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Japan (song) (wikipedia)

"Japan" is a song by American rapper Famous Dex. The song, produced by JGramm, was released to streaming services on March 16, 2018. The song peaked at #28 on the Billboard Hot 100. == Background == “Japan” is the second single from Famous Dex's debut album, Dex Meets Dexter. Famous Dex first premiered the song June 2017 on Instagram. The song gained massive popularity online due to the viral lyric video featuring Famous Dex on green screen visuals, and Internet dance sensation Roy Purdy creating a dance challenge to the song. == Music video == An animated lyric video by visual artist GOODARTSUCKS was released with the song on March 16, 2018. The video garnered over 20 million views in a month. A music video was released on May 24, 2018, directed by Xavier Andrews. == Charts == === Weekly charts === === Year-end charts === == Certifications == == Notes == == External links == Famous Dex - Japan (Lyric Video) on YouTube Famous Dex - Japan (Music Video) on YouTube

"Japan" is a song by American rapper Famous Dex. The song, produced by JGramm, was released to streaming services on March 16, 2018. The song peaked at #28 on the Billboard Hot 100.

japan

Bcos U Will Never B Free (wikipedia)

Bcos U Will Never B Free is the debut studio album by the English musician Rex Orange County. It was released free of charge on Bandcamp and SoundCloud on 4 September 2015, and officially on 7 November 2016. Following its five year anniversary, the album was released on vinyl for the first time. == Background == Rex Orange County taught himself to make his own music at the age of 16, producing on the digital audio workstation Logic, and playing the guitar. Bcos U Will Never B Free was created between the summer of 2014 and 2015 on his bedroom floor, and was inspired due to "teen angst" according to Rex Orange County, stating that during the album's recording, he was "really angry", "kind of sad", and "self pitying". In 2020, Rex Orange County further talked about how the album was created, stating he felt he "had a lot [he] wanted to say." He said he didn't have a strong intention with the album and that he had simply felt determined to "make something and put it out to the world." == Promotion == === Singles === The album's lead single, "Corduroy Dreams", was released to SoundCloud on 18 May 2015. It has received a Silver certification from the British Phonographic Industry. The album's second single, "Japan", was released to SoundCloud on 25 June 2015. Its music video was released on 12 November 2015, and shows Rex Orange County getting his head shaved. === Performances === Rex Orange County held a live performance celebrating the album on 4 September 2020, performing a medley of the songs "A Song About Being Sad", "Belly (The Grass Stains)", and "Corduroy Dreams". == Track listing == All songs written by Alex "Rex Orange County" O'Connor (with the exception of "Cape Fear", written and performed by Cosmo Pyke). == Charts == == Release history == == Notes == == References ==

Bcos U Will Never B Free is the debut studio album by the English musician Rex Orange County. It was released free of charge on Bandcamp and SoundCloud on 4 September 2015, and officially on 7 November 2016. Following its five year anniversary, the album was released on vinyl for the first time.

japan

Diamonds for Breakfast (wikipedia)

Diamonds for Breakfast is the fourth studio album by French singer Amanda Lear, released in 1980 by the West German label Ariola Records. The album turned out a commercial success and spawned two European hit singles, "Fabulous (Lover, Love Me)" and "Diamonds". == Background == The recording of the album commenced in 1979 in Munich, Germany. Again, Amanda wrote almost all the lyrics and worked with German producer and composer Anthony Monn. However, as a result of changing trends in the industry and Amanda's personal musical preferences, the album shifted from straightforward post-disco music towards pop rock, and Lear herself renounced her affiliation with the disco style and the "disco queen" image. The singer explained the title Diamonds for Breakfast in the liner notes, comparing diamonds to "every tear, every frustration, every heartache (...). Good and bad experiences, pleasure and pain". She went on to say she pities "people without feelings, they don't have diamonds for breakfast". The album cover portrait of Lear, with Tiffany-designed diamond tears running down her cheek, is notable in the history of art and design as it was one of the first major assignments for French photographers Pierre et Gilles. "Fabulous (Lover, Love Me)", released as the lead single in 1979, was a Top 10 hit in Sweden and a minor chart success in Germany. The second single, "Diamonds", was commercially successful as well, performing best in Norway, where it reached the Top 10. Three more singles were selected for different territories: "When" was released in Sweden, "Ho fatto l'amore con me" in Italy and France, and "Japan" was chosen for the Japanese market. The Italian pressing of Diamonds for Breakfast included Italian language versions of "Insomnia" and "When", the former featuring guest vocals by Amanda's husband Alain-Philippe Malagnac d'Argens de Villèle. The album was met with a commercial success. It was Lear's breakthrough album in the Scandinavia, placing within the Top 10 in Sweden and Norway. However, it reported disappointing sales in Germany, her biggest market up to that point, charting outside the Top 40. The rights to the Ariola-Eurodisc back catalogue are currently held by Sony BMG. Like most of Amanda's albums from the Ariola Records era, Diamonds for Breakfast has not received the official CD re-issue, excluding Russian bootleg re-releases. == Track listing == === Standard edition === Side A "Rockin' Rollin' (I Hear You Nagging)" (Anthony Monn, Amanda Lear) – 3:05 "I Need a Man" (Anthony Monn, Dieter Kawohl, Amanda Lear) – 3:40 "It's a Better Life" (Anthony Monn, Amanda Lear) – 4:30 "Oh Boy" (Anthony Monn, Amanda Lear) – 4:30 "Insomnia" (Charly Ricanek, Amanda Lear) – 3:15 Side B "Diamonds" (Anthony Monn, Amanda Lear) – 4:55 "Japan" (Anthony Monn, Amanda Lear) – 3:15 "Fabulous (Lover, Love Me)" (Rainer Pietsch, Amanda Lear) – 5:25 "Ho fatto l'amore con me" (Cristiano Malgioglio) – 3:15 "When" (Rainer Pietsch, Anthony Monn, Amanda Lear) – 3:25 === Italian edition === Side A "Rockin' Rollin' (I Hear You Nagging)" (Anthony Monn, Amanda Lear) – 3:05 "I Need a Man" (Anthony Monn, Dieter Kawohl, Amanda Lear) – 3:40 "It's a Better Life" (Anthony Monn, Amanda Lear) – 4:30 "Oh Boy" (Anthony Monn, Amanda Lear) – 4:30 "Insomnia" (Italian Version) (Charly Ricanek, Amanda Lear) – 3:15 Side B "Ciao" ("When" - Italian Version) (Rainer Pietsch, Anthony Monn, Amanda Lear) – 3:25 "Ho fatto l'amore con me" (Alternative Version) (Cristiano Malgioglio, Maria Antonietta Sisini, Giuni Russo) – 3:15 "Diamonds" (Anthony Monn, Amanda Lear) – 4:55 "Japan" (Anthony Monn, Amanda Lear) – 3:15 "Fabulous (Lover, Love Me)" (Rainer Pietsch, Amanda Lear) – 5:25 == Personnel == Amanda Lear – lead vocals Mats Björklund – bass guitar Frank (Bolzi) von dem Bottlenberg – engineer Lance Dixon – keyboards Dave Dowle – drums Wolly Emperhoff – backing vocals Jürgen Fritz – keyboards Martin Harrison – drums Les Hurdle – bass guitar Herbert Ihle – backing vocals Renate Mauer – backing vocals Anthony Monn – record producer, synthesizer, backing vocals Pierre et Gilles – artwork Rainer Pietsch – arranger, backing vocals Edith Prock – backing vocals Charly Ricanek – arranger, keyboards, synthesizer Claudia Schwarz – backing vocals Gary Unwin – bass guitar Gitta Walther – backing vocals == Chart performance == == Release history == == References == == External links == Diamonds for Breakfast at Discogs Diamonds for Breakfast at Rate Your Music

Diamonds for Breakfast is the fourth studio album by French singer Amanda Lear, released in 1980 by the West German label Ariola Records. The album turned out a commercial success and spawned two European hit singles, "Fabulous (Lover, Love Me)" and "Diamonds".

japan

Empire of Japan (wikipedia)

The Empire of Japan, also referred to as the Japanese Empire, Imperial Japan, or simply Japan, was the Japanese nation-state that existed from the Meiji Restoration in 1868 until the enactment of the reformed Constitution of Japan in 1947. From 29 August 1910 until 2 September 1945, it administered the naichi (the Japanese archipelago and post-1943 Karafuto) and the gaichi (Korea, Taiwan, Kwantung Leased Territory, and pre-1943 Karafuto). The South Seas Mandate was a single Japanese dependent territory in the name of the League of Nations under Japanese administration. In the closing stages of World War II, with Japan defeated alongside the rest of the Axis, the formalized Japanese Instrument of Surrender was issued in compliance with the Potsdam Declaration of the victorious Allies, and Japanese de facto territory subsequently shrunk to cover only the Japanese archipelago as it is today. Under the slogans of fukoku kyōhei and shokusan kōgyō, which followed the Boshin War and the restoration of power to the Emperor from the Shogun, Japan underwent a period of large-scale industrialization and militarization, often regarded as the fastest modernization of any country to date. All of these aspects contributed to Japan's emergence as a great power following the First Sino-Japanese War, the Boxer Rebellion, the Russo-Japanese War, and World War I. Economic and political turmoil in the 1920s, including the Great Depression, led to the rise of militarism, nationalism, statism and authoritarianism, and this ideological shift eventually culminated in Japan joining the Axis alliance with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy, and also conquering a large part of the Asia-Pacific. During this period, the Japanese army committed many atrocities, including the Nanjing Massacre. However, there has been a debate over defining the political system of Japan as a dictatorship. The Imperial Japanese Armed Forces initially achieved large-scale military successes during the Second Sino-Japanese War and the Pacific War. However, from 1942 onwards, and particularly after decisive Allied advances at Midway Atoll and Guadalcanal, Japan was forced to adopt a defensive stance against the United States. The American-led island-hopping campaign led to the eventual loss of many of Japan's Oceanian island possessions in the following three years. Eventually, the American military captured Iwo Jima and Okinawa Island, leaving the Japanese mainland unprotected and without a significant naval defense force. By August 1945, plans had been made for an Allied invasion of mainland Japan, but were shelved after Japan surrendered in the face of a major breakthrough by the United States and the Soviet Union, with the former detonating two atomic bombs over Hiroshima and Nagasaki and the latter invading Japan's northern territories. The Pacific War officially came to an end on 2 September 1945, leading to the beginning of the Allied occupation of Japan, during which American military leader Douglas MacArthur administered the country. In 1947, through Allied efforts, a new Japanese constitution was enacted, officially ending the Japanese Empire and forming present-day Japan. During this time, the Imperial Japanese Armed Forces were dissolved and replaced by the current Japan Self-Defense Forces. Reconstruction under the Allied occupation continued until 1952, consolidating the modern Japanese constitutional monarchy. In total, the Empire of Japan had three emperors: Meiji, Taishō, and Shōwa. The Imperial era came to an end partway through Shōwa's reign, and he remained emperor until 1989. == Terminology == The historical state is frequently referred to as the "Empire of Japan", the "Japanese Empire", or "Imperial Japan" in English. In Japanese it is referred to as Dai Nippon Teikoku (大日本帝國), which translates to "Empire of Great Japan" (Dai "Great", Nippon "Japanese", Teikoku "Empire"). Teikoku is itself composed of the nouns Tei "referring to an emperor" and -koku "nation, state", literally "Imperial State" or "Imperial Realm" (compare the German Kaiserreich). The name "Empire of Japan" appeared for the first time in the 1854 Convention of Kanagawa between the United States and Japan. This meaning is significant in terms of geography, encompassing Japan, and its surrounding areas. The nomenclature Empire of Japan had existed since the anti-Tokugawa domains, Satsuma and Chōshū, which founded their new government during the Meiji Restoration, with the intention of forming a modern state to resist Western domination. Later the Empire emerged as a great power in the world. Due to its name in kanji characters and its flag, it was also given the exonyms "Empire of the Sun" and "Empire of the Rising Sun." == History == === Background === After two centuries, the seclusion policy, or sakoku, under the shōguns of the Edo period came to an end when the country was forced open to trade by the Convention of Kanagawa which came when Matthew C. Perry arrived in Japan in 1854. Thus, the period known as Bakumatsu began. The following years saw increased foreign trade and interaction; commercial treaties between the Tokugawa shogunate and Western countries were signed. In large part due to the humiliating terms of these unequal treaties, the shogunate soon faced internal hostility, which materialized into a radical, xenophobic movement, the sonnō jōi (literally "Revere the Emperor, expel the barbarians"). In March 1863, the Emperor issued the "order to expel barbarians." Although the shogunate had no intention of enforcing the order, it nevertheless inspired attacks against the shogunate itself and against foreigners in Japan. The Namamugi Incident during 1862 led to the murder of an Englishman, Charles Lennox Richardson, by a party of samurai from Satsuma. The British demanded reparations but were denied. While attempting to exact payment, the Royal Navy was fired on from coastal batteries near the town of Kagoshima. They responded by bombarding the port of Kagoshima in 1863. The Tokugawa government agreed to pay an indemnity for Richardson's death. Shelling of foreign shipping in Shimonoseki and attacks against foreign property led to the bombardment of Shimonoseki by a multinational force in 1864. The Chōshū clan also launched the failed coup known as the Kinmon incident. The Satsuma-Chōshū alliance was established in 1866 to combine their efforts to overthrow the Tokugawa bakufu. In early 1867, Emperor Kōmei died of smallpox and was replaced by his son, Crown Prince Mutsuhito (Meiji). On November 9, 1867, Tokugawa Yoshinobu resigned from his post and authorities to the emperor, agreeing to "be the instrument for carrying out" imperial orders, leading to the end of the Tokugawa shogunate. However, while Yoshinobu's resignation had created a nominal void at the highest level of government, his apparatus of state continued to exist. Moreover, the shogunal government, the Tokugawa family in particular, remained a prominent force in the evolving political order and retained many executive powers, a prospect hard-liners from Satsuma and Chōshū found intolerable. On January 3, 1868, Satsuma-Chōshū forces seized the imperial palace in Kyoto, and the following day had the fifteen-year-old Emperor Meiji declare his own restoration to full power. Although the majority of the imperial consultative assembly was happy with the formal declaration of direct rule by the court and tended to support a continued collaboration with the Tokugawa, Saigō Takamori, leader of the Satsuma clan, threatened the assembly into abolishing the title shōgun and ordered the confiscation of Yoshinobu's lands. On January 17, 1868, Yoshinobu declared "that he would not be bound by the proclamation of the Restoration and called on the court to rescind it". On January 24, Yoshinobu decided to prepare an attack on Kyoto, occupied by Satsuma and Chōshū forces. This decision was prompted by his learning of a series of arson attacks in Edo, starting with the burning of the outworks of Edo Castle, the main Tokugawa residence. ==== Boshin War ==== The Boshin War (戊辰戦争, Boshin Sensō) was fought between January 1868 and May 1869. The alliance of samurai from southern and western domains and court officials had now secured the cooperation of the young Emperor Meiji, who ordered the dissolution of the two-hundred-year-old Tokugawa shogunate. Tokugawa Yoshinobu launched a military campaign to seize the emperor's court in Kyoto. However, the tide rapidly turned in favor of the smaller but relatively modernized imperial faction and resulted in defections of many daimyōs to the Imperial side. The Battle of Toba–Fushimi was a decisive victory in which a combined army from Chōshū, Tosa, and Satsuma domains defeated the Tokugawa army. A series of battles were then fought in pursuit of supporters of the Shogunate; Edo surrendered to the Imperial forces and afterward, Yoshinobu personally surrendered. Yoshinobu was stripped of all his power by Emperor Meiji and most of Japan accepted the emperor's rule. Pro-Tokugawa remnants retreated to northern Honshū (Ōuetsu Reppan Dōmei) and later to Ezo (present-day Hokkaidō), where they established the breakaway Republic of Ezo. An expeditionary force was dispatched by the new government and the Ezo Republic forces were overwhelmed. The siege of Hakodate came to an end in May 1869 and the remaining forces surrendered. === Meiji era (1868–1912) === The Charter Oath was made public at the enthronement of Emperor Meiji of Japan on April 7, 1868. The Oath outlined the main aims and the course of action to be followed during Emperor Meiji's reign, setting the legal stage for Japan's modernization. The Meiji leaders also aimed to boost morale and win financial support for the new government. Japan dispatched the Iwakura Mission in 1871. The mission traveled the world in order to renegotiate the unequal treaties with the United States and European countries that Japan had been forced into during the Tokugawa shogunate, and to gather information on western social and economic systems, in order to effect the modernization of Japan. Renegotiation of the unequal treaties was universally unsuccessful, but close observation of the American and European systems inspired members on their return to bring about modernization initiatives in Japan. Japan made a territorial delimitation treaty with Russia in 1875, gaining all the Kuril islands in exchange for Sakhalin island. The Japanese government sent observers to Western countries to observe and learn their practices, and also paid "foreign advisors" in a variety of fields to come to Japan to educate the populace. For instance, the judicial system and constitution were modeled after Prussia, described by Saburō Ienaga as "an attempt to control popular thought with a blend of Confucianism and German conservatism." The government also outlawed customs linked to Japan's feudal past, such as publicly displaying and wearing katana and the top knot, both of which were characteristic of the samurai class, which was abolished together with the caste system. This would later bring the Meiji government into conflict with the samurai. Several writers, under the constant threat of assassination from their political foes, were influential in winning Japanese support for westernization. One such writer was Fukuzawa Yukichi, whose works included "Conditions in the West," "Leaving Asia", and "An Outline of a Theory of Civilization," which detailed Western society and his own philosophies. In the Meiji Restoration period, military and economic power was emphasized. Military strength became the means for national development and stability. Imperial Japan became the only non-Western world power and a major force in East Asia in about 25 years as a result of industrialization and economic development. As writer Albrecht Fürst von Urach comments in his booklet "The Secret of Japan's Strength," published in 1942, during the Axis powers period: The rise of Japan to a world power during the past 80 years is the greatest miracle in world history. The mighty empires of antiquity, the major political institutions of the Middle Ages and the early modern era, the Spanish Empire, the British Empire, all needed centuries to achieve their full strength. Japan's rise has been meteoric. After only 80 years, it is one of the few great powers that determine the fate of the world. ==== Transposition in social order and cultural destruction ==== In the 1860s, Japan began to experience great social turmoil and rapid modernization. The feudal caste system in Japan formally ended in 1869 with the Meiji restoration. In 1871, the newly formed Meiji government issued a decree called Senmin Haishirei (賤民廃止令 Edict Abolishing Ignoble Classes) giving burakumin equal legal status. It is currently better known as the Kaihōrei (解放令 Emancipation Edict). However, the elimination of their economic monopolies over certain occupations actually led to a decline in their general living standards, while social discrimination simply continued. For example, the ban on the consumption of meat from livestock was lifted in 1871, and many former burakumin moved on to work in abattoirs and as butchers. However, slow-changing social attitudes, especially in the countryside, meant that abattoirs and workers were met with hostility from local residents. Continued ostracism as well as the decline in living standards led to former burakumin communities turning into slum areas. In the Blood tax riots, the Japanese Meiji government brutally put down revolts by Japanese samurai angry over the legal revocation of the traditional untouchable status of burakumin. The social tension continued to grow during the Meiji period, affecting religious practices and institutions. Conversion from traditional faith was no longer legally forbidden, officials lifted the 250-year ban on Christianity, and missionaries of established Christian churches reentered Japan. The traditional syncreticism between Shinto and Buddhism ended. Losing the protection of the Japanese government which Buddhism had enjoyed for centuries, Buddhist monks faced radical difficulties in sustaining their institutions, but their activities also became less restrained by governmental policies and restrictions. As social conflicts emerged in this last decade of the Edo period, some new religious movements appeared, which were directly influenced by shamanism and Shinto. Emperor Ogimachi issued edicts to ban Catholicism in 1565 and 1568, but to little effect. Beginning in 1587 with imperial regent Toyotomi Hideyoshi's ban on Jesuit missionaries, Christianity was repressed as a threat to national unity. Under Hideyoshi and the succeeding Tokugawa shogunate, Catholic Christianity was repressed and adherents were persecuted. After the Tokugawa shogunate banned Christianity in 1620, it ceased to exist publicly. Many Catholics went underground, becoming hidden Christians (隠れキリシタン, kakure kirishitan), while others lost their lives. After Japan was opened to foreign powers in 1853, many Christian clergymen were sent from Catholic, Protestant, and Orthodox churches, though proselytism was still banned. Only after the Meiji Restoration, was Christianity re-established in Japan. Freedom of religion was introduced in 1871, giving all Christian communities the right to legal existence and preaching. Eastern Orthodoxy was brought to Japan in the 19th century by St. Nicholas (baptized as Ivan Dmitrievich Kasatkin), who was sent in 1861 by the Russian Orthodox Church to Hakodate, Hokkaidō as priest to a chapel of the Russian Consulate. St. Nicholas of Japan made his own translation of the New Testament and some other religious books (Lenten Triodion, Pentecostarion, Feast Services, Book of Psalms, Irmologion) into Japanese. Nicholas has since been canonized as a saint by the Patriarchate of Moscow in 1970, and is now recognized as St. Nicholas, Equal-to-the-Apostles to Japan. His commemoration day is February 16. Andronic Nikolsky, appointed the first Bishop of Kyoto and later martyred as the archbishop of Perm during the Russian Revolution, was also canonized by the Russian Orthodox Church as a Saint and Martyr in the year 2000. Divie Bethune McCartee was the first ordained Presbyterian minister missionary to visit Japan, in 1861–1862. His gospel tract translated into Japanese was among the first Protestant literature in Japan. In 1865, McCartee moved back to Ningbo, China, but others have followed in his footsteps. There was a burst of growth of Christianity in the late 19th century when Japan re-opened its doors to the West. Protestant church growth slowed dramatically in the early 20th century under the influence of the military government during the Shōwa period. Under the Meiji Restoration, the practices of the samurai classes, deemed feudal and unsuitable for modern times following the end of sakoku in 1853, resulted in a number of edicts intended to 'modernise' the appearance of upper class Japanese men. With the Dampatsurei Edict of 1871 issued by Emperor Meiji during the early Meiji Era, men of the samurai classes were forced to cut their hair short, effectively abandoning the chonmage (chonmage) hairstyle.: 149  During the early 20th century, the government was suspicious towards a number of unauthorized religious movements and periodically made attempts to suppress them. Government suppression was especially severe from the 1930s until the early 1940s, when the growth of Japanese nationalism and State Shinto were closely linked. Under the Meiji regime lèse majesté prohibited insults against the Emperor and his Imperial House, and also against some major Shinto shrines which were believed to be tied strongly to the Emperor. The government strengthened its control over religious institutions that were considered to undermine State Shinto or nationalism. The majority of Japanese castles were smashed and destroyed in the late 19th century in the Meiji restoration by the Japanese people and government in order to modernize and westernize Japan and break from their past feudal era of the Daimyo and Shoguns. It was only due to the 1964 Summer Olympics in Japan that cheap concrete replicas of those castles were built for tourists. The vast majority of castles in Japan today are new replicas made out of concrete. In 1959 a concrete keep was built for Nagoya castle. During the Meiji restoration's Shinbutsu bunri, tens of thousands of Japanese Buddhist religious idols and temples were smashed and destroyed. Many statues still lie in ruins. Replica temples were rebuilt with concrete. Japan then closed and shut done tens of thousands of traditional old Shinto shrines in the Shrine Consolidation Policy and the Meiji government built the new modern 15 shrines of the Kenmu restoration as a political move to link the Meiji restoration to the Kenmu restoration for their new State Shinto cult. Japanese had to look at old paintings in order to find out what the Horyuji temple used to look like when they rebuilt it. The rebuilding was originally planned for the Shōwa era. The Japanese used mostly concrete in 1934 to rebuild the Togetsukyo Bridge, unlike the original destroyed wooden version of the bridge from 836. ==== Political reform ==== The idea of a written constitution had been a subject of heated debate within and outside of the government since the beginnings of the Meiji government. The conservative Meiji oligarchy viewed anything resembling democracy or republicanism with suspicion and trepidation, and favored a gradualist approach. The Freedom and People's Rights Movement demanded the immediate establishment of an elected national assembly, and the promulgation of a constitution. The constitution recognized the need for change and modernization after the removal of the shogunate: We, the Successor to the prosperous Throne of Our Predecessors, do humbly and solemnly swear to the Imperial Founder of Our House and to Our other Imperial Ancestors that, in pursuance of a great policy co-extensive with the Heavens and with the Earth, We shall maintain and secure from decline the ancient form of government. ... In consideration of the progressive tendency of the course of human affairs and in parallel with the advance of civilization, We deem it expedient, in order to give clearness and distinctness to the instructions bequeathed by the Imperial Founder of Our House and by Our other Imperial Ancestors, to establish fundamental laws. ... Imperial Japan was founded, de jure, after the 1889 signing of Constitution of the Empire of Japan. The constitution formalized much of the Empire's political structure and gave many responsibilities and powers to the Emperor. Article 1. The Empire of Japan shall be reigned over and governed by a line of Emperors unbroken for ages eternal. Article 2. The Imperial Throne shall be succeeded to by Imperial male descendants, according to the provisions of the Imperial House Law. Article 3. The Emperor is sacred and inviolable. Article 4. The Emperor is the head of the Empire, combining in Himself the rights of sovereignty, and exercises them, according to the provisions of the present Constitution. Article 5. The Emperor exercises the legislative power with the consent of the Imperial Diet. Article 6. The Emperor gives sanction to laws, and orders them to be promulgated and executed. Article 7. The Emperor convokes the Imperial Diet, opens, closes and prorogues it, and dissolves the House of Representatives. Article 11. The Emperor has the supreme command of the Army and Navy. Article 12. The Emperor determines the organization and peace standing of the Army and Navy. Article 13. The Emperor declares war, makes peace, and concludes treaties. Article 14. The Emperor declares a state of siege. Article 15. The Emperor confers titles of nobility, rank, orders and other marks of honor. Article 16. The Emperor orders amnesty, pardon, commutation of punishments and rehabilitation. Article 17. A Regency shall be instituted in conformity with the provisions of the Imperial House Law. In 1890, the Imperial Diet was established in response to the Meiji Constitution. The Diet consisted of the House of Representatives of Japan and the House of Peers. Both houses opened seats for colonial people as well as Japanese. The Imperial Diet continued until 1947. ==== Economic development ==== Economic development was characterized by rapid industrialization, the development of a capitalist economy, and the transformation of many feudal workers to wage labour. The use of strike action also increased, and 1897, with the establishment of a union for metalworkers, the foundations of the modern Japanese trade-union movement were formed. Samurai were allowed to work in any occupation they wanted. Admission to universities was determined based on examination results. The government also recruited more than 3,000 Westerners to teach modern science, mathematics, technology, and foreign languages in Japan (O-yatoi gaikokujin). Despite this, social mobility was still low due to samurai and their descendants being overrepresented in the new elite class. After sending observers to the United States, the Empire of Japan initially copied the decentralized American system with no central bank. In 1871, the New Currency Act of Meiji 4 (1871) abolished the local currencies and established the yen as the new decimal currency. It had parity with the Mexican silver dollar. ==== First Sino-Japanese War ==== The First Sino-Japanese War, fought in 1894 and 1895, revolved around the issue of control and influence over Korea under the rule of the Joseon dynasty. Korea had traditionally been a tributary state of China's Qing Empire, which exerted large influence over the conservative Korean officials who gathered around the royal family of the Joseon kingdom. On February 27, 1876, after several confrontations between Korean isolationists and the Japanese, Japan imposed the Japan–Korea Treaty of 1876, forcing Korea open to Japanese trade. The act blocked any other power from dominating Korea, resolving to end the centuries-old Chinese suzerainty. On June 4, 1894, Korea requested aid from the Qing Empire in suppressing the Donghak Rebellion. The Qing government sent 2,800 troops to Korea. The Japanese countered by sending an 8,000-troop expeditionary force (the Oshima Composite Brigade) to Korea. The first 400 troops arrived on June 9 en route to Seoul, and 3,000 landed at Incheon on June 12. The Qing government turned down Japan's suggestion for Japan and China to cooperate to reform the Korean government. When Korea demanded that Japan withdraw its troops from Korea, the Japanese refused. In early June 1894, the 8,000 Japanese troops captured the Korean king Gojong, occupied the Royal Palace in Seoul and, by June 25, installed a puppet government in Seoul. The new pro-Japanese Korean government granted Japan the right to expel Qing forces while Japan dispatched more troops to Korea. China objected and war ensued. Japanese ground troops routed the Chinese forces on the Liaodong Peninsula, and nearly destroyed the Chinese navy in the Battle of the Yalu River. The Treaty of Shimonoseki was signed between Japan and China, which ceded the Liaodong Peninsula and the island of Taiwan to Japan. After the peace treaty, Russia, Germany, and France forced Japan to withdraw from Liaodong Peninsula in the Triple Intervention. Soon afterward, Russia occupied the Liaodong Peninsula, built the Port Arthur fortress, and based the Russian Pacific Fleet in the port. Germany occupied Jiaozhou Bay, built Tsingtao fortress and based the German East Asia Squadron in this port. ==== Boxer Rebellion ==== In 1900, Japan joined an international military coalition set up in response to the Boxer Rebellion in the Qing Empire of China. Japan provided the largest contingent of troops: 20,840, as well as 18 warships. Of the total, 20,300 were Imperial Japanese Army troops of the 5th Infantry Division under Lt. General Yamaguchi Motoomi; the remainder were 540 naval rikusentai (marines) from the Imperial Japanese Navy. At the beginning of the Boxer Rebellion the Japanese only had 215 troops in northern China stationed at Tientsin; nearly all of them were naval rikusentai from the Kasagi and the Atago, under the command of Captain Shimamura Hayao. The Japanese were able to contribute 52 men to the Seymour Expedition. On 12 June 1900, the advance of the Seymour Expedition was halted some 50 kilometres (30 mi) from the capital, by mixed Boxer and Chinese regular army forces. The vastly outnumbered allies withdrew to the vicinity of Tianjin, having suffered more than 300 casualties. The army general staff in Tokyo had become aware of the worsening conditions in China and had drafted ambitious contingency plans, but in the wake of the Triple Intervention five years before, the government refused to deploy large numbers of troops unless requested by the western powers. However three days later, a provisional force of 1,300 troops commanded by Major General Fukushima Yasumasa was to be deployed to northern China. Fukushima was chosen because he spoke fluent English which enabled him to communicate with the British commander. The force landed near Tianjin on July 5. On 17 June 1900, naval Rikusentai from the Kasagi and Atago had joined British, Russian, and German sailors to seize the Dagu forts near Tianjin. In light of the precarious situation, the British were compelled to ask Japan for additional reinforcements, as the Japanese had the only readily available forces in the region. Britain at the time was heavily engaged in the Boer War, so a large part of the British army was tied down in South Africa. Further, deploying large numbers of troops from its garrisons in India would take too much time and weaken internal security there. Overriding personal doubts, Foreign Minister Aoki Shūzō calculated that the advantages of participating in an allied coalition were too attractive to ignore. Prime Minister Yamagata agreed, but others in the cabinet demanded that there be guarantees from the British in return for the risks and costs of the major deployment of Japanese troops. On July 6, 1900, the 5th Infantry Division was alerted for possible deployment to China, but no timetable was set for this. Two days later, with more ground troops urgently needed to lift the siege of the foreign legations at Peking, the British ambassador offered the Japanese government one million British pounds in exchange for Japanese participation. Shortly afterward, advance units of the 5th Division departed for China, bringing Japanese strength to 3,800 personnel out of the 17,000 of allied forces. The commander of the 5th Division, Lt. General Yamaguchi Motoomi, had taken operational control from Fukushima. Japanese troops were involved in the storming of Tianjin on July 14, after which the allies consolidated and awaited the remainder of the 5th Division and other coalition reinforcements. By the time the siege of legations was lifted on August 14, 1900, the Japanese force of 13,000 was the largest single contingent and made up about 40% of the approximately 33,000 strong allied expeditionary force. Japanese troops involved in the fighting had acquitted themselves well, although a British military observer felt their aggressiveness, densely-packed formations, and over-willingness to attack cost them excessive and disproportionate casualties. For example, during the Tianjin fighting, the Japanese suffered more than half of the allied casualties (400 out of 730) but comprised less than one quarter (3,800) of the force of 17,000. Similarly at Beijing, the Japanese accounted for almost two-thirds of the losses (280 of 453) even though they constituted slightly less than half of the assault force. After the uprising, Japan and the Western countries signed the Boxer Protocol with China, which permitted them to station troops on Chinese soil to protect their citizens. After the treaty, Russia continued to occupy all of Manchuria. ==== Russo-Japanese War ==== The Russo-Japanese War was a conflict for control of Korea and parts of Manchuria between the Russian Empire and Empire of Japan that took place from 1904 to 1905. The victory greatly raised Japan's stature in the world of global politics. The war is marked by the Japanese opposition of Russian interests in Korea, Manchuria, and China, notably, the Liaodong Peninsula, controlled by the city of Ryojun. Originally, in the Treaty of Shimonoseki, Ryojun had been given to Japan. This part of the treaty was overruled by Western powers, which gave the port to the Russian Empire, furthering Russian interests in the region. These interests came into conflict with Japanese interests. The war began with a surprise attack on the Russian Eastern fleet stationed at Port Arthur, which was followed by the Battle of Port Arthur. Those elements that attempted escape were defeated by the Japanese navy under Admiral Togo Heihachiro at the Battle of the Yellow Sea. Following a late start, the Russian Baltic fleet was denied passage through the British-controlled Suez Canal. The fleet arrived on the scene a year later, only to be annihilated in the Battle of Tsushima. While the ground war did not fare as poorly for the Russians, the Japanese forces were significantly more aggressive than their Russian counterparts and gained a political advantage that culminated with the Treaty of Portsmouth, negotiated in the United States by the American president Theodore Roosevelt. As a result, Russia lost the part of Sakhalin Island south of 50 degrees North latitude (which became Karafuto Prefecture), as well as many mineral rights in Manchuria. In addition, Russia's defeat cleared the way for Japan to annex Korea outright in 1910. ==== Annexation of Korea ==== In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, various Western countries actively competed for influence, trade, and territory in East Asia, and Japan sought to join these modern colonial powers. The newly modernised Meiji government of Japan turned to Korea (under the Joseon dynasty), then in the sphere of influence of China's Qing dynasty. The Japanese government initially sought to separate Korea from Qing and make Korea a Japanese puppet state in order to further their security and national interests. In January 1876, following the Meiji Restoration, Japan employed gunboat diplomacy to pressure the Joseon Dynasty into signing the Japan–Korea Treaty of 1876, which granted extraterritorial rights to Japanese citizens and opened three Korean ports to Japanese trade. The rights granted to Japan under this unequal treaty, were similar to those granted western powers in Japan following the visit of Commodore Perry. Japanese involvement in Korea increased during the 1890s, a period of political upheaval. Korea (under the Korean Empire) was de facto occupied and declared a Japanese protectorate following the Japan–Korea Treaty of 1905. After proclaimed the founding of the Korean Empire, Korea was officially annexed in Japan through the annexation treaty in 1910. In Korea, the period is usually described as the "Time of Japanese Forced Occupation" (Hangul: 일제 강점기; Ilje gangjeomgi, Hanja: 日帝强占期). Other terms include "Japanese Imperial Period" (Hangul: 일제시대, Ilje sidae, Hanja: 日帝時代) or "Japanese administration" (Hangul: 왜정, Wae jeong, Hanja: 倭政). In Japan, a more common description is "The Korea of Japanese rule" (日本統治時代の朝鮮, Nippon Tōchi-jidai no Chōsen). The Korean Peninsula was officially part of the Empire of Japan for 35 years, from August 29, 1910, until the formal Japanese rule ended, de jure, on September 2, 1945, upon the surrender of Japan in World War II. The 1905 and 1910 treaties were eventually declared "null and void" by both Japan and South Korea in 1965. === Taishō era (1912–1926) === ==== World War I ==== Japan entered World War I on the side of the Allies in 1914, seizing the opportunity of Germany's distraction with the European War to expand its sphere of influence in China and the Pacific. Japan declared war on Germany on August 23, 1914. Japanese and allied British Empire forces soon moved to occupy Tsingtao fortress, the German East Asia Squadron base, German-leased territories in China's Shandong Province as well as the Marianas, Caroline, and Marshall Islands in the Pacific, which were part of German New Guinea. The swift invasion in the German territory of the Kiautschou Bay concession and the Siege of Tsingtao proved successful. The German colonial troops surrendered on November 7, 1914, and Japan gained the German holdings. In 1920, the League of Nations established the South Seas Mandate under Japanese administration to replace German New Guinea. With its Western allies, notably the United Kingdom, heavily involved in the war in Europe, Japan dispatched a Naval fleet to the Mediterranean Sea to aid Allied shipping. Japan sought further to consolidate its position in China by presenting the Twenty-One Demands to China in January 1915. In the face of slow negotiations with the Chinese government, widespread anti-Japanese sentiment in China, and international condemnation, Japan withdrew the final group of demands, and treaties were signed in May 1915. The Anglo-Japanese Alliance was renewed and expanded in scope twice, in 1905 and 1911, before its demise in 1921. It was officially terminated in 1923. ==== Siberian Intervention ==== After the fall of the Tsarist regime and the later provisional regime in 1917, the new Bolshevik government signed a separate peace treaty with Germany. After this, various factions that succeeded the Russian Empire fought amongst themselves in a multi-sided civil war. In July 1918, President Wilson asked the Japanese government to supply 7,000 troops as part of an international coalition of 25,000 troops planned to support the American Expeditionary Force Siberia. Prime Minister Terauchi Masatake agreed to send 12,000 troops but under the Japanese command rather than as part of an international coalition. The Japanese had several hidden motives for the venture, which included an intense hostility and fear of communism; a determination to recoup historical losses to Russia; and the desire to settle the "northern problem" in Japan's security, either through the creation of a buffer state or through outright territorial acquisition. By November 1918, more than 70,000 Japanese troops under Chief of Staff Yui Mitsue had occupied all ports and major towns in the Russian Maritime Provinces and eastern Siberia. Japan received 765 Polish orphans from Siberia. In June 1920, around 450 Japanese civilians and 350 Japanese soldiers, along with Russian White Army supporters, were massacred by partisan forces associated with the Red Army at Nikolayevsk on the Amur River; the United States and its allied coalition partners consequently withdrew from Vladivostok after the capture and execution of White Army leader Admiral Aleksandr Kolchak by the Red Army. However, the Japanese decided to stay, primarily due to fears of the spread of Communism so close to Japan and Japanese-controlled Korea and Manchuria. The Japanese army provided military support to the Japanese-backed Provisional Priamurye Government based in Vladivostok against the Moscow-backed Far Eastern Republic. The continued Japanese presence concerned the United States, which suspected that Japan had territorial designs on Siberia and the Russian Far East. Subjected to intense diplomatic pressure by the United States and United Kingdom, and facing increasing domestic opposition due to the economic and human cost, the administration of Prime Minister Katō Tomosaburō withdrew the Japanese forces in October 1922. Japanese casualties from the expedition were 5,000 dead from combat or illness, with the expedition costing over 900 million yen. ==== "Taishō Democracy" ==== The two-party political system that had been developing in Japan since the turn of the century came of age after World War I, giving rise to the nickname for the period, "Taishō Democracy". The public grew disillusioned with the growing national debt and the new election laws, which retained the old minimum tax qualifications for voters. Calls were raised for universal suffrage and the dismantling of the old political party network. Students, university professors, and journalists, bolstered by labor unions and inspired by a variety of democratic, socialist, communist, anarchist, and other thoughts, mounted large but orderly public demonstrations in favor of universal male suffrage in 1919 and 1920. On 1 September 1923, at a magnitude of 7.9, an earthquake struck Kantō Plain. The death toll was estimated to have exceeded to 140,000 lives lost. On the same day, the Imperial Japanese Army and its nationalists committed a massacre of Korean residents. The election of Katō Komei as Prime Minister of Japan continued democratic reforms that had been advocated by influential individuals on the left. This culminated in the passage of universal male suffrage in March 1925. This bill gave all male subjects over the age of 25 the right to vote, provided they had lived in their electoral districts for at least one year and were not homeless. The electorate thereby increased from 3.3 million to 12.5 million. In the political milieu of the day, there was a proliferation of new parties, including socialist and communist parties. Fear of a broader electorate, left-wing power, and the growing social change led to the passage of the Peace Preservation Law in 1925, which forbade any change in the political structure or the abolition of private property. In 1932, Park Chun-kum was elected to the House of Representatives in the Japanese general election as the first person elected from a colonial background. In 1935, democracy was introduced in Taiwan and in response to Taiwanese public opinion, local assemblies were established. In 1942, 38 colonial people were elected to local assemblies of the Japanese homeland. Unstable coalitions and divisiveness in the Diet led the Kenseikai (憲政会 Constitutional Government Association) and the Seiyū Hontō (政友本党 True Seiyūkai) to merge as the Rikken Minseitō (立憲民政党 Constitutional Democratic Party) in 1927. The Rikken Minseitō platform was committed to the parliamentary system, democratic politics, and world peace. Thereafter, until 1932, the Seiyūkai and the Rikken Minseitō alternated in power. Despite the political realignments and hope for more orderly government, domestic economic crises plagued whichever party held power. Fiscal austerity programs and appeals for public support of such conservative government policies as the Peace Preservation Law—including reminders of the moral obligation to make sacrifices for the emperor and the state—were attempted as solutions. === Early Shōwa (1926–1930) === ==== Rise of militarism and its social organisations ==== Important institutional links existed between the party in government (Kōdōha) and military and political organizations, such as the Imperial Young Federation and the "Political Department" of the Kempeitai. Amongst the himitsu kessha (secret societies), the Kokuryu-kai and Kokka Shakai Shugi Gakumei (National Socialist League) also had close ties to the government. The Tonarigumi (residents committee) groups, the Nation Service Society (national government trade union), and Imperial Farmers Association were all allied as well. Other organizations and groups related with the government in wartime were the Double Leaf Society, Kokuhonsha, Taisei Yokusankai, Imperial Youth Corps, Keishichō (to 1945), Shintoist Rites Research Council, Treaty Faction, Fleet Faction, and Volunteer Fighting Corps. ==== Nationalism and decline of democracy ==== Sadao Araki was an important figurehead and founder of the Army party and the most important militarist thinker in his time. His first ideological works date from his leadership of the Kōdōha (Imperial Benevolent Rule or Action Group), opposed by the Tōseiha (Control Group) led by General Kazushige Ugaki. He linked the ancient (bushido code) and contemporary local and European fascist ideals (see Statism in Shōwa Japan), to form the ideological basis of the movement (Shōwa nationalism). From September 1931, the Japanese were becoming more locked into the course that would lead them into the Second World War, with Araki leading the way. Increasing authoritarianism, ultranationalism, militarism, and expansionism were to become the rule, with fewer voices able to speak against it. In a September 23 news conference, Araki first mentioned the philosophy of "Kōdōha" (The Imperial Way Faction). The concept of Kodo linked the Emperor, the people, land, and morality as indivisible. This led to the creation of a "new" Shinto and increased Emperor worship. On February 26, 1936, a coup d'état was attempted (the February 26 Incident). Launched by the ultranationalist Kōdōha faction with the military, it ultimately failed due to the intervention of the Emperor. Kōdōha members were purged from the top military positions and the Tōseiha faction gained dominance. However, both factions believed in expansionism, a strong military, and a coming war. Furthermore, Kōdōha members, while removed from the military, still had political influence within the government. The state was being transformed to serve the Army and the Emperor. Symbolic katana swords came back into fashion as the martial embodiment of these beliefs, and the Nambu pistol became its contemporary equivalent, with the implicit message that the Army doctrine of close combat would prevail. The final objective, as envisioned by Army thinkers such as Sadao Araki and right-wing line followers, was a return to the old Shogunate system, but in the form of a contemporary Military Shogunate. In such a government the Emperor would once more be a figurehead (as in the Edo period). Real power would fall to a leader very similar to a führer or duce, though with the power less nakedly held. On the other hand, the traditionalist Navy militarists defended the Emperor and a constitutional monarchy with a significant religious aspect. A third point of view was supported by Prince Chichibu, a brother of Emperor Shōwa, who repeatedly counseled him to implement a direct imperial rule, even if that meant suspending the constitution. With the launching of the Imperial Rule Assistance Association in 1940 by Prime Minister Fumimaro Konoe, Japan would turn to a form of government that resembled totalitarianism. This unique style of government, similar to fascism, was known as "Shōwa Statism". There has been a debate among historians over defining the political system of Japan as a dictatorship and its resemblance to European Fascism: the aurguments in favour of this view were "the subordination of both country and society to militarism, control by a rigid style of leadership exercising authoritarian discipline, and the most brutal treatment of occupied areas", but it was noted that the Japanese far-right organizations lacked a mass movement similar to the mass Fascist movement in Europe, and some pluralism continued to exist even during the World War II: Stanley G. Payne describes Japan as "somewhat pluralistic authoritarian system which exhibited some of the characteristics of fascism, but it did not develop fascism's most distinctive and revolutionary aspects" and had more in common with the German Empire during the World War I than with the Third Reich. It was also noted that this political system lacked the figure of a single person with an absolute authority and a personality cult, since Hirohito couldn't be referred to as a dictator because of being a monarch, and since his authority existed along with party politics, while Hideki Tojo never had an absolute authority and was forced to resign, while the IRAA, according to Roger Griffin, was "little more than a bureaucratic fiction"; as historians noted, the ideological base for Japanese "was traditional, even if the methods of communication and control were modern and European", and that the traditional society of Japan was "to a large degree differential", while its institutions remained too elitist and conservative to follow such practices as a "democratic mass mobilization" characteristic of totalitarianism. In the early twentieth century, a distinctive style of architecture was developed for the empire. Now referred to as Imperial Crown Style (帝冠様式, teikan yōshiki), before the end of World War II, it was originally referred to as Emperor's Crown Amalgamate Style, and sometimes Emperor's Crown Style (帝冠式, Teikanshiki). The style is identified by Japanese-style roofing on top of Neoclassical styled buildings; and can have a centrally elevated structure with a pyramidal dome. The prototype for this style was developed by architect Shimoda Kikutaro in his proposal for the Imperial Diet Building (present National Diet Building) in 1920 – although his proposal was ultimately rejected. Outside of the Japanese mainland, in places like Taiwan and Korea, Imperial Crown Style architecture often included regional architectural elements. Overall, during the 1920s, Japan changed its direction toward a democratic system of government. However, parliamentary government was not rooted deeply enough to withstand the economic and political pressures of the 1930s, during which military leaders became increasingly influential. These shifts in power were made possible by the ambiguity and imprecision of the Meiji Constitution, particularly as regarded the position of the Emperor in relation to the constitution. ==== Economic factors ==== During the 1920s, the whole global economy was dubbed as "a decade of global uncertainty". At the same time, the zaibatsu trading groups (principally Mitsubishi, Mitsui, Sumitomo, and Yasuda) looked towards great future expansion. Their main concern was a shortage of raw materials. Prime Minister Fumimaro Konoe combined social concerns with the needs of capital, and planned for expansion. Their economic growth was stimulated by certain domestic policies and it can be seen in the steady and progressive increase of materials such as in the iron, steel and chemical industry. The main goals of Japan's expansionism were acquisition and protection of spheres of influence, maintenance of territorial integrity, acquisition of raw materials, and access to Asian markets. Western nations, notably the United Kingdom, France, and the United States, had for long exhibited great interest in the commercial opportunities in China and other parts of Asia. These opportunities had attracted Western investment because of the availability of raw materials for both domestic production and re-export to Asia. Japan desired these opportunities in planning the development of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere. The Great Depression, just as in many other countries, hindered Japan's economic growth. The Japanese Empire's main problem lay in that rapid industrial expansion had turned the country into a major manufacturing and industrial power that required raw materials; however, these had to be obtained from overseas, as there was a critical lack of natural resources on the home islands. In the 1920s and 1930s, Japan needed to import raw materials such as iron, rubber, and oil to maintain strong economic growth. Most of these resources came from the United States. The Japanese felt that acquiring resource-rich territories would establish economic self-sufficiency and independence, and they also hoped to jump-start the nation's economy in the midst of the depression. As a result, Japan set its sights on East Asia, specifically Manchuria with its many resources; Japan needed these resources to continue its economic development and maintain national integrity. === Later Shōwa (1931–1941) === ==== Prewar expansionism ==== ===== Manchuria ===== In 1931, Japan invaded and conquered Northeast China (Manchuria) with little resistance. Japan claimed that this invasion was a liberation of the local Manchus from the Chinese, although the majority of the population were Han Chinese as a result of the large scale settlement of Chinese in Manchuria in the 19th century. Japan then established a puppet state called Manchukuo (Chinese: 滿洲國), and installed the last Manchu Emperor of China, Puyi, as the official head of state. Rehe, a Chinese territory bordering Manchukuo, was later also taken in 1933. This puppet regime had to carry on a protracted pacification campaign against the Anti-Japanese Volunteer Armies in Manchuria. In 1936, Japan created a similar Mongolian puppet state in Inner Mongolia named Mengjiang (Chinese: 蒙疆), which was also predominantly Chinese as a result of recent Han immigration to the area. At that time, East Asians were banned from immigration to North America and Australia, but the newly established Manchukuo was open to immigration of Asians. Japan had an emigration plan to encourage colonization; the Japanese population in Manchuria subsequently grew to 850,000. With rich natural resources and labor force in Manchuria, army-owned corporations turned Manchuria into a solid material support machine of the Japanese Army. ===== Second Sino-Japanese War ===== Japan invaded China proper in 1937, beginning a war against both Chiang Kai-shek's Nationalists and also the Communists of Mao Zedong's united front. On December 13 of that same year, the Nationalist capital of Nanjing surrendered to Japanese troops. In the event known as the "Nanjing Massacre", Japanese troops killed many tens-of-thousands of people associated with the defending garrison. It is estimated that as many as 200,000 to 300,000 including civilians, may have been killed, although the actual numbers are uncertain and possibly inflated—coupled with the fact that the government of the People's Republic of China has never undertaken a full accounting of the massacre. In total, an estimated 20 million Chinese, mostly civilians, were killed during World War II. A puppet state was also set up in China quickly afterwards, headed by Wang Jingwei. The Second Sino-Japanese War continued into World War II with the Communists and Nationalists in a temporary and uneasy nominal alliance against the Japanese. ===== Clashes with the Soviet Union ===== In 1938, the Japanese 19th Division entered territory claimed by the Soviet Union, leading to the Battle of Lake Khasan. This incursion was founded in the Japanese belief that the Soviet Union misinterpreted the demarcation of the boundary, as stipulated in the Treaty of Peking, between Imperial Russia and Manchu China (and subsequent supplementary agreements on demarcation), and furthermore, that the demarcation markers were tampered with. On May 11, 1939, in the Nomonhan Incident (Battle of Khalkhin Gol), a Mongolian cavalry unit of some 70 to 90 men entered the disputed area in search of grazing for their horses, and encountered Manchukuoan cavalry, who drove them out. Two days later the Mongolian force returned and the Manchukoans were unable to evict them. The IJA 23rd Division and other units of the Kwantung Army then became involved. Joseph Stalin ordered Stavka, the Red Army's high command, to develop a plan for a counterstrike against the Japanese. In late August, Georgy Zhukov employed encircling tactics that made skillful use of superior artillery, armor, and air forces; this offensive nearly annihilated the 23rd Division and decimated the IJA 7th Division. On September 15 an armistice was arranged. Nearly two years later, on April 13, 1941, the parties signed a Neutrality Pact, in which the Soviet Union pledged to respect the territorial integrity and inviolability of Manchukuo, while Japan agreed similarly for the Mongolian People's Republic. ===== Tripartite Pact ===== In 1938, Japan prohibited the expulsion of the Jews in Japan, Manchuria, and China in accordance with the spirit of racial equality on which Japan had insisted for many years. The Second Sino-Japanese War had seen tensions rise between Imperial Japan and the United States; events such as the Panay incident and the Nanjing Massacre turned American public opinion against Japan. With the occupation of French Indochina in the years of 1940–41, and with the continuing war in China, the United States and its allies placed embargoes on Japan of strategic materials such as scrap metal and oil, which were vitally needed for the war effort. The Japanese were faced with the option of either withdrawing from China and losing face or seizing and securing new sources of raw materials in the resource-rich, European-controlled colonies of Southeast Asia—specifically British Malaya and the Dutch East Indies (modern-day Indonesia). On September 27, 1940, Japan signed the Tripartite Pact with Germany and Italy. Their objectives were to "establish and maintain a new order of things" in their respective world regions and spheres of influence, with Germany and Italy in Europe, and Japan in Asia. The signatories of this alliance became known as the Axis Powers. The pact also called for mutual protection—if any one of the member powers was attacked by a country not already at war, excluding the Soviet Union and for technological and economic cooperation between the signatories. For the sake of their own people and nation, Prime Minister Konoe formed the Taisei Yokusankai (Imperial Rule Assistance Association) on October 12, 1940, as a ruling party in Japan. In 1940 Japan celebrated the 2600th anniversary of Jimmu's ascension and built a monument to Hakkō ichiu despite the fact that all historians knew Jimmu was a made up figure. In 1941 the Japanese government charged the one historian who dared to challenge Jimmu's existence publicly, Tsuda Sokichi. During the Second Sino-Japanese War and the Second World War, the firm Iwanami Shoten was repeatedly censored because of its positions against the war and the Emperor. Shigeo Iwanami was even sentenced to two months in prison for the publication of the banned works of Tsuda Sōkichi (a sentence which he did not serve, however). Shortly before his death in 1946, he founded the newspaper Sekai, which had a great influence in post-war Japanese intellectual circles. The early 20th century historian Tsuda Sōkichi, who put forward the then-controversial theory that the Kojiki's accounts were not based on history (as Edo period kokugaku and State Shinto ideology believed them to be) but rather propagandistic myths concocted to explain and legitimize the rule of the imperial (Yamato) dynasty, also saw Susanoo as a negative figure, arguing that he was created to serve as the rebellious opposite of the imperial ancestress Amaterasu. A historian in 20th century, Sokichi Tsuda's view of history, which has become mainstream after the World War II, is based on his idea. Many scholars today also believe that the mythology of Takamagahara in Kojiki was created by the ruling class to make people believe that the class was precious because they originated in the heavenly realm. === World War II (1941–1945) === On November 5, 1941, Yamamoto in his "Top Secret Operation Order no. 1" issued to the Combined Fleet, the Empire of Japan must drive out Britain and America from Greater East Asia and to hasten the settlement of the China, whereas should the eventuality that Britain and America would really be driven out from the Philippines and Dutch East Indies, an independent, self-supporting economic entity will be firmly established – mirroring the principle of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere in another personification. Facing an oil embargo by the United States as well as dwindling domestic reserves, the Japanese government decided to execute a plan developed by Isoroku Yamamoto to attack the United States Pacific Fleet in Hawaii. While the United States was neutral and continued negotiating with Japan for possible peace in Asia, the Imperial Japanese Navy at the same time made its surprise attack on Pearl Harbor in Honolulu on December 7, 1941. As a result, the U.S. battleship fleet was decimated and almost 2,500 people died in the attack that day. The primary objective of the attack was to incapacitate the United States long enough for Japan to establish its long-planned South East Asian empire and defensible buffer zones. The American public saw the attack as barbaric and treacherous and rallied against the Japanese. Four days later, Adolf Hitler of Germany, and Benito Mussolini of Italy declared war on the United States, merging the separate conflicts. The United States entered the European Theatre and Pacific Theater in full force, thereby bringing the United States to World War II on the side of the Allies. Even as they launched the surprise attack on Pearl Harbor, the Japanese were well aware that the United States had the capability to mount a counter-offensive against them. However, they believed that they could maintain their defensive perimeter and push back any attempt by the British and Americans that could incur enough losses to make the Allied forces consider making peace on the basis of Japan's retainment of the territories she had gained. ==== Japanese conquests ==== Following the attack on Pearl Harbor, the Japanese launched offensives against Allied forces in East and Southeast Asia, with simultaneous attacks in British Hong Kong, British Malaya and the Philippines. Hong Kong surrendered to the Japanese on December 25. In Malaya the Japanese overwhelmed an Allied army composed of British, Indian, Australian and Malay forces. The Japanese were quickly able to advance down the Malayan Peninsula, forcing the Allied forces to retreat towards Singapore. The Allies lacked aircover and tanks; the Japanese had complete air superiority. The sinking of HMS Prince of Wales and HMS Repulse on December 10, 1941, led to the east coast of Malaya being exposed to Japanese landings and the elimination of British naval power in the area. By the end of January 1942, the last Allied forces crossed the strait of Johore and into Singapore. On January 11, 1942, a Japanese submarine shelled the United States naval Station at Pago Pago in Samoa, suggesting that the Japanese were advancing to the direction of Australia and nearby Oceanic regions. In the Philippines, the Japanese pushed the combined American-Filipino force towards the Bataan Peninsula and later the island of Corregidor. By January 1942, General Douglas MacArthur and President Manuel L. Quezon were forced to flee in the face of Japanese advance. This marked one of the worst defeats suffered by the Americans, leaving over 70,000 American and Filipino prisoners of war in the custody of the Japanese. On February 15, 1942, Singapore, due to the overwhelming superiority of Japanese forces and encirclement tactics, fell to the Japanese, causing the largest surrender of British-led military personnel in history. An estimated 80,000 Australian, British and Indian troops were taken as prisoners of war, joining 50,000 taken in the Japanese invasion of Malaya (modern day Malaysia). The Japanese then seized the key oil production zones of Borneo, Central Java, Malang, Cebu, Sumatra, and Dutch New Guinea of the late Dutch East Indies, defeating the Dutch forces. However, Allied sabotage had made it difficult for the Japanese to restore oil production to its pre-war peak. The Japanese then consolidated their lines of supply through capturing key islands of the Pacific, including Guadalcanal. ==== Tide turns ==== Japanese military strategists were keenly aware of the unfavorable discrepancy between the industrial potential of Japan and the United States. Because of this they reasoned that Japanese success hinged on their ability to extend the strategic advantage gained at Pearl Harbor with additional rapid strategic victories. The Japanese Command reasoned that only decisive destruction of the United States' Pacific Fleet and conquest of its remote outposts would ensure that the Japanese Empire would not be overwhelmed by America's industrial might. In April 1942, Japan was bombed for the first time in the Doolittle Raid. During the same month, after the Japanese victory in the Battle of Bataan, the Bataan Death March was conducted, where 5,650 to 18,000 Filipinos died under the rule of the imperial army. In May 1942, failure to decisively defeat the Allies at the Battle of the Coral Sea, in spite of Japanese numerical superiority, equated to a strategic defeat for the Japanese. This setback was followed in June 1942 by the catastrophic loss of four fleet carriers at the Battle of Midway, the first decisive defeat for the Imperial Japanese Navy. It proved to be the turning point of the war as the Navy lost its offensive strategic capability and never managed to reconstruct the "'critical mass' of both large numbers of carriers and well-trained air groups". Australian land forces defeated Japanese Marines in New Guinea at the Battle of Milne Bay in September 1942, which was the first land defeat suffered by the Japanese in the Pacific. Further victories by the Allies at Guadalcanal in September 1942 and New Guinea in 1943 put the Empire of Japan on the defensive for the remainder of the war, with Guadalcanal in particular sapping their already-limited oil supplies. During 1943 and 1944, Allied forces, backed by the industrial might and vast raw material resources of the United States, advanced steadily towards Japan. The Sixth United States Army, led by General MacArthur, landed on Leyte on October 20, 1944. The Palawan massacre was committed by the imperial army against Filipinos in December 1944. In the subsequent months, during the Philippines campaign (1944–45), the Allies, including the combined United States forces together with the native guerrilla units, recaptured the Philippines. ==== Surrender ==== By 1944, the Allies had seized or bypassed and neutralized many of Japan's strategic bases through amphibious landings and bombardment. This, coupled with the losses inflicted by Allied submarines on Japanese shipping routes, began to strangle Japan's economy and undermine its ability to supply its army. By early 1945, the US Marines had wrested control of the Ogasawara Islands in several hard-fought battles such as the Battle of Iwo Jima, marking the beginning of the fall of the islands of Japan. After securing airfields in Saipan and Guam in the summer of 1944, the United States Army Air Forces conducted an intense strategic bombing campaign by having B-29 Superfortress bombers in nighttime low altitude incendiary raids, burning Japanese cities in an effort to pulverize Japan's war industry and shatter its morale. The Operation Meetinghouse raid on Tokyo on the night of March 9–10, 1945, led to the deaths of approximately 120,000 civilians. Approximately 350,000–500,000 civilians died in 67 Japanese cities as a result of the incendiary bombing campaign on Japan. Concurrent with these attacks, Japan's vital coastal shipping operations were severely hampered with extensive aerial mining by the US's Operation Starvation. Regardless, these efforts did not succeed in persuading the Japanese military to surrender. In mid-August 1945, the United States dropped nuclear weapons on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. These bombings were the first and only combat use of nuclear weaponry. These two bombs killed approximately 120,000 people in a matter of seconds, and as many as a result of nuclear radiation in the following weeks, months and years. The bombs killed as many as 140,000 people in Hiroshima and 80,000 in Nagasaki by the end of 1945. At the Yalta agreement, the US, the UK, and the USSR had agreed that the USSR would enter the war on Japan within three months of the defeat of Germany in Europe. This Soviet–Japanese War led to the fall of Japan's Manchurian occupation, Soviet occupation of South Sakhalin island, and a real, imminent threat of Soviet invasion of the home islands of Japan. This was a significant factor for some internal parties in the Japanese decision to surrender to the US and gain some protection, rather than face simultaneous Soviet invasion as well as defeat by the US and its allies. Likewise, the superior numbers of the armies of the Soviet Union in Europe was a factor in the US decision to demonstrate the use of atomic weapons to the USSR, just as the Allied victory in Europe was evolving into the division of Germany and Berlin, the division of Europe with the Iron Curtain and the subsequent Cold War. Having ignored (mokusatsu) the Potsdam Declaration, the Empire of Japan surrendered and ended World War II after the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, the declaration of war by the Soviet Union and subsequent invasion of Manchuria and other territories. In a national radio address on August 15, Emperor Hirohito announced the surrender to the Japanese people by Gyokuon-hōsō. === End of the Empire of Japan === ==== Occupation of Japan ==== A period known as occupied Japan followed after the war, largely spearheaded by US Army General Douglas MacArthur to revise the Japanese constitution and de-militarize the nation. The Allied occupation, including concurrent economic and political assistance, continued until 1952. Allied forces ordered Japan to abolish the Meiji Constitution and enforce the 1947 Constitution of Japan. This new constitution was imposed by the United States under the supervision of MacArthur. MacArthur included Article 9 which changed Japan into a pacifist country. Upon adoption of the 1947 constitution, the Empire of Japan dissolved and became simply the modern state of Japan, and all the territories such as Taiwan, Korea, Karafuto, and Kuril were lost. With the formal surrender, Japan was much reduced to the territories as it is today; mostly the islands of Honshu, Hokkaido, Kyushu, and Shikoku. The Kuril Islands historically belonged to Japan and were first inhabited by the Ainu people before coming under the control of the Matsumae clan during the Edo Period. Since 1945, Kuril has belonged to the Soviet Union and now Russia. Japan adopted a parliamentary-based political system, and the role of the Emperor became symbolic. The US occupation forces were fully responsible for protecting Japan from external threats. Japan only had a minor police force for domestic security. Japan was under the sole control of the United States. This was the only time in Japanese history that it was occupied by a foreign power. General MacArthur later commended the new Japanese government that he helped establish and the new Japanese period when he was about to send the American forces to the Korean War: The Japanese people, since the war, have undergone the greatest reformation recorded in modern history. With a commendable will, eagerness to learn, and marked capacity to understand, they have, from the ashes left in war's wake, erected in Japan an edifice dedicated to the supremacy of individual liberty and personal dignity; and in the ensuing process there has been created a truly representative government committed to the advance of political morality, freedom of economic enterprise, and social justice. Politically, economically, and socially Japan is now abreast of many free nations of the earth and will not again fail the universal trust. ... I sent all four of our occupation divisions to the Korean battlefront without the slightest qualms as to the effect of the resulting power vacuum upon Japan. The results fully justified my faith. I know of no nation more serene, orderly, and industrious, nor in which higher hopes can be entertained for future constructive service in the advance of the human race. For historian John W. Dower: In retrospect, apart from the military officer corps, the purge of alleged militarists and ultranationalists that was conducted under the Occupation had relatively small impact on the long-term composition of men of influence in the public and private sectors. The purge initially brought new blood into the political parties, but this was offset by the return of huge numbers of formerly purged conservative politicians to national as well as local politics in the early 1950s. In the bureaucracy, the purge was negligible from the outset. ... In the economic sector, the purge similarly was only mildly disruptive, affecting less than sixteen hundred individuals spread among some four hundred companies. Everywhere one looks, the corridors of power in postwar Japan are crowded with men whose talents had already been recognized during the war years, and who found the same talents highly prized in the 'new' Japan. == Influential personnel == === Political === In the administration of Japan dominated by the military political movement during World War II, the civil central government was under the management of military men and their right-wing civilian allies, along with members of the nobility and Imperial Family. The Emperor was in the center of this power structure as supreme Commander-in-Chief of the Imperial Armed Forces and head of state. Early period: HIH Prince Kitashirakawa Yoshihisa HIH Prince Kitashirakawa Naruhisa HIH Prince Komatsu Akihito HIH Marquess Michitsune Koga Prince Yamagata Aritomo Prince Itō Hirobumi Prince Katsura Tarō World War II: Prince Fumimaro Konoe Kōki Hirota Hideki Tojo === Diplomats === Early period Marquess Komura Jutarō: Boxer Protocol & the Treaty of Portsmouth Count Mutsu Munemitsu: Treaty of Shimonoseki Count Hayashi Tadasu: Anglo-Japanese Alliance Count Kaneko Kentarō: envoy to the United States Viscount Aoki Shūzō: Foreign Minister of Japan, Anglo-Japanese Treaty of Commerce and Navigation Viscount Torii Tadafumi: Vice Consul to the Kingdom of Hawaii Viscount Ishii Kikujiro: Lansing–Ishii Agreement World War II Baron Hiroshi Ōshima: Japanese ambassador to Nazi Germany === Military === The Empire of Japan's military was divided into two main branches: the Imperial Japanese Army and the Imperial Japanese Navy. To coordinate operations, the Imperial General Headquarters, headed by the Emperor, was established in 1893. Prominent generals and leaders: ==== Imperial Japanese Army ==== ===== Early period ===== Field Marshal Prince Yamagata Aritomo: Chief of Staff of the Army, Prime Minister of Japan, Founder of the IJA Field Marshal Prince Ōyama Iwao: Chief of Staff of the Army Field Marshal Prince Komatsu Akihito: Chief of Staff of the Army Field Marshal Marquis Nozu Michitsura: General Count Nogi Maresuke: Governor of Taiwan General Count Akiyama Yoshifuru: Chief of Staff of the Army General Count Kuroki Tamemoto General Count Nagaoka Gaishi Lieutenant General Baron Ōshima Ken'ichi: Chief of Staff of the Army, Minister of War during World War I General Viscount Kodama Gentarō: Chief of Staff of the Army, Governor of Taiwan ===== World War II ===== Field Marshal Prince Kotohito Kan'in: Chief of Staff of the Army Field Marshal Hajime Sugiyama: Chief of Staff of the Army General Senjūrō Hayashi: Chief of Staff of the Army, Prime Minister of Japan General Hideki Tōjō: Prime Minister of Japan General Yoshijirō Umezu: Chief of Staff of the Army ==== Imperial Japanese Navy ==== ===== Early period ===== Marshal Admiral Prince Higashifushimi Yorihito (1867–1922) Marshal Admiral Marquess Tōgō Heihachirō (1847–1934), Battle of Tsushima Marshal Admiral Count Itō Sukeyuki (1843–1914) Admiral Count Kawamura Sumiyoshi (1836–1904) Marshal Admiral Viscount Inoue Yoshika (1845–1929) Marshal Admiral Baron Ijuin Gorō (1852–1921) Marshal Admiral Baron Katō Tomosaburō (1861–1923) Admiral Baron Akamatsu Noriyoshi (1841–1920) Vice Admiral Akiyama Saneyuki (1868–1918), Battle of Tsushima ===== World War II ===== Marshal Admiral Mineichi Koga (1885–1944) Marshal Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto (1884–1943), attack on Pearl Harbor, Battle of Midway Marshal Admiral Osami Nagano (1880–1947) Admiral Chūichi Nagumo (1887–1944), attack on Pearl Harbor, Battle of Midway Rear Admiral Viscount Morio Matsudaira (1878–1944) == Demographics == == Economy == == Education == == Notable scholars/scientists == === 19th century === ==== Anthropologists, ethnologists, archaeologists, and historians ==== ==== Medical scientists, biologists, evolutionary theorists, and geneticists ==== ==== Inventors, industrialists, engineers ==== ==== Philosophers, educators, mathematicians, and polymaths ==== ==== Chemists, physicists, and geologists ==== === 20th century === == Timeline (1926-1947) == 1926: Emperor Taishō dies (December 25). 1927: Tanaka Giichi becomes prime minister (April 20). 1928: Emperor Shōwa is formally installed as emperor (November 10). 1929: Osachi Hamaguchi becomes prime minister (July 2). 1930: Hamaguchi is wounded in an assassination attempt (November 14). 1931: Hamaguchi dies and Wakatsuki Reijirō becomes prime minister (April 14). Japan occupies Manchuria after the Mukden Incident (September 18). Inukai Tsuyoshi becomes prime minister (December 13) and increases funding for the military in China. 1932: After an attack on Japanese monks in Shanghai (January 18), Japanese forces shell the city (January 29). Manchukuo is established with Henry Pu Yi as emperor (February 29). Inukai is assassinated during a coup attempt and Saitō Makoto becomes prime minister (May 15). Japan is censured by the League of Nations (December 7). 1933: Japan leaves the League of Nations (March 27). 1934: Keisuke Okada becomes prime minister (July 8). Japan withdraws from the Washington Naval Treaty (December 29). 1936: Coup attempt (February 26 Incident). Kōki Hirota becomes prime minister (March 9). Japan signs its first pact with Germany (November 25) and reoccupies Tsingtao (December 3). Mengjiang established in Inner Mongolia. 1937: Senjūrō Hayashi becomes prime minister (February 2). Prince Fumimaro Konoe becomes prime minister (June 4). Battle of Lugou Bridge (July 7). Japan captures Beijing (July 31). Japanese troops occupy Nanjing (December 13), beginning the Nanjing Massacre. 1938: Battle of Taierzhuang (March 24). Canton falls to Japanese forces (October 21). 1939: Hiranuma Kiichirō becomes prime minister (January 5). Japan annexs the Spratly Islands (March 30) (and the Paracel Islands in 1941). Abe Nobuyuki becomes prime minister (August 30). 1940: Mitsumasa Yonai becomes prime minister (January 16). Konoe becomes prime minister for a second term (July 22). Hundred Regiments Offensive (August–September). Japan occupies French Indochina in the wake of the fall of Paris, and signs the Tripartite Pact (September 27). 1941: General Hideki Tojo becomes prime minister (October 18). Japanese naval forces attack Pearl Harbor, Hawaii (December 7), prompting the United States to declare war on Japan (December 8). Japan conquers Hong Kong (December 25). 1942: Battle of Ambon (January 30 – February 3). Battle of Palembang (February 13–15). Singapore surrenders to Japan (February 15). Japan bombs Australia (February 19). Indian Ocean raid (March 31 – April 10). Doolittle Raid on Tokyo (April 18). Battle of the Coral Sea (May 4–8). U.S. and Filipino forces in the Battle of the Philippines (1942) surrender (May 8). Allied victory at the Battle of Midway (June 6). Allied victory in the Battle of Milne Bay (September 5). Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands (October 25–27). 1943: Allied victory in the Battle of Guadalcanal (February 9). Allied victory at the Battle of Tarawa (November 23). 1944: Tojo resigns and Kuniaki Koiso becomes prime minister (July 22). Battle of Leyte Gulf (October 23–26). 1945: Allied bombers begin firebombing of major Japanese cities. Allied victory at the Battle of Iwo Jima (March 26). Admiral Kantarō Suzuki becomes prime minister (April 7). Allied victory at the Battle of Okinawa (June 21). The US drops atomic bombs on Hiroshima (August 6) and Nagasaki (August 9), the Soviet Union and Mongolia invade Manchukuo, Chinese Mengjiang (Inner Mongolia), and Japan (northern Korea, South Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands) (August 9 – September 2). Japan surrenders (September 2): Allied occupation begins. 1947: The Constitution of Japan comes into force. == Emperors == == Emblems == == See also == Agriculture in the Empire of Japan Demography of the Empire of Japan Economy of the Empire of Japan Education in the Empire of Japan Emperor system Foreign commerce and shipping of the Empire of Japan Germany–Japan industrial co-operation before World War II Industrial production in Shōwa Japan Japanese nuclear weapon program List of territories occupied by Imperial Japan Political parties of the Empire of Japan == Notes == == References == === Citations === === Bibliography === == External links == Media related to Empire of Japan at Wikimedia Commons

