTemplateResponseMixin
Return a list of template names to be used for the request. Must return
a list. May not be called if get_template is overridden.
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def get_template_names(self):
"""
Return a list of template names to be used for the request. Must return
a list. May not be called if get_template is overridden.
"""
try:
names = super(SingleObjectTemplateResponseMixin, self).get_template_names()
except ImproperlyConfigured:
# If template_name isn't specified, it's not a problem --
# we just start with an empty list.
names = []
# If self.template_name_field is set, grab the value of the field
# of that name from the object; this is the most specific template
# name, if given.
if self.object and self.template_name_field:
name = getattr(self.object, self.template_name_field, None)
if name:
names.insert(0, name)
# The least-specific option is the default <app>/<model>_detail.html;
# only use this if the object in question is a model.
if hasattr(self.object, '_meta'):
names.append("%s/%s%s.html" % (
self.object._meta.app_label,
self.object._meta.object_name.lower(),
self.template_name_suffix
))
elif hasattr(self, 'model') and hasattr(self.model, '_meta'):
names.append("%s/%s%s.html" % (
self.model._meta.app_label,
self.model._meta.object_name.lower(),
self.template_name_suffix
))
return names
TemplateResponseMixin
Returns a list of template names to be used for the request. Must return
a list. May not be called if render_to_response is overridden.
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def get_template_names(self):
"""
Returns a list of template names to be used for the request. Must return
a list. May not be called if render_to_response is overridden.
"""
if self.template_name is None:
raise ImproperlyConfigured(
"TemplateResponseMixin requires either a definition of "
"'template_name' or an implementation of 'get_template_names()'")
else:
return [self.template_name]
def http_method_not_allowed(self, request, *args, **kwargs): View
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def http_method_not_allowed(self, request, *args, **kwargs):
allowed_methods = [m for m in self.http_method_names if hasattr(self, m)]
logger.warning('Method Not Allowed (%s): %s', request.method, request.path,
extra={
'status_code': 405,
'request': self.request
}
)
return http.HttpResponseNotAllowed(allowed_methods)
def __init__(self, **kwargs): View
Constructor. Called in the URLconf; can contain helpful extra
keyword arguments, and other things.
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def __init__(self, **kwargs):
"""
Constructor. Called in the URLconf; can contain helpful extra
keyword arguments, and other things.
"""
# Go through keyword arguments, and either save their values to our
# instance, or raise an error.
for key, value in kwargs.iteritems():
setattr(self, key, value)
def post(self, request, *args, **kwargs):
BaseCreateView
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def post(self, request, *args, **kwargs):
self.object = None
return super(BaseCreateView, self).post(request, *args, **kwargs)
ProcessFormView
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def post(self, request, *args, **kwargs):
form_class = self.get_form_class()
form = self.get_form(form_class)
if form.is_valid():
return self.form_valid(form)
else:
return self.form_invalid(form)
def put(self, *args, **kwargs): ProcessFormView
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def put(self, *args, **kwargs):
return self.post(*args, **kwargs)
def render_to_response(self, context, **response_kwargs): TemplateResponseMixin
Returns a response with a template rendered with the given context.
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def render_to_response(self, context, **response_kwargs):
"""
Returns a response with a template rendered with the given context.
"""
return self.response_class(
request = self.request,
template = self.get_template_names(),
context = context,
**response_kwargs
)
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Zero-Truncated Distribution
< Probability distributions list > Zero-truncated distribution
Counting distributions such as the binomial distribution and Poisson distribution are biased when it comes to modeling data without zero counts, such as modeling the number of people traveling in a plane. A zero-truncated distribution avoids bias by “truncating” — cutting off — the distribution so that zeros are excluded.
Zero-truncated distributions include the zero-truncated binomial distribution and the zero-truncated negative binomial distribution. However, the Zero-truncated Poisson (ZTP) distribution is the most widely used because it is the simplest to understand and work with.
Zero-truncated distribution and (a, b, 1) class
The (a, b, 1) class of distributions is a class of discrete probability distributions that are derived from the zero-modified or (a, b, 0) class of distributions by conditioning on the event that a random variable is nonzero. “Conditioning on the event” refers to focusing only on the outcomes where the random variable is not zero.
Three zero-truncated distributions are included in the (a, b, 1) class – the zero-truncated Poisson, binomial and negative binomial distributions. However, the (a, b, 1) distribution is not synonymous with zero-truncated distribution, as it contains the zero-truncated and zero-modified version of a distribution.
The Zero-Truncated Poisson (ZTP) distribution
The zero-truncated Poisson distribution, developed in 1952 by David and Johnson [1], is a modified Poisson distribution conditioned on being nonzero. This means that the probability of observing a value of zero is zero. In other words, the zero-truncated Poisson only considers Poisson random values that are greater than or equal to one [2].
The distribution has a parameter θ, which belongs to the interval −∞<θ<∞, and the data x falls within the set of positive integers {1, 2, 3, …}.
Let’s say we have
Zero-Truncated Distribution formula (Poisson)
where m is the mean of the untruncated Poisson distribution and μ is the mean of the zero-truncated Poisson distribution.
To compute the log likelihood and its derivatives, we can use the following formulas:
Zero-Truncated Poisson Distribution derivatives formulae
In statistics and in the programming language R, the function log denotes the natural logarithm.
The second derivative formulas have different parameter values, and these can cause issues with “catastrophic cancellation”. Thus, calculating them is a highly challenging problem to calculate accurately [2].
Related distributions that have been developed for non-zero data include
• The zero-truncated Poisson-Amarendra distribution [3],
• The zero-truncated Poisson-Akash distribution [4],
• The zero-truncated two-parameter Poisson-Lindley distribution [5].
References
1. David, F. N, & N. L. Johnson, ”The Truncated Poisson.” Biometrics, 8(4), 275-285 (1952).
2. Geyer, C. (2017). Stat 3701 Lecture Notes: Zero-Truncated Poisson Distribution. Licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/).
3. Shanker, R., ”A zero-truncated Poisson-Amarendra distribution and its application,” International Journal of Probability and Statistics, 6(4), 82-92(2017).
4. Shanker, R., & K. K. Shukla, ”THE POISSON-WEIGHTED AKASH DISTRIBUTION AND ITS APPLICATIONS.” Journal of Applied Quantitative Methods, vol. 13, no. 2, 2018, p. 23.
5. Shanker, R., & K. K. Shukla, ”A Zero-Truncated Two-Parameter Poisson Lindley Distribution with an Application to Biological Science.” Turkiye Klinikleri Biyoistatistik, vol. 9, no. 2, 2017, pp. 85-95
Comments? Need to post a correction? Please Contact Us.
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| 0.94382 |
3. How to read data from Google sheets
With the gsheet R package you can download Google Sheets using a sharing link. You can download the data from the google sheet as a data frame or plain text.
Installation
[code language=”r”]
install.packages(‘gsheet’)
[/code]
Getting started
To download a google sheet, use the following code. The link can be copied while you are on the google sheet.
[code language=”r”]
library(gsheet)
gsheet2tbl(‘docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1I9mJsS5QnXF2TNNntTy-HrcdHmIF9wJ8ONYvEJTXSNo’)
[/code]
Reference: https://github.com/maxconway/gsheet
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| 0.993213 |
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The technique of direct substitution of IC Sep 13, 2017
Direct substitution refers to the use of other IC without any changes and directly replace the original IC, after the substitution does not affect the machine's main performance and indicators.
The substitution principle is: the function, performance index, package form, pin use, PIN number and interval of the substitution IC are the same. The function of IC not only means the same function, but also the same logic polarity, that is, the output input level polarity, voltage, current amplitude must be the same. For example: The image of IC, TA7607 and TA7611, the former is the reverse of the high-level AGC, the latter is a positive and high-level AGC, it can not be directly substituted. In addition to the output of different polar aft voltage, the output of different polarity of synchronous pulses such as IC can not be directly substituted, even with 1270 _f8 companies or manufacturers of products, should pay attention to the distinction. The performance index refers to the IC's main electrical parameters (or the main characteristic curve), the maximum dissipation power, the maximum operating voltage, the frequency range and the signal input, the output impedance and other parameters to be similar to the original IC. Small power of the substitute to increase the heat sink. [1]
1. Substitution of the same type IC
The replacement of the same type of IC is generally reliable, the installation of integrated circuits, should pay attention to the direction of not mistaken, otherwise, the power when the integrated circuit is likely to be burned. Some single row direct plug type power amplifier IC, although the model, the function, the characteristic is same, but the pin arranges the order the direction is different. For example, dual channel power amplifier IC LA4507, its pin has "positive", "inverse" of the points, its starting pin mark (color point or concave hole) direction is different, no suffix and suffix "R" ic, such as m5115p and M5115RP.
2. Substitution of different types of IC
⑴ model prefix letter, the number of different IC substitution. This substitution as long as the PIN function is identical, the internal circuit and electrical parameters are slightly different, but also can be directly substituted for each other. such as: Sound in the IC LA1363 and LA1365, the latter than the former in the IC ⑤ foot added a Zener diode, the other exactly the same.
