pico-lm/pretokenized-paloma · Datasets at Hugging Face

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I have never felt so disappointed and helpless. " Twelve U.S. Marines were killed ; Japanese casualties are unknown but perhaps somewhat greater. Although both Oka in the west and the Kuma unit in the east tried to attack the Marine lines that night, they failed to make contact and halted near the Marine lines at dawn. At first light on 13 September, Cactus Air Force aircraft and Marine artillery fired into the area just south of the ridge, forcing any Japanese out in the open to seek cover in the nearby jungle. The Japanese suffered several casualties, including two officers from Watanabe's battalion. At 05 : 50, Kawaguchi decided to regroup his forces for another attack that night. = = = Second night's action on the ridge = = = Expecting the Japanese to attack again that night, Edson directed his troops to improve their defenses on and around the ridge. After a failed attempt by two companies to retake the ground on the Marine right flank lost to Kokusho the night before, Edson repositioned his forces. He pulled his front back about 400 yd ( 370 m ) to a line that stretched 1 @,@ 800 yd ( 1 @,@ 600 m ), starting at the Lunga River and crossing the ridge about 150 yd ( 140 m ) south of Hill 123. Around and behind Hill 123 he placed five companies. Any Japanese attackers surmounting Hill 80 would have to advance over 400 yd ( 370 m ) of open terrain to close with the Marine positions at Hill 123. With only a few hours to prepare, the Marines were only able to construct rudimentary and shallow fortifications. They were low on ammunition, with one or two grenades for each Marine. Vandegrift ordered a reserve force consisting of the 2nd Battalion, 5th Marine Regiment ( 2 / 5 ) to move into a position just to the rear of Edson's troops. In addition, a battery of four 105mm howitzers from the 11th Marine Regiment moved to a location from where it could provide direct fire onto the ridge, and a forward artillery observer was placed with Edson's front line units. Late in the afternoon, Edson stepped onto a grenade box and addressed his exhausted troops, saying, You men have done a great job, and I have just one more thing to ask of you. Hold out just one more night. I know we've been without sleep a long time. But we expect another attack from them tonight and they may come through here. I have every reason to believe that we will have reliefs here for all of us in the morning. Edson's speech " raised the spirits " of the Raiders and helped them prepare mentally for the night ahead. As the sun set on 13 September, Kawaguchi faced Edson's 830 Marines with 3 @,@ 000 troops of his brigade, plus an assortment of light artillery. The night was pitch black, with no moon. At 21 : 00, seven Japanese destroyers briefly bombarded the ridge. Kawaguchi's attack began just after nightfall, with Kokusho's battalion assaulting Raider Company B on the Marine right flank, just to the west of the ridge. The force of the assault caused Company B to fall back to Hill 123. Under Marine artillery fire, Kokusho reassembled his men and continued his attack. Without pausing to try to " roll @-@ up " the other nearby Marine units, whose flanks were now unprotected, Kokusho's unit surged forward through the swampy lowlands between the ridge and the Lunga River, heading for the airfield. Kokusho's men came upon a pile of Marine supplies and rations. Not having eaten adequately for a couple of days, they paused to " gorge themselves " on the " C " and " K " rations. Kokusho ordered his men to continue the attack. At about 03 : 00, he led them against the Marine units around the northern portion of the ridge, just short of the airfield, as well as Hill 123. In the heavy fighting that followed, Kokusho and around 100 of his men were killed, ending that attack. Meanwhile, Kawaguchi's 2nd Battalion, under Major Masao Tamura, assembled for their planned assault against Hill 80 from the jungle south of the ridge. Marine observers spotted Tamura's preparations and called in artillery fire. At about 22 : 00, a barrage from twelve 105 mm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) guns hit Tamura's position. In response, two companies of Tamura's troops — numbering about 320 men — charged up Hill 80 with fixed bayonets behind their own barrage of mortar fire and grenades. Tamura's attack hit Company B of the Marine Parachute battalion and also Raider Company B, pushing the Parachutists off the east side of the ridge into a draw below the ridgeline. To protect the exposed Raider Company B, Edson immediately ordered them to pull back onto Hill 123. At the same time, a Japanese company from Watanabe's battalion infiltrated through a gap between the east side of the ridge and Parachute Company C. Deciding that their positions were now untenable, Parachute Companies B and C climbed onto the ridge and retreated to a position behind Hill 123. In the darkness and confusion of the battle, the retreat quickly became confused and disorganized. A few Marines began yelling that the Japanese were attacking with poison gas, scaring other Marines who no longer possessed their gas masks. After arriving behind Hill 123, some of the Marines continued on towards the airfield, repeating the word " withdraw " to anyone within earshot. Other Marines began to follow them. Just at the moment that it appeared that the Marines on the hill were about to break and head for the rear in a rout, Edson, Major Kenneth D. Bailey from Edson's staff, and other Marine officers appeared and, with " vivid " language, herded the Marines back into defensive positions around Hill 123. As the Marines formed into a horseshoe @-@ shaped line around Hill 123, Tamura's battalion began a series of frontal assaults on the hill, charging up the saddle from Hill 80 and up from below the east side of the ridge. Under the light of parachute flares dropped by at least one Japanese floatplane, the Marines repulsed the first two attacks by Tamura's men. Tamura's troops hoisted a 75 mm ( 2 @.@ 95 in ) " regimental " gun to the top of Hill 80 in an effort to fire it directly at the Marines. This gun, which " could have turned the tide in favor of the Japanese, " however, was disabled by a faulty firing pin. At midnight, during a short lull in the fighting, Edson ordered Parachute Companies B and C to advance from behind Hill 123 to strengthen his left flank. With fixed bayonets, the Paramarines swept forward, killing Japanese soldiers who had overrun the Marine lines and were apparently preparing to roll up the Marine lines from the flank, and took position on the east side of the hill. Marines from other units, as well as members of Edson's command staff, including Major Bailey, took ammunition and grenades under fire to the Marines around Hill 123, who were running critically low. Said Marine participant Captain William J. McKennan, " The Japanese attack was almost constant, like a rain that subsides for a moment and then pours the harder... When one wave was mowed down - and I mean mowed down - another followed it into death. " The Japanese hit Edson's left flank just after the Parachutists took position but were again stopped by Marine rifle, machine @-@ gun, mortar, and grenade fire. Marine 105 mm and 75 mm artillery was also taking a heavy toll on the attacking Japanese. A captured Japanese soldier later said that his unit was " annihilated " by the Marine artillery fire, which only 10 % of his company survived. By 04 : 00, after withstanding several more assaults, some of which resulted in hand @-@ to @-@ hand fighting, and severe sniper fire from all sides, Edson's men were joined by troops from the 2nd Battalion, 5th Marine Regiment, who helped repulse two more Japanese attacks before dawn. Throughout the night, as Kawaguchi's men came close to overrunning the Marine defenses, Edson remained standing about 20 yd ( 18 m ) behind the Marine firing line on Hill 123, exhorting his troops and directing their defensive efforts. Said Marine Captain Tex Smith, who was in position to observe Edson for most of the night, " I can say that if there is such a thing as one man holding a battalion together, Edson did it that night. He stood just behind the front lines – stood, when most of us hugged the ground. " During the heavy fighting, portions of three Japanese companies, including two from Tamura's and one from Watanabe's battalions, skirted the Marine defenses on the ridge, while suffering heavy losses from Marine gunfire, and reached the edge of " Fighter One ", a secondary runway of Henderson Field. A counterattack by the Marine engineers stopped one Japanese company's advances and forced it to retreat. The other two companies waited at the edge of the jungle for reinforcements to arrive before attacking into the open area around the airfield. When no reinforcements joined them, both companies went back to their original positions south of the ridge after daybreak. 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= Hu Zhengyan = Hu Zhengyan ( Chinese : 胡正言 ; c. 1584 – 1674 ) was a Chinese artist, printmaker and publisher. He worked in calligraphy, traditional Chinese painting, and seal @-@ carving, but was primarily a publisher, producing academic texts as well as records of his own work. Hu lived in Nanjing during the transition from the Ming dynasty to the Qing dynasty. A Ming loyalist, he was offered a position at the rump court of the Hongguang Emperor, but declined the post, and never held anything more than minor political office. He did, however, design the Hongguang Emperor's personal seal, and his loyalty to the dynasty was such that he largely retired from society after the emperor's capture and death in 1645. He owned and operated an academic publishing house called the Ten Bamboo Studio, in which he practised various multi @-@ colour printing and embossing techniques, and he employed several members of his family in this enterprise. Hu's work at the Ten Bamboo Studio pioneered new techniques in colour printmaking, leading to delicate gradations of colour which were not previously achievable in this art form. Hu is best known for his manual of painting entitled The Ten Bamboo Studio Manual of Painting and Calligraphy, an artist's primer which remained in print for around 200 years. His studio also published seal catalogues, academic and medical texts, books on poetry, and decorative writing papers. Many of these were edited and prefaced by Hu and his brothers. = = Biography = = Hu was born in Xiuning County, Anhui Province in 1584 or early 1585. Both his father and elder brother Zhengxin ( 正心, art name Wusuo, 無所 ) were physicians, and after he turned 30 he travelled with them while they practised medicine in the areas around Lu 'an and Huoshan. It is commonly stated that Zhengyan himself was also a doctor, though the earliest sources attesting to this occur only in the second half of the 19th century. By 1619, Hu had moved to Nanjing where he lived with his wife Wu. Their home on Jilongshan ( 雞籠山, now also known as Beiji Ge ), a hill located just within the northern city wall, served as a meeting @-@ house for like @-@ minded artists. Hu named it the Ten Bamboo Studio ( Shizhuzhai, 十竹齋 ), after the ten bamboo plants that grew in front of the property. It functioned as the headquarters for his printing business, where he employed ten artisans including his two brothers Zhengxin and Zhengxing ( 正行, art name Zizhu, 子著 ) and his sons Qipu ( 其樸 ) and Qiyi ( 其毅, courtesy name 致果 ). During Hu's lifetime, the Ming dynasty, which had ruled China for over 250 years, was overthrown and replaced by China's last imperial dynasty, the Qing. Following the fall of the capital Beijing in 1644, remnants of the imperial family and a few ministers set up a Ming loyalist regime in Nanjing with Zhu Yousong on the throne as the Hongguang Emperor. Hu, who was noted for his seal @-@ carving and facility with seal script, created a seal for the new Emperor. The court offered him the position of Drafter for the Secretariat ( zhongshu sheren, 中書舍人 ) as a reward, but he did not accept the role ( although he did accord himself the title of zhongshu sheren in some of his subsequent personal seals ). According to Wen Ruilin's Lost History of the South ( Nanjiang Yishi, 南疆繹史 ), prior to the Qing invasion of Nanjing Hu studied at the National University there, and whilst a student was employed by the Ministry of Rites to record official proclamations ; he produced the Imperial Promotion of Minor Learning ( Qin Ban Xiaoxue, 御頒小學 ) and the Record of Displayed Loyalty ( Biaozhong Ji, 表忠記 ) as part of this work. As a result, he was promoted to the Ministry of Personnel and gained admittance to the Hanlin Academy, but before he could take up this appointment, Beijing had fallen to the Manchu rebellion. Since contemporaneous biographies ( Wen's work was not published until 1830 ) make no mention of these events, it has been suggested that they were fabricated after Hu's death. Hu retired from public life and went into seclusion in 1646, after the end of the Ming dynasty. Xiao Yuncong and Lü Liuliang recorded visiting him during his later years, in 1667 and 1673 respectively. He died in poverty at the age of 90, sometime around late 1673 or early 1674. = = Seal @-@ carving = = Hu Zhengyan was a noted seal @-@ carver, producing personal seals for numerous dignitaries. His style was rooted in the classical seal script of the Han dynasty, and he followed the Huizhou school of carving founded by his contemporary He Zhen. Hu's calligraphy, although balanced and with a clear compositional structure, is somewhat more angular and rigid than the classical models he followed. Huizhou seals attempt to impart an ancient, weathered impression, although unlike other Huizhou artists Hu did not make a regular practice of artificially aging his seals. Hu's work was known outside his local area. Zhou Lianggong, a poet who lived in Nanjing around the same time as Hu and was a noted art connoisseur, stated in his Biography of Seal @-@ Carvers ( Yinren Zhuan, 印人傳 ) that Hu " creates miniature stone carvings with ancient seal inscriptions for travellers to fight over and treasure ", implying that his carvings were popular with visitors and travellers passing through Nanjing. In 1644, Hu took it upon himself to create a new Imperial seal for the Hongguang Emperor, which he carved after a period of fasting and prayer. He presented his creation with an essay, the Great Exhortation of the Seal ( Dabao Zhen, 大寶印 ), in which he bemoaned the loss of the Chongzhen Emperor's seal and begged Heaven's favour in restoring it. Hu was concerned that his essay would be overlooked because he had not written it in the form of rhyming, equally @-@ footed couplets ( pianti, 駢體 ) used in the Imperial examinations, but his submission and the seal itself were nevertheless both accepted by the Southern Ming court. = = Ten Bamboo Studio = = Despite his reputation as an artist and seal @-@ carver, Hu was primarily a publisher. His publishing house, the Ten Bamboo Studio, produced reference works on calligraphy, poetry and art ; medical textbooks ; books on etymology and phonetics ; and copies of as well as commentaries on the Confucian Classics. Unlike other publishers in the area, the Ten Bamboo Studio did not publish works of narrative fiction such as plays or novels. This bias towards academia was likely a consequence of the studio's location : the mountain on which Hu took up residence was just to the north of the Nanjing Guozijian ( National Academy ), which provided a captive market for academic texts. Between 1627 and 1644, the Ten Bamboo Studio produced over twenty printed books of this kind, aimed at a wealthy, literary audience. The studio's earliest publications were medical textbooks, the first of which, Tested Prescriptions for Myriad Illnesses ( Wanbing Yanfang, 萬病驗方 ) was published in 1631 and proved popular enough to be reissued ten years later. Hu's brother Zhengxin was a medical practitioner and appears to have been the author of these books. During the 1630s the Ten Bamboo Studio also produced political works extolling the rule of the Ming ; these included the Imperial Ming Record of Loyalty ( Huang Ming Biaozhong Ji, 皇明表忠紀 ), a biography of loyal Ming officials, and the Edicts of the Imperial Ming ( Huang Ming Zhaozhi, 皇明詔制 ), a list of Imperial proclamations. After the fall of the Ming Dynasty, Hu renamed the studio the Hall Rooted in the Past ( Digutang, 迪古堂 ) as a sign of his affiliation with the previous dynasty, although the Ten Bamboo imprint continued to be used. Despite Hu's withdrawal from society after 1646, the studio continued to publish well into the Qing dynasty, for the most part focussing on seal impression catalogues showcasing Hu's carving work. The Ming dynasty had seen considerable advancement in the process of colour printing in China. At his studio, Hu Zhengyan experimented with various forms of woodblock printing, creating processes for producing multi @-@ coloured prints and embossed printed designs. As a result, he was able to produce some of China's first printed publications in colour, using a block printing technique known as " assorted block printing " ( douban yinshua, �	wikitext_103	[ 426, 16251, 1503, 864, 4233, 266, 426, 4928, 187, 16251, 1503, 864, 4233, 266, 313, 5628, 1163, 209, 38822, 96, 32594, 31982, 3706, 260, 964, 1458, 2759, 1108, 1668, 3566, 2387, 369, 247, 5628, 9558, 1157, 3379, 22277, 285, 19600, 964, 754, 4307, 275, 1067, 49792, 1157, 5899, 5628, 13497, 1157, 285, 14393, 1214, 14, 33, 1113, 1382, 1157, 533, 369, 8558, 247, 19600, 1157, 9603, 11073, 17438, 347, 973, 347, 5861, 273, 521, 1211, 789, 964, 2490, 16251, 6940, 275, 20877, 75, 272, 1309, 253, 5502, 432, 253, 46095, 34526, 281, 253, 49537, 34526, 964, 329, 46095, 14211, 382, 1157, 344, 369, 5907, 247, 1899, 387, 253, 391, 1765, 1302, 273, 253, 14025, 4297, 606, 22212, 1157, 533, 13072, 253, 1501, 1157, 285, 1620, 2918, 2712, 625, 685, 5884, 3569, 3906, 964, 754, 858, 1157, 2299, 1157, 2216, 253, 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= Homarus gammarus = Homarus gammarus, known as the European lobster or common lobster, is a species of clawed lobster from the eastern Atlantic Ocean, Mediterranean Sea and parts of the Black Sea. It is closely related to the American lobster, H. americanus. It may grow to a length of 60 cm ( 24 in ) and a mass of 6 kilograms ( 13 lb ), and bears a conspicuous pair of claws. In life, the lobsters are blue, only becoming " lobster red " on cooking. Mating occurs in the summer, producing eggs which are carried by the females for up to a year before hatching into planktonic larvae. Homarus gammarus is a highly esteemed food, and is widely caught using lobster pots, mostly around the British Isles. = = Description = = Homarus gammarus is a large crustacean, with a body length up to 60 centimetres ( 24 in ) and weighing up to 5 – 6 kilograms ( 11 – 13 lb ), although the lobsters caught in lobster pots are usually 23 – 38 cm ( 9 – 15 in ) long and weigh 0 @.@ 7 – 2 @.@ 2 kg ( 1 @.@ 5 – 4 @.@ 9 lb ). Like other crustaceans, lobsters have a hard exoskeleton which they must shed in order to grow, in a process called ecdysis ( moulting ). This may occur several times a year for young lobsters, but decreases to once every 1 – 2 years for larger animals. The first pair of pereiopods is armed with a large, asymmetrical pair of claws. The larger one is the " crusher ", and has rounded nodules used for crushing prey ; the other is the " cutter ", which has sharp inner edges, and is used for holding or tearing the prey. Usually, the left claw is the crusher, and the right is the cutter. The exoskeleton is generally blue above, with spots that coalesce, and yellow below. The red colour associated with lobsters only appears after cooking. This occurs because, in life, the red pigment astaxanthin is bound to a protein complex, but the complex is broken up by the heat of cooking, releasing the red pigment. The closest relative of H. gammarus is the American lobster, Homarus americanus. The two species are very similar, and can be crossed artificially, although hybrids are unlikely to occur in the wild since their ranges do not overlap. The two species can be distinguished by a number of characteristics : The rostrum of H. americanus bears one or more spines on the underside, which are lacking in H. gammarus. The spines on the claws of H. americanus are red or red @-@ tipped, while those of H. gammarus are white or white @-@ tipped. The underside of the claw of H. americanus is orange or red, while that of H. gammarus is creamy white or very pale red. = = Life cycle = = Female H. gammarus reach sexual maturity when they have grown to a carapace length of 80 – 85 millimetres ( 3 @.@ 1 – 3 @.@ 3 in ), whereas males mature at a slightly smaller size. Mating typically occurs in summer between a recently moulted female, whose shell is therefore soft, and a hard @-@ shelled male. The female carries the eggs for up to 12 months, depending on the temperature, attached to her pleopods. Females carrying eggs are said to be " berried " and can be found throughout the year. The eggs hatch at night, and the larvae swim to the water surface where they drift with the ocean currents, preying on zooplankton. This stage involves three moults and lasts for 15 – 35 days. After the third moult, the juvenile takes on a form closer to the adult, and adopts a benthic lifestyle. The juveniles are rarely seen in the wild, and are poorly known, although they are known to be capable of digging extensive burrows. It is estimated that only 1 larva in every 20 @,@ 000 survives to the benthic phase. When they reach a carapace length of 15 mm ( 0 @.@ 59 in ), the juveniles leave their burrows and start their adult lives. = = Distribution = = Homarus gammarus is found across the north @-@ eastern Atlantic Ocean from northern Norway to the Azores and Morocco, not including the Baltic Sea. It is also present in most of the Mediterranean Sea, only missing from the section east of Crete, and along only the north @-@ west coast of the Black Sea. The northernmost populations are found in the Norwegian fjords Tysfjorden and Nordfolda, inside the Arctic Circle. The species can be divided into four genetically distinct populations, one widespread population, and three which have diverged due to small effective population sizes, possibly due to adaptation to the local environment. The first of these is the population of lobsters from northern Norway, which have been referred to as the " midnight @-@ sun lobster ". The populations in the Mediterranean Sea are distinct from those in the Atlantic Ocean. The last distinct population is found in the Netherlands : samples from the Oosterschelde were distinct from those collected in the North Sea or English Channel. Attempts have been made to introduce H. gammarus to New Zealand, alongside other European species such as the edible crab, Cancer pagurus. Between 1904 and 1914, one million lobster larvae were released from hatcheries in Dunedin, but the species did not become established there. = = Ecology = = Adult H. gammarus live on the continental shelf at depths of 0 – 150 metres ( 0 – 492 ft ), although not normally deeper than 50 m ( 160 ft ). They prefer hard substrates, such as rocks or hard mud, and live in holes or crevices, emerging at night to feed. The diet of H. gammarus mostly consists of other benthic invertebrates. These include crabs, molluscs, sea urchins, starfish and polychaete worms. The three clawed lobster species Homarus gammarus, H. americanus and Nephrops norvegicus are hosts to the three known species of the animal phylum Cycliophora ; the species on H. gammarus has not been described. Homarus gammarus is susceptible to the disease gaffkaemia, caused by the bacterium Aerococcus viridans. Although it is frequently found in American lobsters, the disease has only been seen in captive H. gammarus, where prior occupation of the tanks by H. americanus could not be ruled out. = = Human consumption = = Homarus gammarus is traditionally " highly esteemed " as a foodstuff and was mentioned in " The Crabfish " a seventeenth century English folk song. It may fetch very high prices and may be sold fresh, frozen, canned or powdered. Both the claws and the abdomen of H. gammarus contain " excellent " white meat, and most of the contents of the cephalothorax are edible. The exceptions are the gastric mill and the " sand vein " ( gut ). The price of H. gammarus is up to three times higher than that of H. americanus, and the European species is considered to have a better flavour. Lobsters are mostly fished using lobster pots, although lines baited with octopus or cuttlefish sometimes succeed in tempting them out, to allow them to be caught in a net or by hand. In 2008, 4 @,@ 386 t of H. gammarus were caught across Europe and North Africa, of which 3 @,@ 462 t ( 79 % ) was caught in the British Isles ( including the Channel Islands ). The minimum landing size for H. gammarus is a carapace length of 87 mm ( 3 @.@ 4 in ). Aquaculture systems for H. gammarus are under development, and production rates are still very low. = = Taxonomic history = = Homarus gammarus was first given a binomial name by Carl Linnaeus in the tenth edition of his Systema Naturae, published in 1758. That name was Cancer gammarus, since Linnaeus'concept of the genus Cancer at that time included all large crustaceans. H. gammarus is the type species of the genus Homarus Weber, 1795, as determined by Direction 51 of the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature. Prior to that direction, confusion arose because the species had been referred to by several different names, including Astacus marinus Fabricius, 1775 and Homarus vulgaris H. Milne @-@ Edwards, 1837, and also because Friedrich Weber's description of the genus had been overlooked until rediscovered by Mary Rathbun, rendering any prior assignments of type species ( for Homarus H. Milne @-@ Edwards, 1837 ) invalid for Homarus Weber, 1795. The type specimen of Homarus gammarus was a lectotype selected by Lipke Holthuis in 1974. It came from 57 ° 53 ′ N 11 ° 32 ′ E, near Marstrand, Sweden ( 48 kilometres or 30 miles northwest of Gothenburg ), but both it and the paralectotypes have since been lost. The common name for H. gammarus preferred by the Food and Agriculture Organization is "	wikitext_103	[ 2490, 426, 15388, 33858, 305, 21089, 316, 426, 4928, 187, 15388, 33858, 305, 21089, 316, 1157, 1929, 347, 253, 5284, 11037, 2971, 390, 1846, 11037, 2971, 1157, 310, 247, 3417, 273, 502, 36221, 11037, 2971, 432, 253, 14730, 14847, 17323, 1157, 21609, 11936, 285, 4243, 273, 253, 5418, 11936, 964, 733, 310, 8244, 2905, 281, 253, 2448, 11037, 2971, 1157, 388, 15, 41290, 38628, 964, 733, 778, 1756, 281, 247, 2978, 273, 3925, 7892, 313, 2164, 275, 2387, 285, 247, 2280, 273, 721, 44068, 313, 2145, 32830, 2387, 1157, 285, 17267, 247, 43988, 4667, 273, 43390, 964, 496, 1495, 1157, 253, 11037, 13297, 403, 4797, 1157, 760, 7552, 346, 11037, 2971, 2502, 346, 327, 12398, 964, 353, 839, 6634, 275, 253, 5768, 1157, 9603, 11624, 534, 403, 4824, 407, 253, 10753, 323, 598, 281, 247, 807, 1078, 288, 16464, 715, 499, 41484, 280, 23844, 964, 15388, 33858, 305, 21089, 316, 310, 247, 4122, 12368, 11574, 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= Ward Churchill = Ward LeRoy Churchill ( born 1947 ) is an American author and political activist. He was a professor of ethnic studies at the University of Colorado Boulder from 1990 until 2007. The primary focus of his work is on the historical treatment of political dissenters and Native Americans by the United States government. His work features controversial and provocative views, written in a direct, often confrontational style. In January 2005, Churchill's work attracted controversy because of the circulation of a 2001 essay, " On the Justice of Roosting Chickens ", in which he argued the September 11 attacks were a natural and unavoidable consequence of unlawful US foreign policy over the latter half of the 20th century ; the essay is well known for Churchill's use of the phrase " little Eichmanns " to describe the " technocratic corps " working in the World Trade Center. In March 2005 the University of Colorado began investigating allegations that Churchill had engaged in research misconduct ; it reported in June 2006 that he had done so. Churchill was fired on July 24, 2007, leading to a claim by some scholars that he was fired because of the " Little Eichmanns " comment. Churchill filed a lawsuit against the University of Colorado for unlawful termination of employment. In April 2009 a Denver jury found that Churchill was wrongly fired, awarding him $ 1 in damages. In July 2009, a District Court judge vacated the monetary award and declined Churchill's request to order his reinstatement, deciding the university has " quasi @-@ judicial immunity ". In February 2010, Churchill appealed the judge's decision. In November 2010, the Colorado Court of Appeals upheld the lower @-@ court's ruling. In September 10, 2012, the Colorado Supreme Court upheld the lower courts'decisions in favor of the University of Colorado. On April 1, 2013, the United States Supreme Court declined to hear the case. In a February 2014 interview, Churchill commented that after living more than forty years in the northern plains / Colorado region, he had relocated to Atlanta, Georgia in 2013. Churchill also stated that he had a half @-@ dozen uncompleted books which he intended to finish and publish in the next three years. = = Early life and education = = Churchill was born in Urbana, Illinois, to Jack LeRoy Churchill and Maralyn Lucretia Allen. His parents divorced before he was two, and he grew up in Elmwood, where he attended local schools. In 1966, he was drafted into the United States Army. On his 1980 resume, he said he served as a public @-@ information specialist who " wrote and edited the battalion newsletter and wrote news releases. " In a 1987 profile on Churchill, the Denver Post reported that he was drafted, went to paratrooper school, then volunteered for Vietnam, where he served a 10 @-@ month tour as Long Range Reconnaissance Patrol ( LRRP ), one of a six @-@ man team sent out to track down the enemy. The Post article also reported that Churchill was politically radicalized as a result of his experiences in Vietnam. Churchill told the Post that he had spent some time at the Chicago office of the Students for a Democratic Society ( SDS ) in the late 1960s, and briefly taught members of the Weather Underground how to build bombs and fire weapons. In 2005, the Denver Post reported that Churchill's military records show he was trained as a film projectionist and light truck driver, but they do not reflect paratrooper school or LRRP training. The 75th Ranger Regiment Association found no record of Churchill having been a member of the unit, or a LRRP team. Churchill received his B.A. in technological communications in 1974 and M.A. in communications theory in 1975, both from Sangamon State University, now the University of Illinois at Springfield. = = Career = = In 1978, Churchill began working at the University of Colorado Boulder as an affirmative action officer in the university administration. He also lectured on American Indian issues in the ethnic studies program. In 1990, the University of Colorado hired him as an associate professor, although he did not possess the academic doctorate usually required for the position. The following year he was granted tenure in the Communications department, without the usual six @-@ year probationary period, after having been declined by the Sociology and Political Science departments. He has long been interested in issues associated with the Dawes Act, which broke up the communal reservation lands and assigned plots to individual households. Connected with that was the federal government's first use of " blood quantum " to define individual membership in tribes, for what became known as the Dawes Rolls. Since re @-@ establishing self @-@ governments, federally recognized tribes have established their own criteria for enrollment as members, often related to descent from recognized historical lists, but less often requiring proofs of blood quantum. Some of his published works address these issues, which he has interpreted as part of the federal government's policy of genocide against Native Americans. In 1995 Churchill discussed his views with David Barsamian in an interview : You could say that five hundred years ago was the basis of blood quantum in Ibero @-@ America. But in Anglo @-@ America, while there was some preoccupation with it, it was not formalized until the passage of the General Allotment Act, mid @-@ 1880s. At that point they began to define Indian as being someone who was demonstrably and documentably of at least one @-@ quarter by quantum blood indigenous in a given group. You couldn 't be an eighth Cheyenne and an eighth Arapaho and be an Indian. You had to be a quarter Cheyenne or a quarter Arapaho or hopefully a quarter and a quarter. The reason for this was quite clear. They were identifying Indians for purposes of allotting them individual parcels of land in the existing reservation base at that point. If they ran out of Indians identifiable as such, then the rest of the land would be declared surplus. So it was clearly in the interests of the government to create a definition of Indianness that would minimize the number of Indians that were available. It was an economic motivation for the application of this genetic criteria to Indianness in the first place. It's become increasingly so ever since. " ( David Barsamian ( December 1995 ). " Interview with Ward Churchill : Historical and Current Perspectives ". Z Magazine. ) In 1996, Churchill moved to the new Ethnic Studies Department of the University of Colorado. In 1997, he was promoted to full professor. He was selected as chairman of the department in June 2002. In January 2005, during the controversy over his 9 / 11 remarks, Churchill resigned as chairman of the ethnic studies department at the University of Colorado — his term as chair was scheduled to expire in June of that year. On May 16, 2006, the Investigative Committee of the Standing Committee on Research Misconduct at the University of Colorado concluded that Churchill had committed multiple counts of academic misconduct, specifically plagiarism, fabrication, and falsification. On July 24, 2007, Churchill was fired for academic misconduct in an eight to one vote by the University of Colorado's Board of Regents. = = Genealogy and Tribal affiliation = = In 2003, Churchill stated, " I am myself of Muscogee and Creek descent on my father's side, Cherokee on my mother's, and am an enrolled member of the United Keetoowah Band of Cherokee Indians. " In 1992, Churchill wrote elsewhere that he is one @-@ eighth Creek and one @-@ sixteenth Cherokee. In 1993, Churchill told the Colorado Daily that " he was one @-@ sixteenth Creek and Cherokee. " Churchill told the Denver Post in February 2005 that he is three @-@ sixteenths Cherokee. In a statement dated May 9, 2005, and posted on its website, the United Keetoowah Band initially said, " The United Keetoowah Band would like to make it clear that Mr. Churchill IS NOT a member of the Keetoowah Band and was only given an honorary'associate membership'in the early 1990s because he could not prove any Cherokee ancestry. " The tribe said that all of Churchill's " past, present and future claims or assertions of Keetoowah'enrollment,'written or spoken, including but not limited to ; biographies, curriculum vitae, lectures, applications for employment, or any other reference not listed herein, are deemed fraudulent by the United Keetoowah Band. " Two days later, the United Keetoowah Band replaced its statement and acknowledged Churchill's " alleged ancestry " of being Cherokee : " Because Mr. Churchill had genealogical information regarding his alleged ancestry, and his willingness to assist the UKB in promoting the tribe and its causes, he was awarded an'Associate Membership'as an honor, " the tribe's website now said. " However, Mr. Churchill may possess eligibility status for Cherokee Nation of Oklahoma, since he claims 1 / 16 Cherokee. " The tribe's spokesperson, Lisa Stopp, stated the tribe enrolls only members with certified one @-@ quarter American Indian blood. The website statement further clarified that Churchill " was not eligible for tribal membership due to the fact that he does not possess a'Certificate of Degree of Indian Blood ( CDIB ) ", and the associate membership did not entitle an individual to voting rights or enrollment in the tribe. Churchill has never asked for CDIB certification, and finds the idea of being " vetted " by the US government offensive. In June 1994, the United Keetoowah Band had voted to stop awarding associate memberships. 