The Empire of Japan, also referred to as the Japanese Empire, Imperial Japan, or simply Japan, was the Japanese nation-state that existed from the Meiji Restoration in 1868 until the enactment of the reformed Constitution of Japan in 1947. From 29 August 1910 until 2 September 1945, it administered the naichi (the Japanese archipelago and post-1943 Karafuto) and the gaichi (Korea, Taiwan, Kwantung Leased Territory, and pre-1943 Karafuto). The South Seas Mandate was a single Japanese dependent territory in the name of the League of Nations under Japanese administration. In the closing stages of World War II, with Japan defeated alongside the rest of the Axis, the formalized Japanese Instrument of Surrender was issued in compliance with the Potsdam Declaration of the victorious Allies, and Japanese de facto territory subsequently shrunk to cover only the Japanese archipelago as it is today. Under the slogans of fukoku kyōhei and shokusan kōgyō, which followed the Boshin War and the restoration of power to the Emperor from the Shogun, Japan underwent a period of large-scale industrialization and militarization, often regarded as the fastest modernization of any country to date. All of these aspects contributed to Japan's emergence as a great power following the First Sino-Japanese War, the Boxer Rebellion, the Russo-Japanese War, and World War I. Economic and political turmoil in the 1920s, including the Great Depression, led to the rise of militarism, nationalism, statism and authoritarianism, and this ideological shift eventually culminated in Japan joining the Axis alliance with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy, and also conquering a large part of the Asia-Pacific. During this period, the Japanese army committed many atrocities, including the Nanjing Massacre. However, there has been a debate over defining the political system of Japan as a dictatorship. The Imperial Japanese Armed Forces initially achieved large-scale military successes during the Second Sino-Japanese War and the Pacific War. However, from 1942 onwards, and particularly after decisive Allied advances at Midway Atoll and Guadalcanal, Japan was forced to adopt a defensive stance against the United States. The American-led island-hopping campaign led to the eventual loss of many of Japan's Oceanian island possessions in the following three years. Eventually, the American military captured Iwo Jima and Okinawa Island, leaving the Japanese mainland unprotected and without a significant naval defense force. By August 1945, plans had been made for an Allied invasion of mainland Japan, but were shelved after Japan surrendered in the face of a major breakthrough by the United States and the Soviet Union, with the former detonating two atomic bombs over Hiroshima and Nagasaki and the latter invading Japan's northern territories. The Pacific War officially came to an end on 2 September 1945, leading to the beginning of the Allied occupation of Japan, during which American military leader Douglas MacArthur administered the country. In 1947, through Allied efforts, a new Japanese constitution was enacted, officially ending the Japanese Empire and forming present-day Japan. During this time, the Imperial Japanese Armed Forces were dissolved and replaced by the current Japan Self-Defense Forces. Reconstruction under the Allied occupation continued until 1952, consolidating the modern Japanese constitutional monarchy. In total, the Empire of Japan had three emperors: Meiji, Taishō, and Shōwa. The Imperial era came to an end partway through Shōwa's reign, and he remained emperor until 1989.

japan

Japan Pavilion at Epcot (wikipedia)

The Japan Pavilion is a Japanese-themed pavilion that is part of the World Showcase, within Epcot at Walt Disney World in Bay Lake, Florida, United States. Its location is between The American Adventure and Morocco pavilions. == History == The Japan Pavilion is one of the original World Showcase pavilions and had been in planning since the late 1970s. Many attractions have been proposed for the pavilion and one show building was built, but left unused. Meet the World was one planned attraction and was a clone of the attraction Meet the World that was once at Tokyo Disneyland. However, management thought that the Japanese film's omission of World War II might upset many Veterans, it was dropped. The show was so close to opening that the show building and rotating platform was built, but not used. == Planned attractions == Numerous attractions were planned and purposed. Only one (Meet the World) was constructed. For years, Imagineers have considered building an indoor roller coaster attraction based on Japan's Mount Fuji. The attraction would have been designed similarly to Matterhorn Bobsleds from Disneyland. The coaster would have been housed inside a replica of Mount Fuji. At one point, Godzilla or a large lizard attacking guests in their cars was considered. Fujifilm originally wanted to sponsor the ride in the early 1990s, but Kodak, a major Epcot sponsor, convinced Disney to decline the sponsorship. Luckily, the Matterhorn derived design elements survived to be incorporated into Expedition Everest at Disney's Animal Kingdom Park. Another proposed attraction was a walk-through version of "Circle-Vision", in which guests would board and walk through a Shinkansen (bullet train) and look through windows (actually film screens) that showcase Japan's changing landscapes. The train would have shaken and moved like a train traveling through the countryside. Meet the World (from Tokyo Disneyland) was planned for the pavilion. Unlike the other attractions that did not make it past the planning stages, Meet the World's show building was constructed with the theater going to be on the second floor. However, due to miscalculations made in the building's design, the rotating theater put a lot of stress on the support beams. For the attraction to be able to function safely, the show building would have to have major rework done. As Epcot's construction was behind schedule, it was decided to move forward without the attraction. Today, the current space is used for rehearsals and storage. == Layout == The Japan Pavilion is made up of buildings surrounding a courtyard. The entrance to the courtyard features a Japanese Pagoda. A torii gate decorates the water in front of the pavilion. The area is filled with Japanese pools and gardens. At the end of the courtyard is the gate to a Japanese castle, including a moat, which leads into a display of Japanese culture. == Attractions and services == === Exhibitions === Bijutsu-kan – An exhibition gallery hosting long-term exhibits on Japanese art and culture. Its current presentation, "Kawaii Life", features a look at Japan's "Culture of Cute." === Attractions === EPCOT World Showcase Adventure DuckTales World Showcase Adventure (2022-Present) === Former attractions === EPCOT World Showcase Adventure Kim Possible World Showcase Adventure (2009 – 2012) Agent P's World Showcase Adventure (2012 – 2020) === Dining === Teppan Edo is a teppanyaki-style restaurant, meaning that the food is cooked right in front of you at the table. The restaurant is directly above, and connected to, the Mitsukoshi department store. The decor and theming is intended to reflect the "vivaciousness" of the Edo period. Foods that are cooked on the table are steaks, chicken, shrimps, scallops, and vegetables. Select sushi rolls, miso soup, edamame, and tempura is offered as an appetizer, and various ice cream flavors, as well as mousses are options for dessert. Kids meal are served in monorail-shaped boxes. Katsura Grill: A counter-service restaurant located on a hill adjacent to the pagoda. Kabuki Cafe: Kaki-gori Garden House: Sake Takumi Tei Shiki-Sai: Sushi Izakaya === Former Dining === Tokyo Dining: Originally occupied by two separate restaurants, Tempura Kiku and the Matsu No Ma lounge, Tokyo Dining is now a sushi restaurant. They serve sushi, tempura and some other grilled items (such as steak, grilled chicken and so on). === Shopping === Mitsukoshi Department Store: The store is separated into four zones: Festivity, Silence, Harmony, and Interest, and sells many Japanese items, including clothing, jewelry, books, manga, anime items (such as posters), and toys. It has been expanded in recent years to include a far greater variety of items than before. More specifically, a greater portion of the store sells Japanese pop culture related items, presumably to take advantage of the growing interest in these types of products in America. To date, this is the only remaining branch of Mitsukoshi located in North America following the closure of Mitsukoshi's New York City location. === Entertainment === ==== Matsuriza ==== Matsuriza are traditional Taiko drummers and a Japanese Storytellers located at the base of the pagoda.. Taiko performed at Epcot began in 1983 when Kanto Abare Daiko became the first group to perform taiko at Epcot. Eventually, in 1993, they left and were replaced by One World Taiko , consisting of Gary Tsujimoto and Nancy Ozaki, who were eventually joined by Matsuriza, and then replaced entirely by Matsuriza, who are the sole performing group at Epcot to this day. == References == == References == == External links == Walt Disney World Resort – Japan Pavilion

The Japan Pavilion is a Japanese-themed pavilion that is part of the World Showcase, within Epcot at Walt Disney World in Bay Lake, Florida, United States. Its location is between The American Adventure and Morocco pavilions.

japan

Japan in Gulliver's Travels (wikipedia)

Japan is referred to in Gulliver's Travels, the 1726 satirical novel by Jonathan Swift. Part III of the book has the account of Lemuel Gulliver's visit to Japan, the only real location visited by him. It is used as a venue for Swift's satire on the actions of Dutch traders to that land. His portrayal reflects the state of European understanding of the nation in the 17th and early 18th centuries, as well as the tensions caused by the English-Dutch trade rivalry at the period. == Description == Japan is shown on the map at the beginning of part III, which also shows the island of "Yesso" (i.e. Hokkaido), "Stats island" (Iturup) and "Companys Land" (Urup) to the north. The map also marks the Vries Strait and Cape Patience, though this is shown on the northeast coast of Yesso, rather than as part of Sakhalin, which was little-known in Swift’s time. On the island of Japan itself the map shows "Nivato" (Nagato), Yedo (Edo), "Meaco" (Kyoto), Inaba and "Osacca" (Osaka). The text describes Gulliver's journey from Luggnagg, which took fifteen days, and his landing at "Xamoschi" (i.e. Shimosa) which lies "on the western part of a narrow strait leading northward into a long arm of the sea, on the northwest part of which Yedo, the metropolis stands". This description matches the geography of Tokyo Bay, except that Shimosa is on the north, rather than the western, shore of the bay. == Satire == Following early contacts with Portuguese and Spanish explorers and missionaries, Christianity became established in Japan in the 16th and 17th centuries. However, it became enmeshed in the civil disorder and wars of the pre-Shogun period and with the establishment of the Tokugawa shogunate was proscribed and fiercely repressed. Japan adopted a closed-door policy and European traders were expelled. At this point the custom of e-fumi, "trampling on the crucifix", was introduced as a test for Christians, both in the country and for travellers arriving there. Higgins states that e-fumi "was at the suggestion of Dutch traders who had no scruple about doing so". Swift satirizes the practice of the Dutch by having Gulliver request, with the backing of the king of Luggnagg, that he be excused from this test, despite claiming to be Dutch himself. He reports the Emperor of Japan was “a little surprised at this, as I was the first of my countrymen to make a scruple of the point” and that he "began to doubt that I was a real Hollander but suspected I might be a Christian", a satire on the Dutch trader who claimed he was "not a Christian but a Dutchman". The Emperor also warned that if the secret should be found out by Gulliver’s countrymen, the Dutch, they would assuredly cut his throat in the voyage. On his arrival at "Nangasac" (Nagasaki), Gulliver was able to find passage on a ship, which Swift names the Amboyna, of Amsterdam, a reference to the place of a notorious massacre by the Dutch of ten English traders in 1623. == Notes == == References == Jonathan Swift: Gulliver's Travels Oxford World Classics (1986, reprint 2008) introduction by Claude Rawson, explanatory notes by Ian Higgins

Japan is referred to in Gulliver's Travels, the 1726 satirical novel by Jonathan Swift. Part III of the book has the account of Lemuel Gulliver's visit to Japan, the only real location visited by him. It is used as a venue for Swift's satire on the actions of Dutch traders to that land. His portrayal reflects the state of European understanding of the nation in the 17th and early 18th centuries, as well as the tensions caused by the English-Dutch trade rivalry at the period.

japan

Japan national Australian rules football team (wikipedia)

The Japanese national Australian rules football team, nicknamed the Samurai (Japanese: 侍, romanized: Samurai), represent Japan in Australian rules football. The team represents the best Japanese-born players and is selected by AFL Japan from domestic competitions which have been running since 1987. == Identity == Since its inception, the team has been nicknamed the Samurai. The team wears the national colours of Japan: red, white and also black; however there has been several design variations in the team's jumper, including a clash strip used when playing teams like Canada. For the 2005 International Cup, the side wore the colours in a vertical pattern (similar to the St Kilda Football Club in the Australian Football League) with the official Samurais' logo featuring a caricature of a samurai warrior. In 2006, the design featured a predominantly black stripe with white stars and red trim. For the 2008 International Cup, the team reverted to a predominantly white strip with a red sash. == History == The Samurais' first international opposition was in 1995 when the team competed in the Arafura Games. They have since competed in the games in 1997, 1999 and 2001. In 2001, Troy Beard became coach of the Samurais. Japan's Samurais competed in the inaugural Australian Football International Cup in 2002 finishing in 10th place. The year 2004 saw a vastly improved Samurai touring Australia and Singapore, playing six matches and winning four. One of these games was again against New Zealand, but this time an Auckland club rather than the national team, which Japan lost by just two points. In 2005, the Samurai took home the Silver medal in the Arafura Games. Later that year, the team again competed in the International Cup, lifting its international ranking to 9th and included its first International Cup win, by 71 points against Spain. Richard Laidler, who had been Troy Beard's assistant for four years previously took on the senior coaching position in 2006 and the Samurai again toured Australia with a young squad playing 4 games finishing with a 2-point win against Box Hill North Football Club, but losses to the Howlong Football Club, Box Hill North Superules and Melbourne Vietnam Australian Football Club. In 2007, the Samurai toured Australia, finishing 6–9 (45) in its game against the newly formed Melbourne based Vietnamese side, the Elgar Park Dragons 13–7 (85). Against Box Hill they registered a 30-point win. In the lead-up to the 2008 International Cup, Japan once again competed against its sister club Box Hill, this time easily accounting for its Australian rivals, winning by 56 points. This increased expectations for the Japanese side. During the cup, they had a breakthrough win against Samoa, following it with a thrashing of India which helped them to climb to 8th in the overall tournament ranking. == Notable players == Michito Sakaki, current captain of the Samurai, has trained with the Essendon Football Club and played semi-professionally in Australia has been All-International in both 2005 and 2008. Teammate Tsuyoshi Kase also trained with Essendon and has played amateur football in Australia. == International competition == === International Cup === 2002: 10th 2005: 9th 2008: 8th 2011: 12th 2014: 13th === Arafura Games === 1995: 4th (as Japan/ Singapore) 1997: 6th 1999: Qualifying rounds 2001: 4th == References == == External links == Official Samurais Website ABC radio interview Review of Japan's 2006 tour of Australia Samurai downed by Vietnamese at Windy Hill – finish Aus tour 1–3 Samurais back touring Australia Michito goes semi-pro in Australia Samurai's first ever win outside Japan

The Japanese national Australian rules football team, nicknamed the Samurai (Japanese: 侍, romanized: Samurai), represent Japan in Australian rules football. The team represents the best Japanese-born players and is selected by AFL Japan from domestic competitions which have been running since 1987.

japan

Japanese wine (wikipedia)

Although viticulture and the cultivation of grapes for table consumption has a long history in Japan, domestic wine production using locally produced grapes only really began with the adoption of Western culture during the Meiji restoration in the second half of the 19th century. According to data from Japan's National Tax Agency for 2017, approximately 382,000 kiloliters of wine was purchased in Japan, of which two-thirds was imported wine. Of the 102,000 kiloliters of wine domestically produced that year, only a fifth came from domestically grown and harvested grapes. The Agency states the share of Japanese wine, as defined as domestically produced wine from domestically grown grapes, as only 4% of total domestic consumption, or 14,988 kiloliters. Only 58 kiloliters of Japanese wine was exported overseas. The main region for winemaking in Japan is in Yamanashi Prefecture which accounts for approximately a third of domestic production, although grapes are cultivated and wine is also produced in more limited quantities by vintners throughout the country, from Hokkaido in the North to Miyazaki Prefecture on the Southern island of Kyushu. == History == === Early history === Grape-growing in Japan began in 718 AD, in Katsunuma, Yamanashi Prefecture. Japan's early viticulture was based on the Koshu grape, thought to be originally from the Georgia caucasus region. The first regularly documented wine consumption in Japan was however in the 16th century, with the arrival of Jesuit missionaries from Portugal. Saint Francis Xavier brought wines as gifts for the feudal lords of Kyūshū, and other missionaries continued the practice, resulting in locals acquiring taste for wine and importing it regularly. They called the Portuguese wine chintashu (珍陀酒), combining the Portuguese word tinto (chinta in Japanese) meaning red and shu (酒) meaning liquor. === Meiji Era === There was a prejudice that Japanese looked at red wine and mistook it for "blood," while Westerners drank "living blood." A report written in 1869 by Adams, Secretary to the British Legation in Yedo, describes "a quantity of vines, trained on horizontal trellis frames, which rested on poles at a height of 7 or 8 feet from the ground" in the region of Koshu, Yamanashi. It was not until 1873 however, after detailed reports on European wine culture were made available by returning members of the Iwakura Mission, that more focused attempts were made to promote domestic wine production. The first attempt to produce wine locally, using mainly sake brewing equipment, was undertaken by Hironori Yamada and Norihisa Takuma in Kofu, Yamanashi, in 1875. In 1877, the newly formed winery Dai-Nihon Yamanashi Budoshu in Katsunuma, Yamanashi dispatched Masanari Takano and Ryuken Tsuchiya to Troyes in the Champagne region of France to learn viticulture and wine production techniques. The cultivation of European grape varieties formed the core of early Japanese attempts, however the project was all but destroyed in 1884 by an outbreak of Phylloxera that arrived via imported root stock. === 20th century === In many prefectures a few small scale viniculturists remained, but it was not until after World War II that the scale of winemaking began to grow. However, in comparison to the growth of imported wines and the production of low cost retail wines from imported grape juices, domestically grown and harvested wine still remained at an early stage of development. In terms of Japanese taste for domestically produced wine, astringency and acidity were not readily accepted at the beginning.2 For a long time sugars such as honey were added to moderate the flavor and "sweet" (甘口, amakuchi) wine was the mainstay. In 1907, Shinjiro Torii, founder of the Suntory beverages empire launched Red Sun Port Wine (赤玉ポートワイン, Akadama Pōto Wain) with an advertising campaign in 1922 that both scandalized with its suggestion of nudity, and prompted a huge boost to sales. The trend for sweetened, fortified and medicinal tonic wines continued until the 1970s when wine was still fundamentally known as grape liquor (葡萄酒, budōshu), and only a small minority imported and drank European wine.3 During the 1970s and 80s the skill level of wine making increased and the purchases of both imported and domestic wine grew with the rapidly expanding economy. Specialists began to call their holdings "wineries", and the emulation of Western style hedging and cultivation of insect resistant grape varieties spread. For the first time domestic wineries began to focus on producing superior wines using only domestically cultivated grapes. Also, in response to demand from Japanese consumers, the production of organic wines also became popular. In the 1990s and 2000s due to a reduction in taxes on imported wine and a diversification of Japanese food culture, wine consumption continued to grow. In 1995, Shinya Tasaki became the first Japanese to be awarded the title of Meillieur Sommelier du Monde, and helped to significantly raise public awareness of wine appreciation. Media attention given to the beneficial effects of polyphenol (tannins) and local government led efforts to promote high quality domestically produced wine also contributed to industry expansion. From 2002 onward, leading with Yamanashi Prefecture, competitions focused on "Japanese wine using only 100% Japanese grapes" began. == Vine cultivation == To accommodate the challenges of climate and terrain in Japan vine cultivation techniques have been extensively adapted. In areas of high humidity during the summer, an elevated horizontal hedging technique known as "Tanajitate" (棚仕立) is used to keep the fruit about 1.5–2 meters above the ground to allow ventilation. Horizontal trellises have also proven effective in reducing wind damage from typhoons. On sloping land, Italian ryegrass is often planted under the vines to help prevent soil erosion. In areas higher in the mountains, such as Tochigi, where good sunlight is at odds with the jagged terrain, winemakers have planted their hedges on steep hillsides both to receive a maximum of sunlight, as well as protect the vines against damage from heavy snowfall. == Industry structure == There are relatively few independent wine producers in Japan, the industry being dominated by large beverage conglomerates such as Suntory, owner of the Snaraku, and Manns Wine brands, Sapporo trading with brands such as Chateau Lion, Delica, and Kirin through its Mercian Corporation operating subsidiary, owner of the Chateau Mercian label. All the major beverage conglomerates have access to domestically grown grapes, but given the challenge of climate on domestic grape production, three quarters of the wine bottled by Japanese producers relies to some extent on imported bulk wine or grape concentrate. Domestically produced mass market wines using imported wine or grape concentrate are required by law to note this on the label. Japanese wines produced using only 100% domestic grape content command a price premium and are only occasionally exported. Smaller, family or city owned wineries of note gaining a reputation for producing domestically grown wines of consistently better quality include Marufuji, Kizan, Katsunuma Jozo, Grace (all in Yamanashi Prefecture) Takeda (Yamagata Prefecture) and Tsuno (Miyazaki Prefecture). == Major wine producing regions of Japan == In Japan the main regions for wine production, listed in order of production volume of wine made from domestically-grown grapes, are Yamanashi (31%), Nagano (23%) and Hokkaidō (17%). In Yamanashi, the main wine region is the Koshu Valley, an area that centers around the town of Koshu and is home to 70 of the approximately 80 wineries in the prefecture. In Hokkaidō, the town of Ikeda recovered economically from a state of bankruptcy with regional planning toward grape growing and wine production and within 20 years following 1960 was able to make it successful. Thereafter, every region began to foster production, the main cause of which was the influence of the nationwide "One Village, One Speciality Movement" (一村一品運動, Isson Ippin Undō). In Yamagata during World War II wine was produced in large amounts for the military to provide the dietary supplement cream of tartar, and because the soil in Yamagata is suitable for fruit cultivation, today it is one region that is home to numerous well known producers. In the recent past Aichi Prefecture was also a large producer of wine. Hokkaidō: Tokachi Wine (十勝ワイン), Ikeda. Furano Wine (ふらのワイン), Furano. Yamagata Prefecture: Tendō Wine (天童ワイン), Tendō. Niigata Prefecture: Iwanohara Wine (岩の原ワイン), Jōetsu. Yamanashi Prefecture: Katsunuma Wine (勝沼ワイン), Kōshū. "Rubaiyat", Kōshū. 100% Domestically grown grapes. Nagano Prefecture: Shinshū Wine (信州ワイン), Shiojiri. Shiga Prefecture: Hitomi Wine (ヒトミワイン), Higashiōmi. Tochigi Prefecture：Nasu Wine (那須ワイン), Nasushiobara. Kyoto Prefecture: Tanba Wine (丹波ワイン), Kyōtanba. Osaka Prefecture: Kawachi Wine (河内ワイン), Kashiwara and Habikino. Hyōgo Prefecture: Kobe Wine (神戸ワイン), Kobe In Hyogo Prefecture, Kobe City took the initiative to by developing regional agriculture and tourism with independent wineries as well has launching city-brand products. Miyazaki Prefecture: Aya Wine (綾ワイン), Aya. Tsuno Wine (都農ワイン), Tsuno. == Japanese grape varieties == Japan supports a wide range of grape varieties although the vast majority of this production is for table consumption and only a small percentage is used in domestic wine making. Strictly speaking there are no vines native to Japan, although the Koshu white wine grape has evolved locally over many centuries and is therefore considered an indigenous variety. Hardy varietals imported from North America such as the Delaware and Niagara grape were widely planted in the post war period, but since 1985 have significantly declined in popularity. Premium table consumption grapes such as Kyoho and more recently Pione, a hybrid cultivar of Kyoho and Cannon Hall Muscat, command significant price premiums for producers. Grapes used solely for winemaking are produced in limited quantities as price margins for table grapes are often significantly higher. Imported wine grape cultivars include Müller-Thurgau, Chardonnay, Merlot and Cabernet Sauvignon. === Koshu === Koshu is a white wine grape variety grown primarily in Yamanashi Prefecture. The grape varietal developed from vines likely imported from the Caucasus through the Silk Road, at a period estimated to be around a thousand years ago. The grape is a hybrid variety indigenous to Japan, and benefits from a relatively thick skin able to withstand the damp of the Japanese Summer. The name “Koshu” is a former name for Yamanashi. Characteristics of wines made from the Koshu grape are typically a pale, straw colour and a soft, fruity bouquet with overtones of citrus and peach. The taste is often described as clean, delicate and fresh, considered a good match for Japanese cuisine. === Muscat Bailey A === "Muscat Bailey-A" (マスカットべリーA) is a red wine grape hybrid developed by Zenbei Kawakami (川上善兵衛, Kawakami Zenbei) (1868–1944) at the Iwanohara Winery (岩の原わいん) in Niigata Prefecture. Kawakami's goal was to develop a grape for wine adapted to Japan's climate. He did this by mixing the "Bailey" (ベーリー) type grape with a Black Muscat type grape to give birth to a red wine grape that is widely used in Japan. Also developed by Kawakami was the variety known as "Black Queen" (ブラッククイーン). The characteristics of Muscat Bailey-A are a very grape juice-like flavor and it is most widely used in sweet amakuchi wines. However, in recent years, drier varieties and barrel aged varieties have also been developed. Muscat Bailey-A has been blended with western grapes creating a very full bodied, Bordeaux style flavour. In addition, different blending has led to smoother Bourgogne/Burgundy varieties. == Designation of Origin == "Mark of Origin" (原産地表示, Gensanchi Hyōji) is a system of legal designation for wine produced in Japan, much like France's Appellation d'Origine Contrôlée (AOC) laws and the United States' American Viticultural Area (AVA) designations. In Japan there is no nationwide organization of legal designation, regardless of domain of origin or types of grape, anything that is fermented domestically can be labeled as "Japanese wine". Because of this, there are some products labeled as Japanese that are produced using imported grape juice.4 However, independent self-governing municipal bodies have begun systems of regional appellation. For example, Nagano Prefecture's "Appellation Control System" (長野県原産地呼称管理制度, Nagano-ken Gensan-chi Koshō Kanri Seido), and Kōshū's "Wine Domain of Origin Certification Regulation" (ワイン原産地認証条例, Wain Gensan-chi Ninshō Jōrei). == See also == Winemaking Agriculture in Japan Japanese cuisine == References == == External links == Koshu Valley Wine Country (in English) Japanese wine Archived 2007-10-16 at the Wayback Machine (in Japanese) "The Light and Dark of Imported Wine Demand" newspaper article (in Japanese) History of Japanese Wine from the National Winery Assoc. Website Archived 2007-10-16 at the Wayback Machine (in Japanese) The Japanese Wineries Association (in Japanese)

Although viticulture and the cultivation of grapes for table consumption has a long history in Japan, domestic wine production using locally produced grapes only really began with the adoption of Western culture during the Meiji restoration in the second half of the 19th century. According to data from Japan's National Tax Agency for 2017, approximately 382,000 kiloliters of wine was purchased in Japan, of which two-thirds was imported wine. Of the 102,000 kiloliters of wine domestically produced that year, only a fifth came from domestically grown and harvested grapes. The Agency states the share of Japanese wine, as defined as domestically produced wine from domestically grown grapes, as only 4% of total domestic consumption, or 14,988 kiloliters. Only 58 kiloliters of Japanese wine was exported overseas. The main region for winemaking in Japan is in Yamanashi Prefecture which accounts for approximately a third of domestic production, although grapes are cultivated and wine is also produced in more limited quantities by vintners throughout the country, from Hokkaido in the North to Miyazaki Prefecture on the Southern island of Kyushu.

japan

List of Girls episodes (wikipedia)

Girls is an American comedy-drama television series created by Lena Dunham, who serves as executive producer along with Judd Apatow and Jenni Konner. The series premiered on HBO on April 15, 2012. Girls stars Dunham as Hannah Horvath, an aspiring writer in her 20s trying to navigate her personal and professional life in New York City after her parents discontinue their financial support. Allison Williams, Jemima Kirke, Zosia Mamet, Adam Driver, and Alex Karpovsky co-star as Hannah's circle of friends, who are also trying to figure out their own lives and relationships. During the course of the series, 62 episodes of Girls aired over six seasons, between April 15, 2012, and April 16, 2017. == Series overview == == Episodes == === Season 1 (2012) === === Season 2 (2013) === === Season 3 (2014) === === Season 4 (2015) === === Season 5 (2016) === === Season 6 (2017) === == Ratings == == References == == External links == Official website Girls at IMDb

Girls is an American comedy-drama television series created by Lena Dunham, who serves as executive producer along with Judd Apatow and Jenni Konner. The series premiered on HBO on April 15, 2012. Girls stars Dunham as Hannah Horvath, an aspiring writer in her 20s trying to navigate her personal and professional life in New York City after her parents discontinue their financial support. Allison Williams, Jemima Kirke, Zosia Mamet, Adam Driver, and Alex Karpovsky co-star as Hannah's circle of friends, who are also trying to figure out their own lives and relationships. During the course of the series, 62 episodes of Girls aired over six seasons, between April 15, 2012, and April 16, 2017.

japan

Weather (Tycho album) (wikipedia)

Weather is the fifth studio album by ambient music project Tycho, released on July 12, 2019. The album was preceded by the release of the singles "Easy" and "Pink & Blue", the latter of which was released along with the album announcement on May 14, 2019. Being the first Tycho album to feature a vocalist, Weather was nominated for a Grammy Award at the 62nd Annual Grammy Awards in the Best Dance/Electronic Album category, losing out to The Chemical Brothers' album No Geography. A Remix album was released on December 18, 2020. == Background == Magnetic Magazine characterized the album's sound as different from the trilogy of Dive, Awake and Epoch in that while "the airy guitars, synths and percussion are still largely there", they have been "adapted for a bit more of an organic, indie rock template", with vocals from Saint Sinner on five of the album's eight tracks. Hansen described the album as a collaboration with Saint Sinner, saying that he "wanted to finally fulfill what had been a vision of mine since the beginning: to incorporate the most organic instrument of all, the human voice". == Track listing == == Charts == == References ==

Weather is the fifth studio album by ambient music project Tycho, released on July 12, 2019. The album was preceded by the release of the singles "Easy" and "Pink & Blue", the latter of which was released along with the album announcement on May 14, 2019. Being the first Tycho album to feature a vocalist, Weather was nominated for a Grammy Award at the 62nd Annual Grammy Awards in the Best Dance/Electronic Album category, losing out to The Chemical Brothers' album No Geography. A Remix album was released on December 18, 2020.

san marino

San Marino (wiktionary)

From Italian San Marino (“Saint Marinus”). (UK) IPA(key): /ˌsæn məˈɹiː.nəʊ/ (US) IPA(key): /ˌsæn məˈɹi.noʊ/ San Marino A landlocked microstate in Southern Europe, located within the borders of Italy. Official name: Republic of San Marino. The capital city of San Marino. A city in Los Angeles County, California, United States. San Marinese Sammarinese Countries of the world (countries of Europe) country of Europe; Albania, Andorra, Armenia, Austria, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Czechia (Czech Republic), Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Georgia, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Kazakhstan, Latvia, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Moldova, Monaco, Montenegro, Netherlands, North Macedonia, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia, San Marino, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, Ukraine, United Kingdom, Vatican City Romanians, anamorsin San Marino San Marino (a landlocked microstate in Southern Europe, located within the borders of Italy) San Marino (the capital city of San Marino) San Marinees IPA(key): (Central) [ˈsam məˈɾi.nu] IPA(key): (Balearic) [ˈsam məˈɾi.no] IPA(key): (Valencia) [ˈsam maˈɾi.no] San Marino m San Marino (a landlocked microstate in Southern Europe, located within the borders of Italy) San Marino (the capital city of San Marino) San Marino San Marino (a landlocked microstate in Southern Europe, located within the borders of Italy) San Marino (the capital city of San Marino) San Marino San Marino (a landlocked microstate in Southern Europe, located within the borders of Italy) San Marino (the capital city of San Marino) San Marino San Marino (a landlocked microstate in Southern Europe, located within the borders of Italy) San Marino (the capital city of San Marino) IPA(key): [san marɪno] San Marino n (related adjective sanmarinský, demonym Sanmariňan) San Marino (a landlocked microstate in Southern Europe, located within the borders of Italy) San Marino (the capital city of San Marino) San Marino in Slovník spisovného jazyka českého, 1960–1971, 1989 San Marino in Internetová jazyková příručka IPA(key): /ˌsɑn maːˈri.noː/, /ˌsɑ.maːˈri.noː/ San Marino n (adjective San Marinees, demonym San Marinees m or San Marinese f) San Marino (a landlocked microstate in Southern Europe, located within the borders of Italy) San Marino (the capital city of San Marino) IPA(key): /ˈsɑn mɑrino/ San Marino San Marino (a landlocked microstate in Southern Europe, located within the borders of Italy) San Marino (the capital city of San Marino) Borrowed from Italian San Marino. IPA(key): /ˈsɑn ˈmɑrino/, [ˈs̠ɑ̝m ˈmɑ̝rino̞] San Marino San Marino (a landlocked microstate in Southern Europe, located within the borders of Italy) San Marino (the capital city of San Marino) (countries of Europe) Euroopan maat; Alankomaat, Albania, Andorra, Armenia, Azerbaidžan, Belgia, Bosnia ja Hertsegovina, Bulgaria, Espanja, Georgia, Irlanti, Islanti, Iso-Britannia, Italia, Itävalta, Kazakstan, Kreikka, Kroatia, Kypros, Latvia, Liechtenstein, Liettua, Luxemburg, Malta, Moldova, Monaco, Montenegro, Norja, Pohjois-Makedonia, Portugali, Puola, Ranska, Romania, Ruotsi, Saksa, San Marino, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Suomi, Sveitsi, Tanska, Tšekki, Turkki, Ukraina, Unkari, Valko-Venäjä, Vatikaani, Venäjä, Viro (Category: fi:Countries in Europe) San Marino n (proper noun, genitive San Marinos or (optionally with an article) San Marino) San Marino (a landlocked microstate in Southern Europe, located within the borders of Italy) San Marino (the capital city of San Marino) San-Marinese san-marinesisch (countries of Europe) Staaten Europas; Albanien, Andorra, Belgien, Belarus, Bosnien und Herzegowina, Bulgarien, Deutschland, Dänemark, Estland, Finnland, Frankreich, Griechenland, Irland, Island, Italien, Kroatien, Lettland, Liechtenstein, Litauen, Luxemburg, Malta, Moldau, Monaco, Montenegro, Nordmazedonien, Norwegen, Niederlande, Österreich, Polen, Portugal, Rumänien, Russland, San Marino, Schweden, Schweiz, Serbien, Slowakei, Slowenien, Spanien, Tschechien, Ukraine, Ungarn, Vereinigtes Königreich, Vatikanstadt, Weißrußland/Weißrussland, Zypern (Category: de:Countries in Europe) IPA(key): [ˈsɒmːɒrinoː] Hyphenation: San Ma‧ri‧no Rhymes: -noː San Marino San Marino (a landlocked microstate in Southern Europe, located within the borders of Italy) San Marino (the capital city of San Marino) San Marinó-i San Marino m San Marino (a landlocked microstate in Southern Europe, located within the borders of Italy) San Marino (the capital city of San Marino) sammarinese, sanmarinese (countries of Europe) paesi d'Europa; Albania, Andorra, Armenia, Austria, Azerbaigian, Belgio, Bielorussia, Bosnia-Erzegovina, Bulgaria, Cechia, Cipro, Città del Vaticano, Croazia, Danimarca, Estonia, Finlandia, Francia, Georgia, Germania, Grecia, Irlanda, Islanda, Italia, Kazakistan, Lettonia, Liechtenstein, Lituania, Lussemburgo, Macedonia del Nord, Malta, Moldavia, Monaco, Montenegro, Norvegia, Paesi Bassi, Polonia, Portogallo, Romania, Regno Unito, Russia, San Marino, Serbia, Slovacchia, Slovenia, Spagna, Svezia, Svizzera, Turchia, Ucraina, Ungheria (Category: it:Countries in Europe) San Marino Rōmaji transcription of サンマリノ San Marino San Marino (a landlocked microstate in Southern Europe, located within the borders of Italy) San Marino (the capital city of San Marino) sanmariner sanmarinsk San Marino San Marino (a landlocked microstate in Southern Europe, located within the borders of Italy) San Marino (the capital city of San Marino) sanmarinar sanmarinsk Borrowed from Italian San Marino (“Saint Marinus”). IPA(key): /san maˈri.nɔ/ Rhymes: -inɔ San Marino n (indeclinable) San Marino (a landlocked microstate in Southern Europe, located within the borders of Italy) San Marino (the capital city of San Marino) San Marino in Wielki słownik języka polskiego, Instytut Języka Polskiego PAN San Marino in Polish dictionaries at PWN São Marino, São Marinho San Marino m San Marino (a landlocked microstate in Southern Europe, located within the borders of Italy) San Marino San Marino (the capital city of San Marino) IPA(key): /sân marîːno/ Sȁn Marȋno m (Cyrillic spelling Са̏н Мари̑но) San Marino (a landlocked microstate in Southern Europe, located within the borders of Italy) San Marino (the capital city of San Marino) IPA(key): /ˌsam maˈɾino/ [ˌsãm maˈɾi.no] Syllabification: San Ma‧ri‧no San Marino m San Marino (a landlocked microstate in Southern Europe, located within the borders of Italy) San Marino (the capital city of San Marino) Borrowed from Spanish San Marino (“San Marino”). (Standard Tagalog) IPA(key): /ˌsan maˈɾino/ [ˌsan̪ mɐˈɾiː.n̪o] Rhymes: -ino Syllabification: San Ma‧ri‧no San Marino (Baybayin spelling ᜐᜈ᜔ ᜋᜇᜒᜈᜓ) San Marino (a landlocked microstate in Southern Europe, located within the borders of Italy) San Marino (the capital city of San Marino) San Marino San Marino (a landlocked microstate in Southern Europe, located within the borders of Italy) San Marino (the capital city of San Marino) * Note: The type of possessive is not specified. (This etymology is missing or incomplete. Please add to it, or discuss it at the Etymology scriptorium.) San Marino (genitive San Marinon, partitive San Marinod) San Marino (a landlocked microstate in Southern Europe, located within the borders of Italy) San Marino (the capital city of San Marino)