⑵ model prefix letters are different, the number of the same IC substitution. In general, the prefix letter is the type of manufacturer and circuit, followed by the same number of prefixes, most of which can be directly substituted. But there are also a few, although the number is the same, but the function is completely different. For example, HA1364 is a sound IC, and uPC1364 is a color decoder IC, 4558, 8 feet is the operational amplifier NJM4558, 14 feet is the CD4558 digital circuit;
⑶ model prefix letters and numbers are different IC substitutions. Some manufacturers to introduce an unpackaged IC chip, and then processed into a product named after the factory. It is also like improving the product to improve some parameter index. These products are commonly used to name different models or to differentiate them by designation suffixes. For example, AN380 and uPC1380 can be substituted directly, and AN5620, TEA5620 and DG5620 can be substituted directly.
|
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| 0.973935 |
{ "add_bos_token": true, "add_eos_token": false, "added_tokens_decoder": { "0": { "content": "", "lstrip": false, "normalized": false, "rstrip": false, "single_word": false, "special": true }, "1": { "content": "", "lstrip": false, "normalized": false, "rstrip": false, "single_word": false, "special": true }, "2": { "content": "", "lstrip": false, "normalized": false, "rstrip": false, "single_word": false, "special": true } }, "additional_special_tokens": [], "bos_token": "", "clean_up_tokenization_spaces": false, "eos_token": "", "legacy": true, "max_length": 2048, "model_max_length": 1000000000000000019884624838656, "pad_token": "", "sp_model_kwargs": {}, "spaces_between_special_tokens": false, "stride": 0, "tokenizer_class": "LlamaTokenizer", "truncation_side": "right", "truncation_strategy": "longest_first", "unk_token": "", "use_default_system_prompt": false }
|
__label__pos
| 0.979576 |
TY - JOUR ID - 88943 TI - Tissue Profile of CDK4 and STAT3 as Possible Innovative Therapeutic Targets in Urinary Bladder Cancer JO - Asian Pacific Journal of Cancer Prevention JA - APJCP LA - en SN - 1513-7368 AU - Aboushousha, Tarek AU - Hammam, Olfat AU - Aref, Ahmed AU - Kamel, Amira AU - Badawy, Mohamed AU - Abdel Hamid, Amr AD - Department of Pathology, Theodor Bilharz Research Institute, Cairo, Egypt. AD - Faculty of Biotechnology, October University for Modern Sciences and Arts, Giza, Egypt. AD - Department of Urology, Theodor Bilharz Research Institute, Cairo, Egypt. Y1 - 2020 PY - 2020 VL - 21 IS - 2 SP - 547 EP - 554 KW - CDK4 KW - STAT3 KW - bladder cancer DO - 10.31557/APJCP.2020.21.2.547 N2 - Bladder cancer represents a global health problem. It ranks ninth in worldwide cancer incidence. In Egypt, carcinoma of the bladder is the most prevalent cancer, Bladder cancer has the highest recurrence rate of any malignancy. Certainly, suitable molecular diagnostic markers are required to improve the early detection of bladder cancer and then to prolong survival of patients. The present study was aimed to explore the expression of CDk4 and STAT3 in bladder cancer tissues as prospective for target therapy. Our studied groups showed higher values of CDK4 and STAT3 expression in malignant tissues (SCC andUC collectively) compared to cystitis, however, significantly higher values of CDK4 and STAT3 expression were detected in UC group compared to SCC group. Urothelial carcinomas with papillary patterns showed lower parameters of CDK4 and STAT3 expression compared to the non-papillary variant, with significant differences. Higher grades of UC showed significantly higher parameters of CDK4 and STAT3 expression compared to low grade ones. Muscle invasion increases the level of CDK4 and STAT3 expression parameters, compared to non-muscle invasive UC. Conclusion: Our results showed a good correlation of the expression patterns of both the cell cycle (CDK4) and inflammatory (STAT3) markers studied and might be helpful for suggesting more selective agents in the therapeutic scenario of bladder cancer in the near future. Potential biomarkers such as CDK4 andSTAT3 may be targets for molecular based therapeutic strategies in the prevention or management of bladder cancer. Future studies should explore molecular mechanisms of these proteins to define their roles in tumorigenesis. UR - https://journal.waocp.org/article_88943.html L1 - https://journal.waocp.org/article_88943_d7ce449967d23543fa76c1eb0baf9364.pdf ER -
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| 0.960475 |
Exercises 1. 4. 2021: More (a,b)-trees
Ex. 1: (2,4)-trees vs red-black trees
Red-black tree is a BST that is balanced by maintaining following invariants: It can be useful to consider edge color instead: The color of an edge is the color of the lower end-point. I.e. parent-edge of a red node is red, parent-edge of a black node is black.
1. Show, that every (2,4)-trees is in fact a red-black tree. That is, desing a simple mapping that transforms given (2,4)-tree into a valid red-black tree. Note that we are not really looking for an algorithm but for mapping in the mathematical sense. Hint: Try to represent each node of a (2,4)-tree as a red-black tree.
2. What about the other way around? Can we turn any red-black tree into a (2,4)-tree?
3. Left-leaning red-black tree (LLRBT) maintains additional invariant: Show, that there is a 1-1 correspondence between (2,4)-trees and left leaning red-black trees. That is, desing a mapping between (2,4)-trees and LLRBT that assigns a unique LLRBT to any (2,4)-tree (or a unique (2,4)-tree to any LLRBT, which is the same thing).
Ex. 2: Amortized (a, 2a-1)-trees
In the lecture we saw that any sequence of \(m\) Inserts and Deletes in a (a, 2a)-tree modifies only \( \mathcal{O}(m)\) nodes in total (starting with an empty tree).
Show that this bound does not work for (a, 2a-1)-trees. That is, for any \(n\) and \(m\) design a sequence of \(m\) operations on a tree with \(\Theta(n)\) nodes that modifies \(\Omega(m\log(n))\) in total.
Start with (2,3)-trees, then generalize your construction to any (a,2a-1)-trees.
You may start with any (valid) \(n\)-node tree you design. Once your argument is finished, check that you can actually create such tree from an empty tree.
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| 0.927515 |
首页ruby
想卖咖啡的程序员 · 真仙
认证系统之最简单的用户登录注册系统 (一)
想卖咖啡的程序员发布于
1.什么叫用户登录注册系统呢？
假如你做一个放博客的网站，或个人网站，再或者写一些展示用的网站，例如一些小企业的官网，这类网站并不需要用户去注册，或者用户登录。而我所说的用户登录注册系统，按照名称也就分开两部分，第一用户能注册，第二用户能登录。如果博客需要别人来评论，或者你写一个电子商务的网站，有各种各样的客户信息，这个时候就是需要存储用户的个人资料等信息。或许你就需要开放用户登录注册功能了。只要想一下，就可以知道，这种需求是很常见的。所以网站具备一个用户登录注册系统的功能，作为开发人员是必须掌握的，这是基本中的基本。
我们先来分析一下。首先，注册是很简单的，不外乎，你的网站中的数据库有一张用户(users)表，用户表大约有名称，电子邮件，密码等内容，一般注册信息会填写的内容也可能就是这几项。注册一个用户也就是添加了一条记录罢了。这很简单。至于密码，肯定不是明文啦，这会用到加密手段，我们以后再说。
至于登录。我们来详细说说。首先想的是，登录也像注册那样，在数据表中创建一条记录。这显然不符合逻辑，注册一个用户创建一条记录是好的，一百个用户就有一百条记录，登录一次也创建一次，用户可能每天登录好几次，那就得创建好几条记录。这些记录存在数据库也没什么意思，其他的先不说，这点就不行。所以只能找其他方法。
2.会话
或许有人会跟你说，用session就好了。session是什么呢？我们来分析一下。
我们浏览网页用的是http协议，先不管这协议是什么，只要先当成生活中的一种协议就好了，也就是一种约定，大家遵守的约定。
而http是一种无状态的协议。无状态可以这么理解，就是不记录状态。我们浏览网页是发送一个http请求，假如点击一个按钮吧，就发送了一个请求，但我之后点击了另一个按钮，就发送了另一个请求，这两个请求没有记录状态，没有任何关系，最多就是从相同的ip，相同的地方发送出去。可以这样认同，它们彼此不认识。既然没有记录状态，那服务端自然不认识或区分两次点击是同一个人所为。就算是相同的ip可不见得是同一个人，共享ip可是很常见的。那怎么办呢。有一种方法是这样的，不是两个请求是不一样的吗，就这样，每次请求都带一个相同的能标明身份的标记，这样不就可以吗，那每次请求都要带，好麻烦，显然也不行。
3.实例
那就用session技术好了，session的中文名可以理解为会话。是服务器端提供的技术。可以先把它理解为存会话数据的地方。它是存在服务器端的。存的方式很多种，文件 ，内存，以cookie的形式存等。不管怎样，它就是服务器端来解决上面那个问题的。是来存放会话状态的。
来举个例子，用户总有自己的id，这个总能标明自己的身份，因为id是唯一的。session是存在于服务器间的，并且各个请求之间都会存在，也就是说是共享的。那我们用session[:user_id]来存用户的id。只要用户在登录时，把用户表中的id存入sessions[:user_id]既可。这样来简单说，登录时或许得输入用户名和密码，这个时候得找根据用户名去查数据库中的users表，再跟密码比对，如果比对成功，就会得到那个user的记录，这个记录也就是可以得到整个用户的信息的。比如：
def login_as(user)
session[:user_id] = user.id
@current_user = user
end
这个session[:user_id]就是服务器端和你主机保持的会话啦。这样并不是很清楚，我们从头来开始实现一个登录框，再加上登录的逻辑。
<% provide(:title, "Sign in") %>
<h1>Sign in</h1>
<div class="row">
<div class="span6 offset3">
<%= form_for(:session, url: sessions_path) do |f| %>
<%= f.label :email %>
<%= f.text_field :email %>
<%= f.label :password %>
<%= f.password_field :password %>
<%= f.submit "Sign in", class: "btn btn-large btn-primary" %>
<% end %>
<p>New user? <%= link_to "Sign up now!", signup_path %></p>
</div>
</div>
email就是邮箱啦，password自然就是密码，这很简单，就是让你输入邮箱还有密码，之后就能点登录啦。
登录之后的逻辑是这样的。
def create
user = User.find_by(email: params[:session][:email].downcase)
if user && user.authenticate(params[:session][:password])
login_as user
redirect_back_or user
else
flash.now[:error] = 'Invalid email/password combination'
render 'new'
end
end
首先根据提交的邮箱，去数据库查找，如果找到的话，就跟密码匹配，是正确的密码才能让你登录啦。user.authenticate这个就是跟密码匹配的方法，登录成功之后呢，执行了这句login_as user，也就是上面的代码，就可以登录了。
我们还需要一个功能，有些功能，是不需要用户登录就能访问的，例如首页，有些功能是需要用户登录之后才能访问的，例如个人信息页面。还有，在导航条上，当用户没登录时，就显示登录的按钮，当登录时就显示个人信息的按钮。这种也是很常见的吧。那就这样来办吧。
def user_signed_in?