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, and it does not entitle an individual to vote in the tribe as a member. The Keetoowah Band states that Churchill still holds the associate membership and it has not been rescinded. In a separate interview, Ernestine Berry, formerly on the tribe's enrollment committee and four years on its council, said that Churchill had never fulfilled a promise to help the tribe. In June 2005, the Rocky Mountain News published an article about Churchill's genealogy and family history. It " turned up no evidence of a single Indian ancestor " among 142 direct ancestors [ of Churchill's ] identified from records. The News reported that both Churchill's birth parents were listed as white on the 1930 census, as were all but two of his great @-@ great @-@ grandparents listed on previous census and other official documents. The News found that some of Churchill's accounts of where his ancestors had lived did not agree with documented records. Numerous members of Churchill's extended family have longstanding family legends of Indian ancestry among ancestors ; but, none was confirmed among the 142 direct forebears of Churchill who were identified. Documents in Churchill's university personnel file show that he was granted tenure in a " special opportunity position. " In 1994, then CU @-@ Boulder Chancellor James Corbridge refused to take action on allegations that Churchill was fraudulently claiming to be an Indian, saying " it has always been university policy that a person's race or ethnicity is self @-@ proving. " Some of Churchill's Native American critics, such as Vernon Bellecourt ( White Earth Ojibwe ) and Suzan Shown Harjo ( Southern Cheyenne @-@ Muscogee Creek ), argue that his assertion of Native American ancestry without the ability to prove it might constitute misrepresentation and grounds for termination. The University has said that it does not hire on the basis of ethnicity. The University of Colorado's Research Misconduct Committee conducted a preliminary investigation into whether Churchill misrepresented his ethnicity to " add credibility and public acceptance to his scholarship. " The committee concluded that the allegation was not " appropriate for further investigation under the definition of research misconduct. " In a 2005 interview in The Rocky Mountain News, Churchill said, " I have never been confirmed as having one @-@ quarter blood, and never said I was. And even if [ the critics ] are absolutely right, what does that have to do with this issue? I have never claimed to be goddamned Sitting Bull. " The longtime indigenous activist Russell Means said in February of that year, " So I want, from this day forward, every media person nationally, internationally and locally to know that we have ascertained that Ward Churchill is a full @-@ blooded Indian leader. " = = = Blood quantum = = = Churchill has responded to requests for verification of his claimed Indian heritage in various ways, including attacking the blood quantum upon which some Native American tribes establish their membership requirements. Churchill argues that the United States instituted blood quantum laws based upon rules of descendancy in order to further goals of personal enrichment and political expediency. For decades in his writings, Churchill has argued that blood quantum laws have an inherent genocidal purpose. He says, " Set the blood quantum at one @-@ quarter, hold to it as a rigid definition of Indians, let intermarriage proceed as it [ has ] and eventually Indians will be defined out of existence ". Churchill's assertions have been raised as one of the several research @-@ misconduct allegations that were brought against him in 2005 ( see below ). He has been accused of using his interpretation of the Dawes Act to attack tribal governments that would not recognize him as a member. = = Writing = = Churchill has written on American Indian history and culture, and speaks about genocide inflicted on the indigenous people of the Americas by European settlers and what he describes as the repression of native peoples that continues to this day. As of 2007, according to a report submitted on his behalf, Churchill has written 10 books on his own and co @-@ authored 4. Some have been reprinted with updates. He has written 51 book chapters, 3 law reviews, and 50 scholarly essays ; 27 of these were refereed. He has edited 4 volumes and co @-@ edited 3 more. According to the University of Colorado investigation, " His academic publications are nearly all works of synthesis and reinterpretation, drawing upon studies by other scholars, not monographs describing new research based on primary sources. " The investigation also noted that " he has decided to publish largely in alternative presses or journals, not in the university presses or mainstream peer @-@ reviewed journals often favored by more conventional academics. " In addition to his academic writing, Churchill has written for several general readership magazines of political opinion. In 1986, Churchill wrote an essay titled Pacifism as Pathology : Notes on an American Pseudopraxis criticizing pacifist politics within the U.S. left as being hypocritical, de facto racist and ineffectual. In 1998, Arbeiter Ring Publishing published the essay in a book entitled Pacifism as Pathology : Reflections on the Role of Armed Struggle in North America and listing Ward Churchill as the author. The book included a preface by Ed Mead, a new introduction to the essay by Churchill and a commentary by Mike Ryan. The book sparked much debate in leftist circles and inspired more aggressive tactics within the anti @-@ globalization movement in the following few years. Agents of Repression ( 1988 ), co @-@ authored by Jim Vander Wall, describes what the authors claim was a secret war against the Black Panther Party and American Indian Movement carried out during the late 1960s and'70s by the FBI under the COINTELPRO program. The COINTELPRO Papers ( 1990 ; reissued 2002 ), also co @-@ authored with Jim Vander Wall, examines a series of original FBI memos that detail the Bureau's activities against various leftist groups, from the U.S. Communist Party in the 1950s to activists concerned with Central American issues in the 1980s. In Fantasies of the Master Race ( 1992 ), Churchill examines the portrayal of American Indians and the use of American Indian symbols in popular American culture. He focuses on such phenomena as Tony Hillerman's mystery novels, the film Dances with Wolves, and the New Age movement, finding examples of cultural imperialism and exploitation. Churchill calls author Carlos Castaneda's claims of revealing the teachings of a Yaqui Indian shaman, the " greatest hoax since Piltdown Man. " Struggle for the Land ( 1993 ; reissued 2002 ) is a collection of essays in which Churchill chronicles what he describes as the U.S. government's systematic exploitation of Native lands and the killing or displacement of American Indians. He details Native American efforts in the 19th and 20th centuries to prevent defoliation and industrial practices such as surface mining. Churchill's Indians Are Us? ( 1994 ), a sequel to Fantasies of the Master Race, further explores American Indian issues in popular culture and politics. He examines the movie Black Robe, the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation killings, the prosecution of Leonard Peltier, sports mascots, the Indian Arts and Crafts Act of 1990, and blood quantum laws, calling them tools of genocide. Churchill is particularly outspoken about New Age exploitations of shamanism and American Indian sacred traditions, and the " do @-@ it @-@ yourself Indianism " of certain contemporary authors. John P. LaVelle of the University of New Mexico School of Law published a review of Indians Are Us? in The American Indian Quarterly. Professor LaVelle, an enrolled member of the Santee Sioux Nation, states that Indians Are Us? twists historical facts and is hostile toward Indian tribes. It was in this book that Churchill first made the claim that the United States distributed " smallpox @-@ infested blankets " to Indian tribes, a claim which he repeated several times over the next decade. The claim has been criticized as a falsification. Churchill has, however, received support from some scholars. From a Native Son : Selected Essays on Indigenism, 1985 – 1995 ( 1996 ) is a collection of 23 previously published essays on Native American history, culture, and political activism. In his introduction to this volume, Howard Zinn lauds " the emergence of a new generation of Native @-@ American scholars " and describes Churchill's writing as " powerful, eloquent, unsparing of cant and deception ". Churchill's A Little Matter of Genocide ( 1997 ) is a survey of ethnic cleansing in the Americas from 1492 to the present. He compares the treatment of North American Indians to historical instances of genocide by the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia, Turks against Armenians, and Europeans against the Gypsies, as well as Nazis against the Poles and Jews. In Perversions of Justice ( 2002 ), Churchill argues that the U.S.'s legal system was adapted to gain control over Native American people. Tracing the evolution of federal Indian law, Churchill argues that the principles set forth were not only applied to non @-@ Indians in the U.S., but later adapted for application abroad. He concludes that this demonstrates the development of the U.S.'s " imperial logic, " which depends on a " corrupt form of legalism " to establish colonial control and empire. Churchill's controversial essay on 9 / 11 was expanded into a book @-@ length manuscript, published as On the Justice of Roosting Chickens : Reflections on the Consequences of U.S. Imperial Arrogance and Criminality ( 2003 ) by AK Press. 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violations of international law. The original essay takes the " roosting chickens " of the title from a 1963 Malcolm X speech, in which Malcolm X linked the assassination of U.S. president John F. Kennedy to the violence which Kennedy perpetuated as " merely a case of chickens coming home to roost. " Churchill's essays in this book address the worldwide forms of resistance that he posits were and continue to be provoked by U.S. imperialism of the 20th and 21st centuries. In Kill the Indian, Save the Man : The Genocidal Impact of American Indian Residential Schools ( 2004 ), Churchill traces the history of removing American Indian children from their homes to residential schools ( in Canada ) or Indian boarding schools ( in the USA ) as part of government policies ( 1880s – 1980s ) which he regards as genocidal. = = Activism on Native American issues = = Churchill has been active since at least 1984 as the co @-@ director of the Denver @-@ based American Indian Movement of Colorado, now an autonomous chapter of the American Indian Movement. In 1993, he and other local AIM leaders, including Russell Means, Glenn T. Morris, Robert Robideau, and David Hill, broke with the national AIM leadership, including Dennis Banks and the brothers Vernon and Clyde Bellecourt, claiming that all AIM chapters are autonomous. The AIM Grand Governing Council is based in Minneapolis and retains the name of the national group. It says that the schism arose when Means, Churchill, Glenn T. Morris and others openly supported the Miskito Indian group Misurasata, who were allied with the anti @-@ revolutionary, CIA @-@ backed Contras. Journalists such as Harlan McKosato attributed the split to Means and other AIM members dividing over opposition to the Bellecourt brothers because of their alleged involvement in the execution of Anna Mae Aquash in December 1975, who was then the highest @-@ ranking woman in AIM but had been suspected of being an informant. It was a year in which other FBI informants had been discovered in AIM. On November 3, 1999, Means held a press conference in Denver, Colorado in which he accused the Bellecourt brothers of complicity in Aquash's death, and named three lower @-@ level AIM members involved in her death : Arlo Looking Cloud, John Graham, and Theda Nelson Clark. This was the first time that an AIM leader active at the time of the Aquash murder had publicly accused AIM of having been involved. Looking Cloud and Graham were convicted of murder in 2004 and 2010, by federal and South Dakota state juries, respectively. By then Clark was being cared for in a nursing home and was not indicted. Means attributed the split in AIM to divisions in the aftermath of Aquash's murder. The journalist Harlan McKosato said in 1999, "... her [ Aquash's ] death has divided the American Indian Movement... " The schism continued, with the national AIM leadership claiming that the local AIM leaders, such as Churchill, are tools of the U.S. government used against other American Indians. The leaders of the national AIM organization, now called AIM Grand Governing Council, claim that Churchill has worked in the past as an underground counter @-@ intelligence source for the U.S. government, for example the FBI, and local, non @-@ Indian, police forces, to subvert the national AIM organization. Specifically, they refer to a 1993 Boulder, Colorado interview with Jodi Rave, a former columnist for the Denver Post, in which Churchill stated that he " was teaching the Rapid City Police Department about the American Indian Movement. " In addition, Vernon Bellecourt accused Churchill of having'fraudulently represented himself as an Indian'to bolster his credentials. Bellecourt said he complained to the University of Colorado about this as early as 1986. Churchill has been a leader of Colorado AIM's annual protests in Denver against the Columbus Day holiday and its associated parade. Colorado AIM's leadership has come into conflict with some leaders in the Denver Italian American community, the main supporters of the parade. As early as 2004, Churchill had claimed that such parades are unconstitutional, arguing that the Ninth Amendment to the Constitution provides Native Americans with a right not to be subjected to such displays, overriding the First Amendment rights of non @-@ Native Americans. = = 9 / 11 essay controversy = = Churchill wrote an essay in September 2001 entitled On the Justice of Roosting Chickens. In it, he argued that the September 11 attacks were provoked by U.S. foreign policy. He compared the role of financial workers at the World Trade Center in " ongoing genocidal American imperialism " to the role played by Adolf Eichmann in organizing the Holocaust. In 2005, this essay was widely publicized when Hamilton College invited Churchill to speak. This led to both condemnations of Churchill and counter @-@ accusations of McCarthyism by Churchill and supporters. Following the controversy, the University of Colorado interim Chancellor Phil DiStefano said, " While Professor Churchill has the constitutional right to express his political views, his essay on 9 / 11 has outraged and appalled us and the general public. " A documentary called Shouting Fire : Stories from the Edge of Free Speech, broadcast on HBO, prominently features Churchill's case in addressing the issues of free speech and First Amendment rights. = = Research misconduct investigation = = The controversy attracted increased academic attention to Churchill's research, which had already been criticized by the legal scholar John LaVelle and historian Guenter Lewy. Additional critics were the sociologist Thomas Brown, who had been preparing an article on Churchill's work, and the historians R.G. Robertson and Russell Thornton, who claimed that Churchill had misrepresented their work. In 2005, University of Colorado Boulder administrators ordered an investigation into seven allegations of research misconduct, including three allegations of plagiarism, and four allegations of fabrication or falsification regarding the history of the Dawes Act, the Indian Arts and Crafts Act of 1990, and statements that smallpox was intentionally spread to Native Americans by John Smith in 1614 and by the United States Army at Fort Clark in 1837 ( not to be confused with the well @-@ documented use of smallpox @-@ infected blankets at Fort Pitt in 1764 ). On May 16, 2006 the University released their findings ; the Investigative Committee agreed unanimously that Churchill had engaged in " serious research misconduct ", including falsification, fabrication, and two of the three allegations of plagiarism. The committee was divided on the appropriate level of sanctions. The Standing Committee on Research Misconduct accepted the findings of the Investigative Committee but also disagreed on what sanctions should be imposed. Churchill's appeal against his proposed dismissal was considered by a panel of the University's Privilege and Tenure Committee, which found that two of the seven findings of misconduct did not constitute dismissible offences. Three members recommended that the penalty should be demotion and one year's suspension without pay, while two favored dismissal. On July 24, 2007, the University regents voted seven to two to uphold all seven of the findings of research misconduct, overruling the recommendation of Privilege and Tenure panel that two be dismissed. By a vote of eight to one, the regents determined to fire Churchill. The next day, Churchill filed a lawsuit in state court claiming that the firing was retribution for his expressing politically unpopular views. The jury in Churchill's suit for reinstatement weighed the university's claims of academic misconduct per jury instructions it received in the case. As Stanley Fish said, " It was the jury ’ s task to determine whether Churchill ’ s dismissal would have occurred independently of the adverse political response to his constitutionally protected statements. " The jury found that the alleged misconduct would not have led to Churchill's firing and rejected the university's academic misconduct claim as the grounds for dismissal. On April 1, 2009, a Colorado jury found that Churchill had been wrongly fired, and awarded $ 1 in damages. As one of the jurors said later in a press interview, " it wasn 't a slap in his face or anything like that when we didn 't give him any money. It's just that [ Churchill's attorney ] David Lane kept saying this wasn 't about the money, and in the end, we took his word for that. " Churchill's counsel asked Chief Judge Larry J. Naves of the Denver District Court to order reinstatement in light of the verdict. On July 7, 2009, Judge Naves found that the defendants ( university ) were entitled to quasi @-@ judicial immunity as a matter of law, vacated the jury verdict and determined that the University did not owe Churchill any financial compensation. Naves denied Churchill's request for reinstatement at CU. Churchill appealed both decisions. On November 24, 2010, a three @-@ judge panel of the Colorado Court of Appeals affirmed the trial court's decision. In February 2011, Churchill filed a petition for writ of certiorari with the Colorado Supreme Court. In late May 2011, the Colorado Supreme Court agreed to hear his case. Court records indicate that oral arguments began June 7, 2012. On September 10, 2012, the court ruled that the University had " quasi @-@ judicial immunity ", upholding the trial court's ruling. On April 1, 2013, the U.S. Supreme Court declined to hear an appeal from Churchill. = = Honors = = 1992, Alfred University awarded him an honorary Doctorate of Humane Letters. = = Works = = Books, as editor Marxism and Native Americans. Boulder CO : South End Press. 1984. 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-@ 89608 @-@ 178 @-@ 9. Sharon Venne, ed. ( 1997 ). Islands in Captivity : The International Tribunal on the Rights of Indigenous Hawaiians. Boulder CO : South End Press. ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 89608 @-@ 568 @-@ 8. Re @-@ released as Churchill, Ward ( 2005 ). Sharon Venne, ed. Islands in Captivity : The Record of the International Tribunal on the Rights of Indigenous Hawaiians. Boulder CO : South End Press. ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 89608 @-@ 738 @-@ 5. Natsu Saito, ed. ( 2006 ). Confronting The Crime Of Silence : Evidence Of U.S. War Crimes In Indochina. AK Press. ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 904859 @-@ 21 @-@ 5. Books, as author and co @-@ author : Culture versus Economism : Essays on Marxism in the Multicultural Arena. with Elisabeth Lloyd. Indigena Press. 1984. Agents of Repression : The FBI's Secret Wars Against the Black Panther Party and the American Indian Movement. with Jim Vander Wall. Boulder CO : South End Press. 1988. ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 89608 @-@ 294 @-@ 6. The COINTELPRO Papers : Documents from the FBI's Secret War Against Domestic Dissent. with Jim Vander Wall. Boulder CO : South End Press. 1990. ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 89608 @-@ 359 @-@ 2. Fantasies of the Master Race : Literature, Cinema, and the Colonization of American Indians. Common Courage Press. 1992. ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 87286 @-@ 348 @-@ 4. Churchill, Ward ( 1992 ). Jennie and Jim Vander Wall, ed. Cages of Steel : The Politics of Imprisonment in America ( Activism, Politics, Culture, Theory, Vol. 4 ed. ). Maisonneuve Press. ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 944624 @-@ 17 @-@ 3. Re @-@ released as Churchill, Ward ( 2004 ). Jim Vander Wall, ed. Politics of Imprisonment in the United States. AK Press. ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 904859 @-@ 12 @-@ 3. Struggle for the Land : Indigenous Resistance to Genocide, Ecocide and Expropriation in Contemporary North America. Common Courage Press. 1993. ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 56751 @-@ 001 @-@ 0. Revised and expanded edition : Struggle for the Land : Native North American Resistance to Genocide, Ecocide and Colonization. San Francisco CA : City Lights Books. 2002. ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 87286 @-@ 415 @-@ 3. Indians Are Us? : Culture and Genocide in Native North America. Common Courage Press. 1994. ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 56751 @-@ 021 @-@ 8. Since Predator Came : Notes from the Struggle for American Indian Liberation. Aigis Press. 1995. ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 883930 @-@ 03 @-@ 5. Churchill, Ward ( 1996 ). From a Native Son : Selected Essays on Indigenism 1985 – 1995. Boulder CO : South End Press. ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 89608 @-@ 553 @-@ 4. Pacifism as Pathology : Reflections on the Role of Armed Struggle in North America. with Mike Ryan ( introduction by Ed Mead ). Arbeiter Ring. 1998. ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 894037 @-@ 07 @-@ 5. A Little Matter of Genocide. San Francisco CA : City Lights Books. 1998. ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 87286 @-@ 343 @-@ 9. Draconian Measures : The History of FBI Political Repression. Common Courage Press. 2000. ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 56751 @-@ 059 @-@ 1. Acts Of Rebellion : The Ward Churchill Reader. Routledge. 2002. ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 415 @-@ 93156 @-@ 4. Perversions of Justice : Indigenous Peoples and Angloamerican Law. San Francisco CA : City Lights Books. 2002. ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 87286 @-@ 416 @-@ 0. On the Justice of Roosting Chickens : Reflections on the Consequences of U.S. Imperial Arrogance and Criminality. AK Press. 2003. ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 902593 @-@ 79 @-@ 1. Kill the Indian, Save the Man : The Genocidal Impact of American Indian Residential Schools. San Francisco CA : City Lights Books. 2004. ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 87286 @-@ 434 @-@ 4. Speaking Truth in the Teeth of Power : Lectures on Globalization, Colonialism, and Native North America. AK Press. 2004. ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 904859 @-@ 04 @-@ 8. To Disrupt, Discredit And Destroy : The FBI's Secret War Against The Black Panther Party. Routledge. 2005. ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 415 @-@ 92957 @-@ 8. Articles Churchill, Ward ( July – September 1992 ). " I Am Indigenist : Notes on the Ideology of the Fourth World ". Z Papers 1 ( 3 ). Archived from the original on October 14, 2007. Churchill, Ward ( 1994 ). " Let's Spread the Fun Around ". First published as " Crimes Against Humanity " in Margaret Anderson and Patricia Hill ( eds. ) ( 1994 ). Race, Class and Gender : An Anthology. Belmont, CA : Wadsworth. pp. 366 – 73. Also published under the titles " The Indian Chant and the Tomahawk Chop " and " Using Indian Names as Mascots Harms Native Americans ". Churchill, Ward ( November 1998 ). " Smoke Signals : A History of Native Americans in Cinema ". LiP Magazine. Churchill, Ward ( Winter – Spring 2003 ). " An American Holocaust? The Structure of Denial ". Socialism and Democracy 17 ( 2 ) : 25 – 76 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1080 / 08854300308428341. Churchill, Ward ( Spring 2005 ). " The Ghosts of 9 @-@ 1 @-@ 1 : Reflections on History, Justice and Roosting Chickens ". Alternative Press Review 9 ( 1 ) : 45 – 56. Archived from the original on October 2, 2006. Churchill, Ward ( July – August 2007 ). " The Fourth World : Struggles for Traditional Lands and Ways of Life ". Left Turn 25 : 25 – 29. Audio and video Doing Time : The Politics of Imprisonment, audio CD of a lecture, recorded at the Doing Time Conference at the University of Winnipeg, September 2000 ( AK Press, 2001, ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 902593 @-@ 47 @-@ 0 ) Life In Occupied America ( AK Press, 2003, ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 902593 @-@ 72 @-@ 2 ) In A Pig's Eye : Reflections on the Police State, Repression, and Native America ( AK Press, 2002, ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 902593 @-@ 50 @-@ 0 ) US Off The Planet! : An Evening In Eugene With Ward Churchill And Chellis Glendinning, VHS video recorded July 17, 2001 ( Cascadia Media Collective, 2002 ) Pacifism and Pathology in the American Left, 2003 audio CD recorded at an AK Press warehouse in Oakland ( AK Press Audio ) Z Mag Ward Churchill Audio August 10, 2003 and earlier Churchill Speaks About Academic Freedom – Free Speech Radio News February 9, 2005 Ward Churchill Under Fire – Free Speech Radio News, February 3, 2005. The Justice of Roosting Chickens : Ward Churchill Speaks The Pacifica Network Show, Democracy Now! from February 18, 2005 features extended Audio / Video exclusive interview with Churchill. A Little Matter of Genocide : Linking U.S. Aggression Abroad to the Domestic Repression of Indigenous Peoples ", recorded in North Battleford, Saskatchewan on March 19, 2005 Debate with David Horowitz and Ward Churchill at George Washington University April 6, 2006 " Full two @-@ hour audio of debate with David Horowitz ". rightalk.listenz.com. Retrieved 2006 @-@ 07 @-@ 02. " David Horowitz vs. Ward Churchill — Round 1 ". Young Americans Foundation. Retrieved 2006 @-@ 07 @-@ 02. Video and audio ( excerpt ) " David Horowitz vs. Ward Churchill ". insidehighered.com. Retrieved 2006 @-@ 07 @-@ 02. = = Artwork = = Churchill's subjects are often American Indian figures and other themes associated with Native American Culture. 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= Tim Richmond = Tim Richmond ( June 7, 1955 – August 13, 1989 ) was an American race car driver from Ashland, Ohio. He competed in IndyCar racing before transferring to NASCAR's Winston Cup Series ( now Sprint Cup Series ). Richmond was one of the first drivers to change from open wheel racing to NASCAR stock cars full @-@ time, which has since become an industry trend. He won the 1980 Indianapolis 500 Rookie of the Year award and had 13 victories during eight NASCAR seasons. Richmond achieved his top NASCAR season in 1986 when he finished third in points. He won seven races that season, more than any other driver on the tour. When he missed the season @-@ opening Daytona 500 in February 1987, media reported that he had pneumonia. The infection most likely resulted from his compromised immune system, which was weakened by AIDS. Despite the state of his health, Richmond competed in eight races in 1987, winning two events and one pole position before his final race in August of that year. He attempted a comeback in 1988 before NASCAR I banned him for testing positive for excessive OTC ( over the counter ) drugs, Ibuprofen and Pseudoephedrine ; NASCAR later announced they gave Tim Richmond a new test and tested negative. Tim Richmond filed a lawsuit against NASCAR after NASCAR insisted they wanted access to his entire medical record before they would reinstate him, after losing the lawsuit, Richmond withdrew from racing. NASCAR later stated their original test was a " Bad Test. " Richmond grew up in a wealthy family and lived a freewheeling lifestyle, earning him the nickname " Hollywood ". In describing Richmond's influence in racing, Charlotte Motor Speedway president Humpy Wheeler said : " We've never had a race driver like Tim in stock car racing. He was almost a James Dean @-@ like character. " When Richmond was cast for a bit part in the 1983 movie Stroker Ace, " He fell right in with the group working on the film, " said director Hal Needham. Cole Trickle, the main character in the movie Days of Thunder, played by Tom Cruise, was loosely based on Richmond and his interaction with Harry Hyde and Rick Hendrick. = = Early life = = Richmond grew up in Ashland, Ohio. His parents, Al and Evelyn ( née Warner ) Richmond, met in the course of their work. Al was a welder for pipe construction companies and Evelyn was a field office manager. Noticing that highway crews had to dig up the entire highway to lay pipe, Al designed a machine to bore underneath the highway. To market this invention, he founded Richmond Manufacturing, which eventually exported machines worldwide. Tim's driving days started as a toddler when he was given a go @-@ kart that he often drove inside buildings and across his lawn. He later raced the kart at tracks in Moreland and New Pittsburg. Richmond grew up in a well @-@ to @-@ do family, and was sometimes therefore treated differently by his classmates, so his parents enrolled him in Miami Military Academy in Miami, Florida. During his years in Miami, Tim and his mother moved to Florida and his father stayed in Ohio. While home in Ohio over a summer break, he met local drag racer Raymond Beadle through lifelong friend Fred Miller. When Richmond reached age 16, his parents purchased him a Pontiac Trans Am, a speedboat and a Piper Cherokee airplane for his birthday. Yet his mother Evelyn often worried about spoiling her only son. She once said, " Tim was lazy... ", and "... I did everything for him. I ruined him, I admit it. He was my whole life. " Richmond excelled in sports ; he set a conference record in high hurdles and his high school football career was stellar enough that the academy retired his sports jersey after his gridiron days were over. Miami Military Academy named him Athlete of the Year in 1970. Richmond's other interests included flying, and he earned his private pilot license at age 16. Following high school graduation, Richmond attended Ashland University for about one year before dropping out. = = Racing career = = = = = Open wheel racing = = = A friend of Richmond's father co @-@ owned a sprint car and Richmond joined the team as a crew member for Dave Shoemaker. In 1976, 21 @-@ year @-@ old Richmond took the car onto Lakeville Speedway at Lakeville, Ohio for some practice laps. " Somebody put a stopwatch on me, " Richmond said. " I was running laps faster than Dave had been. It was the first time I had ever driven a race car. " Richmond and his father found a red, white and blue @-@ colored No. 98 car in Pennsylvania, which was the same number and paint scheme that Richmond used on model cars as a child. In his first competition at the track, officials placed Richmond in the slowest heat. He passed several cars before spinning out and breaking an axle. Although he made several attempts to get the car pointed in the right direction, the broken axle prevented the car from driving straight. After being towed to the pits, he parked the car for the rest of the event. Later that season, they towed the car to Eldora Speedway, only to have Richmond crash the car again. In response, Richmond's father fired him as the driver. The next season, Al Richmond bought a SuperModified better suited to his son's driving style. In 1977 Tim Richmond became both Sandusky Speedway's Rookie of the Year and the SuperModified class track champion. Richmond returned to racing sprint cars in the United States Automobile Club's ( USAC ) national sprint car tour in 1978. Competing in 12 races, he finished 30th in points as the series'Rookie of the Year. That year he attended Jim Russell's road racing school at Willow Springs International Motorsports Park, setting a student course record. Richmond raced in a 1978 Mini Indy car event at Phoenix International Raceway, winning the Formula Super Vee support event in a Lola T620. The win attracted sponsors and attention from major owners like Roger Penske. He also competed in USAC's Silver Crown series. Richmond's father bought an Eagle Indy Car chassis and an Offenhauser engine for the 1979 race at Michigan International Speedway. Richmond qualified 21st fastest with a 175 @.@ 768 mph ( 282 @.@ 871 km / h ) lap, significantly slower than Bobby Unser's 203 @.@ 879 mph ( 328 @.@ 111 km / h ) pole position speed. The race ended for him when his motor blew up on the fourth lap, and he finished last ( 23rd ). Owner Pat Santello was looking for a driver to replace Larry Rice for his CART team at the following race at Watkins Glen International, so he gave Richmond a test at Willow Spring where he had previously set the student record. Santello hired Richmond, who then qualified 15th fastest for the event and finished in eighth place, the best of his IndyCar career. Richmond raced in three more events that season. After crashing during the first day of qualifying for the 1980 Indianapolis 500, Richmond nevertheless obtained the 19th starting position in the race. He worked his way up to the top 10 during the race, led a lap, and finished ninth as he ran out of fuel at the end of the race. To the delight of the crowd, winner Johnny Rutherford gave him a ride back to the pits. He was named the 1980 Indianapolis 500 Rookie of the Year. " I busted up a few Indy cars right after that, " he said. " Milwaukee, Mid @-@ Ohio... at Michigan I cut one in two. I was afraid my racing career would come to a halt. So when I got an offer to drive stock cars, I took it, and it turned out I liked driving them better. " = = = NASCAR = = = Pocono Raceway President Joseph Mattioli III convinced Richmond to make the change to stock car racing on the NASCAR circuit. Richmond made his first NASCAR start two months after winning the Indianapolis 500 Rookie of the Year award. He debuted at the Coca @-@ Cola 500 at Pocono on July 27, 1980, finishing 12th in a D. K. Ulrich @-@ owned Chevrolet. That season, he competed in five events, with two DNFs ( did not finish ) and three 12th @-@ place finishes. Overall, he finished the 1980 season 41st in points. Richmond raced for three teams in 1981. He started the season by competing in 15 events for Ulrich. He had his first career top 10 finish, taking sixth place at Talladega Superspeedway, soon followed by a seventh @-@ place finish at Texas World Speedway. After Kennie Childers hired him away from Ulrich mid @-@ season, Richmond had top 10 finishes at Pocono and Bristol. For the final seven races of the season, he drove for Bob Rogers and had a top 10 finish at Dover International Speedway. Overall for the season, Richmond had six top 10 finishes to place 16th in season points. Richmond started 1982 without a ride before getting a one @-@ race deal to drive for Billie Harvey at the Rockingham track. Richmond completed 112 laps of the 492 @-@ lap event to finish 31st, retiring from the race with engine problems. For the following event, Richmond was hired to drive J.D. Stacy's No. 2 car. In his first race for the team, Richmond earned his first career top 5 finish when he placed fifth at Darlington Raceway. 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o, he finished second, before winning his first race on the road course at Riverside, California the following week. Later that season, he earned his first pole position at Bristol. The tour returned to Riverside for the final race of the season where Richmond won his second race, sweeping both events at the track. Benny Parsons said that " watching Richmond go through the Esses was unbelievable ". For the season, Richmond had twelve top 10s, two wins, and one pole to finish 26th in points. In 1983, Richmond began racing for Raymond Beadle whom he had known before he started racing. He returned to the three @-@ cornered Pocono racetrack, earning his first oval victory. During the season, he accumulated four pole positions ( Darlington, Pocono, Charlotte, and Atlanta ), one win ( Pocono ), and fifteen top 10s on his way to finishing tenth in season points. He made his first appearance in a NASCAR Busch Series ( now Nationwide Series ) car, but did not finish any of the three races he entered that season. Esquire magazine named Richmond as one of " the best of the new generation " in 1984. That year he had one win at North Wilkesboro Speedway and second @-@ place finishes at Dover, Darlington and Riverside. Richmond finished the 1984 season 12th in points, with 11 finishes in the top 10 and in six in the top 5. In 1985, the final season that Richmond competed for Beadle, his best finish was a second @-@ place run at Bristol. He ended the season 11th in points with 13 Top 10s in 28 races. In the Busch Series, he qualified at the pole position in the two races he entered, and won the Charlotte race. Richmond joined Hendrick Motorsports in 1986, where he teamed up with veteran crew chief Harry Hyde. It took the team until the middle of the season to gel. Richmond had suffered a 64 @-@ race winless streak that was finally broken at the Van Scoy Diamond Mine 500 at Pocono in June 1986. After two straight second @-@ place finishes at Charlotte and Riverside, Richmond started the Pocono event in third place inside the second row. That race saw a caution for rain with five laps left before the halfway point. NASCAR wanted the cars to get to the halfway point to make the race official, so the sanctioning body had the drivers slowly circle the track. It took the drivers 26 minutes to complete the laps, and the rain was so heavy that some drivers had to look out their side windows because they could not see out their windshields. Two hours later, the track had dried and the race resumed with Richmond in third. After Richmond's car was adjusted to remove the " push ", the car was more to his liking. Because his radio did not work, he was unable to communicate with his crew chief, Hyde, and he made his final pit stop with 37 laps left. Hyde worried that Richmond had stopped a lap too early to ensure that he would have enough fuel to make it to the end. After Richmond took the lead with 30 laps left in the race, Dale Earnhardt made up three seconds on Richmond's five @-@ second lead. With four laps to go, Buddy Arrington spun in a three @-@ car accident. The remaining laps of the race where completed slowly under caution and Richmond took the checkered flag for the victory. He had led 97 laps, including the final 30, taking his first victory in a Rick Hendrick car. The tour returned to Pocono a month later, and Richmond battled for another victory in a fog @-@ shortened event. In the final 8 @-@ lap sprint, Richmond competed in a three @-@ car battle with Geoff Bodine and Ricky Rudd. Richmond crossed the finish line beside Rudd, winning the race by 0 @.