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DNA phenotyping
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One online tool available to the public and law enforcement is the HIrisPlex-S Webtool. This system uses SNPs that are linked to human pigmentation to predict an individual's phenotype. Using the multiplex assay described in three separate papers, the genotype for 41 different SNPs can be generated, which are linked to hair, eye and skin color in humans. The genotype can then be entered into the HIrisPlex-S Webtool to generate the most probable phenotype of an individual based on their genetic information.no This tool originally started as the IrisPlex System, consisting of six SNPs linked to eye color (rs12913832, rs1800407, rs12896399, rs16891982, rs1393350 and rs12203592).
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199801_chunk_0
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DNA phenotyping
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The addition of 18 SNPs linked to both hair and eye color lead to the updated HIrisPlex System (rs312262906, rs11547464, rs885479, rs1805008, rs1805005, rs1805006, rs1805007, rs1805009, rs201326893, rs2228479, rs1110400, rs28777, rs12821256, rs4959270, rs1042602, rs2402130, rs2378249 and rs683). Another assay was developed using 17 SNPs involved in skin pigmentation to create the current HIris-SPlex System (s3114908, rs1800414, rs10756819, rs2238289, rs17128291, rs6497292, rs1129038, rs1667394, rs1126809, rs1470608, rs1426654, rs6119471, rs1545397, rs6059655, rs12441727, rs3212355 and rs8051733).The predictions for eye pigmentation are Blue, Intermediate and Brown. There are two categories for hair pigmentation: color (Blond, Brown, Red and Black) and shade (light and dark). The predictions for skin pigmentation are Very Pale, Pale, Intermediate, Dark and Dark to Black. Unlike eye and hair predictions where only the highest probability is used to make a prediction, the top two highest probabilities for skin color are used to account for tanning ability and other variations.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199802_chunk_0
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Free electron model
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One open problem in solid-state physics before the arrival of quantum mechanics was to understand the heat capacity of metals. While most solids had a constant volumetric heat capacity given by Dulong–Petit law of about 3 n k B {\displaystyle 3nk_{\rm {B}}} at large temperatures, it did correctly predict its behavior at low temperatures. In the case of metals that are good conductors, it was expected that the electrons contributed also the heat capacity. The classical calculation using Drude's model, based on an ideal gas, provides a volumetric heat capacity given by c V Drude = 3 2 n k B {\displaystyle c_{V}^{\text{Drude}}={\frac {3}{2}}nk_{\rm {B}}} .If this was the case, the heat capacity of a metals should be 1.5 of that obtained by the Dulong–Petit law.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199803_chunk_0
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Free electron model
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Nevertheless, such a large additional contribution to the heat capacity of metals was never measured, raising suspicions about the argument above. By using Sommerfeld's expansion one can obtain corrections of the energy density at finite temperature and obtain the volumetric heat capacity of an electron gas, given by: c V = ( ∂ u ∂ T ) n = π 2 2 T T F n k B {\displaystyle c_{V}=\left({\frac {\partial u}{\partial T}}\right)_{n}={\frac {\pi ^{2}}{2}}{\frac {T}{T_{\rm {F}}}}nk_{\rm {B}}} ,where the prefactor to n k B {\displaystyle nk_{B}} is considerably smaller than the 3/2 found in c V Drude {\textstyle c_{V}^{\text{Drude}}} , about 100 times smaller at room temperature and much smaller at lower T {\textstyle T} .
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199804_chunk_0
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Berry–Tabor conjecture
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One open question remains understanding quantum chaos in systems that have finite-dimensional local Hilbert spaces for which standard semiclassical limits do not apply. Recent works allowed for studying analytically such quantum many-body systems.The traditional topics in quantum chaos concerns spectral statistics (universal and non-universal features), and the study of eigenfunctions of various chaotic Hamiltonian. For example, before the existence of scars was reported, eigenstates of a classically chaotic system were conjectured to fill the available phase space evenly, up to random fluctuations and energy conservation (Quantum ergodicity). However, a quantum eigenstate of a classically chaotic system can be scarred: the probability density of the eigenstate is enhanced in the neighborhood of a periodic orbit, above the classical, statistically expected density along the orbit (scars).
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199805_chunk_0
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Berry–Tabor conjecture
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In particular, scars are both a striking visual example of classical-quantum correspondence away from the usual classical limit, and a useful example of a quantum suppression of chaos. For example, this is evident in the perturbation-induced quantum scarring: More specifically, in quantum dots perturbed by local potential bumps (impurities), some of the eigenstates are strongly scarred along periodic orbits of unperturbed classical counterpart. Further studies concern the parametric ( R {\displaystyle R} ) dependence of the Hamiltonian, as reflected in e.g. the statistics of avoided crossings, and the associated mixing as reflected in the (parametric) local density of states (LDOS).
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199806_chunk_0
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Missing trader fraud
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One option available to governments in the EU is to deny traders their right to deduct input tax using the Kittel principle developed in case law of the Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU). In July 2006, the CJEU handed down its judgment in the case of Axel Kittel & Recolta Recycling SPRL (C-439/04 and C-440/04, issued 6 July 2006) (Kittel). In this case, the CJEU held that a taxable person can lose his right to reclaim input tax where "it is ascertained, having regard to objective factors, that the taxable person knew or should have known that, by his purchase, he was participating in a transaction connected with fraudulent evasion of VAT". The CJEU had previously clarified, in a decision called Bond House (C-354/03, C-355/03 and C-484/03, issued 12 January 2006), that a taxable person's right to deduct VAT is not affected by the possible fraudulent nature of other transactions in the chain, if the taxable person has no knowledge or means of knowledge of the fraud.In 2020, the Government of Singapore proposed draft legislation that would allow the Inland Revenue Authority of Singapore to deny input tax credit to businesses on the basis that they knew or should have known that the supply was part of an arrangement to cause loss to the public revenue. The Ministry of Finance stated that this approach is similar to that taken in the UK and the EU.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199807_chunk_0
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Sesamoid bones
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One or both of the sesamoid bones under the first metatarsophalangeal joint (of the great toe) can be multipartite – in two or three parts (mostly bipartite – in two parts). The fabella is a small sesamoid bone found in some mammals embedded in the tendon of the lateral head of the gastrocnemius muscle behind the lateral condyle of the femur. It is a variant of normal anatomy and present in humans in 10% to 30% of individuals. The fabella can also be mutipartite or bipartite.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199808_chunk_0
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Sesamoid bones
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The cyamella is a small sesamoid bone embedded in the tendon of the popliteus muscle. It is a variant of normal anatomy. It is rarely seen in humans, but has been described more often in other primates and certain other animals.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199809_chunk_0
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DNA binding domain
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One or more DNA-binding domains are often part of a larger protein consisting of further protein domains with differing function. The extra domains often regulate the activity of the DNA-binding domain. The function of DNA binding is either structural or involves transcription regulation, with the two roles sometimes overlapping. DNA-binding domains with functions involving DNA structure have biological roles in DNA replication, repair, storage, and modification, such as methylation.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199810_chunk_0
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DNA binding domain
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Many proteins involved in the regulation of gene expression contain DNA-binding domains. For example, proteins that regulate transcription by binding DNA are called transcription factors. The final output of most cellular signaling cascades is gene regulation.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199811_chunk_0
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DNA binding domain
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The DBD interacts with the nucleotides of DNA in a DNA sequence-specific or non-sequence-specific manner, but even non-sequence-specific recognition involves some sort of molecular complementarity between protein and DNA. DNA recognition by the DBD can occur at the major or minor groove of DNA, or at the sugar-phosphate DNA backbone (see the structure of DNA). Each specific type of DNA recognition is tailored to the protein's function.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199812_chunk_0
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DNA binding domain
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For example, the DNA-cutting enzyme DNAse I cuts DNA almost randomly and so must bind to DNA in a non-sequence-specific manner. But, even so, DNAse I recognizes a certain 3-D DNA structure, yielding a somewhat specific DNA cleavage pattern that can be useful for studying DNA recognition by a technique called DNA footprinting. Many DNA-binding domains must recognize specific DNA sequences, such as DBDs of transcription factors that activate specific genes, or those of enzymes that modify DNA at specific sites, like restriction enzymes and telomerase. The hydrogen bonding pattern in the DNA major groove is less degenerate than that of the DNA minor groove, providing a more attractive site for sequence-specific DNA recognition. The specificity of DNA-binding proteins can be studied using many biochemical and biophysical techniques, such as gel electrophoresis, analytical ultracentrifugation, calorimetry, DNA mutation, protein structure mutation or modification, nuclear magnetic resonance, x-ray crystallography, surface plasmon resonance, electron paramagnetic resonance, cross-linking and microscale thermophoresis (MST).