!!current_user
end
def current_user
@current_user ||= login_from_session
end
def login_from_session
if session[:user_id].present?
begin
User.find session[:user_id]
rescue
session[:user_id] = nil
end
end
end
user_signed_in?是判断用户有没有登录的，没有登录的话就执行login_from_session通过session[:user_id]，还有users表找出当前用户的记录，这样以前就可以在view上使用current_user.email等来显示邮箱了。
要退出也很简单，只要把current_user设为nil就好了，就是这样
def logout
session.delete(:user_id)
@current_user = nil
session.delete(:last_active_at)
session.delete(:unique_session_id)
forget_me
end
以上就把登录系统简单说了一下，注册就不讲了，不就是创建一条记录罢了。
本站帖子均为原创内容，如需转载请注明出处，谢谢。
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| 0.751415 |
Sending Keystrokes to Other Programs
JavaScript Editor JavaScript Editor JavaScript Debugger
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Sending Keystrokes to Other Programs
This one isn't a part of form handling, but it's a part of System.Windows.Forms, and it's one of my absolutely favorite parts of Visual Basic—SendKeys, which you can use to send keystrokes to other applications. Say it's time to print out the 349 screen spreadsheets you've created in your new spreadsheet program to show the boss. Regrettably, there just doesn't seem to be any way to print them out except one at a time, using the File menu's Print item. Can Visual Basic help here?
Yes. You can use the SendKeys function to send keys to the program that currently has the Windows focus, just as if you typed in those keys yourself. Using Alt keys, you can reach the menu items in your spreadsheet's File menu. The day is saved, because now you can automate your printing job. If the keys you want to send are not simple text, just embed the codes you see in Table 4.5 in the text you send to SendKeys.
Table 4.5: SendKeys Key Codes.
Key
Code
Backspace
{BACKSPACE}, {BS}, or {BKSP}
Break
{BREAK}
Caps Locl
{CAPSLOCK}
Del or Delete
{DELETE} or {DEL}
Down Arrow
{DOWN}
End
{END}
Enter/Return
{ENTER}or ~
Esc
{ESC}
Help
{HELP}
Home
{HOME}
Ins or Insert
{INSERT} or {INS}
Left Arrow
{LEFT}
Numloick
{NUMLOCK}
Page Down
{PGDN}
Page Up
{PGUP}
Print Screen
{PRTSC}
Right Arrow
{RIGHT}
Scroll Lock
{SCROLLLOCK}
Tab
{TAB}
Up Arrow
{UP}
F1
{F1}
F2
{F2}
F3
{F3}
F4
{F4}
F5
{F5}
F6
{F6}
F7
{F7}
F8
{F8}
F9
{F9}
F10
{F10}
F11
{F11}
F12
{F12}
F13
{F13}
F14
{F14}
F15
{F15}
F16
{F16}
Shift
+
Ctrl
^
Alt
%
Here's an example showing how to use SendKeys. I'll give the Windows WordPad program the focus with the Visual Basic AppActivate function, passing it the title of that program (which appears in its title bar), and send the string "Hello from Visual Basic" to that program as follows:
Public Class Form1
Inherits System.Windows.Forms.Form
'Windows Form Designer generated code
Private Sub Button1_Click(ByVal sender As System.Object, _
ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles Button1.Click
AppActivate("Document - WordPad")
System.Windows.Forms.SendKeys.Send("Hello from Visual Basic!")
End Sub
End Class
The result appears in Figure 4.26—now we're able to send keystrokes to an-other program.
Click To expand
Figure 4.26: Sending keystrokes to Windows WordPad.
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JavaScript Editor Free JavaScript Editor JavaScript Editor
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__label__pos
| 0.91455 |
Model of peripheral nerve with ephaptic coupling (Capllonch-Juan & Sepulveda 2020)
Download zip file Auto-launch
Help downloading and running models
Accession:263988
We built a computational model of a peripheral nerve trunk in which the interstitial space between the fibers and the tissues is modelled using a resistor network, thus enabling distance-dependent ephaptic coupling between myelinated axons and between fascicles as well. We used the model to simulate a) the stimulation of a nerve trunk model with a cuff electrode, and b) the propagation of action potentials along the axons. Results were used to investigate the effect of ephaptic interactions on recruitment and selectivity stemming from artificial (i.e., neural implant) stimulation and on the relative timing between action potentials during propagation.
Reference:
1 . Capllonch-Juan M, Sepulveda F (2020) Modelling the effects of ephaptic coupling on selectivity and response patterns during artificial stimulation of peripheral nerves. PLoS Comput Biol 16:e1007826 [PubMed]
Citations Citation Browser
Model Information (Click on a link to find other models with that property)
Model Type: Extracellular; Axon;
Brain Region(s)/Organism:
Cell Type(s): Myelinated neuron;
Channel(s):
Gap Junctions:
Receptor(s):
Gene(s):
Transmitter(s):
Simulation Environment: NEURON; Python;
Model Concept(s): Ephaptic coupling; Stimulus selectivity;
Implementer(s):
/
publication_data
dataset_01__fields
code
data
models
settings
src
x86_64
gaines_sensory_flut.mod *
gaines_sensory_mysa.mod *
gaines_sensory_node.mod *
gaines_sensory_stin.mod *
MRG_AXNODE.mod *
algebra.py *
analysis.py *
anatomy.py *
biophysics.py *
circlepacker.py *
contourhandler.py *
convert_results_to_xyz.py
fill_nerve.py *
geometry.py *
get_extstim.py *
PaperFig_0.8_textwidth.mplstyle *
read_results.py *
show_results.py
sim_launcher.py *
simcontrol.py
tessellations.py *
tools.py *
visualisation.py *
workspace.py *
"""
Handle all the anatomical aspects of the nerve
z-profile:
Cross-section:
Fill the fascicles and discretise the whole cross-section with a
tessellation
"""
import os
import json
import random
import numpy as np
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
import triangle
from collections import OrderedDict
import planar as pl
import copy
import warnings
import csv
import workspace as ws
import contourhandler as cth
import tessellations as tess
import circlepacker as cp
import geometry as geo
import tools
# Ignore warnings
warnings.filterwarnings('ignore')
###############################################################################
# CROSS-SECTION
class NerveTess():
"""
Tessellation of a nerve's cross-section, including:
- Power diagram
- Its dual triangulation
"""
def __init__(self):
self.cpath = ws.anatomy_settings["cross-section"]["contours file"]
# Dictionaries for:
# The fascicles to which each cable belongs (None if necessary)
self.cables_fascicles = OrderedDict()
# Tissues surrounding each cable
self.cables_tissues = OrderedDict()
def build_contours(self):
"""
Build the contours of the nerve
Contour processing
We obtain five contour variables:
1. contour: The actual contours dictionary we are going to use. Its number of
points may be lower than it contains in the file.
2. contour_hd: The contours with all their points, no reduction.
3. contour_pslg: The contours in PSLG format
4. contour_nerve: Contour for the nerve only, in order to triangulate it and
fill it with points.
5. contour_pslg_nerve: Contour for the nerve only in PSLG format.