@ 05 seconds. He notched four more victories that season, and over a span of twelve races, Richmond earned three second @-@ place finishes, and six wins. The National Motorsports Press Association named him Co @-@ Driver of the Year with Earnhardt after Richmond accumulated 13 top 5 finishes and 16 in the top 10. He had a career @-@ best third @-@ place finish in points after winning seven events in 1986, in what was his last full NASCAR season. = = Illness and death = = Richmond fell ill the day after the 1986 NASCAR annual banquet during a promotional trip to New York. He was not well enough to begin the 1987 NASCAR season despite lengthy hospitalization in Cleveland and further rest at home ; when Richmond missed the Daytona 500, his condition was reported as double pneumonia. Media later reported that he had tested positive for acquired immune deficiency syndrome ( AIDS ). He returned to Pocono for the Miller High Life 500 during the middle of the year. Starting third, he led by the fifth lap and ultimately led 82 laps, including the final 46, to win the race by eight car @-@ lengths over Bill Elliott. In the middle of the race, Richmond's car suffered gearbox problems. Because he could use only fourth ( high ) gear, he had to use that gear to slowly exit the pits. Richmond was emotional after the victory, saying, " I had tears in my eyes when I took the checkered flag. Then every time anyone congratulated me, I started bawling again. " Richmond earned a victory in the next race at Riverside, and made his final 1987 start at Michigan International Speedway's Champion Spark Plug 400 that August, finishing 29th with a blown engine. He resigned from Hendrick Motorsports in September 1987. Although Richmond attempted a comeback in 1988, NASCAR suspended him for testing positive for banned substances. The substances were identified as Sudafed, a non @-@ prescription over @-@ the @-@ counter allergy medication, and Advil, an over @-@ the @-@ counter pain reliever. In April 1988, Richmond sued NASCAR over the suspension. Although he retested later that year and was reinstated, he could not find a car to drive. In his final public appearance in February 1988, Richmond denied that he abused drugs and said that a mistake had been made in his drug test. His suit with NASCAR was settled out @-@ of @-@ court, the terms sealed. Richmond withdrew into his condo in Florida. There were by then rumors of HIV and AIDS, which he denied. He was later hospitalized in West Palm Beach. ESPN sent a get @-@ well @-@ soon card to Richmond when it aired the July 1989 NASCAR race at Pocono. The television network showed highlights of Richmond's victory at the track from 1986. " Tim had Hollywood good looks and the charisma of Tom Cruise, " said his friend Dr. Jerry Punch. " There he was in victory lane with the team all around him and beauty queens hanging all over him. It was important for the people at the hospital to see Tim the way he really was, when he was healthy and handsome and vital, not the way he was as they saw him every day in the hospital. " On August 13, 1989, Richmond died at the age of 34, about two years after his final NASCAR race. He was buried in Ashland, Ohio. The secrecy surrounding the circumstance of his death caused speculation for several days. At the time, Punch stated that Richmond had been hospitalized due to a motorcycle accident, though it is unlikely that Richmond had the strength to ride a motorcycle during his last months. Ten days after his death, on August 23, the Richmond family held a press conference to reveal that Richmond died from complications from AIDS, which he acquired from an unknown woman. Richmond's physician, Dr. David Dodson, said : " There's no way of knowing who that woman was. Tim was a celebrity with a lot of charisma, a handsome guy. He naturally attracted a lot of women. " Punch later claimed that more than 90 drivers and personnel underwent HIV testing in the wake of Richmond's death. = = Legacy = = In 1990, a few months after Richmond's death, Washington television station WJLA @-@ TV and reporter Roberta Baskin reported that Dr. Forest Tennant, who was then the National Football League's drug adviser, " falsified drug tests " that ultimately helped shorten Richmond's NASCAR career. Baskin reported that sealed court documents and interviews showed Tennant and NASCAR used " allegedly false drug @-@ test results in 1988 to bar Richmond from racing ". Baskin also stated that NASCAR had targeted Richmond, requesting that Tennant establish a substance @-@ abuse policy with Richmond in mind. A series of drug tests and falsely reported positive results shortly before the 1988 Daytona 500 kept Richmond from driving in what was to have been his last big race... ", the report said. The New York Times published the findings. While neither Tennant nor NASCAR supplied an official response at the time, NASCAR did confirm that they were seeking to replace Tennant. The Ashland County Sports Hall of Fame inducted Richmond in their second class in 1996. In 1998, NASCAR named Richmond one of its 50 greatest drivers of all time. He was inducted into the International Motorsports Hall of Fame in 2002. The Mansfield Motorsports Park ARCA Re / Max Series race in 2009 was named the Tim Richmond Memorial ARCA Re / Max 250 in honor of the area native. The race at Mansfield was co @-@ promoted by Mattioli's son Joseph Mattioli III. 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= Butterfly World Tour = The Butterfly World Tour was the third concert tour by American singer @-@ songwriter Mariah Carey. The tour promoted Carey's album at the time, Butterfly ( 1997 ), and included songs from several of her previous albums. The tour visited Asia, Australia and the United States, with rehearsals taking place in December 1997. Starting on January 11, 1998 the tour spanned five shows in Asia, six in Australia, and one in Hawaii, US. Throughout the tour, Carey varied hairstyles and outfits, as well as song selections. The Butterfly World Tour was very successful ; the four dates at Japan's largest stadium, Tokyo Dome, sold out in under one hour, equaling over 200 @,@ 000 tickets, breaking the previous record she held at the stadium for show sell @-@ outs. The tour was recorded in VHS format, and was titled Around the World. The video featured live performances of Carey at different worldwide venues including New York, Japan, Hawaii and Brisbane. Other scenes are included in the video such as a conversation between Carey and Brenda K. Starr prior to her performance of " I Still Believe ". Prior to the performances in Australia, a scene of Carey swimming with dolphins is shown. Additionally, Olivia Newton @-@ John makes a cameo appearance during their joint performance of Newton @-@ John's song, " Hopelessly Devoted to You ". The video was commercially successful, being certified platinum in the United States by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) and gold in Brazil by the Associação Brasileira dos Produtores de Discos ( ABPD ). = = Background = = Since her debut in 1990, Carey had not journeyed on a large or extensive tour. In fact, she had not embarked on a tour until her third studio effort, Music Box ( 1993 ), when she performed six arena shows in the United States during the Music Box Tour. The opening night of the tour received scathing reviews, mostly aimed at Carey's deemed " obvious " stage @-@ fright and failure to make a connection with the crowd. Succeeding nights were more favorably reviewed, with critics raving about Carey's vocals. Jon Pareles of The New York Times wrote regarding Carey's live vocals, " Beyond any doubt, Ms. Carey's voice is no studio concoction. Her range extends from a rich, husky alto to dog @-@ whistle high notes ; she can linger over sensual turns, growl with playful confidence, syncopate like a scat singer. " However, after the strong media attention, Carey did not visit the US on her succeeding Daydream World Tour in 1996, visiting only Europe and Asia. The tour in contrast, received critical acclaim from critics and fans alike, as well as breaking ticket sale records. Carey's three shows at Japan's largest stadium, Tokyo Dome, sold out in under three hours, equaling in over 150 @,@ 000 tickets, setting the record of fastest show sellouts in Japan's history. On the Butterfly World Tour, Carey broke the record, selling 200 @,@ 000 tickets in under one hour. During 1997, after the commercially and critically successful release of Butterfly, Carey had not planned to tour once again, due to the long travel times and strain on her voice. However, due to overwhelming demand by fans, Carey agreed to perform in Asia once again, only extending the tour to Taiwan and Australia, as well as one last show in the United States. Rehearsals for the show began shortly after Christmas 1997, extending for a period of two weeks. = = Concert synopsis = = The show began with Carey standing on a small elevated centerpiece on stage, surrounded by several long draped curtains. Carey featured three background vocalists throughout the tour, Trey Lorenz, Melodie Daniels and Kelly Price. As the introduction began with " Emotions ", each of the curtains were slowly draped, revealing Carey atop the platform, dressed in a beige mini @-@ dress and matching sheer blouse and stiletto heels. As she began performing " Emotions ", the platform was lowered so Carey could access the other sections of the stage throughout the song's performance. After an intimate performance with dimmed lights for " The Roof ( Back in Time ) ", Carey was joined on @-@ stage by a Peruvian guitar player, who played the Latin @-@ inspired guitar melodies during her performance of " My All ". Afterwards, Carey sang " Close My Eyes ", the only sitting performance of the show. During the song, several male backup dancers performed slow and ample dance routines behind Carey on a higher level of the stage. For the second part of the show, Carey had the second costume change of the evening, donning a long sequined black gown and semi @-@ teased hair. For the performance of " Dreamlover ", Carey was joined by three female back @-@ up dancers, who mimicked her light dance routines during the song. The next song on the set @-@ list was " Hero ", which featured Carey alone on @-@ stage, without any vocal back @-@ up. After the song's performance, Carey was joined on @-@ stage by Lorenz, who performed " I 'll Be There " alongside her. Next came " Make It Happen ", a song which accompanied yet another wardrobe change for Carey. She donned a short mini @-@ skirt, alongside a sleeveless white blouse and loose golden curls. On @-@ stage, Carey was joined by a full church choir, all dressed in long black garments. After the song's recital, Carey performed " One Sweet Day ", alongside a previously recorded video of Boyz II Men during their live performance of the song with Carey at Madison Square Garden in 1995. After completing the song, Carey changed to a pair of leg @-@ hugging blue jeans and a tank top. Her next performance was the " Fantasy " remix, featuring Ol'Dirty Bastard on a large projection screen behind the stage, as Carey performed light chair dance @-@ routines alongside several male dancers. The performance featured the most intricate choreography Carey performed on the tour. After a low @-@ key performance of " Babydoll ", or " Whenever You Call " in other countries, Carey was once again joined by several male dancers, as she sang " Honey ", while re @-@ enacting the music video during a small skit. Carey once again changed to a beige ensemble similar to her first outfit before performing her debut single, " Vision of Love ". The final song on the tour was " Butterfly ", which featured large stills of butterflies and flowers projected onto the large screen behind Carey. She donned a long brown sequined gown for the performance, being joined on stage once again by her trio of back @-@ up singers. During the shows in Japan, Carey performed her holiday classic " All I Want for Christmas Is You ", alongside various male and female dancers on stage who performed light dance routines alongside Carey. During the song, Carey donned a Santa suit and matching hat, while being carried on a large stage prop by the dancers. = = Critical reception = = Virtually the entire tour was an instant sell @-@ out ; the four shows at Japan's largest stadium, Tokyo Dome, broke Carey's previous ticket @-@ sales record, selling out all 200 @,@ 000 tickets in under one hour. Additionally, the entire Australian leg sold out within hours, leading Carey to extend the tour one more date in the United States. The show at Hawaii's 50 @,@ 000 capacity Aloha Stadium sold out as well, making her one of the few acts in the stadiums history to sell out the entire venue. Aside from its commercial success, fans and critics raved about the show's visuals, as well as Carey's vocal delivery. = = Broadcasts and recordings = = During the tour, several bits and performances were filmed and later edited into a VHS and DVD entitled Around the World. The VHS featured performances from Tokyo Dome, Aloha Stadium as well as few other skits and scenes that were later compiled into the video. The film first begins with performances in Hawaii, where the song's recitals are cut into halves, excluding the second verses and bridge to shorten the bulk length of the video. Afterwards, Carey's performance of " My All " is shown in inter @-@ cut scenes from Japan and Taipei. After the conclusion of the song, scenes of Carey conversing with Brenda K. Starr are shown, which eventually lead to a tribute to her at a small and intimate New York club, where Carey performs " I Still Believe ". Soon after, Carey's performance in Japan with Lorenz for " I 'll Be There " is shown, leading to scenes of Carey swimming with dolphins in Australia. the next title on the video is Carey's live rendition of " Hopelessly Devoted To You ", where she is joined by Olivia Newton @-@ John on stage in Melbourne. A scene of a fans gathering outside of a New York City studio is shown, following a performance of " Honey, " and " Hero " at Aloha Stadium. The VHS was a commercial success, being certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ), denoting shipments of over 100 @,@ 000 units. The video was also certified gold in Brazil by the Associação Brasileira dos Produtores de Discos ( ABPD ). = = Set list = =	wikitext_103	[ 426, 30683, 16247, 3645, 11997, 426, 4928, 187, 380, 30683, 16247, 3645, 11997, 369, 253, 2626, 12699, 4892, 407, 2448, 16057, 1214, 14, 33, 4498, 16360, 2398, 13560, 45377, 964, 380, 4892, 15127, 45377, 686, 84, 5400, 387, 253, 673, 1157, 30683, 16247, 313, 8210, 2387, 1157, 285, 2908, 9575, 432, 2067, 273, 617, 2045, 16258, 964, 380, 4892, 11580, 10497, 1157, 6976, 285, 253, 1986, 2077, 1157, 342, 33558, 932, 3192, 1659, 275, 4565, 8210, 964, 28396, 327, 4247, 1903, 1157, 8065, 253, 4892, 40423, 2620, 2722, 275, 10497, 1157, 2800, 275, 6976, 1157, 285, 581, 275, 22085, 1157, 1982, 964, 28786, 253, 4892, 1157, 45377, 12848, 419, 712, 9250, 285, 46881, 1157, 347, 973, 347, 4498, 36318, 964, 380, 30683, 16247, 3645, 11997, 369, 1077, 5547, 3706, 253, 1740, 12282, 387, 4047, 686, 84, 6253, 21711, 1157, 17413, 399, 485, 1157, 4211, 562, 275, 762, 581, 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= 1985 Rajneeshee assassination plot = The 1985 Rajneeshee assassination plot was a conspiracy by a group of high @-@ ranking followers of Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh ( later known as Osho ) to assassinate Charles Turner, the then @-@ United States Attorney for the District of Oregon. Rajneesh's personal secretary and second @-@ in @-@ command, Ma Anand Sheela ( Sheela Silverman ), assembled the group after Turner was appointed to investigate illegal activity at Rajneeshpuram. Turner investigated charges of immigration fraud and sham marriages, and later headed the federal prosecution of the 1984 Rajneeshee bioterror attack in The Dalles, Oregon. The conspirators included : Ma Anand Sheela, Sally @-@ Anne Croft, Chief Financial Officer of Rajneeshpuram ; Susan Hagan, head of security at Rajneeshpuram, Catherine Jane Stork, who bought weapons and silencers and volunteered to be the actual murderer ; Ann Phyllis McCarthy, fourth @-@ in @-@ command of Rajneeshpuram ; and co @-@ conspirators Alma Potter, Carol Matthews, Phyllis Caldwell and Richard Kevin Langford. The conspirators obtained false identification to purchase handguns out @-@ of @-@ state, stalked Turner, and planned to murder him near his workplace in Portland, Oregon. The assassination plot was never carried out and was only discovered later, as a result of the investigation by federal law enforcement into the bioterror attack in The Dalles and other illegal acts by the Rajneeshpuram leadership. Prosecution of the conspirators began in 1990, when a federal grand jury brought indictments against several of the key players. Some had fled the country, and extradition proceedings against the perpetrators and subsequent prosecution and conviction was not completed for sixteen years. The final conspirator was convicted in 2006, when Catherine Jane Stork agreed to return to the United States from Germany in order to be allowed to visit her ill son in Australia. Eight perpetrators received sentences ranging from five years probation to five years in federal prison and an additional member of the Rajneesh commune pleaded guilty to murder conspiracy. Rajneesh was never prosecuted in relation to the conspiracy, and left the United States after pleading guilty to immigration fraud and agreeing not to reenter the country without permission from the U.S. Attorney General. = = Planning = = = = = Hit list = = = Seven followers ( called Rajneeshees ) of charismatic leader Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh ( now known as Osho ), were convicted of a 1985 conspiracy to assassinate Charles Turner, and an additional unindicted eighth member of the Rajneesh commune pleaded guilty to murder conspiracy. The perpetrators were high @-@ ranking followers within the Rajneeshee organization. Prosecutors in the case stated that the perpetrators had planned to murder Turner after he was appointed to head an investigation into the group's activities in Rajneeshpuram, Oregon. Turner's investigation focused on sham marriages organized by the group, as well as other illegal activities including immigration fraud, and he later headed the federal prosecution relating to the 1984 Rajneeshee bioterror attack in The Dalles, Oregon. Oregon Attorney General Dave Frohnmayer was also involved in investigations of the group, working alongside Turner. In May 1985, Rajneesh's personal secretary and second @-@ in @-@ command, Sheela Silverman ( Ma Anand Sheela ), gathered the leader's key followers and formed a group of conspirators in order to plan the assassination of Turner, as well as several dissidents among their organization. Sheela stated that Turner's grand jury investigation " threatened the existence of the commune ", and exposed Rajneesh and several of his disciples to criminal prosecution. Sheela hoped that by murdering Turner they would be able to thwart the federal immigration investigation which could have resulted in deportation of Rajneeshee leaders. Three former leaders of the commune including Ma Anand Sheela, Dianne Yvonne Onang ( Ma Anand Puja ), a registered nurse from the Philippines who managed the Rajneeshee medical corporation, and former treasurer of Rajneesh Foundation International and Catherine Jane Stork ( Ma Shanti Bhadra ) of Australia, put together a hit list which included U.S. Attorney Charles Turner and Oregon Attorney General David Frohnmayer. Susan Hagan ( Ma Anand Su ), a top official in the Rajneeshpuram hierarchy, was also a participant in the assassination conspiracy. Hagan was in charge of the security force at Rajneeshpuram, ran the Rajneesh Investment Corporation, and supervised construction on the commune. Other conspirators in the assassination plot included Ann Phyllis McCarthy ( Ma Yoga Vidya ), president of the Rajneesh commune, and Alma Potter ( Ma Dhyan Yogini ), Ma Anand Sheela's bodyguard and traveling companion. Potter was manager of the Hotel Rajneesh in Portland, Oregon, and a member of the commune's security force. The Oregonian reported that nine people were on the hit list, including : Turner, Frohnmayer, former assistant attorney general Karen H. Green, Wasco County planning director Daniel C. Durow, Wasco County commissioner James L. Comini, investigative journalist for The Oregonian Leslie L. Zaitz, former member Helen C. Byron ( Ma Idam Shunyo ), who had been awarded US $ 1 @.@ 7 million in a lawsuit against Rajneesh Foundation International, her daughter Barbara J. Byron ( Makima ), and Rajneesh's former secretary Laxmi Thakarsi Kuruwa ( Ma Yoga Laxmi ). = = = Weapons = = = Catherine Jane Stork volunteered to be the follower who would actually murder Turner, and bought guns and silencers. Stork was known to fellow followers as Ma Shanti Bhadra, and was also one of the three " Big Mammas " in Rajneeshpuram. Sally @-@ Anne Croft ( known by followers as Ma Prem Savita ), an accountant and the group's Chief Financial Officer, provided money for the purchase of weapons related to the plot. Phyllis Caldwell ( Ma Deva Ritka ) described in a federal affidavit how members of the murder conspiracy obtained handguns, referring to Catherine Jane Stork and Sally @-@ Anne Croft : " Shanti B went down to Jesus Grove, and Savita gave us several thousand dollars to use to buy guns. " Jesus Grove referred to a group of trailers where all the leaders of the Rajneesh commune resided, except for Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh. Ma Anand Sheela and three other Rajneesh followers traveled to New York in the spring of 1985 to acquire false identification. According to a federal indictment, the perpetrators of the assassination plot used a false birth certificate to purchase guns. Two members of the group then traveled to Texas to purchase handguns. Caldwell stated she and Catherine Jane Stork flew to Texas to purchase guns there. They purchased five guns in Texas, but encountered difficulty purchasing handguns in Texas with out @-@ of @-@ state identification and traveled to New Mexico instead. Caldwell said they called back to the commune but the women were instructed " not to come back without the guns ". In New Mexico, they obtained false identification, and purchased several pistols. Their intention was to purchase guns which were difficult to trace. Caldwell said it was easy to obtain guns in New Mexico : " we found it was pretty easy to buy guns. All you had to do was show some identification and it was easy to get. " Caldwell said she and Stork went to a university library to find the identity " of someone dying very young ", next went " to public records and asked for a copy of a birth certificate " and described how " we got a rent receipt book and just made up a rent receipt ". " And then we were able to go to several different gun shops in Albuquerque with those two bits of identification and buy five different guns and bullets, " said Caldwell. They were able to obtain one Colt.38 @-@ caliber revolver, and four Ruger.357 @-@ caliber Security @-@ Six Magnum revolvers. The conspirators smuggled the guns into Oregon by packing them in luggage and putting the luggage on a Greyhound Lines bus. Caldwell said that she and Stork traveled by bus back to the Rajneesh commune so as to avoid airport metal detectors. = = = Surveillance = = = After obtaining guns the conspirators returned to Portland, Oregon. They rented out an apartment in Portland to serve as their base of operations for the assassination of Turner. Rajneesh follower Carol Matthews ( Ma Prem Samadhi ) used a fake name during the planning of the assassination plot, in an attempt to obtain the home address of Charles Turner. According to federal prosecutors Matthews obtained a college yearbook of Turner's, and learned his car's license plate number and his parking location. Court records state that Matthews and an unindicted co @-@ conspirator gave voter registration officials fake identities and told officials they were conducting " a voter survey on President Reagan's economic plan ", in order to obtain Turner's route number and post office box number. The two tried repeating the story with members of the U.S. Postal Service, but the postal officials did not give them Turner's address. They then drove around Turner's neighborhood and were able to find his home by locating a sign in front of	wikitext_103	[ 426, 12210, 17549, 570, 265, 31622, 34024, 7484, 426, 4928, 187, 380, 12210, 17549, 570, 265, 31622, 34024, 7484, 369, 247, 13445, 407, 247, 1387, 273, 1029, 1214, 14, 33, 19947, 18409, 273, 26165, 356, 10320, 1608, 658, 17549, 570, 15897, 313, 1996, 1929, 347, 473, 1200, 80, 2387, 281, 18111, 4024, 8444, 20757, 1157, 253, 840, 1214, 14, 33, 1986, 2077, 10158, 323, 253, 4412, 273, 15427, 964, 17549, 570, 15897, 686, 84, 3367, 14385, 285, 1273, 1214, 14, 33, 275, 1214, 14, 33, 3923, 1157, 7057, 743, 395, 1500, 7896, 313, 1500, 7896, 16309, 1342, 2387, 1157, 17412, 253, 1387, 846, 20757, 369, 11162, 281, 7409, 9676, 2425, 387, 17549, 570, 15897, 13182, 312, 964, 20757, 6949, 7260, 273, 13163, 9116, 285, 23013, 36659, 1157, 285, 1996, 12860, 253, 4400, 14079, 273, 253, 12459, 17549, 570, 265, 31622, 1794, 302, 3775, 2983, 275, 380, 399, 455, 265, 1157, 15427, 964, 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his residence that said " Turner ". Matthews had pictures of Turner's residence developed ; these were later obtained by the Federal Bureau of Investigation ( FBI ) during an investigation of the Rajneesh commune, and verified after being shown to Turner. Members of the group of conspirators watched Turner's office, home and car, and discussed methods to assassinate him, hoping that his death would hinder the efforts of the federal investigation into Rajneeshpuram. Their plan was to shoot Turner in the garage of the federal office building where he worked, in Portland, Oregon, but the conspirators also debated whether to murder Turner in downtown Portland or closer to his home. After spending multiple nights watching Turner's house, the conspirators decided on the parking garage because they felt it would be too risky to murder him on the drive to or from work, or in front of his home. Turner had a reserved parking spot in a federal garage underneath Terry Schrunk Plaza in Portland, Oregon. In an affidavit given to the FBI, conspirator Alma Peralta described how the perpetrators decided on the federal parking garage as the location : " Shanti Bhadra [ Catherine Jane Stork ] said this seems like a good place to bump this fellow off. " The conspirators practiced different ways of murdering Turner. According to informant statements to law enforcement, one of the conspirators was to pretend there was car trouble, and the others would then approach Turner with their guns. Informants later told law enforcement officials that the conspirators intended to hide out at an international network of Rajneesh communes if the plan was successful. According to The Oregonian the assassinations were not carried out because Ma Anand Sheela became distracted by political power plays within the Rajneesh commune and other members of the organization who were trying to remove her from her position within the group. = = Prosecutions = = = = = Investigation = = = On February 28, 1985, Congressman James H. Weaver gave a speech in the United States House of Representatives in which he asserted that the Rajneeshees were involved in the bioterror attack in Oregon. At a series of press conferences in September 1985, Rajneesh accused several of his recently departed lieutenants of involvement in this and other crimes, including the poisoning of Mike Sullivan, a Jefferson County district attorney, and asked state and federal authorities to investigate his allegations. The assassination plot was uncovered by federal law enforcement as a result of the ensuing investigation into activities at Rajneeshpuram. Turner was never physically harmed, and had retired by 1995. The Oregonian was informed in October 1985 by federal law enforcement officials that Leslie L. Zaitz, an investigative journalist who had written a 20 @-@ part series on the Rajneesh movement in Oregon, was on a " hit list " which also included Turner and Oregon Attorney General David Frohnmayer. Assistant U.S. Attorney Robert Weaver prosecuted the case ; the charges were first detailed at an October 1985 bond hearing in North Carolina after Rajneesh and his followers were arrested at an airport in Charlotte. Weaver said in court that followers of Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh had plotted to assassinate Turner and Frohnmayer. He said these allegations were reasons why releasing Rajneesh and his followers from jail would be " a clear and present danger to public officials ". The guns purchased by the Rajneesh followers for the assassination plot had reportedly been dumped in a lake at Rancho Rajneesh ; the lake was searched by U.S. Navy divers. Scuba divers searched the lake for two days but did not find the guns. Joseph Greene, a U.S. immigration agent, testified in court that FBI agents had learned of the assassination plot from a member of the organization who was in a witness protection program. Greene said that members involved in the assassination plot included Ma Anand Sheela, Dianne Yvonne Onang, and Alma Peralta. The assassination plot was investigated by the FBI and the Oregon State Police. Informants told law enforcement that Ma Anand Sheela hoped Turner's death would prevent an Immigration and Naturalization Service investigation which she thought could lead to Rajneesh's arrest and deportation from the United States. Weaver stated " These attempts to assassinate public officials were because they were presenting an immigration case that might result in imprisonment " of Rajneesh. " There were not simply plans, but at least one ( assassination ) attempt, " said Weaver at the hearing. A grand jury investigation led by Turner brought charges of " widespread immigration fraud " against members of Rajneeshpuram. Wiretapping crimes were discovered after Ma Anand Sheela had fled the commune in September 1985. In December 1985, 21 followers of Rajneesh were indicted on wiretapping charges. = = = Arrests and convictions = = = Chief criminal assistant U.S. attorney Baron C. Sheldahl was assigned to prosecute the charges of federal wiretapping, and a special team from the United States Department of Justice Criminal Division was tasked with prosecuting the murder conspiracy charges. Four of the perpetrators were arrested in September 1990. Catherine Jane Stork and Richard Kevin Langford were arrested in West Germany, Ann Phyllis McCarthy was arrested in South Africa, and Susan Hagan was arrested in England. In September 1990, Alma Peralta pleaded guilty to conspiracy to commit murder. Peralta, who had served as Ma Anand Sheela's bodyguard and confidante, agreed to testify against the other defendants in the murder conspiracy. Under the terms of Peralta's plea agreement she received a sentence of two years in federal prison. Carol Matthews was arrested in Baden @-@ Baden, Germany in October 1990 on charges of wiretapping and conspiracy to murder Turner, where she was held along with three other Rajneeshees. At the time of her arrest, Matthews was found in possession of a false British passport, and had been traveling under the fake name of " Daphene Fosberry ". Indictments were brought against Ma Anand Sheela and six other co @-@ conspirators by a federal grand jury in November 1990. In April 1991, Carol Matthews and Richard Kevin Langford ( Swami Anugiten ) were extradited from Germany to the United States in order to appear in federal court in Portland, Oregon. Law enforcement officials from the United States Marshals Service traveled to Frankfurt, Germany and took custody of the Matthews and Langford at Rhine Main Airport. On April 15, 1991, Matthews and Langford appeared in federal court in Oregon, and both pleaded innocent to charges of conspiracy to commit murder and carrying out wiretapping. On April 25, 1991, Richard Kevin Langford pleaded guilty in federal court to participating in the murder conspiracy plot against Turner, and in exchange he received a sentence of five years in federal prison and the dismissal of other charges against him relating to firearms and wiretapping. Langford agreed to testify against the other members of the murder conspiracy. Langford wrote on his plea agreement form : " In 1985, meetings were held at the Rancho Rajneesh... at which time the possible killing of the United States Attorney for Oregon was discussed. I participated in a number of these meetings and agreed with others to work toward that object. " Prosecutor Timothy J. Reardon III stated that Langford had been a member of the Rajneesh commune in Oregon since it began in 1981, and that the government was able to prove he joined the murder conspiracy at a point in time after May 25, 1985. Reardon said that Langford was a member of a group called the " Circle of 38 ", which was the personal security force that guarded Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh, and that he had served as a weapons instructor and policeman at the commune. Langford told U.S. District Judge Malcom F. Marsh that he had suggested that guns for the murder conspiracy could be bought in Texas, instructed the conspiractors about silencers, took responsibility for the weapons while they were in the commune, and disposed of them when members of the murder conspiracy decided to flee the U.S. for Europe. In July 1991, Carol Matthews entered a guilty plea and was convicted in federal court, she was sentenced to five years in prison. Catherine Jane Stork was convicted of the attempted murder of Rajneesh's physician Dr. George Meredith ( Swami Devaraj ) in 1986, and served almost three years in jail. After her release, agents from the FBI uncovered the plot to assassinate Turner, but Stork had already fled to Germany. She was indicted by a federal grand jury in 1990. In 1991, the German government refused to extradite Stork back to the United States. In June 1991, U.S. prosecutors filed affidavits in the murder conspiracy case with the Higher Regional Court in Karlsruhe, Germany, as part of an attempt to extradite Catherin Jane Stork from Germany to the U.S. The affidavits stated that all of the members in the murder conspiracy plot also belonged to a group of Rajneesh followers at the Oregon commune known as " the 38 ", and were trained in " commando tactics using Uzi semiautomatic rifles and handguns ". David Berry Knapp ( known to Rajneesh followers as Swami Krishna Deva ) stated in an FBI affidavit that the murder conspiracy was motivated by Ma Anand Sheela's " tremendous anger " towards Turner. Ma Anand Sheela served 29 months in a minimum security federal prison for charges related to assault, attempted murder, arson, wiretapping and the 1984 bioterror attack in The Dalles, and moved to Switzerland after her release from prison in 1988. 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= Raid on Manila ( 1798 ) = The Raid on Manila of January 1798 was a Royal Navy false flag military operation during the French Revolutionary Wars intended to scout the strength of the defences of Manila, capital of the Spanish Philippines, capture a Manila galleon and assess the condition of the Spanish Navy squadron maintained in the port. Spain had transformed from an ally of Great Britain in the War of the First Coalition into an enemy in 1796. Thus the presence of a powerful Spanish squadron at Manila posed a threat to the China Fleet, an annual convoy of East Indiaman merchant ships from Macau in Qing Dynasty China to Britain, which was of vital economic importance to Britain. So severe was this threat that a major invasion of the Spanish Philippines had been planned from British India during 1797, but had been called off following the Treaty of Campo Formio in Europe and the possibility of a major war in India between the British East India Company and the Kingdom of Mysore. To ensure the safety of the merchant ships gathering at Macau in the winter of 1797 – 98, the British commander in the East Indies, Rear @-@ Admiral Peter Rainier, sent a convoy to China escorted by the frigates HMS Sybille and HMS Fox and commanded by Captain Edward Cooke. After completing his mission Cooke decided to investigate the state of readiness of Spanish forces in Manila himself. He was also intrigued by reports that a ship carrying treasure was due to sail from Manila, which would make a valuable prize. Sailing in Sybille and accompanied by Captain Pulteney Malcolm in Fox, Cooke reached the Spanish capital on 13 January 1798. Anchored in Manila Bay, Cooke pretended that his ships were French vessels and successfully lured successive boatloads of Spanish officials aboard, taking them prisoner in turn. Once he had determined from his captives the state of defences in Manila, that the treasure ship had been unloaded at Cavite and that the Spanish squadron was undergoing extensive repairs and thus unavailable for operations, he sent a raiding party against a squadron of gunboats in the mouth of the Pasig River. Capturing the gunboats in a bloodless attack, Cooke then released his prisoners and sailed southwards, unsuccessfully assaulting Zamboanga before returning to Macau. = = Background = = In 1796, after three years of the French Revolutionary Wars, Spain and the French Republic signed the Treaty of San Ildefonso. The secret terms of this treaty required Spain to renounce its alliance with Great Britain and subsequently to declare war on its former ally. In the East Indies this shift of political allegiance meant that the dominant British forces in the region were faced with the threat of attack from the Spanish Philippines to the east. Britain dominated the East Indies in 1796, controlling the trade routes through the Indian Ocean from the ports of Bombay, Madras and Calcutta. Dutch Ceylon, the Dutch Cape Colony and parts of the Dutch East Indies had been captured in 1795, and the French presence in the region had been confined to Île de France and a few subsidiary islands in the Western Indian Ocean. Some of the most important trade routes began at Canton and Macau in Qing Dynasty China. Early in each year a large convoy known as the " China Fleet ", composed of large East Indiaman merchant ships in the employ of the British East India Company, sailed westwards to Europe from Macau laden with tea and other commercial cargo. This convoy was economically significant to Britain : one convoy in 1804 was valued at over £ 8 million ( the equivalent of £ 600 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 as of 2016 ). In January 1797 the convoy had been attacked by the French squadron in the East Indies, comprising six frigates commanded by Contre @-@ amiral Pierre César Charles de Sercey. In the ensuing Bali Strait Incident the commander deceived Sercey into believing that the unescorted convoy contained disguised ships of the line and the French admiral retreated, only learning of his error on his return to Île de France. There was considerable concern in India that Sercey might try again in 1798, or that the Spanish, who maintained a powerful squadron at Cavite, might make an attempt of their own. Rainier's initial impulse on learning in November 1796 of the impending declaration of war between Britain and Spain was to draw up plans for a major invasion of the Philippines, centred on Manila in repetition of the successful British capture of Manila in 1762. Co @-@ operating with the Governor @-@ General of India Sir John Shore and Colonel Arthur Welleley among others, a substantial naval and military forces were earmarked for the operation which was in the advance planning stages, when unexpected news arrived in India in August 1797 announcing the Treaty of Campo Formio which brought the War of the First Coalition to an end. Britain now faced France and Spain alone, while emissaries from the Tipu Sultan of the Kingdom of Mysore, an old opponent of Britain in Southern India, were seeking French assistance with a renewed outbreak of hostilities. The resources planned for the operation against Manila were therefore retained in India and the operation cancelled, but the protection of the China Fleet was still essential and Rainier diverted some of his squadron eastwards to China. A number of merchant ships had gathered at Bombay in the spring of 1797 in preparation for the trip to Macau to load trade goods and join the China Fleet. To escort this force, Rainier provided the 40 @-@ gun frigate HMS Sybille, captured from the French at the Battle of Mykonos in 1794, and the 50 @-@ gun HMS Centurion, which sailed with the convoy in July, taking passage through the Straits of Malacca, joined there by the ships of the line HMS Victorious and HMS Trident and the 32 @-@ gun frigate HMS Fox under Captain Pulteney Malcolm for the final voyage to Macau. The convoy arrived without incident on 13 December 1797, although the crews had been substantially weakened by tropical illnesses. = = Cooke's raids = = = = = Reconnaissance of Manilla = = = With his convoy safely at anchor in Macau and the China Fleet several weeks from sailing, Cooke decided to reconnoitre Manila and make observations on the port and the Spanish squadron based there. As an added motivation, rumours in Macau suggested that the annual Manila galleon was due to arrive. This ship brought up to two million Spanish silver dollars from Acapulco across the Pacific Ocean stopping at Guam on its way to Manila. Depositing its dollars in the Philippines, the ship then loaded trade goods from the East Indies for the return journey to New Spain. This round trip was essential to the maintenance of the Spanish Empire in the East Indies, which operated at an enormous financial loss only mitigated by the substantial subsidy from New Spain. Spanish dollars were the accepted currency across most of the East Indies, and disruption of this financial system could have profound effects on regional trade ; but British sailors had nevertheless been attacking the Manila galleons since Thomas Cavendish in 1587. Leaving the heavier warships at Macau, Cooke sailed on 5 January 1798 only with Sybille and Fox, the latter carrying a Mr. Bernard, an experienced linguist. Passing Luzon, Cooke's ships encountered a small Spanish merchant vessel, which was lured towards the frigates, which were flying French tricolors. Seizing the Spanish vessel, Cooke closely questioned the captain and learned that most of the Spanish squadron in Manila were undergoing extensive repairs at Cavite and were unfit to sail. Cooke rewarded the captain by releasing his vessel with its cargo intact, although he did remove 3 @,@ 900 silver dollars. The Spanish squadron had suffered badly in a typhoon in April 1797 and much of the damage had still not been repaired by the time Cooke's small squadron arrived off Manila. Cooke had taken precautions to disguise his ships as French vessels, modelling Sybille on the powerful 40 @-@ gun Forte and Fox on the smaller Prudente. = = = Dinner on Sybille = = = Late in the afternoon of 13 January 1798, Sybille and Fox arrived in Manila Bay, slipping unchallenged past the fortress of Corregidor and then sailing across the bay on the morning of 14 January, anchoring between Manila and Cavite. From his vantage point Cooke could see the Spanish squadron dismasted and under repair in Cavite, the ships of the line San Pedro, Europa and Montañés and the frigates Maria de la Cabeya and Luisa in dock and unfit for action. To Cooke's disappointment he could also see the Manila galleon, Marquesetta being unloaded at the Cavite docks and another valuable merchant ship Rey Carlos aground in the harbour. The Spanish had learned only shortly before Cooke's arrival that the British frigate HMS Resistance under Captain Edward Pakenham was in Philippine waters and had decided to remove the valuable cargo from the treasure ship rather than risk an attack. Fox was the first British ship into the anchorage, and was consequently approached by the guardboat, whose crew came aboard. Malcolm, like Cooke, spoke French fluently and with Bernard translating was able to persuade the officer in charge that the new arrivals were Forte and Prudente seeking supplies and Spanish reinforcements for commerce raiding operations. The officer offered supplies but cautioned that none of the Spanish ships would be in a position to sail until March at the earliest. 