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199813_chunk_0
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Signal recognition particle RNA
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One or more SRP proteins bind to the SRP RNA to assemble the functional SRP. The SRP proteins are named according to their approximate molecular mass measured in kilodalton. Most bacterial SRPs are composed of SRP RNA and SRP54 (also named Ffh for "Fifty-four homolog").
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199814_chunk_0
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Signal recognition particle RNA
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The Archaeal SRP contains proteins SRP54 and SRP19. In eukaryotes, the SRP RNA combines with the imported SRP proteins SRP9/14, SRP19, and SRP68/72 in a region of the nucleolus. This pre-SRP is transported to the cytosol where it binds to protein SRP54. The molecular structures of the free or SRP RNA-bound proteins SRP9/14, SRP19, or SRP54 are known at high resolution.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199815_chunk_0
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Weiler–Atherton clipping algorithm
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One or more concave polygons may produce more than one intersecting polygon. Convex polygons will only have one intersecting polygon. The same algorithm can be used for merging two polygons by starting at the outbound intersections rather than the inbound ones.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199816_chunk_0
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Weiler–Atherton clipping algorithm
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However this can produce counter-clockwise holes. Some polygon combinations may be difficult to resolve, especially when holes are allowed. Points very close to the edge of the other polygon may be considered as both in and out until their status can be confirmed after all the intersections have been found and verified; however, this increases the complexity. Various strategies can be used to improve the speed of this labeling, and to avoid needing to proceed further. Care will be needed where the polygons share an edge.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199817_chunk_0
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Lightweight cipher
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One or more cryptographic primitives are often used to develop a more complex algorithm, called a cryptographic system, or cryptosystem. Cryptosystems (e.g., El-Gamal encryption) are designed to provide particular functionality (e.g., public key encryption) while guaranteeing certain security properties (e.g., chosen-plaintext attack (CPA) security in the random oracle model). Cryptosystems use the properties of the underlying cryptographic primitives to support the system's security properties. As the distinction between primitives and cryptosystems is somewhat arbitrary, a sophisticated cryptosystem can be derived from a combination of several more primitive cryptosystems.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199818_chunk_0
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Lightweight cipher
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In many cases, the cryptosystem's structure involves back and forth communication among two or more parties in space (e.g., between the sender of a secure message and its receiver) or across time (e.g., cryptographically protected backup data). Such cryptosystems are sometimes called cryptographic protocols. Some widely known cryptosystems include RSA, Schnorr signature, ElGamal encryption, and Pretty Good Privacy (PGP). More complex cryptosystems include electronic cash systems, signcryption systems, etc. Some more 'theoretical' cryptosystems include interactive proof systems, (like zero-knowledge proofs), systems for secret sharing, etc.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199819_chunk_0
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Diesel generator
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Groups of up to 20 are not uncommon. Generators can be electrically connected through the process of synchronization. Synchronization involves matching voltage, frequency, and phase before connecting the generator to the system.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199820_chunk_0
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Diesel generator
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Failure to synchronize before a connection could cause a high short circuit current or wear and tear on the generator or its switchgear. The synchronization process can be done automatically by an auto-synchronizer module, or manually by the instructed operator. The auto-synchronizer will read the voltage, frequency, and phase parameters from the generator and busbar voltages, while regulating the speed through the engine governor or ECM (Engine Control Module).
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199821_chunk_0
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Gemmata obscuriglobus
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One or more nucleoid-like regions of densely compact DNA is commonly observed in G. obscuriglobus cells. Complex internal structure resembling a liquid crystal has been reported, with some structural similarities to the chromatin of eukaryotes such as dinoflagellates. The structure of the nucleoid has been implicated in the unusual radiation tolerance of G. obscuriglobus.Transcription and translation of genes have been reported to occur in spatially segregated locations within the cell, which is otherwise characteristic of eukaryotic but not prokaryotic cells.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199822_chunk_0
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Lipoxin A4
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One or more of the lipoxins or their metabolically resistant analogs have been demonstrated to suppress, limit severity, and/or increase survival in a wide range of inflammatory and allergic diseases as evaluated in mouse and rat model studies. These studies include models of experimentally evoked: Endometriosis , colitis, peritonitis; pancreatitis; kidney inflammation and glomerulonephritis; lung asthma, acid-induced lung injury, cystic fibrosis, pleurisy, brain inflammation and the inflammatory component of Alzheimer's disease; vascular ischemia-reperfusion injuries to various organs including the heart and hind limb; allograph Transplant rejection of heart, kidney, and bone marrow; arthritis; dermatitis; periodontitis; cornea inflammation; and inflammation-based pain and hyperalgesia.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199823_chunk_0
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Detached part
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Nonetheless, minor laws, especially on flag flying, are sometimes relaxed to accommodate the needs of the accommodated nation's monument. Embassies enjoy many different legal statuses approaching quasi-sovereignty, depending on the agreements reached and in practice upheld from time-to-time by host nations. Subject to hosts adhering to basic due process of international law, including giving warnings, the enforced reduction of scope of a foreign embassy has always been a possibility, even to the point of expelling the foreign embassy entirely, usually on a breakdown of relations, in reaction to extreme actions such as espionage, or as another form of sanction.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199824_chunk_0
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Reed switch
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One or more reed switches inside an electromagnetic coil constitute a reed relay. Reed relays are used when operating currents are relatively low, and offer high operating speed, good performance with very small currents that are not reliably switched by conventional contacts, high reliability and long life. Millions of reed relays were used in telephone exchanges in the 1970s and 1980s. In particular, they were used for switching in the British TXE family of telephone exchanges. The inert atmosphere around the reed contacts ensures that oxidation will not affect the contact resistance. Mercury-wetted reed relays are sometimes used, especially in high-speed counting circuits.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199825_chunk_0
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Hypobaric chamber
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An inside safety observer, breathing oxygen by mask, should always be present to place a subject's mask back on in the event a subject passes out unconscious. Outside observers monitor the subjects' condition via closed circuit television and viewing ports. While the masks are off, subjects may be asked to do trivial tasks, such as arithmetic and signing their own names. When such tasks start taking excessive lengths of time to be done or are done poorly, it is usually a sign that the "Time of Useful Consciousness" has been exceeded and that the masks should be replaced. Subjects may also ensure that they are able to do tasks such as clear their nose and sinuses easily, as pain from such problems can be a major distraction in an emergency such as rapid decompression.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199826_chunk_0
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GJ 436 b
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One orbit around the star takes only about two days, 15.5 hours. Gliese 436 b's orbit is likely misaligned with its star's rotation. The eccentricity of Gliese 436 b's orbit is inconsistent with models of planetary system evolution. To have maintained its eccentricity over time requires that it be accompanied by another planet.A study published in Nature found that the orbit of Gliese 436 b is nearly perpendicular (inclined by 103.2+12.8−11.5 degrees) to the stellar equator of Gliese 436 and suggests that the eccentricity and misalignment of the orbit could have resulted from interactions with a yet undetected companion. The inward migration caused by this interaction could have triggered the atmospheric escape that sustains its giant exosphere.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199827_chunk_0
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Penis fencing
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One organism will inseminate the other, with the inseminating individual acting as the "father". The sperm is absorbed through pores or sometimes wounds in the skin from the partner's stylet, causing fertilization in the other, who becomes the "mother". The battle may last for up to an hour in some species.Parturition, while necessary for successful offspring production, requires a considerable parental investment in time and energy, and according to Bateman's principle, almost always burdens the "mother".