"""
c_reduction = self.c_reduction
# Open contour
contour = cth.load_contours(self.cpath)
# Save the original contours, I will need them to prevent axons from protruding
# out of the fascicles
contour_hd = copy.deepcopy(contour)
# Take just one fraction of the points in case they are too many
contour = cth.reduce_points(contour, c_reduction)
# Convert to PSLG
contour_pslg = cth.c2pslg(contour)
# Ony the nerve
contour_nerve = {'Nerve': contour['Nerve']}
contour_pslg_nerve = cth.c2pslg(contour_nerve)
# Save all the types of contours
self.contour = contour
self.contour_nerve = contour_nerve
self.contour_hd = contour_hd
self.contour_pslg = contour_pslg
self.contour_pslg_nerve = contour_pslg_nerve
# Save other properties
self.polygon = geo.Polygon(np.array(contour_nerve['Nerve']))
# self.centroid = self.polygon.centroid
self.crss_area = self.polygon.area
# self.polygon.get_circumcircle()
self.circumcircle = self.polygon.circumcircle
self.circumcenter = self.circumcircle.c
self.circumradius = self.circumcircle.r
self.circumdiameter = self.polygon.circumdiameter
# Instantiate fascicles
self.build_fascicles()
def build(self, params):
"""
Build the tessellation for the nerve
"""
# Get parameters
# self.get_params(params)
self.__dict__.update(params)
mnd = self.mnd
min_sep = self.min_sep
rmin = self.rmin
rmax = self.rmax
circp_tol = self.circp_tol
max_axs_pf = self.max_axs_pf
numberofaxons = self.numberofaxons
locations = self.locations
radii = self.radii
# models = self.models
# Build contours
self.build_contours()
contour = self.contour
contour_hd = self.contour_hd
contour_pslg = self.contour_pslg
contour_pslg_nerve = self.contour_pslg_nerve
##################################################################
# Triangulate
# Max. area for the triangles,
# inverse to the minimum NAELC density
maxarea = 1. / mnd
# Triangulate
# Instead, triangulate without taking the fascicles' contours
# into account
tri = triangle.triangulate(contour_pslg_nerve, 'a%f'%maxarea)
tri = triangle.triangulate(contour_pslg, 'a%f'%maxarea)
# Vertices
tv = tri['vertices']
self.original_points = tv.T
##################################################################
# Fill fascicles
# If the axons have fixed locations, get their locations and
# radii first, and then they will be added to the different
# fascicles when needed
if self.packing_type == "fixed locations":
try:
xx_, yy_ = np.array(locations).T
except ValueError:
# Something went wrong or simply there are no axons
xx_ = yy_ = rr_ = np.array([])
else:
rr_ = np.array(radii)
# Axon models
self.models = self.models['fixed']
# else:
# # Axon models. Create them according to the proportions
# Remove points inside the fascicles
remove_these = []
axons = {}
naxons = {}
naxons_total = 0
print('about to fill the contours')
for k, v in contour.items():
varr = np.array(v)
# Remove points outside the nerve
if 'Nerve' in k:
plpol = pl.Polygon(v)
for i, p in enumerate(tv):
# Remove any points in tv falling outside the nerve
# and outside its boundaries
# Note: that means that I don't remove the points ON the
# boundaries
if not (plpol.contains_point(p) or np.isin(p, varr).all()):
remove_these.append(i)
# Remove points from the fascicles
if 'Fascicle' in k:
print(k)
plpol = pl.Polygon(v)
for i, p in enumerate(tv):
# Remove the points of the fascicle's contours from tv
inclc = plpol.contains_point(p) and (not np.isin(p, varr).all())
# Actually, don't remove the fascicle's contours
# Remove any points in tv contained in a fascicle
notic = plpol.contains_point(p) or np.isin(p, varr).all()
if notic:
remove_these.append(i)
# Fill the fascicle
# Dictionary of axons
axons[k] = {}
# Create the circles
# Different packing strategies yield different results
if self.packing_type == "uniform":
xx, yy, rr = cp.fill(contour_hd[k], rmin, rmax,
min_sep, nmaxpf=max_axs_pf, tolerance=circp_tol)
elif self.packing_type == "gamma":
distr_params = {
"mean": self.avg_r,
"shape": self.gamma_shape
}
xx, yy, rr = cp.fill(contour_hd[k], rmin, rmax,
min_sep, nmaxpf=max_axs_pf, tolerance=circp_tol,
distribution="gamma", distr_params=distr_params)
print('Filled %s'%k)
elif self.packing_type == "fixed locations":
# Iterate over axons and get those inside
# the fascicle
xx, yy, rr = [], [], []
for x_, y_, r_ in zip(xx_, yy_, rr_):
if plpol.contains_point((x_, y_)):
xx.append(x_)
yy.append(y_)
rr.append(r_)
xx = np.array(xx)
yy = np.array(yy)
rr = np.array(rr)
# Store information in a clean way
axons[k]['x'] = xx
axons[k]['y'] = yy
axons[k]['r'] = rr
# axons[k]['models'] = models[:]
naxons[k] = len(xx)
naxons_total += naxons[k]
rps = tv[remove_these]
self.removed_points = rps
keep_these = np.array(list(set(range(tv.shape[0])) - set(remove_these)))
# print("keep_these:", keep_these)
# print("remove_these:", remove_these)
tv = tv[keep_these]
# List x, y and r once some points have been removed
tv = tv.T
x, y = tv
nc = x.size
r = np.zeros_like(x)
# Dictionaries for:
# cables (their type)
cables = OrderedDict()
models = {}
# Points corresponding to epineurium
for ic in range(nc):
cables[ic] = 'NAELC'
# NAELC model indexing
models[ic] = 'NAELC'
print(ic, models, self.models)
# Add axons to the existing points for the nerve
for k in axons:
x = np.array(x.tolist() + axons[k]['x'].tolist())
y = np.array(y.tolist() + axons[k]['y'].tolist())
r = np.array(r.tolist() + axons[k]['r'].tolist())
nc = x.size
nNAELC = nc - naxons_total
# Axon models
if self.packing_type != 'fixed locations':
# Now that the axons have been placed, determine their models according to the proportions
# ninst: 'number of instances' (of each model)
ninst = {}
proportions = self.models['proportions']
keys = list(proportions.keys())
for m, p in proportions.items():
ninst[m] = int(p * naxons_total)
# Remainder
rem = naxons_total - sum(list(ninst.values()))
# Just add the remaining in an arbitrary (not random) way
for i in range(rem):
ninst[keys[i]] += 1
# Now select the indices of the axons for each model
axon_indices = (np.arange(naxons_total) + nNAELC).tolist()
remaining_axon_indices = axon_indices[:]
# Dictionary for the axon indices for each model
inds = {}
# Dictionary for the model names for each index
model_by_index = {}
for m, p in proportions.items():
sample = random.sample(remaining_axon_indices, ninst[m])
remaining_axon_indices = list(set(remaining_axon_indices) - set(sample))
inds[m] = sample[:]
for i in sample:
model_by_index[i] = m
# Points corresponding to axons
for ik, i in enumerate(np.arange(nNAELC, nc, 1)):
cables[i] = 'Axon'
# Axon model indexing
if self.packing_type == 'fixed locations':
models[i] = self.models[ik]
else:
models[i] = model_by_index[i]
print(ik, i, models, self.models)
##################################################################
# Power diagram
# Zero-valued radii: Voronoi diagram
# Build power diagram
pd = tess.PowerDiagram(x, y, r, contour_pslg_nerve)
pd.build()
# Lengths of the segments and the connections
pdpairs = pd.pairs
pdsegments = pd.segments
pairs = []
segments = {}
len_seg = {}
len_con = {}
for pair in pdpairs:
# if len(pdsegments[pair]) > 1:
if pdsegments[pair] is not None:
seg = pdsegments[pair]
pairs.append(pair)
segments[pair] = seg
a, b = seg.a, seg.b
len_seg[pair] = geo.dist(a, b).mean()
i, j = pair
len_con[pair] = geo.dist((x[i], y[i]), (x[j], y[j]))
# Store relevant stuff in the attributes
self.pd = pd
self.x = x
self.y = y
self.r = r
self.nc = nc
self.axons_dict = axons
self.pairs = pairs
self.cables = cables
self.models = models
# Unique list of models
self.models_set = set(self.models.values())
self.segments = segments
self.trios = pd.trios
self.len_con = len_con
self.len_seg = len_seg
self.free_areas = pd.free_areas
self.circ_areas = pd.circ_areas
# Total endoneurial cross-sectional free area
self.endo_free_cs_area = self.fas_total_area - self.circ_areas.sum()
self.naxons = naxons
self.naxons_total = naxons_total
self.nNAELC = nNAELC
def save_to_file(self, spath):
"""
Save the nerve with its properties to a file
"""
with open(spath, 'w') as f:
fw = csv.writer(f, delimiter=';')
# Headers
fw.writerow(['Cable number, x, y, r, free extracellular area, start position, endoneurium, epineurium'])
# Cables
for i in range(self.nc):
fw.writerow([self.cables[i], self.x[i], self.y[i], self.r[i], self.free_areas[i], self.start_positions[i], self.cables_tissues[i]['epineurium'], str(self.cables_tissues[i]['endoneurium'])])
# Pairs
for pair in self.pairs:
i, j = pair
fw.writerow(['Pair', i, j] + \
[tools.arrtonum(item) for sublist in self.segments[pair].points_list for item in sublist] + \
[self.len_seg[pair], self.len_con[pair]])
def save_to_json(self, path):
"""
New function. 7 October 2019.