From Italian San Marino (“Saint Marinus”). (UK) IPA(key): /ˌsæn məˈɹiː.nəʊ/ (US) IPA(key): /ˌsæn məˈɹi.noʊ/ San Marino A landlocked microstate in Southern Europe, located within the borders of Italy. Official name: Republic of San Marino. The capital city of San Marino. A city in Los Angeles County, California, United States. San Marinese Sammarinese Countries of the world (countries of Europe) country of Europe; Albania, Andorra, Armenia, Austria, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Czechia (Czech Republic), Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Georgia, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Kazakhstan, Latvia, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Moldova, Monaco, Montenegro, Netherlands, North Macedonia, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia, San Marino, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, Ukraine, United Kingdom, Vatican City Romanians, anamorsin San Marino San Marino (a landlocked microstate in Southern Europe, located within the borders of Italy) San Marino (the capital city of San Marino) San Marinees IPA(key): (Central) [ˈsam məˈɾi.nu] IPA(key): (Balearic) [ˈsam məˈɾi.no] IPA(key): (Valencia) [ˈsam maˈɾi.no] San Marino m San Marino (a landlocked microstate in Southern Europe, located within the borders of Italy) San Marino (the capital city of San Marino) San Marino San Marino (a landlocked microstate in Southern Europe, located within the borders of Italy) San Marino (the capital city of San Marino) San Marino San Marino (a landlocked microstate in Southern Europe, located within the borders of Italy) San Marino (the capital city of San Marino) San Marino San Marino (a landlocked microstate in Southern Europe, located within the borders of Italy) San Marino (the capital city of San Marino) IPA(key): [san marɪno] San Marino n (related adjective sanmarinský, demonym Sanmariňan) San Marino (a landlocked microstate in Southern Europe, located within the borders of Italy) San Marino (the capital city of San Marino) San Marino in Slovník spisovného jazyka českého, 1960–1971, 1989 San Marino in Internetová jazyková příručka IPA(key): /ˌsɑn maːˈri.noː/, /ˌsɑ.maːˈri.noː/ San Marino n (adjective San Marinees, demonym San Marinees m or San Marinese f) San Marino (a landlocked microstate in Southern Europe, located within the borders of Italy) San Marino (the capital city of San Marino) IPA(key): /ˈsɑn mɑrino/ San Marino San Marino (a landlocked microstate in Southern Europe, located within the borders of Italy) San Marino (the capital city of San Marino) Borrowed from Italian San Marino. IPA(key): /ˈsɑn ˈmɑrino/, [ˈs̠ɑ̝m ˈmɑ̝rino̞] San Marino San Marino (a landlocked microstate in Southern Europe, located within the borders of Italy) San Marino (the capital city of San Marino) (countries of Europe) Euroopan maat; Alankomaat, Albania, Andorra, Armenia, Azerbaidžan, Belgia, Bosnia ja Hertsegovina, Bulgaria, Espanja, Georgia, Irlanti, Islanti, Iso-Britannia, Italia, Itävalta, Kazakstan, Kreikka, Kroatia, Kypros, Latvia, Liechtenstein, Liettua, Luxemburg, Malta, Moldova, Monaco, Montenegro, Norja, Pohjois-Makedonia, Portugali, Puola, Ranska, Romania, Ruotsi, Saksa, San Marino, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Suomi, Sveitsi, Tanska, Tšekki, Turkki, Ukraina, Unkari, Valko-Venäjä, Vatikaani, Venäjä, Viro (Category: fi:Countries in Europe) San Marino n (proper noun, genitive San Marinos or (optionally with an article) San Marino) San Marino (a landlocked microstate in Southern Europe, located within the borders of Italy) San Marino (the capital city of San Marino) San-Marinese san-marinesisch (countries of Europe) Staaten Europas; Albanien, Andorra, Belgien, Belarus, Bosnien und Herzegowina, Bulgarien, Deutschland, Dänemark, Estland, Finnland, Frankreich, Griechenland, Irland, Island, Italien, Kroatien, Lettland, Liechtenstein, Litauen, Luxemburg, Malta, Moldau, Monaco, Montenegro, Nordmazedonien, Norwegen, Niederlande, Österreich, Polen, Portugal, Rumänien, Russland, San Marino, Schweden, Schweiz, Serbien, Slowakei, Slowenien, Spanien, Tschechien, Ukraine, Ungarn, Vereinigtes Königreich, Vatikanstadt, Weißrußland/Weißrussland, Zypern (Category: de:Countries in Europe) IPA(key): [ˈsɒmːɒrinoː] Hyphenation: San Ma‧ri‧no Rhymes: -noː San Marino San Marino (a landlocked microstate in Southern Europe, located within the borders of Italy) San Marino (the capital city of San Marino) San Marinó-i San Marino m San Marino (a landlocked microstate in Southern Europe, located within the borders of Italy) San Marino (the capital city of San Marino) sammarinese, sanmarinese (countries of Europe) paesi d'Europa; Albania, Andorra, Armenia, Austria, Azerbaigian, Belgio, Bielorussia, Bosnia-Erzegovina, Bulgaria, Cechia, Cipro, Città del Vaticano, Croazia, Danimarca, Estonia, Finlandia, Francia, Georgia, Germania, Grecia, Irlanda, Islanda, Italia, Kazakistan, Lettonia, Liechtenstein, Lituania, Lussemburgo, Macedonia del Nord, Malta, Moldavia, Monaco, Montenegro, Norvegia, Paesi Bassi, Polonia, Portogallo, Romania, Regno Unito, Russia, San Marino, Serbia, Slovacchia, Slovenia, Spagna, Svezia, Svizzera, Turchia, Ucraina, Ungheria (Category: it:Countries in Europe) San Marino Rōmaji transcription of サンマリノ San Marino San Marino (a landlocked microstate in Southern Europe, located within the borders of Italy) San Marino (the capital city of San Marino) sanmariner sanmarinsk San Marino San Marino (a landlocked microstate in Southern Europe, located within the borders of Italy) San Marino (the capital city of San Marino) sanmarinar sanmarinsk Borrowed from Italian San Marino (“Saint Marinus”). IPA(key): /san maˈri.nɔ/ Rhymes: -inɔ San Marino n (indeclinable) San Marino (a landlocked microstate in Southern Europe, located within the borders of Italy) San Marino (the capital city of San Marino) San Marino in Wielki słownik języka polskiego, Instytut Języka Polskiego PAN San Marino in Polish dictionaries at PWN São Marino, São Marinho San Marino m San Marino (a landlocked microstate in Southern Europe, located within the borders of Italy) San Marino San Marino (the capital city of San Marino) IPA(key): /sân marîːno/ Sȁn Marȋno m (Cyrillic spelling Са̏н Мари̑но) San Marino (a landlocked microstate in Southern Europe, located within the borders of Italy) San Marino (the capital city of San Marino) IPA(key): /ˌsam maˈɾino/ [ˌsãm maˈɾi.no] Syllabification: San Ma‧ri‧no San Marino m San Marino (a landlocked microstate in Southern Europe, located within the borders of Italy) San Marino (the capital city of San Marino) Borrowed from Spanish San Marino (“San Marino”). (Standard Tagalog) IPA(key): /ˌsan maˈɾino/ [ˌsan̪ mɐˈɾiː.n̪o] Rhymes: -ino Syllabification: San Ma‧ri‧no San Marino (Baybayin spelling ᜐᜈ᜔ ᜋᜇᜒᜈᜓ) San Marino (a landlocked microstate in Southern Europe, located within the borders of Italy) San Marino (the capital city of San Marino) San Marino San Marino (a landlocked microstate in Southern Europe, located within the borders of Italy) San Marino (the capital city of San Marino) * Note: The type of possessive is not specified. (This etymology is missing or incomplete. Please add to it, or discuss it at the Etymology scriptorium.) San Marino (genitive San Marinon, partitive San Marinod) San Marino (a landlocked microstate in Southern Europe, located within the borders of Italy) San Marino (the capital city of San Marino)

san marino

San Marino (wikipedia)

San Marino ( SAN mə-REE-noh, Italian: [sam maˈriːno]; Romagnol: San Maréin or San Maroin), officially the Republic of San Marino (Italian: Repubblica di San Marino) and also known as the Most Serene Republic of San Marino (Italian: Serenissima Repubblica di San Marino), is a European microstate and enclave within Italy. Located on the northeastern side of the Apennine Mountains, it is the fifth-smallest country in the world, with a land area of just over 61 km2 (23+1⁄2 sq mi) and a population of 33,660, as of 2022. San Marino is a landlocked country; however, its northeastern end is within ten kilometres (six miles) of the Italian city of Rimini on the Adriatic coast. The country's capital city, the City of San Marino, is located atop Monte Titano, while its largest settlement is Dogana, within the municipality of Serravalle. San Marino's official language is Italian. The country derives its name from Saint Marinus, a stonemason from the then-Roman island of Rab in present-day Croatia. According to legendary accounts, he was born in 275 AD, participated in the rebuilding of Rimini's city walls after their destruction by Liburnian pirates, and later founded an independent monastic community on Monte Titano in 301 AD; thus, San Marino lays claim to being the oldest extant sovereign state, as well as the oldest constitutional republic. Uniquely, San Marino's constitution dictates that its democratically elected legislature, the Grand and General Council, must elect two heads of state every six months. Known as the Captains Regent, they serve concurrently and with equal powers. The country's economy is mainly based on finance, industry, services, retail, and tourism. It is one of the wealthiest countries in the world in GDP per capita, with a figure comparable to the most developed European regions. Despite this, its Human Development Index score is 44th, the lowest in Western Europe. Its healthcare system ranked third in the first ever World Health Organization analysis of the world's health systems. == History == According to legendary accounts that are first recorded centuries after he is suggested to have lived, Saint Marinus left the island of Rab in present-day Croatia with his lifelong friend Leo, and went to the city of Rimini as a stonemason. After the Diocletianic Persecution following his Christian sermons, he escaped to the nearby Monte Titano, where he built a small church and thus founded what is now the city and state of San Marino. According to William Miller, these accounts of the origin of San Marino "are a mixture of fables and miracles, but perhaps contain some grains of fact". The earliest historical evidence for a monastic community in San Marino dates to the 5th or 6th century AD, when a monk named Eugippus recorded that another monk had lived in a monastery in the area. In 1291, San Marino appealed to the bishop of Arezzo, Ildebrandino Guidi di Romena, against the contribution demands by the Vicario del Montefeltro. Jurist Palamede di Rimini decided in favour of San Marino and recognised its tax exemption from tributes demands of Montefeltro. In 1296, when Guglielmo Durante was the governor of Romagna, Sammarinesi appealed to Pope Boniface VIII against the further requests by the Montefeltro podestas regarding tributes. Abbot Ranieri di Sant'Anastasio was assigned to judge the dispute. A long process was held using various witnesses and sources to determine San Marino tax's exemption status. The verdict was probably in favour of the autonomy of San Marino, as later the State did not pay taxes to the Montefeltro. In 1320, the community of Chiesanuova chose to join the country. In 1463, San Marino was enlarged by the inclusion of the communities of Faetano, Fiorentino, Montegiardino, and Serravalle; since then, the country's borders have remained unchanged. In 1503, Cesare Borgia, the son of Pope Alexander VI, occupied the Republic for six months until his father's successor, Pope Julius II, intervened and restored the country's independence. On 4 June 1543, Fabiano di Monte San Savino, nephew of the later Pope Julius III, attempted to conquer the republic, but his infantry and cavalry failed as they got lost in a dense fog, which the Sammarinesi attributed to Saint Quirinus, whose feast day it was. After the Duchy of Urbino was annexed by the Papal States in 1625, San Marino became an enclave within the papal states. This led to its seeking the formal protection of the Papal States in 1631, but this never amounted to a de facto Papal control of the republic. The country was occupied on 17 October 1739 by the legate (Papal governor) of Ravenna, Cardinal Giulio Alberoni, but independence was restored by Pope Clement XII on 5 February 1740, the feast day of Saint Agatha, after which she became a patron saint of the republic. The advance of Napoleon's army in 1797 presented a brief threat to the independence of San Marino, but the country was saved from losing its liberty by one of its regents, Antonio Onofri, who managed to gain the respect and friendship of Napoleon. Due to Onofri's intervention, Napoleon promised, in a letter to Gaspard Monge, scientist and commissary of the French Government for Science and Art, to guarantee and protect the independence of the Republic, even offering to extend its territory according to its needs. The offer was declined by the regents, fearing future retaliation from other states' revanchism. During the later phase of the Italian unification process in the 19th century, San Marino served as a refuge for many people persecuted because of their support for unification, including Giuseppe Garibaldi and his wife Anita. Garibaldi allowed San Marino to remain independent. San Marino and the Kingdom of Italy signed a Convention of Friendship in 1862. The government of San Marino made United States President Abraham Lincoln an honorary citizen. He wrote in reply, saying that the republic proved that "government founded on republican principles is capable of being so administered as to be secure and enduring". === 20th century onwards === During World War I, when Italy declared war on Austria-Hungary on 24 May 1915, San Marino remained neutral and Italy adopted a hostile view of Sammarinese neutrality, suspecting that San Marino could harbour Austrian spies who could be given access to its new radiotelegraph station. Italy tried to forcibly establish a detachment of Carabinieri in the republic and then cut the republic's telephone lines when it did not acquiesce. Two groups of ten volunteers joined the Italian forces in the fighting on the Italian front, the first as combatants and the second as a medical corps operating a Red Cross field hospital. The existence of this hospital later caused Austria-Hungary to suspend diplomatic relations with San Marino. After the war, San Marino suffered from high rates of unemployment and inflation, leading to increased tension between the lower and middle classes. The latter, fearing that the moderate government of San Marino would make concessions to the lower class majority, began to show support for the Sammarinese Fascist Party (Partito Fascista Sammarinese, PFS), founded in 1922 and styled largely on their Italian counterpart. PFS rule lasted from 1923 to 1943, and during this time they often sought support from Benito Mussolini's fascist government in Italy. During World War II, San Marino remained neutral, although it was wrongly reported in an article in The New York Times that it had declared war on the United Kingdom on 17 September 1940. The Sammarinese government later transmitted a message to the British stating that they had not actually declared war. On 28 July 1943, three days after the fall of the Fascist regime in Italy, PFS rule collapsed and the new government declared neutrality in the conflict. The PFS regained power on 1 April 1944, but kept neutrality intact. Despite that, on 26 June 1944, San Marino was bombed by the Royal Air Force, in the belief that San Marino had been overrun by German forces and was being used to amass stores and ammunition. The Sammarinese government declared on the same day that no military installations or equipment were located on its territory, and that no belligerent forces had been allowed to enter. San Marino accepted thousands of civilian refugees when Allied forces went over the Gothic Line. In September 1944, it was briefly occupied by German forces, who were defeated by Allied forces in the Battle of San Marino. San Marino had the world's first democratically elected communist government – a coalition between the Sammarinese Communist Party and the Sammarinese Socialist Party, which held office between 1945 and 1957. The coalition lost power through the fatti di Rovereta. San Marino became a member of the Council of Europe in 1988 and of the United Nations in 1992. It is not a member of the European Union, although it uses the euro as its currency (despite not legally being part of the Eurozone). Before the introduction of the euro, the country's currency was the Sammarinese lira. As of June 2020, San Marino had the highest death rate per capita of any country, due to the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic. In April 2021, it was reported that San Marino was using the Russian Sputnik V COVID-19 vaccine rather than vaccines approved by the EU, following a slow rollout for the latter vaccines. On 31 August 2022, San Marino officials voted to legalize abortion in the republic, to be paid for by the public health system, "one of the last European states to have had the procedure outlawed under all circumstances". Thirty-two members of the legislature approved the bill while 10 abstained and 7 voted against. == Geography == San Marino is an enclave surrounded by Italy in Southern Europe, on the border between the regions of Emilia Romagna and Marche and about ten kilometres (six miles) from the Adriatic coast at Rimini. Its hilly topography, with no substantial naturally flat ground, is part of the Apennine mountain range. The highest point in the country, the summit of Monte Titano, is 749 m (2,457 ft) above sea level; the lowest, the Ausa River (ending in the Marecchia), is 55 m (180 ft). San Marino has no still or contained bodies of water of any significant size. It is one of only three countries in the world to be completely enclosed by another country (the others being Vatican City, also enclosed by Italy, and Lesotho, enclosed by South Africa). It is the third smallest country in Europe, after Vatican City and Monaco, and the fifth-smallest country in the world. The terrestrial ecoregion of Italian sclerophyllous and semi-deciduous forests lies within San Marino's territory. The country had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 0.01/10, ranking it last globally out of 172 countries. === Climate === San Marino has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification: Cfa), with some continental influences. It has warm to hot summers and cool winters, typical of inland areas of the central Italian Peninsula. Precipitation is scattered throughout the year with no real dry month. Snowfalls are common and heavy almost every winter, especially above 400–500 m (1,300–1,600 feet) of elevation. == Government == San Marino has the political framework of a parliamentary representative democratic republic: the captains regent are heads of state, and there is a pluriform multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government. Although there is no formal head of government, the secretary for foreign and political affairs is in many ways equal to the prime minister in other countries. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the Grand and General Council. The judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. San Marino is considered to have the earliest written governing documents still in effect, as the Statutes of 1600 are still at the core of its constitutional framework. San Marino was originally led by the Arengo, initially formed from the heads of each family. In the 13th century, power was given to the Grand and General Council. In 1243, the first two captains regent were nominated by the council. Still today, Captains Regent are elected every six months by the council. The legislature of the republic is the Grand and General Council (Consiglio grande e generale). The council is a unicameral legislature with 60 members. There are elections every five years by proportional representation in all nine administrative districts. These districts (townships) correspond to the old parishes of the republic. All citizens 18 years or older are eligible to vote. Besides general legislation, the Grand and General Council approves the budget and elects the captains regent, the State Congress (composed of ten secretaries with executive power), the Council of Twelve (which forms the judicial branch during the period of legislature of the council), the Advising Commissions, and the Government Unions. The council also has the power to ratify treaties with other countries. The council is divided into five different Advising Commissions consisting of fifteen councilors who examine, propose, and discuss the implementation of new laws that are on their way to being presented on the floor of the council. Every six months, the council elects two captains regent to be the heads of state. The captains are chosen from opposing parties so that there is a balance of power. They serve a six-month term. The investiture of the captains regent takes place on 1 April and 1 October in every year. Once this term is over, citizens have three days in which to file complaints about the captains' activities. If they warrant it, judicial proceedings against the ex-head(s) of state can be initiated. The practice of having two heads of state chosen in frequent elections is derived directly from the customs of the Roman Republic. The council is equivalent to the Roman Senate; the captains regent, to the consuls of ancient Rome. It is thought the inhabitants of the area came together as Roman rule collapsed to form a rudimentary government for their own protection from foreign rule. San Marino is a multi-party democratic republic. A new election law in 2008 raised the threshold for small parties entering Parliament, causing political parties to organise themselves into two alliances: the right-wing Pact for San Marino, led by the San Marinese Christian Democratic Party; and the left-wing Reforms and Freedom, led by the Party of Socialists and Democrats, a merger of the Socialist Party of San Marino and the former communist Party of Democrats. The 2008 general election was won by the Pact for San Marino with 35 seats in the Grand and General Council against Reforms and Freedom's 25. On 1 October 2007, Mirko Tomassoni was elected as captain regent, making him the first disabled person elected to that office. San Marino has had more female heads of state than any other country: 15 as of October 2014, including three who served twice. On 1 April 2022, 58-year-old Paolo Rondelli was elected as one of the two captains regent. He had previously been the Ambassador to the United States and is the world's first openly gay head of state. === Administrative divisions === San Marino is geographically divided into nine castelli (lit. 'castles', equivalent to a municipality), each of which contains a capital (capoluogo), with other population centres sorted into curazie (equivalent to Italian frazioni). Each castello is led by a Castle Captain (Italian: Capitano di Castello) and a Castle Council (Giunta di Castello), elected every five years. The nine castelli are the City of San Marino, which is San Marino's capital city, Acquaviva, Borgo Maggiore, Chiesanuova, Domagnano, Faetano, Fiorentino, Montegiardino, and Serravalle. San Marino's 44 curazie are Cà Berlone, Cà Chiavello, Cà Giannino, Cà Melone, Cà Ragni, Cà Rigo, Cailungo (di Sopra and di Sotto), Caladino, Calligaria, Canepa, Capanne, Casole, Castellaro, Cerbaiola, Cinque Vie, Confine, Corianino, Crociale, Dogana, Falciano, Fiorina, Galavotto, Gualdicciolo, La Serra, Lesignano, Molarini, Montalbo, Monte Pulito, Murata, Pianacci, Piandivello, Poggio Casalino, Poggio Chiesanuova, Ponte Mellini, Rovereta, San Giovanni sotto le Penne, Santa Mustiola, Spaccio Giannoni, Teglio, Torraccia, Valdragone (di Sopra and di Sotto), Valgiurata, and Ventoso. === Military === San Marino's military forces are among the smallest in the world. National defence is, by arrangement, the responsibility of Italy's armed forces. Different branches have varied functions, including performing ceremonial duties, patrolling borders, mounting guard at government buildings, and assisting police in major criminal cases. The police are not included in the military of San Marino. ==== Crossbow Corps ==== Once at the heart of San Marino's army, the Crossbow Corps is now a ceremonial force of approximately 80 volunteers. Since 1295, the Crossbow Corps has provided demonstrations of crossbow shooting at festivals. Its uniform design is medieval. While still a statutory military unit, the Crossbow Corps has no military function today. ==== Guard of the Rock ==== The Guard of the Rock is a front-line military unit in the San Marino armed forces, a state border patrol, with responsibility for patrolling borders and defending them. In their role as Fortress Guards they are responsible for guarding the Palazzo Pubblico in San Marino City, the seat of national government. In this role they are the forces most visible to tourists and are known for their colourful ceremony of Changing the Guard. Under the 1987 statute the Guard of the Rock are all enrolled as "Criminal Police Officers" (in addition to their military role) and assist the police in investigating major crime. The uniform of the Guard of the Rock is a distinctive red and green. ==== Guard of the Grand and General Council ==== The Guard of the Grand and General Council commonly known as The Guard of the council or locally as the "Guard of Nobles", formed in 1741, is a volunteer unit with ceremonial duties. Due to its striking blue, white, and gold uniform, it is perhaps the best-known part of the Sammarinese military, and appears on countless postcard views of the republic. The functions of the Guard of the council are to protect the captains regent, and to defend the Grand and General Council during its formal sessions. They also act as ceremonial bodyguards to government officials at both state and church festivals. ==== Company of Uniformed Militia ==== In former times, all families with two or more adult male members were required to enroll half of them in the Company of Uniformed Militia. This unit remains the basic fighting force of the armed forces of San Marino, but is largely ceremonial. It is a matter of civic pride for many Sammarinese to belong to the force, and all citizens with at least six years' residence in the republic are entitled to enroll. The uniform is dark blue, with a kepi bearing a blue and white plume. The ceremonial form of the uniform includes a white cross-strap, and white and blue sash, white epaulets, and white decorated cuffs. ==== Military Ensemble ==== Formally this is part of the Army Militia, and is the ceremonial military band of San Marino. It consists of approximately 60 musicians. The uniform is similar to that of the Army Militia. Military Ensemble music accompanies most state occasions in the republic. ==== Gendarmerie ==== Established in 1842, the Gendarmerie of San Marino is a militarised law enforcement agency. Its members are full-time and have responsibility for the protection of citizens and property, and the preservation of law and order. The entire military corps of San Marino depends upon the co-operation of full-time forces and their retained (volunteer) colleagues, known as the Corpi Militari Volontari, or Voluntary Military Force. == Economy == San Marino is a developed country, and although it is not a European Union member it is allowed to use the euro as its currency by arrangement with the Council of the European Union; it is also granted the right to use its own designs on the national side of the euro coins. Before the euro, the Sammarinese lira was pegged to, and exchangeable with, the Italian lira. The small number of Sammarinese euro coins, as was the case with the lira before it, are primarily of interest to coin collectors. San Marino's per capita GDP and standard of living are comparable to that of Italy. Key industries include banking, electronics, and ceramics. The main agricultural products are wine and cheese. San Marino imports mainly staple goods from Italy. San Marino's postage stamps, which are valid for mail posted in the country, are mostly sold to philatelists and are a significant source of income. San Marino is no longer a member of the Small European Postal Administration Cooperation. It has the world's third highest rate of car ownership, being one of only a handful of countries with more vehicles than people. As of October 2023, Gibraltar had the highest rate of car ownership per capita, and Guernsey was in the number two spot. === Taxation === The corporate profits tax rate in San Marino is 8.5%. Capital gains are also subject to an 8.5% tax, and interest from bank deposits is subject to an 11% tax. Several benefits apply to new businesses, which can strongly reduce the amount of taxes to be paid. The personal income tax (IGR, Italian: Imposta Generale sui Redditi) was introduced in 1984 and it was heavily reformed in 2013 with the goal of increasing fiscal revenue. The nominal tax rate ranges from 9% for an annual revenue below €10,000 to 35% for revenues above €80,000. In 1972, a value-added tax (VAT) system was introduced in Italy, and an equivalent tax was introduced also in San Marino, in accordance with the 1939 friendship treaty. However, this tax is not a standard value-added tax, but rather it is an import tax, thus, it is levied only on imported goods and raw resources. For this reason it is locally best known as single stage tax (Italian: imposta monofase), as it is only applied one time during importation, while VAT is applied at every exchange. Furthermore, while VAT also applies to services, the import tax only applies on physical goods. Another important difference is that while VAT is computed on the final price paid by the consumer, the import tax is levied on the importation cost paid by the company, which is generally much lower. Under the European Union customs agreement, San Marino import tax is considered equivalent to the European VAT system. A separate tax on services, with a rate of 3%, has been introduced in 2011. The introduction of a true VAT system, not dissimilar from the European one, is under development. Because San Marino's tax rate is lower than surrounding Italy's, many businesses choose to be based in San Marino to avoid the higher rates. San Marino boasts a corporate rate 14.5% lower than Italy (23%) and 12.5% lower than the EU average (21.3%). This has made San Marino the tax haven of choice for many wealthy Italians and businesses. === Tourism === The tourism sector contributes over 22% of San Marino's GDP, with approximately 2 million tourists having visited in 2014. On average tourists spend about 2 nights in the republic making on average a tourist present per 3 residents at any given time. === Conventions with Italy === San Marino and Italy have engaged in conventions since 1862, dictating some economic activities in San Marino's territory. Cultivation of tobacco and production of goods which are subject to Italy's government monopoly are forbidden in San Marino. Direct import is forbidden; all goods coming from a third party have to travel through Italy before reaching the country. Although it is allowed to print its own postal stamps, San Marino is not allowed to coin its own currency and is obliged to use Italy's mint; the agreement does not affect the right of the Republic of San Marino to continue to issue gold coins denominated in Scudi (the legal value of 1 gold Scudo is 37.50 euros). Gambling is legal and regulated; however, casinos were outlawed prior to 2007. There is one legally operating casino. In exchange for these limitations, Italy provides San Marino with an annual stipend, provided at cost, of sea salt (not more than 250 tonnes per year), tobacco (40 tonnes), cigarettes (20 tonnes) and matches (unlimited amount). At the border there are no formalities with Italy. However, at the tourist office visitors can purchase officially cancelled souvenir stamps for their passports. == Population == === Demographics === As of September 2023, San Marino is estimated to number 33,896 residents. Of these, 28,226 have Sammarinese citizenship, while 4,881 have Italian citizenship, with 789 citizens of other countries. Another 13,000 Sammarinese live abroad (6,600 in Italy, 3,000 in the US, 2,000 in France and Argentina). The first census since 1976 was conducted in 2010. Results were expected by the end of 2011; however, 13% of families did not return their forms. The primary language spoken is Italian; Romagnol is also widely spoken. === Notable people === Giovanni Battista Belluzzi (1506 in San Marino – 1554), architect Francesco Maria Marini (fl. 1637), composer of early Baroque music Francesco de' Marini (1630 in Genova – 1700), Catholic archbishop Antonio Onofri (1759–1825), statesman, "Father of his Country". Little Tony (1941 in Tivoli – 2013), pop and rock musician Pasquale Valentini (born 1953 in San Marino), politician who has held multiple ministerial posts Massimo Bonini (born 1959 in San Marino), football player who played for Juventus Marco Macina (born 1964 in San Marino), footballer who played for Bologna FC, Parma, Reggiana, and AC Milan. Valentina Monetta (born 1975 in San Marino), singer who represented San Marino four times in the Eurovision Song Contest Manuel Poggiali (born 1983 in San Marino), Grand Prix motorcycle road racing World Champion Alex de Angelis (born 1984 in Rimini), Grand Prix motorcycle road racer Alessandra Perilli (born 1988 in Rimini), shooting Olympic silver and bronze medalist and first San Marino citizen to win a medal (Tokyo 2020) Gian Marco Berti (born 1982 in San Marino), shooting Olympic silver medalist and second San Marino citizen to win a medal (Tokyo 2020) Myles Nazem Amine (born 1996 in Dearborn, Michigan), 2020 86 kg wrestling Olympic bronze medalist and third San Marino citizen to win a medal (Tokyo 2020) === Religion === San Marino is a predominantly Catholic state, though Catholicism is not an established religion. Over 48.4% of the population profess the Catholic faith, and approximately half of those regularly attend church. There is no episcopal see in San Marino, although its name is part of the present diocesan title. Historically, the various parishes in San Marino were divided between two Italian dioceses, mostly in the Diocese of Montefeltro, and partly in the Diocese of Rimini. In 1977, the border between Montefeltro and Rimini was readjusted so that all of San Marino fell within the diocese of Montefeltro. The bishop of Montefeltro-San Marino resides in Pennabilli, in Italy's province of Pesaro e Urbino. The country's high Catholic majority can mainly be traced back to the country's founding, when Saint Marinus set up the first fortress to protect Christians from Roman persecution. The small state's culture has primarily remained Catholic ever since. There is a provision under the income tax rules that taxpayers have the right to request the allocation of 0.3% of their income tax to the Catholic Church or to charities. The Diocese of San Marino-Montefeltro was until 1977 the historic diocese of Montefeltro. It is a suffragan of the metropolitan Archdiocese of Ravenna-Cervia. The diocese includes all the parishes of San Marino. The earliest mention of Montefeltro, as Mona Feretri, is in the diplomas by which Charlemagne confirmed the donation of Pepin. The first known bishop of Montefeltro was Agatho (826), whose residence was at San Leo. Under Bishop Flaminios Dondi (1724) the see was again transferred to San Leo, but later it returned to Pennabilli. The historic diocese was a suffragan of the archdiocese of Urbino. Since 1988, there is formally an apostolic nunciature to the republic, but it is vested in the nuncio to Italy. Other faiths include the Waldensian Church and Jehovah's Witnesses. There has been a Jewish presence in San Marino for at least 600 years. The first mention of Jews in San Marino dates to the late 14th century, in official documents recording the business transactions of Jews. There are many documents throughout the 15th to 17th centuries describing Jewish dealings and verifying the presence of a Jewish community in San Marino. Jews were permitted official protection by the government. During World War II, San Marino provided a haven for more than 100,000 Jews and other Italians (approximately 10 times the Sammarinese population at the time) from Nazi persecution. As of 2012, few Jews remain. In 2019, the sculpture Dialogue by Michele Chiaruzzi was inaugurated at Saint Anne Chapel, the first monument of its kind devoted to interfaith dialogue. San Marino also holds the first Shinto shrine built in Europe approved by the Association of Shinto Shrines, that being the San Marino Jinja. == Transport == The Azienda Autonoma di Stato per i Servizi Pubblici, the Sammarinese state company for public transport, operates the country's bus network and aerial cablecar system. === Road === The main road is the San Marino Highway, a dual carriageway which runs between Borgo Maggiore and Dogana through Domagnano and Serravalle. After crossing the international border at Dogana, the highway continues through Italy as the SS72 state road, touching the international border at Rovereta. It serves Cerasolo, a frazione of Coriano, and the Rimini Sud exit of the A14 tolled highway, before terminating at the crossroads with the SS16 state road. Several taxi companies operate in San Marino. === Buses and coaches === As of December 2023, eight bus routes operate entirely within San Marino. All but one line starts in the City of San Marino, with several lines serving Borgo Maggiore, Domagnano, Serravalle, Dogana, and San Marino Hospital. Start Romagna SpA operates several routes that run entirely in Italian territory but near the Sammarinese border, providing connections to Rimini, Verucchio, and Novafeltria. Rimini and San Marino are connected by the coach companies Bonelli and Benedettini, which provide several services per day throughout the year. In the City of San Marino, the coaches depart from the central bus stop in Piazzale Marino Calcigni, then stop in Borgo Maggiore, Domagnano, Serravalle, Dogana, and Cerasolo, a frazione of Coriano, before reaching Rimini's Arch of Augustus and railway station. The coaches complete the route in approximately fifty minutes. === Aerial cablecar system === The Funivia di San Marino is an aerial cablecar system connecting a lower terminus in Borgo Maggiore to an upper terminus in the City of San Marino. Running every fifteen minutes, the two-minute ride is renowned for its panoramic views over San Marino, the Province of Rimini, and the Adriatic Sea. The cablecar system is a major tourist attraction, and considered a defining symbol of San Marino. The cablecar system transports 500,000 passengers yearly across approximately 21,000 trips. It was inaugurated on 1 August 1959. In 1995 and 1996, it was modernised with double load-bearing cables built by Doppelmayr Italia, and further renovated in spring 2017. === Aviation === The closest airports to San Marino are Federico Fellini Airport in Rimini's frazione of Miramare, Luigi Ridolfi Airport in Forlì, Raffaello Sanzio Airport in Ancona, and Guglielmo Marconi Airport in Bologna. Since the 1980s, the governments of San Marino and Italy have signed several bilateral agreements concerning San Marino's access to Fellini Airport. After the Sammarinese government acquired a 3% stake in Fellini Airport's management company, Aeradria, in 2002, the airport was officially named Rimini-San Marino Airport. In June 2018, Ariminum, Aeradria's successor as Fellini Airport's management company, repainted the airport terminal to read Aeroporto Internazionale di Rimini e San Marino (Rimini and San Marino International Airport), replacing the previous Aeroporto Internazionale Federico Fellini (Federico Fellini International Airport). The most significant bilateral agreement, ratified on 16 September 2013, provided San Marino a forty-year concession over some areas of Fellini Airport. The areas were expected to host a private terminal, with a customs border allowing goods destined for San Marino not to pass through Italian customs. As of August 2023, Sammarinese authorities still have no presence at the airport. Torraccia Airfield is San Marino's only aviation facility. It is a small general aviation aerodrome in Torraccia, a village east of the castello of Domagnano, less than 200 metres (660 feet) from the Italian border. Torraccia's only grass runway was first used in 1981, but the airfield's structure was opened in 1985. In July 2012, the runway was extended to 650 metres (2,130 feet). The airfield is owned and operated by Aeroclub San Marino, a flying club with approximately 100 members. In the summer, between ten and fifteen planes typically land at the airfield per day. The airfield hosts a flight school, recreational flights and sports, and some tourist flights in small aircraft. At the site of the present-day parking lot for the Funivia's Borgo Maggiore terminus was a heliport, which inaugurated its first flights in September 1950. On 30 June 1959, a helicopter line running between Borgo Maggiore and a heliport by Rimini's port was inaugurated. Operated by Compagnia Italiana Elicotteri, the service ran several times per day, using a fleet of four-seater Bell 47J Rangers and a three-seater Agusta-Bell AB-47G, which were serviced at Rimini's airport. In 1964, the line was extended to San Leo. Tickets would cost up to 12,500 lire, including the cablecar to the City of San Marino and a shuttle to the Leonine fortress. The service would take fifteen minutes to reach Rimini and ten minutes to reach San Leo. The service closed in 1969. === Railway === San Marino currently has no railway except an 800-metre (1⁄2-mile) heritage railway, which opened in 2012. Between 1932 and 1944, a 31.5-kilometre (19.6-mile) electrified narrow gauge railway operated between Rimini and the City of San Marino, serving Dogana, Serravalle, Domagnano, and Borgo Maggiore along its route. During the Second World War, the line was bombed and closed, after which its tunnels sheltered refugees during the Battles of Rimini and San Marino. After the war, the railway was abandoned in favour of the San Marino Highway. In 2012, an 800-metre (1⁄2-mile) section was reopened as a heritage railway in the City of San Marino, running between Piazzale della Stazione and near Via Napoleone. The restored section comprises the original railway's final horseshoe turn through the 502-metre (1,647-foot) Montale tunnel. Despite its short operational history, the Rimini–San Marino railway retains an important place in Sammarinese culture and history, and has featured on Sammarinese postal stamps. Both the Sammarinese and Italian governments have expressed interest in reopening the line. Between 1921 and 1960, San Marino was also served by a station on the Rimini–Novafeltria railway in Torello, on the other side of the international border from Gualdicciolo in San Marino's west. This provided San Marino its first railway station, albeit located in Italian territory. == Culture == The Three Towers of San Marino are located on the three peaks of Monte Titano in the capital. They are depicted on both the flag of San Marino and its coat of arms. The three towers are: Guaita, the oldest of the three (it was constructed in the 11th century); the 13th-century Cesta, located on the highest of Monte Titano's summits; and the 14th-century Montale, on the smallest of Monte Titano's summits, still privately owned. === University === The Università degli Studi della Repubblica di San Marino (University of the Republic of San Marino) is the main university, which includes the Scuola Superiore di Studi Storici di San Marino (Graduate School of Historical Studies), a distinguished research and advanced international study centre governed by an international Scientific Committee coordinated by the emeritus historian Luciano Canfora. An important music institution is the Istituto Musicale Sammarinese (Sammarinese Musical Institute). The Akademio Internacia de la Sciencoj San Marino or Accademia Internazionale delle Scienze San Marino (International Academy of Sciences San Marino) was known for adopting Esperanto as the language for teaching and for scientific publications. The Akademio was dissolved in 2020. Italian author Umberto Eco had attempted to create a "university without physical structures" in San Marino. === Sport === In San Marino football is the most popular sport. Basketball and volleyball are also popular. The three sports have their own federations, the San Marino Football Federation, the San Marino Basketball Federation and the San Marino Volleyball Federation. The San Marino national football team has had little success, being made up of part-timers. Never qualifying for a major tournament, and recording only one win in over 25 years of its history, a 1–0 victory in 2004 against Liechtenstein. They have drawn four more, with their most notable result being a 1993 0–0 draw with Turkey during the European qualifiers for the 1994 FIFA World Cup. In the same qualifying competition Davide Gualtieri scored a goal 8.3 seconds into a match against England; this goal held the record for the fastest in international football until 2016. San Marino has a club in the Italian league system called A.S.D.V. San Marino and a domestic amateur league, the Campionato Sammarinese, whose teams also participate in European club competitions. Together with Italy, San Marino held the 2019 UEFA European Under-21 Championship, with teams playing at the Stadio Olimpico in Serravalle. With Italy being the sole automatic qualifiers, the Sammarinese team was not participating in the final tournament. A Formula One race, the San Marino Grand Prix, was named after the state, although it did not take place there. Instead, it was held at the Autodromo Enzo e Dino Ferrari in the Italian town of Imola, about 100 km (60 mi) northwest of San Marino. Roland Ratzenberger and Ayrton Senna suffered fatal accidents a day apart during the 1994 Grand Prix. This international event was removed from the calendar in 2007, although the circuit has since returned to the calendar as the Emilia Romagna Grand Prix. The San Marino and Rimini's Coast motorcycle Grand Prix was reinstated in the schedule in 2007 and takes place at the Misano World Circuit Marco Simoncelli, as does San Marino's round of the World Superbike Championship. San Marino has a professional baseball team which plays in Italy's top division. It has participated in the European Cup tournament for the continent's top club sides several times, hosting the event in 1996, 2000, 2004, and 2007. It won the championship in 2006, 2011 and 2014. Shooting is also very popular in San Marino, with many shooters having taken part in international competitions and the Olympic Games. At the 2020 Summer Olympics, San Marino became the smallest country to earn an Olympic medal when Alessandra Perilli won a bronze medal in the women's trap. They later won another medal, this one silver, with Perilli's and Gian Marco Berti's performance in the mixed trap shooting event. === Cuisine === The cuisine of San Marino is extremely similar to Italian, especially that of the adjoining Emilia-Romagna and Marche regions, but it has a number of its own unique dishes and products. Its best known is probably the Torta Tre Monti ("Cake of the Three Mountains" or "Cake of the Three Towers"), a wafer layered cake covered in chocolate depicting the Three Towers of San Marino. The country also has a small wine industry. === UNESCO === The site San Marino: Historic Centre and Mount Titano became part of the UNESCO World Heritage List in 2008. The decision was taken during the 32nd Session of the UNESCO World Heritage Committee composed of 21 countries convened in Québec, Canada. === Music === The country has a long and rich musical tradition, closely linked to that of Italy, but which is also highly independent in itself. A well-known 17th-century composer is Francesco Maria Marini. The pop singer Little Tony achieved considerable success in the United Kingdom and Italy in the 1950s and 1960s. San Marino has taken part in the Eurovision Song Contest eleven times, achieving three final qualifications to date (with then-three, eventually four-time contestant and San Marino native Valentina Monetta with "Maybe" in 2014, Turkish singer Serhat with "Say Na Na Na" who achieved 19th place in the final in 2019 and Italian singer Senhit along with American rapper Flo Rida who qualified for the 2021 final with the song "Adrenalina"). === Theatre === The Teatro Nuovo (Serravalle) is a theatre of the Republic of San Marino located in Dogana, a town in the Serravalle municipality ("castello"), not far from the border with Italy. It has a capacity of 872 seats of which 604 are in the stalls and is the largest theatre in the republic. === Public holidays and festivals === == See also == The Catholic Guide and Scout Association of San Marino City-state Index of San Marino–related articles Outline of San Marino Postage stamps and postal history of San Marino Telecommunications in San Marino Order of San Marino and Order of Saint Agatha == References == == External links == Benvenuti in GOV.SM Official government website Economic Development Agency Chamber of Commerce Economic Development Agency website portal Geographic data related to San Marino at OpenStreetMap

San Marino ( SAN mə-REE-noh, Italian: [sam maˈriːno]; Romagnol: San Maréin or San Maroin), officially the Republic of San Marino (Italian: Repubblica di San Marino) and also known as the Most Serene Republic of San Marino (Italian: Serenissima Repubblica di San Marino), is a European microstate and enclave within Italy. Located on the northeastern side of the Apennine Mountains, it is the fifth-smallest country in the world, with a land area of just over 61 km2 (23+1⁄2 sq mi) and a population of 33,660, as of 2022. San Marino is a landlocked country; however, its northeastern end is within ten kilometres (six miles) of the Italian city of Rimini on the Adriatic coast. The country's capital city, the City of San Marino, is located atop Monte Titano, while its largest settlement is Dogana, within the municipality of Serravalle. San Marino's official language is Italian. The country derives its name from Saint Marinus, a stonemason from the then-Roman island of Rab in present-day Croatia. According to legendary accounts, he was born in 275 AD, participated in the rebuilding of Rimini's city walls after their destruction by Liburnian pirates, and later founded an independent monastic community on Monte Titano in 301 AD; thus, San Marino lays claim to being the oldest extant sovereign state, as well as the oldest constitutional republic. Uniquely, San Marino's constitution dictates that its democratically elected legislature, the Grand and General Council, must elect two heads of state every six months. Known as the Captains Regent, they serve concurrently and with equal powers. The country's economy is mainly based on finance, industry, services, retail, and tourism. It is one of the wealthiest countries in the world in GDP per capita, with a figure comparable to the most developed European regions. Despite this, its Human Development Index score is 44th, the lowest in Western Europe. Its healthcare system ranked third in the first ever World Health Organization analysis of the world's health systems.

san marino

San Marino (disambiguation) (wikipedia)

The Republic of San Marino is a European country completely surrounded by Italy. San Marino may also refer to: Saint Marinus, the founder of the state of San Marino City of San Marino, the capital city of the Republic of San Marino San Marino (river), a river in the Italian peninsula Autodromo Enzo e Dino Ferrari, the circuit that hosts the San Marino Grand Prix San Marino, California, a city in Los Angeles County, United States San Marino Calcio, a football club in the Republic of San Marino that plays in the Italian Serie C2 San Marino, Croatia, a hamlet and a ferry port on the island of Rab San Marino Brand, a Philippine canned seafood brand manufactured by CDO Foodsphere == See also == Dan Marino Marino (disambiguation)

The Republic of San Marino is a European country completely surrounded by Italy. San Marino may also refer to: Saint Marinus, the founder of the state of San Marino City of San Marino, the capital city of the Republic of San Marino San Marino (river), a river in the Italian peninsula Autodromo Enzo e Dino Ferrari, the circuit that hosts the San Marino Grand Prix San Marino, California, a city in Los Angeles County, United States San Marino Calcio, a football club in the Republic of San Marino that plays in the Italian Serie C2 San Marino, Croatia, a hamlet and a ferry port on the island of Rab San Marino Brand, a Philippine canned seafood brand manufactured by CDO Foodsphere

san marino

San Marino (river) (wikipedia)

The San Marino (Italian: Rio San Marino) is a river in the Italian peninsula. It flows through San Marino (Chiesanuova and Acquaviva), then north into Italy. For some of its length it forms part of the border between the two countries. It flows into the Marecchia at Torello, part of the commune of San Leo (Province of Rimini).

The San Marino (Italian: Rio San Marino) is a river in the Italian peninsula. It flows through San Marino (Chiesanuova and Acquaviva), then north into Italy. For some of its length it forms part of the border between the two countries. It flows into the Marecchia at Torello, part of the commune of San Leo (Province of Rimini).

san marino

CDO Foodsphere (wikipedia)

CDO Foodsphere, Inc., commonly known as CDO, is a Philippine meat processing company based in Valenzuela, Metro Manila. == History == The company was founded by Corazon Dayro Ong on June 25, 1975 as CDO Food Products. In 1981, the company registered as a corporation under as Foodsphere Inc. with CDO becoming the flagship brand. == Products == Its products include sausages, hams, bacon, hamburger patties, loaves, sweet preserves and processed cheeses. Many of its products are marketed under the CDO brand name. In 2009, the company ventured into the Canned Tuna and broke the monopoly by introducing corned tuna. In April 2020, CDO Foodsphere launched its online food delivery service through the Viber messaging app. == Subsidiary == Odyssey Foundation, Inc. == References == == External links == Media related to CDO Foodsphere at Wikimedia Commons Official website

CDO Foodsphere, Inc., commonly known as CDO, is a Philippine meat processing company based in Valenzuela, Metro Manila.

san marino

City of San Marino (wikipedia)

The City of San Marino (Italian: Città di San Marino), also known simply as San Marino and locally as Città, is the capital city of the Republic of San Marino and one of its nine castelli. It has a population of 4,061. It is on the western slopes of San Marino's highest point, Monte Titano. It is also the fifth-least-populated national capital in the world. == Geography == The City of San Marino borders the castelli of Acquaviva, Borgo Maggiore, Fiorentino, and Chiesanuova and the Italian municipality of San Leo. The City of San Marino contains seven curazie: Cà Berlone, Canepa, Casole, Castellaro, Montalbo, Murata, and Santa Mustiola. The International Academy of Sciences San Marino was centered here. == History == The city is claimed to be founded by Saint Marinus and several Christian refugees fleeing from Roman persecution in the year 301. The urban heart of the city was protected by three towers: the first, Guaita, built in the 11th century, held a reputation for being impenetrable which to a great extent discouraged attacks. Tensions with bordering powers urged the necessity to build a second tower, Cesta (13th century). The defensive system was not completed until the construction of a third tower, the Montale (14th century) - the smallest of all and constructed on the last of the summits of Monte Titano. With the population of the city increasing, the territory of the country was extended by a few square kilometers. Since the Sammarinese policy was not to invade or to use war to obtain new territories, it was by means of purchases and treaties that San Marino obtained the other eight castelli which make up the country. == Economy == The economy of the city of San Marino has always been closely bound to that of the country. Until recently, the main economic activities of the locality were stone extraction and carving. Today, there is a more varied economy, including tourism, commerce, sale of postage stamps, and a small agricultural industry, although the latter is in decline. === Landmarks === The city is visited by more than three million people per year, and has developed progressively as a tourist centre. Of the tourists, 85% are Italian. There are also more than a thousand retail outlets, where one can find a great variety of products. ==== Main sights ==== Basilica di San Marino Palazzo dei Capitani Palazzo Pubblico Teatro Titano The Three Towers of San Marino Piazza del Titano Piazza Garibaldi Monastery of Santa Clara Grand Hotel San Marino == Transport == The city is known for its long, winding cobblestoned streets, as its altitude and steep approach put it beyond the reach of the San Marino Highway. San Marino is also notable in that cars are prohibited in much of the city center. A series of lifts connects the upper part of city with the lower. City of San Marino is the top terminus of the Funivia di San Marino, an aerial cablecar system that connects the city to Borgo Maggiore. Running every fifteen minutes, the two-minute ride is renowned for its paronamic views over San Marino, the Province of Rimini, and the Adriatic Sea. The City of San Marino terminus is located at the turn of Contrada Omagnano with Contrada del Pianello, at the historic city centre's northern end, next to the Tourism Secretariat and less than 200 metres (660 feet) from the Basilica of San Marino and the Piazza della Libertà. The City of San Marino is the terminus of seven of San Marino's eight bus lines, which run to other settlements in the country. Additionally, the central bus stop in Piazzale Marino Calcigni is the terminus of a regular coach connection to Rimini, operated by coach companies Bonelli and Benedettini. Between 1932 and 1944, a 31.5-kilometre (19.6-mile) electrified narrow gauge railway operated between Rimini and the City of San Marino. During the Second World War, the line was bombed and closed, after which its tunnels sheltered refugees during the Battles of Rimini and San Marino. After the war, the railway was abandoned in favour of the San Marino Highway. In 2012, an 800-metre (1⁄2-mile) section was reopened as a heritage railway in the City of San Marino, running between Piazzale della Stazione and near Via Napoleone. The restored section comprises the original railway's final horseshoe turn through the 502-metre (1,647-foot) Montale tunnel. == Sport == The city of San Marino has three football teams: the S.S. Murata, the S.P. Tre Penne and the San Marino Academy. The city had the Olympic Flame pass through San Marino during the run-up to the 2006 Winter Olympics. == International relations == City of San Marino is twinned with: Rab, Croatia (1968) San Leo, Italy (1995) Nanjing, China (2021) == Gallery == == See also == Carcere dei Cappuccini, the only prison in San Marino == References == == External links == Media related to Città di San Marino at Wikimedia Commons (in Italian) San Marino's page on giuntedicastello.sm

The City of San Marino (Italian: Città di San Marino), also known simply as San Marino and locally as Città, is the capital city of the Republic of San Marino and one of its nine castelli. It has a population of 4,061. It is on the western slopes of San Marino's highest point, Monte Titano. It is also the fifth-least-populated national capital in the world.

san marino

San Marino Baseball Club (wikipedia)

San Marino Baseball Club is a professional domestic baseball club based in San Marino. As of August 2021, they compete in Serie A1, the top tier of Italian baseball. Their current commercial name is T & A San Marino, because the team is primarily sponsored by Italian company Tecnologie e Ambiente S.A. They are currently being managed by Doriano Bindi. == History == Baseball first got an audience in the 1960s, where some Sammarinese boys returning from the United States introduced it to their peers. A first San Marino Baseball Club was founded in 1970, where they entered Italian league Serie D, and promoted to the next tier Serie C four years later in 1974, and finally arriving in Serie C in 1980. In 1985, the club was transformed into a newer one, and the team entered Serie A1 Italian championships, the top series of Italian baseball where the team has played ever since. In 1992, the team made their first international debut, where they qualified to compete in the European Baseball Cup. Ever since, the team have competed in the international tournament and have remained securely in Serie A1. San Marino now organize teams to enter Italian youth tournaments, where many additional titles have been won. == Ballpark == T & A San Marino play home games at the Stadio di Baseball di Serravalle baseball stadium. It is located in Serravalle and has a capacity of 1,500. The venue was used in the 2016 European Cup to co-host the games along with Italy. The stadium was constructed in 1986, and renovated for the European Cup. When the stadium reaches capacity, there is a hill on the side of the venue which can host spectators on the grass if required. The stadium has been the home of T & A San Marino for almost all of their history since 1985 where they were transformed into the current club. == Competitions == T & A San Marino often appear in the European Baseball Cup, with five final appearances and three victories in total. The team also competes in the Serie A1, where they have won the title five times in total in 2008, 2011, 2012, 2013 and most recently 2021. == References ==

San Marino Baseball Club is a professional domestic baseball club based in San Marino. As of August 2021, they compete in Serie A1, the top tier of Italian baseball. Their current commercial name is T & A San Marino, because the team is primarily sponsored by Italian company Tecnologie e Ambiente S.A. They are currently being managed by Doriano Bindi.

bank

Bank (wiktionary)

From Old English banc (“bank, hillock, embankment”), from Proto-Germanic *bankô. Bank A village in the New Forest in Hampshire, England. (rail transport) A major London Underground station in the City of London, named after the Bank of England and one of the busiest stations on the network (OS grid ref TQ3281) Various origins: Borrowed from Dutch and German Bank (“bench”), a metonymic occupational surname for someone who worked with a bench or counter, like a money changer. Borrowed from Danish and Swedish Bank, a topographic surname from bank (“sandbank”) or, alternatively, a nickname for a loud an noisy person, from bank (“noise”). Bank (plural Banks) A surname. According to the 2010 United States Census, Bank is the 12953rd most common surname in the United States, belonging to 2371 individuals. Bank is most common among White (80.05%) and Black/African American (10.04%) individuals. Hanks, Patrick, editor (2003), “Bank”, in Dictionary of American Family Names, volume 1, New York City: Oxford University Press, →ISBN, page 95. Knab, knab, nabk IPA(key): /baŋk/ Rhymes: -aŋk From Middle High German and Old High German banc, bank (“height”), from Proto-West Germanic *banki, from Proto-Germanic *bankiz. Related to Old Saxon bank. Bank f (genitive Bank, plural Bänke) bench (which people sit on); pew workbench (which things can be set down on) bank (collection of material in a body of water) (soccer) substitutes' bench auf die lange Bank schieben (“to procrastinate, to shelve”) Bänkelsänger (“minstrel”) → Danish: bank → Norwegian Bokmål: bank Borrowed from Italian banco (“bench, bank”), from the same Old High German word banc, bank (“height”) as above. Bank f (genitive Bank, plural Banken) bank (financial institution) a facility for storage of a particular thing Some descendants may be via other European languages. “Bank” in Digitales Wörterbuch der deutschen Sprache “Bank” in Uni Leipzig: Wortschatz-Lexikon “Bank (Geldinstitut, Gebäude)” in Duden online “Bank (Sitzgelegenheit)” in Duden online Bank on the German Wikipedia.Wikipedia de From Middle High German bank, from Old High German bank. IPA(key): /baŋk/, [bɑŋk] Rhymes: -ɑŋk Bank f (plural Banken) bank (financial institution) From Middle High German bank, from Old High German bank. Compare German Bank, Dutch bank, English bench. Bank f (plural Benk) bench workbench Ultimately from Italian banco, itself from Proto-West Germanic *banki, from Proto-Germanic *bankiz (“bulge; bench”). IPA(key): /baŋk/ Bank f (plural Banken) bank