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= Éva Gauthier = Éva Gauthier ( September 20, 1885 – December 20, 1958 ) was a Canadian @-@ American mezzo @-@ soprano and voice teacher. She performed and popularised songs by contemporary composers throughout her career and sang in the American premieres of several works by Erik Satie, Maurice Ravel and Igor Stravinsky, including the title role in the latter's Perséphone. The niece of Lady Laurier and Sir Wilfrid Laurier, who also were her patrons, she initially trained and performed in Europe. She then travelled to Java and for four years immersed herself in its native music, which she introduced to North American audiences on her return. She retired from performing in 1937, and opened a voice studio in New York, where she became a founding member of the American Guild of Musical Artists and served on its board of governors. Gauthier was praised for the many qualities her singing brought to music. The citation from the Campion Society of San Francisco, which she received in 1949, said : "... her rare open @-@ mindedness and unorthodox enthusiasm having been initially responsible for the recognition of many vital and important modern composers " = = Singing career = = Born in Ottawa, Ontario, Gauthier received musical lessons as a child, in harmony, voice, and piano. The custom of the time dictated that North American musicians travel to Europe for training if they desired a reputable professional career, and in July 1902, at the age of seventeen, Gauthier set out for Europe, financed by her aunt and uncle, Lady Zoé Laurier and Sir Wilfrid Laurier. = = = Training in Europe = = = Gauthier travelled to France, where she received private voice lessons from Auguste @-@ Jean Dubulle of the Paris Conservatory. Nodules on her vocal cords were problematic, but they were removed surgically. She later began training under Jacques Bouhy, whom she would later credit for her vocal technique. In 1906, Gauthier was retained by fellow Canadian singer Emma Albani to accompany her on a tour of England and her Canadian farewell tour. Albani provided a degree of mentorship to Gauthier during the 30 week tour of Canada. Lord Strathcona awarded Gauthier a scholarship in 1906 that allowed her to return to Europe and continue her vocal studies. She returned there and continued both to study and give performances. Her first operatic performance came in 1909 in Pavia, Italy as Micaëla in Bizet's Carmen. She landed a second operatic role as Mallika in Delibes'Lakmé, which was being performed by the London Covent Garden opera company. The opera opened in June 1910. Supposedly, Luisa Tetrazzini, the prima donna soprano of the company, feared that Gauthier's voice would outshine her own, and demanded that Gauthier be removed from the opera. The company's director acquiesced to Tetrazzini's demands, informing Gauthier on opening night that she would not be performing. Gauthier reacted badly, and quit opera entirely. = = = Move to Java = = = Disappointed by her blocked entry into the operatic scene, Gauthier departed Europe and travelled to Java. There, she met a Dutch importer and plantation manager named Frans Knoote. Gauthier and Knoote married on May 22, 1911. Gauthier studied the music of Java, and began to include this in her repertoire. Her accompanying pianist was Paul Seelig, who had previously been the conductor for the Kraton of Surakarta, which afforded Gauthier a number of opportunities. On permission of the Javanese court, she studied the gamelan, probably being the first western woman with a classical music education to be afforded this opportunity. While living in Java, Gauthier travelled extensively, giving performances in China, Japan, Singapore, Malaya, Australia, and New Zealand. She remained in Java for four years, but with the outbreak of World War I she decided to travel back to North America, arriving in New York City in the fall of 1915. = = = Return to North America = = = Arriving in New York, Gauthier struggled to find a niche in an already crowded music scene. She put on a performance in Vaudeville entitled Songmotion, which combined Javan music with dancers. New York was already home to many North American and European musical performers, so Gauthier focused on her Javan musical repertoire, which she combined with knowledge and skill in modernist western singing. Gauthier began giving annual recitals at Aeolian Hall, and in November 1917 her performance there caught the eye of many leading composers. She developed her own reputation quickly, known as a "... sensitive purveyor of interesting, untried songs ". She gave renditions of three songs by Maurice Ravel. Her performance then also included American premieres of Stravinsky's Three Japanese Lyrics and Griffes'Five Poems of Ancient China and Japan. The performance was a great success, and she began to receive invitations to perform premieres of songs by contemporary composers. Stravinsky arranged to have Gauthier to premiere all of his vocal pieces. Gauthier travelled to Paris in 1920 at the behest of the Music League of America. Sent there to arrange a tour of North America by Maurice Ravel, she struck up a friendship and professional correspondence not only with him, but also with Erik Satie and Les six. This led to more music being sent to her by various composers that she would premiere in concert. She accepted and premiered almost all works sent to her, the only exception being a refusal to perform Pierrot Lunaire by Arnold Schoenberg. Through this, Gauthier performed large amounts of contemporary French music across the United States. She also included American music in all of her concerts. Gauthier toured America frequently and returned to Europe in 1922, and again in 1923. She began to explore Jazz music in concert as well, earning her negative reviews by many musical critics. Her 1923 annual performance at Aeolian Hall entitled " Recital of Ancient and Modern Music for Voice " became a historic occasion when she presented the works of George Gershwin, the first time his works were performed by a classical singer in concert. The first half of the programme presented works considered serious music at the time. She performed both classical works by Vincenzo Bellini and Henry Purcell, mixing them with modernist and neoclassical works by Arnold Schoenberg, Darius Milhaud, Béla Bartók, and Paul Hindemith. The second half of her performance would upset the musical establishment, however. She opened with Alexander's Ragtime Band by Irving Berlin, then performed works by Jerome Kern and Walter Donaldson, and finally finished with three works by George Gershwin : I 'll Build a Stairway to Paradise, Innocent Ingénue Baby, and Swanee. Gershwin played the piano for these pieces. Important figures in the audience included Ernestine Schumann @-@ Heink, Virgil Thomson, and Paul Whiteman. Although some musical critics panned her decision to include Jazz music, the performance was overall a huge success, and provoked serious discussion among conservative audiences whether jazz music could be considered serious art. Gauthier continued to present music that was thought poorly of by conservative audiences. On some occasions, such as her performances of Gershwin in New York in 1923 and 1925, as well as in London in 1925, this was quite successful. A critic in Vienna welcomed her musical selection as a reprieve from the usual fare of classical performances - Schubert, Brahms, Wolf, Richard Strauss - while praising her skill with more classical choices. Other performances suffered – she was booed while performing works by Heitor Villa @-@ Lobos at the Festival of the International Society of Contemporary Music in Venice. She became a celebrity, and continued giving performances across the United States, Europe, and her native Canada. On the sixtieth anniversary of Canadian Confederation in 1927, she gave a performance in Ottawa which was the first transcontinental radio broadcast in Canada. Although she toured Canada from time to time, and attended performances of Canadian music in New York, she held a negative opinion of Canada's treatment of native musicians, saying " Canadians... would rather listen to foreigners than their own people. " = = = Retirement from the stage = = = Illness forced Gauthier to halt giving performances in the late 1920s, but she would return to the stage in 1931, giving a concert in Havana, Cuba. As time passed she began to engage more and more in teaching, and less and less in stage performing. Her income from teaching was substantially better than from touring. She retired from performing entirely in 1937, and opened a music studio in New York. There she became a founding member of the American Guild of Musical Artists, serving on its board of governors. She died on December 20, 1958. = = Views of critics and audiences = = Gauthier was a controversial musician in her time. Her choice of music for performance was often condemned, and often praised. The appropriateness of jazz music for a classically trained singer, combined with the performances taking place in concert halls lead some critics to cheer her for promoting otherwise overlooked music, and others to condemn her for taking lowbrow music into a highbrow venue. A May 1, 1917 review by the New York Times praised her natural talent, with some reservations about the unpolished quality of her voice. 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= Frank Headlam = Air Vice Marshal Frank Headlam, CB, CBE ( 15 July 1914 – 23 December 1976 ) was a senior commander in the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ). Born and educated in Tasmania, he joined the RAAF as an air cadet in January 1934. He specialised in flying instruction and navigation before the outbreak of World War II. In April 1941, he became commanding officer of No. 2 Squadron, which operated Lockheed Hudsons. The squadron was deployed to Dutch Timor in December, and saw action against Japanese forces in the South West Pacific. After returning to Australia in February 1942, Headlam held staff appointments and training commands, finishing the war a group captain. Headlam served as Officer Commanding North @-@ Western Area in 1946, and as Director of Training from 1947 to 1950. In 1950 – 51, during the Malayan Emergency, he was stationed at Singapore as commander of No. 90 ( Composite ) Wing and, later, RAF Tengah. He twice served as acting Air Member for Personnel, in 1957 and 1959 – 60, receiving appointment as a Commander of the Order of the British Empire in 1958. Promoted air vice marshal, he successively held the positions of Air Officer Commanding ( AOC ) Operational Command in 1961 – 62, AOC No. 224 Group RAF from 1962 to 1965 during the Indonesia – Malaysia Konfrontasi, Deputy Chief of the Air Staff in 1965 – 66, and AOC Support Command in 1966 – 67. He was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath in 1965. Following a posting to London as Head of the Australian Joint Services Staff from 1968 to 1971, he retired from the Air Force and died in Melbourne five years later. = = Early career = = The son of farmers Malcolm and Hilda Headlam, Frank Headlam was born on 15 July 1914 in Launceston, Tasmania. He was schooled at Clemes College, Hobart, and matriculated in 1932. Against the wishes of his parents he joined the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) as an air cadet on 16 January 1934. He underwent flying instruction with No. 1 Flying Training School ( FTS ) at RAAF Point Cook, Victoria, and was commissioned as a pilot officer on 1 January 1935. After completing a conversion course, Headlam was assigned to the Seaplane Squadron at Point Cook. No larger than a flight according to the official history of the pre @-@ war RAAF, Seaplane Squadron was part of No. 1 FTS and operated Supermarine Southampton flying boats and de Havilland Gipsy Moth floatplanes, among other types. During this posting Headlam was promoted to flying officer, on 1 July 1935, and wrote a paper on national defence in which he suggested that with " strong air forces, naval forces ( including submarines ), and fixed defences, Australia may be made practically invulnerable ". According to Air Force historian Alan Stephens, this paper " in effect, defined the'anti @-@ lodgment'concept which has been a persistent feature of RAAF strategic thinking ". Headlam completed a flying instructors course in July 1936 and joined the staff of No. 1 FTS. He was promoted to flight lieutenant on 1 March 1937. Commencing in July 1938, he was one of six students to take part in the RAAF's first Long Specialist Navigation Course, run by Flight Lieutenants Bill Garing and Alister Murdoch at Point Cook. The course involved several epic training flights that attracted considerable media attention, including a twelve @-@ day, 10 @,@ 800 @-@ kilometre ( 6 @,@ 700 mi ) round @-@ Australia trip by three Avro Ansons, one of which was piloted by Headlam, in November. The following month, Headlam led the three Ansons on a six @-@ day journey back and forth over Central Australia. He subsequently passed the navigation course with a special distinction. On 27 January 1939 he was posted to RAAF Station Laverton, Victoria, as a flight commander. He served initially with No. 2 Squadron, before transferring to No. 1 Squadron on 29 August. Both units operated Ansons. = = World War II = = Following the outbreak of World War II, No. 1 Squadron was engaged in convoy escort and maritime reconnaissance duties off south @-@ eastern Australia. Headlam continued to serve with the squadron as a flight commander until 15 January 1940, when he was assigned to Headquarters Laverton as the station navigation officer. On 27 March he was posted to the staff of RAAF Headquarters, Melbourne. He was promoted to squadron leader on 1 June 1940. Two weeks later he married Katherine Bridge at St Paul's Anglican Church in Frankston ; the couple would have a son and a daughter. Headlam was given command of No. 2 Squadron at Laverton on 15 April 1941, and raised to wing commander on 1 July. Equipped with Lockheed Hudsons, the squadron mainly conducted maritime patrols in southern waters until 5 December, when four of its aircraft were ordered to Darwin, Northern Territory, in response to fears of Japanese aggression in the Pacific. On 7 December, this detachment established itself at Penfui, near Koepang in Dutch Timor, while No. 2 Squadron's eight remaining Hudsons were stationed at Darwin on standby. The following day, aware that Australia was now at war in the Pacific, one of the Penfui @-@ based Hudsons attacked the Japanese pearler Nanyo Maru, which was suspected of being a radio ship, and forced it aground. By 12 December, Headlam had transferred to Penfui as commanding officer of the base, as well as No. 2 Squadron. During January 1942, No. 2 Squadron's aircraft were dispersed at Penfui, Boeroe Island, and Darwin. The Penfui detachment attacked Japanese shipping taking part in the invasion of Celebes. Two Hudsons shot down or damaged three Japanese floatplanes that attacked them as they were bombing a transport ship on 11 January ; the next day both Hudsons were themselves shot down by Mitsubishi Zeros. Penfui was bombed by the Japanese for the first time on 26 January 1942, and attacked regularly thereafter, damaging some aircraft. The intact Hudsons were withdrawn to Darwin but Headlam and his staff remained at Penfui to enable the base to be used by aircraft during reconnaissance missions from Australia. On 18 February, Headlam was ordered to evacuate all his personnel except a small party to demolish the airfield with assistance from Sparrow Force. He returned to Darwin the following day, just as the city experienced its first raid by the Japanese. Four of No. 2 Squadron's Hudsons were destroyed in the attack ; the remainder were relocated to Daly Waters, where they continued to carry out reconnaissance and bombing missions against Japanese targets in Timor. Headlam remained in Darwin as Controller of Operations at Headquarters North @-@ Western Area Command until 12 May 1942, when he was posted to Nhill, Victoria, as commanding officer of No. 2 Air Navigation School, operating Ansons. No. 97 ( Reserve ) Squadron was formed from the school's personnel in June. On 20 July 1943, Headlam took command of No. 2 Air Observer School ( AOS ), also operating Ansons, at Mount Gambier, South Australia. He was promoted to group captain on 1 December 1943, and was appointed the inaugural commanding officer of No. 3 AOS, operating Ansons and Fairey Battles out of Port Pirie, on 9 December. After handing over command of No. 3 AOS, he commenced studies at RAAF Staff School in Mount Martha, Victoria, on 2 October 1944. He was appointed senior administrative staff officer at North @-@ Western Area Command on 12 January 1945. = = Post @-@ war career = = Headlam became Officer Commanding North @-@ Western Area in January 1946. Posted to Britain at the end of the year, he attended the Royal Air Force Staff College, Andover, and served with RAAF Overseas Headquarters, London. On his return to Australia, in November 1947, he became Director of Training at RAAF Headquarters. In November 1950, Headlam was appointed to take over command of No. 90 ( Composite ) Wing from Group Captain Paddy Heffernan. Headquartered at RAF Changi, Singapore, No. 90 Wing controlled RAAF units operating during the Malayan Emergency : No. 1 ( Bomber ) Squadron, flying Avro Lincolns, and No. 38 ( Transport ) Squadron, flying Douglas C @-@ 47 Dakotas. The Lincolns conducted area bombing missions over communist @-@ held territory, as well as strikes against pinpoint targets. The Dakotas were tasked with courier flights, VIP transport and medical evacuations across South East Asia, and in Malaya with airlifting troops and cargo, dropping supplies to friendly forces and despatching propaganda leaflets. Headlam was slightly injured on 20 December, when a No. 38 Squadron Dakota he was co @-@ piloting on a supply drop crash @-@ landed at Kampong Aur in Pahang, following engine failure. In August 1951 he was named commander of RAF Tengah, Singapore, in addition to his post as commanding officer of No. 90 Wing. Headlam handed over command of No. 90 Wing in December 1951. On 19 February 1952, Headlam became senior air staff officer ( SASO ) at Eastern Area Command in Penrith, New South Wales. 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= Trout Creek Mountains = The Trout Creek Mountains are a remote, semi @-@ arid Great Basin mountain range mostly in southeastern Oregon and partially in northern Nevada in the United States. The range's highest point is Orevada View Benchmark, 8 @,@ 506 feet ( 2 @,@ 593 m ) above sea level, in Nevada. Disaster Peak, elevation 7 @,@ 781 feet ( 2 @,@ 372 m ), is another prominent summit in the Nevada portion of the mountains. The mountains are characteristic of the Great Basin's topography of mostly parallel mountain ranges alternating with flat valleys. Oriented generally north to south, the Trout Creek Mountains consist primarily of fault blocks of basalt, which came from an ancient volcano and other vents, on top of older metamorphic rocks. The southern end of the range, however, features many granitic outcrops. As a whole, the faulted terrain is dominated by rolling hills and ridges cut by escarpments and canyons. Most of the range is public land administered by the federal Bureau of Land Management. There is very little human development in the remote region — cattle grazing and ranching are the primary human uses — but former mines at the McDermitt Caldera produced some of the largest amounts of mercury in North America in the 20th century. Public lands in the mountains are open to recreation but are rarely visited. Vegetation includes large swaths of big sagebrush in addition to desert grasses and cottonwood and alder stands. Sage grouse and mountain chickadee are two bird species native to the range, and common mammals include pronghorn and jackrabbits. Despite the area's dry climate, a few year @-@ round streams provide habitat for the rare Lahontan cutthroat trout. Fish populations in the Trout Creek Mountains declined throughout much of the 20th century. In the 1980s, the effects of grazing allotments on riparian zones and the fish led to land @-@ use conflict. The Trout Creek Mountain Working Group was formed in 1988 to help resolve disagreements among livestock owners, environmentalists, government agencies, and other interested parties. The stakeholders met and agreed on changes to land @-@ use practices, and since the early 1990s, riparian zones have begun to recover. = = Geography = = The Trout Creek Mountains are in a very remote area of southeastern Oregon and northern Nevada, in Harney and Humboldt counties. The nearest human settlements are the Whitehorse Ranch, about 20 miles ( 32 km ) directly north from the middle of the mountains ; Fields, Oregon, about 23 miles ( 37 km ) to the northwest ; Denio, Nevada, about 15 miles ( 24 km ) to the west ; and McDermitt, Nevada – Oregon, about 30 miles ( 48 km ) to the east. The mountains are about 150 miles ( 240 km ) directly southwest of Boise, Idaho, and about 190 miles ( 310 km ) northeast of Reno, Nevada. The range and surrounding non @-@ mountainous areas cover an area of 811 square miles ( 2 @,@ 100 km2 ). The mountains run 51 miles ( 82 km ) north to south and 36 miles ( 58 km ) east to west. More of the range is in Oregon ( 78 % ) than in Nevada ( 22 % ). The highest point in the range is Orevada View Benchmark, which is 8 @,@ 506 feet ( 2 @,@ 593 m ) above sea level and is located in Nevada about one mile south of the Oregon border. About two miles southeast of Orevada View is Disaster Peak, " a large, symmetrical butte that is visible throughout the region. " At 7 @,@ 781 feet ( 2 @,@ 372 m ), Disaster Peak anchors the southern end of the mountains in a sub @-@ range called The Granites. The Oregon Canyon Mountains border the Trout Creek Mountains on the east along the Harney – Malheur county line ( according to the United States Geological Survey's definitions ), while the Pueblo Mountains are the next range west of the Trout Creek Mountains. The Bilk Creek Mountains in both Oregon and Nevada border the Trout Creek Mountains on the southwest ; the two ranges are separated by Log Cabin Creek and South Fork Cottonwood Creek. South of the Trout Creek Mountains is the Kings River Valley, which separates the Bilk Creek Mountains on the west from the Montana Mountains on the east. The terrain in the Trout Creek Mountains varies from broad, flat basins and rolling ridges to high rock escarpments cut by deep canyons. The canyons have steep walls with loose talus slopes at the bottoms. There are meadows around springs in the mountains, although most streams in the range do not flow year @-@ round. Major streams that flow off the north slopes of the mountains include ( from west to east ) Cottonwood Creek, Trout Creek, Willow Creek, and Whitehorse Creek. These streams all flow into endorheic basins in Harney County, Oregon. Trout Creek and Whitehorse Creek are the largest of the four. The Kings River and McDermitt Creek each drain an area on the south slopes of the Trout Creek Mountains. The Kings River begins in The Granites and flows south into Nevada, where it meets the Quinn River, which evaporates in the Black Rock Desert. McDermitt Creek begins in Oregon a few miles north of The Granites and flows generally east, crossing the Oregon – Nevada border five times before disappearing into the floor of the Quinn River Valley south of McDermitt. = = Geology = = The mountains lie within the Basin and Range Province or Great Basin of the Western United States, which is characterized by a series of parallel fault blocks that form long north – south mountain ranges separated by wide, high @-@ desert valleys. The Trout Creek Mountains are uplifted and tilted blocks with steep escarpments along the southern and eastern sides of the range. The southern area of the range, known as The Granites, has numerous outcroppings of Cretaceous age granite. These granite outcrops are commonly found in the eroded valleys below the volcanic ridgelines. The Trout Creek Mountains are composed mostly of basalt from a shield volcano that once stood where Steens Mountain is today. Crustal thinning and the Yellowstone hotspot, which was then beneath southeastern Oregon, induced eruptions from Steens and nearby vents about 17 million years ago, in the Miocene. The vents produced a series of lava flows that spread across the land now known as the Trout Creek Mountains. Eruptions from the Steens volcano lasted for about one million years, and at least 70 separate lava flows occurred. Under the resulting basalt rock lie much older metamorphic rocks that may be related to some of the Triassic age formations of the Blue Mountains in northeastern Oregon. Within these metamorphic rocks are diorite and granodiorite intrusive bodies which were presumably intruded during the Cretaceous Period. The broad McDermitt Caldera is a prominent geologic feature in the Trout Creek Mountains. The oval @-@ shaped caldera is a collapsed lava dome that straddles the Oregon – Nevada border on the eastern side of the range and south of the Oregon Canyon Mountains. It is about 28 miles ( 45 km ) long and 22 miles ( 35 km ) wide. The lava dome was created by volcanic eruptions in the early Miocene. A total of five large ash flows were produced along with a large rhyolite dome structure. The caldera formed when the dome collapsed about 16 million years ago. The caldera contains significant ore deposits, and mercury and uranium have been mined at eight or more sites in and around the caldera. Other areas in the caldera were mined for ores of antimony, cesium, and lithium. = = Climate = = The Trout Creek Mountains are semi @-@ arid because they are in the eastern rain shadow of mountain ranges to the west. When moist air from the Pacific Ocean moves eastward over the Oregon and California coastal ranges and the Cascade Range, most precipitation falls in those mountains before reaching the Trout Creek Mountains. As a result, the average annual precipitation in the Trout Creek Mountains is only 8 to 26 inches ( 200 to 660 mm ) per year, with most areas receiving between 8 and 12 inches ( 200 and 300 mm ) annually. Much of the annual precipitation occurs between the beginning of March and the end of June. Most of the rest falls as snow during the fall and winter months. Snowpack at elevations below 6 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 800 m ) usually melts by April ; however, at the higher elevations, snow can remain until mid @-@ June. Local flooding often occurs in the spring as the snowpack melts. The prevailing winds are from the west @-@ southwest, and they are normally strongest in March and April. Brief, intense thunderstorms are common between April and October. Thunderstorms in the summer months tend to be more isolated and often produce dry lightning strikes. = = Ecology = = = = = Flora = = = Vegetation in the Trout Creek Mountains is dominated by big sagebrush and desert grasses. Other common shrubs include bitterbrush, snowberry, and Ceanothus. There are also patches of mountain mahogany in some areas. 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I have never felt so disappointed and helpless. " Twelve U.S. Marines were killed ; Japanese casualties are unknown but perhaps somewhat greater. Although both Oka in the west and the Kuma unit in the east tried to attack the Marine lines that night, they failed to make contact and halted near the Marine lines at dawn. At first light on 13 September, Cactus Air Force aircraft and Marine artillery fired into the area just south of the ridge, forcing any Japanese out in the open to seek cover in the nearby jungle. The Japanese suffered several casualties, including two officers from Watanabe's battalion. At 05 : 50, Kawaguchi decided to regroup his forces for another attack that night. = = = Second night's action on the ridge = = = Expecting the Japanese to attack again that night, Edson directed his troops to improve their defenses on and around the ridge. After a failed attempt by two companies to retake the ground on the Marine right flank lost to Kokusho the night before, Edson repositioned his forces. He pulled his front back about 400 yd ( 370 m ) to a line that stretched 1 @,@ 800 yd ( 1 @,@ 600 m ), starting at the Lunga River and crossing the ridge about 150 yd ( 140 m ) south of Hill 123. Around and behind Hill 123 he placed five companies. Any Japanese attackers surmounting Hill 80 would have to advance over 400 yd ( 370 m ) of open terrain to close with the Marine positions at Hill 123. With only a few hours to prepare, the Marines were only able to construct rudimentary and shallow fortifications. They were low on ammunition, with one or two grenades for each Marine. Vandegrift ordered a reserve force consisting of the 2nd Battalion, 5th Marine Regiment ( 2 / 5 ) to move into a position just to the rear of Edson's troops. In addition, a battery of four 105mm howitzers from the 11th Marine Regiment moved to a location from where it could provide direct fire onto the ridge, and a forward artillery observer was placed with Edson's front line units. Late in the afternoon, Edson stepped onto a grenade box and addressed his exhausted troops, saying, You men have done a great job, and I have just one more thing to ask of you. Hold out just one more night. I know we've been without sleep a long time. But we expect another attack from them tonight and they may come through here. I have every reason to believe that we will have reliefs here for all of us in the morning. Edson's speech " raised the spirits " of the Raiders and helped them prepare mentally for the night ahead. As the sun set on 13 September, Kawaguchi faced Edson's 830 Marines with 3 @,@ 000 troops of his brigade, plus an assortment of light artillery. The night was pitch black, with no moon. At 21 : 00, seven Japanese destroyers briefly bombarded the ridge. Kawaguchi's attack began just after nightfall, with Kokusho's battalion assaulting Raider Company B on the Marine right flank, just to the west of the ridge. The force of the assault caused Company B to fall back to Hill 123. Under Marine artillery fire, Kokusho reassembled his men and continued his attack. Without pausing to try to " roll @-@ up " the other nearby Marine units, whose flanks were now unprotected, Kokusho's unit surged forward through the swampy lowlands between the ridge and the Lunga River, heading for the airfield. Kokusho's men came upon a pile of Marine supplies and rations. Not having eaten adequately for a couple of days, they paused to " gorge themselves " on the " C " and " K " rations. Kokusho ordered his men to continue the attack. At about 03 : 00, he led them against the Marine units around the northern portion of the ridge, just short of the airfield, as well as Hill 123. In the heavy fighting that followed, Kokusho and around 100 of his men were killed, ending that attack. Meanwhile, Kawaguchi's 2nd Battalion, under Major Masao Tamura, assembled for their planned assault against Hill 80 from the jungle south of the ridge. Marine observers spotted Tamura's preparations and called in artillery fire. At about 22 : 00, a barrage from twelve 105 mm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) guns hit Tamura's position. In response, two companies of Tamura's troops — numbering about 320 men — charged up Hill 80 with fixed bayonets behind their own barrage of mortar fire and grenades. Tamura's attack hit Company B of the Marine Parachute battalion and also Raider Company B, pushing the Parachutists off the east side of the ridge into a draw below the ridgeline. To protect the exposed Raider Company B, Edson immediately ordered them to pull back onto Hill 123. At the same time, a Japanese company from Watanabe's battalion infiltrated through a gap between the east side of the ridge and Parachute Company C. Deciding that their positions were now untenable, Parachute Companies B and C climbed onto the ridge and retreated to a position behind Hill 123. In the darkness and confusion of the battle, the retreat quickly became confused and disorganized. A few Marines began yelling that the Japanese were attacking with poison gas, scaring other Marines who no longer possessed their gas masks. After arriving behind Hill 123, some of the Marines continued on towards the airfield, repeating the word " withdraw " to anyone within earshot. Other Marines began to follow them. Just at the moment that it appeared that the Marines on the hill were about to break and head for the rear in a rout, Edson, Major Kenneth D. Bailey from Edson's staff, and other Marine officers appeared and, with " vivid " language, herded the Marines back into defensive positions around Hill 123. As the Marines formed into a horseshoe @-@ shaped line around Hill 123, Tamura's battalion began a series of frontal assaults on the hill, charging up the saddle from Hill 80 and up from below the east side of the ridge. Under the light of parachute flares dropped by at least one Japanese floatplane, the Marines repulsed the first two attacks by Tamura's men. Tamura's troops hoisted a 75 mm ( 2 @.@ 95 in ) " regimental " gun to the top of Hill 80 in an effort to fire it directly at the Marines. This gun, which " could have turned the tide in favor of the Japanese, " however, was disabled by a faulty firing pin. At midnight, during a short lull in the fighting, Edson ordered Parachute Companies B and C to advance from behind Hill 123 to strengthen his left flank. With fixed bayonets, the Paramarines swept forward, killing Japanese soldiers who had overrun the Marine lines and were apparently preparing to roll up the Marine lines from the flank, and took position on the east side of the hill. Marines from other units, as well as members of Edson's command staff, including Major Bailey, took ammunition and grenades under fire to the Marines around Hill 123, who were running critically low. Said Marine participant Captain William J. McKennan, " The Japanese attack was almost constant, like a rain that subsides for a moment and then pours the harder... When one wave was mowed down - and I mean mowed down - another followed it into death. " The Japanese hit Edson's left flank just after the Parachutists took position but were again stopped by Marine rifle, machine @-@ gun, mortar, and grenade fire. Marine 105 mm and 75 mm artillery was also taking a heavy toll on the attacking Japanese. A captured Japanese soldier later said that his unit was " annihilated " by the Marine artillery fire, which only 10 % of his company survived. By 04 : 00, after withstanding several more assaults, some of which resulted in hand @-@ to @-@ hand fighting, and severe sniper fire from all sides, Edson's men were joined by troops from the 2nd Battalion, 5th Marine Regiment, who helped repulse two more Japanese attacks before dawn. Throughout the night, as Kawaguchi's men came close to overrunning the Marine defenses, Edson remained standing about 20 yd ( 18 m ) behind the Marine firing line on Hill 123, exhorting his troops and directing their defensive efforts. Said Marine Captain Tex Smith, who was in position to observe Edson for most of the night, " I can say that if there is such a thing as one man holding a battalion together, Edson did it that night. He stood just behind the front lines – stood, when most of us hugged the ground. " During the heavy fighting, portions of three Japanese companies, including two from Tamura's and one from Watanabe's battalions, skirted the Marine defenses on the ridge, while suffering heavy losses from Marine gunfire, and reached the edge of " Fighter One ", a secondary runway of Henderson Field. A counterattack by the Marine engineers stopped one Japanese company's advances and forced it to retreat. The other two companies waited at the edge of the jungle for reinforcements to arrive before attacking into the open area around the airfield. When no reinforcements joined them, both companies went back to their original positions south of the ridge after daybreak. Most of the rest of Watanabe's battalion did not participate in the battle because they lost contact