Save the nerve with its properties to a file
NOT FINISHED
"""
print('saving json in: %s'%path)
# Create dictionary to be dumped
topology = OrderedDict()
topology['cables'] = OrderedDict()
topology['pairs'] = OrderedDict()
for i in range(self.nc):
if isinstance(i, np.int64):
print('yes', i)
# This is necessary since json can't serialise np.int64
i = int(i)
topology['cables'][i] = OrderedDict()
topology['cables'][i]['type'] = self.cables[i]
topology['cables'][i]['x'] = self.x[i]
topology['cables'][i]['y'] = self.y[i]
topology['cables'][i]['r'] = self.r[i]
topology['cables'][i]['model'] = self.models[i]
topology['cables'][i]['free extracellular area'] = self.free_areas[i]
topology['cables'][i]['start position'] = self.start_positions[i]
for s in ('endoneurium', 'epineurium'):
topology['cables'][i][s] = self.cables_tissues[i][s]
for pair in self.pairs:
i, j = pair
if isinstance(i, np.int64):
i = int(i)
if isinstance(i, np.integer):
i = int(i)
if isinstance(j, np.int64):
j = int(j)
if isinstance(j, np.integer):
j = int(j)
seg = self.segments[pair]
str_pair = str(pair)
topology['pairs'][str_pair] = {
'pair': (i, j),
'separator segment': OrderedDict()
}
topology['pairs'][str_pair]['separator segment']['a'] = OrderedDict()
topology['pairs'][str_pair]['separator segment']['a']['x'] = seg.a[0]
topology['pairs'][str_pair]['separator segment']['a']['y'] = seg.a[1]
topology['pairs'][str_pair]['separator segment']['b'] = OrderedDict()
topology['pairs'][str_pair]['separator segment']['b']['x'] = seg.b[0]
topology['pairs'][str_pair]['separator segment']['b']['y'] = seg.b[1]
# Dump
with open(path, 'w') as f:
json.dump(topology, f, indent=4)
def build_preexisting(self):
"""
Build the nerve using the parameters stored in files
"""
# Build contours
self.c_reduction = ws.anatomy_settings["cross-section"]["contours point reduction"]
self.build_contours()
contour = self.contour
contour_hd = self.contour_hd
contour_pslg = self.contour_pslg
contour_pslg_nerve = self.contour_pslg_nerve
# Build internal elements
x = []
y = []
r = []
cables = []
free_areas = []
start_positions = []
cables_tissues = OrderedDict()
segments = {}
len_seg = {}
len_con = {}
numberof = {
'Axon': 0,
'NAELC': 0
}
itpath = ws.anatomy_settings["cross-section"]["internal topology file"]
with open(itpath, 'r') as f:
# Skip header
frl = list(csv.reader(f, delimiter=';'))[1:]
# k is a cable counter
k = 0
for row in frl:
key = row[0]
if key != 'Pair':
cables.append(key)
x.append(float(row[1]))
y.append(float(row[2]))
r.append(float(row[3]))
free_areas.append(float(row[4]))
start_positions.append(float(row[5]))
try:
cables_tissues[k] = {
'epineurium': float(row[7]),
'endoneurium': float(row[6])
}
except IndexError:
# There's no such information
cables_tissues[k] = {
'epineurium': 0.,
'endoneurium': 0.
}
numberof[key] += 1
k += 1
else:
i = int(row[1])
j = int(row[2])
segments[(i, j)] = geo.Segment([(float(row[3]), float(row[4])), (float(row[5]), float(row[6]))])
len_seg[(i, j)] = float(row[7])
len_con[(i, j)] = float(row[8])
# Save things as attributes
self.x = np.array(x)
self.y = np.array(y)
self.r = np.array(r)
self.free_areas = np.array(free_areas)
self.start_positions = np.array(start_positions)
self.cables_tissues = cables_tissues
self.segments = segments
self.len_seg = len_seg
self.len_con = len_con
self.pairs = len_con.keys()
self.cables = cables
self.nc = len(cables)
self.naxons_total = numberof['Axon']
self.nNAELC = numberof['NAELC']
# Build power diagram
pd = tess.PowerDiagram(self.x, self.y, self.r, contour_pslg_nerve)
for p, s in zip(self.pairs, self.segments.values()):
print(p, str(s))
pd.build_preexisting(self.pairs, self.segments)
self.trios = pd.trios
self.pd = pd
self.circ_areas = pd.circ_areas
# Total endoneurial cross-sectional free area
self.endo_free_cs_area = self.fas_total_area - self.circ_areas.sum()
def build_from_json(self):
"""
Build the nerve using the parameters stored in json files
"""
# Build contours
self.c_reduction = ws.anatomy_settings["cross-section"]["contours point reduction"]
self.build_contours()
contour = self.contour
contour_hd = self.contour_hd
contour_pslg = self.contour_pslg
contour_pslg_nerve = self.contour_pslg_nerve
# Build internal elements
x = []
y = []
r = []
cables = OrderedDict()
free_areas = []
start_positions = []
cables_tissues = OrderedDict()
segments = {}
len_seg = {}
len_con = {}
numberof = {
'Axon': 0,
'NAELC': 0
}
models = {}
itpath = ws.anatomy_settings["cross-section"]["internal topology file"]
topology = read_from_json(itpath, object_pairs_hook=OrderedDict)
# Read the dictionary and crete the necessary variables from it
for i, c in topology['cables'].items():
i = int(i)
cables[i] = c['type']
x.append(c['x'])
y.append(c['y'])
r.append(c['r'])
free_areas.append(c['free extracellular area'])
start_positions.append(c['start position'])
cables_tissues[i] = OrderedDict()
cables_tissues[i]['endoneurium'] = c['endoneurium']
cables_tissues[i]['epineurium'] = c['epineurium']
numberof[c['type']] += 1
# Axon model
try:
models[i] = c['model']
except KeyError:
# It's not an axon
models[i] = cables[i]
# Turn the cables dictionary into a sorted list
# And also sort everything else
sortorder = np.argsort(np.array(list(cables.keys())))
cables = np.array(list(cables.values()))[sortorder]
x = np.array(x)[sortorder]
y = np.array(y)[sortorder]
r = np.array(r)[sortorder]
free_areas = np.array(free_areas)[sortorder]
start_positions = np.array(start_positions)[sortorder]
# Now pairs...
for p in topology['pairs'].values():
i, j = p['pair']
pair = (i, j)
s = p['separator segment']
a = s['a']
b = s['b']
seg = geo.Segment((
(a['x'], a['y']),
(b['x'], b['y'])
))
segments[pair] = seg
len_seg[pair] = seg.length
len_con[pair] = geo.dist(
(x[i], y[i]),
(x[j], y[j])
)
# Save things as attributes
# self.x = np.array(x)
# self.y = np.array(y)
# self.r = np.array(r)
# self.free_areas = np.array(free_areas)
# self.start_positions = np.array(start_positions)
self.x = x
self.y = y
self.r = r
self.free_areas = free_areas
self.start_positions = start_positions
self.cables_tissues = cables_tissues
self.segments = segments
self.len_seg = len_seg
self.len_con = len_con
self.pairs = len_con.keys()
self.cables = cables
self.models = models
# Unique list of models
self.models_set = set(self.models.values())
# print('cables:', cables)
# print('r:', r)
# for c_, r_ in zip(cables, r):
# print(c_, r_)
self.nc = len(cables)
self.naxons_total = numberof['Axon']
self.nNAELC = numberof['NAELC']
# Build power diagram
pd = tess.PowerDiagram(self.x, self.y, self.r, contour_pslg_nerve)
# for p, s in zip(self.pairs, self.segments.values()):
# print(p, str(s))
pd.build_preexisting(self.pairs, self.segments)
self.trios = pd.trios
self.pd = pd
self.circ_areas = pd.circ_areas
# Total endoneurial cross-sectional free area
self.endo_free_cs_area = self.fas_total_area - self.circ_areas.sum()
def build_fascicles(self):
""" Create instances of the class Fascicle for this nerve
This method was created on 13 November 2018 """
fascicles = OrderedDict()
fas_total_area = 0.
for key, value in self.contour.items():
if 'Fascicle' in key:
fas = Fascicle(key, value)
fascicles[key] = fas
fas_total_area += fas.area
# Store attributes
# List of Fascicle instances
self.fascicles = fascicles
# Sum of fascicular areas
self.fas_total_area = fas_total_area
# All the area outside the fascicles
self.interfas_area = self.crss_area - fas_total_area
def allocate_cables_in_fascicles(self):
""" Allocate cables inside their corresponding fascicles.