From Old English banc (“bank, hillock, embankment”), from Proto-Germanic *bankô. Bank A village in the New Forest in Hampshire, England. (rail transport) A major London Underground station in the City of London, named after the Bank of England and one of the busiest stations on the network (OS grid ref TQ3281) Various origins: Borrowed from Dutch and German Bank (“bench”), a metonymic occupational surname for someone who worked with a bench or counter, like a money changer. Borrowed from Danish and Swedish Bank, a topographic surname from bank (“sandbank”) or, alternatively, a nickname for a loud an noisy person, from bank (“noise”). Bank (plural Banks) A surname. According to the 2010 United States Census, Bank is the 12953rd most common surname in the United States, belonging to 2371 individuals. Bank is most common among White (80.05%) and Black/African American (10.04%) individuals. Hanks, Patrick, editor (2003), “Bank”, in Dictionary of American Family Names, volume 1, New York City: Oxford University Press, →ISBN, page 95. Knab, knab, nabk IPA(key): /baŋk/ Rhymes: -aŋk From Middle High German and Old High German banc, bank (“height”), from Proto-West Germanic *banki, from Proto-Germanic *bankiz. Related to Old Saxon bank. Bank f (genitive Bank, plural Bänke) bench (which people sit on); pew workbench (which things can be set down on) bank (collection of material in a body of water) (soccer) substitutes' bench auf die lange Bank schieben (“to procrastinate, to shelve”) Bänkelsänger (“minstrel”) → Danish: bank → Norwegian Bokmål: bank Borrowed from Italian banco (“bench, bank”), from the same Old High German word banc, bank (“height”) as above. Bank f (genitive Bank, plural Banken) bank (financial institution) a facility for storage of a particular thing Some descendants may be via other European languages. “Bank” in Digitales Wörterbuch der deutschen Sprache “Bank” in Uni Leipzig: Wortschatz-Lexikon “Bank (Geldinstitut, Gebäude)” in Duden online “Bank (Sitzgelegenheit)” in Duden online Bank on the German Wikipedia.Wikipedia de From Middle High German bank, from Old High German bank. IPA(key): /baŋk/, [bɑŋk] Rhymes: -ɑŋk Bank f (plural Banken) bank (financial institution) From Middle High German bank, from Old High German bank. Compare German Bank, Dutch bank, English bench. Bank f (plural Benk) bench workbench Ultimately from Italian banco, itself from Proto-West Germanic *banki, from Proto-Germanic *bankiz (“bulge; bench”). IPA(key): /baŋk/ Bank f (plural Banken) bank

bank

bank (wiktionary)

banck, bancke, banke (obsolete) IPA(key): /bæŋk/ (General American, Canada) IPA(key): (see /æ/ raising) [beɪŋk] Rhymes: -æŋk From Middle English banke, from Middle French banque, from Italian banca (“counter, moneychanger's bench or table”), from Lombardic bank (“bench, counter”), from Proto-West Germanic *banki, from Proto-Germanic *bankiz (“bench, counter”), from Proto-Indo-European *bʰeg- (“to turn, curve, bend, bow”). Doublet of bench, banc, and banco. bank (countable and uncountable, plural banks) (countable) An institution where one can place and borrow money and take care of financial affairs. (countable) A branch office of such an institution. (countable) An underwriter or controller of a card game. Synonyms: banker, banque (countable) A fund from deposits or contributions, to be used in transacting business; a joint stock or capital. (gambling, countable) The sum of money etc. which the dealer or banker has as a fund from which to draw stakes and pay losses. (slang, uncountable) Money; profit. (countable) In certain games, such as dominos, a fund of pieces from which the players are allowed to draw. (countable, chiefly in combination) A safe and guaranteed place of storage for and retrieval of important items or goods. (countable) A device used to store coins or currency. (countable) a natural elevation of mud and other material under sea, rising for instance from a continental shelf (countable) a mound or mass of cloud or fog (a place used to store and borrow money): Lombard house (archaic) All borrowings Some may be via other European languages. bank (third-person singular simple present banks, present participle banking, simple past and past participle banked) (intransitive) To deal with a bank or financial institution, or for an institution to provide financial services to a client. (transitive) To put into a bank. (transitive, slang) To conceal in the rectum for use in prison. bankable banked banker banking bank on debank double-banked From Middle English bank, from Old English hōbanca (“couch”) and Old English banc (“bank, hillock, embankment”), from Proto-Germanic *bankô. Akin to Old Norse bakki (“elevation, hill”), Norwegian bakke (“slope, hill”). bank (plural banks) (hydrology) An edge of river, lake, or other watercourse. (nautical, hydrology) An elevation, or rising ground, under the sea; a shallow area of shifting sand, gravel, mud, and so forth (for example, a sandbank or mudbank). Synonym: bar the banks of Newfoundland (geography) A slope of earth, sand, etc.; an embankment. (aviation) The incline of an aircraft, especially during a turn. (rail transport) An incline, a hill. A mass noun for a quantity of clouds. The bank of clouds on the horizon announced the arrival of the predicted storm front. (mining) The face of the coal at which miners are working. (mining) A deposit of ore or coal, worked by excavations above water level. (mining) The ground at the top of a shaft. Ores are brought to bank. bench bank (third-person singular simple present banks, present participle banking, simple past and past participle banked) (intransitive, aviation) To roll or incline laterally in order to turn. (transitive) To cause (an aircraft) to bank. (transitive) To form into a bank or heap, to bank up. (transitive) To cover the embers of a fire with ashes in order to retain heat. (transitive) To raise a mound or dike about; to enclose, defend, or fortify with a bank; to embank. (transitive, obsolete) To pass by the banks of. (rail transport, UK) To provide additional power for a train ascending a bank (incline) by attaching another locomotive. bank-and-turn indicator, turn-and-bank indicator From Middle English bank (“bank”), banke, from Old French banc (“bench”), from Frankish *bank. Akin to Old English benc (“bench”). bank (plural banks) A row or panel of items stored or grouped together. A row of keys on a musical keyboard or the equivalent on a typewriter keyboard. (computing) A contiguous block of memory that is of fixed, hardware-dependent size, but often larger than a page and partitioning the memory such that two distinct banks do not overlap. (pinball) A set of multiple adjacent drop targets. (row or panel of items): (row) line, rank, tier; (panel) block, grid, panel double-bank filter bank, filterbank optical bank phone bank bank (third-person singular simple present banks, present participle banking, simple past and past participle banked) (transitive, order and arrangement) To arrange or order in a row. Probably from French banc. Of Germanic origin, and akin to English bench. bank (plural banks) A bench, as for rowers in a galley; also, a tier of oars. A bench or seat for judges in court. The regular term of a court of law, or the full court sitting to hear arguments upon questions of law, as distinguished from a sitting at nisi prius, or a court held for jury trials. See banc (archaic, printing) A kind of table used by printers. (music) A bench, or row of keys belonging to a keyboard, as in an organ. Bank Royal Common Bank banc banquette frank bank “bank”, in Lexico, Dictionary.com; Oxford University Press, 2019–2022. Knab, knab, nabk IPA(key): /baŋk/ From Dutch bank, from Middle Dutch banc, from Old Dutch *bank, from Proto-Germanic *bankiz. bank (plural banke, diminutive bankie) bench, couch onder stoele of banke wegsteek toonbank From Dutch bank, from Middle Dutch banc, from Italian banco, from Old High German bank, from Proto-Germanic *bankiz. bank (plural banke, diminutive bankie) bank (financial institution) (games, gambling) bank, a player who controls a deposit in some card games or board games and in gambling bank (present bank, present participle bankende, past participle gebank) (transitive) to deposit, to bank (intransitive) to bank Borrowed from Russian банк (bank). Internationalism ultimately from French banque. bank (definite accusative bankı, plural banklar) bank (financial institution) “bank” in Obastan.com. Ultimately from Proto-West Germanic *banki. IPA(key): /ˈbãŋk/ bank m (plural bankeier or bankoù) bench bank Synonyms: arc'hanti, ti-bank bank-ilinek bank-tosel gourvezvank kartenn-vank ti-bank Borrowed from French banque. bank (accusative [please provide], plural [please provide]) bank (financial institution) IPA(key): /ˈbɑŋˀɡ/ Borrowed from French banque, from Italian banco (“bench”). bank c (singular definite banken, plural indefinite banker) bank (financial institution, branch office, controller of a game, a safe and guaranteed place of storage) bankanvisning bankier bankør → Faroese: banki → Greenlandic: banki → Icelandic: banki From German Bank (“bench”). bank c only used in certain expressions over en bank bank n (singular definite banket, plural indefinite bank) knock (an abrupt rapping sound) (pl) a beating (beating): tæsk, tæv bank imperative of banke “bank” in Den Danske Ordbog IPA(key): /bɑŋk/ Hyphenation: bank Rhymes: -ɑŋk From Middle Dutch banc, from Old Dutch *bank, from Proto-West Germanic *banki, from Proto-Germanic *bankiz. bank f (plural banken, diminutive bankje n) bench Ik zit graag op die bank in het park. ― I like sitting on that bench in the park. Zet die bloemen op het bankje naast de deur. ― Put those flowers on the little bench next to the door. De oude mannen zaten op de banken en praatten. ― The old men sat on the benches and talked. (Netherlands) couch, sofa Synonym: sofa We hebben een nieuwe bank gekocht voor de woonkamer. ― We bought a new couch for the living room. Het bankje is perfect voor de kinderkamer. ― The little sofa is perfect for the kids' room. De banken in die winkel zijn erg comfortabel. ― The couches in that store are very comfortable. place where seashells are found shallow part of the sea near the coast Afrikaans: bank Javindo: bang Negerhollands: bank, banki → Lokono: bañka → Papiamentu: banki → Sranan Tongo: bangi → Aukan: bangi → Caribbean Hindustani: bángi → Caribbean Javanese: bangi → Kari'na: bangi → Saramaccan: bángi From Middle Dutch banc, from Italian banco, from Old High German bank, from Proto-West Germanic *banki, from Proto-Germanic *bankiz, related to Etymology 1 above. bank f (plural banken, diminutive bankje n) A bank (financial institution) Ik moet naar de bank om wat geld op te nemen. ― I need to go to the bank to withdraw some money. Het bankje in het dorp is elke zondag gesloten. ― The small bank in the village is closed every Sunday. De banken zijn gesloten op nationale feestdagen. ― The banks are closed on national holidays. (games, gambling) The bank, a player who controls a deposit in some card games or board games and in gambling A banknote, especially 100 Dutch guilders (also in the diminutives bankie or bankje.) A bank, collection and/or repository. Afrikaans: bank → Aukan: banku → Caribbean Hindustani: bánk → Malay: bank Indonesian: bank → Central Dusun: bank → Central Melanau: bank → Makasar: bank → Javanese: bang → Sundanese: bank → Papiamentu: banki (dated) → Saramaccan: bánku → Sranan Tongo: bangi → Trió: banku → West Frisian: bank From German Bank, from Italian banca. IPA(key): [ˈbɒŋk] Rhymes: -ɒŋk bank (plural bankok) bank (financial institution) Synonym: pénzintézet (gambling) bank (the sum of money etc. which the dealer or banker has as a fund from which to draw stakes and pay losses) bank in Bárczi, Géza and László Országh. A magyar nyelv értelmező szótára (‘The Explanatory Dictionary of the Hungarian Language’, abbr.: ÉrtSz.). Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó, 1959–1962. Fifth ed., 1992: →ISBN bank in Ittzés, Nóra (ed.). A magyar nyelv nagyszótára (‘A Comprehensive Dictionary of the Hungarian Language’). Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó, 2006–2031 (work in progress; published A–ez as of 2024) Back-formation from banka (“to knock, to beat”). IPA(key): /pauŋ̊k/ Rhymes: -auŋ̊k bank n (genitive singular banks, no plural) knock, blow Unadapted borrowing from Dutch bank (“bank”). Doublet of bangku. IPA(key): /baŋ/ Hyphenation: bank Homophone: bang bank bank: an institution where one can place and borrow money and take care of financial affairs. a safe and guaranteed place of storage for and retrieval of important items or goods. perbankan “bank” in Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia, Jakarta: Agency for Language Development and Cultivation – Ministry of Education, Culture, Research, and Technology of the Republic of Indonesia, 2016. Borrowed from English bank, spelled earlier as beng and بيڠک. Doublet of bangku. IPA(key): /bɛŋk/, /baŋk/ Rhymes: -ɛŋk, -aŋk Hyphenation: bèngk, bangk bank (Jawi spelling بڠک, plural bank-bank, informal 1st possessive bankku, 2nd possessive bankmu, 3rd possessive banknya) A bank: An institution that offers various financial services. A stock or reserve of something for use when it is needed. bank darah ― blood bank “bank” in Pusat Rujukan Persuratan Melayu | Malay Literary Reference Centre, Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, 2017. Borrowed from Italian banco. IPA(key): /bank/ bank m (plural banek) bank (financial building or institution) Synonym: mislef bank (an underwater area of higher elevation, a sandbank) bank m (plural bankijiet, diminutive bnajjak or banketta) bench counter (table or board on which business is transacted) worktable judge's seat From Old English hōbanca (“couch”) and Old English banc (“bank, hillock, embankment”), from Proto-Germanic *bankô. Akin to Old Norse bakki (“elevation, hill”), Norwegian bakke (“slope, hill”). bank (plural banks) the bank of a river or lake English: bank “bank(e, n.(1).”, in MED Online, Ann Arbor, Mich.: University of Michigan, 2007. IPA(key): /bɑŋk/ Borrowed from French banque, from Italian banco (“bench”), banca. bank m (definite singular banken, indefinite plural banker, definite plural bankene) a bank (financial institution) From the verb banke. bank m (definite singular banken, indefinite plural banker, definite plural bankene) a beat, knock, throb hjertebank bank imperative of banke “bank” in The Bokmål Dictionary. “bank_4” in Det Norske Akademis ordbok (NAOB). “bank_5” in Det Norske Akademis ordbok (NAOB). Borrowed from French banque, from Italian banco (“bench”), banca. IPA(key): /bɑŋk/ bank m (definite singular banken, indefinite plural bankar, definite plural bankane) a bank (financial institution) “bank” in The Nynorsk Dictionary. panch From Proto-West Germanic *banki. bank f bench Middle High German: banc, bank Bavarian: Bånk German: Bank→ Danish: bank→ Norwegian Bokmål: bank Luxembourgish: Bänk Pennsylvania German: Bank → Old French: banc French: banc (see there for further descendants) Norman: banc → Middle English: bank, banke English: bank (see there for further descendants) → Galician: banco → Spanish: banco (see there for further descendants) → Old Italian: banco, banca Italian: banco, banca (see there for further descendants) ⇒ Italian: banchetto (see there for further descendants) → Byzantine Greek: πάγκος (pánkos) Greek: πάγκος (págkos) → Middle French: banque (see there for further descendants) → German: Bank (see there for further descendants) → Medieval Latin: bancus, banca Internationalism; compare English bank. Possibly borrowed from Italian banco via German Bank, or borrowed from English bank via French banque, ultimately from Lombardic bank (“bench, counter”), from Proto-West Germanic *banki, from Proto-Germanic *bankiz (“bench, counter”), from Proto-Indo-European *bʰeg- (“to turn, curve, bend, bow”). Doublet of bankiet. IPA(key): /baŋk/ Rhymes: -aŋk Syllabification: bank bank m inan bank (financial building, institution, or staff) bank centralny ― central bank bank emisyjny ― issuing bank bank hipoteczny ― mortgage bank bank inwestycyjny ― investment bank bank komercyjny ― commercial bank bank (a safe and guaranteed place of storage for and retrieval of important items or goods) bank danych ― databank bank genów ― gene bank bank czasu ― time bank bank energii/powerbank ― powerbank bank spermy ― sperm bank (gambling, card games) bank (a fund of pieces from which the players are allowed to draw) trzymać bank ― to keep bank bank in Wielki słownik języka polskiego, Instytut Języka Polskiego PAN bank in Polish dictionaries at PWN bánk inflection of bánka: genitive dual genitive plural From Dutch bank, German Bank or Low German bank, all from Italian banco, from Old High German banc, from Proto-West Germanic *banki, from Proto-Germanic *bankiz. IPA(key): /ˈbaŋːk/ bank c a bank (financial institution, branch of such an institution) a bank (place of storage) a bank (of a river of lake) a sandbank → Elfdalian: baunka → Finnish: pankki bank in Svenska Akademiens ordbok (SAOB) Borrowed from French banc. IPA(key): /ˈbaŋk/ Hyphenation: bank bank (definite accusative bankı, plural banklar) bench (long seat) bank (definite accusative banky, plural banklar) bank bank (nominative plural banks) bank (financial institution)

banck, bancke, banke (obsolete) IPA(key): /bæŋk/ (General American, Canada) IPA(key): (see /æ/ raising) [beɪŋk] Rhymes: -æŋk From Middle English banke, from Middle French banque, from Italian banca (“counter, moneychanger's bench or table”), from Lombardic bank (“bench, counter”), from Proto-West Germanic *banki, from Proto-Germanic *bankiz (“bench, counter”), from Proto-Indo-European *bʰeg- (“to turn, curve, bend, bow”). Doublet of bench, banc, and banco. bank (countable and uncountable, plural banks) (countable) An institution where one can place and borrow money and take care of financial affairs. (countable) A branch office of such an institution. (countable) An underwriter or controller of a card game. Synonyms: banker, banque (countable) A fund from deposits or contributions, to be used in transacting business; a joint stock or capital. (gambling, countable) The sum of money etc. which the dealer or banker has as a fund from which to draw stakes and pay losses. (slang, uncountable) Money; profit. (countable) In certain games, such as dominos, a fund of pieces from which the players are allowed to draw. (countable, chiefly in combination) A safe and guaranteed place of storage for and retrieval of important items or goods. (countable) A device used to store coins or currency. (countable) a natural elevation of mud and other material under sea, rising for instance from a continental shelf (countable) a mound or mass of cloud or fog (a place used to store and borrow money): Lombard house (archaic) All borrowings Some may be via other European languages. bank (third-person singular simple present banks, present participle banking, simple past and past participle banked) (intransitive) To deal with a bank or financial institution, or for an institution to provide financial services to a client. (transitive) To put into a bank. (transitive, slang) To conceal in the rectum for use in prison. bankable banked banker banking bank on debank double-banked From Middle English bank, from Old English hōbanca (“couch”) and Old English banc (“bank, hillock, embankment”), from Proto-Germanic *bankô. Akin to Old Norse bakki (“elevation, hill”), Norwegian bakke (“slope, hill”). bank (plural banks) (hydrology) An edge of river, lake, or other watercourse. (nautical, hydrology) An elevation, or rising ground, under the sea; a shallow area of shifting sand, gravel, mud, and so forth (for example, a sandbank or mudbank). Synonym: bar the banks of Newfoundland (geography) A slope of earth, sand, etc.; an embankment. (aviation) The incline of an aircraft, especially during a turn. (rail transport) An incline, a hill. A mass noun for a quantity of clouds. The bank of clouds on the horizon announced the arrival of the predicted storm front. (mining) The face of the coal at which miners are working. (mining) A deposit of ore or coal, worked by excavations above water level. (mining) The ground at the top of a shaft. Ores are brought to bank. bench bank (third-person singular simple present banks, present participle banking, simple past and past participle banked) (intransitive, aviation) To roll or incline laterally in order to turn. (transitive) To cause (an aircraft) to bank. (transitive) To form into a bank or heap, to bank up. (transitive) To cover the embers of a fire with ashes in order to retain heat. (transitive) To raise a mound or dike about; to enclose, defend, or fortify with a bank; to embank. (transitive, obsolete) To pass by the banks of. (rail transport, UK) To provide additional power for a train ascending a bank (incline) by attaching another locomotive. bank-and-turn indicator, turn-and-bank indicator From Middle English bank (“bank”), banke, from Old French banc (“bench”), from Frankish *bank. Akin to Old English benc (“bench”). bank (plural banks) A row or panel of items stored or grouped together. A row of keys on a musical keyboard or the equivalent on a typewriter keyboard. (computing) A contiguous block of memory that is of fixed, hardware-dependent size, but often larger than a page and partitioning the memory such that two distinct banks do not overlap. (pinball) A set of multiple adjacent drop targets. (row or panel of items): (row) line, rank, tier; (panel) block, grid, panel double-bank filter bank, filterbank optical bank phone bank bank (third-person singular simple present banks, present participle banking, simple past and past participle banked) (transitive, order and arrangement) To arrange or order in a row. Probably from French banc. Of Germanic origin, and akin to English bench. bank (plural banks) A bench, as for rowers in a galley; also, a tier of oars. A bench or seat for judges in court. The regular term of a court of law, or the full court sitting to hear arguments upon questions of law, as distinguished from a sitting at nisi prius, or a court held for jury trials. See banc (archaic, printing) A kind of table used by printers. (music) A bench, or row of keys belonging to a keyboard, as in an organ. Bank Royal Common Bank banc banquette frank bank “bank”, in Lexico, Dictionary.com; Oxford University Press, 2019–2022. Knab, knab, nabk IPA(key): /baŋk/ From Dutch bank, from Middle Dutch banc, from Old Dutch *bank, from Proto-Germanic *bankiz. bank (plural banke, diminutive bankie) bench, couch onder stoele of banke wegsteek toonbank From Dutch bank, from Middle Dutch banc, from Italian banco, from Old High German bank, from Proto-Germanic *bankiz. bank (plural banke, diminutive bankie) bank (financial institution) (games, gambling) bank, a player who controls a deposit in some card games or board games and in gambling bank (present bank, present participle bankende, past participle gebank) (transitive) to deposit, to bank (intransitive) to bank Borrowed from Russian банк (bank). Internationalism ultimately from French banque. bank (definite accusative bankı, plural banklar) bank (financial institution) “bank” in Obastan.com. Ultimately from Proto-West Germanic *banki. IPA(key): /ˈbãŋk/ bank m (plural bankeier or bankoù) bench bank Synonyms: arc'hanti, ti-bank bank-ilinek bank-tosel gourvezvank kartenn-vank ti-bank Borrowed from French banque. bank (accusative [please provide], plural [please provide]) bank (financial institution) IPA(key): /ˈbɑŋˀɡ/ Borrowed from French banque, from Italian banco (“bench”). bank c (singular definite banken, plural indefinite banker) bank (financial institution, branch office, controller of a game, a safe and guaranteed place of storage) bankanvisning bankier bankør → Faroese: banki → Greenlandic: banki → Icelandic: banki From German Bank (“bench”). bank c only used in certain expressions over en bank bank n (singular definite banket, plural indefinite bank) knock (an abrupt rapping sound) (pl) a beating (beating): tæsk, tæv bank imperative of banke “bank” in Den Danske Ordbog IPA(key): /bɑŋk/ Hyphenation: bank Rhymes: -ɑŋk From Middle Dutch banc, from Old Dutch *bank, from Proto-West Germanic *banki, from Proto-Germanic *bankiz. bank f (plural banken, diminutive bankje n) bench Ik zit graag op die bank in het park. ― I like sitting on that bench in the park. Zet die bloemen op het bankje naast de deur. ― Put those flowers on the little bench next to the door. De oude mannen zaten op de banken en praatten. ― The old men sat on the benches and talked. (Netherlands) couch, sofa Synonym: sofa We hebben een nieuwe bank gekocht voor de woonkamer. ― We bought a new couch for the living room. Het bankje is perfect voor de kinderkamer. ― The little sofa is perfect for the kids' room. De banken in die winkel zijn erg comfortabel. ― The couches in that store are very comfortable. place where seashells are found shallow part of the sea near the coast Afrikaans: bank Javindo: bang Negerhollands: bank, banki → Lokono: bañka → Papiamentu: banki → Sranan Tongo: bangi → Aukan: bangi → Caribbean Hindustani: bángi → Caribbean Javanese: bangi → Kari'na: bangi → Saramaccan: bángi From Middle Dutch banc, from Italian banco, from Old High German bank, from Proto-West Germanic *banki, from Proto-Germanic *bankiz, related to Etymology 1 above. bank f (plural banken, diminutive bankje n) A bank (financial institution) Ik moet naar de bank om wat geld op te nemen. ― I need to go to the bank to withdraw some money. Het bankje in het dorp is elke zondag gesloten. ― The small bank in the village is closed every Sunday. De banken zijn gesloten op nationale feestdagen. ― The banks are closed on national holidays. (games, gambling) The bank, a player who controls a deposit in some card games or board games and in gambling A banknote, especially 100 Dutch guilders (also in the diminutives bankie or bankje.) A bank, collection and/or repository. Afrikaans: bank → Aukan: banku → Caribbean Hindustani: bánk → Malay: bank Indonesian: bank → Central Dusun: bank → Central Melanau: bank → Makasar: bank → Javanese: bang → Sundanese: bank → Papiamentu: banki (dated) → Saramaccan: bánku → Sranan Tongo: bangi → Trió: banku → West Frisian: bank From German Bank, from Italian banca. IPA(key): [ˈbɒŋk] Rhymes: -ɒŋk bank (plural bankok) bank (financial institution) Synonym: pénzintézet (gambling) bank (the sum of money etc. which the dealer or banker has as a fund from which to draw stakes and pay losses) bank in Bárczi, Géza and László Országh. A magyar nyelv értelmező szótára (‘The Explanatory Dictionary of the Hungarian Language’, abbr.: ÉrtSz.). Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó, 1959–1962. Fifth ed., 1992: →ISBN bank in Ittzés, Nóra (ed.). A magyar nyelv nagyszótára (‘A Comprehensive Dictionary of the Hungarian Language’). Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó, 2006–2031 (work in progress; published A–ez as of 2024) Back-formation from banka (“to knock, to beat”). IPA(key): /pauŋ̊k/ Rhymes: -auŋ̊k bank n (genitive singular banks, no plural) knock, blow Unadapted borrowing from Dutch bank (“bank”). Doublet of bangku. IPA(key): /baŋ/ Hyphenation: bank Homophone: bang bank bank: an institution where one can place and borrow money and take care of financial affairs. a safe and guaranteed place of storage for and retrieval of important items or goods. perbankan “bank” in Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia, Jakarta: Agency for Language Development and Cultivation – Ministry of Education, Culture, Research, and Technology of the Republic of Indonesia, 2016. Borrowed from English bank, spelled earlier as beng and بيڠک. Doublet of bangku. IPA(key): /bɛŋk/, /baŋk/ Rhymes: -ɛŋk, -aŋk Hyphenation: bèngk, bangk bank (Jawi spelling بڠک, plural bank-bank, informal 1st possessive bankku, 2nd possessive bankmu, 3rd possessive banknya) A bank: An institution that offers various financial services. A stock or reserve of something for use when it is needed. bank darah ― blood bank “bank” in Pusat Rujukan Persuratan Melayu | Malay Literary Reference Centre, Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, 2017. Borrowed from Italian banco. IPA(key): /bank/ bank m (plural banek) bank (financial building or institution) Synonym: mislef bank (an underwater area of higher elevation, a sandbank) bank m (plural bankijiet, diminutive bnajjak or banketta) bench counter (table or board on which business is transacted) worktable judge's seat From Old English hōbanca (“couch”) and Old English banc (“bank, hillock, embankment”), from Proto-Germanic *bankô. Akin to Old Norse bakki (“elevation, hill”), Norwegian bakke (“slope, hill”). bank (plural banks) the bank of a river or lake English: bank “bank(e, n.(1).”, in MED Online, Ann Arbor, Mich.: University of Michigan, 2007. IPA(key): /bɑŋk/ Borrowed from French banque, from Italian banco (“bench”), banca. bank m (definite singular banken, indefinite plural banker, definite plural bankene) a bank (financial institution) From the verb banke. bank m (definite singular banken, indefinite plural banker, definite plural bankene) a beat, knock, throb hjertebank bank imperative of banke “bank” in The Bokmål Dictionary. “bank_4” in Det Norske Akademis ordbok (NAOB). “bank_5” in Det Norske Akademis ordbok (NAOB). Borrowed from French banque, from Italian banco (“bench”), banca. IPA(key): /bɑŋk/ bank m (definite singular banken, indefinite plural bankar, definite plural bankane) a bank (financial institution) “bank” in The Nynorsk Dictionary. panch From Proto-West Germanic *banki. bank f bench Middle High German: banc, bank Bavarian: Bånk German: Bank→ Danish: bank→ Norwegian Bokmål: bank Luxembourgish: Bänk Pennsylvania German: Bank → Old French: banc French: banc (see there for further descendants) Norman: banc → Middle English: bank, banke English: bank (see there for further descendants) → Galician: banco → Spanish: banco (see there for further descendants) → Old Italian: banco, banca Italian: banco, banca (see there for further descendants) ⇒ Italian: banchetto (see there for further descendants) → Byzantine Greek: πάγκος (pánkos) Greek: πάγκος (págkos) → Middle French: banque (see there for further descendants) → German: Bank (see there for further descendants) → Medieval Latin: bancus, banca Internationalism; compare English bank. Possibly borrowed from Italian banco via German Bank, or borrowed from English bank via French banque, ultimately from Lombardic bank (“bench, counter”), from Proto-West Germanic *banki, from Proto-Germanic *bankiz (“bench, counter”), from Proto-Indo-European *bʰeg- (“to turn, curve, bend, bow”). Doublet of bankiet. IPA(key): /baŋk/ Rhymes: -aŋk Syllabification: bank bank m inan bank (financial building, institution, or staff) bank centralny ― central bank bank emisyjny ― issuing bank bank hipoteczny ― mortgage bank bank inwestycyjny ― investment bank bank komercyjny ― commercial bank bank (a safe and guaranteed place of storage for and retrieval of important items or goods) bank danych ― databank bank genów ― gene bank bank czasu ― time bank bank energii/powerbank ― powerbank bank spermy ― sperm bank (gambling, card games) bank (a fund of pieces from which the players are allowed to draw) trzymać bank ― to keep bank bank in Wielki słownik języka polskiego, Instytut Języka Polskiego PAN bank in Polish dictionaries at PWN bánk inflection of bánka: genitive dual genitive plural From Dutch bank, German Bank or Low German bank, all from Italian banco, from Old High German banc, from Proto-West Germanic *banki, from Proto-Germanic *bankiz. IPA(key): /ˈbaŋːk/ bank c a bank (financial institution, branch of such an institution) a bank (place of storage) a bank (of a river of lake) a sandbank → Elfdalian: baunka → Finnish: pankki bank in Svenska Akademiens ordbok (SAOB) Borrowed from French banc. IPA(key): /ˈbaŋk/ Hyphenation: bank bank (definite accusative bankı, plural banklar) bench (long seat) bank (definite accusative banky, plural banklar) bank bank (nominative plural banks) bank (financial institution)

bank

BANK (art collective) (wikipedia)

BANK was an artists' group active in London during the 1990s. == History and project == Simon Bedwell and John Russell spent a few years on sporadic art events and fake mailout-only 'shows' in the years after leaving St Martins artschool, then in 1991 organised their first proper show, with fellow ex-St Martins friend Dino Demosthenous, in an ex-Barclays on Lewisham Way, South London; this is where the name BANK came from. Dino Demosthenous left in 1992. In 1993, Russell and Bedwell were joined by Milly Thompson, David Burrows and Andrew Williamson (Bedwell, Burrows and Williamson having worked as a group sporadically for the 2 years previously, with shows at Richard Demarco gallery Edinburgh, and Clove 2, London). Burrows left BANK in 1995, Williamson in 1998, Russell in 2000. When BANK's own gallery, Gallerie Poo Poo, closed after the three-day show Press Release in January 1999, the group began to exhibit their collective work in other venues: The Mayor Gallery, London, Magasin 4, Bregenz, Rupert Goldsworthy Gallery, New York, Anthony Wilkinson Gallery, London, Chapman FineARTS, London, Suburban, Chicago, and finally the inaugural show at Store, London, after which Milly Thompson and Simon Bedwell began to work separately as artists whilst managing the BANK archive. BANK works have continued to circulate in exhibitions in the UK and abroad, most recently in The Banquet Years, a mini-retrospective at MOT International, London, who now represent the 'estate' of BANK as well as Bedwell and Russell. BANK's contribution to UK contemporary art was a series of curated group shows, often with comical, and sometimes offensive, titles. As a group they adopted an aggressive stance towards the mainstream contemporary art scene of the time. The approximately twenty shows curated by BANK included the work of the BANK artists alongside the work of several future Turner Prize nominees and winners. Although the BANK exhibitions were mostly held in warehouse spaces on Curtain Road, then Underwood Street (both Shoreditch, London) the name of the gallery changed. Initially it was BANKSPACE, then DOG, and finally Gallerie Poo-Poo. The various artworks were bound together, via polemical mailouts, deliberately overt thematizing and radically non-hierarchical methods of display, within single sprawling installations with a penchant for what then seemed like visual vulgarity. BANK also published a satirical magazine delivering tabloid-style critiques of the art world. Headlines included, "AD MAN YOU’RE A BAD MAN," and, "GALLERIES 'ALL OWNED BY RICH PEOPLE' SHOCK." Other "frankly adolescent" headlines were "ARSE COUNCIL", "SIMON PATTERSON - ONE IDEA, EIGHT YEARS", "CARRY ON CURATING", "PIPPA-LOTTA-RIST-ACTION" and "SAM-TAYLOR WOULD-NOT" These 34 tabloids, along with the Fax-Back project - in which gallery press releases were returned to galleries with corrections and commentary - have since become BANK's best known work. Julian Stallabrass describes BANK’s activity as "the parodic creation of corporate identity at the centre of which (as their name suggests) is a noisy and constant reference to that matter of which the art world usually whispers: money." They had, according to Matthew Collings, a "surly, self-destructive, self-conscious, introspective attitude - combined...with critical intelligence and a flair for spotting weaknesses in the art system". === BANK SHOWS 1991–2003 === 2003 SIMON BEDWELL & MILLY THOMPSON Store, London ART IS HELL The Suburban, Chicago 2002 BANK Anthony Wilkinson Gallery, London CAPITULATER! Project, Dublin (solo BANK show/billboard) 2001 BANK Chapman Fine Arts, London, BANK Centre for Artist Books, University of Dundee 1999 PRESS RELEASE Gallerie Poo Poo, London PRESS RELEASE Rupert Goldsworthy Gallery, New York IF HOPE WAS A TIME MACHINE Magazin 4, Bregenz, Austria DEAD LIFE Mayor Gallery, London 1998 WHITE3 (BANK, Bethan Huws) Gallerie Poo Poo, London WHITE3 (BANK, Art & Language), Gallerie Poo Poo, London WHITE3 (BANK, Lolly Batty), Gallerie Poo Poo, London STOP SHORT-CHANGING US. POPULAR CULTURE IS FOR IDIOTS. WE BELIEVE IN ART! Gallerie Poo Poo, London GALLERIE WINNER (BANK, Wayne Lloyd) Gallerie Poo Poo, London CONFERENCE Waygood Gallery, Newcastle 1997 SEWAGE LUST ICA (Nash&Brandon Rooms), London JESUS WAS A JEW The Works, Berlin,Germany MASK OF GOLD (Christy Astuy, Bank, David Burrows, Roddy Thomson & the Lowe Brothers, Margarita Gluzberg, Mark Jones, Peter Seymour, Eric Wright) Gallerie Poo Poo, London WINKLE THE POT BELLIED PIG AND HIS WOODLAND CHUMS (Bank, Jake & Dinos Chapman, Minimal Club, John Cussans & Ranu Mukhergee, Michelle Griffiths, Russell Haswell) Gallerie Poo Poo, London & Bricks and Kicks, Vienna IT'S A STITCH-UP! DOG, London GOD (Liz Arnold, BANK) DOG, London 1996 DOG-U-MENTAL VIII!!! (Terry Atkinson, Bank, Dave Beech, David Burrows, Carina Diepens, Keith Farquar, Rebecca Howard, Michael Kay, Graham Ramsay, Fergal Stapleton, John Stezaker, Milly Thompson, Rebecca Warren, Wayne Winner) DOG, London Viper/BANK TV (130 artists incl. Liz Arnold, Dave Beech, David Burrows, Tracey Emin, Kenneth Hay/Seetha A (Moorland Productions), Michael Kay, Leeds United, Beagles & Ramsay, Orphan Drift, Bob & Roberta Smith, Martin Vincent, Wayne Winner) DOG, London/Dukes Bar, Manchester F**K OFF! (BANK, Lolly Batty, Gavin Turk, Rebecca Warren) DOG, London BANKcatalogue THE HAPPY SQUIRREL CLUB (Liz Arnold, BANK, Anke Dessin, Stephen Glynn, Roddy Thompson/Colin Lowe, Neil Miller, Matt Mitchell, Mike Nelson, Peter Newman, Stephen Nicolas/Stephen Caley, Orphan Drift, Rebecca Warren) De Fabriek, Eindhoven, Netherlands 1995 COCAINE ORGASM (Tim Allen, Liz Arnold, (Maxine Boobyer?), Bank, Lolly Batty, Dave Beech, Simon Bill, John Cussans & Ranu Mukhergee, Stephen Glynn, Gerard Hemsworth, Simon Martin/Anna Mossman, Soren Martinsen, Muntean/Rosenblum, Chris Ofili, Janette Parris, John Stezaker, Michael Stubbs, Jessicca Voorsanger, Rebecca Warren, Max Wigram, Andrew Williamson) BANKSPACE, London THE CHARGE OF THE LIGHT BRIGADE (BANK, Simon Bedwell, John Cussans & Colin Lane, Matthew Higgs, 0rphan.drift>, Ingrid Pollard, Bob & Roberta Smith), BANKSPACE, London ZOMBIE GOLF (BANK, Dave Beech, Adam Chodzko, Maria Cook, Martin Creed, Peter Doig, Matthew Higgs, Sivan Lewin, John Stezaker), BANKSPACE, London 1994 WISH YOU WERE HERE (Simon Bedwell, Sonia Boyce, David Burrows, The Cabinet Gallery, Lucy Gunning, Anne Lislegaard, Matt Mitchell, Ian Pratt, John Russell, Bob & Roberta Smith, Milly Thompson, Andrew Williamson, cur Bank), BANKSPACE, London & Newcastle 1993 NATURAL HISTORY (Simon Bedwell, David Burrows, John Russell, Milly Thompson, John Timberlake, Andrew Williamson) Battlebridge Centre, 2 - 6 Battlebridge Road, London NW1 1992 SPACE INTERNATIONAL (Simon Bedwell, Luis Contreras, Dino Demosthenous, Valentine Figueros, Esther McLaughlin, Susanna Medina, Derek Ogbourne, Jim Russell, John Russell, Stephen Park, Clifton Steinberg, John Timberlake, Battlebridge Centre, 2-6 Battlebridge Road, London NW1 & El Dientes Del Tiempo Gallery, Valencia, Spain CHLORINE (Simon Bedwell, Dino Demosthenous, Julia Judge, Michael Rohde, John Russell, Carol Smith, Christopher Winter, Marshall Street Leisure Centre. Soho, London 1991 BANK (Simon Bedwell, Dino Demosthenous, John Russell, Carole Smith, Christopher Winter) ex-Barclays Bank, 239 Lewisham Way, London == Selected exhibitions since 2003 == 2013 THE BANQUET YEARS MOT International, London 2012 SELF PORTRAIT: RELICS AND ARCHIVES Treize, Paris WRITER IN RESIDENCE Ormeston House, Limerick, Eire 2010 RUDE BRITTANNIA: BRITISH COMIC ART Tate Britain, London GRAND NATIONAL: ART FROM BRITAIN Vestfossen Kunstlaboratorium, Vestfossen, Norway PUBLIC SERVICE ANNOUNCEMENT Invisible Exports, New York EAST END PROMISE: SHOREDITCH 1985-2000 Red Gallery London SO BE IT:INTERVENTIONS IN PRINTED MATTER Roth, NY GALLERY, GALERIE, GALLERIA Norma Mangione Gallery, Turin 2009 IN NUMBERS: SERIAL PUBLICATIONS BY ARTISTS X Initiative, New York THE MIND OF THIS DEATH IS UNRELENTINGLY AWAKE Office for Contemporary Art, Oslo, Norway. FAX The Drawing Center, New York; Contemporary Museum, Baltimore THE LITTLE SHOP ON HOXTON STREET Limoncello, London 2008 LESS IS LESS, MORE IS MORE, THAT'S ALL CAPC Bordeaux AIR KISSING Arcadia University Art Gallery, Philadelphia EXACT IMAGINATION CCAD Canzani Center Gallery, Columbus, Ohio 2006 FAX-BACKS Dolores/de Bruijne Projects, Amsterdam BRING THE WAR HOME Elizabeth Dee Gallery, New York & QED Gallery, Los Angeles 2005 STILL LIFE Museo de Arte Contemporáneo, Panama City: Museo de Arte Moderna, Guatemala City; SESI, São Paulo, Museo de Arte de Lima, Lima MAC, Niteroi, Rio de Janeiro 2003 FRASS UBS Bullion Vault, London DID YOU HEAR ABOUT THAT FROG WHO WANTED TO BE A PRINCE? HE WENT TO A BED AND DREAMED THAT HE WAS ONE... WOKE UP AND FOUND THAT HE HAD BECOME ONE. HE WAS STILL A FROG Club Egg, London FORGETKULT The McAllister Institute, New York SUBSCRIBE: RECENTART IN PRINT Center for Curatorial Studies, Bard College, New York NIHILISM/FAITH 47 Paul St, London CHOKKABLOKKA Jeffrey Charles Gallery, London STILL LIFE Museo de Belles Artes, Museo de Arte Carrillo Gill, Mexico City Caraccas & Biblioteca Luis Angel Arango, Bogota cat == References == == External links == Art in America review of BANK at Gallerie Poo-Poo, February, 1999 BANK timeline 'Robert Prime gallery got BANK’d. Stephen Friedman gallery got BANK’d', ADP magazine, 4 November 2009.

BANK was an artists' group active in London during the 1990s.

bank

Bank (wikipedia)

A bank is a financial institution that accepts deposits from the public and creates a demand deposit while simultaneously making loans. Lending activities can be directly performed by the bank or indirectly through capital markets. Whereas banks play an important role in financial stability and the economy of a country, most jurisdictions exercise a high degree of regulation over banks. Most countries have institutionalized a system known as fractional-reserve banking, under which banks hold liquid assets equal to only a portion of their current liabilities. In addition to other regulations intended to ensure liquidity, banks are generally subject to minimum capital requirements based on an international set of capital standards, the Basel Accords. Banking in its modern sense evolved in the fourteenth century in the prosperous cities of Renaissance Italy but, in many ways, functioned as a continuation of ideas and concepts of credit and lending that had their roots in the ancient world. In the history of banking, a number of banking dynasties – notably, the Medicis, the Fuggers, the Welsers, the Berenbergs, and the Rothschilds – have played a central role over many centuries. The oldest existing retail bank is Banca Monte dei Paschi di Siena (founded in 1472), while the oldest existing merchant bank is Berenberg Bank (founded in 1590). == History == Banking as an archaic activity (or quasi-banking) is thought to have begun as early as the end of the 4th millennium BCE, to the 3rd millennia BCE. === Medieval === The present era of banking can be traced to medieval and early Renaissance Italy, to the rich cities in the centre and north like Florence, Lucca, Siena, Venice and Genoa. The Bardi and Peruzzi families dominated banking in 14th-century Florence, establishing branches in many other parts of Europe. Giovanni di Bicci de' Medici set up one of the most famous Italian banks, the Medici Bank, in 1397. The Republic of Genoa founded the earliest-known state deposit bank, and Banco di San Giorgio (Bank of St. George), in 1407 at Genoa, Italy. === Early modern === Fractional reserve banking and the issue of banknotes emerged in the 17th and 18th centuries. Merchants started to store their gold with the goldsmiths of London, who possessed private vaults, and who charged a fee for that service. In exchange for each deposit of precious metal, the goldsmiths issued receipts certifying the quantity and purity of the metal they held as a bailee; these receipts could not be assigned, only the original depositor could collect the stored goods. Gradually the goldsmiths began to lend money out on behalf of the depositor, and promissory notes, which evolved into banknotes, were issued for money deposited as a loan to the goldsmith. Thus, by the 19th century, we find in ordinary cases of deposits, of money with banking corporations, or bankers, the transaction amounts to a mere loan, or mutuum, and the bank is to restore, not the same money, but an equivalent sum, whenever it is demanded and money, when paid into a bank, ceases altogether to be the money of the principal (see Parker v. Marchant, 1 Phillips 360); it is then the money of the banker, who is bound to return an equivalent, by paying a similar sum to that deposited with him, when he is asked for it. The goldsmith paid interest on deposits. Since the promissory notes were payable on demand, and the advances (loans) to the goldsmith's customers were repayable over a longer time-period, this was an early form of fractional reserve banking. The promissory notes developed into an assignable instrument which could circulate as a safe and convenient form of money backed by the goldsmith's promise to pay, allowing goldsmiths to advance loans with little risk of default. Thus the goldsmiths of London became the forerunners of banking by creating new money based on credit. The Bank of England originated the permanent issue of banknotes in 1695. The Royal Bank of Scotland established the first overdraft facility in 1728. By the beginning of the 19th century Lubbock's Bank had established a bankers' clearing house in London to allow multiple banks to clear transactions. The Rothschilds pioneered international finance on a large scale, financing the purchase of shares in the Suez canal for the British government in 1875. == Etymology == The word bank was taken into Middle English from Middle French banque, from Old Italian banco, meaning "table", from Old High German banc, bank "bench, counter". Benches were used as makeshift desks or exchange counters during the Renaissance by Florentine bankers, who used to make their transactions atop desks covered by green tablecloths. == Definition == The definition of a bank varies from country to country. See the relevant country pages for more information. Under English common law, a banker is defined as a person who carries on the business of banking by conducting current accounts for their customers, paying cheques drawn on them and also collecting cheques for their customers. In most common law jurisdictions there is a Bills of Exchange Act that codifies the law in relation to negotiable instruments, including cheques, and this Act contains a statutory definition of the term banker: banker includes a body of persons, whether incorporated or not, who carry on the business of banking' (Section 2, Interpretation). Although this definition seems circular, it is actually functional, because it ensures that the legal basis for bank transactions such as cheques does not depend on how the bank is structured or regulated. The business of banking is in many common law countries not defined by statute but by common law, the definition above. In other English common law jurisdictions there are statutory definitions of the business of banking or banking business. When looking at these definitions it is important to keep in mind that they are defining the business of banking for the purposes of the legislation, and not necessarily in general. In particular, most of the definitions are from legislation that has the purpose of regulating and supervising banks rather than regulating the actual business of banking. However, in many cases, the statutory definition closely mirrors the common law one. Examples of statutory definitions: "banking business" means the business of receiving money on current or deposit account, paying and collecting cheques drawn by or paid in by customers, the making of advances to customers, and includes such other business as the Authority may prescribe for the purposes of this Act; (Banking Act (Singapore), Section 2, Interpretation). "banking business" means the business of either or both of the following: receiving from the general public money on current, deposit, savings or other similar account repayable on demand or within less than [3 months] ... or with a period of call or notice of less than that period; paying or collecting cheques drawn by or paid in by customers. Since the advent of EFTPOS (Electronic Funds Transfer at Point Of Sale), direct credit, direct debit and internet banking, the cheque has lost its primacy in most banking systems as a payment instrument. This has led legal theorists to suggest that the cheque based definition should be broadened to include financial institutions that conduct current accounts for customers and enable customers to pay and be paid by third parties, even if they do not pay and collect cheques . === Standard business === Banks act as payment agents by conducting checking or current accounts for customers, paying cheques drawn by customers in the bank, and collecting cheques deposited to customers' current accounts. Banks also enable customer payments via other payment methods such as Automated Clearing House (ACH), Wire transfers or telegraphic transfer, EFTPOS, and automated teller machines (ATMs). Banks borrow money by accepting funds deposited on current accounts, by accepting term deposits, and by issuing debt securities such as banknotes and bonds. Banks lend money by making advances to customers on current accounts, by making installment loans, and by investing in marketable debt securities and other forms of money lending. Banks provide different payment services, and a bank account is considered indispensable by most businesses and individuals. Non-banks that provide payment services such as remittance companies are normally not considered as an adequate substitute for a bank account. Banks issue new money when they make loans. In contemporary banking systems, regulators set a minimum level of reserve funds that banks must hold against the deposit liabilities created by the funding of these loans, in order to ensure that the banks can meet demands for payment of such deposits. These reserves can be acquired through the acceptance of new deposits, sale of other assets, or borrowing from other banks including the central bank. === Range of activities === Activities undertaken by banks include personal banking, corporate banking, investment banking, private banking, transaction banking, insurance, consumer finance, trade finance and other related. === Channels === Banks offer many different channels to access their banking and other services: Branch, in-person banking in a retail location Automated teller machine banking adjacent to or remote from the bank Bank by mail: Most banks accept cheque deposits via mail and use mail to communicate to their customers Online banking over the Internet to perform multiple types of transactions Mobile banking is using one's mobile phone to conduct banking transactions Telephone banking allows customers to conduct transactions over the telephone with an automated attendant, or when requested, with a telephone operator Video banking performs banking transactions or professional banking consultations via a remote video and audio connection. Video banking can be performed via purpose built banking transaction machines (similar to an Automated teller machine) or via a video conference enabled bank branch clarification Relationship manager, mostly for private banking or business banking, who visits customers at their homes or businesses Direct Selling Agent, who works for the bank based on a contract, whose main job is to increase the customer base for the bank === Business models === A bank can generate revenue in a variety of different ways including interest, transaction fees and financial advice. Traditionally, the most significant method is via charging interest on the capital it lends out to customers. The bank profits from the difference between the level of interest it pays for deposits and other sources of funds, and the level of interest it charges in its lending activities. This difference is referred to as the spread between the cost of funds and the loan interest rate. Historically, profitability from lending activities has been cyclical and dependent on the needs and strengths of loan customers and the stage of the economic cycle. Fees and financial advice constitute a more stable revenue stream and banks have therefore placed more emphasis on these revenue lines to smooth their financial performance. In the past 20 years, American banks have taken many measures to ensure that they remain profitable while responding to increasingly changing market conditions. First, this includes the Gramm–Leach–Bliley Act, which allows banks again to merge with investment and insurance houses. Merging banking, investment, and insurance functions allows traditional banks to respond to increasing consumer demands for "one-stop shopping" by enabling cross-selling of products (which, the banks hope, will also increase profitability). Second, they have expanded the use of risk-based pricing from business lending to consumer lending, which means charging higher interest rates to those customers that are considered to be a higher credit risk and thus increased chance of default on loans. This helps to offset the losses from bad loans, lowers the price of loans to those who have better credit histories, and offers credit products to high risk customers who would otherwise be denied credit. Third, they have sought to increase the methods of payment processing available to the general public and business clients. These products include debit cards, prepaid cards, smart cards, and credit cards. They make it easier for consumers to conveniently make transactions and smooth their consumption over time (in some countries with underdeveloped financial systems, it is still common to deal strictly in cash, including carrying suitcases filled with cash to purchase a home). However, with the convenience of easy credit, there is also an increased risk that consumers will mismanage their financial resources and accumulate excessive debt. Banks make money from card products through interest charges and fees charged to credit and debit card holders, and transaction fees to retailers who accept the bank's cards for payments. This helps in making a profit and facilitates economic development as a whole. Recently, as banks have been faced with pressure from fintechs, new and additional business models have been suggested such as freemium, monetisation of data, white-labeling of banking and payment applications, or the cross-selling of complementary products. === Products === ==== Retail ==== ATM card Credit card Debit card Savings account Recurring deposit account Fixed deposit account Money market account Certificate of deposit (CD) Individual retirement account (IRA) Mortgage Mutual fund Personal loan (Secured and Unsecured Personal loan) Time deposits Current accounts Cheque books Automated teller machine (ATM) National Electronic Fund Transfer (NEFT) Real-time gross settlement (RTGS) ==== Business (or commercial/investment) banking ==== Business loan Capital raising (equity / debt / hybrids) Revolving credit Risk management (foreign exchange (FX), interest rates, commodities, derivatives) Term loan Cash management services (lock box, remote deposit capture, merchant processing) Credit services Securities Services == Capital and risk == Banks face a number of risks in order to conduct their business, and how well these risks are managed and understood is a key driver behind profitability, and how much capital a bank is required to hold. Bank capital consists principally of equity, retained earnings and subordinated debt. Some of the main risks faced by banks include: Credit risk: risk of loss arising from a borrower who does not make payments as promised. Liquidity risk: risk that a given security or asset cannot be traded quickly enough in the market to prevent a loss (or make the required profit). Market risk: risk that the value of a portfolio, either an investment portfolio or a trading portfolio, will decrease due to the change in value of the market risk factors. Operational risk: risk arising from the execution of a company's business functions. Reputational risk: a type of risk related to the trustworthiness of the business. Macroeconomic risk: risks related to the aggregate economy the bank is operating in. The capital requirement is a bank regulation, which sets a framework within which a bank or depository institution must manage its balance sheet. The categorisation of assets and capital is highly standardised so that it can be risk weighted. After the financial crisis of 2007–2008, regulators force banks to issue Contingent convertible bonds (CoCos). These are hybrid capital securities that absorb losses in accordance with their contractual terms when the capital of the issuing bank falls below a certain level. Then debt is reduced and bank capitalisation gets a boost. Owing to their capacity to absorb losses, CoCos have the potential to satisfy regulatory capital requirement. == Banks in the economy == === Economic functions === The economic functions of banks include: Issue of money, in the form of banknotes and current accounts subject to cheque or payment at the customer's order. These claims on banks can act as money because they are negotiable or repayable on demand, and hence valued at par. They are effectively transferable by mere delivery, in the case of banknotes, or by drawing a cheque that the payee may bank or cash. Netting and settlement of payments – banks act as both collection and paying agents for customers, participating in interbank clearing and settlement systems to collect, present, be presented with, and pay payment instruments. This enables banks to economise on reserves held for settlement of payments since inward and outward payments offset each other. It also enables the offsetting of payment flows between geographical areas, reducing the cost of settlement between them. Credit quality improvement – banks lend money to ordinary commercial and personal borrowers (ordinary credit quality), but are high quality borrowers. The improvement comes from diversification of the bank's assets and capital which provides a buffer to absorb losses without defaulting on its obligations. However, banknotes and deposits are generally unsecured; if the bank gets into difficulty and pledges assets as security, to raise the funding it needs to continue to operate, this puts the note holders and depositors in an economically subordinated position. Asset liability mismatch/Maturity transformation – banks borrow more on demand debt and short term debt, but provide more long-term loans. In other words, they borrow short and lend long. With a stronger credit quality than most other borrowers, banks can do this by aggregating issues (e.g. accepting deposits and issuing banknotes) and redemptions (e.g. withdrawals and redemption of banknotes), maintaining reserves of cash, investing in marketable securities that can be readily converted to cash if needed, and raising replacement funding as needed from various sources (e.g. wholesale cash markets and securities markets). Money creation/destruction – whenever a bank gives out a loan in a fractional-reserve banking system, a new sum of money is created and conversely, whenever the principal on that loan is repaid money is destroyed. == Bank crisis == Banks are susceptible to many forms of risk which have triggered occasional systemic crises. These include liquidity risk (where many depositors may request withdrawals in excess of available funds), credit risk (the chance that those who owe money to the bank will not repay it), and interest rate risk (the possibility that the bank will become unprofitable, if rising interest rates force it to pay relatively more on its deposits than it receives on its loans). Banking crises have developed many times throughout history when one or more risks have emerged for the banking sector as a whole. Prominent examples include the bank run that occurred during the Great Depression, the U.S. Savings and Loan crisis in the 1980s and early 1990s, the Japanese banking crisis during the 1990s, and the sub-prime mortgage crisis in the 2000s. The 2023 global banking crisis is the latest of these crises: In March 2023, liquidity shortages and bank insolvencies led to three bank failures in the United States, and within two weeks, several of the world's largest banks failed or were shut down by regulators === Size of global banking industry === Assets of the largest 1,000 banks in the world grew by 6.8% in the 2008–2009 financial year to a record US$96.4 trillion while profits declined by 85% to US$115 billion. Growth in assets in adverse market conditions was largely a result of recapitalisation. EU banks held the largest share of the total, 56% in 2008–2009, down from 61% in the previous year. Asian banks' share increased from 12% to 14% during the year, while the share of US banks increased from 11% to 13%. Fee revenue generated by global investment in banking totalled US$66.3 billion in 2009, up 12% on the previous year. The United States has the most banks in the world in terms of institutions (5,330 as of 2015) and possibly branches (81,607 as of 2015). This is an indicator of the geography and regulatory structure of the US, resulting in a large number of small to medium-sized institutions in its banking system. As of November 2009, China's top four banks have in excess of 67,000 branches (ICBC:18000+, BOC:12000+, CCB:13000+, ABC:24000+) with an additional 140 smaller banks with an undetermined number of branches. Japan had 129 banks and 12,000 branches. In 2004, Germany, France, and Italy each had more than 30,000 branches – more than double the 15,000 branches in the United Kingdom. === Mergers and acquisitions === Between 1985 and 2018 banks engaged in around 28,798 mergers or acquisitions, either as the acquirer or the target company. The overall known value of these deals cumulates to around 5,169 bil. USD. In terms of value, there have been two major waves (1999 and 2007) which both peaked at around 460 bil. USD followed by a steep decline (−82% from 2007 until 2018). Here is a list of the largest deals in history in terms of value with participation from at least one bank: == Regulation == Currently, commercial banks are regulated in most jurisdictions by government entities and require a special bank license to operate. Usually, the definition of the business of banking for the purposes of regulation is extended to include acceptance of deposits, even if they are not repayable to the customer's order – although money lending, by itself, is generally not included in the definition. Unlike most other regulated industries, the regulator is typically also a participant in the market, being either publicly or privately governed central bank. Central banks also typically have a monopoly on the business of issuing banknotes. However, in some countries, this is not the case. In the UK, for example, the Financial Services Authority licenses banks, and some commercial banks (such as the Bank of Scotland) issue their own banknotes in addition to those issued by the Bank of England, the UK government's central bank. Banking law is based on a contractual analysis of the relationship between the bank (defined above) and the customer – defined as any entity for which the bank agrees to conduct an account. The law implies rights and obligations into this relationship as follows: The bank account balance is the financial position between the bank and the customer: when the account is in credit, the bank owes the balance to the customer; when the account is overdrawn, the customer owes the balance to the bank. The bank agrees to pay the customer's checks up to the amount standing to the credit of the customer's account, plus any agreed overdraft limit. The bank may not pay from the customer's account without a mandate from the customer, e.g. a cheque drawn by the customer. The bank agrees to promptly collect the cheques deposited to the customer's account as the customer's agent and to credit the proceeds to the customer's account. And, the bank has a right to combine the customer's accounts since each account is just an aspect of the same credit relationship. The bank has a lien on cheques deposited to the customer's account, to the extent that the customer is indebted to the bank. The bank must not disclose details of transactions through the customer's account – unless the customer consents, there is a public duty to disclose, the bank's interests require it, or the law demands it. The bank must not close a customer's account without reasonable notice, since cheques are outstanding in the ordinary course of business for several days. These implied contractual terms may be modified by express agreement between the customer and the bank. The statutes and regulations in force within a particular jurisdiction may also modify the above terms or create new rights, obligations, or limitations relevant to the bank-customer relationship. Some types of financial institutions, such as building societies and credit unions, may be partly or wholly exempt from bank license requirements, and therefore regulated under separate rules. The requirements for the issue of a bank license vary between jurisdictions but typically include: Minimum capital Minimum capital ratio 'Fit and Proper' requirements for the bank's controllers, owners, directors, or senior officers Approval of the bank's business plan as being sufficiently prudent and plausible. == Different types of banking == Banks' activities can be divided into: retail banking, dealing directly with individuals and small businesses; business banking, providing services to mid-market business; corporate banking, directed at large business entities; private banking, providing wealth management services to high-net-worth individuals and families; investment banking, relating to activities on the financial markets. Most banks are profit-making, private enterprises. However, some are owned by the government, or are non-profit organisations. === Types of banks === Commercial banks: the term used for a normal bank to distinguish it from an investment bank. After the Great Depression, the U.S. Congress required that banks only engage in banking activities, whereas investment banks were limited to capital market activities. Since the two no longer have to be under separate ownership, some use the term "commercial bank" to refer to a bank or a division of a bank that mostly deals with deposits and loans from corporations or large businesses. Community banks: locally operated financial institutions that empower employees to make local decisions to serve their customers and partners. Community development banks: regulated banks that provide financial services and credit to under-served markets or populations. Land development banks: The special banks providing long-term loans are called land development banks (LDB). The history of LDB is quite old. The first LDB was started at Jhang in Punjab in 1920. The main objective of the LDBs is to promote the development of land, agriculture and increase the agricultural production. The LDBs provide long-term finance to members directly through their branches. Credit unions or co-operative banks: not-for-profit cooperatives owned by the depositors and often offering rates more favourable than for-profit banks. Typically, membership is restricted to employees of a particular company, residents of a defined area, members of a certain union or religious organisations, and their immediate families. Postal savings banks: savings banks associated with national postal systems. Private banks: banks that manage the assets of high-net-worth individuals. Historically a minimum of US$1 million was required to open an account, however, over the last years, many private banks have lowered their entry hurdles to US$350,000 for private investors. Offshore banks: banks located in jurisdictions with low taxation and regulation. Many offshore banks are essentially private banks. Savings banks: in Europe, savings banks took their roots in the 19th or sometimes even in the 18th century. Their original objective was to provide easily accessible savings products to all strata of the population. In some countries, savings banks were created on public initiative; in others, socially committed individuals created foundations to put in place the necessary infrastructure. Nowadays, European savings banks have kept their focus on retail banking: payments, savings products, credits, and insurances for individuals or small and medium-sized enterprises. Apart from this retail focus, they also differ from commercial banks by their broadly decentralised distribution network, providing local and regional outreach – and by their socially responsible approach to business and society. Ethical banks: banks that prioritize the transparency of all operations and make only what they consider to be socially responsible investments. A direct or internet-only bank is a banking operation without any physical bank branches. Transactions are usually accomplished using ATMs and electronic transfers and direct deposits through an online interface. === Types of investment banks === Investment banks "underwrite" (guarantee the sale of) stock and bond issues, provide investment management, and advise corporations on capital market activities such as M&A, trade for their own accounts, make markets, provide securities services to institutional clients. Merchant banks were traditionally banks which engaged in trade finance. The modern definition, however, refers to banks which provide capital to firms in the form of shares rather than loans. Unlike venture caps, they tend not to invest in new companies. === Combination banks === Universal banks, more commonly known as financial services companies, engage in several of these activities. These big banks are very diversified groups that, among other services, also distribute insurance – hence the term bancassurance, a portmanteau word combining "banque or bank" and "assurance", signifying that both banking and insurance are provided by the same corporate entity. === Other types of banks === Central banks are normally government-owned and charged with quasi-regulatory responsibilities, such as supervising commercial banks, or controlling the cash interest rate. They generally provide liquidity to the banking system and act as the lender of last resort in event of a crisis. Islamic banks adhere to the concepts of Islamic law. This form of banking revolves around several well-established principles based on Islamic laws. All banking activities must avoid interest, a concept that is forbidden in Islam. Instead, the bank earns profit (markup) and fees on the financing facilities that it extends to customers. == Challenges within the banking industry == === United States === The United States banking industry is one of the most heavily regulated and guarded in the world, with multiple specialised and focused regulators. All banks with FDIC-insured deposits have the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) as a regulator. However, for soundness examinations (i.e., whether a bank is operating in a sound manner), the Federal Reserve is the primary federal regulator for Fed-member state banks; the Office of the Comptroller of the Currency (OCC) is the primary federal regulator for national banks. State non-member banks are examined by the state agencies as well as the FDIC.: 236  National banks have one primary regulator – the OCC. Each regulatory agency has its own set of rules and regulations to which banks and thrifts must adhere. The Federal Financial Institutions Examination Council (FFIEC) was established in 1979 as a formal inter-agency body empowered to prescribe uniform principles, standards, and report forms for the federal examination of financial institutions. Although the FFIEC has resulted in a greater degree of regulatory consistency between the agencies, the rules and regulations are constantly changing. In addition to changing regulations, changes in the industry have led to consolidations within the Federal Reserve, FDIC, OTS, and OCC. Offices have been closed, supervisory regions have been merged, staff levels have been reduced and budgets have been cut. The remaining regulators face an increased burden with an increased workload and more banks per regulator. While banks struggle to keep up with the changes in the regulatory environment, regulators struggle to manage their workload and effectively regulate their banks. The impact of these changes is that banks are receiving less hands-on assessment by the regulators, less time spent with each institution, and the potential for more problems slipping through the cracks, potentially resulting in an overall increase in bank failures across the United States. The changing economic environment has a significant impact on banks and thrifts as they struggle to effectively manage their interest rate spread in the face of low rates on loans, rate competition for deposits and the general market changes, industry trends and economic fluctuations. It has been a challenge for banks to effectively set their growth strategies with the recent economic market. A rising interest rate environment may seem to help financial institutions, but the effect of the changes on consumers and businesses is not predictable and the challenge remains for banks to grow and effectively manage the spread to generate a return to their shareholders. The management of the banks' asset portfolios also remains a challenge in today's economic environment. Loans are a bank's primary asset category and when loan quality becomes suspect, the foundation of a bank is shaken to the core. While always an issue for banks, declining asset quality has become a big problem for financial institutions. There are several reasons for this, one of which is the lax attitude some banks have adopted because of the years of "good times." The potential for this is exacerbated by the reduction in the regulatory oversight of banks and in some cases depth of management. Problems are more likely to go undetected, resulting in a significant impact on the bank when they are discovered. In addition, banks, like any business, struggle to cut costs and have consequently eliminated certain expenses, such as adequate employee training programs. Banks also face a host of other challenges such as ageing ownership groups. Across the country, many banks' management teams and boards of directors are ageing. Banks also face ongoing pressure from shareholders, both public and private, to achieve earnings and growth projections. Regulators place added pressure on banks to manage the various categories of risk. Banking is also an extremely competitive industry. Competing in the financial services industry has become tougher with the entrance of such players as insurance agencies, credit unions, cheque cashing services, credit card companies, etc. As a reaction, banks have developed their activities in financial instruments, through financial market operations such as brokerage and have become big players in such activities. Another major challenge is the ageing infrastructure, also called legacy IT. Backend systems were built decades ago and are incompatible with new applications. Fixing bugs and creating interfaces costs huge sums, as knowledgeable programmers become scarce. === Loan activities of banks === To be able to provide home buyers and builders with the funds needed, banks must compete for deposits. The phenomenon of disintermediation had to dollars moving from savings accounts and into direct market instruments such as U.S. Department of Treasury obligations, agency securities, and corporate debt. One of the greatest factors in recent years in the movement of deposits was the tremendous growth of money market funds whose higher interest rates attracted consumer deposits. To compete for deposits, US savings institutions offer many different types of plans: Passbook or ordinary deposit accounts – permit any amount to be added to or withdrawn from the account at any time. NOW and Super NOW accounts – function like checking accounts but earn interest. A minimum balance may be required on Super NOW accounts. Money market accounts – carry a monthly limit of preauthorised transfers to other accounts or persons and may require a minimum or average balance. Certificate accounts – subject to loss of some or all interest on withdrawals before maturity. Notice accounts – the equivalent of certificate accounts with an indefinite term. Savers agree to notify the institution a specified time before withdrawal. Individual retirement accounts (IRAs) and Keogh plans – a form of retirement savings in which the funds deposited and interest earned are exempt from income tax until after withdrawal. Checking accounts – offered by some institutions under definite restrictions. All withdrawals and deposits are completely the sole decision and responsibility of the account owner unless the parent or guardian is required to do otherwise for legal reasons. Club accounts and other savings accounts – designed to help people save regularly to meet certain goals. == Types of accounts == Bank statements are accounting records produced by banks under the various accounting standards of the world. Under GAAP there are two kinds of accounts: debit and credit. Credit accounts are Revenue, Equity and Liabilities. Debit Accounts are Assets and Expenses. The bank credits a credit account to increase its balance, and debits a credit account to decrease its balance. The customer debits his or her savings/bank (asset) account in his ledger when making a deposit (and the account is normally in debit), while the customer credits a credit card (liability) account in his ledger every time he spends money (and the account is normally in credit). When the customer reads his bank statement, the statement will show a credit to the account for deposits, and debits for withdrawals of funds. The customer with a positive balance will see this balance reflected as a credit balance on the bank statement. If the customer is overdrawn, he will have a negative balance, reflected as a debit balance on the bank statement. === Brokered deposits === One source of deposits for banks is deposit brokers who deposit large sums of money on behalf of investors through trust corporations. This money will generally go to the banks which offer the most favourable terms, often better than those offered local depositors. It is possible for a bank to engage in business with no local deposits at all, all funds being brokered deposits. Accepting a significant quantity of such deposits, or "hot money" as it is sometimes called, puts a bank in a difficult and sometimes risky position, as the funds must be lent or invested in a way that yields a return sufficient to pay the high interest being paid on the brokered deposits. This may result in risky decisions and even in eventual failure of the bank. Banks which failed during 2008 and 2009 in the United States during the global financial crisis had, on average, four times more brokered deposits as a percent of their deposits than the average bank. Such deposits, combined with risky real estate investments, factored into the savings and loan crisis of the 1980s. Regulation of brokered deposits is opposed by banks on the grounds that the practice can be a source of external funding to growing communities with insufficient local deposits. There are different types of accounts: saving, recurring and current accounts. === Custodial accounts === Custodial accounts are accounts in which assets are held for a third party. For example, businesses that accept custody of funds for clients prior to their conversion, return, or transfer may have a custodial account at a bank for these purposes. == Globalisation in the banking industry == In modern times there have been huge reductions to the barriers of global competition in the banking industry. Increases in telecommunications and other financial technologies, such as Bloomberg, have allowed banks to extend their reach all over the world since they no longer have to be near customers to manage both their finances and their risk. The growth in cross-border activities has also increased the demand for banks that can provide various services across borders to different nationalities. Despite these reductions in barriers and growth in cross-border activities, the banking industry is nowhere near as globalised as some other industries. In the US, for instance, very few banks even worry about the Riegle–Neal Act, which promotes more efficient interstate banking. In the vast majority of nations around the globe, the market share for foreign owned banks is currently less than a tenth of all market shares for banks in a particular nation. One reason the banking industry has not been fully globalised is that it is more convenient to have local banks provide loans to small businesses and individuals. On the other hand, for large corporations, it is not as important in what nation the bank is in since the corporation's financial information is available around the globe. == See also == == References == == Further reading == Born, Karl Erich. International Banking in the 19th and 20th Centuries (St Martin's, 1983) online == External links == Guardian Datablog – World's Biggest Banks Banking, Banks, and Credit Unions from UCB Libraries GovPubs (archived 11 January 2012) A Guide to the National Banking System (PDF). Office of the Comptroller of the Currency (OCC), Washington, D.C. Provides an overview of the national banking system of the US, its regulation, and the OCC.