wikitext_103

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= Hu Zhengyan = Hu Zhengyan ( Chinese : 胡正言 ; c. 1584 – 1674 ) was a Chinese artist, printmaker and publisher. He worked in calligraphy, traditional Chinese painting, and seal @-@ carving, but was primarily a publisher, producing academic texts as well as records of his own work. Hu lived in Nanjing during the transition from the Ming dynasty to the Qing dynasty. A Ming loyalist, he was offered a position at the rump court of the Hongguang Emperor, but declined the post, and never held anything more than minor political office. He did, however, design the Hongguang Emperor's personal seal, and his loyalty to the dynasty was such that he largely retired from society after the emperor's capture and death in 1645. He owned and operated an academic publishing house called the Ten Bamboo Studio, in which he practised various multi @-@ colour printing and embossing techniques, and he employed several members of his family in this enterprise. Hu's work at the Ten Bamboo Studio pioneered new techniques in colour printmaking, leading to delicate gradations of colour which were not previously achievable in this art form. Hu is best known for his manual of painting entitled The Ten Bamboo Studio Manual of Painting and Calligraphy, an artist's primer which remained in print for around 200 years. His studio also published seal catalogues, academic and medical texts, books on poetry, and decorative writing papers. Many of these were edited and prefaced by Hu and his brothers. = = Biography = = Hu was born in Xiuning County, Anhui Province in 1584 or early 1585. Both his father and elder brother Zhengxin ( 正心, art name Wusuo, 無所 ) were physicians, and after he turned 30 he travelled with them while they practised medicine in the areas around Lu 'an and Huoshan. It is commonly stated that Zhengyan himself was also a doctor, though the earliest sources attesting to this occur only in the second half of the 19th century. By 1619, Hu had moved to Nanjing where he lived with his wife Wu. Their home on Jilongshan ( 雞籠山, now also known as Beiji Ge ), a hill located just within the northern city wall, served as a meeting @-@ house for like @-@ minded artists. Hu named it the Ten Bamboo Studio ( Shizhuzhai, 十竹齋 ), after the ten bamboo plants that grew in front of the property. It functioned as the headquarters for his printing business, where he employed ten artisans including his two brothers Zhengxin and Zhengxing ( 正行, art name Zizhu, 子著 ) and his sons Qipu ( 其樸 ) and Qiyi ( 其毅, courtesy name 致果 ). During Hu's lifetime, the Ming dynasty, which had ruled China for over 250 years, was overthrown and replaced by China's last imperial dynasty, the Qing. Following the fall of the capital Beijing in 1644, remnants of the imperial family and a few ministers set up a Ming loyalist regime in Nanjing with Zhu Yousong on the throne as the Hongguang Emperor. Hu, who was noted for his seal @-@ carving and facility with seal script, created a seal for the new Emperor. The court offered him the position of Drafter for the Secretariat ( zhongshu sheren, 中書舍人 ) as a reward, but he did not accept the role ( although he did accord himself the title of zhongshu sheren in some of his subsequent personal seals ). According to Wen Ruilin's Lost History of the South ( Nanjiang Yishi, 南疆繹史 ), prior to the Qing invasion of Nanjing Hu studied at the National University there, and whilst a student was employed by the Ministry of Rites to record official proclamations ; he produced the Imperial Promotion of Minor Learning ( Qin Ban Xiaoxue, 御頒小學 ) and the Record of Displayed Loyalty ( Biaozhong Ji, 表忠記 ) as part of this work. As a result, he was promoted to the Ministry of Personnel and gained admittance to the Hanlin Academy, but before he could take up this appointment, Beijing had fallen to the Manchu rebellion. Since contemporaneous biographies ( Wen's work was not published until 1830 ) make no mention of these events, it has been suggested that they were fabricated after Hu's death. Hu retired from public life and went into seclusion in 1646, after the end of the Ming dynasty. Xiao Yuncong and Lü Liuliang recorded visiting him during his later years, in 1667 and 1673 respectively. He died in poverty at the age of 90, sometime around late 1673 or early 1674. = = Seal @-@ carving = = Hu Zhengyan was a noted seal @-@ carver, producing personal seals for numerous dignitaries. His style was rooted in the classical seal script of the Han dynasty, and he followed the Huizhou school of carving founded by his contemporary He Zhen. Hu's calligraphy, although balanced and with a clear compositional structure, is somewhat more angular and rigid than the classical models he followed. Huizhou seals attempt to impart an ancient, weathered impression, although unlike other Huizhou artists Hu did not make a regular practice of artificially aging his seals. Hu's work was known outside his local area. Zhou Lianggong, a poet who lived in Nanjing around the same time as Hu and was a noted art connoisseur, stated in his Biography of Seal @-@ Carvers ( Yinren Zhuan, 印人傳 ) that Hu " creates miniature stone carvings with ancient seal inscriptions for travellers to fight over and treasure ", implying that his carvings were popular with visitors and travellers passing through Nanjing. In 1644, Hu took it upon himself to create a new Imperial seal for the Hongguang Emperor, which he carved after a period of fasting and prayer. He presented his creation with an essay, the Great Exhortation of the Seal ( Dabao Zhen, 大寶印 ), in which he bemoaned the loss of the Chongzhen Emperor's seal and begged Heaven's favour in restoring it. Hu was concerned that his essay would be overlooked because he had not written it in the form of rhyming, equally @-@ footed couplets ( pianti, 駢體 ) used in the Imperial examinations, but his submission and the seal itself were nevertheless both accepted by the Southern Ming court. = = Ten Bamboo Studio = = Despite his reputation as an artist and seal @-@ carver, Hu was primarily a publisher. His publishing house, the Ten Bamboo Studio, produced reference works on calligraphy, poetry and art ; medical textbooks ; books on etymology and phonetics ; and copies of as well as commentaries on the Confucian Classics. Unlike other publishers in the area, the Ten Bamboo Studio did not publish works of narrative fiction such as plays or novels. This bias towards academia was likely a consequence of the studio's location : the mountain on which Hu took up residence was just to the north of the Nanjing Guozijian ( National Academy ), which provided a captive market for academic texts. Between 1627 and 1644, the Ten Bamboo Studio produced over twenty printed books of this kind, aimed at a wealthy, literary audience. The studio's earliest publications were medical textbooks, the first of which, Tested Prescriptions for Myriad Illnesses ( Wanbing Yanfang, 萬病驗方 ) was published in 1631 and proved popular enough to be reissued ten years later. Hu's brother Zhengxin was a medical practitioner and appears to have been the author of these books. During the 1630s the Ten Bamboo Studio also produced political works extolling the rule of the Ming ; these included the Imperial Ming Record of Loyalty ( Huang Ming Biaozhong Ji, 皇明表忠紀 ), a biography of loyal Ming officials, and the Edicts of the Imperial Ming ( Huang Ming Zhaozhi, 皇明詔制 ), a list of Imperial proclamations. After the fall of the Ming Dynasty, Hu renamed the studio the Hall Rooted in the Past ( Digutang, 迪古堂 ) as a sign of his affiliation with the previous dynasty, although the Ten Bamboo imprint continued to be used. Despite Hu's withdrawal from society after 1646, the studio continued to publish well into the Qing dynasty, for the most part focussing on seal impression catalogues showcasing Hu's carving work. The Ming dynasty had seen considerable advancement in the process of colour printing in China. At his studio, Hu Zhengyan experimented with various forms of woodblock printing, creating processes for producing multi @-@ coloured prints and embossed printed designs. As a result, he was able to produce some of China's first printed publications in colour, using a block printing technique known as " assorted block printing " ( douban yinshua, �

wikitext_103

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= Homarus gammarus = Homarus gammarus, known as the European lobster or common lobster, is a species of clawed lobster from the eastern Atlantic Ocean, Mediterranean Sea and parts of the Black Sea. It is closely related to the American lobster, H. americanus. It may grow to a length of 60 cm ( 24 in ) and a mass of 6 kilograms ( 13 lb ), and bears a conspicuous pair of claws. In life, the lobsters are blue, only becoming " lobster red " on cooking. Mating occurs in the summer, producing eggs which are carried by the females for up to a year before hatching into planktonic larvae. Homarus gammarus is a highly esteemed food, and is widely caught using lobster pots, mostly around the British Isles. = = Description = = Homarus gammarus is a large crustacean, with a body length up to 60 centimetres ( 24 in ) and weighing up to 5 – 6 kilograms ( 11 – 13 lb ), although the lobsters caught in lobster pots are usually 23 – 38 cm ( 9 – 15 in ) long and weigh 0 @.@ 7 – 2 @.@ 2 kg ( 1 @.@ 5 – 4 @.@ 9 lb ). Like other crustaceans, lobsters have a hard exoskeleton which they must shed in order to grow, in a process called ecdysis ( moulting ). This may occur several times a year for young lobsters, but decreases to once every 1 – 2 years for larger animals. The first pair of pereiopods is armed with a large, asymmetrical pair of claws. The larger one is the " crusher ", and has rounded nodules used for crushing prey ; the other is the " cutter ", which has sharp inner edges, and is used for holding or tearing the prey. Usually, the left claw is the crusher, and the right is the cutter. The exoskeleton is generally blue above, with spots that coalesce, and yellow below. The red colour associated with lobsters only appears after cooking. This occurs because, in life, the red pigment astaxanthin is bound to a protein complex, but the complex is broken up by the heat of cooking, releasing the red pigment. The closest relative of H. gammarus is the American lobster, Homarus americanus. The two species are very similar, and can be crossed artificially, although hybrids are unlikely to occur in the wild since their ranges do not overlap. The two species can be distinguished by a number of characteristics : The rostrum of H. americanus bears one or more spines on the underside, which are lacking in H. gammarus. The spines on the claws of H. americanus are red or red @-@ tipped, while those of H. gammarus are white or white @-@ tipped. The underside of the claw of H. americanus is orange or red, while that of H. gammarus is creamy white or very pale red. = = Life cycle = = Female H. gammarus reach sexual maturity when they have grown to a carapace length of 80 – 85 millimetres ( 3 @.@ 1 – 3 @.@ 3 in ), whereas males mature at a slightly smaller size. Mating typically occurs in summer between a recently moulted female, whose shell is therefore soft, and a hard @-@ shelled male. The female carries the eggs for up to 12 months, depending on the temperature, attached to her pleopods. Females carrying eggs are said to be " berried " and can be found throughout the year. The eggs hatch at night, and the larvae swim to the water surface where they drift with the ocean currents, preying on zooplankton. This stage involves three moults and lasts for 15 – 35 days. After the third moult, the juvenile takes on a form closer to the adult, and adopts a benthic lifestyle. The juveniles are rarely seen in the wild, and are poorly known, although they are known to be capable of digging extensive burrows. It is estimated that only 1 larva in every 20 @,@ 000 survives to the benthic phase. When they reach a carapace length of 15 mm ( 0 @.@ 59 in ), the juveniles leave their burrows and start their adult lives. = = Distribution = = Homarus gammarus is found across the north @-@ eastern Atlantic Ocean from northern Norway to the Azores and Morocco, not including the Baltic Sea. It is also present in most of the Mediterranean Sea, only missing from the section east of Crete, and along only the north @-@ west coast of the Black Sea. The northernmost populations are found in the Norwegian fjords Tysfjorden and Nordfolda, inside the Arctic Circle. The species can be divided into four genetically distinct populations, one widespread population, and three which have diverged due to small effective population sizes, possibly due to adaptation to the local environment. The first of these is the population of lobsters from northern Norway, which have been referred to as the " midnight @-@ sun lobster ". The populations in the Mediterranean Sea are distinct from those in the Atlantic Ocean. The last distinct population is found in the Netherlands : samples from the Oosterschelde were distinct from those collected in the North Sea or English Channel. Attempts have been made to introduce H. gammarus to New Zealand, alongside other European species such as the edible crab, Cancer pagurus. Between 1904 and 1914, one million lobster larvae were released from hatcheries in Dunedin, but the species did not become established there. = = Ecology = = Adult H. gammarus live on the continental shelf at depths of 0 – 150 metres ( 0 – 492 ft ), although not normally deeper than 50 m ( 160 ft ). They prefer hard substrates, such as rocks or hard mud, and live in holes or crevices, emerging at night to feed. The diet of H. gammarus mostly consists of other benthic invertebrates. These include crabs, molluscs, sea urchins, starfish and polychaete worms. The three clawed lobster species Homarus gammarus, H. americanus and Nephrops norvegicus are hosts to the three known species of the animal phylum Cycliophora ; the species on H. gammarus has not been described. Homarus gammarus is susceptible to the disease gaffkaemia, caused by the bacterium Aerococcus viridans. Although it is frequently found in American lobsters, the disease has only been seen in captive H. gammarus, where prior occupation of the tanks by H. americanus could not be ruled out. = = Human consumption = = Homarus gammarus is traditionally " highly esteemed " as a foodstuff and was mentioned in " The Crabfish " a seventeenth century English folk song. It may fetch very high prices and may be sold fresh, frozen, canned or powdered. Both the claws and the abdomen of H. gammarus contain " excellent " white meat, and most of the contents of the cephalothorax are edible. The exceptions are the gastric mill and the " sand vein " ( gut ). The price of H. gammarus is up to three times higher than that of H. americanus, and the European species is considered to have a better flavour. Lobsters are mostly fished using lobster pots, although lines baited with octopus or cuttlefish sometimes succeed in tempting them out, to allow them to be caught in a net or by hand. In 2008, 4 @,@ 386 t of H. gammarus were caught across Europe and North Africa, of which 3 @,@ 462 t ( 79 % ) was caught in the British Isles ( including the Channel Islands ). The minimum landing size for H. gammarus is a carapace length of 87 mm ( 3 @.@ 4 in ). Aquaculture systems for H. gammarus are under development, and production rates are still very low. = = Taxonomic history = = Homarus gammarus was first given a binomial name by Carl Linnaeus in the tenth edition of his Systema Naturae, published in 1758. That name was Cancer gammarus, since Linnaeus'concept of the genus Cancer at that time included all large crustaceans. H. gammarus is the type species of the genus Homarus Weber, 1795, as determined by Direction 51 of the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature. Prior to that direction, confusion arose because the species had been referred to by several different names, including Astacus marinus Fabricius, 1775 and Homarus vulgaris H. Milne @-@ Edwards, 1837, and also because Friedrich Weber's description of the genus had been overlooked until rediscovered by Mary Rathbun, rendering any prior assignments of type species ( for Homarus H. Milne @-@ Edwards, 1837 ) invalid for Homarus Weber, 1795. The type specimen of Homarus gammarus was a lectotype selected by Lipke Holthuis in 1974. It came from 57 ° 53 ′ N 11 ° 32 ′ E, near Marstrand, Sweden ( 48 kilometres or 30 miles northwest of Gothenburg ), but both it and the paralectotypes have since been lost. The common name for H. gammarus preferred by the Food and Agriculture Organization is "

wikitext_103

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= Ward Churchill = Ward LeRoy Churchill ( born 1947 ) is an American author and political activist. He was a professor of ethnic studies at the University of Colorado Boulder from 1990 until 2007. The primary focus of his work is on the historical treatment of political dissenters and Native Americans by the United States government. His work features controversial and provocative views, written in a direct, often confrontational style. In January 2005, Churchill's work attracted controversy because of the circulation of a 2001 essay, " On the Justice of Roosting Chickens ", in which he argued the September 11 attacks were a natural and unavoidable consequence of unlawful US foreign policy over the latter half of the 20th century ; the essay is well known for Churchill's use of the phrase " little Eichmanns " to describe the " technocratic corps " working in the World Trade Center. In March 2005 the University of Colorado began investigating allegations that Churchill had engaged in research misconduct ; it reported in June 2006 that he had done so. Churchill was fired on July 24, 2007, leading to a claim by some scholars that he was fired because of the " Little Eichmanns " comment. Churchill filed a lawsuit against the University of Colorado for unlawful termination of employment. In April 2009 a Denver jury found that Churchill was wrongly fired, awarding him $ 1 in damages. In July 2009, a District Court judge vacated the monetary award and declined Churchill's request to order his reinstatement, deciding the university has " quasi @-@ judicial immunity ". In February 2010, Churchill appealed the judge's decision. In November 2010, the Colorado Court of Appeals upheld the lower @-@ court's ruling. In September 10, 2012, the Colorado Supreme Court upheld the lower courts'decisions in favor of the University of Colorado. On April 1, 2013, the United States Supreme Court declined to hear the case. In a February 2014 interview, Churchill commented that after living more than forty years in the northern plains / Colorado region, he had relocated to Atlanta, Georgia in 2013. Churchill also stated that he had a half @-@ dozen uncompleted books which he intended to finish and publish in the next three years. = = Early life and education = = Churchill was born in Urbana, Illinois, to Jack LeRoy Churchill and Maralyn Lucretia Allen. His parents divorced before he was two, and he grew up in Elmwood, where he attended local schools. In 1966, he was drafted into the United States Army. On his 1980 resume, he said he served as a public @-@ information specialist who " wrote and edited the battalion newsletter and wrote news releases. " In a 1987 profile on Churchill, the Denver Post reported that he was drafted, went to paratrooper school, then volunteered for Vietnam, where he served a 10 @-@ month tour as Long Range Reconnaissance Patrol ( LRRP ), one of a six @-@ man team sent out to track down the enemy. The Post article also reported that Churchill was politically radicalized as a result of his experiences in Vietnam. Churchill told the Post that he had spent some time at the Chicago office of the Students for a Democratic Society ( SDS ) in the late 1960s, and briefly taught members of the Weather Underground how to build bombs and fire weapons. In 2005, the Denver Post reported that Churchill's military records show he was trained as a film projectionist and light truck driver, but they do not reflect paratrooper school or LRRP training. The 75th Ranger Regiment Association found no record of Churchill having been a member of the unit, or a LRRP team. Churchill received his B.A. in technological communications in 1974 and M.A. in communications theory in 1975, both from Sangamon State University, now the University of Illinois at Springfield. = = Career = = In 1978, Churchill began working at the University of Colorado Boulder as an affirmative action officer in the university administration. He also lectured on American Indian issues in the ethnic studies program. In 1990, the University of Colorado hired him as an associate professor, although he did not possess the academic doctorate usually required for the position. The following year he was granted tenure in the Communications department, without the usual six @-@ year probationary period, after having been declined by the Sociology and Political Science departments. He has long been interested in issues associated with the Dawes Act, which broke up the communal reservation lands and assigned plots to individual households. Connected with that was the federal government's first use of " blood quantum " to define individual membership in tribes, for what became known as the Dawes Rolls. Since re @-@ establishing self @-@ governments, federally recognized tribes have established their own criteria for enrollment as members, often related to descent from recognized historical lists, but less often requiring proofs of blood quantum. Some of his published works address these issues, which he has interpreted as part of the federal government's policy of genocide against Native Americans. In 1995 Churchill discussed his views with David Barsamian in an interview : You could say that five hundred years ago was the basis of blood quantum in Ibero @-@ America. But in Anglo @-@ America, while there was some preoccupation with it, it was not formalized until the passage of the General Allotment Act, mid @-@ 1880s. At that point they began to define Indian as being someone who was demonstrably and documentably of at least one @-@ quarter by quantum blood indigenous in a given group. You couldn 't be an eighth Cheyenne and an eighth Arapaho and be an Indian. You had to be a quarter Cheyenne or a quarter Arapaho or hopefully a quarter and a quarter. The reason for this was quite clear. They were identifying Indians for purposes of allotting them individual parcels of land in the existing reservation base at that point. If they ran out of Indians identifiable as such, then the rest of the land would be declared surplus. So it was clearly in the interests of the government to create a definition of Indianness that would minimize the number of Indians that were available. It was an economic motivation for the application of this genetic criteria to Indianness in the first place. It's become increasingly so ever since. " ( David Barsamian ( December 1995 ). " Interview with Ward Churchill : Historical and Current Perspectives ". Z Magazine. ) In 1996, Churchill moved to the new Ethnic Studies Department of the University of Colorado. In 1997, he was promoted to full professor. He was selected as chairman of the department in June 2002. In January 2005, during the controversy over his 9 / 11 remarks, Churchill resigned as chairman of the ethnic studies department at the University of Colorado — his term as chair was scheduled to expire in June of that year. On May 16, 2006, the Investigative Committee of the Standing Committee on Research Misconduct at the University of Colorado concluded that Churchill had committed multiple counts of academic misconduct, specifically plagiarism, fabrication, and falsification. On July 24, 2007, Churchill was fired for academic misconduct in an eight to one vote by the University of Colorado's Board of Regents. = = Genealogy and Tribal affiliation = = In 2003, Churchill stated, " I am myself of Muscogee and Creek descent on my father's side, Cherokee on my mother's, and am an enrolled member of the United Keetoowah Band of Cherokee Indians. " In 1992, Churchill wrote elsewhere that he is one @-@ eighth Creek and one @-@ sixteenth Cherokee. In 1993, Churchill told the Colorado Daily that " he was one @-@ sixteenth Creek and Cherokee. " Churchill told the Denver Post in February 2005 that he is three @-@ sixteenths Cherokee. In a statement dated May 9, 2005, and posted on its website, the United Keetoowah Band initially said, " The United Keetoowah Band would like to make it clear that Mr. Churchill IS NOT a member of the Keetoowah Band and was only given an honorary'associate membership'in the early 1990s because he could not prove any Cherokee ancestry. " The tribe said that all of Churchill's " past, present and future claims or assertions of Keetoowah'enrollment,'written or spoken, including but not limited to ; biographies, curriculum vitae, lectures, applications for employment, or any other reference not listed herein, are deemed fraudulent by the United Keetoowah Band. " Two days later, the United Keetoowah Band replaced its statement and acknowledged Churchill's " alleged ancestry " of being Cherokee : " Because Mr. Churchill had genealogical information regarding his alleged ancestry, and his willingness to assist the UKB in promoting the tribe and its causes, he was awarded an'Associate Membership'as an honor, " the tribe's website now said. " However, Mr. Churchill may possess eligibility status for Cherokee Nation of Oklahoma, since he claims 1 / 16 Cherokee. " The tribe's spokesperson, Lisa Stopp, stated the tribe enrolls only members with certified one @-@ quarter American Indian blood. The website statement further clarified that Churchill " was not eligible for tribal membership due to the fact that he does not possess a'Certificate of Degree of Indian Blood ( CDIB ) ", and the associate membership did not entitle an individual to voting rights or enrollment in the tribe. Churchill has never asked for CDIB certification, and finds the idea of being " vetted " by the US government offensive. In June 1994, the United Keetoowah Band had voted to stop awarding associate memberships. Such honorary associate membership recognizes an individual's assistance to the tribe, but it has nothing to do with Indian ancestry