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199828_chunk_0
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Penis fencing
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Thus, from an optimality model it is usually preferable for an organism to inseminate than to be inseminated. However, in many species that engage in this form of copulatory competition, each "father" will continue to fence with other partners until it is inseminated. In Alderia modesta, individuals will store sperm from several "fencing matches" before laying their eggs, and smaller individuals will more often inseminate a larger partner, with larger individuals spending more energy on laying eggs when paired with a smaller partner on the occasion that they transfer sperm unilaterally.In the absence of potential mates, some species such as Neobenedenia melleni are capable of reproducing through self-insemination.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199829_chunk_0
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Nierenstein reaction
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One original 1924 Nierenstein reaction: and a reaction starting from benzoyl bromide going haywire with formation of the dioxane dimer:
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199830_chunk_0
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Forward osmosis
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One other application developed, where only the forward osmosis step is used, is in evaporative cooling make-up water. In this case the cooling water is the draw solution and the water lost by evaporation is simply replaced using water produced by forward osmosis from a suitable source, such as seawater, brackish water, treated sewage effluent or industrial waste water. Thus in comparison with other ‘desalination’ processes that may be used for make-up water the energy consumption is a fraction of these with the added advantage of the low fouling propensity of a forward osmosis process.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199831_chunk_0
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Resource tracking
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One other approach, which allows early return but consolidates cleanup in one place, is to have a single exit return of a function, preceded by cleanup code, and to use goto to jump to the cleanup before exit. This is infrequently seen in modern code, but occurs in some uses of C.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199832_chunk_0
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Single-Photon Avalanche Diode
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One other effect that can trigger an avalanche is known as afterpulsing. When an avalanche occurs, the PN junction is flooded with charge carriers and trap levels between the valence and conduction band become occupied to a degree that is much greater than that expected in a thermal-equilibrium distribution of charge carriers. After the SPAD has been quenched, there is some probability that a charge carrier in a trap level receives enough energy to free it from the trap and promote it to the conduction band, which triggers a new avalanche.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199833_chunk_0
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Single-Photon Avalanche Diode
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Thus, depending on the quality of the process and exact layers and implants that were used to fabricate the SPAD, a significant number of extra pulses can be developed from a single originating thermal or photo-generation event. The degree of afterpulsing can be quantified by measuring the autocorrelation of the times of arrival between avalanches when a dark count measurement is set up. Thermal generation produces Poissonian statistics with an impulse function autocorrelation, and afterpulsing produces non-Poissonian statistics.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199834_chunk_0
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Gene Set Enrichment Analysis
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One other limitation to Gene Set Enrichment Analysis is that the results are very dependent on the algorithm that clusters the genes, and the number of clusters being tested. Spectral Gene Set Enrichment (SGSE) is a proposed, unsupervised test. The method's founders claim that it is a better way to find associations between MSigDB gene sets and microarray data. The general steps include: 1. Calculating the association between principal components and gene sets.2. Using the weighted Z-method to calculate the association between the gene sets and the spectral structure of the data.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199835_chunk_0
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Academic Tree
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One other notable discipline-specific academic genealogy is the Mathematics Genealogy Project. Academic Family Tree has its own mathematics tree, MathTree but it is much less complete than the Mathematics Genealogy Project. As of 6 February 2018, MathTree contained 33,634 people whereas the Mathematics Genealogy Project contained 223,794 people.One other general academic genealogy was PhD Tree. PhD Tree ceased functioning some time after June 2017.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199836_chunk_0
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Social networking software
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One other use that is being discussed is the use of social networks in the science communities. Julia Porter Liebeskind et al. have published a study on how new biotechnology firms are using social networking sites to share exchanges in scientific knowledge. They state in their study that by sharing information and knowledge with one another, they are able to "increase both their learning and their flexibility in ways that would not have been possible within a self-contained hierarchical organization". Social networking is allowing scientific groups to expand their knowledge base and share ideas, and without these new means of communicating their theories might become "isolated and irrelevant".
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199837_chunk_0
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Social networking software
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The most interesting aspects of social networks for professional purposes are their potentialities in terms of dissemination of information and the ability to reach and multiple professional contacts exponentially. Social networks like Academia.edu, LinkedIn, Facebook, and ResearchGate give the possibility to join professional groups and pages, to share papers and results, publicize events, to discuss issues and create debates. Academia.edu is extensively used by researchers, where they follow a combination of social networking and scholarly norms. ResearchGate is also widely used by researchers, especially to disseminate and discuss their publications, where it seems to attract an audience that it wider than just other scientists. The usage of Research Gate and Academia in different academic communities has increasingly been studied in recent years.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199838_chunk_0
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Black goods
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One overriding characteristic of consumer electronic products is the trend of ever-falling prices. This is driven by gains in manufacturing efficiency and automation, lower labor costs as manufacturing has moved to lower-wage countries, and improvements in semiconductor design. Semiconductor components benefit from Moore's law, an observed principle which states that, for a given price, semiconductor functionality doubles every two years. While consumer electronics continues in its trend of convergence, combining elements of many products, consumers face different purchasing decisions.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199839_chunk_0
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Black goods
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Many products include Internet connectivity using technologies such as Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, EDGE, or Ethernet. Products not traditionally associated with computer use (such as TVs or Hi-Fi equipment) now provide options to connect to the Internet or to a computer using a home network to provide access to digital content. The desire for high-definition (HD) content has led the industry to develop a number of technologies, such as WirelessHD or ITU-T G.hn, which are optimized for distribution of HD content between consumer electronic devices in a home.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199840_chunk_0
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Lean systems
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Management should not decide on solutions without understanding the true problem by consulting shop floor personnel.The solution to a specific problem for a specific company may not have generalized application. The solution must fit the problem.Value-stream mapping (VSM) and 5S are the most common approaches companies take on their first steps to Lean. Lean can be focused on specific processes, or cover the entire supply chain. Front-line workers should be involved in VSM activities. Implementing a series of small improvements incrementally along the supply chain can bring forth enhanced productivity.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199841_chunk_0
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Paper-based biosensor
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One paper-based biosensor that can be used to detect Salmonella, as well as E. coli, uses the nanomaterial graphene. These strips are a form of lateral flow assay, where the test line is composed of fluorescence antibody-labeled CdSe/ZnS quantum dots (Ab-QDs) as probes. After the sample has been applied, graphene oxide is added and it functions as the revealing agent. An energy transfer takes place between a donor molecule and an acceptor molecule.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199842_chunk_0
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Paper-based biosensor
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When no Salmonella is present, the Ab-QDs function as the donor, with graphene being the acceptor, and the fluorescence of the test line is quenched by this energy transfer. The presence of Salmonella, on the other hand, allows for fluorescence because of the manner in which the bacterial cells bind to the Ab-QDs: the distance between the donor and acceptor is too large to allow for the energy transfer, and thus fluorescence is not quenched. The strips have a detection limit of 100 CFU/mL.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199843_chunk_0
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Generalized minimal residual method
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One part of the GMRES method is to find the vector y n {\displaystyle y_{n}} which minimizes Note that H ~ n {\displaystyle {\tilde {H}}_{n}} is an (n + 1)-by-n matrix, hence it gives an over-constrained linear system of n+1 equations for n unknowns. The minimum can be computed using a QR decomposition: find an (n + 1)-by-(n + 1) orthogonal matrix Ωn and an (n + 1)-by-n upper triangular matrix R ~ n {\displaystyle {\tilde {R}}_{n}} such that The triangular matrix has one more row than it has columns, so its bottom row consists of zero. Hence, it can be decomposed as where R n {\displaystyle R_{n}} is an n-by-n (thus square) triangular matrix.
