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In computational science, particle swarm optimization (PSO) is a computational method that optimizes a problem by iteratively trying to improve a candidate solution with regard to a given measure of quality. It solves a problem by having a population of candidate solutions, here dubbed particles, and moving these parti... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particle_swarm_optimization |
In mathematics, a complete lattice is a partially ordered set in which all subsets have both a supremum (join) and an infimum (meet). A conditionally complete lattice satisfies at least one of these properties for bounded subsets. For comparison, in a general lattice, only pairs of elements need to have a supremum and ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complete_lattice |
In information visualization and computing, treemapping is a method for displaying hierarchical data using nested figures, usually rectangles.
Treemaps display hierarchical (tree-structured) data as a set of nested rectangles. Each branch of the tree is given a rectangle, which is then tiled with smaller rectangles rep... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treemapping |
In thermodynamics, a reversible process is a process, involving a system and its surroundings, whose direction can be reversed by infinitesimal changes in some properties of the surroundings, such as pressure or temperature.
Throughout an entire reversible process, the system is in thermodynamic equilibrium, both physi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reversible_process_%28thermodynamics%29 |
Mass transfer is the net movement of mass from one location (usually meaning stream, phase, fraction, or component) to another. Mass transfer occurs in many processes, such as absorption, evaporation, drying, precipitation, membrane filtration, and distillation. Mass transfer is used by different scientific discipline... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_transfer |
Mohr's circle is a two-dimensional graphical representation of the transformation law for the Cauchy stress tensor.
Mohr's circle is often used in calculations relating to mechanical engineering for materials' strength, geotechnical engineering for strength of soils, and structural engineering for strength of built st... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohr%27s_circle |
For a pure wave motion in fluid dynamics, the Stokes drift velocity is the average velocity when following a specific fluid parcel as it travels with the fluid flow. For instance, a particle floating at the free surface of water waves, experiences a net Stokes drift velocity in the direction of wave propagation.
More g... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stokes_drift |
Bucket sort, or bin sort, is a sorting algorithm that works by distributing the elements of an array into a number of buckets. Each bucket is then sorted individually, either using a different sorting algorithm, or by recursively applying the bucket sorting algorithm. It is a distribution sort, a generalization of pig... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bucket_sort |
In mathematics, an injective function (also known as injection, or one-to-one function ) is a function that maps distinct elements of its domain to distinct elements of its codomain; that is, implies (equivalently by contraposition, implies ). In other words, every element of the function's codomain is the image o... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Injective_function |
Dispersion is the phenomenon in which the phase velocity of a wave depends on its frequency. Sometimes the term chromatic dispersion is used to refer to optics specifically, as opposed to wave propagation in general. A medium having this common property may be termed a dispersive medium.
Although the term is used in t... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dispersion_%28optics%29 |
In physics, a transverse wave is a wave that oscillates perpendicularly to the direction of the wave's advance. In contrast, a longitudinal wave travels in the direction of its oscillations. All waves move energy from place to place without transporting the matter in the transmission medium if there is one. Electromagn... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transverse_wave |
Dual-tone multi-frequency (DTMF) signaling is a telecommunication signaling system using the voice-frequency band over telephone lines between telephone equipment and other communications devices and switching centers. DTMF was first developed in the Bell System in the United States,
and became known under the trademar... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DTMF_signaling |
Human echolocation is the ability of humans to detect objects in their environment by sensing echoes from those objects, by actively creating sounds: for example, by tapping their canes, lightly stomping their foot, clapping their hands, snapping their fingers, or making clicking noises with their mouths.
People traine... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_echolocation |
In mathematics, more specifically differential topology, a local diffeomorphism is intuitively a map between smooth manifolds that preserves the local differentiable structure. The formal definition of a local diffeomorphism is given below.