A bank is a financial institution that accepts deposits from the public and creates a demand deposit while simultaneously making loans. Lending activities can be directly performed by the bank or indirectly through capital markets. Whereas banks play an important role in financial stability and the economy of a country, most jurisdictions exercise a high degree of regulation over banks. Most countries have institutionalized a system known as fractional-reserve banking, under which banks hold liquid assets equal to only a portion of their current liabilities. In addition to other regulations intended to ensure liquidity, banks are generally subject to minimum capital requirements based on an international set of capital standards, the Basel Accords. Banking in its modern sense evolved in the fourteenth century in the prosperous cities of Renaissance Italy but, in many ways, functioned as a continuation of ideas and concepts of credit and lending that had their roots in the ancient world. In the history of banking, a number of banking dynasties – notably, the Medicis, the Fuggers, the Welsers, the Berenbergs, and the Rothschilds – have played a central role over many centuries. The oldest existing retail bank is Banca Monte dei Paschi di Siena (founded in 1472), while the oldest existing merchant bank is Berenberg Bank (founded in 1590).

bank

Bank (card game) (wikipedia)

Bank, also known also as Polish Bank or Russian Bank, is a comparing card game. The game requires a standard 52-card deck and five or six players. == Rules == At the start of the game, each player contributes an arranged stake to the pool. The dealer gives three cards to each player and turns up another; if this is not lower than an eight (ace is lowest), the dealer continues turning up cards until such a card is exposed. The player on the dealer's left, without touching or looking at the three cards received, can bet the amount of the pool, or any part of it, that among those cards is one that is higher (of the same suit) than the turn-up. If the player wins, the player takes the amount from the pool; if the player loses, the player pays that amount to the pool. Each player does the same in turn, the dealer last. Whenever the pool is exhausted, a fresh stake is put into the pool. After a round is over the deal passes. No player may touch any cards received until making a bet; the penalty is a fine to the pool of twice the stake, and the loss of the right to bet during that round. == References == Attribution This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Bank". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.

Bank, also known also as Polish Bank or Russian Bank, is a comparing card game. The game requires a standard 52-card deck and five or six players.

bank

Bank (disambiguation) (wikipedia)

A bank is a financial institution and a financial intermediary that accepts deposits and channels those deposits into lending activities. Bank, The Bank, or banking may also refer to: == Arts, entertainment, and media == === Films === DCI Banks, a British television crime drama, aired by ITV 2010-2016 Overdrawn at the Memory Bank, a 1983 telemovie The Bank (1915 film), starring Charlie Chaplin The Bank (2001 film), starring David Wenham === Music === "Bank", a 2017 song by Brockhampton from Saturation "Bank", a 2018 song by Lil Baby from Harder Than Ever === Other media === Memory Banks (comic strip), a British comic strip Memory Bank (UK game show), a daytime game show which was shown on Five in the UK == Finance == Central bank Mutual savings bank Piggy bank, a device for money saving Savings bank == Organizations == BANK (art collective), a 1990s London art collective Bank (diaper bank), organizations created for the purpose of distributing free diapers to parents and caregivers unable to afford diapers Bank Street College of Education, a private graduate school for Early Childhood Education in New York, NY, U.S. == Places == Bánk, a village and municipality in the comitat of Nógrád, Hungary Bank, Iran, a city in Bushehr Province, Iran The Bank, Cheshire, a location in England Bank junction, a major road junction in the City of London Bank Station (OC Transpo), a bus stop in Ottawa Bank Street (Ottawa), Ontario, Canada Bank–Monument station, a tube station in London Bankə, Azerbaijan Promysel Narimanova or Bank, Azerbaijan == Science and technology == === Computing === Data bank, a storage area for information in telecommunications Memory bank, a logical unit of storage === Biology and healthcare === Blood bank Gene bank Ova bank Seed bank Sperm bank === Natural geography === Bank (geography), a raised portion of seabed or sloping ground along the edge of a stream, river, or lake Ocean bank, a shallow area in a body of water === Transportation === Bank engine, a railway locomotive attached to the rear of a train, usually to add haulage power over a short distance Bank or roll, in aircraft flight dynamics, a rotation of the vehicle about its longitudinal axis Banked turn, a change of direction in which a vehicle inclines Cylinder bank, a single row of cylinders in an internal combustion engine == Sport == Bank shot, a type of shot in: Basketball Cue sports Citizens Bank Park or The Bank, a baseball stadium in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, U.S. M&T Bank Stadium or The Bank, an American football stadium in Baltimore, Maryland, U.S. Bank of America Stadium or The Bank, an American football stadium in Charlotte, North Carolina, U.S. == Other uses == Bank (surname), a surname Bank (fortification), a type of earthwork used in field defenses or around early hillforts Bank paper, thin paper Food bank, non-profit, charitable organization that distributes food to those who have difficulty purchasing enough to avoid hunger == See also == All pages with titles beginning with bank All pages with titles containing bank Banker (disambiguation) Banks (disambiguation) Banku (disambiguation) Cache (disambiguation) Embankment (disambiguation) Mitigation banking, or environmental mitigation, government-regulated environmental offset projects Phone bank (disambiguation) Ponding bank, a technique used in regenerative agriculture to prevent soil erosion Shore Storage (disambiguation) Vəng (disambiguation), several places in Azerbaijan East Bank (disambiguation) Left Bank (disambiguation) North Bank (disambiguation) Right Bank (disambiguation) South Bank (disambiguation) West Bank (disambiguation)

A bank is a financial institution and a financial intermediary that accepts deposits and channels those deposits into lending activities. Bank, The Bank, or banking may also refer to:

bank

Bank (film) (wikipedia)

Bank is a 2009 Indian Telugu-language heist film directed by Arun Kumar. The film was dubbed in Hindi as Bank and as Vangi in Tamil. The film stars Jackie Shroff, Raghuvaran, Rahul Dev, Abbas and Veda. The film was released on 30 January 2009. == Cast == Jackie Shroff Raghuvaran Rahul Dev Abbas Veda Pooja Bharathi Sreedhar Rao Baby Bhavana == Production == Arun Kumar revealed that he initially wanted to produce the film but felt that only he could envision the tale correctly, and subsequently chose to direct the venture himself. While producing the film through the newly launched Arun Entertainments, he also sets up his own music company, Arun Music. He introduced newcomer, Chinni Charan, to be the composer and lyricist. The director recruited an ensemble cast of Jackie Shroff, Raghuvaran, Rahul Dev, Abbas and Veda to star. Shroff noted that Arun Kumar did not know how to speak English when he met him for the script narration, but was convinced to sign the film owing to the director's enthusiasm. Model Sreedhar Rao appeared in a guest role and a song in the film. Production began during January 2007 and the film was mostly shot in Hyderabad and Mehaboob Studios in Mumbai. An audio soundtrack release event was held in Hyderabad during November 2007. The event was presided over by the Telugu Film Producers' Council President Tammareddy Bharadwaja. == Soundtrack == == Release == The film had a theatrical release on 30 January 2009. A critic from The Times of India gave the film one star out of five, and noted, "it remains a big question, how talented actors like Jackie Shroff and Raghuvaran could agree to do this lackluster film". The reviewer added, "on the face of it, a plot on bank robbery promises to be a nail-biting thriller, but the shoddy screenplay makes it a bad show". A critic from TMDB stated "the film fell flat on its face solely due to the poor logic and the absolutely bizarre aspects of the story", adding that "while the first half goes about sketching the looting plan and the aftermath, the second half goes on with the torture done to the inmates of the house and also to the audience". The Tamil dubbed version of the film was released straight to DVD in 2012. The Hindi dubbed version of the film was scheduled to release in September 2008 after delays, but was not released. == References == == External links == Bank at IMDb

Bank is a 2009 Indian Telugu-language heist film directed by Arun Kumar. The film was dubbed in Hindi as Bank and as Vangi in Tamil. The film stars Jackie Shroff, Raghuvaran, Rahul Dev, Abbas and Veda. The film was released on 30 January 2009.

bank

Bank (geography) (wikipedia)

In geography, a bank is the land alongside a body of water. Different structures are referred to as banks in different fields of geography, as follows. In limnology (the study of inland waters), a stream bank or river bank is the terrain alongside the bed of a river, creek, or stream. The bank consists of the sides of the channel, between which the flow is confined. Stream banks are of particular interest in fluvial geography, which studies the processes associated with rivers and streams and the deposits and landforms created by them. Bankfull discharge is a discharge great enough to fill the channel and overtop the banks. The descriptive terms left bank and right bank refer to the perspective of an observer looking downstream; a well-known example of this being the southern left bank and the northern right bank of the river Seine defining parts of Paris. The shoreline of ponds, swamps, estuaries, reservoirs, or lakes are also of interest in limnology and are sometimes referred to as banks. The grade of all these banks or shorelines can vary from vertical to a shallow slope. In freshwater ecology, banks are of interest as the location of riparian habitats. Riparian zones occur along upland and lowland river and stream beds. The ecology around and depending on a marsh, swamp, slough, or estuary, sometimes called a bank, is likewise studied in freshwater ecology. Banks are also of interest in navigation, where the term can refer either to a barrier island or a submerged plateau, such as an ocean bank. A barrier island is a long narrow island composed of sand and forming a barrier between an island lagoon or sound and the ocean. A submerged plateau is a relatively flat topped elevation of the sea floor at shallow depth — generally less than 200 metres (660 ft) — typically on the continental shelf or near an island. == See also == Coast Embankment (earthworks) Levee == References ==

In geography, a bank is the land alongside a body of water. Different structures are referred to as banks in different fields of geography, as follows. In limnology (the study of inland waters), a stream bank or river bank is the terrain alongside the bed of a river, creek, or stream. The bank consists of the sides of the channel, between which the flow is confined. Stream banks are of particular interest in fluvial geography, which studies the processes associated with rivers and streams and the deposits and landforms created by them. Bankfull discharge is a discharge great enough to fill the channel and overtop the banks. The descriptive terms left bank and right bank refer to the perspective of an observer looking downstream; a well-known example of this being the southern left bank and the northern right bank of the river Seine defining parts of Paris. The shoreline of ponds, swamps, estuaries, reservoirs, or lakes are also of interest in limnology and are sometimes referred to as banks. The grade of all these banks or shorelines can vary from vertical to a shallow slope. In freshwater ecology, banks are of interest as the location of riparian habitats. Riparian zones occur along upland and lowland river and stream beds. The ecology around and depending on a marsh, swamp, slough, or estuary, sometimes called a bank, is likewise studied in freshwater ecology. Banks are also of interest in navigation, where the term can refer either to a barrier island or a submerged plateau, such as an ocean bank. A barrier island is a long narrow island composed of sand and forming a barrier between an island lagoon or sound and the ocean. A submerged plateau is a relatively flat topped elevation of the sea floor at shallow depth — generally less than 200 metres (660 ft) — typically on the continental shelf or near an island.

bank

Bank (surname) (wikipedia)

Bank is a surname. Notable people with the surname include: Christian Bank (born 1974), Danish footballer Frank Bank (1942–2013), American actor István Bank (born 1984), Hungarian footballer Jan Bank (born 1940), Dutch historian Jesper Bank (born 1957), Danish sailor Joshua Bank, Russian writer and rabbi Lawrence C. Bank, American engineer Linda Bank (born 1986), Dutch swimmer Melissa Bank (1960–2022), American writer Ondřej Bank (born 1980), Czech alpine skier == See also == Zsuzsa Bánk (born 1965), German writer Banks (surname)

Bank is a surname. Notable people with the surname include: Christian Bank (born 1974), Danish footballer Frank Bank (1942–2013), American actor István Bank (born 1984), Hungarian footballer Jan Bank (born 1940), Dutch historian Jesper Bank (born 1957), Danish sailor Joshua Bank, Russian writer and rabbi Lawrence C. Bank, American engineer Linda Bank (born 1986), Dutch swimmer Melissa Bank (1960–2022), American writer Ondřej Bank (born 1980), Czech alpine skier

bank

Aircraft principal axes (wikipedia)

An aircraft in flight is free to rotate in three dimensions: yaw, nose left or right about an axis running up and down; pitch, nose up or down about an axis running from wing to wing; and roll, rotation about an axis running from nose to tail. The axes are alternatively designated as vertical, lateral (or transverse), and longitudinal respectively. These axes move with the vehicle and rotate relative to the Earth along with the craft. These definitions were analogously applied to spacecraft when the first crewed spacecraft were designed in the late 1950s. These rotations are produced by torques (or moments) about the principal axes. On an aircraft, these are intentionally produced by means of moving control surfaces, which vary the distribution of the net aerodynamic force about the vehicle's center of gravity. Elevators (moving flaps on the horizontal tail) produce pitch, a rudder on the vertical tail produces yaw, and ailerons (flaps on the wings that move in opposing directions) produce roll. On a spacecraft, the movements are usually produced by a reaction control system consisting of small rocket thrusters used to apply asymmetrical thrust on the vehicle. == Principal axes == Normal axis, or yaw axis — an axis drawn from top to bottom, and perpendicular to the other two axes, parallel to the fuselage station. Transverse axis, lateral axis, or pitch axis — an axis running from the pilot's left to right in piloted aircraft, and parallel to the wings of a winged aircraft, parallel to the buttock line. Longitudinal axis, or roll axis — an axis drawn through the body of the vehicle from tail to nose in the normal direction of flight, or the direction the pilot faces, similar to a ship's waterline. Normally, these axes are represented by the letters X, Y and Z in order to compare them with some reference frame, usually named x, y, z. Normally, this is made in such a way that the X is used for the longitudinal axis, but there are other possibilities to do it. === Vertical axis (yaw) === The yaw axis has its origin at the center of gravity and is directed towards the bottom of the aircraft, perpendicular to the wings and to the fuselage reference line. Motion about this axis is called yaw. A positive yawing motion moves the nose of the aircraft to the right. The rudder is the primary control of yaw. The term yaw was originally applied in sailing, and referred to the motion of an unsteady ship rotating about its vertical axis. Its etymology is uncertain. === Transverse axis (pitch) === The pitch axis (also called transverse or lateral axis), passes through an aircraft from wingtip to wingtip. Rotation about this axis is called pitch. Pitch changes the vertical direction that the aircraft's nose is pointing (a positive pitching motion raises the nose of the aircraft and lowers the tail). The elevators are the primary control surfaces for pitch. === Longitudinal axis (roll) === The roll axis (or longitudinal axis) has its origin at the center of gravity and is directed forward, parallel to the fuselage reference line. Motion about this axis is called roll. An angular displacement about this axis is called bank. A positive rolling motion lifts the left wing and lowers the right wing. The pilot rolls by increasing the lift on one wing and decreasing it on the other. This changes the bank angle. The ailerons are the primary control of bank. The rudder also has a secondary effect on bank. == Reference planes == The principal axes of rotation imply reference planes, perpendicular to each axis: Normal plane, or yaw plane Transverse plane, lateral plane, or pitch plane Longitudinal plane, or roll plane The three planes contain the aircraft center of gravity. == Relationship with other systems of axes == These axes are related to the principal axes of inertia, but are not the same. They are geometrical symmetry axes, regardless of the mass distribution of the aircraft. In aeronautical and aerospace engineering intrinsic rotations around these axes are often called Euler angles, but this conflicts with existing usage elsewhere. The calculus behind them is similar to the Frenet–Serret formulas. Performing a rotation in an intrinsic reference frame is equivalent to right-multiplying its characteristic matrix (the matrix that has the vectors of the reference frame as columns) by the matrix of the rotation. == History == The first aircraft to demonstrate active control about all three axes was the Wright brothers' 1902 glider. == See also == Aerodynamics Aircraft flight control system Euler angles Fixed-wing aircraft Flight control surfaces Flight dynamics Moving frame Panning (camera) Six degrees of freedom Screw theory Triad method == References == == External links == Pitch, Roll, Yaw Yaw Axis Control as a Means of Improving V/STOL Aircraft Performance. 3D fast walking simulation of biped robot by yaw axis moment compensation Flight control system for a hybrid aircraft in the yaw axis Motion Imagery Standards Board (MISB) Archived 2022-08-23 at the Wayback Machine

An aircraft in flight is free to rotate in three dimensions: yaw, nose left or right about an axis running up and down; pitch, nose up or down about an axis running from wing to wing; and roll, rotation about an axis running from nose to tail. The axes are alternatively designated as vertical, lateral (or transverse), and longitudinal respectively. These axes move with the vehicle and rotate relative to the Earth along with the craft. These definitions were analogously applied to spacecraft when the first crewed spacecraft were designed in the late 1950s. These rotations are produced by torques (or moments) about the principal axes. On an aircraft, these are intentionally produced by means of moving control surfaces, which vary the distribution of the net aerodynamic force about the vehicle's center of gravity. Elevators (moving flaps on the horizontal tail) produce pitch, a rudder on the vertical tail produces yaw, and ailerons (flaps on the wings that move in opposing directions) produce roll. On a spacecraft, the movements are usually produced by a reaction control system consisting of small rocket thrusters used to apply asymmetrical thrust on the vehicle.

bank

Diaper bank (wikipedia)

A diaper bank is a social institution or nonprofit organization formed for the sole purpose of providing diapers to people in poverty who do not have access to diapers. Federally funded public assistance programs do not pay for or contribute to the payment for diapers. Diaper banks accept donations and diapers to provide for either children or adults suffering from incontinence and distribute diapers to partner agencies for distribution to people in their social programs in need of diapers. In 2011, the National Diaper Bank Network was formed to help distribute diapers across the United States. == History == The idea of a diaper bank is a relatively new. The Diaper Bank of Southern Arizona claims to be the first diaper bank that was started in 1994 initially as a donation to the local community by a local consulting company, ReSolve, Inc., under the leadership of Hildy Gottlieb and Dimitri Petropolis.

A diaper bank is a social institution or nonprofit organization formed for the sole purpose of providing diapers to people in poverty who do not have access to diapers. Federally funded public assistance programs do not pay for or contribute to the payment for diapers. Diaper banks accept donations and diapers to provide for either children or adults suffering from incontinence and distribute diapers to partner agencies for distribution to people in their social programs in need of diapers. In 2011, the National Diaper Bank Network was formed to help distribute diapers across the United States.

bank

Horse jumping obstacles (wikipedia)

Various obstacles are found in competitive sports involving horse jumping. These include show jumping, hunter, and the cross-country phase of the equestrian discipline of eventing. The size and type of obstacles vary depending on the course and the level of the horse and rider, but all horses must successfully negotiate these obstacles in order to complete a competition. Fences used in hunter and eventing are generally made to look relatively rustic and natural. In jumping competitions, they are often brightly colored and creatively designed. In hunter and jumper competitions, obstacles are constructed to fall down if struck by the horse. In eventing, they are built to be solid, though for safety and to prevent rotational falls, certain elements may be designed to break away if hit. == Arrowhead == Also called chevrons, these fences are shaped like triangles, with the point facing towards the ground. They are generally very narrow, usually only a few feet wide. Arrowhead fences require the rider to keep their horse straight between their hands and legs, as it is easy for a run-out to occur due to the narrowness of the fence. These fences are often used in combination with other obstacles to increase their difficulty, such as right after a bank or as the second obstacle in a bending line. This tests the rider's ability to regain control of his/her horse following an obstacle. == Bank == These jumps are steps up or down from one level to another, and can be single jumps or built as a "staircase" of multiple banks. Banks up require large amounts of impulsion, although not speed, from the horse. The drop fence incorporates a down bank. Both types of banks require the rider to be centered over the horse. Down banks require the rider to lean further back, with slipped reins and heels closer to the front of the horse, in order to absorb the shock of the landing. == Bounce == A bounce, also called a no-stride, is a fence combination sometimes found on the cross-country course of eventing. It is also very commonly used in grid-work or gymnastics. It consists of two fences placed close together so the horse cannot take a full stride between them, but not so close that the horse would jump both fences at once. The horse "bounces" between the two jumps, so that the next takeoff is in the same stride as the previous landing. The distance between the two usually is 7–8 feet for small ponies; 9 ft for large ponies or small horses; and 9.5–11 ft for horses. A bounce (or several can be used in a row for more advanced horses) teaches the horse good balance, to push off with his hind end, and to fold his front end well. It can also be used to slow down a speedy horse, as a horse cannot go flying over a bounce (he/she will knock a rail) as he could with a single jump. == Brush Fence == These jumps consist of a solid base with a brush placed on top, generally low enough for the horse to see over. The horse is supposed to jump through the brush in a flat jump, rather than over the top of it in a more rounded arc. Brush fences are also used for steeplechase racing. This type of fence is closely related to the bullfinch. Sometimes the fence is painted to camouflage in with the brush, so it is unseen by both horse and rider. == Bullfinch == This fence has a solid base with several feet of brush protruding out of the top of the jump up to six feet high. The horse is supposed to jump through the brush, rather than over it. Due to the height of the brush, the horse generally cannot see the landing. This tests the horse's trust in the rider, as the horse must depend on the rider to guide it carefully and steer it to a solid landing. The horse must be taught to jump calmly through the brush, as attempting to jump over the brush could lead to a refusal, a run-out at the next fence, or a misstep and possible injury. Bullfinches must be approached positively, with much impulsion, in order to prevent stops. When jumping a bullfinch, the rider must stay tight in the saddle so that brush cannot be caught between his or her leg and the horse. == Coffin == Also called the rails-ditch-rails, the coffin is a combination fence where the horse jumps a set of rails, moves one or several strides downhill to a ditch, and then goes back uphill to another jump. In the past, coffins were more pronounced, with up-and-down banks leading to the ditch in the middle. However, today only the former type with the rails is seen. The coffin is intended to be jumped in a slow, impulsive canter (known to eventers as a "coffin canter" for that reason). This canter gives the horse the power and agility to negotiate the obstacle, and also allows him the time needed to assess what question is being asked, so that he may better complete the combination without problem. Approaching in a fast, flat gallop will cause mis-striding and may entice a refusal from the horse. Going too fast may also result in a fall, if the horse cannot physically make a stride between the obstacles. == Combinations == These fences are combinations of banks, logs, water, ditches and other elements. All of the jumps are placed within 1–3 strides of each other, and are meant to be jumped as a series in a specific order. Also see Normandy bank, Sunken road, and Coffin. They are seen in the equestrian jumping sports of show jumping and eventing (both the cross-country and stadium jumping phases), but are uncommon in hunt seat competition. Combinations are often one of the challenges of a course, and the course designer knows how to manipulate the distances and types of obstacles to make them more difficult. Combinations are named by their number of elements. Double and triple combinations are the most common. In general, the more elements involved, the more difficult the obstacle. However, other variables can greatly influence the difficulty: Distance between Obstacles: the course designer may shorten or lengthen the distance from the usual 12-foot stride. The most extreme case is when the designer puts enough room for a half-stride, in which case the rider must shorten or lengthen according to the horse's strengths. At the lower levels, the designer will not change the distances from what is considered "normal" for the combination. Additionally, the designer may make the distance between the first two elements of a combination ask for one type of stride—for example, very long—and the distance between the second and third elements ask for the exact opposite type of stride—in this case, very short. This tests the horse's adjustability, and can greatly enhance the difficulty of the combination. Types and Order of the Obstacles: Riders must adjust their horse's stride according to the type of obstacle that must be jumped, and the order they occur. For example, a vertical to oxer rides differently from an oxer to vertical. Horses take off and land at different distances from the obstacle depending on its type: usually closer for triple bars, slightly further for oxers, and even further for verticals. Other factors, such as a "spooky" fence or a liverpool, may change the distances for particular horses as they back them off. Height of the Obstacles: The higher the fences, the less room there is for error. At the lower levels, the designer may make certain elements in the combination slightly lower, to make it easier. Fence height also has some influence on the horse's take-off distance, usually decreasing both the take-off and landing, although this is only a great variant when the fences are 4 feet 6 inches or higher. Terrain: this is especially a factor for eventers as they ride combinations cross-country. A combination on the downhill tends to lengthen the stride, and on the uphill it tends to shorten it. Going through water tends to shorten the stride. Landing up a bank causes a shorter landing distance than from an upright obstacle. To negotiate a combination successfully, a rider must maintain the qualities needed in all riding: rhythm, balance, and impulsion as they approach the fence. They must also have a great understanding of their horse's stride length, so that they may know how much they need to shorten or lengthen it for each particular combination. Before riding the course, the rider should walk the distances of the combination and decide the stride from which they should jump it. == Corner == Also called an apex, corner fences are in a triangular shape with the horse jumping over one corner of the triangle. They are similar to the "fan" jump seen in show-jumping. As the name suggests, the fence makes a "V" shape, that can have an angle up to 90 degrees. At novice levels, the fence is formed by two angled fences, open in the center while more advanced designs have a solid triangular cover. The corner is meant to be jumped on a line perpendicular to an imaginary bisecting line of the angle, and as close to the narrow apex as possible while still far enough in on the jump that the horse knows he is supposed to go over it. If the rider aims too far toward the wider section of the obstacle, it may be too wide for the horse to clear it. This usually results in a stop or run out, although some of the braver horses might "bank" a solid corner fence (touching down on it before quickly jumping off). This is not desirable, as the horse is more likely to slip, catch a leg, or fall. If the rider aims too far toward the apex, it is very easy for the horse to run right past, especially if it is unsure as to whether he is to jump the obstacle. Due to their relative difficulty, the corner is not seen at the lowest levels. The corner is a precision fence, requiring accurate riding and good training, with the horse straight and between the rider's aids. Due to the build of the fence, an uncommitted horse and rider pair may have a run-out at this type of obstacle. It is best that the rider use their aids to "block" the horse from running out to the side, with a strong contact to prevent the shoulders from popping, and a supporting leg. == Ditch == These fences are dropped areas in the course that may be up to 11 feet 10 inches wide in advanced competition, although they are seen at lesser widths at all levels of competition. They can be used individually, or in combinations such as the coffin and trakehner fences. Ditches should be ridden positively, with increased stride length and forward motion. The rider should always focus ahead, rather than looking down into the ditch, to keep their balance aligned correctly and allow the horse to give their best effort. == Drop Fence == These fences ask the horse to jump over a log fence and land at a lower level than the one at which they took off. They are closely related to the bank fences. Many riders have fallen badly on drop fences if the horse swerves unexpectedly. Jumping drop fences places a good deal of stress on the horse's legs, and therefore practice should be kept to a minimum. To help minimise the concussion on the horse's legs, the rider should encourage it to jump the fence as conservatively as possible, with little bascule or speed, using just enough power to safely clear the log before dropping down. Drop fences require a great deal of trust of the horse in the rider, because often the animal can not see the landing until it is about to jump. It is important for the rider to keep their leg on to the base, and not "drop" the horse before the fence, as this may result in a refusal. In the air, the rider usually allows their shoulders to move slightly forward, and lifts their seatbones off the saddle until the peak of the jump. However, as the horse descends, the rider should allow their upper body to open, keeping their body relatively upright (especially if the drop is large). If the rider continues to lean forward on landing, it is much more likely that they will topple forward and become unseated when the horse touches the ground, due to the momentum. This is especially true with drops because the landing is almost always slightly downhill, as this helps reduce concussion on the horse's legs. The rider must also be sure to slip their reins as the horse descends, allowing the horse the freedom to stretch its neck forward and down. Many riders, especially those who have only jumped in the ring, believe cross-country riders to be falling backward (or getting "left behind") when they jump a drop fence. However, it is important to note that more security is needed when jumping this type of fence than is typically required when jumping in a level arena. Additionally, the fences are solid, so the rider need not worry about dropping a rail (as would typically happen if he began sitting up too soon when riding a fence in show jumping). The rider is not trying to encourage a great bascule from the horse. Although it may appear that the rider is getting left behind, a properly ridden drop fence will keep the rider centered over the horse, and still provide him enough freedom to comfortably negotiate the obstacle. == Log Fence == Log fences are obstacles that are jumped in equestrian competition, including in the cross-country phase of eventing and in hunter paces. Additionally, they may be met when fox hunting. They are the most common type of cross-country fence, including oxers, log piles, vertical, and triple bar obstacles. The approach of these fences varies according to the height and width of the obstacle and the terrain. Log fences differ from the usual equestrian jump, which involves removable poles set in jump cups that are attached to a standard, because they are solid and do not fall down. Therefore, the horse may touch the fence, and even scramble over it, without penalty. However, the fact that they are solid increases the risk that horse and rider will be injured if they make a mistake: the horse may hit it so hard that the rider is launched from the saddle or the horse may stumble over it and fall on landing. In the worst-case scenario, a horse may hit the fence on his forearms, and somersault over it, which risks injury to the horse and especially the rider if the horse lands on him/her. Therefore, the rider must be especially proficient before attempting solid fences, to ensure he can approach them properly. Additionally, most riders get into a slightly more defensive seat when jumping log fences, and do not raise out of the saddle as high or fold as much, which will allow them to stay in the saddle if their horse accidentally hits the fences and stumbles on landing. This position is considered a fault when jumping show jumping fences, because the horse is always encouraged to bascule over the fence to help prevent him from touching and knocking the rails, and keeping the weight on his back encourages him to drop it instead. However, a slightly defensive position is not only acceptable when riding over solid obstacles, but in most cases ideal. Horses will generally jump log fences quite well, as they look natural to the animal. It is best when designing and jumping such fences, however, to only ride over obstacles that have a larger log (rather than a thin, stick-like pole) as the horse will respect the jump and is more likely to jump it cleanly and boldly. Due to the risks, it is especially important to jump log fences in a forward manner with plenty of impulsion and good balance. == Normandy bank == A Normandy bank is a combination of obstacles. A ditch precedes the bank, so the horse must jump over the ditch and onto the bank in one leap. There is also a solid fence on the top of the bank, which may produce a drop fence to get off the obstacle, or may allow for a stride off. Because this obstacle incorporates several different types of obstacles into one, it is considered quite difficult and is usually not seen until the upper levels. The rider not only has to worry about a bold jump over the ditch and onto the bank, but also the obstacle on the top of the bank and the quick jump off. == Oxer == An oxer is a type of horse jump with two rails that may be set even or uneven. The width between the poles may vary. Some shows do not have oxers in the lower show jumping divisions. There are several types of oxers: Ascending: the front rail is lower than the back rail. This is the easiest for the horse to jump, as it naturally fits into the animal's bascule and encourages a round and powerful jump. Descending: the back rail is lower than the front rail. This type is not often used, as it can cause an optical illusion for the horse. It is forbidden by the FEI because of the danger for the horse. Parallel: both the top front and back rail are even, but the jump is higher than it is wide. Square: a type of parallel oxer, where the jump's height is the same as its width. This is the hardest type of oxer seen in competition. It is seen in jumper but not hunter competition Swedish: a "cross-rail" type of oxer, the highest front and back rails of the oxer form an X when viewed head-on, so that one section of the jump is lower than the other sections. Triple Bar: similar to an ascending oxer, but rather than having two rails there are three, in graduating height. This is more difficult than an ascending oxer, however, because of the added width of the third rail. Hogsback: a type of oxer with three rails in which the tallest pole is in the center. Sometimes this kind of oxer is filled in to look like a barn or house, which is often used on cross country courses. == Rolltop == These jumps have a rounded half-barrel appearance on top. They can be quite wide at upper levels, and often govern respect from the horse, but are not usually considered a "scary" fence for horses on course and generally produce a good jump. A modified version of the rolltop is sometimes seen in hunter and showjumping classes. == Shark's Tooth == These fences have a top log rail, with an inverted triangle of logs pointing downwards, resembling a shark's top jaw. == Skinny == A "skinny" is any fence with a narrow face. These require accurate riding and the ability to keep the horse straight, as it is easy for a horse to "glance off" such narrow obstacles. Combinations involving skinnies become increasingly common as the rider moves up the levels because they reduce the degree of error that is available if the rider is to successfully negotiate the fence. == Stone Wall == These jumps are solid walls made out of stone or a similar material. They sometimes have logs placed on top to make them larger or change the appearance. == Sunken road == These are combination jumps involving banks and rails. At the lower levels, it may consist of a bank down, with a few strides to a bank up. At the upper levels, the sunken road often is quite complicated, usually beginning with a set of rails, with either one stride or a bounce distance before the bank down, a stride in the "bottom" of the road before jumping the bank up, and another stride or bounce distance before the final set of rails. Sunken roads are very technical, especially at the upper levels, and require accurate riding. A bad approach or extravagant jump in can possibly ruin the rider's distances, which may result in a stop from the horse, or a fall. Additionally, the quick change in the type of obstacle, from upright fence, to down bank, to upbank, makes it physically difficult for rider and horse. It thus requires that both horse and rider are balanced, and that the rider stays centered and follows the motion of their mount. == Table == A table is a fence with height and width, with the top of the table being one piece of material (unlike an open oxer, which is not "filled in"). The horse is encouraged to jump over the entire obstacle at once, similar to an oxer, however there are times where the animal may accidentally touch down on, or "bank," the top. Because of this, tables should be built strongly enough to support the horse landing on it. Tables are also usually built so that the back part is slightly higher than the front, or with a piece of wood at the back, so the horse can easily see that there is width to the obstacle and therefore judge it appropriately. Tables can get extremely wide, and generally test the horse's scope. They are intended to be jumped at a forward pace and a slightly long stride. == Trakehner == These fences consist of a rail over a ditch. The ditch can be frightening for the horse, and so this type of jump is a test of bravery. Trakehners are first seen at training level (United States), and at the higher levels they can be quite large. A Faux (False) Trakehner is a mobile cross-country jump designed to look like a trakehner by using heavy posts or poles on the ground to simulate the front and back edges of the ditch. Trakehners were originally fencelines that were built in drainage ditches. The Trakehnen area of East Prussia, originally wetlands, was drained by the Prussian kings in the 17th and 18th centuries, before a horse breeding program was begun. The Main Stud Trakehnen, which produced the Trakehner breed of horse, was established on the land in 1732. The large drainage ditches, with fencelines in the bottom of them, were later used as a test for the 3-year-olds for suitability for breeding and war mounts. Due to the build of the fence, the take-off spot for the horse was on the downside of the ditch, and the landing was on the upside. However, the old-style trakehner jump is not seen today, mainly because the landing was on an uphill grade, was very punishing to the horses, even when the horse took off well. The ditch is now revetted and the fence does not have an uphill landing. In 1973, Rachael Bayliss and her horse, Gurgle the Greek, "cleared" a trakehner at the Badminton Horse Trials by going under it. The rules were changed after this incident, requiring the horse not only to go between the flags but also to pass over the log. == Water == These fences range in difficulty from simple water crossings at lower levels to combinations of drop fences into water, obstacles or "islands" within the water, and bank or obstacles out of the water at upper levels. The water may be no more than 14 inches deep. Water, due to the drag it places on the horse, makes water obstacle rides different from those without the water. Drop fences in can cause the rider to come flying off on landing if he or she is not in a defensive position. The stride of the horse is shortened, which must be taken into account when designing and riding obstacles within the water. Fences within the water need to be ridden with a good deal of impulsion. Additionally, some horses are cautious of water, and require a strong ride. Experience and confidence-building training can help to lessen any timidity from the horse. The footing of the water complex should be firm and it is important for the competitor to walk into the water during the course walk to test the footing, depth of the water, and any drop-off areas in the complex. Water crossings often include a bank or, at higher levels, a drop fence into the water [1]. There may be a fence or a bank complex in the water, and a bank out, possibly to another fence. Water is often a challenge on the cross-country course, and there are usually several riders at the largest events who get "dunked" when they reach the obstacle. In show jumping, water is never meant to be run through but rather jumped over, and a foot in the water will count as a fault to the rider's score. There are two types of water jumps used in show jumping: Open Water: a large, rectangular-shaped "ditch" of water, often with a small brush (18") or a rail on one side to act as a ground line. Water jumps are one of the widest obstacles a horse will be asked to jump, with a width up to 16 ft. They should be approached strongly, with a long stride, and the rider must judge the take-off to put the horse as deep (close) to the obstacle as possible, so that the jumping effort isn't increased. Should the rider cause the horse to take off too far back, it may be near impossible for him to clear the obstacle. However, the rider should also take care not to over-ride this fence, as it may unnerve the horse and make him very difficult to get back under control afterwards. Riders and horses need to keep eyes up and not look down. Water, although it can be spooky for a horse, is usually more daunting for the rider. Open water is not used in the stadium phase of eventing. Liverpool: a show jumping obstacle that takes the form of an oxer or vertical jump with a small pool of water underneath (although some liverpools may be "dry" and just consist of a blue or black tarp). These fences tend to make the horse look down, so the horse does not focus on the actual rails it must jump and may hit the fence. Riders and horses need to keep eyes up and focused on the actual fence they must jump. Liverpools may also be found in the stadium phase of eventing. == See also == Jumping (horse) Cavaletti Bascule == References ==

Various obstacles are found in competitive sports involving horse jumping. These include show jumping, hunter, and the cross-country phase of the equestrian discipline of eventing. The size and type of obstacles vary depending on the course and the level of the horse and rider, but all horses must successfully negotiate these obstacles in order to complete a competition. Fences used in hunter and eventing are generally made to look relatively rustic and natural. In jumping competitions, they are often brightly colored and creatively designed. In hunter and jumper competitions, obstacles are constructed to fall down if struck by the horse. In eventing, they are built to be solid, though for safety and to prevent rotational falls, certain elements may be designed to break away if hit.