Also find the weighted area lying in each tissue for each cable """
# Iterate over cables
for i in range(self.nc):
# By default, no fascicle (it will remain so if that's the case)
self.cables_fascicles[i] = None
# if True:
if ws.anatomy_settings["cross-section"]["use internal topology"] == "generation":
# Tissues surrounding the cable (as a fraction of the free area)
self.cables_tissues[i] = OrderedDict()
self.cables_tissues[i]['epineurium'] = 0.
self.cables_tissues[i]['endoneurium'] = OrderedDict()
# Find the fascicle to which this cable belongs
for k, fas in self.fascicles.items():
if fas.polygon.plpol.contains_point((self.x[i], self.y[i])):
self.cables_fascicles[i] = k
self.fascicles[k].add_cable(i)
# break
# Compute the (weighted) area overlapping with this fascicle if we haven't this information yet; this should only be the case when the nerve is first generated
# Find the intersection
# if True:
if ws.anatomy_settings["cross-section"]["use internal topology"] == "generation":
# Initialise it
self.cables_tissues[i]['endoneurium'][k] = 0.
# The endoneurium area is found from the overlap with all fascicles
# Polygons intersection
intersection = geo.intersection_polygons(
self.pd.polygons[i],
fas.polygon
)
# Add this area (if there is any intersection)
# Note that the cable's circular area needs to be subtracted
# If it's a NAELC, this is zero. If it's an axon, it needs to
# be subtracted in full since, for sure, the axon is fully
# inside the fascicle
if intersection is not None:
self.cables_tissues[i]['endoneurium'][k] = (intersection.area - self.pd.circ_areas[i]) / self.pd.free_areas[i]
# Finally, the epineurium (weighted) area
# if True:
if ws.anatomy_settings["cross-section"]["use internal topology"] == "generation":
self.cables_tissues[i]['epineurium'] = 1. - sum(self.cables_tissues[i]['endoneurium'].values())
# Print results
# if True:
if ws.anatomy_settings["cross-section"]["use internal topology"] == "generation":
print('tissues for cable %i (%s): epi: %f, endo: %s'%(i, self.cables[i], self.cables_tissues[i]['epineurium'], str(self.cables_tissues[i]['endoneurium'])))
def draw_contours(self, ax, c='k', lw=1., zorder=0):
"""
Draw the contours of the nerve
"""
for v in self.contour.values():
varr = np.array(v).T.tolist()
xx, yy = varr
xx.append(varr[0][0])
yy.append(varr[1][0])
ax.plot(xx, yy, c, lw=lw, zorder=zorder)
def draw_axons_and_points(self, ax, act_axons=None, facecolor='k',
edgecolor='k', lw=1., s=1, text=False, zorder=0):
"""
Draw the axons
"""
nc, x, y, r = self.nc, self.x, self.y, self.r
jaxon = 0
for i in range(nc):
if r[i] == 0:
ax.scatter(x[i], y[i], c='k', s=s, zorder=zorder)
# Reset color to default
col = facecolor
ec = edgecolor
# If this is an axon...
if r[i] > 0:
# If I measured activation...
if act_axons is not None:
# If this axon is activated,
if act_axons[jaxon]:
col = 'lightgreen'
col = 'lime'
col = 'red'
col = 'magenta'
ec = 'red'
jaxon += 1
# Circle
circle = plt.Circle((x[i], y[i]), r[i], facecolor=col, alpha=1.,
zorder=zorder + 1, linewidth=lw, edgecolor=ec)
ax.add_artist(circle)
# Text
if text:
ax.text(x[i], y[i], i)
def draw_triangulation_deprecated(self, ax, lw=1., c='k', zorder=0):
"""
Draw the triangulation of all the points
"""
x, y, trios = self.x, self.y, self.trios
for trio in trios:
print("Trio:", trio)
ax.triplot(x, y, trios, color=c, linewidth=lw, zorder=zorder)
def draw_triangulation(self, ax, lw=1., ls='-', c='k', alpha=1,
dashes=(1, 1), zorder=0):
"""
Draw the triangulation of all the points
"""
for pair in self.pairs:
i, j = pair
if ls == '--':
ax.plot((self.x[i], self.x[j]), (self.y[i], self.y[j]),
color=c, lw=lw, ls=ls, dashes=dashes, alpha=alpha, zorder=zorder)
else:
ax.plot((self.x[i], self.x[j]), (self.y[i], self.y[j]),
color=c, lw=lw, ls=ls, alpha=alpha, zorder=zorder)
def print_properties(self):
""" Print properties of the nerve, same as with the fascicles"""
ws.log('--------------------------------------')
ws.log('Nerve')
ws.log('Circumcircle\'s Diameter: %0.2f'%self.circumdiameter)
ws.log('Circumcircle\'s Center: (%f, %f)'%(self.circumcenter[0], self.circumcenter[1]))
ws.log('Area: %0.3f um2'%self.crss_area)
ws.log('Number of Axons: %i'%self.naxons_total)
ws.log('Number of NAELC: %i'%self.nNAELC)
ws.log('Total number of cables: %i'%self.nc)
ws.log('--------------------------------------')
class Fascicle():
"""
This is the class for a fascicle. This class has been created
in order to easily access some properties of it.
This was created on 13 November 2018
"""
def __init__(self, key, contour):
self.id = key
self.contour = contour
self.polygon = geo.Polygon(contour)
self.polygon.get_circumcircle()
self.circumcircle = self.polygon.circumcircle
self.circumcenter = self.circumcircle.c
self.circumdiameter = self.polygon.circumdiameter
self.area = self.polygon.area
self.cables = []
self.ncables = 0
self.naxons = 0
def add_cable(self, i):
""" Add one cable to this fascicle """
self.cables.append(i)
self.ncables += 1
if ws.nvt.cables[i] == "Axon":
self.naxons += 1
def get_free_area(self):
""" Compute the fiber area (area occupated by the fibers) and the free (free from axons) endoneurial area
of this fascicle. This can only be done when all the
cables have been allocated """
# First, fiber area
self.fiber_area = 0.
# for i in self.cables:
# self.fiber_area += ws.nvt.r[i] ** 2
# self.fiber_area *= np.pi
self.fiber_area = np.pi * (ws.nvt.r[self.cables] ** 2).sum()
# print(self.fiber_area)
# Second, free extracellular area
self.free_area = self.area - self.fiber_area
# Packing ratio
self.packing_ratio = self.fiber_area / self.area
def get_intracellular_area(self):
""" Add the intracellular area. Skip this if it already exists """
try:
self.intracellular_area
except AttributeError:
# Create it if it does not exist
self.intracellular_area = 0.
for i in self.cables:
if ws.nvt.cables[i] == "Axon":
self.intracellular_area += ws.cables[i].intracellular_area
# Intracellular to extracellular areas ratio
self.intra_extra_ratio = self.intracellular_area / self.free_area
def print_properties(self):
""" Print the main properties of the fascicle:
size, packing ratios, number of axons, etc."""
try:
ws.log('--------------------------------------')
ws.log('Fascicle %s'%self.id)
ws.log('Circumcircle\'s Diameter: %0.2f'%self.circumdiameter)
ws.log('Circumcircle\'s Center: (%f, %f)'%(self.circumcenter[0], self.circumcenter[1]))
# ws.log('Centroid: (%f, %f)'%(self.polygon.centroid[0], self.polygon.centroid[1]))
ws.log('Area: %0.3f um2'%self.area)
ws.log('Number of Axons: %i'%self.naxons)
ws.log('Fiber Area: %0.3f um2'%self.fiber_area)
ws.log('Extracellular Area: %0.3f um2'%self.free_area)
ws.log('Fiber Packing Ratio: %0.3f'%self.packing_ratio)
ws.log('Intracellular Area: %0.3f um2'%self.intracellular_area)
ws.log('Intracellular to Extracellular Areas Ratio: %0.3f'%self.intra_extra_ratio)
ws.log('--------------------------------------')
except AttributeError:
ws.log('ERROR: Fascicle %s is missing certain attributes that were intended to print. Skipping the rest.'%self.id)
###############################################################################
# Z-AXIS
class Section():
"""Section"""
def __init__(self, sectype, length, xstart):
self.sectype = sectype
self.length = length
self.xstart = xstart
class Axon():
""" Axon, which contains a chain of sections """
def __init__(self, sections):
self.sections = sections
########################################################################
# z-profile
########################################################################
# Just to select the section types with numbers
# This is more convenient for hoc, I think
def read_from_json(path, object_pairs_hook=None):
""" Read topology file in a json format """
with open(path, 'r') as f:
return json.load(f, object_pairs_hook=object_pairs_hook)
def create_nerve():
"""
Create the nerve using the available information
Also create the necessary variables for the model to work and to be
able to perform further actions
"""
ws.log("Creating Nerve")
# Build a nerve from the specifications in the anatomy settings
# Contours
# Generation
if ws.anatomy_settings["cross-section"]["use contours"] == "generation":
generate_contours()
# Change the settings so we load the just generated file
ws.anatomy_settings["cross-section"]["contours file"] = os.path.join(
ws.folders["data/saved"],
ws.anatomy_settings["cross-section"]["contours generation"]["filename"])
# Load from a file
elif ws.anatomy_settings["cross-section"]["use contours"] == "load file":
pass
# Create the tessellated nerve
ws.nvt = NerveTess()
nvt = ws.nvt
# Filling
# Generation
if ws.anatomy_settings["cross-section"]["use internal topology"] == "generation":
# Create the cables and tessellation
print('generation of internal topology')
fill_contours()
ws.anatomy_settings["cross-section"]["internal topology file"] = \
os.path.join(ws.folders["data/saved"],
ws.anatomy_settings["cross-section"]["fibers distribution"]["filename"])
# Load from file and build
if ws.anatomy_settings["cross-section"]["use internal topology"] == "load file":
itpath = ws.anatomy_settings["cross-section"]["internal topology file"]
if '.csv' in itpath:
ws.nvt.build_preexisting()
elif '.json' in itpath:
ws.nvt.build_from_json()
# Allocate cables to fascicles
ws.nvt.allocate_cables_in_fascicles()
# Save the generated topology
if ws.anatomy_settings["cross-section"]["use internal topology"] == "generation":
savepath = ws.anatomy_settings["cross-section"]["fibers distribution"]["filename"]
# To a csv file
spath = os.path.join(ws.folders["data/saved"], savepath.replace('.json', '.csv'))
ws.nvt.save_to_file(spath)
# To a json file
if ws.anatomy_settings["cross-section"]["use internal topology"] == "generation":
jsonpath = os.path.join(ws.folders["data/saved"], savepath.replace('.csv', '.json'))
ws.nvt.save_to_json(jsonpath)
# Get fascicles' free areas
for k in ws.nvt.fascicles:
ws.nvt.fascicles[k].get_free_area()
# Get the necessary stuff from the nerve
ws.nNAELC = nvt.nNAELC
ws.naxons_total = nvt.naxons_total
ws.nc = nvt.nc
r = nvt.r
ws.pairs = nvt.pairs
contour_nerve = nvt.contour_nerve
if ws.settings["graphics"]:
fig, ax = plt.subplots()
diams = 2. * r[np.where(r > 0)]
count, bins, ignored = ax.hist(diams, 50, normed=True)
binswidth = bins[1:] - bins[:-1]
import scipy.special as sps
if ws.anatomy_settings["cross-section"]["use internal topology"] == "generation" \
and ws.anatomy_settings["cross-section"]["fibers distribution"]["axon placements"]["packing"]["type"] == "gamma":
ws.log("Axon diameters:")
ws.log("\tThis should be close to 1: %f:"%(count * binswidth).sum())
ws.log("\tThis should be close to %f: %f"%(2 * ws.nvt.avg_r, diams.mean()))
shape = ws.nvt.gamma_shape
mean = 2. * ws.nvt.avg_r
scale = mean / shape
else:
shape = 2.5
mean = 2. * 3.65
scale = mean / shape
y = bins**(shape-1)*(np.exp(-bins/scale) / (sps.gamma(shape)*scale**shape))
ax.plot(bins, y, linewidth=2, color='r')
ax.set_xlabel("Axon Diameters (um)")
plt.show()
# Find the axon with the lowest radius
try:
ws.raxmin = r[np.where(r != 0)].min()
except ValueError:
# No axons
ws.raxmin = 0.