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wiki_199844_chunk_0
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Generalized minimal residual method
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The QR decomposition can be updated cheaply from one iteration to the next, because the Hessenberg matrices differ only by a row of zeros and a column: where hn+1 = (h1,n+1, …, hn+1,n+1)T. This implies that premultiplying the Hessenberg matrix with Ωn, augmented with zeroes and a row with multiplicative identity, yields almost a triangular matrix: This would be triangular if σ is zero. To remedy this, one needs the Givens rotation where With this Givens rotation, we form Indeed, is a triangular matrix with r n + 1 , n + 1 = ρ 2 + σ 2 {\displaystyle r_{n+1,n+1}={\sqrt {\rho ^{2}+\sigma ^{2}}}} . Given the QR decomposition, the minimization problem is easily solved by noting that Denoting the vector β Ω n e 1 {\displaystyle \beta \Omega _{n}e_{1}} by with gn ∈ Rn and γn ∈ R, this is The vector y that minimizes this expression is given by Again, the vectors g n {\displaystyle g_{n}} are easy to update.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199845_chunk_0
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Aronia berry
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One part of the breeding efforts focuses on improving red chokeberries for their use as ornamental plants. Breeding goals include the reduction of the plants stature, reduction of its tendency towards legginess, increasing the fruit size and improving leaf retention for a longer lasting fall foliage. Breeding of the red chokeberry is difficult, because the available accessions are tetraploid plants and thus, are likely to produce apomictic seeds. Furthermore, the breeding of polyploids makes mutation breeding more challenging because the additional sets of chromosome can mask incomplete mutations.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199846_chunk_0
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The Bell Curve
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The 2014 textbook Evolutionary Analysis by Herron and Freeman devoted an entire chapter to debunking what they termed the "Bell Curve fallacy", saying that "Murray and Herrnstein's argument amounts to little more than an appeal to personal incredulity" and that it is a mistake to think that heritability can tell us something about the causes of differences between population means. In reference to the comparison of African-American with European-American IQ scores, the text states that only a common garden experiment, in which the two groups are raised in an environment typically experienced by European-Americans, would allow one to see if the difference is genetic. This kind of experiment, routine with plants and animals, cannot be conducted with humans.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199847_chunk_0
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The Bell Curve
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Nor is it possible to approximate this design with adoptions into families of the different groups, because the children would be recognizable and possibly be treated differently. The text concludes: "There is no way to assess whether genetics has anything to do with the difference in IQ score between ethnic groups." Rutledge M. Dennis suggests that through soundbites of works like Jensen's famous study on the achievement gap, and Herrnstein and Murray's book The Bell Curve, the media "paints a picture of Blacks and other people of color as collective biological illiterates—as not only intellectually unfit but evil and criminal as well", thus providing, he says "the logic and justification for those who would further disenfranchise and exclude racial and ethnic minorities".Charles Lane pointed out that 17 of the researchers whose work is referenced by the book have also contributed to Mankind Quarterly, a journal of anthropology founded in 1960 in Edinburgh, which has been viewed as supporting the theory of the genetic superiority of white people.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199848_chunk_0
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The Bell Curve
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David Bartholomew reports Murray's response as part of the controversy over the Bell Curve. In his afterword to the 1996 Free Press edition of The Bell Curve, Murray responded that the book "draws its evidence from more than a thousand scholars" and among the researchers mentioned in Lane's list "are some of the most respected psychologists of our time and that almost all of the sources referred to as tainted are articles published in leading refereed journals".The Bell Curve Wars: Race, Intelligence, and the Future of America is a collection of articles published in reaction to the book. Edited by Steven Fraser, the writers of these essays do not have a specific viewpoint concerning the content of The Bell Curve, but express their own critiques of various aspects of the book, including the research methods used, the alleged hidden biases in the research and the policies suggested as a result of the conclusions drawn by the authors. Fraser writes that "by scrutinizing the footnotes and bibliography in The Bell Curve, readers can more easily recognize the project for what it is: a chilly synthesis of the work of disreputable race theorists and eccentric eugenicists".