wikitext_103

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, and it does not entitle an individual to vote in the tribe as a member. The Keetoowah Band states that Churchill still holds the associate membership and it has not been rescinded. In a separate interview, Ernestine Berry, formerly on the tribe's enrollment committee and four years on its council, said that Churchill had never fulfilled a promise to help the tribe. In June 2005, the Rocky Mountain News published an article about Churchill's genealogy and family history. It " turned up no evidence of a single Indian ancestor " among 142 direct ancestors [ of Churchill's ] identified from records. The News reported that both Churchill's birth parents were listed as white on the 1930 census, as were all but two of his great @-@ great @-@ grandparents listed on previous census and other official documents. The News found that some of Churchill's accounts of where his ancestors had lived did not agree with documented records. Numerous members of Churchill's extended family have longstanding family legends of Indian ancestry among ancestors ; but, none was confirmed among the 142 direct forebears of Churchill who were identified. Documents in Churchill's university personnel file show that he was granted tenure in a " special opportunity position. " In 1994, then CU @-@ Boulder Chancellor James Corbridge refused to take action on allegations that Churchill was fraudulently claiming to be an Indian, saying " it has always been university policy that a person's race or ethnicity is self @-@ proving. " Some of Churchill's Native American critics, such as Vernon Bellecourt ( White Earth Ojibwe ) and Suzan Shown Harjo ( Southern Cheyenne @-@ Muscogee Creek ), argue that his assertion of Native American ancestry without the ability to prove it might constitute misrepresentation and grounds for termination. The University has said that it does not hire on the basis of ethnicity. The University of Colorado's Research Misconduct Committee conducted a preliminary investigation into whether Churchill misrepresented his ethnicity to " add credibility and public acceptance to his scholarship. " The committee concluded that the allegation was not " appropriate for further investigation under the definition of research misconduct. " In a 2005 interview in The Rocky Mountain News, Churchill said, " I have never been confirmed as having one @-@ quarter blood, and never said I was. And even if [ the critics ] are absolutely right, what does that have to do with this issue? I have never claimed to be goddamned Sitting Bull. " The longtime indigenous activist Russell Means said in February of that year, " So I want, from this day forward, every media person nationally, internationally and locally to know that we have ascertained that Ward Churchill is a full @-@ blooded Indian leader. " = = = Blood quantum = = = Churchill has responded to requests for verification of his claimed Indian heritage in various ways, including attacking the blood quantum upon which some Native American tribes establish their membership requirements. Churchill argues that the United States instituted blood quantum laws based upon rules of descendancy in order to further goals of personal enrichment and political expediency. For decades in his writings, Churchill has argued that blood quantum laws have an inherent genocidal purpose. He says, " Set the blood quantum at one @-@ quarter, hold to it as a rigid definition of Indians, let intermarriage proceed as it [ has ] and eventually Indians will be defined out of existence ". Churchill's assertions have been raised as one of the several research @-@ misconduct allegations that were brought against him in 2005 ( see below ). He has been accused of using his interpretation of the Dawes Act to attack tribal governments that would not recognize him as a member. = = Writing = = Churchill has written on American Indian history and culture, and speaks about genocide inflicted on the indigenous people of the Americas by European settlers and what he describes as the repression of native peoples that continues to this day. As of 2007, according to a report submitted on his behalf, Churchill has written 10 books on his own and co @-@ authored 4. Some have been reprinted with updates. He has written 51 book chapters, 3 law reviews, and 50 scholarly essays ; 27 of these were refereed. He has edited 4 volumes and co @-@ edited 3 more. According to the University of Colorado investigation, " His academic publications are nearly all works of synthesis and reinterpretation, drawing upon studies by other scholars, not monographs describing new research based on primary sources. " The investigation also noted that " he has decided to publish largely in alternative presses or journals, not in the university presses or mainstream peer @-@ reviewed journals often favored by more conventional academics. " In addition to his academic writing, Churchill has written for several general readership magazines of political opinion. In 1986, Churchill wrote an essay titled Pacifism as Pathology : Notes on an American Pseudopraxis criticizing pacifist politics within the U.S. left as being hypocritical, de facto racist and ineffectual. In 1998, Arbeiter Ring Publishing published the essay in a book entitled Pacifism as Pathology : Reflections on the Role of Armed Struggle in North America and listing Ward Churchill as the author. The book included a preface by Ed Mead, a new introduction to the essay by Churchill and a commentary by Mike Ryan. The book sparked much debate in leftist circles and inspired more aggressive tactics within the anti @-@ globalization movement in the following few years. Agents of Repression ( 1988 ), co @-@ authored by Jim Vander Wall, describes what the authors claim was a secret war against the Black Panther Party and American Indian Movement carried out during the late 1960s and'70s by the FBI under the COINTELPRO program. The COINTELPRO Papers ( 1990 ; reissued 2002 ), also co @-@ authored with Jim Vander Wall, examines a series of original FBI memos that detail the Bureau's activities against various leftist groups, from the U.S. Communist Party in the 1950s to activists concerned with Central American issues in the 1980s. In Fantasies of the Master Race ( 1992 ), Churchill examines the portrayal of American Indians and the use of American Indian symbols in popular American culture. He focuses on such phenomena as Tony Hillerman's mystery novels, the film Dances with Wolves, and the New Age movement, finding examples of cultural imperialism and exploitation. Churchill calls author Carlos Castaneda's claims of revealing the teachings of a Yaqui Indian shaman, the " greatest hoax since Piltdown Man. " Struggle for the Land ( 1993 ; reissued 2002 ) is a collection of essays in which Churchill chronicles what he describes as the U.S. government's systematic exploitation of Native lands and the killing or displacement of American Indians. He details Native American efforts in the 19th and 20th centuries to prevent defoliation and industrial practices such as surface mining. Churchill's Indians Are Us? ( 1994 ), a sequel to Fantasies of the Master Race, further explores American Indian issues in popular culture and politics. He examines the movie Black Robe, the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation killings, the prosecution of Leonard Peltier, sports mascots, the Indian Arts and Crafts Act of 1990, and blood quantum laws, calling them tools of genocide. Churchill is particularly outspoken about New Age exploitations of shamanism and American Indian sacred traditions, and the " do @-@ it @-@ yourself Indianism " of certain contemporary authors. John P. LaVelle of the University of New Mexico School of Law published a review of Indians Are Us? in The American Indian Quarterly. Professor LaVelle, an enrolled member of the Santee Sioux Nation, states that Indians Are Us? twists historical facts and is hostile toward Indian tribes. It was in this book that Churchill first made the claim that the United States distributed " smallpox @-@ infested blankets " to Indian tribes, a claim which he repeated several times over the next decade. The claim has been criticized as a falsification. Churchill has, however, received support from some scholars. From a Native Son : Selected Essays on Indigenism, 1985 – 1995 ( 1996 ) is a collection of 23 previously published essays on Native American history, culture, and political activism. In his introduction to this volume, Howard Zinn lauds " the emergence of a new generation of Native @-@ American scholars " and describes Churchill's writing as " powerful, eloquent, unsparing of cant and deception ". Churchill's A Little Matter of Genocide ( 1997 ) is a survey of ethnic cleansing in the Americas from 1492 to the present. He compares the treatment of North American Indians to historical instances of genocide by the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia, Turks against Armenians, and Europeans against the Gypsies, as well as Nazis against the Poles and Jews. In Perversions of Justice ( 2002 ), Churchill argues that the U.S.'s legal system was adapted to gain control over Native American people. Tracing the evolution of federal Indian law, Churchill argues that the principles set forth were not only applied to non @-@ Indians in the U.S., but later adapted for application abroad. He concludes that this demonstrates the development of the U.S.'s " imperial logic, " which depends on a " corrupt form of legalism " to establish colonial control and empire. Churchill's controversial essay on 9 / 11 was expanded into a book @-@ length manuscript, published as On the Justice of Roosting Chickens : Reflections on the Consequences of U.S. Imperial Arrogance and Criminality ( 2003 ) by AK Press. The book features two other chapters, one listing US military interventions, another listing what Churchill believes to be US

wikitext_103

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violations of international law. The original essay takes the " roosting chickens " of the title from a 1963 Malcolm X speech, in which Malcolm X linked the assassination of U.S. president John F. Kennedy to the violence which Kennedy perpetuated as " merely a case of chickens coming home to roost. " Churchill's essays in this book address the worldwide forms of resistance that he posits were and continue to be provoked by U.S. imperialism of the 20th and 21st centuries. In Kill the Indian, Save the Man : The Genocidal Impact of American Indian Residential Schools ( 2004 ), Churchill traces the history of removing American Indian children from their homes to residential schools ( in Canada ) or Indian boarding schools ( in the USA ) as part of government policies ( 1880s – 1980s ) which he regards as genocidal. = = Activism on Native American issues = = Churchill has been active since at least 1984 as the co @-@ director of the Denver @-@ based American Indian Movement of Colorado, now an autonomous chapter of the American Indian Movement. In 1993, he and other local AIM leaders, including Russell Means, Glenn T. Morris, Robert Robideau, and David Hill, broke with the national AIM leadership, including Dennis Banks and the brothers Vernon and Clyde Bellecourt, claiming that all AIM chapters are autonomous. The AIM Grand Governing Council is based in Minneapolis and retains the name of the national group. It says that the schism arose when Means, Churchill, Glenn T. Morris and others openly supported the Miskito Indian group Misurasata, who were allied with the anti @-@ revolutionary, CIA @-@ backed Contras. Journalists such as Harlan McKosato attributed the split to Means and other AIM members dividing over opposition to the Bellecourt brothers because of their alleged involvement in the execution of Anna Mae Aquash in December 1975, who was then the highest @-@ ranking woman in AIM but had been suspected of being an informant. It was a year in which other FBI informants had been discovered in AIM. On November 3, 1999, Means held a press conference in Denver, Colorado in which he accused the Bellecourt brothers of complicity in Aquash's death, and named three lower @-@ level AIM members involved in her death : Arlo Looking Cloud, John Graham, and Theda Nelson Clark. This was the first time that an AIM leader active at the time of the Aquash murder had publicly accused AIM of having been involved. Looking Cloud and Graham were convicted of murder in 2004 and 2010, by federal and South Dakota state juries, respectively. By then Clark was being cared for in a nursing home and was not indicted. Means attributed the split in AIM to divisions in the aftermath of Aquash's murder. The journalist Harlan McKosato said in 1999, "... her [ Aquash's ] death has divided the American Indian Movement... " The schism continued, with the national AIM leadership claiming that the local AIM leaders, such as Churchill, are tools of the U.S. government used against other American Indians. The leaders of the national AIM organization, now called AIM Grand Governing Council, claim that Churchill has worked in the past as an underground counter @-@ intelligence source for the U.S. government, for example the FBI, and local, non @-@ Indian, police forces, to subvert the national AIM organization. Specifically, they refer to a 1993 Boulder, Colorado interview with Jodi Rave, a former columnist for the Denver Post, in which Churchill stated that he " was teaching the Rapid City Police Department about the American Indian Movement. " In addition, Vernon Bellecourt accused Churchill of having'fraudulently represented himself as an Indian'to bolster his credentials. Bellecourt said he complained to the University of Colorado about this as early as 1986. Churchill has been a leader of Colorado AIM's annual protests in Denver against the Columbus Day holiday and its associated parade. Colorado AIM's leadership has come into conflict with some leaders in the Denver Italian American community, the main supporters of the parade. As early as 2004, Churchill had claimed that such parades are unconstitutional, arguing that the Ninth Amendment to the Constitution provides Native Americans with a right not to be subjected to such displays, overriding the First Amendment rights of non @-@ Native Americans. = = 9 / 11 essay controversy = = Churchill wrote an essay in September 2001 entitled On the Justice of Roosting Chickens. In it, he argued that the September 11 attacks were provoked by U.S. foreign policy. He compared the role of financial workers at the World Trade Center in " ongoing genocidal American imperialism " to the role played by Adolf Eichmann in organizing the Holocaust. In 2005, this essay was widely publicized when Hamilton College invited Churchill to speak. This led to both condemnations of Churchill and counter @-@ accusations of McCarthyism by Churchill and supporters. Following the controversy, the University of Colorado interim Chancellor Phil DiStefano said, " While Professor Churchill has the constitutional right to express his political views, his essay on 9 / 11 has outraged and appalled us and the general public. " A documentary called Shouting Fire : Stories from the Edge of Free Speech, broadcast on HBO, prominently features Churchill's case in addressing the issues of free speech and First Amendment rights. = = Research misconduct investigation = = The controversy attracted increased academic attention to Churchill's research, which had already been criticized by the legal scholar John LaVelle and historian Guenter Lewy. Additional critics were the sociologist Thomas Brown, who had been preparing an article on Churchill's work, and the historians R.G. Robertson and Russell Thornton, who claimed that Churchill had misrepresented their work. In 2005, University of Colorado Boulder administrators ordered an investigation into seven allegations of research misconduct, including three allegations of plagiarism, and four allegations of fabrication or falsification regarding the history of the Dawes Act, the Indian Arts and Crafts Act of 1990, and statements that smallpox was intentionally spread to Native Americans by John Smith in 1614 and by the United States Army at Fort Clark in 1837 ( not to be confused with the well @-@ documented use of smallpox @-@ infected blankets at Fort Pitt in 1764 ). On May 16, 2006 the University released their findings ; the Investigative Committee agreed unanimously that Churchill had engaged in " serious research misconduct ", including falsification, fabrication, and two of the three allegations of plagiarism. The committee was divided on the appropriate level of sanctions. The Standing Committee on Research Misconduct accepted the findings of the Investigative Committee but also disagreed on what sanctions should be imposed. Churchill's appeal against his proposed dismissal was considered by a panel of the University's Privilege and Tenure Committee, which found that two of the seven findings of misconduct did not constitute dismissible offences. Three members recommended that the penalty should be demotion and one year's suspension without pay, while two favored dismissal. On July 24, 2007, the University regents voted seven to two to uphold all seven of the findings of research misconduct, overruling the recommendation of Privilege and Tenure panel that two be dismissed. By a vote of eight to one, the regents determined to fire Churchill. The next day, Churchill filed a lawsuit in state court claiming that the firing was retribution for his expressing politically unpopular views. The jury in Churchill's suit for reinstatement weighed the university's claims of academic misconduct per jury instructions it received in the case. As Stanley Fish said, " It was the jury ’ s task to determine whether Churchill ’ s dismissal would have occurred independently of the adverse political response to his constitutionally protected statements. " The jury found that the alleged misconduct would not have led to Churchill's firing and rejected the university's academic misconduct claim as the grounds for dismissal. On April 1, 2009, a Colorado jury found that Churchill had been wrongly fired, and awarded $ 1 in damages. As one of the jurors said later in a press interview, " it wasn 't a slap in his face or anything like that when we didn 't give him any money. It's just that [ Churchill's attorney ] David Lane kept saying this wasn 't about the money, and in the end, we took his word for that. " Churchill's counsel asked Chief Judge Larry J. Naves of the Denver District Court to order reinstatement in light of the verdict. On July 7, 2009, Judge Naves found that the defendants ( university ) were entitled to quasi @-@ judicial immunity as a matter of law, vacated the jury verdict and determined that the University did not owe Churchill any financial compensation. Naves denied Churchill's request for reinstatement at CU. Churchill appealed both decisions. On November 24, 2010, a three @-@ judge panel of the Colorado Court of Appeals affirmed the trial court's decision. In February 2011, Churchill filed a petition for writ of certiorari with the Colorado Supreme Court. In late May 2011, the Colorado Supreme Court agreed to hear his case. Court records indicate that oral arguments began June 7, 2012. On September 10, 2012, the court ruled that the University had " quasi @-@ judicial immunity ", upholding the trial court's ruling. On April 1, 2013, the U.S. Supreme Court declined to hear an appeal from Churchill. = = Honors = = 1992, Alfred University awarded him an honorary Doctorate of Humane Letters. = = Works = = Books, as editor Marxism and Native Americans. Boulder CO : South End Press. 1984. ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @

wikitext_103

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-@ 89608 @-@ 178 @-@ 9. Sharon Venne, ed. ( 1997 ). Islands in Captivity : The International Tribunal on the Rights of Indigenous Hawaiians. Boulder CO : South End Press. ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 89608 @-@ 568 @-@ 8. Re @-@ released as Churchill, Ward ( 2005 ). Sharon Venne, ed. Islands in Captivity : The Record of the International Tribunal on the Rights of Indigenous Hawaiians. Boulder CO : South End Press. ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 89608 @-@ 738 @-@ 5. Natsu Saito, ed. ( 2006 ). Confronting The Crime Of Silence : Evidence Of U.S. War Crimes In Indochina. AK Press. ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 904859 @-@ 21 @-@ 5. Books, as author and co @-@ author : Culture versus Economism : Essays on Marxism in the Multicultural Arena. with Elisabeth Lloyd. Indigena Press. 1984. Agents of Repression : The FBI's Secret Wars Against the Black Panther Party and the American Indian Movement. with Jim Vander Wall. Boulder CO : South End Press. 1988. ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 89608 @-@ 294 @-@ 6. The COINTELPRO Papers : Documents from the FBI's Secret War Against Domestic Dissent. with Jim Vander Wall. Boulder CO : South End Press. 1990. ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 89608 @-@ 359 @-@ 2. Fantasies of the Master Race : Literature, Cinema, and the Colonization of American Indians. Common Courage Press. 1992. ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 87286 @-@ 348 @-@ 4. Churchill, Ward ( 1992 ). Jennie and Jim Vander Wall, ed. Cages of Steel : The Politics of Imprisonment in America ( Activism, Politics, Culture, Theory, Vol. 4 ed. ). Maisonneuve Press. ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 944624 @-@ 17 @-@ 3. Re @-@ released as Churchill, Ward ( 2004 ). Jim Vander Wall, ed. Politics of Imprisonment in the United States. AK Press. ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 904859 @-@ 12 @-@ 3. Struggle for the Land : Indigenous Resistance to Genocide, Ecocide and Expropriation in Contemporary North America. Common Courage Press. 1993. ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 56751 @-@ 001 @-@ 0. Revised and expanded edition : Struggle for the Land : Native North American Resistance to Genocide, Ecocide and Colonization. San Francisco CA : City Lights Books. 2002. ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 87286 @-@ 415 @-@ 3. Indians Are Us? : Culture and Genocide in Native North America. Common Courage Press. 1994. ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 56751 @-@ 021 @-@ 8. Since Predator Came : Notes from the Struggle for American Indian Liberation. Aigis Press. 1995. ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 883930 @-@ 03 @-@ 5. Churchill, Ward ( 1996 ). From a Native Son : Selected Essays on Indigenism 1985 – 1995. Boulder CO : South End Press. ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 89608 @-@ 553 @-@ 4. Pacifism as Pathology : Reflections on the Role of Armed Struggle in North America. with Mike Ryan ( introduction by Ed Mead ). Arbeiter Ring. 1998. ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 894037 @-@ 07 @-@ 5. A Little Matter of Genocide. San Francisco CA : City Lights Books. 1998. ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 87286 @-@ 343 @-@ 9. Draconian Measures : The History of FBI Political Repression. Common Courage Press. 2000. ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 56751 @-@ 059 @-@ 1. Acts Of Rebellion : The Ward Churchill Reader. Routledge. 2002. ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 415 @-@ 93156 @-@ 4. Perversions of Justice : Indigenous Peoples and Angloamerican Law. San Francisco CA : City Lights Books. 2002. ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 87286 @-@ 416 @-@ 0. On the Justice of Roosting Chickens : Reflections on the Consequences of U.S. Imperial Arrogance and Criminality. AK Press. 2003. ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 902593 @-@ 79 @-@ 1. Kill the Indian, Save the Man : The Genocidal Impact of American Indian Residential Schools. San Francisco CA : City Lights Books. 2004. ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 87286 @-@ 434 @-@ 4. Speaking Truth in the Teeth of Power : Lectures on Globalization, Colonialism, and Native North America. AK Press. 2004. ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 904859 @-@ 04 @-@ 8. To Disrupt, Discredit And Destroy : The FBI's Secret War Against The Black Panther Party. Routledge. 2005. ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 415 @-@ 92957 @-@ 8. Articles Churchill, Ward ( July – September 1992 ). " I Am Indigenist : Notes on the Ideology of the Fourth World ". Z Papers 1 ( 3 ). Archived from the original on October 14, 2007. Churchill, Ward ( 1994 ). " Let's Spread the Fun Around ". First published as " Crimes Against Humanity " in Margaret Anderson and Patricia Hill ( eds. ) ( 1994 ). Race, Class and Gender : An Anthology. Belmont, CA : Wadsworth. pp. 366 – 73. Also published under the titles " The Indian Chant and the Tomahawk Chop " and " Using Indian Names as Mascots Harms Native Americans ". Churchill, Ward ( November 1998 ). " Smoke Signals : A History of Native Americans in Cinema ". LiP Magazine. Churchill, Ward ( Winter – Spring 2003 ). " An American Holocaust? The Structure of Denial ". Socialism and Democracy 17 ( 2 ) : 25 – 76 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1080 / 08854300308428341. Churchill, Ward ( Spring 2005 ). " The Ghosts of 9 @-@ 1 @-@ 1 : Reflections on History, Justice and Roosting Chickens ". Alternative Press Review 9 ( 1 ) : 45 – 56. Archived from the original on October 2, 2006. Churchill, Ward ( July – August 2007 ). " The Fourth World : Struggles for Traditional Lands and Ways of Life ". Left Turn 25 : 25 – 29. Audio and video Doing Time : The Politics of Imprisonment, audio CD of a lecture, recorded at the Doing Time Conference at the University of Winnipeg, September 2000 ( AK Press, 2001, ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 902593 @-@ 47 @-@ 0 ) Life In Occupied America ( AK Press, 2003, ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 902593 @-@ 72 @-@ 2 ) In A Pig's Eye : Reflections on the Police State, Repression, and Native America ( AK Press, 2002, ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 902593 @-@ 50 @-@ 0 ) US Off The Planet! : An Evening In Eugene With Ward Churchill And Chellis Glendinning, VHS video recorded July 17, 2001 ( Cascadia Media Collective, 2002 ) Pacifism and Pathology in the American Left, 2003 audio CD recorded at an AK Press warehouse in Oakland ( AK Press Audio ) Z Mag Ward Churchill Audio August 10, 2003 and earlier Churchill Speaks About Academic Freedom – Free Speech Radio News February 9, 2005 Ward Churchill Under Fire – Free Speech Radio News, February 3, 2005. The Justice of Roosting Chickens : Ward Churchill Speaks The Pacifica Network Show, Democracy Now! from February 18, 2005 features extended Audio / Video exclusive interview with Churchill. A Little Matter of Genocide : Linking U.S. Aggression Abroad to the Domestic Repression of Indigenous Peoples ", recorded in North Battleford, Saskatchewan on March 19, 2005 Debate with David Horowitz and Ward Churchill at George Washington University April 6, 2006 " Full two @-@ hour audio of debate with David Horowitz ". rightalk.listenz.com. Retrieved 2006 @-@ 07 @-@ 02. " David Horowitz vs. Ward Churchill — Round 1 ". Young Americans Foundation. Retrieved 2006 @-@ 07 @-@ 02. Video and audio ( excerpt ) " David Horowitz vs. Ward Churchill ". insidehighered.com. Retrieved 2006 @-@ 07 @-@ 02. = = Artwork = = Churchill's subjects are often American Indian figures and other themes associated with Native American Culture. He uses historical photographs as source material for

wikitext_103

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= Tim Richmond = Tim Richmond ( June 7, 1955 – August 13, 1989 ) was an American race car driver from Ashland, Ohio. He competed in IndyCar racing before transferring to NASCAR's Winston Cup Series ( now Sprint Cup Series ). Richmond was one of the first drivers to change from open wheel racing to NASCAR stock cars full @-@ time, which has since become an industry trend. He won the 1980 Indianapolis 500 Rookie of the Year award and had 13 victories during eight NASCAR seasons. Richmond achieved his top NASCAR season in 1986 when he finished third in points. He won seven races that season, more than any other driver on the tour. When he missed the season @-@ opening Daytona 500 in February 1987, media reported that he had pneumonia. The infection most likely resulted from his compromised immune system, which was weakened by AIDS. Despite the state of his health, Richmond competed in eight races in 1987, winning two events and one pole position before his final race in August of that year. He attempted a comeback in 1988 before NASCAR I banned him for testing positive for excessive OTC ( over the counter ) drugs, Ibuprofen and Pseudoephedrine ; NASCAR later announced they gave Tim Richmond a new test and tested negative. Tim Richmond filed a lawsuit against NASCAR after NASCAR insisted they wanted access to his entire medical record before they would reinstate him, after losing the lawsuit, Richmond withdrew from racing. NASCAR later stated their original test was a " Bad Test. " Richmond grew up in a wealthy family and lived a freewheeling lifestyle, earning him the nickname " Hollywood ". In describing Richmond's influence in racing, Charlotte Motor Speedway president Humpy Wheeler said : " We've never had a race driver like Tim in stock car racing. He was almost a James Dean @-@ like character. " When Richmond was cast for a bit part in the 1983 movie Stroker Ace, " He fell right in with the group working on the film, " said director Hal Needham. Cole Trickle, the main character in the movie Days of Thunder, played by Tom Cruise, was loosely based on Richmond and his interaction with Harry Hyde and Rick Hendrick. = = Early life = = Richmond grew up in Ashland, Ohio. His parents, Al and Evelyn ( née Warner ) Richmond, met in the course of their work. Al was a welder for pipe construction companies and Evelyn was a field office manager. Noticing that highway crews had to dig up the entire highway to lay pipe, Al designed a machine to bore underneath the highway. To market this invention, he founded Richmond Manufacturing, which eventually exported machines worldwide. Tim's driving days started as a toddler when he was given a go @-@ kart that he often drove inside buildings and across his lawn. He later raced the kart at tracks in Moreland and New Pittsburg. Richmond grew up in a well @-@ to @-@ do family, and was sometimes therefore treated differently by his classmates, so his parents enrolled him in Miami Military Academy in Miami, Florida. During his years in Miami, Tim and his mother moved to Florida and his father stayed in Ohio. While home in Ohio over a summer break, he met local drag racer Raymond Beadle through lifelong friend Fred Miller. When Richmond reached age 16, his parents purchased him a Pontiac Trans Am, a speedboat and a Piper Cherokee airplane for his birthday. Yet his mother Evelyn often worried about spoiling her only son. She once said, " Tim was lazy... ", and "... I did everything for him. I ruined him, I admit it. He was my whole life. " Richmond excelled in sports ; he set a conference record in high hurdles and his high school football career was stellar enough that the academy retired his sports jersey after his gridiron days were over. Miami Military Academy named him Athlete of the Year in 1970. Richmond's other interests included flying, and he earned his private pilot license at age 16. Following high school graduation, Richmond attended Ashland University for about one year before dropping out. = = Racing career = = = = = Open wheel racing = = = A friend of Richmond's father co @-@ owned a sprint car and Richmond joined the team as a crew member for Dave Shoemaker. In 1976, 21 @-@ year @-@ old Richmond took the car onto Lakeville Speedway at Lakeville, Ohio for some practice laps. " Somebody put a stopwatch on me, " Richmond said. " I was running laps faster than Dave had been. It was the first time I had ever driven a race car. " Richmond and his father found a red, white and blue @-@ colored No. 98 car in Pennsylvania, which was the same number and paint scheme that Richmond used on model cars as a child. In his first competition at the track, officials placed Richmond in the slowest heat. He passed several cars before spinning out and breaking an axle. Although he made several attempts to get the car pointed in the right direction, the broken axle prevented the car from driving straight. After being towed to the pits, he parked the car for the rest of the event. Later that season, they towed the car to Eldora Speedway, only to have Richmond crash the car again. In response, Richmond's father fired him as the driver. The next season, Al Richmond bought a SuperModified better suited to his son's driving style. In 1977 Tim Richmond became both Sandusky Speedway's Rookie of the Year and the SuperModified class track champion. Richmond returned to racing sprint cars in the United States Automobile Club's ( USAC ) national sprint car tour in 1978. Competing in 12 races, he finished 30th in points as the series'Rookie of the Year. That year he attended Jim Russell's road racing school at Willow Springs International Motorsports Park, setting a student course record. Richmond raced in a 1978 Mini Indy car event at Phoenix International Raceway, winning the Formula Super Vee support event in a Lola T620. The win attracted sponsors and attention from major owners like Roger Penske. He also competed in USAC's Silver Crown series. Richmond's father bought an Eagle Indy Car chassis and an Offenhauser engine for the 1979 race at Michigan International Speedway. Richmond qualified 21st fastest with a 175 @.@ 768 mph ( 282 @.@ 871 km / h ) lap, significantly slower than Bobby Unser's 203 @.@ 879 mph ( 328 @.@ 111 km / h ) pole position speed. The race ended for him when his motor blew up on the fourth lap, and he finished last ( 23rd ). Owner Pat Santello was looking for a driver to replace Larry Rice for his CART team at the following race at Watkins Glen International, so he gave Richmond a test at Willow Spring where he had previously set the student record. Santello hired Richmond, who then qualified 15th fastest for the event and finished in eighth place, the best of his IndyCar career. Richmond raced in three more events that season. After crashing during the first day of qualifying for the 1980 Indianapolis 500, Richmond nevertheless obtained the 19th starting position in the race. He worked his way up to the top 10 during the race, led a lap, and finished ninth as he ran out of fuel at the end of the race. To the delight of the crowd, winner Johnny Rutherford gave him a ride back to the pits. He was named the 1980 Indianapolis 500 Rookie of the Year. " I busted up a few Indy cars right after that, " he said. " Milwaukee, Mid @-@ Ohio... at Michigan I cut one in two. I was afraid my racing career would come to a halt. So when I got an offer to drive stock cars, I took it, and it turned out I liked driving them better. " = = = NASCAR = = = Pocono Raceway President Joseph Mattioli III convinced Richmond to make the change to stock car racing on the NASCAR circuit. Richmond made his first NASCAR start two months after winning the Indianapolis 500 Rookie of the Year award. He debuted at the Coca @-@ Cola 500 at Pocono on July 27, 1980, finishing 12th in a D. K. Ulrich @-@ owned Chevrolet. That season, he competed in five events, with two DNFs ( did not finish ) and three 12th @-@ place finishes. Overall, he finished the 1980 season 41st in points. Richmond raced for three teams in 1981. He started the season by competing in 15 events for Ulrich. He had his first career top 10 finish, taking sixth place at Talladega Superspeedway, soon followed by a seventh @-@ place finish at Texas World Speedway. After Kennie Childers hired him away from Ulrich mid @-@ season, Richmond had top 10 finishes at Pocono and Bristol. For the final seven races of the season, he drove for Bob Rogers and had a top 10 finish at Dover International Speedway. Overall for the season, Richmond had six top 10 finishes to place 16th in season points. Richmond started 1982 without a ride before getting a one @-@ race deal to drive for Billie Harvey at the Rockingham track. Richmond completed 112 laps of the 492 @-@ lap event to finish 31st, retiring from the race with engine problems. For the following event, Richmond was hired to drive J.D. Stacy's No. 2 car. In his first race for the team, Richmond earned his first career top 5 finish when he placed fifth at Darlington Raceway. Returning to Pocon