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Memory bank (wikipedia)

A memory bank is a logical unit of storage in electronics, which is hardware-dependent. In a computer, the memory bank may be determined by the memory controller along with physical organization of the hardware memory slots. In a typical synchronous dynamic random-access memory (SDRAM) or double data rate SDRAM (DDR SDRAM), a bank consists of multiple rows and columns of storage units, and is usually spread out across several chips. In a single read or write operation, only one bank is accessed, therefore the number of bits in a column or a row, per bank and per chip, equals the memory bus width in bits (single channel). The size of a bank is further determined by the number of bits in a column and a row, per chip, multiplied by the number of chips in a bank. Some computers have several identical memory banks of RAM, and use bank switching to switch between them. Harvard architecture computers have (at least) two very different banks of memory, one for program storage and another for data storage. == In caching == A memory bank is a part of cache memory that is addressed consecutively in the total set of memory banks, i.e., when data item a(n) is stored in bank b, data item a(n + 1) is stored in bank b + 1. Cache memory is divided in banks to evade the effects of the bank cycle time (see above) [=> missing "bank cycle" definition, above]. When data is stored or retrieved consecutively each bank has enough time to recover before the next request for that bank arrives. The number of memory modules needed to have the same number of data bits as the bus. A bank can consist of one or more memory modules. == See also == Bank switching Interleaved memory Memory rank Memory geometry Memory organisation == Further reading == "2.3.3 Data Random Access Memory". MCS-4 Assembly Language Programming Manual - The INTELLEC 4 Microcomputer System Programming Manual (PDF) (Preliminary ed.). Santa Clara, California, USA: Intel Corporation. December 1973. pp. 2-5–2-6. MCS-030-1273-1. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2020-03-01. Retrieved 2020-03-02. == References ==

A memory bank is a logical unit of storage in electronics, which is hardware-dependent. In a computer, the memory bank may be determined by the memory controller along with physical organization of the hardware memory slots. In a typical synchronous dynamic random-access memory (SDRAM) or double data rate SDRAM (DDR SDRAM), a bank consists of multiple rows and columns of storage units, and is usually spread out across several chips. In a single read or write operation, only one bank is accessed, therefore the number of bits in a column or a row, per bank and per chip, equals the memory bus width in bits (single channel). The size of a bank is further determined by the number of bits in a column and a row, per chip, multiplied by the number of chips in a bank. Some computers have several identical memory banks of RAM, and use bank switching to switch between them. Harvard architecture computers have (at least) two very different banks of memory, one for program storage and another for data storage.

bank

Ocean bank (wikipedia)

An ocean bank, sometimes referred to as a fishing bank or simply bank, is a part of the seabed that is shallow compared to its surrounding area, such as a shoal or the top of an underwater hill. Somewhat like continental slopes, ocean bank slopes can upwell as tidal and other flows intercept them, sometimes resulting in nutrient-rich currents. Because of this, some large banks, such as Dogger Bank and the Grand Banks of Newfoundland, are among the richest fishing grounds in the world. There are some banks that were reported in the 19th century by navigators, such as Wachusett Reef, whose existence is doubtful. == Types == Ocean banks may be of volcanic nature. Banks may be carbonate or terrigenous. In tropical areas some banks are submerged atolls. As they are not associated with any landmass, banks have no outside source of sediments. Carbonate banks are typically platforms, rising from the ocean depths, whereas terrigenous banks are elevated sedimentary deposits. Seamounts, by contrast, are mountains rising from the deep sea and are steeper and higher in comparison to the surrounding seabed. Examples of these are Pioneer and Guide Seamounts, west of the Farallon Islands. The Pioneer Seamount has a depth of 1,000 meters, In other cases, parts of a bank may reach above the water surface, thereby forming islands. == Important banks == The largest banks in the world are: Grand Banks of Newfoundland (280,000 km2) - terrigenous bank Agulhas Bank (116,000 km2) Great Bahama Bank (95,798.12 km2, has islands, area without islands) Saya de Malha (35,000 km2, excluding the separate North bank, least depth 7 m) Seychelles Bank (31,000 km2, including islands of 266 km2) Georges Bank (28,800 km2) - terrigenous bank Lansdowne Bank (4,300 km2, west of New Caledonia, least depth 3.7 m) Dogger Bank (17,600 km2, least depth 13 m) Little Bahama Bank (14,260.64 km2, has islands, area without islands) Great Chagos Bank (12,642 km2, including islands of 4.5 km2) Reed Bank, Spratly Islands (8,866 km2, least depth 9 m) Caicos Bank, Caicos Islands (7,680 km2, including islands of 589.5 km2) Macclesfield Bank (6,448 km2, least depth 9.2 m) North Bank or Ritchie Bank (5,800 km2, north of Saya de Malha, least depth <10 m) Cay Sal Bank (5,226.73 km2, including islands of 14.87 km2) Rosalind Bank (4,500 km2, least depth 7.3 m) Bassas de Pedro (2,474.33 km2, least depth 16.4 m), part of the Amindivi Subgroup of Lakshadweep, India == See also == Oceanic plateau Carbonate platform Placer (geography) == Notes == == External links == Definitions – Islands, Banks & Seamounts: Geologic Features Under the Sea

An ocean bank, sometimes referred to as a fishing bank or simply bank, is a part of the seabed that is shallow compared to its surrounding area, such as a shoal or the top of an underwater hill. Somewhat like continental slopes, ocean bank slopes can upwell as tidal and other flows intercept them, sometimes resulting in nutrient-rich currents. Because of this, some large banks, such as Dogger Bank and the Grand Banks of Newfoundland, are among the richest fishing grounds in the world. There are some banks that were reported in the 19th century by navigators, such as Wachusett Reef, whose existence is doubtful.

bank

Rampart (fortification) (wikipedia)

In fortification architecture, a rampart is a length of embankment or wall forming part of the defensive boundary of a castle, hillfort, settlement or other fortified site. It is usually broad-topped and made of excavated earth and/or masonry. == Types == The composition and design of ramparts varied from the simple mounds of earth and stone, known as dump ramparts, to more complex earth and timber defences (box ramparts and timberlaced ramparts), as well as ramparts with stone revetments. One particular type, common in Central Europe, used earth, stone and timber posts to form a Pfostenschlitzmauer or "post-slot wall". Vitrified ramparts were composed of stone that was subsequently fired, possibly to increase its strength. == Early fortifications == Many types of early fortification, from prehistory through to the Early Middle Ages, employed earth ramparts usually in combination with external ditches to defend the outer perimeter of a fortified site or settlement. Hillforts, ringforts or "raths" and ringworks all made use of ditch and rampart defences, and they are the characteristic feature of circular ramparts. The ramparts could be reinforced and raised in height by the use of palisades. This type of arrangement was a feature of the motte and bailey castle of northern Europe in the early medieval period. == Classical fortifications == During the classical era, societies became sophisticated enough to create tall ramparts of stone or brick, provided with a platform or wall walk for the defenders to hurl missiles from and a parapet to protect them from the missiles thrown by attackers. Well known examples of classical stone ramparts include Hadrian's Wall and the Walls of Constantinople. == Medieval fortifications == After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, there was a return to the widespread use of earthwork ramparts which lasted well into the 11th century, an example is the Norman motte and bailey castle. As castle technology evolved during the Middle Ages and Early Modern times, ramparts continued to form part of the defences, but now they tended to consist of thick walls with crenellated parapets. Fieldworks, however, continued to make use of earth ramparts due to their relatively temporary nature. Elements of a rampart in a stone castle or town wall from the 11th to 15th centuries included: Parapet: a low wall on top of the rampart to shelter the defenders. Crenellation: rectangular gaps or indentations at intervals in the parapet, the gaps being called embrasures or crenels, and the intervening high parts being called merlons. Loophole or arrowslit: a narrow opening in a parapet or in the main body of the rampart, allowing defenders to shoot out without exposing themselves to the enemy. Chemin de ronde or wallwalk: a pathway along the top of the rampart but behind the parapet, which served as a fighting platform and a means of communication with other parts of the fortification. Machicolation: an overhanging projection supported by corbels, the floor of which was pierced with openings so that missiles and hot liquids could be thrown down on attackers. Brattice: a timber gallery built on top of the rampart and projecting forward from the parapet, to give the defenders a better field of fire. == Artillery fortifications == In response to the introduction of artillery, castle ramparts began to be built with much thicker walling and a lower profile, one of earliest examples first being Ravenscraig Castle in Scotland which was built in 1460. In the first half of the 16th century, the solid masonry walls began to be replaced by earthen banks, sometimes faced with stone, which were better able to withstand the impact of shot; the earth being obtained from the ditch which was dug in front of the rampart. At the same time, the plan or "trace" of these ramparts began to be formed into angular projections called bastions which allowed the guns mounted on them to create zones of interlocking fire. This bastion system became known as the trace italienne because Italian engineers had been at the forefront of its development, although it was later perfected in northern Europe by engineers such as Coehoorn and Vauban and was the dominant style of fortification until the mid-19th century. Elements of a rampart in an artillery fortification from the 16th to 19th centuries included: Exterior slope: the front face of the rampart, often faced with stone or brick. Interior slope: the back of the rampart on the inside of the fortification; sometimes retained with a masonry wall but usually a grassy slope. Parapet (or breastwork) which protected and concealed the defending soldiers. Banquette: a continuous step built onto the interior of the parapet, enabling the defenders to shoot over the top with small arms. Barbette: a raised platform for one or more guns enabling them to fire over the parapet. Embrasure: an opening in the parapet for guns to fire through. Terreplein: the top surface or "fighting platform" of the rampart, behind the parapet. Traverse: an earthen embankment, the same height as the parapet, built across the terreplein to prevent it being swept by enfilade fire. Casemate: a vaulted chamber built inside the rampart for protected accommodation or storage, but sometimes pierced by an embrasure at the front for a gun to fire through. Bartizan (also guérite or echauguette): a small turret projecting from the parapet, intended to give a good view to a sentry while remaining protected. == Archaeological significance == As well as the immediate archaeological significance of such ramparts in indicating the development of military tactics and technology, these sites often enclose areas of historical significance that point to the local conditions at the time the fortress was built. == See also == List of established military terms == References ==

In fortification architecture, a rampart is a length of embankment or wall forming part of the defensive boundary of a castle, hillfort, settlement or other fortified site. It is usually broad-topped and made of excavated earth and/or masonry.

gender

Geschlecht (wiktionary)

Geschlächt (obsolete) From Middle High German geslechte, from Old High German gislahti, a collective formation from slahta, from Proto-Germanic *slahtō, related to *slahaną (“to strike, hit”). Cognate with Dutch geslacht, Middle Low German geslechte, Italian schiatta, Polish szlachta. The Germanic root is that of Schlag, schlagen (“strike, beat”). The modern sense developed among this root's descendants first in Menschenschlag (“group of people characterised by common traits”), in which the underlying meaning of Schlag is "strike of coinage". IPA(key): /ɡəˈʃlɛçt/ Rhymes: -ɛçt Geschlecht n (strong, genitive Geschlechts or Geschlechtes, plural Geschlechter or (obsolete) Geschlechte) sex; gender (grammar) gender sex organ genus, type, race lineage, generation, family dynasty, house (grammatical gender): Genus, Wortgeschlecht (genital organ): Genital, Geschlechtsorgan, Geschlechtsteil (genus): Gattung, Genus (dynasty): Dynastie, Haus “Geschlecht” in Duden online “Geschlecht” in Digitales Wörterbuch der deutschen Sprache

Geschlächt (obsolete) From Middle High German geslechte, from Old High German gislahti, a collective formation from slahta, from Proto-Germanic *slahtō, related to *slahaną (“to strike, hit”). Cognate with Dutch geslacht, Middle Low German geslechte, Italian schiatta, Polish szlachta. The Germanic root is that of Schlag, schlagen (“strike, beat”). The modern sense developed among this root's descendants first in Menschenschlag (“group of people characterised by common traits”), in which the underlying meaning of Schlag is "strike of coinage". IPA(key): /ɡəˈʃlɛçt/ Rhymes: -ɛçt Geschlecht n (strong, genitive Geschlechts or Geschlechtes, plural Geschlechter or (obsolete) Geschlechte) sex; gender (grammar) gender sex organ genus, type, race lineage, generation, family dynasty, house (grammatical gender): Genus, Wortgeschlecht (genital organ): Genital, Geschlechtsorgan, Geschlechtsteil (genus): Gattung, Genus (dynasty): Dynastie, Haus “Geschlecht” in Duden online “Geschlecht” in Digitales Wörterbuch der deutschen Sprache

gender

gender (wiktionary)

(grammar: grammatical gender): g. (abbreviation) (Received Pronunciation) IPA(key): /ˈd͡ʒɛndə/ (US) IPA(key): /ˈd͡ʒɛndɚ/ Rhymes: -ɛndə(ɹ) Hyphenation: gen‧der From Middle English gendre, borrowed from Old French gendre, borrowed from Latin genere (“type, kind”). Doublet of genre and genus. The verb developed after the noun. gender (countable and uncountable, plural genders) (obsolete) Class; kind. [14th–19th c.] (grammar) A division of nouns and pronouns (and sometimes of other parts of speech) into masculine or feminine, and sometimes other categories like neuter or common, and animate or inanimate. [from 14th c.] (now sometimes proscribed) Sex (a category, either male or female, into which sexually-reproducing organisms are divided on the basis of their reproductive roles in their species). [from 15th c.] the gene is activated in both genders The effect of the medication is dependent upon age, gender, and other factors. 1723, Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, letter, 7 December: To say truth, I have never had any great esteem for the generality of the fair sex; and my only consolation for being of that gender has been the assurance it gave me of never being married to any one among them […] . Identification as a man, a woman, or something else, and association with a (social) role or set of behavioral and cultural traits, clothing, etc; a category to which a person belongs on this basis. (Compare gender role, gender identity.) [from 20th c.] (grammar) Synonym of voice (“particular way of inflecting or conjugating verbs”) (hardware) The quality which distinguishes connectors, which may be male (fitting into another connector) and female (having another connector fit into it), or genderless/androgynous (capable of fitting together with another connector of the same type). [from 20th c.] Sometimes, sex and gender are distinguished. (grammar, of verbs): voice (biological sex): sex (class or kind): genre (categorization): gendersex (grammar) common, feminine, masculine, neuter (sex) female, male, hermaphroditic; man, woman, hermaphrodite genderqueer, bigender, non-binary, transgender, androgyne, crossdresser, hijra, kathoey, transsexual, two-spirit gender (third-person singular simple present genders, present participle gendering, simple past and past participle gendered) (sociology) To assign a gender to (a person); to perceive as having a gender; to address using terms (pronouns, nouns, adjectives...) that express a certain gender. (sociology) To perceive (a thing) as having characteristics associated with a certain gender, or as having been authored by someone of a certain gender. misgender ungender, degender regender gender (comparative more gender, superlative most gender) (LGBT, Internet slang, humorous) Evoking indescribable feelings regarding gender. From Middle English gendren, genderen, from Middle French gendrer, from Latin generāre. gender (third-person singular simple present genders, present participle gendering, simple past and past participle gendered) (archaic) To engender. 1854, Robert Gordon (D.D., Minister of the Free High Church, Edinburgh.), Christ as Made Known to the Ancient Church: an Exposition of the Revelation of Divine Grace, as Unfolded in the Old Testament Scriptures, page 400: […] being a stranger to those restrictions which were afterwards laid on his posterity by the Mosaic law, and which gendered a servile frame of spirit. (archaic or obsolete) To breed. Leviticus 19:19 (KJV): Ye shall keep my statutes. Thou shalt not let thy cattle gender with a diverse kind: thou shalt not sow thy field with mingled seed: neither shall a garment mingled of linen and woollen come upon thee. Borrowed from Indonesian gender, from Javanese ꦒꦼꦤ꧀ꦢꦺꦂ (gendèr), from Old Javanese gĕnder. gendèr IPA(key): /ɡənˈdɛː(r)/ gender (plural genders) An Indonesian musical instrument resembling a xylophone, used in gamelan music. gender in Keywords for Today: A 21st Century Vocabulary, edited by The Keywords Project, Colin MacCabe, Holly Yanacek, 2018. “gender”, in The Century Dictionary […], New York, N.Y.: The Century Co., 1911, →OCLC. “gender”, in Collins English Dictionary. “gender, n.”, in Lexico, Dictionary.com; Oxford University Press, 2019–2022. “gender”, in OneLook Dictionary Search. “gender”, in Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary, Springfield, Mass.: Merriam-Webster, 1996–present. “gender” in TheFreeDictionary.com, Huntingdon Valley, Pa.: Farlex, Inc., 2003–2024. gerned Borrowed from English gender. Doublet of genre and genus. IPA(key): /ˈɣɛn.dər/, /ˈdʒɛn.dər/ Hyphenation: gen‧der gender m or n (plural genders) gender (mental analog of sex) Dutch lacks words to distinguish gender from sex, using the words geslacht or sekse to encompass both concepts. The term gender in Dutch has been recently introduced for cases when a clear distinction is needed, such as in the distinction between transgender (feeling oneself to be different from one's birth sex) and transsexual (having or desiring the sexual organs of the sex opposite to those one had at birth). genderdysforie transgender gender inflection of gendern: first-person singular present singular imperative Internationalism, unadapted borrowing from English gender, from Middle English gendre, gender (see also gendres), from Middle French gendre, genre, from Latin genus (“kind, sort”). Doublet of genus, genre, and jenis. IPA(key): /ˈɡɛndər/ Rhymes: -dər, -ər, -r Hyphenation: gèn‧dêr gèndêr (plural gender-gender, first-person possessive genderku, second-person possessive gendermu, third-person possessive gendernya) gender: sex (a category, either male or female, into which sexually-reproducing organisms are divided on the basis of their reproductive roles in their species). Synonyms: jantina, jenis kelamin, kelamin, seks Identification as a man, a woman, or something else, and association with a (social) role or set of behavioral and cultural traits, clothing, etc; a category to which a person belongs on this basis. Borrowed from Javanese ꦒꦼꦤ꧀ꦢꦺꦂ (gendèr), from Old Javanese gĕnder. IPA(key): /ɡənˈdɛr/ Rhymes: -dɛr, -ɛr, -r Hyphenation: gên‧dèr gêndèr (plural gender-gender, first-person possessive genderku, second-person possessive gendermu, third-person possessive gendernya) (music) An Javanese gamelan instrument. “gender” in Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia, Jakarta: Agency for Language Development and Cultivation – Ministry of Education, Culture, Research, and Technology of the Republic of Indonesia, 2016. Unadapted borrowing from English gender. IPA(key): /ˈd͡ʐɛn.dɛr/ Rhymes: -ɛndɛr Syllabification: gen‧der gender (not comparable, no derived adverb) (humanities, relational) genderism Synonym: genderowy gender m inan (indeclinable) gender (identification as a man, a woman, or something else) (humanities) gender studies, genderism Synonyms: gender studies, genderyzm Indeclinable or gender in Wielki słownik języka polskiego, Instytut Języka Polskiego PAN gender in Polish dictionaries at PWN

(grammar: grammatical gender): g. (abbreviation) (Received Pronunciation) IPA(key): /ˈd͡ʒɛndə/ (US) IPA(key): /ˈd͡ʒɛndɚ/ Rhymes: -ɛndə(ɹ) Hyphenation: gen‧der From Middle English gendre, borrowed from Old French gendre, borrowed from Latin genere (“type, kind”). Doublet of genre and genus. The verb developed after the noun. gender (countable and uncountable, plural genders) (obsolete) Class; kind. [14th–19th c.] (grammar) A division of nouns and pronouns (and sometimes of other parts of speech) into masculine or feminine, and sometimes other categories like neuter or common, and animate or inanimate. [from 14th c.] (now sometimes proscribed) Sex (a category, either male or female, into which sexually-reproducing organisms are divided on the basis of their reproductive roles in their species). [from 15th c.] the gene is activated in both genders The effect of the medication is dependent upon age, gender, and other factors. 1723, Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, letter, 7 December: To say truth, I have never had any great esteem for the generality of the fair sex; and my only consolation for being of that gender has been the assurance it gave me of never being married to any one among them […] . Identification as a man, a woman, or something else, and association with a (social) role or set of behavioral and cultural traits, clothing, etc; a category to which a person belongs on this basis. (Compare gender role, gender identity.) [from 20th c.] (grammar) Synonym of voice (“particular way of inflecting or conjugating verbs”) (hardware) The quality which distinguishes connectors, which may be male (fitting into another connector) and female (having another connector fit into it), or genderless/androgynous (capable of fitting together with another connector of the same type). [from 20th c.] Sometimes, sex and gender are distinguished. (grammar, of verbs): voice (biological sex): sex (class or kind): genre (categorization): gendersex (grammar) common, feminine, masculine, neuter (sex) female, male, hermaphroditic; man, woman, hermaphrodite genderqueer, bigender, non-binary, transgender, androgyne, crossdresser, hijra, kathoey, transsexual, two-spirit gender (third-person singular simple present genders, present participle gendering, simple past and past participle gendered) (sociology) To assign a gender to (a person); to perceive as having a gender; to address using terms (pronouns, nouns, adjectives...) that express a certain gender. (sociology) To perceive (a thing) as having characteristics associated with a certain gender, or as having been authored by someone of a certain gender. misgender ungender, degender regender gender (comparative more gender, superlative most gender) (LGBT, Internet slang, humorous) Evoking indescribable feelings regarding gender. From Middle English gendren, genderen, from Middle French gendrer, from Latin generāre. gender (third-person singular simple present genders, present participle gendering, simple past and past participle gendered) (archaic) To engender. 1854, Robert Gordon (D.D., Minister of the Free High Church, Edinburgh.), Christ as Made Known to the Ancient Church: an Exposition of the Revelation of Divine Grace, as Unfolded in the Old Testament Scriptures, page 400: […] being a stranger to those restrictions which were afterwards laid on his posterity by the Mosaic law, and which gendered a servile frame of spirit. (archaic or obsolete) To breed. Leviticus 19:19 (KJV): Ye shall keep my statutes. Thou shalt not let thy cattle gender with a diverse kind: thou shalt not sow thy field with mingled seed: neither shall a garment mingled of linen and woollen come upon thee. Borrowed from Indonesian gender, from Javanese ꦒꦼꦤ꧀ꦢꦺꦂ (gendèr), from Old Javanese gĕnder. gendèr IPA(key): /ɡənˈdɛː(r)/ gender (plural genders) An Indonesian musical instrument resembling a xylophone, used in gamelan music. gender in Keywords for Today: A 21st Century Vocabulary, edited by The Keywords Project, Colin MacCabe, Holly Yanacek, 2018. “gender”, in The Century Dictionary […], New York, N.Y.: The Century Co., 1911, →OCLC. “gender”, in Collins English Dictionary. “gender, n.”, in Lexico, Dictionary.com; Oxford University Press, 2019–2022. “gender”, in OneLook Dictionary Search. “gender”, in Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary, Springfield, Mass.: Merriam-Webster, 1996–present. “gender” in TheFreeDictionary.com, Huntingdon Valley, Pa.: Farlex, Inc., 2003–2024. gerned Borrowed from English gender. Doublet of genre and genus. IPA(key): /ˈɣɛn.dər/, /ˈdʒɛn.dər/ Hyphenation: gen‧der gender m or n (plural genders) gender (mental analog of sex) Dutch lacks words to distinguish gender from sex, using the words geslacht or sekse to encompass both concepts. The term gender in Dutch has been recently introduced for cases when a clear distinction is needed, such as in the distinction between transgender (feeling oneself to be different from one's birth sex) and transsexual (having or desiring the sexual organs of the sex opposite to those one had at birth). genderdysforie transgender gender inflection of gendern: first-person singular present singular imperative Internationalism, unadapted borrowing from English gender, from Middle English gendre, gender (see also gendres), from Middle French gendre, genre, from Latin genus (“kind, sort”). Doublet of genus, genre, and jenis. IPA(key): /ˈɡɛndər/ Rhymes: -dər, -ər, -r Hyphenation: gèn‧dêr gèndêr (plural gender-gender, first-person possessive genderku, second-person possessive gendermu, third-person possessive gendernya) gender: sex (a category, either male or female, into which sexually-reproducing organisms are divided on the basis of their reproductive roles in their species). Synonyms: jantina, jenis kelamin, kelamin, seks Identification as a man, a woman, or something else, and association with a (social) role or set of behavioral and cultural traits, clothing, etc; a category to which a person belongs on this basis. Borrowed from Javanese ꦒꦼꦤ꧀ꦢꦺꦂ (gendèr), from Old Javanese gĕnder. IPA(key): /ɡənˈdɛr/ Rhymes: -dɛr, -ɛr, -r Hyphenation: gên‧dèr gêndèr (plural gender-gender, first-person possessive genderku, second-person possessive gendermu, third-person possessive gendernya) (music) An Javanese gamelan instrument. “gender” in Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia, Jakarta: Agency for Language Development and Cultivation – Ministry of Education, Culture, Research, and Technology of the Republic of Indonesia, 2016. Unadapted borrowing from English gender. IPA(key): /ˈd͡ʐɛn.dɛr/ Rhymes: -ɛndɛr Syllabification: gen‧der gender (not comparable, no derived adverb) (humanities, relational) genderism Synonym: genderowy gender m inan (indeclinable) gender (identification as a man, a woman, or something else) (humanities) gender studies, genderism Synonyms: gender studies, genderyzm Indeclinable or gender in Wielki słownik języka polskiego, Instytut Języka Polskiego PAN gender in Polish dictionaries at PWN

gender

Gender (wikipedia)

Gender includes the social, psychological, cultural and behavioral aspects of being a man, woman, or other gender identity. Depending on the context, this may include sex-based social structures (i.e. gender roles) and gender expression. Most cultures use a gender binary, in which gender is divided into two categories, and people are considered part of one or the other (girls/women and boys/men); those who are outside these groups may fall under the umbrella term non-binary. A number of societies have specific genders besides "man" and "woman," such as the hijras of South Asia; these are often referred to as third genders (and fourth genders, etc.). Most scholars agree that gender is a central characteristic for social organization. In the mid-20th century, a terminological distinction in modern English (known as the sex and gender distinction) between biological sex and gender began to develop in the academic areas of psychology, sexology, and feminism. Before the mid-20th century, it was uncommon to use the word gender to refer to anything but grammatical categories. In the West, in the 1970s, feminist theory embraced the concept of a distinction between biological sex and the social construct of gender. The distinction between gender and sex is made by most contemporary social scientists in Western countries, behavioral scientists and biologists, many legal systems and government bodies, and intergovernmental agencies such as the WHO. The social sciences have a branch devoted to gender studies. Other sciences, such as psychology, sociology, sexology, and neuroscience, are interested in the subject. The social sciences sometimes approach gender as a social construct, and gender studies particularly do, while research in the natural sciences investigates whether biological differences in females and males influence the development of gender in humans; both inform the debate about how far biological differences influence the formation of gender identity and gendered behavior. Biopsychosocial approaches to gender include biological, psychological, and social/cultural aspects. == Etymology and usage == === Derivation === The modern English word gender comes from the Middle English gender, gendre, a loanword from Anglo-Norman and Middle French gendre. This, in turn, came from Latin genus. Both words mean "kind", "type", or "sort". They derive ultimately from a Proto-Indo-European (PIE) root *ǵénh₁- 'to beget', which is also the source of kin, kind, king, and many other English words, with cognates widely attested in many Indo-European languages. It appears in Modern French in the word genre (type, kind, also genre sexuel) and is related to the Greek root gen- (to produce), appearing in gene, genesis, and oxygen. The Oxford Etymological Dictionary of the English Language of 1882 defined gender as kind, breed, sex, derived from the Latin ablative case of genus, like genere natus, which refers to birth. The first edition of the Oxford English Dictionary (OED1, Volume 4, 1900) notes the original meaning of gender as "kind" had already become obsolete. === History of the concept === The concept of gender, in the modern sense, is a recent invention in human history. The ancient world had no basis of understanding gender as it has been understood in the humanities and social sciences for the past few decades. The term gender had been associated with grammar for most of history and only started to move towards it being a malleable cultural construct in the 1950s and 1960s. Before the terminological distinction between biological sex and gender as a role developed, it was uncommon to use the word gender to refer to anything but grammatical categories. For example, in a bibliography of 12,000 references on marriage and family from 1900 to 1964, the term gender does not even emerge once. Analysis of more than 30 million academic article titles from 1945 to 2001 showed that the uses of the term "gender", were much rarer than uses of "sex", was often used as a grammatical category early in this period. By the end of this period, uses of "gender" outnumbered uses of "sex" in the social sciences, arts, and humanities. It was in the 1970s that feminist scholars adopted the term gender as way of distinguishing "socially constructed" aspects of male–female differences (gender) from "biologically determined" aspects (sex). In the last two decades of the 20th century, the use of gender in academia has increased greatly, outnumbering uses of sex in the social sciences. While the spread of the word in science publications can be attributed to the influence of feminism, its use as a synonym for sex is attributed to the failure to grasp the distinction made in feminist theory, and the distinction has sometimes become blurred with the theory itself; David Haig stated, "Among the reasons that working scientists have given me for choosing gender rather than sex in biological contexts are desires to signal sympathy with feminist goals, to use a more academic term, or to avoid the connotation of copulation." In 1993, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) started to use gender instead of sex to avoid confusion with sexual intercourse. Later, in 2011, the FDA reversed its position and began using sex as the biological classification and gender as "a person's self-representation as male or female, or how that person is responded to by social institutions based on the individual's gender presentation." In legal cases alleging discrimination, a 2006 law review article by Meredith Render notes "as notions of gender and sexuality have evolved over the last few decades, legal theories concerning what it means to discriminate "because of sex" under Title VII have experienced a similar evolution".: 135  In a 1999 law review article proposing a legal definition of sex that "emphasizes gender self-identification," Julie Greenberg writes, "Most legislation utilizes the word "sex," yet courts, legislators, and administrative agencies often substitute the word "gender" for "sex" when they interpret these statutes.": 270, 274  In J.E.B. v. Alabama ex rel. T.B., a 1994 United States Supreme Court case addressing "whether the Equal Protection Clause forbids intentional discrimination on the basis of gender", the majority opinion noted that with regard to gender, "It is necessary only to acknowledge that 'our Nation has had a long and unfortunate history of sex discrimination,' id., at 684, 93 S.Ct., at 1769, a history which warrants the heightened scrutiny we afford all gender-based classifications today", and stated "When state actors exercise peremptory challenges in reliance on gender stereotypes, they ratify and reinforce prejudicial views of the relative abilities of men and women." ==== As a grammatical category ==== The word was still widely used, however, in the specific sense of grammatical gender (the assignment of nouns to categories such as masculine, feminine and neuter). According to Aristotle, this concept was introduced by the Greek philosopher Protagoras. In 1926, Henry Watson Fowler stated that the definition of the word pertained to this grammar-related meaning: "Gender...is a grammatical term only. To talk of persons...of the masculine or feminine g[ender], meaning of the male or female sex, is either a jocularity (permissible or not according to context) or a blunder." ==== As distinct from sex ==== In 1945, Madison Bentley defined gender as the "socialized obverse of sex". Simone de Beauvoir's 1949 book The Second Sex has been interpreted as the beginning of the distinction between sex and gender in feminist theory, although this interpretation is contested by many feminist theorists, including Sara Heinämaa. Controversial sexologist John Money coined the term gender role, and was the first to use it in print in a scientific trade journal in 1955. In the seminal 1955 paper, he defined it as "all those things that a person says or does to disclose himself or herself as having the status of boy or man, girl or woman." The modern academic sense of the word, in the context of social roles of men and women, dates at least back to 1945, and was popularized and developed by the feminist movement from the 1970s onwards (see Feminist theory and gender studies below), which theorizes that human nature is essentially epicene and social distinctions based on sex are arbitrarily constructed. In this context, matters pertaining to this theoretical process of social construction were labelled matters of gender. The popular use of gender simply as an alternative to sex (as a biological category) is also widespread, although attempts are still made to preserve the distinction. The American Heritage Dictionary (2000) uses the following two sentences to illustrate the difference, noting that the distinction "is useful in principle, but it is by no means widely observed, and considerable variation in usage occurs at all levels." The effectiveness of the medication appears to depend on the sex (not gender) of the patient.In peasant societies, gender (not sex) roles are likely to be more clearly defined. == Gender identity and gender roles == Gender identity refers to a personal identification with a particular gender and gender role in society. The term woman has historically been used interchangeably with reference to the female body, though more recently this usage has been viewed as controversial by some feminists. There are qualitative analyses that explore and present the representations of gender; however, feminists challenge these dominant ideologies concerning gender roles and biological sex. One's biological sex is often times tied to specific social roles and expectations. Judith Butler considers the concept of being a woman to have more challenges, owing not only to society's viewing women as a social category but also as a felt sense of self, a culturally conditioned or constructed subjective identity. Social identity refers to the common identification with a collectivity or social category that creates a common culture among participants concerned. According to social identity theory, an important component of the self-concept is derived from memberships in social groups and categories; this is demonstrated by group processes and how inter-group relationships impact significantly on individuals' self perception and behaviors. The groups people belong to therefore provide members with the definition of who they are and how they should behave within their social sphere. Categorizing males and females into social roles creates a problem for some individuals who feel they have to be at one end of a linear spectrum and must identify themselves as man or woman, rather than being allowed to choose a section in between. Globally, communities interpret biological differences between men and women to create a set of social expectations that define the behaviors that are "appropriate" for men and women and determine their different access to rights, resources, power in society and health behaviors. Although the specific nature and degree of these differences vary from one society to the next, they still tend to typically favor men, creating an imbalance in power and gender inequalities within most societies. Many cultures have different systems of norms and beliefs based on gender, but there is no universal standard to a masculine or feminine role across all cultures. Social roles of men and women in relation to each other is based on the cultural norms of that society, which lead to the creation of gender systems. The gender system is the basis of social patterns in many societies, which include the separation of sexes, and the primacy of masculine norms. Philosopher Michel Foucault said that as sexual subjects, humans are the object of power, which is not an institution or structure, rather it is a signifier or name attributed to "complex strategical situation". Because of this, "power" is what determines individual attributes, behaviors, etc. and people are a part of an ontologically and epistemologically constructed set of names and labels. For example, being female characterizes one as a woman, and being a woman signifies one as weak, emotional, and irrational, and incapable of actions attributed to a "man". Butler said that gender and sex are more like verbs than nouns. She reasoned that her actions are limited because she is female. "I am not permitted to construct my gender and sex willy-nilly," she said. "[This] is so because gender is politically and therefore socially controlled. Rather than 'woman' being something one is, it is something one does." More recent criticisms of Judith Butler's theories critique her writing for reinforcing the very conventional dichotomies of gender. === Social assignment and gender fluidity === According to gender theorist Kate Bornstein, gender can have ambiguity and fluidity. There are two contrasting ideas regarding the definition of gender, and the intersection of both of them is definable as below: The World Health Organization defines gender as "the characteristics of women, men, girls and boys that are socially constructed". The beliefs, values and attitude taken up and exhibited by them is as per the agreed upon norms of the society and the personal opinion of the person is not taken into the primary consideration of assignment of gender and imposition of gender roles as per the assigned gender. The assignment of gender involves taking into account the physiological and biological attributes assigned by nature followed by the imposition of the socially constructed conduct. Gender is a term used to exemplify the attributes that a society or culture constitutes as "masculine" or "feminine". Although a person's sex as male or female stands as a biological fact that is identical in any culture, what that specific sex means in reference to a person's gender role as a man or a woman in society varies cross-culturally according to what things are considered to be masculine or feminine. These roles are learned from various, intersecting sources such as parental influences, the socialization a child receives in school, and what is portrayed in the local media. Learning gender roles starts from birth and includes seemingly simple things like what color outfits a baby is clothed in or what toys they are given to play with. However, a person's gender does not always align with what has been assigned at birth. Factors other than learned behaviors play a role in the development of gender. The article Adolescent Gender-Role Identity and Mental Health: Gender Intensification Revisited focuses on the work of Heather A. Priess, Sara M. Lindberg, and Janet Shibley Hyde on whether or not girls and boys diverge in their gender identities during adolescent years. The researchers based their work on ideas previously mentioned by Hill and Lynch in their gender intensification hypothesis in that signals and messages from parents determine and affect their children's gender role identities. This hypothesis argues that parents affect their children's gender role identities and that different interactions spent with either parents will affect gender intensification. Priess and among other's study did not support the hypothesis of Hill and Lynch which stated "that as adolescents experience these and other socializing influences, they will become more stereotypical in their gender-role identities and gendered attitudes and behaviors." However, the researchers did state that perhaps the hypothesis Hill and Lynch proposed was true in the past but is not true now due to changes in the population of teens in respect to their gender-role identities. Authors of "Unpacking the Gender System: A Theoretical Perspective on Gender Beliefs and Social Relations", Cecilia Ridgeway and Shelley Correll, argue that gender is more than an identity or role but is something that is institutionalized through "social relational contexts." Ridgeway and Correll define "social relational contexts" as "any situation in which individuals define themselves in relation to others in order to act." They also point out that in addition to social relational contexts, cultural beliefs plays a role in the gender system. The coauthors argue that daily people are forced to acknowledge and interact with others in ways that are related to gender. Every day, individuals are interacting with each other and comply with society's set standard of hegemonic beliefs, which includes gender roles. They state that society's hegemonic cultural beliefs sets the rules which in turn create the setting for which social relational contexts are to take place. Ridgeway and Correll then shift their topic towards sex categorization. The authors define sex categorization as "the sociocognitive process by which we label another as male or female." The failure of an attempt to raise David Reimer from infancy through adolescence as a girl after his genitals were accidentally mutilated is cited as disproving the theory that gender identity is determined solely by parenting. Reimer's case is used by organizations such as the Intersex Society of North America to caution against needlessly modifying the genitals of unconsenting minors. Between the 1960s and 2000, many other male newborns and infants were surgically and socially reassigned as females if they were born with malformed penises, or if they lost their penises in accidents. At the time, surgical reconstruction of the vagina was more advanced than reconstruction of the penis, leading many doctors and psychologists, including John Money who oversaw Reimer's case, to recommend sex reassignment based on the idea that these patients would be happiest living as women with functioning genitalia. Available evidence indicates that in such instances, parents were deeply committed to raising these children as girls and in as gender-typical a manner as possible.: 72–73  A 2005 review of these cases found that about half of natal males reassigned female lived as women in adulthood, including those who knew their medical history, suggesting that gender assignment and related social factors has a major, though not determinative, influence on eventual gender identity. In 2015, the American Academy of Pediatrics released a webinar series on gender, gender identity, gender expression, transgender, etc. In the first lecture Sherer explains that parents' influence (through punishment and reward of behavior) can influence gender expression but not gender identity. Sherer argued that kids will modify their gender expression to seek reward from their parents and society, but this will not affect their gender identity (their internal sense of self). === Societal categories === Sexologist John Money coined the term gender role in 1955. The term gender role is defined as the actions or responses that may reveal their status as boy, man, girl or woman, respectively. Elements surrounding gender roles include clothing, speech patterns, movement, occupations, and other factors not limited to biological sex. In contrast to taxonomic approaches, some feminist philosophers have argued that gender "is a vast orchestration of subtle mediations between oneself and others", rather than a "private cause behind manifest behaviours". ==== Non-binary and third genders ==== Historically, most societies have recognized only two distinct, broad classes of gender roles, a binary of masculine and feminine, largely corresponding to the biological sexes of male and female. When a baby is born, society allocates the child to one gender or the other, on the basis of what their genitals resemble. However, some societies have historically acknowledged and even honored people who fulfill a gender role that exists more in the middle of the continuum between the feminine and masculine polarity. For example, the Hawaiian māhū, who occupy "a place in the middle" between male and female, or the Ojibwe ikwekaazo, "men who choose to function as women", or ininiikaazo, "women who function as men". In the language of the sociology of gender, some of these people may be considered third gender, especially by those in gender studies or anthropology. Contemporary Native American and FNIM people who fulfill these traditional roles in their communities may also participate in the modern, two-spirit community, however, these umbrella terms, neologisms, and ways of viewing gender are not necessarily the type of cultural constructs that more traditional members of these communities agree with. The hijras of India and Pakistan are often cited as third gender. Another example may be the muxe (pronounced [ˈmuʃe]), found in the state of Oaxaca, in southern Mexico. The Bugis people of Sulawesi, Indonesia have a tradition that incorporates all the features above. In addition to these traditionally recognized third genders, many cultures now recognize, to differing degrees, various non-binary gender identities. People who are non-binary (or genderqueer) have gender identities that are not exclusively masculine or feminine. They may identify as having an overlap of gender identities, having two or more genders, having no gender, having a fluctuating gender identity, or being third gender or other-gendered. Recognition of non-binary genders is still somewhat new to mainstream Western culture, and non-binary people may face increased risk of assault, harassment, and discrimination. === Measurement of gender identity === Two instruments incorporating the multidimensional nature of masculinity and femininity have dominated gender identity research: The Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI) and the Personal Attributes Questionnaire (PAQ). Both instruments categorize individuals as either being sex typed (males report themselves as identifying primarily with masculine traits, females report themselves as identifying primarily with feminine traits), cross sex-typed (males report themselves as identifying primarily with feminine traits, females report themselves as identifying primarily with masculine traits), androgynous (either males or females who report themselves as high on both masculine and feminine traits) or undifferentiated (either males or females who report themselves as low on both masculine and feminine traits). Twenge (1997) noted that men are generally more masculine than women and women generally more feminine than men, but the association between biological sex and masculinity/femininity is waning. == Biological factors and views == Some gendered behavior is influenced by prenatal and early life androgen exposure. This includes, for example, gender normative play, self-identification with a gender, and tendency to engage in aggressive behavior. Males of most mammals, including humans, exhibit more rough and tumble play behavior, which is influenced by maternal testosterone levels. These levels may also influence sexuality, with non-heterosexual persons exhibiting sex atypical behavior in childhood. The biology of gender became the subject of an expanding number of studies over the course of the late 20th century. One of the earliest areas of interest was what became known as "gender identity disorder" (GID) and which is now also described as gender dysphoria. Studies in this, and related areas, inform the following summary of the subject by John Money. He stated: The term "gender role" appeared in print first in 1955. The term gender identity was used in a press release, 21 November 1966, to announce the new clinic for transsexuals at The Johns Hopkins Hospital. It was disseminated in the media worldwide, and soon entered the vernacular. The definitions of gender and gender identity vary on a doctrinal basis. In popularized and scientifically debased usage, sex is what you are biologically; gender is what you become socially; gender identity is your own sense or conviction of maleness or femaleness; and gender role is the cultural stereotype of what is masculine and feminine. Causality with respect to gender identity disorder is sub-divisible into genetic, prenatal hormonal, postnatal social, and post-pubertal hormonal determinants, but there is, as yet, no comprehensive and detailed theory of causality. Gender coding in the brain is bipolar. In gender identity disorder, there is discordance between the natal sex of one's external genitalia and the brain coding of one's gender as masculine or feminine. Although causation from the biological—genetic and hormonal—to the behavioral has been broadly demonstrated and accepted, Money is careful to also note that understanding of the causal chains from biology to behavior in sex and gender issues is very far from complete. There are studies concerning women who have a condition called congenital adrenal hyperplasia, which leads to the overproduction of the masculine sex hormone, androgen. These women usually have ordinary female appearances (though nearly all girls with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) have corrective surgery performed on their genitals). However, despite taking hormone-balancing medication given to them at birth, these females are statistically more likely to be interested in activities traditionally linked to males than female activities. Psychology professor and CAH researcher Dr. Sheri Berenbaum attributes these differences to an exposure of higher levels of male sex hormones in utero. === Non-human animals === In non-human animal research, gender is commonly used to refer to the biological sex of the animals. According to biologist Michael J. Ryan, gender identity is a concept exclusively applied to humans. Also, in a letter Ellen Ketterson writes, "[w]hen asked, my colleagues in the Department of Gender Studies agreed that the term gender could be properly applied only to humans, because it involves one's self-concept as man or woman. Sex is a biological concept; gender is a human social and cultural concept." However, Poiani (2010) notes that the question of whether behavioural similarities across species can be associated with gender identity or not is "an issue of no easy resolution", and suggests that mental states, such as gender identity, are more accessible in humans than other species due to their capacity for language. Poiani suggests that the potential number of species with members possessing a gender identity must be limited due to the requirement for self-consciousness. Jacques Balthazart suggests that "there is no animal model for studying sexual identity. It is impossible to ask an animal, whatever its species, to what sex it belongs." He notes that "this would imply that the animal is aware of its own body and sex, which is far from proved", despite recent research demonstrating sophisticated cognitive skills among non-human primates and other species. Hird (2006) has also stated that whether or not non-human animals consider themselves to be feminine or masculine is a "difficult, if not impossible, question to answer", as this would require "judgements about what constitutes femininity or masculinity in any given species". Nonetheless, she asserts that "non-human animals do experience femininity and masculinity to the extent that any given species' behaviour is gender segregated." Despite this, Poiani and Dixson emphasise the applicability of the concept of gender role to non-human animals such as rodents throughout their book. The concept of gender role has also been applied to non-human primates such as rhesus monkeys. == Feminist theory and gender studies == Biologist and feminist academic Anne Fausto-Sterling rejects the discourse of biological versus social determinism and advocates a deeper analysis of how interactions between the biological being and the social environment influence individuals' capacities. The philosopher and feminist Simone de Beauvoir applied existentialism to women's experience of life: "One is not born a woman, one becomes one." In context, this is a philosophical statement. However, it may be analyzed in terms of biology—a girl must pass puberty to become a woman—and sociology, as a great deal of mature relating in social contexts is learned rather than instinctive. Within feminist theory, terminology for gender issues developed over the 1970s. In the 1974 edition of Masculine/Feminine or Human, the author uses "innate gender" and "learned sex roles", but in the 1978 edition, the use of sex and gender is reversed. By 1980, most feminist writings had agreed on using gender only for socioculturally adapted traits. Gender studies is a field of interdisciplinary study and academic field devoted to gender, gender identity and gendered representation as central categories of analysis. This field includes Women's studies (concerning women, feminity, their gender roles and politics, and feminism), Men's studies (concerning men, masculinity, their gender roles, and politics), and LGBT studies. Sometimes Gender studies is offered together with Study of Sexuality. These disciplines study gender and sexuality in the fields of literature and language, history, political science, sociology, anthropology, cinema and media studies, human development, law, and medicine. It also analyses race, ethnicity, location, nationality, and disability. In gender studies, the term gender refers to proposed social and cultural constructions of masculinities and femininities. In this context, gender explicitly excludes reference to biological differences, to focus on cultural differences. This emerged from a number of different areas: in sociology during the 1950s; from the theories of the psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan; and in the work of French psychoanalysts like Julia Kristeva, Luce Irigaray, and American feminists such as Judith Butler. Those who followed Butler came to regard gender roles as a practice, sometimes referred to as "performative". Charles E. Hurst states that some people think sex will, "...automatically determine one's gender demeanor and role (social) as well as one's sexual orientation" (sexual attractions and behavior). Gender sociologists believe that people have cultural origins and habits for dealing with gender. For example, Michael Schwalbe believes that humans must be taught how to act appropriately in their designated gender to fill the role properly, and that the way people behave as masculine or feminine interacts with social expectations. Schwalbe comments that humans "are the results of many people embracing and acting on similar ideas". People do this through everything from clothing and hairstyle to relationship and employment choices. Schwalbe believes that these distinctions are important, because society wants to identify and categorize people as soon as we see them. They need to place people into distinct categories to know how we should feel about them. Hurst comments that in a society where we present our genders so distinctly, there can often be severe consequences for breaking these cultural norms. Many of these consequences are rooted in discrimination based on sexual orientation. Gays and lesbians are often discriminated against in our legal system because of societal prejudices. Hurst describes how this discrimination works against people for breaking gender norms, no matter what their sexual orientation is. He says that "courts often confuse sex, gender, and sexual orientation, and confuse them in a way that results in denying the rights not only of gays and lesbians, but also of those who do not present themselves or act in a manner traditionally expected of their sex". This prejudice plays out in our legal system when a person is judged differently because they do not present themselves as the "correct" gender. Andrea Dworkin stated her "commitment to destroying male dominance and gender itself" while stating her belief in radical feminism. Political scientist Mary Hawkesworth addresses gender and feminist theory, stating that since the 1970s the concept of gender has transformed and been used in significantly different ways within feminist scholarship. She notes that a transition occurred when several feminist scholars, such as Sandra Harding and Joan Scott, began to conceive of gender "as an analytic category within which humans think about and organize their social activity". Feminist scholars in Political Science began employing gender as an analytical category, which highlighted "social and political relations neglected by mainstream accounts". However, Hawkesworth states "feminist political science has not become a dominant paradigm within the discipline". American political scientist Karen Beckwith addresses the concept of gender within political science arguing that a "common language of gender" exists and that it must be explicitly articulated in order to build upon it within the political science discipline. Beckwith describes two ways in which the political scientist may employ 'gender' when conducting empirical research: "gender as a category and as a process." Employing gender as a category allows for political scientists "to delineate specific contexts where behaviours, actions, attitudes and preferences considered masculine or feminine result in particular political outcomes". It may also demonstrate how gender differences, not necessarily corresponding precisely with sex, may "constrain or facilitate political" actors. Gender as a process has two central manifestations in political science research, firstly in determining "the differential effects of structures and policies upon men and women," and secondly, the ways in which masculine and feminine political actors "actively work to produce favorable gendered outcomes". With regard to gender studies, Jacquetta Newman states that although sex is determined biologically, the ways in which people express gender is not. Gendering is a socially constructed process based on culture, though often cultural expectations around women and men have a direct relationship to their biology. Because of this, Newman argues, many privilege sex as being a cause of oppression and ignore other issues like race, ability, poverty, etc. Current gender studies classes seek to move away from that and examine the intersectionality of these factors in determining people's lives. She also points out that other non-Western cultures do not necessarily have the same views of gender and gender roles. Newman also debates the meaning of equality, which is often considered the goal of feminism; she believes that equality is a problematic term because it can mean many different things, such as people being treated identically, differently, or fairly based on their gender. Newman believes this is problematic because there is no unified definition as to what equality means or looks like, and that this can be significantly important in areas like public policy. === Social construction of sex hypotheses === The World Health Organization states "As a social construct, gender varies from society to society and can change over time." Sociologists generally regard gender as a social construct. For instance, sexologist John Money suggests the distinction between biological sex and gender as a role. Moreover, Ann Oakley, a professor of sociology and social policy, says "the constancy of sex must be admitted, but so also must the variability of gender." Lynda Birke, a feminist biologist, maintains "'biology' is not seen as something which might change." However, there are scholars who argue that sex is also socially constructed. For example, gender studies writer Judith Butler states that "perhaps this construct called 'sex' is as culturally constructed as gender; indeed, perhaps it was always already gender, with the consequence that the distinction between sex and gender turns out to be no distinction at all." She continues:It would make no sense, then, to define gender as the cultural interpretation of sex, if sex is itself a gender-centered category. Gender should not be conceived merely as the cultural inscription of meaning based on a given sex (a juridical conception); gender must also designate the very apparatus of production whereby the sexes themselves are established. [...] This production of sex as the pre-discursive should be understood as the effect of the apparatus of cultural construction designated by gender. Butler argues that "bodies only appear, only endure, only live within the productive constraints of certain highly gendered regulatory schemas," and sex is "no longer as a bodily given on which the construct of gender is artificially imposed, but as a cultural norm which governs the materialization of bodies." With regard to history, Linda Nicholson, a professor of history and women's studies, argues that the understanding of human bodies as sexually dimorphic was historically not recognised. She states that male and female genitals were considered inherently the same in Western society until the 18th century. At that time, female genitals were regarded as incomplete male genitals, and the difference between the two was conceived as a matter of degree. In other words, there was a belief in a gradation of physical forms, or a spectrum. Scholars such as Helen King, Joan Cadden, and Michael Stolberg have criticized this interpretation of history. Cadden notes that the "one-sex" model was disputed even in ancient and medieval medicine, and Stolberg points out that already in the sixteenth century, medicine had begun to move towards a two-sex model. In addition, drawing from the empirical research of intersex children, Anne Fausto-Sterling, a professor of biology and gender studies, describes how the doctors address the issues of intersexuality. She starts her argument with an example of the birth of an intersexual individual and maintains "our conceptions of the nature of gender difference shape, even as they reflect, the ways we structure our social system and polity; they also shape and reflect our understanding of our physical bodies." Then she adds how gender assumptions affects the scientific study of sex by presenting the research of intersexuals by John Money et al., and she concludes that "they never questioned the fundamental assumption that there are only two sexes, because their goal in studying intersexuals was to find out more about 'normal' development." She also mentions the language the doctors use when they talk with the parents of the intersexuals. After describing how the doctors inform parents about the intersexuality, she asserts that because the doctors believe that the intersexuals are actually male or female, they tell the parents of the intersexuals that it will take a little bit more time for the doctors to determine whether the infant is a boy or a girl. That is to say, the doctors' behavior is formulated by the cultural gender assumption that there are only two sexes. Lastly, she maintains that the differences in the ways in which the medical professionals in different regions treat intersexual people also give us a good example of how sex is socially constructed. In her Sexing the Body: gender politics and the construction of sexuality, she introduces the following example: A group of physicians from Saudi Arabia recently reported on several cases of XX intersex children with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH), a genetically inherited malfunction of the enzymes that aid in making steroid hormones. [...] In the United States and Europe, such children, because they have the potential to bear children later in life, are usually raised as girls. Saudi doctors trained in this European tradition recommended such a course of action to the Saudi parents of CAH XX children. A number of parents, however, refused to accept the recommendation that their child, initially identified as a son, be raised instead as a daughter. Nor would they accept feminizing surgery for their child. [...] This was essentially an expression of local community attitudes with [...] the preference for male offspring. Thus it is evident that culture can play a part in assigning gender, particularly in relation to intersex children. == Psychology and sociology == Many of the more complicated human behaviors are influenced by both innate factors and by environmental ones, which include everything from genes, gene expression, and body chemistry, through diet and social pressures. A large area of research in behavioral psychology collates evidence in an effort to discover correlations between behavior and various possible antecedents such as genetics, gene regulation, access to food and vitamins, culture, gender, hormones, physical and social development, and physical and social environments. A core research area within sociology is the way human behavior operates on itself, in other words, how the behavior of one group or individual influences the behavior of other groups or individuals. Starting in the late 20th century, the feminist movement has contributed extensive study of gender and theories about it, notably within sociology but not restricted to it. Social theorists have sought to determine the specific nature of gender in relation to biological sex and sexuality, with the result being that culturally established gender and sex have become interchangeable identifications that signify the allocation of a specific 'biological' sex within a categorical gender. The second wave feminist view that gender is socially constructed and hegemonic in all societies, remains current in some literary theoretical circles, Kira Hall and Mary Bucholtz publishing new perspectives as recently as 2008. As the child grows, "...society provides a string of prescriptions, templates, or models of behaviors appropriate to the one sex or the other," which socialises the child into belonging to a culturally specific gender. There is huge incentive for a child to concede to their socialisation with gender shaping the individual's opportunities for education, work, family, sexuality, reproduction, authority, and to make an impact on the production of culture and knowledge. Adults who do not perform these ascribed roles are perceived from this perspective as deviant and improperly socialized. Some believe society is constructed in a way that splits gender into a dichotomy via social organisations that constantly invent and reproduce cultural images of gender. Joan Acker believed gendering occurs in at least five different interacting social processes: The construction of divisions along the lines of gender, such as those produced by labor, power, family, the state, even allowed behaviors and locations in physical space The construction of symbols and images such as language, ideology, dress and the media, that explain, express and reinforce, or sometimes oppose, those divisions Interactions between men and women, women and women and men and men that involve any form of dominance and submission. Conversational theorists, for example, have studied the way that interruptions, turn taking and the setting of topics re-create gender inequality in the flow of ordinary talk The way that the preceding three processes help to produce gendered components of individual identity, i.e., the way they create and maintain an image of a gendered self Gender is implicated in the fundamental, ongoing processes of creating and conceptualising social structures. Looking at gender through a Foucauldian lens, gender is transfigured into a vehicle for the social division of power. Gender difference is merely a construct of society used to enforce the distinctions made between what is assumed to be female and male, and allow for the domination of masculinity over femininity through the attribution of specific gender-related characteristics. "The idea that men and women are more different from one another than either is from anything else, must come from something other than nature... far from being an expression of natural differences, exclusive gender identity is the suppression of natural similarities." Gender conventions play a large role in attributing masculine and feminine characteristics to a fundamental biological sex. Socio-cultural codes and conventions, the rules by which society functions, and which are both a creation of society as well as a constituting element of it, determine the allocation of these specific traits to the sexes. These traits provide the foundations for the creation of hegemonic gender difference. It follows then, that gender can be assumed as the acquisition and internalisation of social norms. Individuals are therefore socialized through their receipt of society's expectations of 'acceptable' gender attributes that are flaunted within institutions such as the family, the state and the media. Such a notion of 'gender' then becomes naturalized into a person's sense of self or identity, effectively imposing a gendered social category upon a sexed body. The conception that people are gendered rather than sexed also coincides with Judith Butler's theories of gender performativity. Butler argues that gender is not an expression of what one is, but rather something that one does. It follows then, that if gender is acted out in a repetitive manner it is in fact re-creating and effectively embedding itself within the social consciousness. Contemporary sociological reference to male and female gender roles typically uses masculinities and femininities in the plural rather than singular, suggesting diversity both within cultures as well as across them. The difference between the sociological and popular definitions of gender involve a different dichotomy and focus. For example, the sociological approach to "gender" (social roles: female versus male) focuses on the difference in (economic/power) position between a male CEO (disregarding the fact that he is heterosexual or homosexual) to female workers in his employ (disregarding whether they are straight or gay). However the popular sexual self-conception approach (self-conception: gay versus straight) focuses on the different self-conceptions and social conceptions of those who are gay/straight, in comparison with those who are straight (disregarding what might be vastly differing economic and power positions between female and male groups in each category). There is then, in relation to definition of and approaches to "gender", a tension between historic feminist sociology and contemporary homosexual sociology. == Gender as biopsychosocial == According to Alex Iantaffi, Meg-John Barker, and others, gender is biopsychosocial. This is because it is derived from biological, psychological, and social factors, with all three factors feeding back into each other to form a person's gender. Biological factors such as sex chromosomes, hormones, and anatomy play a significant role in the development of gender. Hormones such as testosterone and estrogen also play a crucial role in shaping gender identity and expression. Anatomy, including genitalia and reproductive organs, can also influence one's gender identity and expression. Psychological factors such as cognition, personality, and self-concept also contribute to gender development. Gender identity emerges around the age of two to three years. Gender expression, which refers to the outward manifestation of gender, is influenced by cultural norms, personal preferences, and individual differences in personality. Social factors such as culture, socialization, and institutional practices shape gender identity and expression. In some English literature, there is also a trichotomy between biological sex, psychological gender, and social gender role. This framework first appeared in a feminist paper on transsexualism in 1978. == Legal status == A person's gender can have legal significance. In some countries and jurisdictions there are same-sex marriage laws. === Transgender people === The legal status of transgender people varies greatly around the world. Some countries have enacted laws protecting the rights of transgender individuals, but others have criminalized their gender identity or expression. Many countries now legally recognize sex reassignments by permitting a change of legal gender on an individual's birth certificate. === Intersex people === For intersex people, who according to the UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, "do not fit typical binary notions of male or female bodies", access to any form of identification document with a gender marker may be an issue. For other intersex people, there may be issues in securing the same rights as other individuals assigned male or female; other intersex people may seek non-binary gender recognition. === Non-binary and third genders === Some countries now legally recognize non-binary or third genders, including Canada, Germany, Australia, New Zealand, India and Pakistan. In the United States, Oregon was the first state to legally recognize non-binary gender in 2017, and was followed by California and the District of Columbia. == Gender and society == === Languages === Grammatical gender is a property of some languages in which every noun is assigned a gender, often with no direct relation to its meaning. For example, the word for "girl" is muchacha (grammatically feminine) in Spanish, Mädchen (grammatically neuter) or the older Maid (grammatically feminine) in German, and cailín (grammatically masculine) in Irish. The term "grammatical gender" is often applied to more complex noun class systems. This is especially true when a noun class system includes masculine and feminine as well as some other non-gender features like animate, edible, manufactured, and so forth. An example of the latter is found in the Dyirbal language. Other gender systems exist with no distinction between masculine and feminine; examples include a distinction between animate and inanimate things, which is common to, amongst others, Ojibwe, Basque and Hittite; and systems distinguishing between people (whether human or divine) and everything else, which are found in the Dravidian languages and Sumerian. A sample of the World Atlas of Language Structures by Greville G Corbett found that fewer than half of the 258 languages sampled have any system of grammatical gender. Of the remaining languages that feature grammatical gender, over half have more than the minimum requirement of two genders. Grammatical gender may be based on biological sex (which is the most common basis for grammatical gender), animacy, or other features, and may be based on a combination of these classes. One of the four genders of the Dyirbal language consists mainly of fruit and vegetables. Languages of the Niger-Congo language family can have as many as twenty genders, including plants, places, and shapes. Many languages include terms that are used asymmetrically in reference to men and women. Concern that current language may be biased in favor of men has led some authors in recent times to argue for the use of a more gender-neutral vocabulary in English and other languages. Several languages attest the use of different vocabulary by men and women, to differing degrees. See, for instance, Gender differences in Japanese. The oldest documented language, Sumerian, records a distinctive sub-language, Emesal, only used by female speakers. Conversely, many Indigenous Australian languages have distinctive registers with a limited lexicon used by men in the presence of their mothers-in-law (see Avoidance speech). As well, quite a few sign languages have a gendered distinction due to boarding schools segregated by gender, such as Irish Sign Language. Several languages such as Persian or Hungarian are gender-neutral. In Persian the same word is used in reference to men and women. Verbs, adjectives and nouns are not gendered. (See Gender-neutrality in genderless languages). Several languages employ different ways to refer to people where there are three or more genders, such as Navajo === Science === Historically, science has been portrayed as a masculine pursuit in which women have faced significant barriers to participate. Even after universities began admitting women in the 19th century, women were still largely relegated to certain scientific fields, such as home science, nursing, and child psychology. Women were also typically given tedious, low-paying jobs and denied opportunities for career advancement. This was often justified by the stereotype that women were naturally more suited to jobs that required concentration, patience, and dexterity, rather than creativity, leadership, or intellect. Although these stereotypes have been dispelled in modern times, women are still underrepresented in prestigious "hard science" fields such as physics, and are less likely to hold high-ranking positions, a situation global initiatives such as the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 5 are trying to rectify. === Religion === This topic includes internal and external religious issues such as gender of God and deities creation myths about human gender, roles and rights (for instance, leadership roles especially ordination of women, sex segregation, gender equality, marriage, abortion, homosexuality). In Taoism, yin and yang are considered feminine and masculine, respectively. The Taijitu and concept of the Zhou period reach into family and gender relations. Yin is female and yang is male. They fit together as two parts of a whole. The male principle was equated with the sun: active, bright, and shining; the female principle corresponds to the moon: passive, shaded, and reflective. Thus "male toughness was balanced by female gentleness, male action and initiative by female endurance and need for completion, and male leadership by female supportiveness." In Judaism, God is traditionally described in the masculine, but in the mystical tradition of the Kabbalah, the Shekhinah represents the feminine aspect of God's essence. However, Judaism traditionally holds that God is completely non-corporeal, and thus neither male nor female. Conceptions of the gender of God notwithstanding, traditional Judaism places a strong emphasis on individuals following Judaism's traditional gender roles, though many modern denominations of Judaism strive for greater egalitarianism. Moreover, traditional Jewish culture recognizes at least six genders. In Christianity, God is traditionally described in masculine terms and the Church has historically been described in feminine terms. On the other hand, Christian theology in many churches distinguishes between the masculine images used of God (Father, King, God the Son) and the reality they signify, which transcends gender, embodies all the virtues of both men and women perfectly, which may be seen through the doctrine of Imago Dei. In the New Testament, Jesus at several times mentions the Holy Spirit with the masculine pronoun i.e. John 15:26 among other verses. Hence, the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit (i.e. Trinity) are all mentioned with the masculine pronoun; though the exact meaning of the masculinity of the Christian triune God is contested. In Hinduism, one of the several forms of the Hindu god Shiva is Ardhanarishvara (literally half-female god). In this composite form, the left half of the body represents shakti (energy, power) in the form of the goddess Parvati (otherwise his consort) while the right half represents Shiva. Whereas Parvati is regarded to be the cause of arousal of kama (desire), Shiva is the destroyer of the concept. Symbolically, Shiva is pervaded by the power of Parvati and Parvati is pervaded by the power of Shiva. This myth projects an inherent view in ancient Hinduism, that each human carries within himself both female and male components, which are forces rather than sexes, and it is the harmony between the creative and the annihilative, the strong and the soft, the proactive and the passive, that makes a true person. Evidence of homosexuality, bisexuality, androgyny, multiple sex partners, and open representation of sexual pleasures are found in artworks like the Khajuraho temples, believed to have been accepted within prevalent social frameworks. === Poverty === Gender inequality is most common in women dealing with poverty. Many women must shoulder all the responsibility of the household because they must take care of the family. Oftentimes this may include tasks such as tilling land, grinding grain, carrying water and cooking. Also, women are more likely to earn low incomes because of gender discrimination, as men are more likely to receive higher pay, have more opportunities, and have overall more political and social capital then women. Approximately 75% of world's women are unable to obtain bank loans because they have unstable jobs. It shows that there are many women in the world's population but only a few represent world's wealth. In many countries, the financial sector largely neglects women even though they play an important role in the economy, as Nena Stoiljkovic pointed out in D+C Development and Cooperation. In 1978 Diana M. Pearce coined the term feminization of poverty to describe the problem of women having higher rates of poverty. Women are more vulnerable to chronic poverty because of gender inequalities in the distribution of income, property ownership, credit, and control over earned income. Resource allocation is typically gender-biased within households, and continue on a higher level regarding state institutions. Gender and Development (GAD) is a holistic approach to give aid to countries where gender inequality has a great effect of not improving the social and economic development. It is a program focused on the gender development of women to empower them and decrease the level of inequality between men and women. The largest discrimination study of the transgender community, conducted in 2013, found that the transgender community is four times more likely to live in extreme poverty (income of less than $10,000 a year) than people who are cisgender. === General strain theory === According to general strain theory, studies suggest that gender differences between individuals can lead to externalized anger that may result in violent outbursts. These violent actions related to gender inequality can be measured by comparing violent neighborhoods to non-violent neighborhoods. By noticing the independent variables (neighborhood violence) and the dependent variable (individual violence), it is possible to analyze gender roles. The strain in the general strain theory is the removal of a positive stimulus and or the introduction of a negative stimulus, which would create a negative effect (strain) within individual, which is either inner-directed (depression/guilt) or outer-directed (anger/frustration), which depends on whether the individual blames themselves or their environment. Studies reveal that even though males and females are equally likely to react to a strain with anger, the origin of the anger and their means of coping with it can vary drastically. Males are likely to put the blame on others for adversity and therefore externalize feelings of anger. Females typically internalize their angers and tend to blame themselves instead. Female internalized anger is accompanied by feelings of guilt, fear, anxiety and depression. Women view anger as a sign that they've somehow lost control, and thus worry that this anger may lead them to harm others and/or damage relationships. On the other end of the spectrum, men are less concerned with damaging relationships and more focused on using anger as a means of affirming their masculinity. According to the general strain theory, men would more likely engage in aggressive behavior directed towards others due to externalized anger whereas women would direct their anger towards themselves rather than others. === Economic development === Gender, and particularly the role of women is widely recognized as vitally important to international development issues. This often means a focus on gender-equality, ensuring participation, but includes an understanding of the different roles and expectation of the genders within the community. === Climate change === Gender is a topic of increasing concern within climate change policy and science. Generally, gender approaches to climate change address gender-differentiated consequences of climate change, as well as unequal adaptation capacities and gendered contribution to climate change. Furthermore, the intersection of climate change and gender raises questions regarding the complex and intersecting power relations arising from it. These differences, however, are mostly not due to biological or physical differences, but are formed by the social, institutional and legal context. Subsequently, vulnerability is less an intrinsic feature of women and girls but rather a product of their marginalization. Roehr notes that, while the United Nations officially committed to gender mainstreaming, in practice gender equality is not reached in the context of climate change policies. This is reflected in the fact that discourses of and negotiations over climate change are mostly dominated by men. Some feminist scholars hold that the debate on climate change is not only dominated by men but also primarily shaped in 'masculine' principles, which limits discussions about climate change to a perspective that focuses on technical solutions. This perception of climate change hides subjectivity and power relations that actually condition climate-change policy and science, leading to a phenomenon that Tuana terms 'epistemic injustice'. Similarly, MacGregor attests that by framing climate change as an issue of 'hard' natural scientific conduct and natural security, it is kept within the traditional domains of hegemonic masculinity. === Social media === Forbes published an article in 2010 that reported 57% of Facebook users are women, which was attributed to the fact that women are more active on social media. On average, women have 8% more friends and account for 62% of posts that are shared via Facebook. Another study in 2010 found that in most Western cultures, women spend more time sending text messages compared to men as well as spending more time on social networking sites as a way to communicate with friends and family. Research conducted in 2013 found that over 57% of pictures posted on social networking sites were sexual and were created to gain attention. Moreover, 58% of women and 45% of men do not look into the camera, which creates an illusion of withdrawal. Other factors to be considered are the poses in pictures such as women lying down in subordinate positions or even touching themselves in childlike ways. Adolescent girls generally use social networking sites as a tool to communicate with peers and reinforce existing relationships; boys on the other hand tend to use social networking sites as a tool to meet new friends and acquaintances. Furthermore, social networking sites have allowed individuals to truly express themselves, as they are able to create an identity and socialize with other individuals that can relate. Social networking sites have also given individuals access to create a space where they feel more comfortable about their sexuality. Recent research has indicated that social media is becoming a stronger part of younger individuals' media culture, as more intimate stories are being told via social media and are being intertwined with gender, sexuality, and relationships. Research has found that almost all U.S. teens (95%) aged 12 through 17 are online, compared to only 78% of adults. Of these teens, 80% have profiles on social media sites, as compared to only 64% of the online population aged 30 and older. According to a study conducted by the Kaiser Family Foundation, 11-to-18-year-olds spend on average over one and a half hours a day using a computer and 27 minutes per day visiting social network sites, i.e. the latter accounts for about one fourth of their daily computer use. Studies have shown that female users tend to post more "cute" pictures, while male participants were more likely to post pictures of themselves in activities. Women in the U.S. also tend to post more pictures of friends, while men tend to post more about sports and humorous links. The study also found that males would post more alcohol and sexual references. The roles were reversed however, when looking at a teenage dating site: women made sexual references significantly more often than males. Boys share more personal information, while girls are more conservative about the personal information they post. Boys, meanwhile, are more likely to orient towards technology, sports, and humor in the information they post to their profile. Research in the 1990s suggested that different genders display certain traits, such as being active, attractive, dependent, dominant, independent, sentimental, sexy, and submissive, in online interaction. Even though these traits continue to be displayed through gender stereotypes, recent studies show that this is not necessarily the case any more. == See also == == References == == Bibliography == Butler, Judith (1990). Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity. Thinking Gender'. New York & London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-38955-6. Butler, Judith (1993). Bodies That Matter: On the Discursive Limits of "Sex". New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-61015-5. Fausto-Sterling, Anne (2000). Sexing the body: gender politics and the construction of sexuality. New York: Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-07714-4. == External links == GenPORT: Your gateway to gender and science resources Gender in Agriculture Sourcebook