# Number of points in the nerve's contour
ws.npc = len(contour_nerve['Nerve'])
# An array with the angular positions of the points on the nerve's contour
# I will need this for the stimulation with cuff electrodes
ws.contour_angles = np.zeros(ws.npc)
for i, (xc, yc) in enumerate(contour_nerve['Nerve']):
# ws.contour_angles[i] = geo.pts_angle(nvt.centroid, (xc, yc))
ws.contour_angles[i] = geo.pts_angle(nvt.circumcenter, (xc, yc))
# Save in the workspace
ws.r = nvt.r
ws.contour_nerve = contour_nerve
# z-axis
ws.z = np.linspace(0., ws.length, ws.nseg)
# Create figure to visualise the tessellation process
if ws.settings["graphics"]:
fig, ax = plt.subplots()
ws.ax = ax
ws.nvt.pd.draw(ax)
# ws.nvt.draw_axons_and_points(ax, facecolor='grey')
ws.nvt.draw_axons_and_points(ax, facecolor='grey', lw=0)
ws.nvt.draw_contours(ax, c='r')
if False:
for i, (x, y) in enumerate(zip(ws.nvt.x, ws.nvt.y)):
ax.text(x, y, i)
ax.text(x, y, ws.nvt.models[i][0], color='r')
if ws.nvt.models[i] == 'gaines_sensory':
ax.scatter(x, y, c='b', s=np.pi * ws.nvt.r[i]**2, zorder=1e9)
elif ws.nvt.models[i] == 'MRG':
ax.scatter(x, y, c='r', s=np.pi * ws.nvt.r[i]**2, zorder=1e9)
# Draw the contour from the PD
# ws.nvt.pd.draw(ax, colour='g', linestyle='-', linewidth=3)
if False:
ws.nvt.pd.draw(ax, colour='k', linestyle='-', linewidth=0, values='precomputed', precompv=ws.nvt.free_areas, alpha=0.2)
ax.set_aspect('equal')
ax.legend()
plt.show()
ws.log("Nerve has been created")
def add_sec(sectype, l, sections_, xstart):
""" Add a section 'sectype' of length 'l' to the list """
# global sections_, xstart
sections_.append(sections[sectype](l, xstart))
xstart += l
return sections_, xstart
def build_sequence(axon):
""" Builds the sequence of sections for an axon.
Completely modified and adapted to any type of basic sequence
on 6 January 2019 """
# Variables shortnames
start = axon.properties['start']
L = ws.length
basic_sequence = axon.properties['basic sequence']
lengths = {}
for key, subkey in axon.properties['section lengths'].items():
lengths[key] = axon.properties[subkey]
# Actual sequence
sequence = []
# Positions where the sections start
zz = []
# Iterate while not finished
z = 0
i = 0
finished = False
while not finished:
# Select the type of section
section = basic_sequence[i % len(basic_sequence)]
# Append it to the sequence
sequence.append(section)
zz.append(z)
# Update the position
z += lengths[section]
# Update counter and check if we finished
i += 1
finished = (z >= L + start)
# zz as an array
zz = np.array(zz)
# Identify the first section according to the start point
first_section_index = np.where(zz > start)[0][0] - 1
# Update the sequence and zz
sequence_v2 = sequence[first_section_index:]
zz_v2 = zz[first_section_index:]
# Finally, update zz by cutting the first section from the start point
zz_v3 = zz_v2.copy()
zz_v3[0] = start
# Once all this is done, create an array with the actual lengths for
# all sections
actual_lengths = zz_v3[1:] - zz_v3[:-1]
actual_lengths = np.append(actual_lengths, L + start - zz_v3[-1])
# Do something: Make the sequence be objects
sections = []
for sec, l, zvalue in zip(sequence_v2, actual_lengths, zz_v3):
sections.append(Section(sec, l, zvalue))
return sections
def all_vars(axon):
""" From the sequence, get all the wanted variables """
# Build the actual sequence of sections and section lengths
sections = build_sequence(axon)
# Section counters, classified by section types
section_counter = {}
for key in ws.axonmodel_settings[axon.model]['section types']:
section_counter[key] = 0
# List of lenghts for each section of each section type
# Just create the lists for now
lengths = {}
for key in ws.axonmodel_settings[axon.model]['section types']:
lengths[key] = []
# Add values to the counters, length lists
for section in sections:
section_counter[section.sectype] += 1
lengths[section.sectype].append(section.length)
# Lengths: list to array
for key, values in lengths.items():
lengths[key] = np.array(values)
# Largest n
n_max = max(section_counter.values())
return sections, section_counter, n_max, lengths
def locate(sclns, z):
""" Locate the section and segment (pos) on cable where z
lies on """
pos = 0.