## Formal definition
Let
$$
X
$$
and
$$
Y
$$
be differentiable manifolds. A... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local_diffeomorphism |
The Fundamentals of Engineering (FE) exam, also referred to as the Engineer in Training (EIT) exam, and formerly in some states as the Engineering Intern (EI) exam, is the first of two examinations that engineers must pass in order to be licensed as a in the United States. The second exam is the Principles and Practic... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamentals_of_Engineering_exam |
In mathematics, a filter on a set
$$
X
$$
is a family
$$
\mathcal{B}
$$
of subsets such that:
1.
$$
X \in \mathcal{B}
$$
and
$$
\emptyset \notin \mathcal{B}
$$
1. if
$$
A\in \mathcal{B}
$$
and
$$
B \in \mathcal{B}
$$
, then
$$
A\cap B\in \mathcal{B}
$$
1. If
$$
A\subset B\subset X
$$
and
$$
A\in \mathcal... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filter_%28set_theory%29 |
Idempotence (, ) is the property of certain operations in mathematics and computer science whereby they can be applied multiple times without changing the result beyond the initial application. The concept of idempotence arises in a number of places in abstract algebra (in particular, in the theory of projectors and cl... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idempotence |
In arithmetic, quotition and partition are two ways of viewing fractions and division. In quotitive division one asks "how many parts are there?" while in partitive division one asks "what is the size of each part?"
In general, a quotient
$$
Q = N / D,
$$
where , , and are integers or rational numbers, can be concei... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quotition_and_partition |
In computer programming, machine code is computer code consisting of machine language instructions, which are used to control a computer's central processing unit (CPU). For conventional binary computers, machine code is the binary representation of a computer program that is actually read and interpreted by the comput... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_code |
Enthalpy () is the sum of a thermodynamic system's internal energy and the product of its pressure and volume. It is a state function in thermodynamics used in many measurements in chemical, biological, and physical systems at a constant external pressure, which is conveniently provided by the large ambient atmosphere.... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enthalpy |
The Hungarian method is a combinatorial optimization algorithm that solves the assignment problem in polynomial time and which anticipated later primal–dual methods. It was developed and published in 1955 by Harold Kuhn, who gave it the name "Hungarian method" because the algorithm was largely based on the earlier work... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungarian_algorithm |
In probability theory, the arcsine distribution is the probability distribution whose cumulative distribution function involves the arcsine and the square root:
$$
F(x) = \frac{2}{\pi}\arcsin\left(\sqrt x\right)=\frac{\arcsin(2x-1)}{\pi}+\frac{1}{2}
$$
for 0 ≤ x ≤ 1, and whose probability density function is
$$
f(x) = ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arcsine_distribution |
In mathematics and computer programming, the order of operations is a collection of rules that reflect conventions about which operations to perform first in order to evaluate a given mathematical expression.
These rules are formalized with a ranking of the operations. The rank of an operation is called its precedence... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order_of_operations |
In physics, radiation is the emission or transmission of energy in the form of waves or particles through space or a material medium. This includes:
- electromagnetic radiation consisting of photons, such as radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, x-rays, and gamma radiation (γ)
- particle radiat... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiation |
In combustion, Clarke's equation is a third-order nonlinear partial differential equation, first derived by John Frederick Clarke in 1978.Clarke, J. F. (1978). Small amplitude gasdynamic disturbances in an exploding atmosphere. Journal of Fluid Mechanics, 89(2), 343–355.Clarke, J. F. (1982). "Non-steady Gas Dynamic Ef... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clarke%27s_equation |
In mathematics, a càdlàg (), RCLL ("right continuous with left limits"), or corlol ("continuous on (the) right, limit on (the) left") function is a function defined on the real numbers (or a subset of them) that is everywhere right-continuous and has left limits everywhere. Càdlàg functions are important in the study o... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%A0dl%C3%A0g |
In logic and mathematics, contraposition, or transposition, refers to the inference of going from a conditional statement into its logically equivalent contrapositive, and an associated proof method known as . The contrapositive of a statement has its antecedent and consequent negated and swapped.
Conditional statement... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contraposition |
Molecular nanotechnology (MNT) is a technology based on the ability to build structures to complex, atomic specifications by means of mechanosynthesis. This is distinct from nanoscale materials.