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199849_chunk_0
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Cybernetic Serendipity
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One of the first computer-generated poems, by Alison Knowles and James Tenney, was included in the exhibition and catalogue. Computer-generated movies were represented by John Whitney's permutations and a Bell Labs movie on their technology for producing movies. Some samples included images of tesseracts rotating in four dimensions, a satellite orbiting the Earth, and an animated data structure.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199850_chunk_0
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Classical electromagnetism and special relativity
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One part of the force between moving charges we call the magnetic force. It is really one aspect of an electrical effect.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199851_chunk_0
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Byzantine chant
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One part of this process was the redaction and limitation of the present repertoire given by the notated chant books of the sticherarion (menaion, triodion, pentekostarion, and oktoechos) and the heirmologion during the 14th century. Philologists called this repertoire the "standard abridged version" and counted alone 750 stichera for the menaion-part, and 3300 odes of the heirmologion.Chronological research of the books sticherarion and heirmologion did not only reveal an evolution of notation systems which were just invented for these chant books, they can be also studied with respect to the repertoire of heirmoi and of stichera idiomela. The earliest evolution of sticherarion and heirmologion notation was the explanation of the theta (Slav. fita), oxeia or diple which were simply set under a syllable, where a melisma was expected.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199852_chunk_0
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Byzantine chant
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These explanations were either written with Coislin (scriptoria of monasteries under administration of the Patriarchates Jerusalem and Alexandria) or with Chartres notation (scriptoria in Constantinople or on Mount Athos). Both notations went through different stages. Since the evolution of the Coislin system also aimed a reduction of signs in order to define the interval value by less signs in order to avoid a confusion with an earlier habit to use them, it was favoured in comparison with the more complex and stenographic Chartres notation by later scribes during the late 12th century.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199853_chunk_0
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Internet Movie Firearms Database
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One particular category of arms that is not intended to be a part of the database is fictional firearms. For example, weapons that are beyond current technology such as laser (as the projectile), plasma, and/or nuclear particle (i.e. photon, etc.) devices are typically not accepted by the contributors of the site. Often this category of fictional weapons is associated with video games and anime, but some movies (science fiction in particular) contain these as well. In these instances, the devices that represent actual firearms or hypothetical future evolution of current firearms are represented.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199854_chunk_0
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Free-turbine turboshaft
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A failure in the Bristol Proteus propeller reduction gearbox led to an overspeed and release of the power turbine of Nº3 engine. It cut through the oil tank and started a fire that threatened the integrity of the wing spar. The pilot, Bill Pegg, made a forced landing on the estuary mud.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199855_chunk_0
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Last.fm
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Artist profiles also keep track of a short list of Top Fans, which is calculated by a formula meant to portray the importance of an artist in a fan's own profile, balancing out users who play hundreds of tracks overall versus those who play only a few. As the information generated is largely compiled from the ID3 data from audio files "scrobbled" from users' own computers, and which may be incorrect or misspelled, there are many errors in the listings.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199856_chunk_0
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Ray tracing (physics)
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The image at the right illustrates the complexity of the situation. Unlike optical ray tracing where the medium between objects typically has a constant refractive index, signal ray tracing must deal with the complexities of a spatially varying refractive index, where changes in ionospheric electron densities influence the refractive index and hence, ray trajectories.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199857_chunk_0
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Ray tracing (physics)
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Two sets of signals are broadcast at two different elevation angles. When the main signal penetrates into the ionosphere, the magnetic field splits the signal into two component waves which are separately ray traced through the ionosphere. The ordinary wave (red) component follows a path completely independent of the extraordinary wave (green) component.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199858_chunk_0
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Skyrmion
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One particular form of skyrmions is magnetic skyrmions, found in magnetic materials that exhibit spiral magnetism due to the Dzyaloshinskii–Moriya interaction, double-exchange mechanism or competing Heisenberg exchange interactions. They form "domains" as small as 1 nm (e.g. in Fe on Ir(111)). The small size and low energy consumption of magnetic skyrmions make them a good candidate for future data-storage solutions and other spintronics devices.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199859_chunk_0
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Skyrmion
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Researchers could read and write skyrmions using scanning tunneling microscopy. The topological charge, representing the existence and non-existence of skyrmions, can represent the bit states "1" and "0". Room-temperature skyrmions were reported.Skyrmions operate at current densities that are several orders of magnitude weaker than conventional magnetic devices.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199860_chunk_0
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Skyrmion
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Polarity is controlled by a tailored magnetic-field sequence and demonstrated in magnetometry measurements. The vortex structure is imprinted into the underlayer's interfacial region by suppressing the PMA by a critical ion-irradiation step. The lattices are identified with polarized neutron reflectometry and have been confirmed by magnetoresistance measurements.A recent (2019) study demonstrated a way to move skyrmions, purely using electric field (in the absence of electric current). The authors used Co/Ni multilayers with a thickness slope and Dzyaloshinskii–Moriya interaction and demonstrated skyrmions. They showed that the displacement and velocity depended directly on the applied voltage.In 2020, a team of researchers from the Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology (Empa) has succeeded for the first time in producing a tunable multilayer system in which two different types of skyrmions – the future bits for "0" and "1" – can exist at room temperature.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199861_chunk_0
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Quasi-affine morphism
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One particular important example is a presentation of a stack, which is widely used in the study of stacks. An algebraic stack X is said to be smooth of dimension n - j if there is a smooth presentation U → X {\displaystyle U\to X} of relative dimension j for some smooth scheme U of dimension n. For example, if Vect n {\displaystyle \operatorname {Vect} _{n}} denotes the moduli stack of rank-n vector bundles, then there is a presentation Spec ( k ) → Vect n {\displaystyle \operatorname {Spec} (k)\to \operatorname {Vect} _{n}} given by the trivial bundle A k n {\displaystyle \mathbb {A} _{k}^{n}} over Spec ( k ) {\displaystyle \operatorname {Spec} (k)} . A quasi-affine morphism between algebraic stacks is a morphism that factorizes as a quasi-compact open immersion followed by an affine morphism.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199862_chunk_0
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Magnesium silicate
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A 2018 Reuters investigation asserted that pharmaceuticals company Johnson & Johnson knew for decades that there was asbestos in its baby powder, and in 2020 the company stopped selling its baby powder in the US and Canada. There were calls for Johnson & Johnson's largest shareholders to force the company to end global sales of baby powder, and hire an independent firm to conduct a racial justice audit as it had been marketed to African American and overweight women. On August 11, 2022, the company announced it would stop making talc-based powder by 2023 and replace it with cornstarch-based powders. The company said the talc-based powder is safe to use and does not contain asbestos.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199863_chunk_0
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Bit commitment
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One particular motivating example is the use of commitment schemes in zero-knowledge proofs. Commitments are used in zero-knowledge proofs for two main purposes: first, to allow the prover to participate in "cut and choose" proofs where the verifier will be presented with a choice of what to learn, and the prover will reveal only what corresponds to the verifier's choice. Commitment schemes allow the prover to specify all the information in advance, and only reveal what should be revealed later in the proof. Second, commitments are also used in zero-knowledge proofs by the verifier, who will often specify their choices ahead of time in a commitment. This allows zero-knowledge proofs to be composed in parallel without revealing additional information to the prover.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199864_chunk_0
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PTPN22
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One particular population of T cells, which is influenced by a PTPN22 deficiency is the population of regulatory T cells (Treg cells). PTPN22-deficient mice contain higher amount of Treg cells in lymph nodes and spleens and this difference is more visible with increasing age of mice. There is also a change of the effector Treg cells: central Treg cells ratio in favor of the effector Treg cells. PTPN22 deficiency increases abilities of Treg cells to survive, differentiation of Treg cells from naive T cells, but not the ability to proliferate in vivo, and it also supports transition of central Treg cells to effector Treg cells.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199865_chunk_0
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PTPN22
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One of the reasons, of the increased survival of PTPN22-deficient Treg cells, is that those cells have upregulated expression of GITR, which increases their expansion in vivo. Treatment of PTPN22-deficient mice with an anti-GITR-L blocking antibody suppresses the expansion of Treg cells. PTPN22 deficiency does not impair the suppressive function of Treg cells. Actually there are some articles suggesting that PTPN22-deficient Treg cells possess an enhanced suppressive function or have a bigger ability to obtain an effector phenotype.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199866_chunk_0
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M theory
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In the real world, spacetime is four-dimensional, at least macroscopically, so this version of the correspondence does not provide a realistic model of gravity. Likewise, the dual theory is not a viable model of any real-world system since it describes a world with six spacetime dimensions.Nevertheless, the (2,0)-theory has proven to be important for studying the general properties of quantum field theories. Indeed, this theory subsumes many mathematically interesting effective quantum field theories and points to new dualities relating these theories.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199867_chunk_0
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M theory
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In subsequent work, Witten showed that the (2,0)-theory could be used to understand a concept in mathematics called Khovanov homology. Developed by Mikhail Khovanov around 2000, Khovanov homology provides a tool in knot theory, the branch of mathematics that studies and classifies the different shapes of knots. Another application of the (2,0)-theory in mathematics is the work of Davide Gaiotto, Greg Moore, and Andrew Neitzke, which used physical ideas to derive new results in hyperkähler geometry.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199868_chunk_0
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Neural scaling law
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One particular scaling law ("Chinchilla scaling") states that, for a large language model (LLM) autoregressively trained for one epoch, with a cosine learning rate schedule, we have:where the variables are C {\displaystyle C} is the cost of training the model, in FLOPs. N {\displaystyle N} is the number of parameters in the model. D {\displaystyle D} is the number of tokens in the training set. L {\displaystyle L} is the average negative log-likelihood loss per token (nats/token), achieved by the trained LLM on the test dataset.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199869_chunk_0
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Neural scaling law
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L 0 {\displaystyle L_{0}} represents the loss of an ideal generative process on the test data A N α {\displaystyle {\frac {A}{N^{\alpha }}}} captures the fact that a Transformer language model with N {\displaystyle N} parameters underperforms the ideal generative process B D β {\displaystyle {\frac {B}{D^{\beta }}}} captures the fact that the model trained on D {\displaystyle D} tokens underperforms the ideal generative processand the statistical parameters are C 0 = 6 {\displaystyle C_{0}=6} , meaning that it costs 6 FLOPs per parameter to train on one token. This is estimated by Kaplan et al. Note that training cost is much higher than inference cost, as training entails both forward and backward passes, whereas inference costs 1 to 2 FLOPs per parameter to infer on one token.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199870_chunk_0
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Neural scaling law
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α = 0.34 , β = 0.28 , A = 406.4 , B = 410.7 , L 0 = 1.69 {\displaystyle \alpha =0.34,\beta =0.28,A=406.4,B=410.7,L_{0}=1.69} .The statistical laws were fitted over experimental data with N ∈ , D ∈ , C ∈ {\displaystyle N\in ,D\in ,C\in } . Since there are 4 variables related by 2 equations, imposing 1 additional constraint and 1 additional optimization objective allows us to solve for all four variables. In particular, for any fixed C {\displaystyle C} , we can uniquely solve for all 4 variables that minimizes L {\displaystyle L} .