for i, l in enumerate(sclns):
if pos <= z <= pos + l:
return i, (z - pos) / l
pos += l
def zprofile(cell):
""" Get the z-positions of all the segments of a cell """
z = []
z_accum = 0
for sec in list(cell.all):
l = sec.L
for seg in list(sec.allseg())[1:-1]:
z.append(z_accum + seg.x * l)
z_accum += l
return np.array(z)
def lambda_f(f, d, ra, cm):
return 1e5 * np.sqrt(d / (4. * np.pi * f * ra * cm))
def nseg_dlambda_rule(l, d, ra, cm):
return int((l / (0.1 * lambda_f(100., d, ra, cm)) + 0.9) / 2) * 2 + 1
def generate_contours():
""" Generate a nerve with fascicles inside, all given by the
settings in anatomy.json """
# From the settings, select only the part regarding the generation
# of the cross-section
settings = ws.anatomy_settings["cross-section"]["contours generation"]
##########################
# Nerve
# dimensions and centre
rn = 0.5 * settings["nerve"]["diameter"]
c = tuple(settings["nerve"]["center"])
# Angles
n = 360
angles = 2. * np.pi * np.arange(n) / n
# Points
x = c[0] + rn * np.cos(angles)
y = c[1] + rn * np.sin(angles)
# Store that into a larger array
contours = np.array([x, y]).T
# File name
fname = os.path.join(ws.folders["data/saved"], settings["filename"])
# Write into csv file
with open(fname, "w") as f:
fw = csv.writer(f)
fw.writerow(["Nerve"])
for (x, y) in contours:
fw.writerow([x, y])
cnerve = contours.copy()
##########################
# Fasicles
# Number of fascicles
nfas = settings["fascicles"]["number"]
fdiams = settings["fascicles"]["diameters"]
fcenters = settings["fascicles"]["centers"]
# Points
x = np.zeros((nfas, n))
y = np.zeros((nfas, n))
contours = np.zeros((nfas, n, 2))
for i in range(nfas):
x[i] = fcenters[i][0] + 0.5 * fdiams[i] * np.cos(angles)
y[i] = fcenters[i][1] + 0.5 * fdiams[i] * np.sin(angles)
# Store that into a larger array
contours[i] = np.array([x[i], y[i]]).T
##########################
# Write into csv file
with open(fname, "a") as f:
fw = csv.writer(f)
for i in range(nfas):
fw.writerow(["Fascicle_%02i"%i])
for (xx, yy) in contours[i]:
fw.writerow([xx, yy])
def fill_contours():
""" Fill the contours with axons and NAELC as specified by
anatomy.json"""
# Load settings
settings = ws.anatomy_settings["cross-section"]["fibers distribution"]
apsettings = settings["axon placements"]
packsettings = apsettings["packing"]
# AXON PACKING AND TESSELLATION
# Parameters
params = {}
# Fascicle filling
# Minimum separation
params['min_sep'] = apsettings["minimum separation"]
# Triangulation
# Apprx. max. no. of points or triangles (not counting axons)
params['mnd'] = settings["min NAELC density"]
# Reduction of the number of points in the contours
params['c_reduction'] = ws.anatomy_settings["cross-section"]["contours point reduction"]
# Type of axon packing
params['packing_type'] = packsettings["type"]
params['avg_r'] = packsettings["avg. radius"]
params['gamma_shape'] = packsettings["gamma shape"]
# Number of axons, locations (centers) and radii
params['numberofaxons'] = apsettings["number"]
params['locations'] = apsettings["locations"]
params['radii'] = apsettings["radii"]
params['models'] = apsettings["models"]
# Minimum and maximum radii
params['rmin'] = packsettings["min radius"]
params['rmax'] = packsettings["max radius"]
# Tolerance for trying to pack circles
params['circp_tol'] = packsettings["max iterations"]
# Maximum number of axons per fascicle
params['max_axs_pf'] = packsettings["max axons per fascicle"]
# Build tessellated nerve
# ws.nvt = NerveTess()
print('generation of ws.nvt')
ws.nvt.build(params)
# Axons Start Point Along the z-axis
# 'start' point. This is used to randomly locate the
# axon over the z-axis so that it doesn't necessarily start
# from a node of Ranvier
ws.nvt.start_positions = np.zeros_like(ws.nvt.x)
node_misalignement = ws.anatomy_settings['axons']['myelinated']['nodes misalignement']
for i in range(len(ws.nvt.x)):
if ws.nvt.cables[i] == "Axon":
ws.nvt.start_positions[i] = np.random.uniform(0, node_misalignement)
|
__label__pos
| 0.910879 |
Skip to main content
Biology LibreTexts
8.5: Evidence for Heteroduplexes from Recombination in Fungi
• Page ID
356
• The mechanism by which recombination occurs has been studied primarily in fungi, such as the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae and the filamentous fungus Ascomycetes, and in bacteria. The fungi undergo meiosis, and hence some aspects of their recombination systems may be more similar to that of plants and animals than is that of bacteria. However, the enzymatic functions discovered by genetic and biochemical studies of recombination in bacteria are also proving to have counterparts in eukaryotic organisms as well. We will refer to studies mainly in fungi for the models of recombination, and to studies mainly in bacteria for the enzymatic pathways.
Many important insights into the mechanism of recombination have come from studies in fungi. One fundamental observation is that recombination proceeds by the formation of a region of heteroduplex, i.e. the recombination products have a region with one strand from one chromosome and the complementary strand from the other chromosome. Thus recombination is not a simple cut and paste operation, unlike the joining of two different molecules by recombinant DNA technology. The two recombining molecules are joined and form a hybrid, or heteroduplex, over part of their lengths.
The anatomy and physiology of the filamentous fungus Ascomycetes allows one to observe this heteroduplex formed during recombination. A cell undergoing meiosis starts with a 4n complement of chromosomes (i.e. twice the diploid number) and undergoes two rounds of cell division to form four haploid cells. In fungi these haploid germ cells are spores, and they are found together in an ascus. They can be separated by dissection and plated individually to examine the phenotype of the four products of meiosis. This is called tetrad analysis.
The fungus Ascomycetes goes one step further. After meiosis is completed, the germ cells undergo one further round of replication and mitosis. This separates each individual polynucleotide chain (or “strand” in the sense used in nucleic acid biochemistry) of each DNA duplex in the meiotic products into a separate spore. The eight spores in the ascus reflect the genetic composition of each of the eight polynucleotide chains in the four homologous chromosomes. (The two sister chromatids in each homologous chromosome become two chromosomes after meiosis, and each chromosome is a duplex of two polynucleotide chains.)
The order of the eight spores in the ascus of Ascomycetes reflects the descent of the spores from the homologous chromosomes. As shown in Figure 8.5, a heterozygote with a “blue” allele on one homologous chromosome and a “red” allele on the other will normally produce four “blue” spores and four “red” spores. The four spores with the same phenotype were derived from one homologous chromosome and are adjacent to each other in the ascus. This is called a 4:4 parental ratio, i.e. with respect to the phenotypes of the parent of the heterozygote.
The evidence for heteroduplex formation comes from deviations from the normal 4:4 ratio. Sometimes a 3:5 parental ratio is seen for a particular genetic marker. This shows that one polynucleotide chain of one allele has been lost (giving 4-1=3 spores with the corresponding phenotype in the ascus) and replaced by the polynucleotide chain of the other allele (giving 4+1=5 spores with the corresponding phenotype). As illustrated in Figure 8.5, this is 3 blue spores and 5 red spores. The segment of the chromosome containing this gene was a heteroduplex with one chain from each of two alleles. The round of replication and mitosis that follows meiosis in this fungus allows the two chains to be separated into two alleles that generated a different phenotype in a plating assay. Thus this 3:5 ratio results from post-meiotic segregation of the two chains of the different alleles. In this fungus, a region of heteroduplex can be directly observed by a plating assay.
The region of heteroduplex is associated with a recombination between the chromosomes. Other genes flank the region of heteroduplex shown in Figure 8.5. In many cases, the arrangement of alleles of these flanking genes has changed from that on the parental chromosomes, reflecting a recombination. For instance, let the region of heteroduplex be in a gene B, flanked by gene A in the left and gene C on the right. Each gene has a blue allele and a red allele, making the parental chromosomes AbBbCb and ArBrCr. If one monitored the phenotypes of determined by genes A and C (in addition to B) in the third and fourth spores (derived from the chromosome with the heteroduplex), they would see the phenotypes for the nonparental chromosomes AbBbCr and AbBrCr. This change in the flanking markers (genes A and C) reflects a recombination. Thus the heteroduplex can be found between markers that have undergone recombination.
Other markers can show a 2:6 parental ratio. This means that one of the alleles (formerly blue in fig. 8.5) has been changed to the other allele (now red), in a process called gene conversion. This can occur between flanking markers that have been switched because of recombination. Thus like the heteroduplex, the region of gene conversion is associated with recombination. Models for recombination need to incorporate both phenomenon into their proposed mechanism.
image014.png
Figure 8.5. Spores formed during meiosis in Ascomycetes reflect the genetic composition of the parental DNA chains. The four homologous chromosomes in the 4n state are shown as duplex DNA molecules, with one line for each DNA chain. Two sister chromatids are blue and two sister chromatids are red, reflecting their ability to be distinguished in a plating assay for particular genes along the chromosome. Meiosis places each of the four homologous chromosomes into a different cell, and in this species, it is followed by replication and mitosis so that each of the eight spores (circles in the elongated ellipse representing the ascus) has the genetic composition of each of the eight DNA chains in the four chromosomes that result from meiosis (two complementary chains per chromosome). A region of heteroduplex can be seen as a 3:5 parental ratio after post-meiotic segregation. A region of gene conversion can be seen as a 2:6 parental ratio.
Exercise 8.3.
Imagine that you are studying a fungus that generates an ascus with 8 spores like Ascomycetes, in which the products of meiosis complete an additional round of replication and mitosis. You generate a heterozyous strain by mating a parent that was homozyous for the markers leu+, SmR, ade8+ and another that was leu-, SmS, ade8-. Previous studies had shown that all three markers are linked in the order given. Each of these pairs of alleles can be distinguished in a plating assay. The allele leu+ confers leucine auxotrophy whereas leu- confers leucine prototrophy. The allele SmR confers resistance to spectinomycin whereas SmS is sensitive to this antibiotic. Colonies of fungi with the ade8+ allele give a red color in under appropriate conditions in a plate, but those with the ade8- are white. Analysis of the individual spores from an ascus gave the following phenotypes results. The spores are numbered in the order they were in the ascus. What are the corresponding genotypes of the chromosome in each spore? How do you interpret these results with respect to recombination?
Spore leucine Spectinomycin Color in ade test
1 prototroph resistant red
2 prototroph resistant red
3 prototroph resistant white
4 prototroph sensitive white
5 auxotroph sensitive red
6 auxotroph sensitive red
7 auxotroph sensitive white
8 auxotroph sensitive white
|
__label__pos
| 0.904002 |
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