Based on Richard Feynman's vision of miniature factories using nanomachines to build complex products (including additional ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_nanotechnology |
In mathematics, a surjective function (also known as surjection, or onto function ) is a function such that, for every element of the function's codomain, there exists one element in the function's domain such that . In other words, for a function , the codomain is the image of the function's domain . It is not re... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surjective_function |
An and–or tree is a graphical representation of the reduction of problems (or goals) to conjunctions and disjunctions of subproblems (or subgoals).
## Example
The and–or tree:
represents the search space for solving the problem P, using the goal-reduction methods:
P if Q and R
P if S
Q if T
Q if U
## Definitions
Given ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/And%E2%80%93or_tree |
A parent is either the progenitor of a child or, in humans, it can refer to a caregiver or legal guardian, generally called an adoptive parent or step-parent. Parents who are progenitors are first-degree relatives and have 50% genetic meet. A female can also become a parent through surrogacy. Some parents may be adopt... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parent |
Voting is the process of choosing officials or policies by casting a ballot, a document used by people to formally express their preferences. Republics and representative democracies are governments where the population chooses representatives by voting.
The procedure for identifying the winners based on votes varies ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voting |
Non-equilibrium thermodynamics is a branch of thermodynamics that deals with physical systems that are not in thermodynamic equilibrium but can be described in terms of macroscopic quantities (non-equilibrium state variables) that represent an extrapolation of the variables used to specify the system in thermodynamic e... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-equilibrium_thermodynamics |
In radio engineering and telecommunications, standing wave ratio (SWR) is a measure of impedance matching of loads to the characteristic impedance of a transmission line or waveguide. Impedance mismatches result in standing waves along the transmission line, and SWR is defined as the ratio of the partial standing wave'... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standing_wave_ratio |
In physics, the fundamental interactions or fundamental forces are interactions in nature that appear not to be reducible to more basic interactions. There are four fundamental interactions known to exist:
- gravity
- electromagnetism
- weak interaction
- strong interaction
The gravitational and electromagnetic intera... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_interaction |
The systems architect is an information and communications technology professional. Systems architects define the architecture of a computerized system (i.e., a system composed of software and hardware) in order to fulfill certain requirements. Such definitions include: a breakdown of the system into components, the co... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systems_architect |
In graph theory, a cut is a partition of the vertices of a graph into two disjoint subsets. Any cut determines a cut-set, the set of edges that have one endpoint in each subset of the partition. These edges are said to cross the cut. In a connected graph, each cut-set determines a unique cut, and in some cases cuts are... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cut_%28graph_theory%29 |
Symmetric-key algorithms are algorithms for cryptography that use the same cryptographic keys for both the encryption of plaintext and the decryption of ciphertext. The keys may be identical, or there may be a simple transformation to go between the two keys. The keys, in practice, represent a shared secret between two... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symmetric-key_algorithm |
In the industrial design field of human–computer interaction, a user interface (UI) is the space where interactions between humans and machines occur. The goal of this interaction is to allow effective operation and control of the machine from the human end, while the machine simultaneously feeds back information that ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_interface |
In mathematics, the additive identity of a set that is equipped with the operation of addition is an element which, when added to any element in the set, yields . One of the most familiar additive identities is the number 0 from elementary mathematics, but additive identities occur in other mathematical structures whe... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Additive_identity |
A complex system is a system composed of many components which may interact with each other. Examples of complex systems are Earth's global climate, organisms, the human brain, infrastructure such as power grid, transportation or communication systems, complex software and electronic systems, social and economic organi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complex_system |
The bitap algorithm (also known as the shift-or, shift-and or Baeza-Yates–Gonnet algorithm) is an approximate string matching algorithm. The algorithm tells whether a given text contains a substring which is "approximately equal" to a given pattern, where approximate equality is defined in terms of Levenshtein distance... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bitap_algorithm |
A sentence diagram is a pictorial representation of the grammatical structure of a sentence. The term "sentence diagram" is used more when teaching written language, where sentences are diagrammed. The model shows the relations between words and the nature of sentence structure and can be used as a tool to help recogni... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentence_diagram |
A turbidity current is most typically an underwater current of usually rapidly moving, sediment-laden water moving down a slope; although current research (2018) indicates that water-saturated sediment may be the primary actor in the process. Turbidity currents can also occur in other fluids besides water.