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199871_chunk_0
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Neural scaling law
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This provides us with the optimal D o p t ( C ) , N o p t ( C ) {\displaystyle D_{opt}(C),N_{opt}(C)} for any fixed C {\displaystyle C} :Plugging in the numerical values, we obtain the "Chinchilla efficient" model size and training dataset size, as well as the test loss achievable:Similarly, we may find the optimal training dataset size and training compute budget for any fixed model parameter size, and so on. There are other estimates for "Chinchilla efficient" model size and training dataset size. The above is based on a statistical model of L = A N α + B D β + L 0 {\displaystyle L={\frac {A}{N^{\alpha }}}+{\frac {B}{D^{\beta }}}+L_{0}} .
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199872_chunk_0
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Neural scaling law
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One can also directly fit a statistical law for D o p t ( C ) , N o p t ( C ) {\displaystyle D_{opt}(C),N_{opt}(C)} without going through the detour, for which one obtains:or as tabulated: In simpler terms, the Chinchilla scaling law for training Transformer language models suggests that when given an increased budget (in FLOPs), to achieve compute-optimal, the number of model parameters (N) and the number of tokens for training the model (D) should scale in approximately equal proportions. This conclusion differs from the previous scaling law for neural language models, which states that N should be scaled faster than D. The discrepancy arises from setting different cycle lengths for cosine learning rate schedulers. In estimating the Chinchilla scaling, the authors set the cycle length to be the same as the training steps, as experimental results indicate that larger cycles overestimate the loss of the models.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199873_chunk_0
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Supersynchronous orbit
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One particular supersynchronous orbital regime of significant economic value to Earth commerce is a band of near-circular Geocentric orbits beyond the geosynchronous belt—with perigee altitude above 36,100 kilometres (22,400 mi), approximately 300 kilometres (190 mi) above synchronous altitude —called the geo graveyard belt.The geo graveyard belt orbital regime is valuable as a storage and disposal location for derelict satellite space debris after their useful economic life is completed as geosynchronous communication satellites. Artificial satellites are left in space because the economic cost of removing the debris would be high, and current public policy does not require nor incentivize rapid removal by the party that first inserted the debris in outer space and thus created a negative externality for others—a placing of the cost onto them. One public policy proposal to deal with growing space debris is a "one-up/one-down" launch license policy for Earth orbits. Launch vehicle operators would have to pay the cost of debris mitigation.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199874_chunk_0
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Supersynchronous orbit
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They would need to build the capability into their launch vehicle-robotic capture, navigation, mission duration extension, and substantial additional propellant – to be able to rendezvous with, capture and deorbit an existing derelict satellite from approximately the same orbital plane.An additional common use of supersynchronous orbits are for the launch and transfer orbit trajectory of new commsats intended for geosynchronous orbits. In this approach, the launch vehicle places the satellite into a supersynchronous elliptical transfer orbit, an orbit with a somewhat larger apogee than the more typical geostationary transfer orbit (GTO) typically used for communication satellites. Such an orbit is used because a small change in inclination at a lower altitude requires much more energy than the same change at a higher altitude.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199875_chunk_0
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Surgical mesh
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One particular type of mesh that is under study is polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), or nanofibrous mesh, which has been found to be more resistant to hydrolysis and disintegration, unlike PET, and does not increase its stiffness as it ages, unlike PP. It is being tested for both hernia and pelvic/vaginal wall surgery and is produced via fiber placement layer by layer, whereas PP is constructed by a weaving-like process. This gives the nanofibrous mesh a heavyweight yet low-porosity structure, also adding greater stiffness and stress threshold when compared to PP. This is supported by the presence of HSP70—an indicator for cell stress and protector of cell formation against damage, which is beneficial for the prosthesis and tissue formation—which has been monitored and observed in a larger presence in PVDF implants.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199876_chunk_0
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Surgical mesh
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In vitro observations of nanofibrous mesh have yielded evidence of cell migration and proliferation on the set of the mesh. Successful cell growth has been noted with long fusiform shapes and clear boundaries.A significant advantage of using nanofibrous mesh is that it can carry far more stem cells than traditional PP mesh, which could improve cell-based therapy for pelvic organ prolapse and regeneration methods. Another important advantage of PVDF is the formation of capillaries after 12 weeks, which is essential for wound healing.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199877_chunk_0
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Surgical mesh
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The faster neovascularization occurs, the faster tissue can be repaired and regenerated, which decreases the likelihood of exposure or extrusion of the mesh.Some enhancements to PVDF must also be made before it can be used for human surgery. Although the modulus of elasticity is higher than that of PP, resulting stretch under identical stress is much less, which could cause complications such as tissue degeneration and loss of mechanical soundness. Nanofibrous mesh currently also promotes a greater foreign body reaction and inflammatory response, which compromises the biocompatibility of the mesh. For these reasons, PVDF is still under consideration and experimentation for bodily implants.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199878_chunk_0
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Chess-playing machine
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One particular type of search algorithm used in computer chess are minimax search algorithms, where at each ply the "best" move by the player is selected; one player is trying to maximize the score, the other to minimize it. By this alternating process, one particular terminal node whose evaluation represents the searched value of the position will be arrived at. Its value is backed up to the root, and that evaluation becomes the valuation of the position on the board. This search process is called minimax.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199879_chunk_0
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Chess-playing machine
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A naive implementation of the minimax algorithm can only search to a small depth in a practical amount of time, so various methods have been devised to greatly speed the search for good moves. Alpha–beta pruning, a system of defining upper and lower bounds on possible search results and searching until the bounds coincided, is typically used to reduce the search space of the program. In addition, various selective search heuristics, such as quiescence search, forward pruning, search extensions and search reductions, are also used as well.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199880_chunk_0
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Step-through frame
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One particular type of step-through frame is called a mixte. In a mixte frame, the top tube of the traditional diamond frame is replaced with a pair of smaller tubes (lateral tubes, or lats) running from the top of the head tube all the way back to the rear axle, connecting at the seat tube on the way. The normal seat stays and chain stays are retained. This provides the lower standover height of a step-through frame bicycle with a strong diamond-frame geometry.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199881_chunk_0
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Precision matrix
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One particular use of the precision matrix is in the context of Bayesian analysis of the multivariate normal distribution: for example, Bernardo & Smith prefer to parameterise the multivariate normal distribution in terms of the precision matrix, rather than the covariance matrix, because of certain simplifications that then arise. For instance, if both the prior and the likelihood have Gaussian form, and the precision matrix of both of these exist (because their covariance matrix is full rank and thus invertible), then the precision matrix of the posterior will simply be the sum of the precision matrices of the prior and the likelihood. As the inverse of a Hermitian matrix, the precision matrix of real-valued random variables, if it exists, is positive definite and symmetrical. Another reason the precision matrix may be useful is that if two dimensions i {\displaystyle i} and j {\displaystyle j} of a multivariate normal are conditionally independent, then the i j {\displaystyle ij} and j i {\displaystyle ji} elements of the precision matrix are 0 {\displaystyle 0} .