wikitext_103

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o, he finished second, before winning his first race on the road course at Riverside, California the following week. Later that season, he earned his first pole position at Bristol. The tour returned to Riverside for the final race of the season where Richmond won his second race, sweeping both events at the track. Benny Parsons said that " watching Richmond go through the Esses was unbelievable ". For the season, Richmond had twelve top 10s, two wins, and one pole to finish 26th in points. In 1983, Richmond began racing for Raymond Beadle whom he had known before he started racing. He returned to the three @-@ cornered Pocono racetrack, earning his first oval victory. During the season, he accumulated four pole positions ( Darlington, Pocono, Charlotte, and Atlanta ), one win ( Pocono ), and fifteen top 10s on his way to finishing tenth in season points. He made his first appearance in a NASCAR Busch Series ( now Nationwide Series ) car, but did not finish any of the three races he entered that season. Esquire magazine named Richmond as one of " the best of the new generation " in 1984. That year he had one win at North Wilkesboro Speedway and second @-@ place finishes at Dover, Darlington and Riverside. Richmond finished the 1984 season 12th in points, with 11 finishes in the top 10 and in six in the top 5. In 1985, the final season that Richmond competed for Beadle, his best finish was a second @-@ place run at Bristol. He ended the season 11th in points with 13 Top 10s in 28 races. In the Busch Series, he qualified at the pole position in the two races he entered, and won the Charlotte race. Richmond joined Hendrick Motorsports in 1986, where he teamed up with veteran crew chief Harry Hyde. It took the team until the middle of the season to gel. Richmond had suffered a 64 @-@ race winless streak that was finally broken at the Van Scoy Diamond Mine 500 at Pocono in June 1986. After two straight second @-@ place finishes at Charlotte and Riverside, Richmond started the Pocono event in third place inside the second row. That race saw a caution for rain with five laps left before the halfway point. NASCAR wanted the cars to get to the halfway point to make the race official, so the sanctioning body had the drivers slowly circle the track. It took the drivers 26 minutes to complete the laps, and the rain was so heavy that some drivers had to look out their side windows because they could not see out their windshields. Two hours later, the track had dried and the race resumed with Richmond in third. After Richmond's car was adjusted to remove the " push ", the car was more to his liking. Because his radio did not work, he was unable to communicate with his crew chief, Hyde, and he made his final pit stop with 37 laps left. Hyde worried that Richmond had stopped a lap too early to ensure that he would have enough fuel to make it to the end. After Richmond took the lead with 30 laps left in the race, Dale Earnhardt made up three seconds on Richmond's five @-@ second lead. With four laps to go, Buddy Arrington spun in a three @-@ car accident. The remaining laps of the race where completed slowly under caution and Richmond took the checkered flag for the victory. He had led 97 laps, including the final 30, taking his first victory in a Rick Hendrick car. The tour returned to Pocono a month later, and Richmond battled for another victory in a fog @-@ shortened event. In the final 8 @-@ lap sprint, Richmond competed in a three @-@ car battle with Geoff Bodine and Ricky Rudd. Richmond crossed the finish line beside Rudd, winning the race by 0 @.@ 05 seconds. He notched four more victories that season, and over a span of twelve races, Richmond earned three second @-@ place finishes, and six wins. The National Motorsports Press Association named him Co @-@ Driver of the Year with Earnhardt after Richmond accumulated 13 top 5 finishes and 16 in the top 10. He had a career @-@ best third @-@ place finish in points after winning seven events in 1986, in what was his last full NASCAR season. = = Illness and death = = Richmond fell ill the day after the 1986 NASCAR annual banquet during a promotional trip to New York. He was not well enough to begin the 1987 NASCAR season despite lengthy hospitalization in Cleveland and further rest at home ; when Richmond missed the Daytona 500, his condition was reported as double pneumonia. Media later reported that he had tested positive for acquired immune deficiency syndrome ( AIDS ). He returned to Pocono for the Miller High Life 500 during the middle of the year. Starting third, he led by the fifth lap and ultimately led 82 laps, including the final 46, to win the race by eight car @-@ lengths over Bill Elliott. In the middle of the race, Richmond's car suffered gearbox problems. Because he could use only fourth ( high ) gear, he had to use that gear to slowly exit the pits. Richmond was emotional after the victory, saying, " I had tears in my eyes when I took the checkered flag. Then every time anyone congratulated me, I started bawling again. " Richmond earned a victory in the next race at Riverside, and made his final 1987 start at Michigan International Speedway's Champion Spark Plug 400 that August, finishing 29th with a blown engine. He resigned from Hendrick Motorsports in September 1987. Although Richmond attempted a comeback in 1988, NASCAR suspended him for testing positive for banned substances. The substances were identified as Sudafed, a non @-@ prescription over @-@ the @-@ counter allergy medication, and Advil, an over @-@ the @-@ counter pain reliever. In April 1988, Richmond sued NASCAR over the suspension. Although he retested later that year and was reinstated, he could not find a car to drive. In his final public appearance in February 1988, Richmond denied that he abused drugs and said that a mistake had been made in his drug test. His suit with NASCAR was settled out @-@ of @-@ court, the terms sealed. Richmond withdrew into his condo in Florida. There were by then rumors of HIV and AIDS, which he denied. He was later hospitalized in West Palm Beach. ESPN sent a get @-@ well @-@ soon card to Richmond when it aired the July 1989 NASCAR race at Pocono. The television network showed highlights of Richmond's victory at the track from 1986. " Tim had Hollywood good looks and the charisma of Tom Cruise, " said his friend Dr. Jerry Punch. " There he was in victory lane with the team all around him and beauty queens hanging all over him. It was important for the people at the hospital to see Tim the way he really was, when he was healthy and handsome and vital, not the way he was as they saw him every day in the hospital. " On August 13, 1989, Richmond died at the age of 34, about two years after his final NASCAR race. He was buried in Ashland, Ohio. The secrecy surrounding the circumstance of his death caused speculation for several days. At the time, Punch stated that Richmond had been hospitalized due to a motorcycle accident, though it is unlikely that Richmond had the strength to ride a motorcycle during his last months. Ten days after his death, on August 23, the Richmond family held a press conference to reveal that Richmond died from complications from AIDS, which he acquired from an unknown woman. Richmond's physician, Dr. David Dodson, said : " There's no way of knowing who that woman was. Tim was a celebrity with a lot of charisma, a handsome guy. He naturally attracted a lot of women. " Punch later claimed that more than 90 drivers and personnel underwent HIV testing in the wake of Richmond's death. = = Legacy = = In 1990, a few months after Richmond's death, Washington television station WJLA @-@ TV and reporter Roberta Baskin reported that Dr. Forest Tennant, who was then the National Football League's drug adviser, " falsified drug tests " that ultimately helped shorten Richmond's NASCAR career. Baskin reported that sealed court documents and interviews showed Tennant and NASCAR used " allegedly false drug @-@ test results in 1988 to bar Richmond from racing ". Baskin also stated that NASCAR had targeted Richmond, requesting that Tennant establish a substance @-@ abuse policy with Richmond in mind. A series of drug tests and falsely reported positive results shortly before the 1988 Daytona 500 kept Richmond from driving in what was to have been his last big race... ", the report said. The New York Times published the findings. While neither Tennant nor NASCAR supplied an official response at the time, NASCAR did confirm that they were seeking to replace Tennant. The Ashland County Sports Hall of Fame inducted Richmond in their second class in 1996. In 1998, NASCAR named Richmond one of its 50 greatest drivers of all time. He was inducted into the International Motorsports Hall of Fame in 2002. The Mansfield Motorsports Park ARCA Re / Max Series race in 2009 was named the Tim Richmond Memorial ARCA Re / Max 250 in honor of the area native. The race at Mansfield was co @-@ promoted by Mattioli's son Joseph Mattioli III. The documentary film Tim Richmond : To The Limit was produced as part of ESPN's 30 for 30 series

wikitext_103

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= Butterfly World Tour = The Butterfly World Tour was the third concert tour by American singer @-@ songwriter Mariah Carey. The tour promoted Carey's album at the time, Butterfly ( 1997 ), and included songs from several of her previous albums. The tour visited Asia, Australia and the United States, with rehearsals taking place in December 1997. Starting on January 11, 1998 the tour spanned five shows in Asia, six in Australia, and one in Hawaii, US. Throughout the tour, Carey varied hairstyles and outfits, as well as song selections. The Butterfly World Tour was very successful ; the four dates at Japan's largest stadium, Tokyo Dome, sold out in under one hour, equaling over 200 @,@ 000 tickets, breaking the previous record she held at the stadium for show sell @-@ outs. The tour was recorded in VHS format, and was titled Around the World. The video featured live performances of Carey at different worldwide venues including New York, Japan, Hawaii and Brisbane. Other scenes are included in the video such as a conversation between Carey and Brenda K. Starr prior to her performance of " I Still Believe ". Prior to the performances in Australia, a scene of Carey swimming with dolphins is shown. Additionally, Olivia Newton @-@ John makes a cameo appearance during their joint performance of Newton @-@ John's song, " Hopelessly Devoted to You ". The video was commercially successful, being certified platinum in the United States by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) and gold in Brazil by the Associação Brasileira dos Produtores de Discos ( ABPD ). = = Background = = Since her debut in 1990, Carey had not journeyed on a large or extensive tour. In fact, she had not embarked on a tour until her third studio effort, Music Box ( 1993 ), when she performed six arena shows in the United States during the Music Box Tour. The opening night of the tour received scathing reviews, mostly aimed at Carey's deemed " obvious " stage @-@ fright and failure to make a connection with the crowd. Succeeding nights were more favorably reviewed, with critics raving about Carey's vocals. Jon Pareles of The New York Times wrote regarding Carey's live vocals, " Beyond any doubt, Ms. Carey's voice is no studio concoction. Her range extends from a rich, husky alto to dog @-@ whistle high notes ; she can linger over sensual turns, growl with playful confidence, syncopate like a scat singer. " However, after the strong media attention, Carey did not visit the US on her succeeding Daydream World Tour in 1996, visiting only Europe and Asia. The tour in contrast, received critical acclaim from critics and fans alike, as well as breaking ticket sale records. Carey's three shows at Japan's largest stadium, Tokyo Dome, sold out in under three hours, equaling in over 150 @,@ 000 tickets, setting the record of fastest show sellouts in Japan's history. On the Butterfly World Tour, Carey broke the record, selling 200 @,@ 000 tickets in under one hour. During 1997, after the commercially and critically successful release of Butterfly, Carey had not planned to tour once again, due to the long travel times and strain on her voice. However, due to overwhelming demand by fans, Carey agreed to perform in Asia once again, only extending the tour to Taiwan and Australia, as well as one last show in the United States. Rehearsals for the show began shortly after Christmas 1997, extending for a period of two weeks. = = Concert synopsis = = The show began with Carey standing on a small elevated centerpiece on stage, surrounded by several long draped curtains. Carey featured three background vocalists throughout the tour, Trey Lorenz, Melodie Daniels and Kelly Price. As the introduction began with " Emotions ", each of the curtains were slowly draped, revealing Carey atop the platform, dressed in a beige mini @-@ dress and matching sheer blouse and stiletto heels. As she began performing " Emotions ", the platform was lowered so Carey could access the other sections of the stage throughout the song's performance. After an intimate performance with dimmed lights for " The Roof ( Back in Time ) ", Carey was joined on @-@ stage by a Peruvian guitar player, who played the Latin @-@ inspired guitar melodies during her performance of " My All ". Afterwards, Carey sang " Close My Eyes ", the only sitting performance of the show. During the song, several male backup dancers performed slow and ample dance routines behind Carey on a higher level of the stage. For the second part of the show, Carey had the second costume change of the evening, donning a long sequined black gown and semi @-@ teased hair. For the performance of " Dreamlover ", Carey was joined by three female back @-@ up dancers, who mimicked her light dance routines during the song. The next song on the set @-@ list was " Hero ", which featured Carey alone on @-@ stage, without any vocal back @-@ up. After the song's performance, Carey was joined on @-@ stage by Lorenz, who performed " I 'll Be There " alongside her. Next came " Make It Happen ", a song which accompanied yet another wardrobe change for Carey. She donned a short mini @-@ skirt, alongside a sleeveless white blouse and loose golden curls. On @-@ stage, Carey was joined by a full church choir, all dressed in long black garments. After the song's recital, Carey performed " One Sweet Day ", alongside a previously recorded video of Boyz II Men during their live performance of the song with Carey at Madison Square Garden in 1995. After completing the song, Carey changed to a pair of leg @-@ hugging blue jeans and a tank top. Her next performance was the " Fantasy " remix, featuring Ol'Dirty Bastard on a large projection screen behind the stage, as Carey performed light chair dance @-@ routines alongside several male dancers. The performance featured the most intricate choreography Carey performed on the tour. After a low @-@ key performance of " Babydoll ", or " Whenever You Call " in other countries, Carey was once again joined by several male dancers, as she sang " Honey ", while re @-@ enacting the music video during a small skit. Carey once again changed to a beige ensemble similar to her first outfit before performing her debut single, " Vision of Love ". The final song on the tour was " Butterfly ", which featured large stills of butterflies and flowers projected onto the large screen behind Carey. She donned a long brown sequined gown for the performance, being joined on stage once again by her trio of back @-@ up singers. During the shows in Japan, Carey performed her holiday classic " All I Want for Christmas Is You ", alongside various male and female dancers on stage who performed light dance routines alongside Carey. During the song, Carey donned a Santa suit and matching hat, while being carried on a large stage prop by the dancers. = = Critical reception = = Virtually the entire tour was an instant sell @-@ out ; the four shows at Japan's largest stadium, Tokyo Dome, broke Carey's previous ticket @-@ sales record, selling out all 200 @,@ 000 tickets in under one hour. Additionally, the entire Australian leg sold out within hours, leading Carey to extend the tour one more date in the United States. The show at Hawaii's 50 @,@ 000 capacity Aloha Stadium sold out as well, making her one of the few acts in the stadiums history to sell out the entire venue. Aside from its commercial success, fans and critics raved about the show's visuals, as well as Carey's vocal delivery. = = Broadcasts and recordings = = During the tour, several bits and performances were filmed and later edited into a VHS and DVD entitled Around the World. The VHS featured performances from Tokyo Dome, Aloha Stadium as well as few other skits and scenes that were later compiled into the video. The film first begins with performances in Hawaii, where the song's recitals are cut into halves, excluding the second verses and bridge to shorten the bulk length of the video. Afterwards, Carey's performance of " My All " is shown in inter @-@ cut scenes from Japan and Taipei. After the conclusion of the song, scenes of Carey conversing with Brenda K. Starr are shown, which eventually lead to a tribute to her at a small and intimate New York club, where Carey performs " I Still Believe ". Soon after, Carey's performance in Japan with Lorenz for " I 'll Be There " is shown, leading to scenes of Carey swimming with dolphins in Australia. the next title on the video is Carey's live rendition of " Hopelessly Devoted To You ", where she is joined by Olivia Newton @-@ John on stage in Melbourne. A scene of a fans gathering outside of a New York City studio is shown, following a performance of " Honey, " and " Hero " at Aloha Stadium. The VHS was a commercial success, being certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ), denoting shipments of over 100 @,@ 000 units. The video was also certified gold in Brazil by the Associação Brasileira dos Produtores de Discos ( ABPD ). = = Set list = =

wikitext_103

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= 1985 Rajneeshee assassination plot = The 1985 Rajneeshee assassination plot was a conspiracy by a group of high @-@ ranking followers of Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh ( later known as Osho ) to assassinate Charles Turner, the then @-@ United States Attorney for the District of Oregon. Rajneesh's personal secretary and second @-@ in @-@ command, Ma Anand Sheela ( Sheela Silverman ), assembled the group after Turner was appointed to investigate illegal activity at Rajneeshpuram. Turner investigated charges of immigration fraud and sham marriages, and later headed the federal prosecution of the 1984 Rajneeshee bioterror attack in The Dalles, Oregon. The conspirators included : Ma Anand Sheela, Sally @-@ Anne Croft, Chief Financial Officer of Rajneeshpuram ; Susan Hagan, head of security at Rajneeshpuram, Catherine Jane Stork, who bought weapons and silencers and volunteered to be the actual murderer ; Ann Phyllis McCarthy, fourth @-@ in @-@ command of Rajneeshpuram ; and co @-@ conspirators Alma Potter, Carol Matthews, Phyllis Caldwell and Richard Kevin Langford. The conspirators obtained false identification to purchase handguns out @-@ of @-@ state, stalked Turner, and planned to murder him near his workplace in Portland, Oregon. The assassination plot was never carried out and was only discovered later, as a result of the investigation by federal law enforcement into the bioterror attack in The Dalles and other illegal acts by the Rajneeshpuram leadership. Prosecution of the conspirators began in 1990, when a federal grand jury brought indictments against several of the key players. Some had fled the country, and extradition proceedings against the perpetrators and subsequent prosecution and conviction was not completed for sixteen years. The final conspirator was convicted in 2006, when Catherine Jane Stork agreed to return to the United States from Germany in order to be allowed to visit her ill son in Australia. Eight perpetrators received sentences ranging from five years probation to five years in federal prison and an additional member of the Rajneesh commune pleaded guilty to murder conspiracy. Rajneesh was never prosecuted in relation to the conspiracy, and left the United States after pleading guilty to immigration fraud and agreeing not to reenter the country without permission from the U.S. Attorney General. = = Planning = = = = = Hit list = = = Seven followers ( called Rajneeshees ) of charismatic leader Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh ( now known as Osho ), were convicted of a 1985 conspiracy to assassinate Charles Turner, and an additional unindicted eighth member of the Rajneesh commune pleaded guilty to murder conspiracy. The perpetrators were high @-@ ranking followers within the Rajneeshee organization. Prosecutors in the case stated that the perpetrators had planned to murder Turner after he was appointed to head an investigation into the group's activities in Rajneeshpuram, Oregon. Turner's investigation focused on sham marriages organized by the group, as well as other illegal activities including immigration fraud, and he later headed the federal prosecution relating to the 1984 Rajneeshee bioterror attack in The Dalles, Oregon. Oregon Attorney General Dave Frohnmayer was also involved in investigations of the group, working alongside Turner. In May 1985, Rajneesh's personal secretary and second @-@ in @-@ command, Sheela Silverman ( Ma Anand Sheela ), gathered the leader's key followers and formed a group of conspirators in order to plan the assassination of Turner, as well as several dissidents among their organization. Sheela stated that Turner's grand jury investigation " threatened the existence of the commune ", and exposed Rajneesh and several of his disciples to criminal prosecution. Sheela hoped that by murdering Turner they would be able to thwart the federal immigration investigation which could have resulted in deportation of Rajneeshee leaders. Three former leaders of the commune including Ma Anand Sheela, Dianne Yvonne Onang ( Ma Anand Puja ), a registered nurse from the Philippines who managed the Rajneeshee medical corporation, and former treasurer of Rajneesh Foundation International and Catherine Jane Stork ( Ma Shanti Bhadra ) of Australia, put together a hit list which included U.S. Attorney Charles Turner and Oregon Attorney General David Frohnmayer. Susan Hagan ( Ma Anand Su ), a top official in the Rajneeshpuram hierarchy, was also a participant in the assassination conspiracy. Hagan was in charge of the security force at Rajneeshpuram, ran the Rajneesh Investment Corporation, and supervised construction on the commune. Other conspirators in the assassination plot included Ann Phyllis McCarthy ( Ma Yoga Vidya ), president of the Rajneesh commune, and Alma Potter ( Ma Dhyan Yogini ), Ma Anand Sheela's bodyguard and traveling companion. Potter was manager of the Hotel Rajneesh in Portland, Oregon, and a member of the commune's security force. The Oregonian reported that nine people were on the hit list, including : Turner, Frohnmayer, former assistant attorney general Karen H. Green, Wasco County planning director Daniel C. Durow, Wasco County commissioner James L. Comini, investigative journalist for The Oregonian Leslie L. Zaitz, former member Helen C. Byron ( Ma Idam Shunyo ), who had been awarded US $ 1 @.@ 7 million in a lawsuit against Rajneesh Foundation International, her daughter Barbara J. Byron ( Makima ), and Rajneesh's former secretary Laxmi Thakarsi Kuruwa ( Ma Yoga Laxmi ). = = = Weapons = = = Catherine Jane Stork volunteered to be the follower who would actually murder Turner, and bought guns and silencers. Stork was known to fellow followers as Ma Shanti Bhadra, and was also one of the three " Big Mammas " in Rajneeshpuram. Sally @-@ Anne Croft ( known by followers as Ma Prem Savita ), an accountant and the group's Chief Financial Officer, provided money for the purchase of weapons related to the plot. Phyllis Caldwell ( Ma Deva Ritka ) described in a federal affidavit how members of the murder conspiracy obtained handguns, referring to Catherine Jane Stork and Sally @-@ Anne Croft : " Shanti B went down to Jesus Grove, and Savita gave us several thousand dollars to use to buy guns. " Jesus Grove referred to a group of trailers where all the leaders of the Rajneesh commune resided, except for Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh. Ma Anand Sheela and three other Rajneesh followers traveled to New York in the spring of 1985 to acquire false identification. According to a federal indictment, the perpetrators of the assassination plot used a false birth certificate to purchase guns. Two members of the group then traveled to Texas to purchase handguns. Caldwell stated she and Catherine Jane Stork flew to Texas to purchase guns there. They purchased five guns in Texas, but encountered difficulty purchasing handguns in Texas with out @-@ of @-@ state identification and traveled to New Mexico instead. Caldwell said they called back to the commune but the women were instructed " not to come back without the guns ". In New Mexico, they obtained false identification, and purchased several pistols. Their intention was to purchase guns which were difficult to trace. Caldwell said it was easy to obtain guns in New Mexico : " we found it was pretty easy to buy guns. All you had to do was show some identification and it was easy to get. " Caldwell said she and Stork went to a university library to find the identity " of someone dying very young ", next went " to public records and asked for a copy of a birth certificate " and described how " we got a rent receipt book and just made up a rent receipt ". " And then we were able to go to several different gun shops in Albuquerque with those two bits of identification and buy five different guns and bullets, " said Caldwell. They were able to obtain one Colt.38 @-@ caliber revolver, and four Ruger.357 @-@ caliber Security @-@ Six Magnum revolvers. The conspirators smuggled the guns into Oregon by packing them in luggage and putting the luggage on a Greyhound Lines bus. Caldwell said that she and Stork traveled by bus back to the Rajneesh commune so as to avoid airport metal detectors. = = = Surveillance = = = After obtaining guns the conspirators returned to Portland, Oregon. They rented out an apartment in Portland to serve as their base of operations for the assassination of Turner. Rajneesh follower Carol Matthews ( Ma Prem Samadhi ) used a fake name during the planning of the assassination plot, in an attempt to obtain the home address of Charles Turner. According to federal prosecutors Matthews obtained a college yearbook of Turner's, and learned his car's license plate number and his parking location. Court records state that Matthews and an unindicted co @-@ conspirator gave voter registration officials fake identities and told officials they were conducting " a voter survey on President Reagan's economic plan ", in order to obtain Turner's route number and post office box number. The two tried repeating the story with members of the U.S. Postal Service, but the postal officials did not give them Turner's address. They then drove around Turner's neighborhood and were able to find his home by locating a sign in front of

wikitext_103

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his residence that said " Turner ". Matthews had pictures of Turner's residence developed ; these were later obtained by the Federal Bureau of Investigation ( FBI ) during an investigation of the Rajneesh commune, and verified after being shown to Turner. Members of the group of conspirators watched Turner's office, home and car, and discussed methods to assassinate him, hoping that his death would hinder the efforts of the federal investigation into Rajneeshpuram. Their plan was to shoot Turner in the garage of the federal office building where he worked, in Portland, Oregon, but the conspirators also debated whether to murder Turner in downtown Portland or closer to his home. After spending multiple nights watching Turner's house, the conspirators decided on the parking garage because they felt it would be too risky to murder him on the drive to or from work, or in front of his home. Turner had a reserved parking spot in a federal garage underneath Terry Schrunk Plaza in Portland, Oregon. In an affidavit given to the FBI, conspirator Alma Peralta described how the perpetrators decided on the federal parking garage as the location : " Shanti Bhadra [ Catherine Jane Stork ] said this seems like a good place to bump this fellow off. " The conspirators practiced different ways of murdering Turner. According to informant statements to law enforcement, one of the conspirators was to pretend there was car trouble, and the others would then approach Turner with their guns. Informants later told law enforcement officials that the conspirators intended to hide out at an international network of Rajneesh communes if the plan was successful. According to The Oregonian the assassinations were not carried out because Ma Anand Sheela became distracted by political power plays within the Rajneesh commune and other members of the organization who were trying to remove her from her position within the group. = = Prosecutions = = = = = Investigation = = = On February 28, 1985, Congressman James H. Weaver gave a speech in the United States House of Representatives in which he asserted that the Rajneeshees were involved in the bioterror attack in Oregon. At a series of press conferences in September 1985, Rajneesh accused several of his recently departed lieutenants of involvement in this and other crimes, including the poisoning of Mike Sullivan, a Jefferson County district attorney, and asked state and federal authorities to investigate his allegations. The assassination plot was uncovered by federal law enforcement as a result of the ensuing investigation into activities at Rajneeshpuram. Turner was never physically harmed, and had retired by 1995. The Oregonian was informed in October 1985 by federal law enforcement officials that Leslie L. Zaitz, an investigative journalist who had written a 20 @-@ part series on the Rajneesh movement in Oregon, was on a " hit list " which also included Turner and Oregon Attorney General David Frohnmayer. Assistant U.S. Attorney Robert Weaver prosecuted the case ; the charges were first detailed at an October 1985 bond hearing in North Carolina after Rajneesh and his followers were arrested at an airport in Charlotte. Weaver said in court that followers of Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh had plotted to assassinate Turner and Frohnmayer. He said these allegations were reasons why releasing Rajneesh and his followers from jail would be " a clear and present danger to public officials ". The guns purchased by the Rajneesh followers for the assassination plot had reportedly been dumped in a lake at Rancho Rajneesh ; the lake was searched by U.S. Navy divers. Scuba divers searched the lake for two days but did not find the guns. Joseph Greene, a U.S. immigration agent, testified in court that FBI agents had learned of the assassination plot from a member of the organization who was in a witness protection program. Greene said that members involved in the assassination plot included Ma Anand Sheela, Dianne Yvonne Onang, and Alma Peralta. The assassination plot was investigated by the FBI and the Oregon State Police. Informants told law enforcement that Ma Anand Sheela hoped Turner's death would prevent an Immigration and Naturalization Service investigation which she thought could lead to Rajneesh's arrest and deportation from the United States. Weaver stated " These attempts to assassinate public officials were because they were presenting an immigration case that might result in imprisonment " of Rajneesh. " There were not simply plans, but at least one ( assassination ) attempt, " said Weaver at the hearing. A grand jury investigation led by Turner brought charges of " widespread immigration fraud " against members of Rajneeshpuram. Wiretapping crimes were discovered after Ma Anand Sheela had fled the commune in September 1985. In December 1985, 21 followers of Rajneesh were indicted on wiretapping charges. = = = Arrests and convictions = = = Chief criminal assistant U.S. attorney Baron C. Sheldahl was assigned to prosecute the charges of federal wiretapping, and a special team from the United States Department of Justice Criminal Division was tasked with prosecuting the murder conspiracy charges. Four of the perpetrators were arrested in September 1990. Catherine Jane Stork and Richard Kevin Langford were arrested in West Germany, Ann Phyllis McCarthy was arrested in South Africa, and Susan Hagan was arrested in England. In September 1990, Alma Peralta pleaded guilty to conspiracy to commit murder. Peralta, who had served as Ma Anand Sheela's bodyguard and confidante, agreed to testify against the other defendants in the murder conspiracy. Under the terms of Peralta's plea agreement she received a sentence of two years in federal prison. Carol Matthews was arrested in Baden @-@ Baden, Germany in October 1990 on charges of wiretapping and conspiracy to murder Turner, where she was held along with three other Rajneeshees. At the time of her arrest, Matthews was found in possession of a false British passport, and had been traveling under the fake name of " Daphene Fosberry ". Indictments were brought against Ma Anand Sheela and six other co @-@ conspirators by a federal grand jury in November 1990. In April 1991, Carol Matthews and Richard Kevin Langford ( Swami Anugiten ) were extradited from Germany to the United States in order to appear in federal court in Portland, Oregon. Law enforcement officials from the United States Marshals Service traveled to Frankfurt, Germany and took custody of the Matthews and Langford at Rhine Main Airport. On April 15, 1991, Matthews and Langford appeared in federal court in Oregon, and both pleaded innocent to charges of conspiracy to commit murder and carrying out wiretapping. On April 25, 1991, Richard Kevin Langford pleaded guilty in federal court to participating in the murder conspiracy plot against Turner, and in exchange he received a sentence of five years in federal prison and the dismissal of other charges against him relating to firearms and wiretapping. Langford agreed to testify against the other members of the murder conspiracy. Langford wrote on his plea agreement form : " In 1985, meetings were held at the Rancho Rajneesh... at which time the possible killing of the United States Attorney for Oregon was discussed. I participated in a number of these meetings and agreed with others to work toward that object. " Prosecutor Timothy J. Reardon III stated that Langford had been a member of the Rajneesh commune in Oregon since it began in 1981, and that the government was able to prove he joined the murder conspiracy at a point in time after May 25, 1985. Reardon said that Langford was a member of a group called the " Circle of 38 ", which was the personal security force that guarded Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh, and that he had served as a weapons instructor and policeman at the commune. Langford told U.S. District Judge Malcom F. Marsh that he had suggested that guns for the murder conspiracy could be bought in Texas, instructed the conspiractors about silencers, took responsibility for the weapons while they were in the commune, and disposed of them when members of the murder conspiracy decided to flee the U.S. for Europe. In July 1991, Carol Matthews entered a guilty plea and was convicted in federal court, she was sentenced to five years in prison. Catherine Jane Stork was convicted of the attempted murder of Rajneesh's physician Dr. George Meredith ( Swami Devaraj ) in 1986, and served almost three years in jail. After her release, agents from the FBI uncovered the plot to assassinate Turner, but Stork had already fled to Germany. She was indicted by a federal grand jury in 1990. In 1991, the German government refused to extradite Stork back to the United States. In June 1991, U.S. prosecutors filed affidavits in the murder conspiracy case with the Higher Regional Court in Karlsruhe, Germany, as part of an attempt to extradite Catherin Jane Stork from Germany to the U.S. The affidavits stated that all of the members in the murder conspiracy plot also belonged to a group of Rajneesh followers at the Oregon commune known as " the 38 ", and were trained in " commando tactics using Uzi semiautomatic rifles and handguns ". David Berry Knapp ( known to Rajneesh followers as Swami Krishna Deva ) stated in an FBI affidavit that the murder conspiracy was motivated by Ma Anand Sheela's " tremendous anger " towards Turner. Ma Anand Sheela served 29 months in a minimum security federal prison for charges related to assault, attempted murder, arson, wiretapping and the 1984 bioterror attack in The Dalles, and moved to Switzerland after her release from prison in 1988. The assassination conspiracy was discovered after Sheela had left the United States, and as of 1999 she was still wanted by federal law