Researchers... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbidity_current |
In mathematics, there are many senses in which a sequence or a series is said to be convergent. This article describes various modes (senses or species) of convergence in the settings where they are defined. For a list of modes of convergence, see Modes of convergence (annotated index)
Each of the following objects i... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modes_of_convergence |
In computer science, a longest common substring of two or more strings is a longest string that is a substring of all of them. There may be more than one longest common substring. Applications include data deduplication and plagiarism detection.
## Examples
The picture shows two strings where the problem has multiple s... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Longest_common_substring |
In classical and quantum mechanics, geometric phase is a phase difference acquired over the course of a cycle, when a system is subjected to cyclic adiabatic processes, which results from the geometrical properties of the parameter space of the Hamiltonian. The phenomenon was independently discovered by S. Pancharatnam... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geometric_phase |
In mathematics, the fundamental theorem of Galois theory is a result that describes the structure of certain types of field extensions in relation to groups. It was proved by Évariste Galois in his development of Galois theory.
In its most basic form, the theorem asserts that given a field extension E/F that is finite ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_theorem_of_Galois_theory |
Source lines of code (SLOC), also known as lines of code (LOC), is a software metric used to measure the size of a computer program by counting the number of lines in the text of the program's source code. SLOC is typically used to predict the amount of effort that will be required to develop a program, as well as to e... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Source_lines_of_code |
In mathematics, the equations governing the isomonodromic deformation of meromorphic linear systems of ordinary differential equations are, in a fairly precise sense, the most fundamental exact nonlinear differential equations. As a result, their solutions and properties lie at the heart of the field of exact nonlinear... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isomonodromic_deformation |
In computing, a persistent data structure or not ephemeral data structure is a data structure that always preserves the previous version of itself when it is modified. Such data structures are effectively immutable, as their operations do not (visibly) update the structure in-place, but instead always yield a new updat... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persistent_data_structure |
Frequency is the number of occurrences of a repeating event per unit of time. Frequency is an important parameter used in science and engineering to specify the rate of oscillatory and vibratory phenomena, such as mechanical vibrations, audio signals (sound), radio waves, and light.
The interval of time between events ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency |
In probability theory, inverse probability is an old term for the probability distribution of an unobserved variable.
Today, the problem of determining an unobserved variable (by whatever method) is called inferential statistics. The method of inverse probability (assigning a probability distribution to an unobserved ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inverse_probability |
In computer science, a grid file or bucket grid is a point access method which splits a space into a non-periodic grid where one or more cells of the grid refer to a small set of points. Grid files (a symmetric data structure) provide an efficient method of storing these indexes on disk to perform complex data lookups.... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grid_file |
In functional analysis, an area of mathematics, the injective tensor product is a particular topological tensor product, a topological vector space (TVS) formed by equipping the tensor product of the underlying vector spaces of two TVSs with a compatible topology. It was introduced by Alexander Grothendieck and used by... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Injective_tensor_product |
In mathematics, especially abstract algebra, loop theory and quasigroup theory are active research areas with many open problems. As in other areas of mathematics, such problems are often made public at professional conferences and meetings. Many of the problems posed here first appeared in the Loops (Prague) conferen... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_problems_in_loop_theory_and_quasigroup_theory |
In mathematics, a fractal dimension is a term invoked in the science of geometry to provide a rational statistical index of complexity detail in a pattern. A fractal pattern changes with the scale at which it is measured.
It is also a measure of the space-filling capacity of a pattern and tells how a fractal scales di... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fractal_dimension |
In computer science, a scapegoat tree is a self-balancing binary search tree, invented by Arne Andersson in 1989 and again by Igal Galperin and Ronald L. Rivest in 1993. It provides worst-case lookup time (with
$$
n
$$
as the number of entries) and
$$
O(\log n)
$$
amortized insertion and deletion time.