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199882_chunk_0
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Precision matrix
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This means that precision matrices tend to be sparse when many of the dimensions are conditionally independent, which can lead to computational efficiencies when working with them. It also means that precision matrices are closely related to the idea of partial correlation. The precision matrix plays a central role in generalized least squares, compared to ordinary least squares, where P {\displaystyle P} is the identity matrix, and to weighted least squares, where P {\displaystyle P} is diagonal (the weight matrix).
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199883_chunk_0
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Kaluza-Klein reduction
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One particular variant of Kaluza–Klein theory is space–time–matter theory or induced matter theory, chiefly promulgated by Paul Wesson and other members of the Space–Time–Matter Consortium. In this version of the theory, it is noted that solutions to the equation R ~ a b = 0 {\displaystyle {\widetilde {R}}_{ab}=0} may be re-expressed so that in four dimensions, these solutions satisfy Einstein's equations G μ ν = 8 π T μ ν {\displaystyle G_{\mu \nu }=8\pi T_{\mu \nu }\,} with the precise form of the Tμν following from the Ricci-flat condition on the five-dimensional space. In other words, the cylinder condition of the previous development is dropped, and the stress–energy now comes from the derivatives of the 5D metric with respect to the fifth coordinate.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199884_chunk_0
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Kaluza-Klein reduction
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Because the energy–momentum tensor is normally understood to be due to concentrations of matter in four-dimensional space, the above result is interpreted as saying that four-dimensional matter is induced from geometry in five-dimensional space. In particular, the soliton solutions of R ~ a b = 0 {\displaystyle {\widetilde {R}}_{ab}=0} can be shown to contain the Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker metric in both radiation-dominated (early universe) and matter-dominated (later universe) forms. The general equations can be shown to be sufficiently consistent with classical tests of general relativity to be acceptable on physical principles, while still leaving considerable freedom to also provide interesting cosmological models.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199885_chunk_0
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Diabetic cardiomyopathy
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A prominent "a" wave can also be noted in the jugular venous pulse, and the cardiac apical impulse may be overactive or sustained throughout systole. After the development of systolic dysfunction, left ventricular dilation and symptomatic heart failure, the jugular venous pressure may become elevated, the apical impulse would be displaced downward and to the left. Systolic mitral murmur is not uncommon in these cases.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199886_chunk_0
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Regularized least squares
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One particularly common choice for the penalty function R {\displaystyle R} is the squared ℓ 2 {\displaystyle \ell _{2}} norm, i.e., R ( w ) = ∑ j = 1 d w j 2 {\displaystyle R(w)=\sum _{j=1}^{d}w_{j}^{2}} 1 n ‖ Y − X w ‖ 2 2 + λ ∑ j = 1 d | w j | 2 → min w ∈ R d {\displaystyle {\frac {1}{n}}\|Y-\operatorname {X} w\|_{2}^{2}+\lambda \sum _{j=1}^{d}|w_{j}|^{2}\rightarrow \min _{w\in \mathbb {R} ^{d}}} The most common names for this are called Tikhonov regularization and ridge regression. It admits a closed-form solution for w {\displaystyle w}: w = ( X T X + λ I ) − 1 X T Y {\displaystyle w=(X^{T}X+\lambda I)^{-1}X^{T}Y} The name ridge regression alludes to the fact that the λ I {\displaystyle \lambda I} term adds positive entries along the diagonal "ridge" of the sample covariance matrix X T X {\displaystyle X^{T}X} . When λ = 0 {\displaystyle \lambda =0} , i.e., in the case of ordinary least squares, the condition that d > n {\displaystyle d>n} causes the sample covariance matrix X T X {\displaystyle X^{T}X} to not have full rank and so it cannot be inverted to yield a unique solution. This is why there can be an infinitude of solutions to the ordinary least squares problem when d > n {\displaystyle d>n} .
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199887_chunk_0
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Regularized least squares
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However, when λ > 0 {\displaystyle \lambda >0} , i.e., when ridge regression is used, the addition of λ I {\displaystyle \lambda I} to the sample covariance matrix ensures that all of its eigenvalues will be strictly greater than 0. In other words, it becomes invertible, and the solution becomes unique. Compared to ordinary least squares, ridge regression is not unbiased. It accepts bias to reduce variance and the mean square error.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199888_chunk_0
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Poporo
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It is one of the most recognized pre-Columbian artpieces, being often used as a symbol of the indigenous pre-Columbian culture. It has been depicted in the Colombian currency, in coins and bills. A reproduction served as the winner's trophy for the 2019 and 2020 editions of the Tour Colombia cycling race.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199889_chunk_0
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Economics of digitization
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A key area of research in digitization studies whether online reputations accurately reveal both the vertical and horizontal quality of a good. For example, Forman et al. (2008) show that local reviews have more effect than reviews from distant reviewers, suggesting that reviews provide information about both vertical and horizontal differentiation. On the other hand, several show that online review are biased because not everyone leaves reviews, because reviewers are afraid of retaliation, and because sellers may promote their own products using the review system. Newer research proposes designs for reputation systems that more efficiently aggregate information about the experiences of users.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199890_chunk_0
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Tempered distribution
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One particularly important class of Radon measures are those that are induced locally integrable functions. The function f: U → R {\displaystyle f:U\to \mathbb {R} } is called locally integrable if it is Lebesgue integrable over every compact subset K of U. This is a large class of functions that includes all continuous functions and all Lp space L p {\displaystyle L^{p}} functions. The topology on D ( U ) {\displaystyle {\mathcal {D}}(U)} is defined in such a fashion that any locally integrable function f {\displaystyle f} yields a continuous linear functional on D ( U ) {\displaystyle {\mathcal {D}}(U)} – that is, an element of D ′ ( U ) {\displaystyle {\mathcal {D}}'(U)} – denoted here by T f , {\displaystyle T_{f},} whose value on the test function ϕ {\displaystyle \phi } is given by the Lebesgue integral: Conventionally, one abuses notation by identifying T f {\displaystyle T_{f}} with f , {\displaystyle f,} provided no confusion can arise, and thus the pairing between T f {\displaystyle T_{f}} and ϕ {\displaystyle \phi } is often written If f {\displaystyle f} and g {\displaystyle g} are two locally integrable functions, then the associated distributions T f {\displaystyle T_{f}} and T g {\displaystyle T_{g}} are equal to the same element of D ′ ( U ) {\displaystyle {\mathcal {D}}'(U)} if and only if f {\displaystyle f} and g {\displaystyle g} are equal almost everywhere (see, for instance, Hörmander (1983, Theorem 1.2.5)). Similarly, every Radon measure μ {\displaystyle \mu } on U {\displaystyle U} defines an element of D ′ ( U ) {\displaystyle {\mathcal {D}}'(U)} whose value on the test function ϕ {\displaystyle \phi } is ∫ ϕ d μ .