wikitext_103

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= Raid on Manila ( 1798 ) = The Raid on Manila of January 1798 was a Royal Navy false flag military operation during the French Revolutionary Wars intended to scout the strength of the defences of Manila, capital of the Spanish Philippines, capture a Manila galleon and assess the condition of the Spanish Navy squadron maintained in the port. Spain had transformed from an ally of Great Britain in the War of the First Coalition into an enemy in 1796. Thus the presence of a powerful Spanish squadron at Manila posed a threat to the China Fleet, an annual convoy of East Indiaman merchant ships from Macau in Qing Dynasty China to Britain, which was of vital economic importance to Britain. So severe was this threat that a major invasion of the Spanish Philippines had been planned from British India during 1797, but had been called off following the Treaty of Campo Formio in Europe and the possibility of a major war in India between the British East India Company and the Kingdom of Mysore. To ensure the safety of the merchant ships gathering at Macau in the winter of 1797 – 98, the British commander in the East Indies, Rear @-@ Admiral Peter Rainier, sent a convoy to China escorted by the frigates HMS Sybille and HMS Fox and commanded by Captain Edward Cooke. After completing his mission Cooke decided to investigate the state of readiness of Spanish forces in Manila himself. He was also intrigued by reports that a ship carrying treasure was due to sail from Manila, which would make a valuable prize. Sailing in Sybille and accompanied by Captain Pulteney Malcolm in Fox, Cooke reached the Spanish capital on 13 January 1798. Anchored in Manila Bay, Cooke pretended that his ships were French vessels and successfully lured successive boatloads of Spanish officials aboard, taking them prisoner in turn. Once he had determined from his captives the state of defences in Manila, that the treasure ship had been unloaded at Cavite and that the Spanish squadron was undergoing extensive repairs and thus unavailable for operations, he sent a raiding party against a squadron of gunboats in the mouth of the Pasig River. Capturing the gunboats in a bloodless attack, Cooke then released his prisoners and sailed southwards, unsuccessfully assaulting Zamboanga before returning to Macau. = = Background = = In 1796, after three years of the French Revolutionary Wars, Spain and the French Republic signed the Treaty of San Ildefonso. The secret terms of this treaty required Spain to renounce its alliance with Great Britain and subsequently to declare war on its former ally. In the East Indies this shift of political allegiance meant that the dominant British forces in the region were faced with the threat of attack from the Spanish Philippines to the east. Britain dominated the East Indies in 1796, controlling the trade routes through the Indian Ocean from the ports of Bombay, Madras and Calcutta. Dutch Ceylon, the Dutch Cape Colony and parts of the Dutch East Indies had been captured in 1795, and the French presence in the region had been confined to Île de France and a few subsidiary islands in the Western Indian Ocean. Some of the most important trade routes began at Canton and Macau in Qing Dynasty China. Early in each year a large convoy known as the " China Fleet ", composed of large East Indiaman merchant ships in the employ of the British East India Company, sailed westwards to Europe from Macau laden with tea and other commercial cargo. This convoy was economically significant to Britain : one convoy in 1804 was valued at over £ 8 million ( the equivalent of £ 600 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 as of 2016 ). In January 1797 the convoy had been attacked by the French squadron in the East Indies, comprising six frigates commanded by Contre @-@ amiral Pierre César Charles de Sercey. In the ensuing Bali Strait Incident the commander deceived Sercey into believing that the unescorted convoy contained disguised ships of the line and the French admiral retreated, only learning of his error on his return to Île de France. There was considerable concern in India that Sercey might try again in 1798, or that the Spanish, who maintained a powerful squadron at Cavite, might make an attempt of their own. Rainier's initial impulse on learning in November 1796 of the impending declaration of war between Britain and Spain was to draw up plans for a major invasion of the Philippines, centred on Manila in repetition of the successful British capture of Manila in 1762. Co @-@ operating with the Governor @-@ General of India Sir John Shore and Colonel Arthur Welleley among others, a substantial naval and military forces were earmarked for the operation which was in the advance planning stages, when unexpected news arrived in India in August 1797 announcing the Treaty of Campo Formio which brought the War of the First Coalition to an end. Britain now faced France and Spain alone, while emissaries from the Tipu Sultan of the Kingdom of Mysore, an old opponent of Britain in Southern India, were seeking French assistance with a renewed outbreak of hostilities. The resources planned for the operation against Manila were therefore retained in India and the operation cancelled, but the protection of the China Fleet was still essential and Rainier diverted some of his squadron eastwards to China. A number of merchant ships had gathered at Bombay in the spring of 1797 in preparation for the trip to Macau to load trade goods and join the China Fleet. To escort this force, Rainier provided the 40 @-@ gun frigate HMS Sybille, captured from the French at the Battle of Mykonos in 1794, and the 50 @-@ gun HMS Centurion, which sailed with the convoy in July, taking passage through the Straits of Malacca, joined there by the ships of the line HMS Victorious and HMS Trident and the 32 @-@ gun frigate HMS Fox under Captain Pulteney Malcolm for the final voyage to Macau. The convoy arrived without incident on 13 December 1797, although the crews had been substantially weakened by tropical illnesses. = = Cooke's raids = = = = = Reconnaissance of Manilla = = = With his convoy safely at anchor in Macau and the China Fleet several weeks from sailing, Cooke decided to reconnoitre Manila and make observations on the port and the Spanish squadron based there. As an added motivation, rumours in Macau suggested that the annual Manila galleon was due to arrive. This ship brought up to two million Spanish silver dollars from Acapulco across the Pacific Ocean stopping at Guam on its way to Manila. Depositing its dollars in the Philippines, the ship then loaded trade goods from the East Indies for the return journey to New Spain. This round trip was essential to the maintenance of the Spanish Empire in the East Indies, which operated at an enormous financial loss only mitigated by the substantial subsidy from New Spain. Spanish dollars were the accepted currency across most of the East Indies, and disruption of this financial system could have profound effects on regional trade ; but British sailors had nevertheless been attacking the Manila galleons since Thomas Cavendish in 1587. Leaving the heavier warships at Macau, Cooke sailed on 5 January 1798 only with Sybille and Fox, the latter carrying a Mr. Bernard, an experienced linguist. Passing Luzon, Cooke's ships encountered a small Spanish merchant vessel, which was lured towards the frigates, which were flying French tricolors. Seizing the Spanish vessel, Cooke closely questioned the captain and learned that most of the Spanish squadron in Manila were undergoing extensive repairs at Cavite and were unfit to sail. Cooke rewarded the captain by releasing his vessel with its cargo intact, although he did remove 3 @,@ 900 silver dollars. The Spanish squadron had suffered badly in a typhoon in April 1797 and much of the damage had still not been repaired by the time Cooke's small squadron arrived off Manila. Cooke had taken precautions to disguise his ships as French vessels, modelling Sybille on the powerful 40 @-@ gun Forte and Fox on the smaller Prudente. = = = Dinner on Sybille = = = Late in the afternoon of 13 January 1798, Sybille and Fox arrived in Manila Bay, slipping unchallenged past the fortress of Corregidor and then sailing across the bay on the morning of 14 January, anchoring between Manila and Cavite. From his vantage point Cooke could see the Spanish squadron dismasted and under repair in Cavite, the ships of the line San Pedro, Europa and Montañés and the frigates Maria de la Cabeya and Luisa in dock and unfit for action. To Cooke's disappointment he could also see the Manila galleon, Marquesetta being unloaded at the Cavite docks and another valuable merchant ship Rey Carlos aground in the harbour. The Spanish had learned only shortly before Cooke's arrival that the British frigate HMS Resistance under Captain Edward Pakenham was in Philippine waters and had decided to remove the valuable cargo from the treasure ship rather than risk an attack. Fox was the first British ship into the anchorage, and was consequently approached by the guardboat, whose crew came aboard. Malcolm, like Cooke, spoke French fluently and with Bernard translating was able to persuade the officer in charge that the new arrivals were Forte and Prudente seeking supplies and Spanish reinforcements for commerce raiding operations. The officer offered supplies but cautioned that none of the Spanish ships would be in a position to sail until March at the earliest. Cooke then joined the party on the deck of Fox, claiming

wikitext_103

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= Éva Gauthier = Éva Gauthier ( September 20, 1885 – December 20, 1958 ) was a Canadian @-@ American mezzo @-@ soprano and voice teacher. She performed and popularised songs by contemporary composers throughout her career and sang in the American premieres of several works by Erik Satie, Maurice Ravel and Igor Stravinsky, including the title role in the latter's Perséphone. The niece of Lady Laurier and Sir Wilfrid Laurier, who also were her patrons, she initially trained and performed in Europe. She then travelled to Java and for four years immersed herself in its native music, which she introduced to North American audiences on her return. She retired from performing in 1937, and opened a voice studio in New York, where she became a founding member of the American Guild of Musical Artists and served on its board of governors. Gauthier was praised for the many qualities her singing brought to music. The citation from the Campion Society of San Francisco, which she received in 1949, said : "... her rare open @-@ mindedness and unorthodox enthusiasm having been initially responsible for the recognition of many vital and important modern composers " = = Singing career = = Born in Ottawa, Ontario, Gauthier received musical lessons as a child, in harmony, voice, and piano. The custom of the time dictated that North American musicians travel to Europe for training if they desired a reputable professional career, and in July 1902, at the age of seventeen, Gauthier set out for Europe, financed by her aunt and uncle, Lady Zoé Laurier and Sir Wilfrid Laurier. = = = Training in Europe = = = Gauthier travelled to France, where she received private voice lessons from Auguste @-@ Jean Dubulle of the Paris Conservatory. Nodules on her vocal cords were problematic, but they were removed surgically. She later began training under Jacques Bouhy, whom she would later credit for her vocal technique. In 1906, Gauthier was retained by fellow Canadian singer Emma Albani to accompany her on a tour of England and her Canadian farewell tour. Albani provided a degree of mentorship to Gauthier during the 30 week tour of Canada. Lord Strathcona awarded Gauthier a scholarship in 1906 that allowed her to return to Europe and continue her vocal studies. She returned there and continued both to study and give performances. Her first operatic performance came in 1909 in Pavia, Italy as Micaëla in Bizet's Carmen. She landed a second operatic role as Mallika in Delibes'Lakmé, which was being performed by the London Covent Garden opera company. The opera opened in June 1910. Supposedly, Luisa Tetrazzini, the prima donna soprano of the company, feared that Gauthier's voice would outshine her own, and demanded that Gauthier be removed from the opera. The company's director acquiesced to Tetrazzini's demands, informing Gauthier on opening night that she would not be performing. Gauthier reacted badly, and quit opera entirely. = = = Move to Java = = = Disappointed by her blocked entry into the operatic scene, Gauthier departed Europe and travelled to Java. There, she met a Dutch importer and plantation manager named Frans Knoote. Gauthier and Knoote married on May 22, 1911. Gauthier studied the music of Java, and began to include this in her repertoire. Her accompanying pianist was Paul Seelig, who had previously been the conductor for the Kraton of Surakarta, which afforded Gauthier a number of opportunities. On permission of the Javanese court, she studied the gamelan, probably being the first western woman with a classical music education to be afforded this opportunity. While living in Java, Gauthier travelled extensively, giving performances in China, Japan, Singapore, Malaya, Australia, and New Zealand. She remained in Java for four years, but with the outbreak of World War I she decided to travel back to North America, arriving in New York City in the fall of 1915. = = = Return to North America = = = Arriving in New York, Gauthier struggled to find a niche in an already crowded music scene. She put on a performance in Vaudeville entitled Songmotion, which combined Javan music with dancers. New York was already home to many North American and European musical performers, so Gauthier focused on her Javan musical repertoire, which she combined with knowledge and skill in modernist western singing. Gauthier began giving annual recitals at Aeolian Hall, and in November 1917 her performance there caught the eye of many leading composers. She developed her own reputation quickly, known as a "... sensitive purveyor of interesting, untried songs ". She gave renditions of three songs by Maurice Ravel. Her performance then also included American premieres of Stravinsky's Three Japanese Lyrics and Griffes'Five Poems of Ancient China and Japan. The performance was a great success, and she began to receive invitations to perform premieres of songs by contemporary composers. Stravinsky arranged to have Gauthier to premiere all of his vocal pieces. Gauthier travelled to Paris in 1920 at the behest of the Music League of America. Sent there to arrange a tour of North America by Maurice Ravel, she struck up a friendship and professional correspondence not only with him, but also with Erik Satie and Les six. This led to more music being sent to her by various composers that she would premiere in concert. She accepted and premiered almost all works sent to her, the only exception being a refusal to perform Pierrot Lunaire by Arnold Schoenberg. Through this, Gauthier performed large amounts of contemporary French music across the United States. She also included American music in all of her concerts. Gauthier toured America frequently and returned to Europe in 1922, and again in 1923. She began to explore Jazz music in concert as well, earning her negative reviews by many musical critics. Her 1923 annual performance at Aeolian Hall entitled " Recital of Ancient and Modern Music for Voice " became a historic occasion when she presented the works of George Gershwin, the first time his works were performed by a classical singer in concert. The first half of the programme presented works considered serious music at the time. She performed both classical works by Vincenzo Bellini and Henry Purcell, mixing them with modernist and neoclassical works by Arnold Schoenberg, Darius Milhaud, Béla Bartók, and Paul Hindemith. The second half of her performance would upset the musical establishment, however. She opened with Alexander's Ragtime Band by Irving Berlin, then performed works by Jerome Kern and Walter Donaldson, and finally finished with three works by George Gershwin : I 'll Build a Stairway to Paradise, Innocent Ingénue Baby, and Swanee. Gershwin played the piano for these pieces. Important figures in the audience included Ernestine Schumann @-@ Heink, Virgil Thomson, and Paul Whiteman. Although some musical critics panned her decision to include Jazz music, the performance was overall a huge success, and provoked serious discussion among conservative audiences whether jazz music could be considered serious art. Gauthier continued to present music that was thought poorly of by conservative audiences. On some occasions, such as her performances of Gershwin in New York in 1923 and 1925, as well as in London in 1925, this was quite successful. A critic in Vienna welcomed her musical selection as a reprieve from the usual fare of classical performances - Schubert, Brahms, Wolf, Richard Strauss - while praising her skill with more classical choices. Other performances suffered – she was booed while performing works by Heitor Villa @-@ Lobos at the Festival of the International Society of Contemporary Music in Venice. She became a celebrity, and continued giving performances across the United States, Europe, and her native Canada. On the sixtieth anniversary of Canadian Confederation in 1927, she gave a performance in Ottawa which was the first transcontinental radio broadcast in Canada. Although she toured Canada from time to time, and attended performances of Canadian music in New York, she held a negative opinion of Canada's treatment of native musicians, saying " Canadians... would rather listen to foreigners than their own people. " = = = Retirement from the stage = = = Illness forced Gauthier to halt giving performances in the late 1920s, but she would return to the stage in 1931, giving a concert in Havana, Cuba. As time passed she began to engage more and more in teaching, and less and less in stage performing. Her income from teaching was substantially better than from touring. She retired from performing entirely in 1937, and opened a music studio in New York. There she became a founding member of the American Guild of Musical Artists, serving on its board of governors. She died on December 20, 1958. = = Views of critics and audiences = = Gauthier was a controversial musician in her time. Her choice of music for performance was often condemned, and often praised. The appropriateness of jazz music for a classically trained singer, combined with the performances taking place in concert halls lead some critics to cheer her for promoting otherwise overlooked music, and others to condemn her for taking lowbrow music into a highbrow venue. A May 1, 1917 review by the New York Times praised her natural talent, with some reservations about the unpolished quality of her voice. Her ability to capture the spirit

wikitext_103

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= Frank Headlam = Air Vice Marshal Frank Headlam, CB, CBE ( 15 July 1914 – 23 December 1976 ) was a senior commander in the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ). Born and educated in Tasmania, he joined the RAAF as an air cadet in January 1934. He specialised in flying instruction and navigation before the outbreak of World War II. In April 1941, he became commanding officer of No. 2 Squadron, which operated Lockheed Hudsons. The squadron was deployed to Dutch Timor in December, and saw action against Japanese forces in the South West Pacific. After returning to Australia in February 1942, Headlam held staff appointments and training commands, finishing the war a group captain. Headlam served as Officer Commanding North @-@ Western Area in 1946, and as Director of Training from 1947 to 1950. In 1950 – 51, during the Malayan Emergency, he was stationed at Singapore as commander of No. 90 ( Composite ) Wing and, later, RAF Tengah. He twice served as acting Air Member for Personnel, in 1957 and 1959 – 60, receiving appointment as a Commander of the Order of the British Empire in 1958. Promoted air vice marshal, he successively held the positions of Air Officer Commanding ( AOC ) Operational Command in 1961 – 62, AOC No. 224 Group RAF from 1962 to 1965 during the Indonesia – Malaysia Konfrontasi, Deputy Chief of the Air Staff in 1965 – 66, and AOC Support Command in 1966 – 67. He was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath in 1965. Following a posting to London as Head of the Australian Joint Services Staff from 1968 to 1971, he retired from the Air Force and died in Melbourne five years later. = = Early career = = The son of farmers Malcolm and Hilda Headlam, Frank Headlam was born on 15 July 1914 in Launceston, Tasmania. He was schooled at Clemes College, Hobart, and matriculated in 1932. Against the wishes of his parents he joined the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) as an air cadet on 16 January 1934. He underwent flying instruction with No. 1 Flying Training School ( FTS ) at RAAF Point Cook, Victoria, and was commissioned as a pilot officer on 1 January 1935. After completing a conversion course, Headlam was assigned to the Seaplane Squadron at Point Cook. No larger than a flight according to the official history of the pre @-@ war RAAF, Seaplane Squadron was part of No. 1 FTS and operated Supermarine Southampton flying boats and de Havilland Gipsy Moth floatplanes, among other types. During this posting Headlam was promoted to flying officer, on 1 July 1935, and wrote a paper on national defence in which he suggested that with " strong air forces, naval forces ( including submarines ), and fixed defences, Australia may be made practically invulnerable ". According to Air Force historian Alan Stephens, this paper " in effect, defined the'anti @-@ lodgment'concept which has been a persistent feature of RAAF strategic thinking ". Headlam completed a flying instructors course in July 1936 and joined the staff of No. 1 FTS. He was promoted to flight lieutenant on 1 March 1937. Commencing in July 1938, he was one of six students to take part in the RAAF's first Long Specialist Navigation Course, run by Flight Lieutenants Bill Garing and Alister Murdoch at Point Cook. The course involved several epic training flights that attracted considerable media attention, including a twelve @-@ day, 10 @,@ 800 @-@ kilometre ( 6 @,@ 700 mi ) round @-@ Australia trip by three Avro Ansons, one of which was piloted by Headlam, in November. The following month, Headlam led the three Ansons on a six @-@ day journey back and forth over Central Australia. He subsequently passed the navigation course with a special distinction. On 27 January 1939 he was posted to RAAF Station Laverton, Victoria, as a flight commander. He served initially with No. 2 Squadron, before transferring to No. 1 Squadron on 29 August. Both units operated Ansons. = = World War II = = Following the outbreak of World War II, No. 1 Squadron was engaged in convoy escort and maritime reconnaissance duties off south @-@ eastern Australia. Headlam continued to serve with the squadron as a flight commander until 15 January 1940, when he was assigned to Headquarters Laverton as the station navigation officer. On 27 March he was posted to the staff of RAAF Headquarters, Melbourne. He was promoted to squadron leader on 1 June 1940. Two weeks later he married Katherine Bridge at St Paul's Anglican Church in Frankston ; the couple would have a son and a daughter. Headlam was given command of No. 2 Squadron at Laverton on 15 April 1941, and raised to wing commander on 1 July. Equipped with Lockheed Hudsons, the squadron mainly conducted maritime patrols in southern waters until 5 December, when four of its aircraft were ordered to Darwin, Northern Territory, in response to fears of Japanese aggression in the Pacific. On 7 December, this detachment established itself at Penfui, near Koepang in Dutch Timor, while No. 2 Squadron's eight remaining Hudsons were stationed at Darwin on standby. The following day, aware that Australia was now at war in the Pacific, one of the Penfui @-@ based Hudsons attacked the Japanese pearler Nanyo Maru, which was suspected of being a radio ship, and forced it aground. By 12 December, Headlam had transferred to Penfui as commanding officer of the base, as well as No. 2 Squadron. During January 1942, No. 2 Squadron's aircraft were dispersed at Penfui, Boeroe Island, and Darwin. The Penfui detachment attacked Japanese shipping taking part in the invasion of Celebes. Two Hudsons shot down or damaged three Japanese floatplanes that attacked them as they were bombing a transport ship on 11 January ; the next day both Hudsons were themselves shot down by Mitsubishi Zeros. Penfui was bombed by the Japanese for the first time on 26 January 1942, and attacked regularly thereafter, damaging some aircraft. The intact Hudsons were withdrawn to Darwin but Headlam and his staff remained at Penfui to enable the base to be used by aircraft during reconnaissance missions from Australia. On 18 February, Headlam was ordered to evacuate all his personnel except a small party to demolish the airfield with assistance from Sparrow Force. He returned to Darwin the following day, just as the city experienced its first raid by the Japanese. Four of No. 2 Squadron's Hudsons were destroyed in the attack ; the remainder were relocated to Daly Waters, where they continued to carry out reconnaissance and bombing missions against Japanese targets in Timor. Headlam remained in Darwin as Controller of Operations at Headquarters North @-@ Western Area Command until 12 May 1942, when he was posted to Nhill, Victoria, as commanding officer of No. 2 Air Navigation School, operating Ansons. No. 97 ( Reserve ) Squadron was formed from the school's personnel in June. On 20 July 1943, Headlam took command of No. 2 Air Observer School ( AOS ), also operating Ansons, at Mount Gambier, South Australia. He was promoted to group captain on 1 December 1943, and was appointed the inaugural commanding officer of No. 3 AOS, operating Ansons and Fairey Battles out of Port Pirie, on 9 December. After handing over command of No. 3 AOS, he commenced studies at RAAF Staff School in Mount Martha, Victoria, on 2 October 1944. He was appointed senior administrative staff officer at North @-@ Western Area Command on 12 January 1945. = = Post @-@ war career = = Headlam became Officer Commanding North @-@ Western Area in January 1946. Posted to Britain at the end of the year, he attended the Royal Air Force Staff College, Andover, and served with RAAF Overseas Headquarters, London. On his return to Australia, in November 1947, he became Director of Training at RAAF Headquarters. In November 1950, Headlam was appointed to take over command of No. 90 ( Composite ) Wing from Group Captain Paddy Heffernan. Headquartered at RAF Changi, Singapore, No. 90 Wing controlled RAAF units operating during the Malayan Emergency : No. 1 ( Bomber ) Squadron, flying Avro Lincolns, and No. 38 ( Transport ) Squadron, flying Douglas C @-@ 47 Dakotas. The Lincolns conducted area bombing missions over communist @-@ held territory, as well as strikes against pinpoint targets. The Dakotas were tasked with courier flights, VIP transport and medical evacuations across South East Asia, and in Malaya with airlifting troops and cargo, dropping supplies to friendly forces and despatching propaganda leaflets. Headlam was slightly injured on 20 December, when a No. 38 Squadron Dakota he was co @-@ piloting on a supply drop crash @-@ landed at Kampong Aur in Pahang, following engine failure. In August 1951 he was named commander of RAF Tengah, Singapore, in addition to his post as commanding officer of No. 90 Wing. Headlam handed over command of No. 90 Wing in December 1951. On 19 February 1952, Headlam became senior air staff officer ( SASO ) at Eastern Area Command in Penrith, New South Wales. During his term as SASO, the RAAF began

wikitext_103

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= Trout Creek Mountains = The Trout Creek Mountains are a remote, semi @-@ arid Great Basin mountain range mostly in southeastern Oregon and partially in northern Nevada in the United States. The range's highest point is Orevada View Benchmark, 8 @,@ 506 feet ( 2 @,@ 593 m ) above sea level, in Nevada. Disaster Peak, elevation 7 @,@ 781 feet ( 2 @,@ 372 m ), is another prominent summit in the Nevada portion of the mountains. The mountains are characteristic of the Great Basin's topography of mostly parallel mountain ranges alternating with flat valleys. Oriented generally north to south, the Trout Creek Mountains consist primarily of fault blocks of basalt, which came from an ancient volcano and other vents, on top of older metamorphic rocks. The southern end of the range, however, features many granitic outcrops. As a whole, the faulted terrain is dominated by rolling hills and ridges cut by escarpments and canyons. Most of the range is public land administered by the federal Bureau of Land Management. There is very little human development in the remote region — cattle grazing and ranching are the primary human uses — but former mines at the McDermitt Caldera produced some of the largest amounts of mercury in North America in the 20th century. Public lands in the mountains are open to recreation but are rarely visited. Vegetation includes large swaths of big sagebrush in addition to desert grasses and cottonwood and alder stands. Sage grouse and mountain chickadee are two bird species native to the range, and common mammals include pronghorn and jackrabbits. Despite the area's dry climate, a few year @-@ round streams provide habitat for the rare Lahontan cutthroat trout. Fish populations in the Trout Creek Mountains declined throughout much of the 20th century. In the 1980s, the effects of grazing allotments on riparian zones and the fish led to land @-@ use conflict. The Trout Creek Mountain Working Group was formed in 1988 to help resolve disagreements among livestock owners, environmentalists, government agencies, and other interested parties. The stakeholders met and agreed on changes to land @-@ use practices, and since the early 1990s, riparian zones have begun to recover. = = Geography = = The Trout Creek Mountains are in a very remote area of southeastern Oregon and northern Nevada, in Harney and Humboldt counties. The nearest human settlements are the Whitehorse Ranch, about 20 miles ( 32 km ) directly north from the middle of the mountains ; Fields, Oregon, about 23 miles ( 37 km ) to the northwest ; Denio, Nevada, about 15 miles ( 24 km ) to the west ; and McDermitt, Nevada – Oregon, about 30 miles ( 48 km ) to the east. The mountains are about 150 miles ( 240 km ) directly southwest of Boise, Idaho, and about 190 miles ( 310 km ) northeast of Reno, Nevada. The range and surrounding non @-@ mountainous areas cover an area of 811 square miles ( 2 @,@ 100 km2 ). The mountains run 51 miles ( 82 km ) north to south and 36 miles ( 58 km ) east to west. More of the range is in Oregon ( 78 % ) than in Nevada ( 22 % ). The highest point in the range is Orevada View Benchmark, which is 8 @,@ 506 feet ( 2 @,@ 593 m ) above sea level and is located in Nevada about one mile south of the Oregon border. About two miles southeast of Orevada View is Disaster Peak, " a large, symmetrical butte that is visible throughout the region. " At 7 @,@ 781 feet ( 2 @,@ 372 m ), Disaster Peak anchors the southern end of the mountains in a sub @-@ range called The Granites. The Oregon Canyon Mountains border the Trout Creek Mountains on the east along the Harney – Malheur county line ( according to the United States Geological Survey's definitions ), while the Pueblo Mountains are the next range west of the Trout Creek Mountains. The Bilk Creek Mountains in both Oregon and Nevada border the Trout Creek Mountains on the southwest ; the two ranges are separated by Log Cabin Creek and South Fork Cottonwood Creek. South of the Trout Creek Mountains is the Kings River Valley, which separates the Bilk Creek Mountains on the west from the Montana Mountains on the east. The terrain in the Trout Creek Mountains varies from broad, flat basins and rolling ridges to high rock escarpments cut by deep canyons. The canyons have steep walls with loose talus slopes at the bottoms. There are meadows around springs in the mountains, although most streams in the range do not flow year @-@ round. Major streams that flow off the north slopes of the mountains include ( from west to east ) Cottonwood Creek, Trout Creek, Willow Creek, and Whitehorse Creek. These streams all flow into endorheic basins in Harney County, Oregon. Trout Creek and Whitehorse Creek are the largest of the four. The Kings River and McDermitt Creek each drain an area on the south slopes of the Trout Creek Mountains. The Kings River begins in The Granites and flows south into Nevada, where it meets the Quinn River, which evaporates in the Black Rock Desert. McDermitt Creek begins in Oregon a few miles north of The Granites and flows generally east, crossing the Oregon – Nevada border five times before disappearing into the floor of the Quinn River Valley south of McDermitt. = = Geology = = The mountains lie within the Basin and Range Province or Great Basin of the Western United States, which is characterized by a series of parallel fault blocks that form long north – south mountain ranges separated by wide, high @-@ desert valleys. The Trout Creek Mountains are uplifted and tilted blocks with steep escarpments along the southern and eastern sides of the range. The southern area of the range, known as The Granites, has numerous outcroppings of Cretaceous age granite. These granite outcrops are commonly found in the eroded valleys below the volcanic ridgelines. The Trout Creek Mountains are composed mostly of basalt from a shield volcano that once stood where Steens Mountain is today. Crustal thinning and the Yellowstone hotspot, which was then beneath southeastern Oregon, induced eruptions from Steens and nearby vents about 17 million years ago, in the Miocene. The vents produced a series of lava flows that spread across the land now known as the Trout Creek Mountains. Eruptions from the Steens volcano lasted for about one million years, and at least 70 separate lava flows occurred. Under the resulting basalt rock lie much older metamorphic rocks that may be related to some of the Triassic age formations of the Blue Mountains in northeastern Oregon. Within these metamorphic rocks are diorite and granodiorite intrusive bodies which were presumably intruded during the Cretaceous Period. The broad McDermitt Caldera is a prominent geologic feature in the Trout Creek Mountains. The oval @-@ shaped caldera is a collapsed lava dome that straddles the Oregon – Nevada border on the eastern side of the range and south of the Oregon Canyon Mountains. It is about 28 miles ( 45 km ) long and 22 miles ( 35 km ) wide. The lava dome was created by volcanic eruptions in the early Miocene. A total of five large ash flows were produced along with a large rhyolite dome structure. The caldera formed when the dome collapsed about 16 million years ago. The caldera contains significant ore deposits, and mercury and uranium have been mined at eight or more sites in and around the caldera. Other areas in the caldera were mined for ores of antimony, cesium, and lithium. = = Climate = = The Trout Creek Mountains are semi @-@ arid because they are in the eastern rain shadow of mountain ranges to the west. When moist air from the Pacific Ocean moves eastward over the Oregon and California coastal ranges and the Cascade Range, most precipitation falls in those mountains before reaching the Trout Creek Mountains. As a result, the average annual precipitation in the Trout Creek Mountains is only 8 to 26 inches ( 200 to 660 mm ) per year, with most areas receiving between 8 and 12 inches ( 200 and 300 mm ) annually. Much of the annual precipitation occurs between the beginning of March and the end of June. Most of the rest falls as snow during the fall and winter months. Snowpack at elevations below 6 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 800 m ) usually melts by April ; however, at the higher elevations, snow can remain until mid @-@ June. Local flooding often occurs in the spring as the snowpack melts. The prevailing winds are from the west @-@ southwest, and they are normally strongest in March and April. Brief, intense thunderstorms are common between April and October. Thunderstorms in the summer months tend to be more isolated and often produce dry lightning strikes. = = Ecology = = = = = Flora = = = Vegetation in the Trout Creek Mountains is dominated by big sagebrush and desert grasses. Other common shrubs include bitterbrush, snowberry, and Ceanothus. There are also patches of mountain mahogany in some areas. Common grass species include Idaho fescue, bluebunch wheatgrass, cheatgrass, western needlegrass, Sandberg's bluegrass, Thurber's needlegrass, and bottlebrush

wikitext_103

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