Unlike mos... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scapegoat_tree |
The purpose of this article is to serve as an annotated index of various modes of convergence and their logical relationships. For an expository article, see Modes of convergence. Simple logical relationships between different modes of convergence are indicated (e.g., if one implies another), formulaically rather tha... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modes_of_convergence_%28annotated_index%29 |
In cryptography, a public key certificate, also known as a digital certificate or identity certificate, is an electronic document used to prove the validity of a public key. The certificate includes the public key and information about it, information about the identity of its owner (called the subject), and the digita... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_key_certificate |
In computer science, Hirschberg's algorithm, named after its inventor, Dan Hirschberg, is a dynamic programming algorithm that finds the optimal sequence alignment between two strings. Optimality is measured with the Levenshtein distance, defined to be the sum of the costs of insertions, replacements, deletions, and nu... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hirschberg%27s_algorithm |
In radio, longwave, long wave or long-wave, and commonly abbreviated LW, refers to parts of the radio spectrum with wavelengths longer than what was originally called the medium-wave broadcasting band. The term is historic, dating from the early 20th century, when the radio spectrum was considered to consist of longwa... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Longwave |
In geometry, Descartes' theorem states that for every four kissing, or mutually tangent circles, the radii of the circles satisfy a certain quadratic equation. By solving this equation, one can construct a fourth circle tangent to three given, mutually tangent circles. The theorem is named after René Descartes, who sta... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Descartes%27_theorem |
A terrestrial gamma-ray flash (TGF), also known as dark lightning, is a burst of gamma rays produced in Earth's atmosphere. TGFs have been recorded to last 0.2 to 3.5 milliseconds, and have energies of up to 20 million electronvolts. It is speculated that TGFs are caused by intense electric fields produced above or ins... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terrestrial_gamma-ray_flash |
In computer science, a finger tree is a purely functional data structure that can be used to efficiently implement other functional data structures. A finger tree gives amortized constant time access to the "fingers" (leaves) of the tree, which is where data is stored, and concatenation and splitting logarithmic time ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finger_tree |
In physics, coherence length is the propagation distance over which a coherent wave (e.g. an electromagnetic wave) maintains a specified degree of coherence. Wave interference is strong when the paths taken by all of the interfering waves differ by less than the coherence length. A wave with a longer coherence length ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coherence_length |
In order theory, a continuous poset is a partially ordered set in which every element is the directed supremum of elements approximating it.
## Definitions
Let
$$
a,b\in P
$$
be two elements of a preordered set
$$
(P,\lesssim)
$$
. Then we say that
$$
a
$$
approximates
$$
b
$$
, or that
$$
a
$$
is way-below
$$... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuous_poset |
In probability theory, especially in mathematical statistics, a location–scale family is a family of probability distributions parametrized by a location parameter and a non-negative scale parameter. For any random variable
$$
X
$$
whose probability distribution function belongs to such a family, the distribution fun... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Location%E2%80%93scale_family |
In hyperbolic geometry, a horocycle (from Greek roots meaning "boundary circle"), sometimes called an oricycle or limit circle, is a curve of constant curvature where all the perpendicular geodesics (normals) through a point on a horocycle are limiting parallel, and all converge asymptotically to a single ideal point c... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horocycle |
In mathematical complex analysis, a quasiconformal mapping is a (weakly differentiable) homeomorphism between plane domains which to first order takes small circles to small ellipses of bounded eccentricity. Quasiconformal mappings are a generalization of conformal mappings that permit the bounded distortion of angles ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quasiconformal_mapping |
An XOR linked list is a type of data structure used in computer programming. It takes advantage of the bitwise XOR operation to decrease storage requirements for doubly linked lists by storing the composition of both addresses in one field. While the composed address is not meaningful on its own, during traversal it ca... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XOR_linked_list |
In mathematics, the Bruguières modularity theorem is a theorem about modular tensor categories. It asserts that two different formulations of the modularity condition of a modular tensor category are equivalent. The Bruguières modularity theorem was introduced by mathematician Alain Bruguières in the year 2000. The fir... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brugui%C3%A8res_modularity_theorem |
In optimization theory, maximum flow problems involve finding a feasible flow through a flow network that obtains the maximum possible flow rate.