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199891_chunk_0
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Tempered distribution
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{\textstyle \int \phi \,d\mu .} As above, it is conventional to abuse notation and write the pairing between a Radon measure μ {\displaystyle \mu } and a test function ϕ {\displaystyle \phi } as ⟨ μ , ϕ ⟩ . {\displaystyle \langle \mu ,\phi \rangle .} Conversely, as shown in a theorem by Schwartz (similar to the Riesz representation theorem), every distribution which is non-negative on non-negative functions is of this form for some (positive) Radon measure.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199892_chunk_0
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Spaces of test functions and distributions
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One particularly important class of Radon measures are those that are induced locally integrable functions. The function f: U → R {\displaystyle f:U\to \mathbb {R} } is called locally integrable if it is Lebesgue integrable over every compact subset K of U. This is a large class of functions which includes all continuous functions and all Lp space L p {\displaystyle L^{p}} functions. The topology on D ( U ) {\displaystyle {\mathcal {D}}(U)} is defined in such a fashion that any locally integrable function f {\displaystyle f} yields a continuous linear functional on D ( U ) {\displaystyle {\mathcal {D}}(U)} – that is, an element of D ′ ( U ) {\displaystyle {\mathcal {D}}^{\prime }(U)} – denoted here by T f {\displaystyle T_{f}} , whose value on the test function ϕ {\displaystyle \phi } is given by the Lebesgue integral: Conventionally, one abuses notation by identifying T f {\displaystyle T_{f}} with f , {\displaystyle f,} provided no confusion can arise, and thus the pairing between T f {\displaystyle T_{f}} and ϕ {\displaystyle \phi } is often written If f {\displaystyle f} and g are two locally integrable functions, then the associated distributions T f {\displaystyle T_{f}} and Tg are equal to the same element of D ′ ( U ) {\displaystyle {\mathcal {D}}^{\prime }(U)} if and only if f {\displaystyle f} and g are equal almost everywhere (see, for instance, Hörmander (1983, Theorem 1.2.5)). In a similar manner, every Radon measure μ {\displaystyle \mu } on U defines an element of D ′ ( U ) {\displaystyle {\mathcal {D}}^{\prime }(U)} whose value on the test function ϕ {\displaystyle \phi } is ∫ ϕ d μ .
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199893_chunk_0
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Spaces of test functions and distributions
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{\displaystyle \textstyle \int \phi \,d\mu .} As above, it is conventional to abuse notation and write the pairing between a Radon measure μ {\displaystyle \mu } and a test function ϕ {\displaystyle \phi } as ⟨ μ , ϕ ⟩ . {\displaystyle \langle \mu ,\phi \rangle .}
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199894_chunk_0
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Spaces of test functions and distributions
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Conversely, as shown in a theorem by Schwartz (similar to the Riesz representation theorem), every distribution which is non-negative on non-negative functions is of this form for some (positive) Radon measure. Test functions as distributions The test functions are themselves locally integrable, and so define distributions. The space of test functions C c ∞ ( U ) {\displaystyle C_{c}^{\infty }(U)} is sequentially dense in D ′ ( U ) {\displaystyle {\mathcal {D}}^{\prime }(U)} with respect to the strong topology on D ′ ( U ) .
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199895_chunk_0
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Interstellar chemistry
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One particularly important experimental tool in astrochemistry is spectroscopy through the use of telescopes to measure the absorption and emission of light from molecules and atoms in various environments. By comparing astronomical observations with laboratory measurements, astrochemists can infer the elemental abundances, chemical composition, and temperatures of stars and interstellar clouds. This is possible because ions, atoms, and molecules have characteristic spectra: that is, the absorption and emission of certain wavelengths (colors) of light, often not visible to the human eye. However, these measurements have limitations, with various types of radiation (radio, infrared, visible, ultraviolet etc.) able to detect only certain types of species, depending on the chemical properties of the molecules.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199896_chunk_0
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Interstellar chemistry
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In fact, CO is such a common interstellar molecule that it is used to map out molecular regions. The radio observation of perhaps greatest human interest is the claim of interstellar glycine, the simplest amino acid, but with considerable accompanying controversy. One of the reasons why this detection was controversial is that although radio (and some other methods like rotational spectroscopy) are good for the identification of simple species with large dipole moments, they are less sensitive to more complex molecules, even something relatively small like amino acids.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199897_chunk_0
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Interstellar chemistry
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These molecules, composed primarily of fused rings of carbon (either neutral or in an ionized state), are said to be the most common class of carbon compound in the Galaxy. They are also the most common class of carbon molecule in meteorites and in cometary and asteroidal dust (cosmic dust). These compounds, as well as the amino acids, nucleobases, and many other compounds in meteorites, carry deuterium and isotopes of carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen that are very rare on Earth, attesting to their extraterrestrial origin.
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199898_chunk_0
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Maximal function
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One particularly important form of functions F in which study of the non-tangential maximal function is important is formed from an approximation to the identity. That is, we fix an integrable smooth function Φ on Rn such that ∫ R n Φ = 1 {\displaystyle \int _{\mathbf {R} ^{n}}\Phi =1} and set Φ t ( x ) = t − n Φ ( x t ) {\displaystyle \Phi _{t}(x)=t^{-n}\Phi ({\tfrac {x}{t}})} for t > 0. Then define F ( x , t ) = f ∗ Φ t ( x ) := ∫ R n f ( x − y ) Φ t ( y ) d y . {\displaystyle F(x,t)=f\ast \Phi _{t}(x):=\int _{\mathbf {R} ^{n}}f(x-y)\Phi _{t}(y)\,dy.}
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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wiki_199899_chunk_0
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Maximal function
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One can show that sup t > 0 | f ∗ Φ t ( x ) | ≤ ( M f ) ( x ) ∫ R n Φ {\displaystyle \sup _{t>0}|f\ast \Phi _{t}(x)|\leq (Mf)(x)\int _{\mathbf {R} ^{n}}\Phi } and consequently obtain that f ∗ Φ t ( x ) {\displaystyle f\ast \Phi _{t}(x)} converges to f in Lp(Rn) for all 1 ≤ p < ∞. Such a result can be used to show that the harmonic extension of an Lp(Rn) function to the upper-half plane converges non-tangentially to that function. More general results can be obtained where the Laplacian is replaced by an elliptic operator via similar techniques. Moreover, with some appropriate conditions on Φ {\displaystyle \Phi } , one can get that F ∗ ( x ) ≤ C ( M f ) ( x ) {\displaystyle F^{*}(x)\leq C(Mf)(x)} .
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https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/conjuring92/wiki-stem-corpus
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