Gender includes the social, psychological, cultural and behavioral aspects of being a man, woman, or other gender identity. Depending on the context, this may include sex-based social structures (i.e. gender roles) and gender expression. Most cultures use a gender binary, in which gender is divided into two categories, and people are considered part of one or the other (girls/women and boys/men); those who are outside these groups may fall under the umbrella term non-binary. A number of societies have specific genders besides "man" and "woman," such as the hijras of South Asia; these are often referred to as third genders (and fourth genders, etc.). Most scholars agree that gender is a central characteristic for social organization. In the mid-20th century, a terminological distinction in modern English (known as the sex and gender distinction) between biological sex and gender began to develop in the academic areas of psychology, sexology, and feminism. Before the mid-20th century, it was uncommon to use the word gender to refer to anything but grammatical categories. In the West, in the 1970s, feminist theory embraced the concept of a distinction between biological sex and the social construct of gender. The distinction between gender and sex is made by most contemporary social scientists in Western countries, behavioral scientists and biologists, many legal systems and government bodies, and intergovernmental agencies such as the WHO. The social sciences have a branch devoted to gender studies. Other sciences, such as psychology, sociology, sexology, and neuroscience, are interested in the subject. The social sciences sometimes approach gender as a social construct, and gender studies particularly do, while research in the natural sciences investigates whether biological differences in females and males influence the development of gender in humans; both inform the debate about how far biological differences influence the formation of gender identity and gendered behavior. Biopsychosocial approaches to gender include biological, psychological, and social/cultural aspects.

gender

Gender (disambiguation) (wikipedia)

Gender is the range of characteristics pertaining to, and differentiating between, masculinity and femininity. Gender or Genders may also refer to: == Linguistics == Grammatical gender, in linguistics, a system of noun classes Voice (grammar), in linguistics, a system of verb classes == Science and technology == Gender, used as a synonym or polite euphemism for biological sex Gender of connectors and fasteners, the designation of male or female connectors in electrical and mechanical trades == Music == Gendèr, an Indonesian musical instrument used in gamelan orchestras Gender of tonalities, in music, the designation of major and minor keys as masculine or feminine "Gender", a song from the album Candyass by Orgy "Gender", a song from the album Black Labyrinth by Jonathan Davis == Other uses == Gender (stream), a stream in North Brabant, the Netherlands Genders (surname) (including a list of people with the name) == See also == Language and gender Gender-neutral language Gender paradox Gender studies Genre All pages with titles containing gender

Gender is the range of characteristics pertaining to, and differentiating between, masculinity and femininity. Gender or Genders may also refer to:

gender

Gender (stream) (wikipedia)

The Gender (Dutch pronunciation: [ˈɣɛndər]) is a stream in the Dutch province of North Brabant. It originates in originally marshy flatlands near Steensel and flows through Veldhoven and its eastern district Meerveldhoven in a general east-northeast direction towards Eindhoven. The Gender is one of many small streams that drain what once was the marshy heath and moorland of eastern North Brabant and the Kempen plateau. Similar streams include the Dommel, Kleine Dommel, Keersop, Tongelreep, Aa, Binnendieze and Run. All of these streams at one point or other merge to finally form River Dieze in Den Bosch, which in turn flows into River Maas. Near Eindhoven, the Gender originally flowed just north of the medieval city walls, serving as the north part of the city moat, to end in confluence with the Dommel stream. As early as the fifteenth century, its course was diverted southward through the city centre, to provide the city with freshwater supplies and fire-extinguishing means. By the 19th century, the stretch within the old city had been filled in and the Gender now ended in De Vest, the city moat, which itself was connected to the Dommel. Archaeological excavations during the 1980s and 1990s before the construction of a new shopping centre have brought several branches of the artificial inner-city section of the Gender to light, including a connection to the moat of Eindhoven Castle, which stood just east of the city walls. 20th-century channelisation and the emergence of large-scale residential areas in the Gender basin have seen the last stretch before the city centre cut off. In order to regulate water levels of the Dommel and Gender streams, which occasionally threatened to flood Eindhoven's inner city area, a drainage canal (Afwateringskanaal) was dug in the late 1930s to connect the Dommel to the newly constructed Beatrix Canal and so dispose of excess water. Into this canal the Gender now discharges. A further downstream section of the Gender between the canal and the Engelsbergen pond remains, but receives little water of the original stream. Two districts of Eindhoven that are situated on its banks were named after the Gender stream: Genderdal ('Gender Dale') and Genderbeemd ('Gender Meadow'). == Nieuwe Gender == In 2005, proposals were accepted to have the Gender flow through the Eindhoven city centre once again: the Nieuwe Gender ('New Gender') project. The stream is to flow partially underground, partially above-ground from the Engelsbergen pond through the city centre and discharge into the Dommel near the railway station. As of the summer of 2006, large-scale city centre reconstruction plans have included the implementation of the Nieuwe Gender, which is still in progress. == References ==

The Gender (Dutch pronunciation: [ˈɣɛndər]) is a stream in the Dutch province of North Brabant. It originates in originally marshy flatlands near Steensel and flows through Veldhoven and its eastern district Meerveldhoven in a general east-northeast direction towards Eindhoven. The Gender is one of many small streams that drain what once was the marshy heath and moorland of eastern North Brabant and the Kempen plateau. Similar streams include the Dommel, Kleine Dommel, Keersop, Tongelreep, Aa, Binnendieze and Run. All of these streams at one point or other merge to finally form River Dieze in Den Bosch, which in turn flows into River Maas. Near Eindhoven, the Gender originally flowed just north of the medieval city walls, serving as the north part of the city moat, to end in confluence with the Dommel stream. As early as the fifteenth century, its course was diverted southward through the city centre, to provide the city with freshwater supplies and fire-extinguishing means. By the 19th century, the stretch within the old city had been filled in and the Gender now ended in De Vest, the city moat, which itself was connected to the Dommel. Archaeological excavations during the 1980s and 1990s before the construction of a new shopping centre have brought several branches of the artificial inner-city section of the Gender to light, including a connection to the moat of Eindhoven Castle, which stood just east of the city walls. 20th-century channelisation and the emergence of large-scale residential areas in the Gender basin have seen the last stretch before the city centre cut off. In order to regulate water levels of the Dommel and Gender streams, which occasionally threatened to flood Eindhoven's inner city area, a drainage canal (Afwateringskanaal) was dug in the late 1930s to connect the Dommel to the newly constructed Beatrix Canal and so dispose of excess water. Into this canal the Gender now discharges. A further downstream section of the Gender between the canal and the Engelsbergen pond remains, but receives little water of the original stream. Two districts of Eindhoven that are situated on its banks were named after the Gender stream: Genderdal ('Gender Dale') and Genderbeemd ('Gender Meadow').

gender

Black Labyrinth (wikipedia)

Black Labyrinth is the debut solo studio album by American vocalist Jonathan Davis (best known as the frontman of nu metal band Korn). The album was released on May 25, 2018, through Sumerian Records. The first single, "What It Is", was released on January 26, 2018 as part of the soundtrack to the movie American Satan. == Background == Jonathan Davis had hinted at a solo album for a number of years, first working without his bandmates in Korn when he collaborated on the Queen of the Damned soundtrack. Word of a full solo album began to circulate in the mid-2000s when Davis began touring and writing with his solo band, Jonathan Davis and the SFA, with whom he released two live albums, Alone I Play (2007) and Live at the Union Chapel (2011). The SFA was disbanded after the death of guitarist Shane Gibson. Over the next decade, Davis would continue to write solo material while performing with Korn, and in January 2018 announced a North American and European tour in support of a new album that would come out later in the year. That same month, he released the song What It Is. In March 2018, Sumerian Records revealed an official teaser for the album, which revealed the title, artwork and release date, along with snippets of each track on the album. While a full list of musicians has yet to be officially released, it has been confirmed that Ray Luzier, Wes Borland, Miles Mosley, Mike Dillon and Shenkar have all made appearances on the album. == Critical reception == "Black Labyrinth" received generally favorable reviews from critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream publications, the album received an average score of 64 based on 5 reviews. == Track listing == == Personnel == == Charts == == References ==

Black Labyrinth is the debut solo studio album by American vocalist Jonathan Davis (best known as the frontman of nu metal band Korn). The album was released on May 25, 2018, through Sumerian Records. The first single, "What It Is", was released on January 26, 2018 as part of the soundtrack to the movie American Satan.

gender

Candyass (wikipedia)

Candyass is the debut album by American industrial rock band Orgy. It was released on August 18, 1998. == Critical reception == The Baltimore Sun wrote: "Whether through the ominous crunch of 'Social Enemies' or the frenzied thrum of 'Fiend', Orgy knows how to use its artfully distorted sound to stunning effect, evoking a world of anomie and unease with each verse and chorus." == Track listing == == Singles == "Blue Monday" release date: February 9, 1999 "Stitches" release date: November 23, 1999 == Personnel == Jay Gordon – vocals, programming, additional synthesizers Ryan Shuck – rhythm guitar Amir Derakh – lead guitar, additional engineering Paige Haley – bass Bobby Hewitt – drums Chad Fridirici – engineering, mixing on "Gender", pro-tool editing Josh Abraham – production, additional engineering, programming, additional synthesizers Dave Ogilvie – mixing David Kahne – mixing on "Stiches", "Fetisha" Jay Baumgardner – mixing on "Pantomime" Tom Baker – mastering Brian Virtue – assistant engineer Cope Till – assistant engineer Doug Trantow – assistant engineer Anthony Valcic – programming Jonathan Davis – additional vocals on "Revival" Elijah Blue Allman – additional vocals on "Revival", additional synthesizers Troy Van Leeuwen – additional guitars on "Social Enemies" and "Dissention" Steve Gerdes – art direction, design Joseph Cultice – photography == Charts == == Certifications == == Notes == == References ==

Candyass is the debut album by American industrial rock band Orgy. It was released on August 18, 1998.

gender

Gendèr (wikipedia)

A gendèr is a type of metallophone used in Balinese and Javanese gamelan music. It consists of 10 to 14 tuned metal bars suspended over a tuned resonator of bamboo or metal, which are tapped with a mallet made of wooden disks (Bali) or a padded wooden disk (Java). Each key is a note of a different pitch, often extending a little more than two octaves. There are five notes per octave, so in the seven-note pélog scale, some pitches are left out according to the pathet. Most gamelans include three gendèr, one for sléndro, one for pelog pathet nem and lima, and one for pelog pathet barang. The gendèr is similar to the Balinese gangsa, which also has an individual resonator under each key, and the saron, which, although trough-resonated, does have a set of tuned metal bars or keys. It is also similar to the Javanese slenthem, which is pitched lower and has fewer notes. The melodies of the two hands sometimes move in parallel motion, but often play contrapuntally. When playing gendèr barung with two mallets, the technique of dampening, important to most gamelan instruments, becomes more challenging, and the previously hit notes must be dampened by the same hand immediately after the new ones are hit. This is sometimes possible by playing with the mallet at an angle (to dampen one key and play the other), but may require a small pause. == Types of gendèrs == In some types of gamelan, two gendèrs are used, both spanning approximately two and a half octaves, the gendèr barung and the gendèr panerus, pitched an octave higher than the other. In Gamelan Surakarta, the gendèr panerus plays a single line of melodic pattern, following a pattern similar to the siter. The gendèr barung plays a slower, but more complex melodic pattern that includes more separate right and left hand melodic lines that come together in kempyung (approximately a fifth) and gembyang (octave) intervals. The three sizes of gendèr are called jegogan (the largest), jublag, and penyacah. A pair of ten-bar gendèr are called giying. == Loud-playing and Soft-playing styles == The gamelan plays in two different ensemble types: loud-playing ensemble and soft-playing ensemble. The gendèr is used in both styles. The soft-playing style includes voices and instruments like gambang, celempung, rebab, gendèr panerus, and gendèr barung. The loud-playing styles only include instruments like gong ageng, siyem, kempul, kenong, kethuk, kempyang, engkuk-kemong, bonang family, saron family, gendèr slenthem, kendhang family, and bedhug. Both types of gendèr play semi-improvised patterns called cengkok, which generally elaborate upon the seleh. These are relatively fixed patterns, but can be varied in a number of ways to suit the style, pathet, irama, and mood of the piece, as well as the skill of the performer. The cengkok repertoire for gendèr are more developed and specific than those for most other elaborating instruments. Similarly, the gendèr barung is likely to give cues for changing parts or irama, especially in the absence of a rebab, which usually leads the ensemble. It may also play the buka of a piece. == See also == Gamelan Bonang Kethuk Music of Java == References == == External links == Video Javanese Gendèr barung Javanese Gendèr panerus, with audio Archived 2017-09-25 at the Wayback Machine

A gendèr is a type of metallophone used in Balinese and Javanese gamelan music. It consists of 10 to 14 tuned metal bars suspended over a tuned resonator of bamboo or metal, which are tapped with a mallet made of wooden disks (Bali) or a padded wooden disk (Java). Each key is a note of a different pitch, often extending a little more than two octaves. There are five notes per octave, so in the seven-note pélog scale, some pitches are left out according to the pathet. Most gamelans include three gendèr, one for sléndro, one for pelog pathet nem and lima, and one for pelog pathet barang. The gendèr is similar to the Balinese gangsa, which also has an individual resonator under each key, and the saron, which, although trough-resonated, does have a set of tuned metal bars or keys. It is also similar to the Javanese slenthem, which is pitched lower and has fewer notes. The melodies of the two hands sometimes move in parallel motion, but often play contrapuntally. When playing gendèr barung with two mallets, the technique of dampening, important to most gamelan instruments, becomes more challenging, and the previously hit notes must be dampened by the same hand immediately after the new ones are hit. This is sometimes possible by playing with the mallet at an angle (to dampen one key and play the other), but may require a small pause.

gender

Grammatical gender (wikipedia)

In linguistics, a grammatical gender system is a specific form of a noun class system, where nouns are assigned to gender categories that are often not related to the real-world qualities of the entities denoted by those nouns. In languages with grammatical gender, most or all nouns inherently carry one value of the grammatical category called gender. The values present in a given language, of which there are usually two or three, are called the genders of that language. Whereas some authors use the term "grammatical gender" as a synonym of "noun class", others use different definitions for each. Many authors prefer "noun classes" when none of the inflections in a language relate to sex or gender. According to one estimate, gender is used in approximately half of the world's languages. According to one definition: "Genders are classes of nouns reflected in the behavior of associated words." == Overview == Languages with grammatical gender usually have two to four different genders, but some are attested with up to 20. Common gender divisions include masculine and feminine; masculine, feminine, and neuter; or animate and inanimate. Depending on the language and the word, this assignment might bear some relationship with the meaning of the noun (e.g. "woman" is usually feminine), or may be arbitrary. In a few languages, the assignment of any particular noun (i.e., nominal lexeme, that set of noun forms inflectable from a common lemma) to one grammatical gender is solely determined by that noun's meaning, or attributes, like biological sex, humanness, or animacy. However, the existence of words that denote male and female, such as the difference between "aunt" and "uncle" is not enough to constitute a gender system. In other languages, the division into genders usually correlates to some degree, at least for a certain set of nouns, such as those denoting humans, with some property or properties of the things that particular nouns denote. Such properties include animacy or inanimacy, "humanness" or non-humanness, and biological sex. However, in most languages, this semantic division is only partially valid, and many nouns may belong to a gender category that contrasts with their meaning, e.g. the word for "manliness" could be of feminine gender, as it is in French with "la masculinité" and "la virilité". In such a case, the gender assignment can also be influenced by the morphology or phonology of the noun, or in some cases can be apparently arbitrary. Usually each noun is assigned to one of the genders, and few or no nouns can occur in more than one gender. Gender is considered an inherent quality of nouns, and it affects the forms of other related words, a process called "agreement". Nouns may be considered the "triggers" of the process, whereas other words will be the "target" of these changes. These related words can be, depending on the language: determiners, pronouns, numerals, quantifiers, possessives, adjectives, past and passive participles, articles, verbs, adverbs, complementizers, and adpositions. Gender class may be marked on the noun itself, but will also always be marked on other constituents in a noun phrase or sentence. If the noun is explicitly marked, both trigger and target may feature similar alternations. === Functions of grammatical gender === Three possible functions of grammatical gender include: In a language with explicit inflections for gender, it is easy to express gender distinctions in animate beings. Grammatical gender "can be a valuable tool of disambiguation", rendering clarity about antecedents or homophones. In literature, gender can be used to "animate and personify inanimate nouns". Languages with gender distinction generally have fewer cases of ambiguity concerning, for example, pronominal reference. In the English phrase "a flowerbed in the garden which I maintain", only context tells us whether the relative clause (which I maintain) refers to the whole garden or just the flowerbed. In German, in cases where the objects in question have different grammatical gender, gender distinction prevents such ambiguity. The word for "flowerbed" (Blumenbeet) is neuter, whereas that for "garden" (Garten) is masculine. Hence, if a neuter relative pronoun is used, the relative clause refers to "flowerbed", and if a masculine pronoun is used, the relative clause refers to "garden". Because of this, languages with gender distinction can often use pronouns where in English a noun would have to be repeated in order to avoid confusion. It does not, however, help in cases where the words are of the same grammatical gender. Moreover, grammatical gender may serve to distinguish homophones. It is a quite common phenomenon in language development for two phonemes to merge, thereby making etymologically distinct words sound alike. In languages with gender distinction, however, these word pairs may still be distinguishable by their gender. For example, French pot ("pot") and peau ("skin") are homophones /po/, but disagree in gender: le pot vs. la peau. === Gender contrasts === Common systems of gender contrast include: masculine–feminine gender contrast masculine–feminine–neuter gender contrast animate–inanimate gender contrast common–neuter gender contrast ==== Masculine–feminine contrast ==== Nouns that denote specifically male persons (or animals) are normally of masculine gender; those that denote specifically female persons (or animals) are normally of feminine gender; and nouns that denote something that does not have any sex, or do not specify the sex of their referent, have come to belong to one or other of the genders, in a way that may appear arbitrary. Examples of languages with such a system include most of the modern Romance languages, the Baltic languages, the Celtic languages, some Indo-Aryan languages (e.g., Hindi), and the Afroasiatic languages. ==== Masculine–feminine–neuter contrast ==== This is similar to systems with a masculine–feminine contrast, except that there is a third available gender, so nouns with sexless or unspecified-sex referents may be either masculine, feminine, or neuter. There are also certain exceptional nouns whose gender does not follow the denoted sex, such as the German Mädchen, meaning "girl", which is neuter. This is because it is actually a diminutive of "Magd" and all diminutive forms with the suffix -chen are neuter. Examples of languages with such a system include later forms of Proto-Indo-European (see below), Sanskrit, some Germanic languages, most Slavic languages, a few Romance languages (Romanian, Asturian and Neapolitan), Marathi, Latin, and Greek. ==== Animate–inanimate contrast ==== Here nouns that denote animate things (humans and animals) generally belong to one gender, and those that denote inanimate things to another (although there may be some deviation from that principle). Examples include earlier forms of Proto-Indo-European and the earliest family known to have split off from it, the extinct Anatolian languages (see below). Modern examples include Algonquian languages such as Ojibwe. In Northern Kurdish language (Kurmanji), the same word can have two genders according to the context. For example, if the word dar (meaning 'wood' or 'tree') is feminine, it means that it is a living tree (e.g., dara sêvê means 'apple tree'), but if it is masculine, it means that it is dead, no longer living (e.g., darê sêvê means 'apple wood'). So if one wants to refer to a certain table that is made of wood from an apple tree, one cannot use the word dar with a feminine gender, and if one wants to refer to an apple tree in a garden, one cannot use dar with a masculine gender. ==== Common–neuter contrast ==== Here a masculine–feminine–neuter system previously existed, but the distinction between masculine and feminine genders has been lost in nouns (they have merged into what is called common gender), though not in pronouns that can operate under natural gender. Thus nouns denoting people are usually of common gender, whereas other nouns may be of either gender. Examples include Danish and Swedish (see Gender in Danish and Swedish), and to some extent Dutch (see Gender in Dutch grammar). The dialect of the old Norwegian capital Bergen also uses common gender and neuter exclusively. The common gender in Bergen and in Danish is inflected with the same articles and suffixes as the masculine gender in Norwegian Bokmål. This makes some obviously feminine noun phrases like "a cute girl", "the well milking cow" or "the pregnant mares" sound strange to most Norwegian ears when spoken by Danes and people from Bergen since they are inflected in a way that sounds like the masculine declensions in South-Eastern Norwegian dialects. The same does not apply to Swedish common gender, as the declensions follow a different pattern from both the Norwegian written languages. Norwegian Nynorsk, Norwegian Bokmål and most spoken dialects retain masculine, feminine and neuter even if their Scandinavian neighbors have lost one of the genders. As shown, the merger of masculine and feminine in these languages and dialects can be considered a reversal of the original split in Proto-Indo-European (see below). ==== Other types of division or subdivision of gender ==== Some gender contrasts are referred to as classes; for some examples, see Noun class. In some of the Slavic languages, for example, within the masculine and sometimes feminine and neuter genders, there is a further division between animate and inanimate nouns—and in Polish, also sometimes between nouns denoting humans and non-humans. (For details, see below.) A human–non-human (or "rational–non-rational") distinction is also found in Dravidian languages. (See below.) === How gender contrasts can influence cognition === It has been shown that grammatical gender causes a number of cognitive effects. For example, when native speakers of gendered languages are asked to imagine an inanimate object speaking, whether its voice is male or female tends to correspond to the grammatical gender of the object in their language. This has been observed for speakers of Spanish, French, and German, among others. Caveats of this research include the possibility of subjects' "using grammatical gender as a strategy for performing the task", and the fact that even for inanimate objects the gender of nouns is not always random. For example, in Spanish, female gender is often attributed to objects that are "used by women, natural, round, or light" and male gender to objects "used by men, artificial, angular, or heavy." Apparent failures to reproduce the effect for German speakers has also led to a proposal that the effect is restricted to languages with a two-gender system, possibly because such languages are inclined towards a greater correspondence between grammatical and natural gender. Another kind of test asks people to describe a noun, and attempts to measure whether it takes on gender-specific connotations depending on the speaker's native language. For example, one study found that German speakers describing a bridge (German: Brücke, f.) more often used the words 'beautiful', 'elegant', 'pretty', and 'slender', while Spanish speakers, whose word for bridge is masculine (puente, m.), used 'big', 'dangerous', 'strong', and 'sturdy' more often. However, studies of this kind have been criticized on various grounds and yield an unclear pattern of results overall. === Related linguistic concepts === ==== Noun classes ==== A noun may belong to a given class because of characteristic features of its referent, such as sex, animacy, shape, although in some instances a noun can be placed in a particular class based purely on its grammatical behavior. Some authors use the term "grammatical gender" as a synonym of "noun class", but others use different definitions for each. Many authors prefer "noun classes" when none of the inflections in a language relate to sex, such as when an animate–inanimate distinction is made. Note, however, that the word "gender" derives from Latin genus (also the root of genre) which originally meant "kind", so it does not necessarily have a sexual meaning. ==== Noun classifiers ==== A classifier, or measure word, is a word or morpheme used in some languages together with a noun, principally to enable numbers and certain other determiners to be applied to the noun. They are not regularly used in English or other European languages, although they parallel the use of words such as piece(s) and head in phrases like "three pieces of paper" or "thirty head of cattle". They are a prominent feature of East Asian languages, where it is common for all nouns to require a classifier when being quantified—for example, the equivalent of "three people" is often "three classifier people". A more general type of classifier (classifier handshapes) can be found in sign languages. Classifiers can be considered similar to genders or noun classes, in that a language which uses classifiers normally has a number of different ones, used with different sets of nouns. These sets depend largely on properties of the things that the nouns denote (for example, a particular classifier may be used for long thin objects, another for flat objects, another for people, another for abstracts, etc.), although sometimes a noun is associated with a particular classifier more by convention than for any obvious reason. However it is also possible for a given noun to be usable with any of several classifiers; for example, the Mandarin Chinese classifier 个 (個) gè is frequently used as an alternative to various more specific classifiers. == The manifestation of grammatical gender == Grammatical gender can be realized as inflection and can be conditioned by other types of inflection, especially number inflection, where the singular-plural contrast can interact with gender inflection. === Grammatical gender can be realized as inflection === The grammatical gender of a noun manifests itself in two principal ways: in the modifications that the noun itself undergoes, and in modifications of other related words (agreement). ==== Grammatical gender as noun inflection ==== Grammatical gender manifests itself when words related to a noun like determiners, pronouns or adjectives change their form (inflect) according to the gender of noun they refer to (agreement). The parts of speech affected by gender agreement, the circumstances in which it occurs, and the way words are marked for gender vary between languages. Gender inflection may interact with other grammatical categories like number or case. In some languages the declension pattern followed by the noun itself will be different for different genders. The gender of a noun may affect the modifications that the noun itself undergoes, particularly the way in which the noun inflects for number and case. For example, a language like Latin, German or Russian has a number of different declension patterns, and which pattern a particular noun follows may be highly correlated with its gender. For some instances of this, see Latin declension. A concrete example is provided by the German word See, which has two possible genders: when it is masculine (meaning "lake") its genitive singular form is Sees, but when it is feminine (meaning "sea"), the genitive is See, because feminine nouns do not take the genitive -s. Gender is sometimes reflected in other ways. In Welsh, gender marking is mostly lost on nouns; however, Welsh has initial mutation, where the first consonant of a word changes into another in certain conditions. Gender is one of the factors that can cause one form of mutation (soft mutation). For instance, the word merch "girl" changes into ferch after the definite article. This only occurs with feminine singular nouns: mab "son" remains unchanged. Adjectives are affected by gender in a similar way. Additionally, in many languages, gender is often closely correlated with the basic unmodified form (lemma) of the noun, and sometimes a noun can be modified to produce (for example) masculine and feminine words of similar meaning. See § Form-based morphological criteria, below. ==== Grammatical gender as agreement or concord ==== Agreement, or concord, is a grammatical process in which certain words change their form so that values of certain grammatical categories match those of related words. Gender is one of the categories which frequently require agreement. In this case, nouns may be considered the "triggers" of the process, because they have an inherent gender, whereas related words that change their form to match the gender of the noun can be considered the "target" of these changes. These related words can be, depending on the language: determiners, pronouns, numerals, quantifiers, possessives, adjectives, past and passive participles, verbs, adverbs, complementizers, and adpositions. Gender class may be marked on the noun itself, but can also be marked on other constituents in a noun phrase or sentence. If the noun is explicitly marked, both trigger and target may feature similar alternations. As an example, we consider Spanish, a language with two gender categories: "natural" vs "grammatical". "Natural" gender can be masculine or feminine, while "grammatical" gender can be masculine, feminine, or neuter. This third, or "neuter" gender is reserved for abstract concepts derived from adjectives: such as lo bueno, lo malo ("that which is good/bad"). Natural gender refers to the biological sex of most animals and people, while grammatical gender refers to certain phonetic characteristics (the sounds at the end, or beginning) of a noun. Among other lexical items, the definite article changes its form according to this categorization. In the singular, the article is: el (masculine), and la (feminine). Thus, in "natural gender", nouns referring to sexed beings who are male beings carry the masculine article, and female beings the feminine article (agreement). In "grammatical" gender, most words that end in -a, -d and -z are marked with "feminine" articles, while all others use the "generic" or "masculine" articles. ==== Gender inflection and number inflection ==== In some languages the gender is distinguished only in singular number but not in plural. In terms of linguistic markedness, these languages neutralize the gender opposition in the plural, itself a marked category. So adjectives and pronouns have three forms in singular (e.g. Bulgarian червен, червена, червено or German roter, rote, rotes) but only one in plural (Bulgarian червени, German rote) [all examples mean "red"]. As a consequence pluralia tantum nouns (lacking a singular form) cannot be assigned a gender. Example with Bulgarian: клещи (kleshti, "pincers"), гащи (gashti, "pants"), очила (ochila, "spectacles"), хриле (hrile, "gills"). Other languages, e.g. Serbo-Croatian, allow doubly marked forms both for number and gender. In these languages, each noun has a definite gender no matter the number. For example, d(j)eca "children" is feminine singularia tantum and vrata "door" is neuter pluralia tantum. === Grammatical gender can be realized on pronouns === Pronouns may agree in gender with the noun or noun phrase to which they refer (their antecedent). Sometimes, however, there is no antecedent—the referent of the pronoun is deduced indirectly from the context: this is found with personal pronouns, as well as with indefinite and dummy pronouns. ==== Personal pronouns ==== With personal pronouns, the gender of the pronoun is likely to agree with the natural gender of the referent. Indeed, in most European languages, personal pronouns are gendered; for example English (the personal pronouns he, she and it are used depending on whether the referent is male, female, or inanimate or non-human; this is in spite of the fact that English does not generally have grammatical gender). A parallel example is provided by the object suffixes of verbs in Arabic, which correspond to object pronouns, and which also inflect for gender in the second person (though not in the first): "I love you", said to a male: uḥibbuka (أُحِبُّكَ) "I love you", said to a female: uḥibbuki (أُحِبُّكِ) Not all languages have gendered pronouns. In languages that never had grammatical gender, there is normally just one word for "he" and "she", like dia in Malay and Indonesian, ő in Hungarian and o in Turkish. These languages might only have different pronouns and inflections in the third person to differentiate between people and inanimate objects, but even this distinction is often absent. (In written Finnish, for example, hän is used for "he" and "she" and se for "it", but in the colloquial language se is usually used for "he" and "she" as well.) For more on these different types of pronoun, see Third-person pronoun. Issues may arise in languages with gender-specific pronouns in cases when the gender of the referent is unknown or not specified; this is discussed under Gender-neutral language, and in relation to English at Singular they. In some cases the gender of a pronoun is not marked in the form of the pronoun itself, but is marked on other words by way of agreement. Thus the French word for "I" is je, regardless of who is speaking; but this word becomes feminine or masculine depending on the sex of the speaker, as may be reflected through adjective agreement: je suis forte ("I am strong", spoken by a female); je suis fort (the same spoken by a male). In null-subject languages (and in some elliptical expressions in other languages), such agreement may take place even though the pronoun does not in fact appear. For example, in Portuguese: "[I am] very grateful", said by a male: muito obrigado the same, said by a female: muito obrigada The two sentences above mean literally "much obliged"; the adjective agrees with the natural gender of the speaker, that is, with the gender of the first person pronoun which does not appear explicitly here. ==== Indefinite and dummy pronouns ==== A dummy pronoun is a type of pronoun used when a particular verb argument (such as the subject) is nonexistent, but when a reference to the argument is nevertheless syntactically required. They occur mostly in non-pro-drop languages, such as English (because in pro-drop languages the position of the argument can be left empty). Examples in English are the uses of it in "It's raining" and "It's nice to relax." When a language has gendered pronouns, the use of a particular word as a dummy pronoun may involve the selection of a particular gender, even though there is no noun to agree with. In languages with a neuter gender, a neuter pronoun is usually used, as in German es regnet ("it rains, it's raining"), where es is the neuter third person singular pronoun. (English behaves similarly, because the word it comes from the Old English neuter gender.) In languages with only masculine and feminine genders, the dummy pronoun may be the masculine third person singular, as in the French for "it's raining": il pleut (where il means "he", or "it" when referring to masculine nouns); although some languages use the feminine, as in the equivalent Welsh sentence: mae hi'n bwrw glaw (where the dummy pronoun is hi, which means "she", or "it" when referring to feminine nouns). A similar, apparently arbitrary gender assignment may need to be made in the case of indefinite pronouns, where the referent is generally unknown. In this case the question is usually not which pronoun to use, but which gender to assign a given pronoun to (for such purposes as adjective agreement). For example, the French pronouns quelqu'un ("someone"), personne ("no-one") and quelque chose ("something") are all treated as masculine—this is in spite of the fact that the last two correspond to feminine nouns (personne meaning "person", and chose meaning "thing"). For other situations in which such a "default" gender assignment may be required, see § Contextual determination of gender below. === Grammatical vs. natural gender === The natural gender of a noun, pronoun or noun phrase is a gender to which it would be expected to belong based on relevant attributes of its referent. Although grammatical gender can coincide with natural gender, it does not need to. ==== Grammatical gender can match natural gender ==== This usually means masculine or feminine, depending on the referent's sex. For example, in Spanish, mujer ("woman") is feminine whereas hombre ("man") is masculine; these attributions occur solely due to the semantically inherent gender character of each noun. ==== Grammatical gender need not match natural gender ==== The grammatical gender of a noun does not always coincide with its natural gender. An example of this is the German word Mädchen ("girl"); this is derived from Magd ("maiden"), umlauted to Mäd- with the diminutive suffix -chen, and this suffix always makes the noun grammatically neuter. Hence the grammatical gender of Mädchen is neuter, although its natural gender is feminine (because it refers to a female person). Other examples include: Old English wīf (neuter) and wīfmann (masculine), meaning "woman" German Weib (neuter), meaning "woman" (the word is now pejorative and generally replaced with die Frau, originally 'lady', feminine of obsolete der Fro, meaning 'lord') Irish cailín (masculine) meaning "girl", and stail (feminine) meaning "stallion" Portuguese mulherão (masculine), meaning "voluptuous woman" Scottish Gaelic boireannach (masculine), meaning "woman" Slovenian dekle (neuter), meaning "girl" Polish babsztyl (masculine), meaning "unpleasant (usually old and ugly) woman" Czech děvče (neuter), meaning "a young girl" Normally, such exceptions are a small minority. When a noun with conflicting natural and grammatical gender is the antecedent of a pronoun, it may not be clear which gender of pronoun to choose. There is a certain tendency to keep the grammatical gender when a close back-reference is made, but to switch to natural gender when the reference is further away. For example, in German, the sentences "The girl has come home from school. She is now doing her homework" can be translated in two ways: Das Mädchen (n.) ist aus der Schule gekommen. Es (n.) macht jetzt seine (n.) Hausaufgaben. Das Mädchen (n.) ist aus der Schule gekommen. Sie (f.) macht jetzt ihre (f.) Hausaufgaben. Though the second sentence may appear grammatically incorrect (constructio ad sensum), it is common in speech. With one or more intervening sentences, the second form becomes even more likely. However, a switch to the natural gender is never possible with articles and attributive pronouns or adjectives. Thus it can never be correct to say *eine Mädchen ("a girl" – with female indefinite article) or *diese kleine Mädchen ("this little girl" – with female demonstrative pronoun and adjective). This phenomenon is quite popular in Slavic languages: for example Polish kreatura (deprecative "creature") is feminine but can be used to refer to both man (masculine gender), woman (feminine gender), child (neuter gender) or even animate nouns (e.g. a dog being masculine). Similarly with other deprecatory nouns as pierdoła, ciapa, łamaga, łajza, niezdara ("wuss, klutz"); niemowa ("mute") can be used deprecatively as described previously, and then can be used for verbs marked for the male and female genders. ==== Gender contrasts on human versus sentient referents ==== In the case of languages which have masculine and feminine genders, the relation between biological sex and grammatical gender tends to be less exact in the case of animals than in the case of people. In Spanish, for instance, a cheetah is always un guepardo (masculine) and a zebra is always una cebra (feminine), regardless of their biological sex. In Russian a rat and a butterfly are always krysa (крыса) and babochka (бабочка) (feminine). In French, a giraffe is always une girafe, whereas an elephant is always un éléphant. To specify the sex of an animal, an adjective may be added, as in un guepardo hembra ("a female cheetah"), or una cebra macho ("a male zebra"). Different names for the male and the female of a species are more frequent for common pets or farm animals, e.g. English cow and bull, Spanish vaca "cow" and toro "bull", Russian баран (baran) "ram" and овца (ovtsa) "ewe". As regards the pronouns used to refer to animals, these generally agree in gender with the nouns denoting those animals, rather than the animals' sex (natural gender). In a language like English, which does not assign grammatical gender to nouns, the pronoun used for referring to objects (it) is often used for animals also. However, if the sex of the animal is known, and particularly in the case of companion animals, the gendered pronouns (he and she) may be used as they would be for a human. In Polish, a few general words such as zwierzę ("animal") or bydlę ("animal, one head of cattle") are neuter, but most species names are masculine or feminine. When the sex of an animal is known, it will normally be referred to using gendered pronouns consistent with its sex; otherwise the pronouns will correspond to the gender of the noun denoting its species. === Syntactic structure of grammatical gender === There are multiple theoretical approaches to the position and structure of gender in syntactic structures. == Categorization of nouns into genders == There are three main ways by which natural languages categorize nouns into genders: according to their form (morphological) according to logical or symbolic similarities in their meaning (semantic) according to arbitrary convention (lexical, possibly rooted in the language's history). In most languages that have grammatical gender, a combination of these three types of criteria is found, although one type may be more prevalent. === Form-based morphological criteria === In many languages, nouns are assigned to gender largely without any semantic basis—that is, not based on any feature (such as animacy or sex) of the person or thing that a noun represents. In such languages there may be a correlation, to a greater or lesser degree, between gender and the form of a noun (such as the vowel or consonant or syllable with which it ends). For example, in Portuguese and Spanish, nouns that end in -o or a consonant are mostly masculine, whereas those that end in -a are mostly feminine, regardless of their meaning. Nouns that end in some other vowel are assigned a gender either according to etymology, by analogy, or by some other convention. These rules may override semantics in some cases: for example, the noun membro/miembro ("member") is always masculine, even when it refers to a girl or a woman, and pessoa/persona ("person") is always feminine, even when it refers to a boy or a man, a kind of form-meaning mismatch. In other cases, meaning takes precedence: the noun comunista "communist" is masculine when it refers or could refer to a man, even though it ends with -a. Nouns in Spanish and Portuguese, as in the other Romance languages such as Italian and French, generally follow the gender of the Latin words from which they are derived. When nouns deviate from the rules for gender, there is usually an etymological explanation: problema ("problem") is masculine in Spanish because it was derived from a Greek noun of the neuter gender, whereas foto ("photo") and radio ("broadcast signal") are feminine because they are clippings of fotografía and radiodifusión respectively, both grammatically feminine nouns. Most Spanish nouns in -ión are feminine. They derive from Latin feminines in -ō, accusative -iōnem. The opposite is correct with Northern Kurdish language or Kurmanci. For example, the words endam (member) and heval (friend) can be masculine or feminine according to the person they refer to. Keça wî hevala min e. (His daughter is my friend) Kurrê wî hevalê min e. (His son is my friend) Suffixes often carry a specific gender. For example, in German, diminutives with the suffixes -chen and -lein (meaning "little, young") are always neuter, even if they refer to people, as with Mädchen ("girl") and Fräulein ("young woman") (see below). Similarly, the suffix -ling, which makes countable nouns from uncountable nouns (Teig "dough" → Teigling "piece of dough"), or personal nouns from abstract nouns (Lehre "teaching", Strafe "punishment" → Lehrling "apprentice", Sträfling "convict") or adjectives (feige "cowardly" → Feigling "coward"), always produces masculine nouns. And the German suffixes -heit and -keit (comparable with -hood and -ness in English) produce feminine nouns. In Irish, nouns ending in -óir/-eoir and -ín are always masculine, whereas those ending -óg/-eog or -lann are always feminine. In Arabic, nouns whose singular form ends in a tāʾ marbūṭah (traditionally a [t], becoming [h] in pausa) are of feminine gender, the only significant exceptions being the word خليفة khalīfah ("caliph") and certain masculine personal names (e.g. أسامة ʾUsāmah). However, many masculine nouns have a "broken" plural form ending in a tāʾ marbūṭa; for example أستاذ ustādh ("male professor") has the plural أساتذة asātidha, which might be confused for a feminine singular noun. Gender may also be predictable from the type of derivation: for instance, the verbal nouns of Stem II (e.g. التفعيل al-tafʿīl, from فعّل، يفعّل faʿʿala, yufaʿʿil) are always masculine. In French, nouns ending in -e tend to be feminine, whereas others tend to be masculine, but there are many exceptions to this (e.g. cadre, arbre, signe, meuble, nuage are masculine as façon, chanson, voix, main, eau are feminine), note the many masculine nouns ending in -e preceded by double consonants. Certain suffixes are quite reliable indicators, such as -age, which when added to a verb (e.g. garer "to park" → garage; nettoyer "to clean" → nettoyage "cleaning") indicates a masculine noun; however, when -age is part of the root of the word, it can be feminine, as in plage ("beach") or image. On the other hand, nouns ending in -tion, -sion and -aison are almost all feminine, with a few exceptions, such as cation, bastion. Nouns can sometimes vary their form to enable the derivation of differently gendered cognate nouns; for example, to produce nouns with a similar meaning but referring to someone of a different sex. Thus, in Spanish, niño means "boy", and niña means "girl". This paradigm can be exploited for making new words: from the masculine nouns abogado "lawyer", diputado "member of parliament" and doctor "doctor", it was straightforward to make the feminine equivalents abogada, diputada, and doctora. In the same way, personal names are frequently constructed with affixes that identify the sex of the bearer. Common feminine suffixes used in English names are -a, of Latin or Romance origin (cf. Robert and Roberta); and -e, of French origin (cf. Justin and Justine). Although gender inflection may be used to construct nouns and names for people of different sexes in languages that have grammatical gender, this alone does not constitute grammatical gender. Distinct words and names for men and women are also common in languages which do not have a grammatical gender system for nouns in general. English, for example, has feminine suffixes such as -ess (as in waitress), and also distinguishes male and female personal names, as in the above examples. ==== Differentiation of personal names ==== Given names are proper nouns and they follow the same gender grammatical rules as common nouns. In most Indo-European languages female grammatical gender is created using an "a" or an "e" ending. Classical Latin typically made a grammatical feminine gender with -a (silva "forest", aqua "water") and this was reflected in feminine names originating in that period, like Emilia. Romance languages preserved this characteristic. For example, in Spanish, approximately 89% of nouns that end in -a or -á are classified as feminine; the same is true for 98% of given names with the -a ending. In the Germanic languages the female names have been Latinized by adding -e and -a: Brunhild, Kriemhild and Hroswith became Brunhilde, Kriemhilde and Hroswitha. Slavic feminine given names: Olga (Russian), Małgorzata (Polish), Tetiana (Ukrainian), Oksana (Belarusian), Eliška (Czech), Bronislava (Slovak), Milica (Serbian), Darina (Bulgarian), Lucja (Croatian), Lamija (Bosnian) and Zala (Slovenian). ==== Differentiation of nouns with human referents ==== In some languages, nouns with human references have two forms, a male and a female one. This includes not only proper names, but also names for occupations and nationalities. Examples include: English proper names: male: Andrew female: Andrea common: Chris for both male and female English occupation names male: waiter female: waitress common: doctor for both male and female Greek proper names Κωνσταντίνος (Konstantinos) and Κωνσταντίνα (Konstantina) Greek occupation names ηθοποιός (ithopios) "actor" for both male and female in Greek and γιατρός (giatros) "doctor" for both, but with informal female variants γιατρίνα (giatrina) and γιάτραινα (giatraina) Greek nationality names have five possibilities for 'English'. male: Άγγλος (Anglos) female: Αγγλίδα (Anglida) masculine: αγγλικός (anglikos) feminine: αγγλική (angliki) neuter: αγγλικό (angliko) To complicate matters, Greek often offers additional informal versions of these. The corresponding for English are the following: εγγλέζος (englezos), Εγγλέζα (Engleza), εγγλέζικος (englezikos), εγγλέζικη (engleziki), εγγλέζικο (engleziko). The formal forms come from the name Αγγλία (Anglia) "England", while the less formal are derived from Italian inglese. === Meaning-based semantic criteria === In some languages, gender is determined by strictly semantic criteria, but in other languages, semantic criteria only partially determine gender. ==== Strict semantic criteria ==== In some languages, the gender of a noun is directly determined by its physical attributes (sex, animacy, etc.), and there are few or no exceptions to this rule. There are relatively few such languages. The Dravidian languages use this system as described below. Another example is the Dizi language, which has two asymmetrical genders. The feminine includes all living beings of female sex (e.g. woman, girl, cow...) and diminutives; the masculine encompasses all other nouns (e.g. man, boy, pot, broom...). In this language, feminine nouns are always marked with -e or -in. Another African language, Defaka, has three genders: one for all male humans, one for all female humans, and a third for all the remaining nouns. Gender is only marked in personal pronouns. Standard English pronouns (see below) are very similar in this respect, although the English gendered pronouns (he, she) are used for domestic animals if the sex of the animal is known, and sometimes for certain objects such as ships, e.g. "What happened to the Titanic? She (or it) sank." ==== Mostly semantic criteria ==== In some languages, the gender of nouns can mostly be determined by physical (semantic) attributes, although there remain some nouns whose gender is not assigned in this way (Corbett calls this "semantic residue"). The world view (e.g. mythology) of the speakers may influence the division of categories. Zande has four genders: male human, female human, animal, and inanimate. However, there are about 80 nouns representing inanimate entities which are nonetheless animate in gender: heavenly objects (moon, rainbow), metal objects (hammer, ring), edible plants (sweet potato, pea), and non-metallic objects (whistle, ball). Many have a round shape or can be explained by the role they play in mythology. Ket has three genders (masculine, feminine, and neuter), and most gender assignment is based on semantics, but there are many inanimate nouns outside the neuter class. Masculine nouns include male animates, most fish, trees, the moon, large wooden objects, most living beings and some religious items. Feminine nouns include female animates, three types of fish, some plants, the sun and other heavenly objects, some body parts and skin diseases, the soul, and some religious items. Words for part of a whole, as well as most other nouns that do not fall into any of the aforementioned classes, are neuter. The gender assignment of non-sex-differentiable things is complex. In general, those of no importance to the Kets are feminine, whereas objects of importance (e.g. fish, wood) are masculine. Mythology is again a significant factor. Alamblak has two genders, masculine and feminine. However, the masculine also includes things which are tall or long and slender, or narrow (e.g. fish, snakes, arrows and slender trees), whereas the feminine gender has things which are short, squat or wide (e.g. turtles, houses, shields and squat trees). In French, the distinction between the gender of a noun and the gender of the object it refers to is clear when nouns of different genders can be used for the same object, for example vélo (m.) = bicyclette (f.). ==== Contextual determination of gender ==== There are certain situations where the assignment of gender to a noun, pronoun or noun phrase may not be straightforward. This includes in particular: groups of mixed gender; references to people or things of unknown or unspecified gender. In languages with masculine and feminine gender, the masculine is usually employed by default to refer to persons of unknown gender and to groups of people of mixed gender. Thus, in French the feminine plural pronoun elles always designates an all-female group of people (or stands for a group of nouns all of feminine gender), but the masculine equivalent ils may refer to a group of males or masculine nouns, to a mixed group, or to a group of people of unknown genders. In such cases, one says that the feminine gender is semantically marked, whereas the masculine gender is unmarked. In English, the problem of gender determination does not arise in the plural, because gender in that language is reflected only in pronouns, and the plural pronoun they does not have gendered forms. In the singular, however, the issue frequently arises when a person of unspecified or unknown gender is being referred to. In this case it the Singular they has been traditional. Since the 18th century it has been prescribed to use the masculine (he), but other solutions are now often preferred—see Gender-neutral language. In languages with a neuter gender, such as Slavic and Germanic languages, the neuter is often used for indeterminate gender reference, particularly when the things referred to are not people. In some cases this may even apply when referring to people, particularly children. For example, in English, one may use it to refer to a child, particularly when speaking generically rather than about a particular child of known sex. In Icelandic (which preserves a masculine–feminine–neuter distinction in both singular and plural), the neuter plural can be used for groups of people of mixed gender, when specific people are meant. For example: þau (N.PL) höfðu hist í skóginum þegar kerlingin (F.SG) var ung stúlka og keisarinn (M.SG) óbreyttur prins. 'They (N.PL) had met in the forest when the old woman (F.SG) was a young girl and the emperor (M.SG) was only a prince.' However, when referring to previously unmentioned groups of people or when referring to people in a generic way, especially when using an indefinite pronoun like 'some' or 'all', the masculine plural is used. For example: Sumir (M.PL) hafa þann sið að tala við sjálfa (M.PL) sig. 'Some people have the habit of talking to themselves.' An example contrasting the two ways to refer to groups is the following, taken from advertisements of Christian congregations announcing their meetings: Allir (M.PL) velkomnir (M.PL) 'All welcome' is understood to be more general whereas Öll (N.PL) velkomin (N.PL) is more specific and emphasises the individuality of the group members. That the masculine is seen in Icelandic as the most generic or 'unmarked' of the three genders can also be seen in the fact that the nouns for most professions are masculine. Even feminine job descriptions historically filled by women, like hjúkrunarkona 'nurse' and fóstra 'nursery school teacher' (both F.SG), have been replaced with masculine ones as men have started becoming more represented in these professions: hjúkrunarfræðingur 'nurse' and leikskólakennari 'nursery school teacher' (both M.SG). In Swedish (which has an overall common–neuter gender system), masculinity may be argued to be a marked feature, because in the weak adjectival declension there is a distinct ending (-e) for naturally masculine nouns (as in min lillebror, "my little brother"). In spite of this, the third-person singular masculine pronoun han would normally be the default for a person of unknown gender, although in practice the indefinite pronoun man and the reflexive sig or its possessive forms sin/sitt/sina usually make this unnecessary. In Polish, where a gender-like distinction is made in the plural between "masculine personal" and all other cases (see below), a group is treated as masculine personal if it contains at least one male person. In languages which preserve a three-way gender division in the plural, the rules for determining the gender (and sometimes number) of a coordinated noun phrase ("... and ...") may be quite complex. Czech is an example of such a language, with a division (in the plural) between masculine animate, masculine inanimate, feminine, and neuter. The rules for gender and number of coordinated phrases in that language are summarized at Czech declension § Gender and number of compound phrases. === Arbitrary conventional criteria === In some languages, any gender markers have been so eroded over time (possibly through deflexion) that they are no longer recognizable. Many German nouns, for example, do not indicate their gender through either meaning or form. In such cases a noun's gender must simply be memorized, and gender can be regarded as an integral part of each noun when considered as an entry in the speaker's lexicon. (This is reflected in dictionaries, which typically indicate the gender of noun headwords where applicable.) Second-language learners are often encouraged to memorize a modifier, usually a definite article, in conjunction with each noun—for example, a learner of French may learn the word for "chair" as la chaise (meaning "the chair"); this carries the information that the noun is chaise, and that it is feminine (because la is the feminine singular form of the definite article). == Gender shifts == It is possible for a noun to have more than one gender. Such gender shifts are sometimes correlated with meaning shifts, and sometimes yield doublets with no difference in meaning. Moreover, gender shifts sometimes crosscuts number contrasts, such that the singular form of a noun has one gender, and plural form of the noun has a different gender. === Some gender shifts are meaningful === Gender shift may be associated with a difference in the sex of the referent, as with nouns such as comunista in Spanish, which may be either masculine or feminine, depending on whether it refers to a male or a female. It may also correspond to some other difference in the meaning of the word. For example, the German word See meaning "lake" is masculine, whereas the identical word meaning "sea" is feminine. The meanings of the Norwegian noun ting have diverged further: masculine en ting is "a thing", whereas neuter et ting is "an assembly". (The parliament is the Storting, "the Great Ting"; the other tings like Borgarting are the regional courts.) It is a matter of analysis how to draw the line between a single polysemous word with multiple genders and a set of homonyms with one gender each. For example, Bulgarian has a pair of homonyms пръст (prəst) which are etymologically unrelated. One is masculine and means "finger"; the other is feminine and means "soil". === Some gender shifts are meaningless === In other cases, a word may be usable in multiple genders indifferently. For example, in Bulgarian the word пу̀стош, (pustosh, "wilderness") may be either masculine (definite form пу̀стоша, pustoshə) or feminine (definite form пустошта̀, pustoshta) without any change in meaning and no preference in usage. In Norwegian, many nouns can be either feminine or masculine according to the dialect, level of formality or whim of the speaker/writer. Even the two written forms of the language have many nouns whose gender is optional. Choosing the masculine gender will often seem more formal than using the feminine. This might be because before the creation of Norwegian Nynorsk and Norwegian Bokmål in the late 19th century, Norwegians wrote in Danish, which has lost the feminine gender, thus usage of the masculine gender (corresponding exactly to Danish common gender in conjugation in Norwegian Bokmål) is more formal sounding to modern Norwegians. The word for "sun" can be another example. One might decline it masculine: En sol, solen, soler, solene, or feminine: Ei sol, sola, soler, solene, in Norwegian Bokmål. The same goes for a lot of common words like bok (book), dukke (doll), bøtte (bucket) and so forth. Many of the words where it is possible to choose gender are inanimate objects that one might suspect would be conjugated with the neuter gender. Nouns conjugated with the neuter gender cannot normally be conjugated as feminine or masculine in Norwegian. There is also a slight tendency towards using the masculine indefinite article even when choosing the feminine conjugation of a noun in many eastern Norwegian dialects. For instance, the word for "girl" is declined: En jente, jenta, jenter, jentene. === Some gender shifts are associated with number contrasts === Sometimes a noun's gender can change between its plural and singular forms, as with the French words amour ("love"), délice ("delight") and orgue ("organ" as musical instrument), all of which are masculine in the singular but feminine in the plural. These anomalies may have a historical explanation (amour used to be feminine in the singular too) or result from slightly different notions (orgue in the singular is usually a barrel organ, whereas the plural orgues usually refers to the collection of columns in a church organ). Further examples are the Italian words uovo ("egg") and braccio ("arm"). These are masculine in the singular, but form the irregular plurals uova and braccia, which have the endings of the feminine singular, but have feminine plural agreement. (This is related to the forms of the second declension Latin neuter nouns from which they derive: ovum and bracchium, with nominative plurals ova and bracchia.) In other cases, the anomaly can be explained by the form of the noun, as is the case in Scottish Gaelic. Masculine nouns which form their plural by palatalization of their final consonant can change gender in their plural form, as a palatalized final consonant is often a marker of a feminine noun, e.g. balach beag ("small boy"), but balaich bheaga ("small boys"), with the adjective showing agreement for both feminine gender (lenition of initial consonant) and plural number (suffixed -a). == Gender across languages == Related languages need not assign the same gender to a noun: this shows that gender can vary across related languages. Conversely, unrelated languages that are in contact can impact how a borrowed noun is assigned gender, with either the borrowing or the donor language determining the gender of the borrowed word. === Gender can vary across related languages === Nouns which have the same meanings in different languages need not have the same gender. This is particularly so in the case of things with no natural gender, such as sexless objects. For example, there is, by all appearances, nothing about a table that should cause it to be associated with any particular gender, and different languages' words for "table" are found to have various genders: feminine, as with the French table; masculine, as with German Tisch; or neuter, as with Norwegian bord. (Even within a given language, nouns that denote the same concept may differ in gender—for example, of three German words for "car", Wagen is masculine whereas Auto is neuter, and Karre is feminine.) Cognate nouns in closely related languages are likely to have the same gender, because they tend to inherit the gender of the original word in the parent language. For instance, in the Romance languages, the words for "sun" are masculine, being derived from the Latin masculine noun sol, whereas the words for "moon" are feminine, being derived from the Latin feminine luna. (This contrasts with the genders found in German, where Sonne "sun" is feminine, and Mond "moon" is masculine, as well as in other Germanic languages.) However, there are exceptions to this principle. For instance, latte ("milk") is masculine in Italian (as are French lait and Portuguese leite), whereas Spanish leche is feminine and Romanian lapte is neuter. Likewise, the word for "boat" is neuter in German (das Boot), but common gender in Swedish (en båt). Some more examples of the above phenomena are given below. (These come mostly from the Slavic languages, where gender largely correlates with the noun ending.) The Russian word луна ("moon") is feminine, whereas месяц ("crescent moon", also meaning "month") is masculine. In Polish, another Slavic language, the word for moon is księżyc, which is masculine. Russian also has two words for "potato": картофель which is masculine, and картошка which is feminine. In Polish the loanword tramwaj ("tram") is masculine, whereas the cognate loanword in Czech, tramvaj, is feminine. The Polish word tysiąc ("thousand") is masculine, whereas the cognate in Russian, тысяча, is feminine, while the Icelandic cognate þúsund is neuter. The Spanish word origen ("origin") is masculine, but its close relatives origem (from Portuguese), orixe (from Asturian) and origem/ orixe from Galician are feminine. The French word équipe ("team") is feminine, while the Spanish word equipo is masculine. The Spanish form contrasts with the Portuguese equipa/equipe, both of which are feminine. The Italian word scimmia ("ape") is feminine, whereas the Spanish word simio is masculine. The French word mer is feminine, but the Spanish cognate mar is generally masculine (except in some poetic contexts and among sea workers), whereas the Catalan cognate mar can be masculine or feminine, depending on the dialect. All these words mean "sea" and are descended from the Latin mare, which was neuter. === How languages assign gender to borrowed words === Borrowed words are assigned gender in one of two ways: via criteria determined by the borrowing language; via criteria determined by the donor language. ==== Borrowing language can determine gender ==== Ibrahim identifies several processes by which a language assigns a gender to a newly borrowed word; these processes follow patterns by which even children, through their subconscious recognition of patterns, can often correctly predict a noun's gender. If the noun is animate, natural gender tends to dictate grammatical gender. The borrowed word tends to take the gender of the native word it replaces. According to Ghil'ad Zuckermann, morphemic adaptations of English words into American Italian or British Italian are abundant with such cases. For example, the feminine gender of the British Italian word bagga "bag" was induced by the feminine gender of the Italian word borsa "bag".: 86  If the borrowed word happens to have a suffix that the borrowing language uses as a gender marker, the suffix tends to dictate gender. If the borrowed word rhymes with one or more native words, the latter tend to dictate gender. The default assignment is the borrowing language's unmarked gender. Rarely, the word retains the gender it had in the donor language. This tends to happen more frequently in more formal language such as scientific terms, where some knowledge of the donor language can be expected. Sometimes the gender of a word switches with time. For example, the Russian modern loanword виски (viski) "whisky" was originally feminine, then masculine, and today it has become neuter. ==== Donor language can determine gender ==== Ghil'ad Zuckermann argues that the cross-lingual retention of grammatical gender can change not only the lexis of the target language but also its morphology. For example, gender can indirectly influence the productivity of noun-patterns in what he calls the "Israeli" language: the Israeli neologism מברשת (mivréshet, transl. brush) is fitted into the feminine noun-pattern mi⌂⌂é⌂et (each ⌂ represents a slot where a radical is inserted) because of the feminine gender of the matched words for "brush" such as Arabic mábrasha, Yiddish barsht, Russian shchëtka, Polish kiść (transl. painting brush) and szczotka, German Bürste and French brosse, all feminine.: 86  Similarly, argues Zuckermann, the Israeli neologism for "library", ספריה (sifriá), matches the feminine gender of the parallel pre-existent European words: Yiddish transl. yi – transl. biblioték, Russian bibliotéka, Polish biblioteka, German Bibliothek and French bibliothèque, as well as of the pre-existent Arabic word for "library": مكتبة (máktaba, also feminine. The result of this neologism might have been, more generally, the strengthening of Israeli יה- (-iá) as a productive feminine locative suffix (combined with the influence of Polish -ja and Russian -ия (-iya)).: 86–87  == Distribution of gender in the world's languages == Grammatical gender is a common phenomenon in the world's languages. A typological survey of 174 languages revealed that over one fourth of them had grammatical gender. Gender systems rarely overlap with numerical classifier systems. Gender and noun class systems are usually found in fusional or agglutinating languages, whereas classifiers are more typical of isolating languages. Thus, according to Johanna Nichols, these characteristics correlate positively with the presence of grammatical gender in the world's languages: location in an area with languages featuring noun classes; preference for head-marking morphology; moderate to high morphological complexity; non-accusative alignment. Grammatical gender is found in many Indo-European languages (including Spanish, French, Russian, and German—but not English, Bengali, Armenian or Persian, for example), Afroasiatic languages (which includes the Semitic and Berber languages, etc.), and in other language families such as Dravidian and Northeast Caucasian, as well as several Australian Aboriginal languages such as Dyirbal, and Kalaw Lagaw Ya. Most Niger–Congo languages also have extensive systems of noun classes, which can be grouped into several grammatical genders. Conversely, grammatical gender is usually absent from the Koreanic, Japonic, Tungusic, Turkic, Mongolic, Austronesian, Sino-Tibetan, Uralic and most Native American language families. Modern English makes use of gender in pronouns, which are generally marked for natural gender, but lacks a system of gender concord within the noun phrase which is one of the central elements of grammatical gender in most other Indo-European languages. === Indo-European === Many Indo-European languages, but not English, provide examples of grammatical gender. Research indicates that the earliest stages of Proto-Indo-European had two genders (animate and inanimate), as did Hittite, the earliest attested Indo-European language. The classification of nouns based on animacy and inanimacy and the lack of gender are today characteristic of Armenian. According to the theory, the animate gender, which (unlike the inanimate) had independent vocative and accusative forms, later split into masculine and feminine, thus originating the three-way classification into masculine, feminine and neuter. Many Indo-European languages retained the three genders, including most Slavic languages, Latin, Sanskrit, Ancient and Modern Greek, German, Icelandic, Romanian and Asturian (two Romance language exceptions). In them, there is a high but not absolute correlation between grammatical gender and declensional class. Many linguists believe that to be true of the middle and late stages of Proto-Indo-European. However, many languages reduced the number of genders to two. Some lost the neuter, leaving masculine and feminine like most Romance languages (see Vulgar Latin § Loss of neuter gender. A few traces of the neuter remain, such as the distinct Spanish pronoun ello and Italian nouns with so-called "mobile gender"), as well as Hindustani and the Celtic languages. Others merged feminine and masculine into a common gender but retained the neuter, as in Swedish and Danish (and, to some extent, Dutch; see Gender in Danish and Swedish and Gender in Dutch grammar). Finally, some languages, such as English and Afrikaans, have nearly completely lost grammatical gender (retaining only some traces, such as the English pronouns he, she, they, and it—Afrikaans hy, sy, hulle, and dit); Armenian, Bengali, Persian, Sorani, Ossetic, Odia, Khowar, and Kalasha have lost it entirely. On the other hand, some Slavic languages can be argued to have added new genders to the classical three (see below). ==== Germanic: English ==== Although grammatical gender was a fully productive inflectional category in Old English, Modern English has a much less pervasive gender system, primarily based on natural gender and reflected essentially in pronouns only. There are a few traces of gender marking in Modern English: Some words take different derived forms depending on the natural gender of the referent, such as waiter/waitress and widow/widower. The third-person singular personal pronouns (and their possessive forms) are gender specific: he/him/his (masculine gender, used for men, boys, and male animals), she/her(s) (feminine gender, for women, girls, and female animals), the singular they/them/their(s) (common gender, used for people or animals of unknown, irrelevant, or non-binary gender), and it/its (neuter gender, mainly for objects, abstractions and animals). (There are also distinct personal and non-personal forms but no differentiation by natural gender in the case of certain interrogative and relative pronouns: who/whom for persons, corresponding to he, she, and the singular they; and which corresponding to it.) However, these are relatively insignificant features compared with a typical language with full grammatical gender. English nouns are not generally considered to belong to gender classes in the way that French, German or Russian nouns are. There is no gender agreement in English between nouns and their modifiers (articles, other determiners, or adjectives, with the occasional exception such as blond/blonde, a spelling convention borrowed from French). Gender agreement applies in effect only to pronouns, with the choice of pronoun determined through semantics and/or pragmatics rather than on any conventional assignment of particular nouns to particular genders. Only a relatively small number of English nouns have distinct male and female forms; many of them are loanwords from non-Germanic languages (the suffixes -rix and -ress in words such as aviatrix and waitress, for instance, derive directly or indirectly from Latin). English has no live productive gender markers. An example of such a marker might be the suffix -ette (of French provenance), but this is seldom used today, surviving mostly in either historical contexts or with disparaging or humorous intent. The gender of an English pronoun typically coincides with the natural gender of its referent, rather than with the grammatical gender of its antecedent. The choice between she, he, they, and it comes down to whether the pronoun is intended to designate a woman, a man, or someone or something else. There are certain exceptions, however: With animals, it is usually used, but when the sex of the animal is known, it may be referred to as he or she (particularly when expressing an emotional connection with the animal, as with a pet). See also § Gender contrasts on human versus sentient referents above. Certain nonhuman things can be referred to with the pronoun she (her, hers), particularly countries and ships, and sometimes other vehicles or machines. See Gender in English § Metaphorical gender. This usage is considered a metaphorical figure of speech; it is also in decline, and advised against by most journalistic style guides. Problems arise when selecting a personal pronoun to refer to someone of unspecified or unknown gender (see also § Contextual determination of gender above). In the past and to some degree still in the present, the masculine has been used as the "default" gender in English. The use of the plural pronoun they with singular reference is common in practice. The neuter it may be used for a baby but not normally for an older child or adult. (Other genderless pronouns exist, such as the impersonal pronoun one, but they are not generally substitutable for a personal pronoun.) For more information see Gender-neutral language and Singular they. ==== Slavic languages ==== The Slavic languages mostly continue the Proto-Indo-European system of three genders, masculine, feminine and neuter. Gender correlates largely with noun endings (masculine nouns typically end in a consonant, feminines in -a and neuters in -o or -e) but there are many exceptions, particularly in the case of nouns whose stems end in a soft consonant. However, some of the languages, including Russian, Czech, Slovak and Polish, also make certain additional grammatical distinctions between animate and inanimate nouns: Polish in the plural, and Russian in the accusative case, differentiate between human and non-human nouns. In Russian, the different treatment of animate nouns involves their accusative case (and that of adjectives qualifying them) being formed identically to the genitive rather than to the nominative. In the singular that applies to masculine nouns only, but in the plural it applies in all genders. See Russian declension. A similar system applies in Czech, but the situation is somewhat different in the plural: Only masculine nouns are affected, and the distinctive feature is a distinct inflective ending for masculine animate nouns in the nominative plural and for adjectives and verbs agreeing with those nouns. See Czech declension. Polish might be said to distinguish five genders: personal masculine (referring to male humans), animate non-personal masculine, inanimate masculine, feminine, and neuter. The animate–inanimate opposition for the masculine gender applies in the singular, and the personal–impersonal opposition, which classes animals along with inanimate objects, applies in the plural. (A few nouns denoting inanimate things are treated grammatically as animate and vice versa.) The manifestations of the differences are as follows: In the singular, masculine animates (in the standard declension) have an accusative form identical to the genitive, and masculine inanimates have accusative identical to the nominative. The same applies to adjectives qualifying these nouns, the same as in Russian and Czech. Also, Polish masculine animates always form their genitive in -a, whereas in the case of inanimates some use -a and some -u: animate: dobry klient ("good customer"; nominative); dobrego klienta (accusative and genitive) animate: dobry pies ("good dog"; nominative); dobrego psa (accusative and genitive) inanimate: dobry ser ("good cheese"; nominative and accusative); dobrego sera (genitive only) In the plural, masculine personal nouns (but not other animate nouns) take accusatives that are identical to the genitives; they also typically take different endings in the nominative (e.g. -i rather than -y). Such endings also appear on adjectives and past tense verbs. The two features are analogous to features of Russian and Czech respectively, except that those languages make an animate/inanimate distinction rather than personal/impersonal) . Examples of the Polish system: personal: dobrzy klienci ("good customers"; nominative); dobrych klientów (accusative and genitive) impersonal: dobre psy ("good dogs"; nominative and accusative); dobrych psów (genitive only) impersonal: dobre sery ("good cheeses"; nominative and accusative); dobrych serów (genitive only) A few nouns have both personal and impersonal forms, depending on meaning (for example, klient may behave as an impersonal noun when it refers to a client in the computing sense). For more information on the above inflection patterns, see Polish morphology. For certain rules concerning the treatment of mixed-gender groups, see § Contextual determination of gender above. === Dravidian === In the Dravidian languages, nouns are classified primarily on the basis of their semantic properties. The highest-level classification of nouns is often described as being between "rational" and "nonrational". Nouns representing humans and deities are considered rational, and other nouns (those representing animals and objects) are treated as nonrational. Within the rational class there are further subdivisions into masculine, feminine and collective nouns. For further information, see Tamil grammar. === Austronesian === In the Austronesian Wuvulu-Aua language, vocative words used when addressing a relative often specify the speaker's gender. For example, tafi means 'sister of female', ʔari means opposite-gender sibling, and wane means female's father's sister or female's brother's daughter. == See also == Gender agreement in binomial nomenclature Gender-neutral language Gender neutrality in genderless languages Gender neutrality in languages with grammatical gender Gender-neutral language in English Gender-specific job title Generic antecedents Grammatical conjugation Polarity of gender == Notes == == References == == Bibliography == Bradley, Peter (2004). Spanish: An Essential Grammar (1 ed.). ISBN 978-0415286435. Craig, Colette G. (1986). Noun classes and categorization: Proceedings of a symposium on categorization and noun classification, Eugene, Oregon, October 1983. Amsterdam: J. Benjamins. Corbett, Greville G. (1991). Gender. Cambridge University Press. Corbett, Greville G. (1994). "Gender and gender systems". In Asher, R. (ed.). The Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics. Oxford: Pergamon Press. pp. 1347–1353. Foley, William A.; Van Valin, Robert D. Jr (13 September 1984). Functional Syntax and Universal Grammar. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-26904-9. Franceschina, Florencia (2005). Fossilized Second Language Grammars: The Acquisition of Grammatical Gender. John Benjamins Publishing Company. p. 299. ISBN 90-272-5298-X. Greenberg, J. H. (1978) "How does a language acquire gender markers?" In J. H. Greenberg et al. (eds.) Universals of Human Language, Vol. 4, pp. 47–82. Hockett, Charles F. (1958) A Course in Modern Linguistics, Macmillan. Ibrahim, Muhammad Hasan (1973). Grammatical gender: Its Origin and Development. Mouton. Iturrioz, J. L. (1986) "Structure, meaning and function: a functional analysis of gender and other classificatory techniques". Función 1. 1–3. Mercier, Adele (2002) "L'homme et la factrice: sur la logique du genre en français". "Dialogue", Volume 41, Issue 3, 2002 Pinker, Steven (1994) The Language Instinct, William Morrow and Company. Di Garbo F, Olsson B, Wälchli B (eds.). 2019. Grammatical gender and linguistic complexity I: General issues and specific studies. Berlin: Language Science Press. ISBN 978-3-96110-179-5. doi:10.5281/zenodo.3446224. Open Access. http://langsci-press.org/catalog/book/223 Di Garbo F, Olsson B, Wälchli B (eds.). 2019. Grammatical gender and linguistic complexity II: World-wide comparative studies. Berlin: Language Science Press. ISBN 978-3-96110-181-8 doi:10.5281/zenodo.3446230. Open Access. http://langsci-press.org/catalog/book/237 == External links == An overview of the grammar of Old English at ucalgary.ca Wagner, Susanne (Winter 2002–2003). Gender in English pronouns: Myth and reality (PhD thesis). Albert Ludwigs University of Freiburg. Horesh, Uri. "The morphology of gender in Hebrew and Arabic numerals" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-04-14. doi: Grammatical Features Inventory at Surrey Morphology Group The Exceptions: European Male Names Ending in A at NamepediA Blog