The maximum flow problem can be seen as a special case of more complex network flow problems, such as the circulation problem. The maximum value of an s-t flow (i.e., flow fr... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maximum_flow_problem |
A spectral line is a weaker or stronger region in an otherwise uniform and continuous spectrum. It may result from emission or absorption of light in a narrow frequency range, compared with the nearby frequencies. Spectral lines are often used to identify atoms and molecules. These "fingerprints" can be compared to the... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectral_line |
In mathematics, Newton's theorem about ovals states that the area cut off by a secant of a smooth convex oval is not an algebraic function of the secant.
Isaac Newton stated it as lemma 28 of section VI of book 1 of Newton's Principia, and used it to show that the position of a planet moving in an orbit is not an algeb... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton%27s_theorem_about_ovals |
In computer science, a control-flow graph (CFG) is a representation, using graph notation, of all paths that might be traversed through a program during its execution. The control-flow graph was conceived by Frances E. Allen, who noted that Reese T. Prosser used boolean connectivity matrices for flow analysis before.
T... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control-flow_graph |
Economics () is a behavioral science that studies the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services.
Economics focuses on the behaviour and interactions of economic agents and how economies work.
## Microeconomics
analyses what is viewed as basic elements within economies, including individual agent... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics |
Windsurfing is a wind-propelled water sport that is a combination of sailing and surfing. It is also referred to as "sailboarding" and "boardsailing", and emerged in the late 1960s from the Californian aerospace and surf culture. Windsurfing gained a popular following across Europe and North America by the late 1970s a... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windsurfing |
In optics, the
### Fresnel diffraction
equation for near-field diffraction is an approximation of the Kirchhoff–Fresnel diffraction that can be applied to the propagation of waves in the near field. It is used to calculate the diffraction pattern created by waves passing through an aperture or around an object, when... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fresnel_diffraction |
In mathematics, Antoine's necklace is a topological embedding of the Cantor set in 3-dimensional Euclidean space, whose complement is not simply connected. It also serves as a counterexample to the claim that all Cantor spaces are ambiently homeomorphic to each other. It was discovered by .
## Construction
Antoine's ne... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine%27s_necklace |
A seiche ( ) is a standing wave in an enclosed or partially enclosed body of water. Seiches and seiche-related phenomena have been observed on lakes, reservoirs, swimming pools, bays, harbors, caves, and seas. The key requirement for formation of a seiche is that the body of water be at least partially bounded, allowin... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seiche |
In statistics, the q-Weibull distribution is a probability distribution that generalizes the Weibull distribution and the Lomax distribution (Pareto Type II). It is one example of a Tsallis distribution.
## Characterization
### Probability density function
The probability density function of a q-Weibull random variable... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Q-Weibull_distribution |
In number theory, Hilbert's irreducibility theorem, conceived by David Hilbert in 1892, states that every finite set of irreducible polynomials in a finite number of variables and having rational number coefficients admit a common specialization of a proper subset of the variables to rational numbers such that all the ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hilbert%27s_irreducibility_theorem |
A computer file is a resource for recording data on a computer storage device, primarily identified by its filename. Just as words can be written on paper, so too can data be written to a computer file. Files can be shared with and transferred between computers and mobile devices via removable media, networks, or the I... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_file |
The universe is all of space and time and their contents. It comprises all of existence, any fundamental interaction, physical process and physical constant, and therefore all forms of matter and energy, and the structures they form, from sub-atomic particles to entire galactic filaments. Since the early 20th century, ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universe |
Brauer's main theorems are three theorems in representation theory of finite groups linking the blocks of a finite group (in characteristic p) with those of its p-local subgroups, that is to say, the normalizers of its nontrivial p-subgroups.
The second and third main theorems allow refinements of orthogonality relatio... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brauer%27s_three_main_theorems |
In mathematical physics, a lattice model is a mathematical model of a physical system that is defined on a lattice, as opposed to a continuum, such as the continuum of space or spacetime. Lattice models originally occurred in the context of condensed matter physics, where the atoms of a crystal automatically form a lat... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lattice_model_%28physics%29 |
The velocity factor (VF), also called wave propagation (relative) speed or (relative) velocity of propagation (VoP or of a transmission medium is the ratio of the speed at which a wavefront (of an electromagnetic signal, a radio signal, a light pulse in an optical fibre or a change of the electrical voltage on a coppe... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velocity_factor |
In mathematical logic, a Gödel numbering is a function that assigns to each symbol and well-formed formula of some formal language a unique natural number, called its Gödel number. Kurt Gödel developed the concept for the proof of his incompleteness theorems.
A Gödel numbering can be interpreted as an encoding in which... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%B6del_numbering |
Post-quantum cryptography (PQC), sometimes referred to as quantum-proof, quantum-safe, or quantum-resistant, is the development of cryptographic algorithms (usually public-key algorithms) that are currently thought to be secure against a cryptanalytic attack by a quantum computer. Most widely-used public-key algorithms... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-quantum_cryptography |
Theta waves generate the theta rhythm, a neural oscillation in the brain that underlies various aspects of cognition and behavior, including learning, memory, and spatial navigation in many animals. It can be recorded using various electrophysiological methods, such as electroencephalogram (EEG), recorded either from i... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theta_wave |
A radar speed gun, also known as a radar gun, speed gun, or speed trap gun, is a device used to measure the speed of moving objects. It is commonly used by police to check the speed of moving vehicles while conducting traffic enforcement, and in professional sports to measure speeds such as those of baseball pitches, t... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radar_speed_gun |
Iterative and incremental development is any combination of both iterative design (or iterative method) and incremental build model for development.
Usage of the term began in software development, with a long-standing combination of the two terms iterative and incremental having been widely suggested for large develop... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iterative_and_incremental_development |
In mathematics, Bochner spaces are a generalization of the concept of spaces to functions whose values lie in a Banach space which is not necessarily the space
$$
\R
$$
or
$$
\Complex
$$
of real or complex numbers.
The space
$$
L^p(X)
$$
consists of (equivalence classes of) all Bochner measurable functions
$$
f
... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bochner_space |
A skew heap (or self-adjusting heap) is a heap data structure implemented as a binary tree. Skew heaps are advantageous because of their ability to merge more quickly than binary heaps. In contrast with binary heaps, there are no structural constraints, so there is no guarantee that the height of the tree is logarithmi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skew_heap |
In mathematics, a filter or order filter is a special subset of a partially ordered set (poset), describing "large" or "eventual" elements. Filters appear in order and lattice theory, but also topology, whence they originate. The notion dual to a filter is an order ideal.
## Special cases
of filters include ultrafilte... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filter_%28mathematics%29 |
In the mathematical discipline of graph theory, a feedback vertex set (FVS) of a graph is a set of vertices whose removal leaves a graph without cycles ("removal" means deleting the vertex and all edges adjacent to it). Equivalently, each FVS contains at least one vertex of any cycle in the graph. The feedback vertex s... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feedback_vertex_set |
External sorting is a class of sorting algorithms that can handle massive amounts of data. External sorting is required when the data being sorted do not fit into the main memory of a computing device (usually RAM) and instead they must reside in the slower external memory, usually a disk drive. Thus, external sorting ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/External_sorting |
A disk image is a snapshot of a storage device's content typically stored in a file on another storage device.
Traditionally, a disk image was relatively large because it was a bit-by-bit copy of every storage location of a device (i.e. every sector of a hard disk drive), but it is now common to only store allocated ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disk_image |
In mathematics, an ordered pair, denoted (a, b), is a pair of objects in which their order is significant. The ordered pair (a, b) is different from the ordered pair (b, a), unless a = b. In contrast, the unordered pair, denoted {a, b}, always equals the unordered pair {b, a}.
Ordered pairs are also called 2-tuples, o... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ordered_pair |
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