In linguistics, a grammatical gender system is a specific form of a noun class system, where nouns are assigned to gender categories that are often not related to the real-world qualities of the entities denoted by those nouns. In languages with grammatical gender, most or all nouns inherently carry one value of the grammatical category called gender. The values present in a given language, of which there are usually two or three, are called the genders of that language. Whereas some authors use the term "grammatical gender" as a synonym of "noun class", others use different definitions for each. Many authors prefer "noun classes" when none of the inflections in a language relate to sex or gender. According to one estimate, gender is used in approximately half of the world's languages. According to one definition: "Genders are classes of nouns reflected in the behavior of associated words."

gender

Sociology of gender (wikipedia)

Sociology of gender is a prominent subfield of sociology. Social interaction directly correlated with sociology regarding social structure. One of the most important social structures is status. This is determined based on position that an individual possesses which effects how they will be treated by society. One of the most important statuses an individual claims is gender. Public discourse and the academic literature generally use the term gender for the perceived or projected (self-identified) masculinity or femininity of a person. == Introduction == The term gender role was coined by John Money in a seminal 1955 paper where he defined it as "all those things that a person says or does to disclose himself or herself as having the status of boy or man, girl or woman." According to American gender theorist Judith Butler, a person's gender is complex, encompassing countless characteristics of appearance, speech, movement and other factors not solely limited to biological sex. Societies tend to have binary gender systems in which everyone is categorized as male or female. Some societies include a third gender role; for instance, the Native American Two-Spirit people and the Hijras of India. There is debate over the extent to which gender is a social construct or a biological construct. == In feminist theory == In the 1960s and 1970s, the women's movement started the momentum that led to the formation of feminist theory. One of the publications that launched this movement was Betty Friedan's The Feminine Mystique. This book described how women were expected to be fulfilled throughout their housework, immediately resonated with many women as it became a bestseller, and a movement was ignited. During this movement, also known as the women's rights movement or women's liberation movement, women fought for equal rights, and more personal freedom in all aspects of life such as politics, work, family and sexuality. In June 1966, the National Organization for Women (NOW) was created by women's rights activists Betty Friedan, Pauli Murray, Shirley Chisholm, and Muriel Fox to advocate political and social equality for women. Although the organization did not succeed right initially, by 1969, NOW was more comfortable with lobbying for women's reform in Washington. In 1972, Congress passed the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA). Despite it being a victory for feminism, the passage of the ERA led to criticism from anti-feminists, who argued that the ratification of the ERA would result in the invalidation of sodomy laws, and would lead to the legalization of same-sex marriage. The ERA needed to be ratified by 38 states in ten years, and fell short by three. This occurred in the second wave of feminism, after the first wave in the 19th for women's suffrage, and the foundation of early feminist theory. During the 1970s, there was no consensus about how the terms were to be applied. In the 1974 edition of Masculine/Feminine or Human, the author uses "innate gender" and "learned sex roles", but in the 1978 edition, the use of sex and gender is reversed. By 1980, most feminist writings had agreed on using gender only for sociocultural adapted traits. Feminist theory is a broad term for a variety of theories which all emphasize women's experiences and the belief that society is subordinate to women. Liberal feminism is the belief that individuals should be free to develop their own talents and pursue their interests. Individuals seek to expand equality by removing the barriers in society. Socialist feminism believes that capitalism strengthens patriarchy by concentrating wealth and power in the hands of a few, and the traditional family structure should be replaced by a collective revolution. In radical feminism, they believe that patriarchy is so deeply rooted in society that even a sociological revolution would not end it; society must eliminate gender itself. Early feminist theory targeted sex and gender and the injustices based on these gender categories. However, the early feminist movement was geared towards the equality for white middle-class women, and excluded other minority women, especially black women. Minority women face different experiences and struggles from white middle-class women, but this was largely overlooked in early feminist theory. However, this theory allowed for the birth of feminism, which focuses on women's empowerment, freedom, and the enhancement of a woman's sense of self. As time progresses, feminism can be broken into four distinct waves: first-wave from the 19th to early 20th century, second-wave feminism from the 1960s to 1970s, to the third and fourth waves of feminism from the 1990s to now. Each wave of feminism has its own goal that focused on the importance of equality among men and women in regards to social, political, and economic equality. In the first wave, feminists focused on women's suffrage, or giving women the right to vote. It was a movement that pushed for political equality so that women could participate in politics. But in this movement, it mainly advocated for the right to vote for white women, while excluding minority women. The exclusion of minority women in first movement sparked the acknowledgement of minority groups in the second movement. However, the second movement mainly dealt with sexuality and reproductive rights. The movement worked toward the passing of the Equal Rights Amendment, which was designed to guarantee equal rights for everyone regardless of their sex. By the end of this wave, society began to realize that gender, the idea of what it means to be a "woman", and society's expectations of what a woman is, are socially constructed. This realization led to the rise of the third feminist movement. It focused on debunking the predominant idea society held for women and their position in society. In this movement, the notion of being "girly" or "feminine" is broken down to redefine society's definition of a woman. The boundaries of gender are reconstructed to allow people to experiment with the fluidity of gender. However, this movement also combats the sexism and patriarchy, or the system in which men hold all the power. This is shown through the domination of sexist culture, where women are looked down upon for the same actions or experiences men partake in. The fourth wave of feminism began in 2013 and centers around sexual harassment, rape culture, and body shaming. One of the major distinctions in this wave is the use of social media and the internet to spread its messages. This wave erupted after a young woman in India died after being brutally gang raped. Another catalyst to this wave of feminism was the election of president Donald Trump in 2016 after his remarks about women. One day after President Trump's inauguration, in 2017, about 4.6 million people took to the streets of Washington, DC, to the Women's March to protest gender equality. Also in 2017, the Me Too movement gained popularity, in which women came forward to share their experiences of sexual assault after it became known that Harvey Weinstein sexually assaulted women for years in the film industry. This movement grew in only a couple of months to condemn powerful men in business, politics, news, and entertainment for their assaults against women. == Other languages == In English, both sex and gender are used in contexts where they could not be substituted (sexual intercourse; anal sex; safe sex; sex worker; sex slave). Other languages, like German, use the same word Geschlecht to refer both to grammatical gender and to biological sex, making the distinction between sex and gender advocated by some anthropologists difficult. In some contexts, German has adopted the English loan-word gender to achieve this distinction. Sometimes 'Geschlechtsidentität' is used as gender (although it literally means gender identity) and 'Geschlecht' as sex (translation of Judith Butler's Gender Trouble). More common is the use of modifiers: biologisches Geschlecht for sex, Geschlechtsidentität for gender identity and Geschlechterrolle for gender role etc. == U.S. media == Media criticism is a reflection of the gender inequality in society through print, advertisements, television and music. The media is often criticized for holding women to unrealistic beauty standards: perfect skin, slim figure, and great hair. Some argue that the media's standards of beauty led to young girls having a lower self esteem, and blame the media for contributing to eating disorders. The US media is also criticized for displaying images which depict violence against women. Studies have revealed ways in which women are maimed, sliced, and raped in advertising images. However, the media is a product of different cultural values. Western culture creates cultural gender roles based on the meanings of gender and cultural practices. Western culture has clear distinctions among sex and gender, where sex is the biological differences and gender is the social construction. However, sex still influences how society perceives a certain gender. Since culture is created though the communication among society, communication is essential to the formation of gender roles in culture and in the media. The attitudes and mentalities found in culture and in the media are generated and passed on through communication. Therefore, communication, often through the media, is what teaches a person in society how to act male or act female. Media influences and reinforces the idea of The Beauty Myth as discussed in Naomi Wolf's book, The Beauty Myth: How Images of Beauty Are Used Against Women, which refers to unrealistic standards of beauty for women. Some argue that the mainstream media perpetuates the idea of hetero-masculinity by portraying men as dominant. Some also argue that the media objectifies and oppresses women, and men who do not fall into the heteronormative category. === Oppression === Through the media, men are taught to be ultra-masculine by being desensitized, violent, and physically strong. Other forms of media that often portray the ultra-masculine figure are advertisements, the Hollywood movie industry, and video games. These forms encourage men to oppress other men if they do not fit the ideals of hegemonic masculinity, as well as develop a self-validation system where men aim to uphold these trivialized ideals of the masculine male. It is theorized that this further amplifies and legitimates the repression of the female in relation to the male. Throughout history, women have been excluded from media agencies, a key issue highlighted as early as the 18th century by the European and North American suffragists movement. Although stories were published about women, they were often trivialized or biased against women by the patriarchy of all-male news outlets. The suffragist movement was adamant in forming their own media outlet in order to further the knowledge in women's issues and achievements. Due to the patriarchal systems of pre-existing news media outlets, women were forced to form their own media outlets, seeing as it having been nearly impossible for women to 'climb the ladder' in terms of corporate hierarchy when looking at newsrooms, radio stations, and editors for the newspapers themselves. By the 20th century, a diaspora of information regarding women and feminist issues, including the likes of women's discrimination within the work place and voting rights, were published in a variety of news media outlets to shed light on the current issues of women as well as extend the equality of and protection of women's rights through informing and educating the public. As part of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal #5 (SDGs), the UN Women Media Compact was established in order to promote and vitalize the equality within media outlets, more specifically to subdue the oppression of women within media. === Objectification of women === Objectification of women refers to instances in the media in which women may be viewed as, or directly compared to, insentient objects that can be acquired and possessed. This can be examined in the context of advertisements, where objects may be anthropomorphized and given feminine qualities or aspects of the female form. While most instances of objectification arise from underlying male sexual desires, objectification is not always sexual. Anytime a woman is viewed as a device for the benefit of another, this is considered objectification. Some studies indicate that widespread objectification of women in the media may have significant repercussions on society, such as low self-esteem and eating disorders among women. == Gender and socialization == Socialization is the process where individuals learn the norms, values, and rules of a society in order to become a functioning member in it. Socialization theory offers a straightforward account of the acquisition of gendered identities. Infants are seen as blank slates, waiting to be written down on by their environment. Through their interactions with people close to them and exposure to the values of their society, infants learn what gender is attributed to them and what roles they are expected to learn. Reinforcement (through rewarding gender-appropriate behavior and punishing what may seem as deviant behavior) socializes children into their genders. For children, the primary agent of socialization for them is their parents. At a young age, children are taught societal rules and norms for specific genders. These norms, also known as gender roles, outline what is expected from males and females. From the moment of birth and onwards, parental expectations for their child are set by their gender. For example, parents are far more likely to engage with their sons in rough physical play than they are with their daughters, and it has been argued that long-term consequences may follow (in this case, a head start for boys in the development of physical violence and aggressiveness). Parents and family can influence the way that a child develops their view of gender. These types of influences can include parental attitudes and difference of treatment regarding male and female children. Researcher Susan Witt claims that parents also expose children to gender from the time they are born via specific toys, colors, and names associated with genders in the binary. Witt suggests that parental attitudes about gender can differ from male to female children and that these attitudes develop quickly after a child's birth. Parents influence the way children behave and think at home, which is then carried out into the real world where the child is exposed to an environment that reinforces such ideas and beliefs. Author Susan Grieshaber, in "Constructing the Gendered Infant", suggests that attitudes regarding pregnancy change after parents find out the sex of their child, subsequently changing parental attitudes towards the unborn child. According to Grieshaber's theory, once parents determine the sex of their unborn child, they assume a gender while planning for the child's arrival. Because of this, Grieshaber claims that infants are born into a gendered world where they never know anything other than the gender traits that are assumed due to their sex. Kara Smith utilizes similar theory throughout the analysis of her pregnancy journals kept throughout her second pregnancy. Smith concluded that her attitude towards her child changed after learning that her child's sex was male. Smith's claim is reflected in changes in tone of voice when talking to the unborn child as well as differences in physical touch of her stomach throughout the rest of her pregnancy. Another theory of gender socialization, discussed by Susan McHale, is that the gender roles and attitudes of older siblings can impact the gender roles adopted by younger children. Throughout the findings of McHale's study, it is maintained that parents still have the most familial influence on childhood socialization. By the time children reach the age of three, many will have acquired a firm sense of themselves as male or female, a gender identity that remains throughout life. In addition, many pre-schoolers develop a firm awareness of gender stereotypes, insisting that certain activities or items of clothing are not for girls and others not for boys. Yet gender identity does not automatically follow from biological sex. Adults respond differently to communicative efforts of boys and girls. A study of infants aged 13 months found that when boys demand attention – by behaving aggressively, or crying, whining or screaming – they tended to get it. By contrast, adults tended to respond to girls only when they used language, gestures, or gentle touches; girls who used attention-seeking techniques were likely ignored. There was little difference in the communicative patterns at the start of the study, but by the age of two, the girls have become more talkative and boys more assertive in their communicative techniques. The norms that are taught throughout childhood are influential in an individual's life because the ideas about gender that are typically taught by parents in early years are reinforced outside of the home. A study done by Mick Cunningham states that the normative behaviors and attitudes that children observe can influence the way that these children grow up to structure their own households in adulthood. Normative gender roles can be reinforced outside of the household, adding power to these hegemonic ideas about gender. An analysis of children's books in the twenty-first century, by Janice McCabe, suggests that this particular avenue of children's media symbolically annihilates females, representing them about half as often as that of males. Underrepresentation such as this can affect children and their views of gender. Children's TV networks, such as Disney, Nickelodeon, and Cartoon Network, have demonstrated a disproportional representation of males and females on their respective shows in a study done by Beth Hentges and Kim Case. According to Hentges and Case, there are less female characters across all three children's networks; however, there is more propagation of stereotypical gendered behavior on Cartoon Network and Nickelodeon than that of Disney. === Atypical household influence on gender socialization === Some children are raised in atypical households that challenge normative gender roles. In Jada Tidwell's study, she observes the play of children who come from households with lesbian feminist mothers (both single mothers and couples). Tidwell's observations consisted of both individual play as well as play integrated with the mothers. As a result of these observations, Tidwell asserts that atypical environments can affect children's lives and ideas. According to Tidwell, households that challenge hegemonic cultural ideas ultimately give children a different perspective of gender than those of children raised in heterosexual, two parent households. In the families studied by Jada Tidwell, children reported ideas that both endorsed and challenged stereotypical gender roles at times. In a different study, Abbie Goldberg observed toddlers from various types of households and how these children engaged in play. Goldberg's findings suggest that children whose parents are of the same gender tend to play in ways that are less adherent to stereotypical gender roles than children from heterosexual households. Susan Witt, in her article "Parental Influence on Children's Socialization to Gender Roles", advocates for androgynous gender roles in parenting, arguing that environments are more open minded about gender and encouraging to both their sons and daughters. == Gender and psychoanalysis == One of the most influential of the psychoanalytic theories of gender identity is the perspective developed in the book The Reproduction of Mothering. Its author, Nancy Chodorow, traces the implications for emotional development by linking them with the way mothers usually care for their infants in their formative years, while fathers are more emotionally distant. The development of an identity takes place as the infant gets more and more separated from their mother, with whom the infant is initially psychically merged. This process operates differently for boys and girls. Girls can separate gradually, maintain a continuous sense of relationship with the mother, who is after all experienced as alike. For boys, on the other hand, separating from the mother, who is experienced as different, involves repressing the feminine aspects of themselves and rejecting their tenderness that was central to that early relationship. Boys' sense of maleness, according to Chodorow, is achieved at a great emotional cost. Consequently, men grow up to have a more autonomous sense of self, and to be more independent, more instrumental and competitive in their dealings with others. They are also more likely to have difficulty expressing their emotions and to be anxious about intimacy. Women, on the other hand, have more ability and more need to sustain relationship with others; they have greater empathy with others. They have difficulty in maintaining the boundaries of an independent and autonomous self. Chodorow, however, believes that these patterns are not inevitable. Changes in the social arrangements for care of children such as dual parenting, which would involve fathers in emotional intimacy with their children, can break the cycle. == Gender and the division of labor == Before industrialization, economic activity, which centered around agricultural work, crafts and so on, was organized by households. Household members, whether male or female, young or old, contributed to the family's livelihood. Although women might do some types of work and men others, depending on region and class, the distinction between men as breadwinners and women as housewives did not characterize pre-industrial divisions of labor. Industrialization shifted much productive activity to factories, shops and offices. This separation of work from home signaled a profound change in gender relations and gender discourse. The home came to be understood not as the site of a family enterprise, but as a refuge from the world of work. Women were defined as the keepers of the home, as it was seen as their nature to create harmony and virtue rather than services and goods. Preindustrial society relied on gendered roles in the workforce to create equilibrium between men and women. Men were assigned the hunter role while women were assigned the domestic roles. Men were expected to supply food and shelter for the family while women were the caretakers for the children and their household. As centuries passed, this continued and created a divide in gendered roles in labor. Women remained dependent on men to provide, this dependence led to male roles being more valued in society which still remains in the 21st century. The divisions of labor ensures people with specific skill sets end up in certain jobs in order to benefit society. Where women fit into the workforce and how women benefit society were impacted by differences between the gender stereotypes of men and women. Based on stereotypes, males are perceived to be more suitable for the highest positions while women are not. Women are believed to lack the qualities needed to obtain male dominated occupations like management and CEO positions. Despite the greater number of women entering the workforce in recent years, men continue to dominate the workforce and women are still viewed as inferior. With the constant negative perceptions of women in traditionally male occupations, research has shown that women approach tasks that are assumed to be for males with low confidence and self-esteem. This is due to the belief that they are not competent enough to complete such tasks. In the United States, Title VII and the 1964 Civil Rights Act were passed to attempt to ensure the equal treatment of the growing number of women entering the workforce. However, women are still subjected to forms of sexual harassment, which ranges from jokes to threats. The most common form of sexual harassment is "hostile environments", which aims to make women feel unsafe and uncomfortable. This sexual harassment serves as a means of men enforcing their superiority over women, and it is one of the most prominent forms of gender inequality in the workplace. == Gender in conversation == Some research has found that, in classroom settings, male students tend to talk more, and longer, than female students. This was determined to be particularly noticeable when the instructor is male. Similar results were found previously in hospitals by Erving Goffman in 1961, university discussion groups by Elizabeth Aries in 1972, and in corporate settings by Rosabeth Kanter in 1977. === Gender in the workplace === Women and men experience different types of mobility within the workplace. For example, women tend to experience a glass ceiling, an invisible barrier that prevents them from moving up the corporate ladder. An example of this is a study from Sweden that compared the number of females in director jobs to men in director jobs. The study showed that there were statistically more men than women holding those jobs and showed that the results were also shown in other countries such as the USA. Men in jobs traditionally held by women, such as nursing, elementary school teaching, and social work, experience a "glass escalator" effect in which they are able to quickly ascend the job hierarchy to become managers and principals. There also tends to be a gender pay gap between men and women, with women earning 77% as much as men. One cause of the gender pay gap may be due to occupational segregation, which pushes men and women towards gender-specific forms of employment, rather than pay discrimination. Another possible cause is the double burden, a phenomenon in which women perform most of the unpaid childcare and household work despite being otherwise employed for pay. A third possible cause is occupational sexism, one part of which favors men for promotions due to their traditional breadwinner status. The 2001 class action lawsuit, Dukes v. Wal-Mart Stores, Inc., charged Wal-Mart with sexist hiring and promotion practices. There were also studies done that showed that having women in higher paying positions would correlate to an increased chance of depressive symptoms. These studies talked about how the depression was caused by the negative social experiences at their job, such as social isolation and negative social interactions, that weaken the mental health of the women in authority positions. Of which referenced that men had more value for their status in the work place than women. These social interactions would have been caused by cultural gender norms. Parallel to the social norms, women are stuck in the expectations placed upon them based on these norms. This places the identity of follower onto women since that is what the norm dictated. In China, women have experienced gender based discrimination based on job requirements that represent indirect discrimination. An example would be a job listing available to everyone but required the individual to be able to carry a set amount of weight or to be a certain height, without there being a need for that requirement in that job. These requirements prevent set groups from getting that job, but is labeled implicitly. In addition, the emergence of transgender individuals in the workplace has begun to disrupt the gender binary of male and female. By creating a hybrid gender identity, the transgender community suggests notions of movement toward postgenderism. ==== US workplace ==== In the US, it is common for companies to adopt policies that allow women to be on maternity leave during and after pregnancy. As a result, there are many positive health benefits, such as better "overall maternal health, improving mother's mental health, [and] promoting mother-infant interaction". However, the US is one of the few countries that do not allow women to be on paid maternity leave after giving birth. This leads to negative outcomes since many families can not live off of a single income. US policies maternity policies lack focus on men and do not include paternity leave. Between 1995 and 2005, about 13,000 men on average were on paternity leave compared to 273,000 women. Despite the low number of male workers on paternity leave, it has a wide range of benefits for the household. Some of which include "assisting mothers in their childbirth recovery...[and] encouraging father involvement". Countries such as Canada and Sweden, which offer paternity leave, have lower infant mortality and better maternal health (both mental and physical). These countries also demonstrate how paternity leave is economically possible. However, there is an existing perception in society that discourages male workers to take paternity leave. Society's norms of traditional masculinity believes that men should prioritize work over family life, which is deemed a job for women. Together the lack of policies encouraging paternity leave, and society's notion that men should remain in the workplace, aim to discourage fathers' involvement in their young children and to enforce the traditional gender roles. == Intersectionality == Intersectionality is a Neo-Marxist concept stemming from a critical theory social analysis of class, race, and gender. The theory of intersectionality argues that forms of "inequality, oppression, and privilege" are shaped by interconnected axes of identity, and are mutually reinforced by social interactions and by social, political, and economic structures, such as capitalism, patriarchy, and institutionalized heteronormativity. The theory of Intersectionality argues that race, class, gender, and other markers of identity are social constructions. This theory argues against the assumption that systems of power relations are normative and can hold individuals accountable for their own character and efforts. West & Fenstermaker in their 1995 article Doing Difference offer that models that conceive gender, race and class as distinct axes are highly limiting in their understanding of the whole experience or identity of an individual. For example, they critique the additive model, in which the whole will never be greater (or lesser) than the sum of it parts. By analyzing each identity marker as an individual characteristic, we ignore the effect of the interconnection of these markers. Additional sociologists have written about the intersectionality of class, race, and gender. Joan Acker outlines four gendered processes of intersectionality. The first includes procedures that create hierarchies based on gender and race. Another is the process in which social images and ideas condone gendered institutions. The third is a process of interaction between individuals and groups that, through communication, creates gender. The fourth is the internal labeling of the self and others to gendered personas. Evelyn Nakano Glenn critiques both the patriarchy model of gender, which ignores racial differences among oppressed women, and the internal colonialism model, which focuses on minority populations in general, ignoring gender differences. == Embodiment == Embodiment may be defined as the ways in which cultural ideals of gender in a given society create expectations for and influence the form of our bodies. There is a bidirectional relationship between biology and culture; by embodying societally determined gender roles we reinforce cultural ideals and simultaneously shape, both temporarily and permanently, our bodies, which then perpetuates the cultural ideal. While there is actually more variation in body type within the male and female sexes than there is between the two sexes, embodiment exaggerates the perceived bodily differences between gender categories. Social embodiment, for both men and women, is variable across cultures and over time. Examples of women embodying gender norms across cultures include foot binding practices in Chinese culture, neck rings in African and Asian cultures, and corsets in Western cultures. Another interesting phenomenon has been the practice of wearing high heels, which shifted from a masculine fashion to a feminine fashion over time. In the United States, the ideal body image and dimensions have changed for both women and men, with the body ideal female body shape becoming progressively slimmer and the body ideal for men becoming progressively larger. These differences are epitomized in the example of children's toys; G.I. Joe dolls depict the physical ideals for boys and Barbie dolls embody the ideals for girls. The Beauty Myth, as discussed in Naomi Wolf's book The Beauty Myth: How Images of Beauty Are Used Against Women, refers to the unattainable standard of beauty for women, which sustains consumer culture. In contrast, men's bodies are also "dictated" by cultural ideals of gender, as is evident in consumer culture—especially beer commercials—in which men are portrayed as outdoorsy, tough, strong, and "manly". == Sexuality == Sexuality encompasses both sexual behavior and sexual desire. However, heteronormativity structures social life so that heterosexuality is always assumed, expected, ordinary and privileged. Its pervasiveness makes it difficult for people to imagine other ways of life. Mass media works to glorify heterosexuality, which in turn lends to its pervasiveness and to its power. Both ordinary and exceptional constructions of heterosexuality work to normalize heterosexuality; thus, it becomes difficult to imagine anything other than this form of social relationship or anyone outside of these bonds. There is a common perception of heterosexuality as the "natural" emotional and sensual inclination for human sexuality. Furthermore, marital heterosexuality occupies the largely invisible core of normative and desirable sexuality, while all other sexualities are marginalized and considered perverse and unnatural. Alfred Kinsey created a Heterosexual-Homosexual Rating Scale called the Kinsey Scale, which challenges the common perception of human sexuality as strictly binary and directly linked to gender. Drag queens are an example of "troubling" gender, complicating the understanding of sexuality in our society by causing people to think outside the binary of male/female. Friedrich Engels argued that in hunter-gatherer societies the activities of men and women, although different, had the same importance. As technological advances let to productive surplus, social equality and communal sharing gave way to private property and ultimately class hierarchy. With the rise of agriculture, men gained significant power over women. With surplus wealth to pass on to their heirs, upper-class men wanted to ensure their sons were indeed theirs, which led them to control the sexuality of women. The desire to control property brought about monogamous marriage and family. Women were taught to remain virgins until marriage and remain faithful to their husbands thereafter, and to build their lives around bearing and raising one man's children. == Masculinity == Masculinity is a performed gender identity. It is not the same as male sex or related to any specific sexual orientation. The contents and practices of masculinity are socially constructed and reproduced through daily interaction, especially on a more micro scale. Theorists West & Zimmerman emphasized that gender is maintained through accountability. Men are expected to perform masculinity to the point that it is naturalized. Thus, a man's status depends on his performance. It is important to note, however, that masculinity can be performed by any sex. The dominant form of masculinity in a society is known as hegemonic masculinity. Men are constantly performing this to prove their status as men. It is not really possible to reach it, especially as peers are in constant surveillance of each other, looking for flaws in their performance. Hegemonic masculinity is constructed in opposition to femininity and is dominant to all other gender identities (including alternative masculinities). Men are socialized from birth to perform it, especially through behavior and symbolism. One of the prominent behaviors is aggression in order to protect one's reputation. An example of symbols used would be clothing. Sociologist Michael Kimmel describes three cultures that support masculinity (especially in young men) in his 2008 book, Guyland: The Culture of Entitlement: Men are raised to feel they deserve something. They feel entitled to power, sex and women. The Culture of Silence: Men are not to talk to outsiders (those not embedded in the cultures of masculinity) about drinking, bullying, rape, or any performance of masculinity by their peers that they may get in trouble for. If they do talk, they will be seen as unmanly traitors. The Culture of Protection: Communities do not hold men responsible for questionable and illegal actions. Many turn a blind eye, assuming their boys would never do that. Others write off dangerous acts as "boys will be boys". Some of the prominent attitudes and behaviors of western hegemonic masculinity are: power, sexual dominance and activity, wealth, aggression, independence, and lack of emotion. Less extreme sexual harassment is often seen as normal behavior. Exemplifying control theory, the norms of masculinity are so rigidly ingrained that men find little room to escape and end up constantly reproducing them. Hegemonic masculinity is often reproduced and reinforced through media and culture. "Media representations of men…often glorify men's use of physical force, a daring demeanor, virility, and emotional distance." Contemporary rap music is a striking example of masculinity on display. Rappers boast about their sexual conquests of women (emphasizing heterosexuality as well), wealth, power and violence. == Gender and violence == Gender-based violence is the physical, sexual or emotional harm or suffering enacted upon an individual as contextualized by societal gender norms. Violence affects the lives of millions worldwide, in all socio-economic and educational classes. It cuts across cultural and religious barriers, impeding the right of many to participate fully in society. Violence is about power, control, and domination. Systems of inequality and oppression interact positioning certain groups as particularly vulnerable to violence. Gendered violence takes place within a socially constructed power dynamic in which one ideology (masculinity) dominates another (femininity). What it means to be a woman in society is influenced and ascribed by the media, which acts a "powerful educational force". The media glamorizes violence against women cultivating a "toxic cultural environment" in which women are institutionally positioned as inferior and worthy objects of violence. Men are disproportionally the offenders, and women disproportionally the victims. Those that commit violent crimes are overwhelmingly male—rape (98%), armed robbery (92%), drunk driving (90%), murder (88%), aggravated assault (87%), arson (86%), and family violence (83%). According to Michael Kimmel, hegemonic masculinity creates a culture of entitlement, silence, and protection, which effectively normalizes violence against women and silences victims of violence. The Declaration on the Elimination of Violence defines three social arenas in which violence commonly takes place (1) in the family—including domestic violence, infanticide, and traditional practices such as female genital mutilation, foot binding, and bride burning; (2) in the community—including rape, sexual assault, sexual harassment, and commercialized violence such as sexual slavery, labor exploitation, female migrant workers; and (3) by the State—including violence against women in detention, and in situations of armed conflict such as systematic war rape. In order to address and end gendered violence, solutions must address both the root causes and interpersonal manifestations of gender roles and power relations in order to ensure a balance of power at all levels of society. Gender violence is also very entwined with one's racial identity, and it can create a unique intersectional experience for the victims of gender violence. Frequently within dominant U.S. culture, institutions, teachers, social workers, and even friends and family will ignore the violence perpetuated against women of color, as they are not seen as valid members of society who deserve basic autonomy over their safety. Women of color tend to experience higher rates of domestic violence and sexual assault than the general population and are less likely to seek help when it happens (). There are many different reasons for this lack of reporting, including societal barriers preventing reports being made, like a lack of services in their communities, a fear that police will not take the report seriously, or even fear of internal repercussions from other members of their communities, if their assaulter was a Black man (;). Another example of this gender violence against women of color are indigenous women. The Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women, Girls, and Two-Spirit movement "condemns the failure of law enforcement agencies to stop the appalling disappearances, abuse, and murders of Indigenous women" (). An additional point to note is that women of color are often entrapped in domestic working positions, which are often abusive, with few workplace protections, legal protections, or access to union organizing (). == Globalization and gender == Globalization refers to the increasingly global relationships of culture, people and economic activity. Globalization impacts female equality on a large and international scale, both negatively and positively. With continuous changes in international relations, the perception of feminism in Western and Nonwestern societies is frequently revised. It is important to be wary of Western bias in sociological accounts of global feminism, as Modern Western society is not always due credit for feminist reform in other cultures and countries. Feminist sentiments – or a push for gender equality – emerge as a result of the nation-specific circumstances, not according to the exported beliefs of Western society. Advances in female equality and status are often not the result of national groups or corporations, but of individuals and small groups. One of the results of globalization is the increased use of female factory workers in nonwestern countries. In Mexico, the female worker is ideal because she is seen as docile and inexpensive labor. Stereotypical feminine traits such as beauty, domesticity, and docility are exaggerated and exploited for the production of goods. These gender traits then frame the behavior of the women beyond the occupational realm. Despite increasing feminism, the lack of economic and social mobility prevents women in many nations from having equal status in society. One of the solutions to erasing gender inequalities globally, is to provide resources and funds to impoverished women who will in turn use them for education as well as business ventures. The global economy could benefit drastically from incorporating educated women into the workforce. Not only would the global economy benefit from these shifts; however, women would be able to partake in society and be involved as they please. == Third gender == Throughout history, and around the world, the idea of a third gender has existed. In Native American culture, the two spirit had gender roles different from men and women. More specifically, in Navajo society, the third gender is known as nadle. Nadle is a gender that does tasks commonly for both men and women, but also dresses according to whatever task they are doing at the moment. The muxe of southern Mexico are biological males who identify as neither male nor female. In Samoa, the Fa'afafine are biological males who identify as females. In Indian society, the hijra include eunuchs, intersex people, and transgender people. They give up sexual desires and participate in sexual practices by sacrificial emasculation, or the removal of the testicles and penis. They are considered outsiders in their communities and have formed their own language. In the United States, the concept of a third gender is beginning to gain traction. Some jurisdictions, such as California, now permit a third non-binary gender; this is generally marked on IDs as an "X". == See also == Anti-gender movement Atypical gender role Bibliography of sociology Feminization (sociology) Gender and politics Gender empowerment Gender essentialism Gender role Sex differences in humans Sex segregation Sexism Social construction of gender == References == === Notes === === Further reading === == External links == "DAW working paper: Engaging in globalization: implications for gender relations". Workshop: Beijing + 5 - Future actions and initiatives (8-10 November 1999). United Nations Division for the Advancement of Women. Retrieved 6 September 2015. "Does 'Women's Language' Really Exist?: A Critical Assessment of Sex Difference Research in Sociolinguistics" by Yuki Mizokami, Nagoya University

Sociology of gender is a prominent subfield of sociology. Social interaction directly correlated with sociology regarding social structure. One of the most important social structures is status. This is determined based on position that an individual possesses which effects how they will be treated by society. One of the most important statuses an individual claims is gender. Public discourse and the academic literature generally use the term gender for the perceived or projected (self-identified) masculinity or femininity of a person.

sex

sex (wiktionary)

sexe (archaic) s'x, s*x (censored) enPR: sĕks, IPA(key): /sɛks/ Rhymes: -ɛks Homophone: secs From Middle English sexe (“gender”), from Old French sexe (“genitals; gender”), from Latin sexus (“gender; gender traits; males or females; genitals”), from Proto-Italic *seksus, from Proto-Indo-European *séksus, from *sek- (“to cut, cut off, sever”), thus meaning "section, division" (into male and female). Usage for women influenced by Middle French le sexe (“women”) (attested in 1580). Usage for third and additional sexes calqued from French troisième sexe, referring to masculine women in 1817 and homosexuals in 1847. First used by Lord Byron and others in English in reference to Catholic clergy. Usage for sexual intercourse first attested in 1900 (in the writings of H.G. Wells). sex (countable and uncountable, plural sexes) (countable) A category into which sexually-reproducing organisms are divided on the basis of their reproductive roles in their species. (countable) Another category, especially of humans and especially based on sexuality or gender roles. (countable) The members of such a category, taken collectively. (uncountable) The distinction and relation between these categories, especially in humans; gender. (obsolete or literary, uncountable, with "the") Women; the human female gender and those who belong to it. (uncountable) Sexual activity, usually sexual intercourse unless preceded by a modifier. 1934, translation of the Qur'an (23:5) by Abdullah Yusuf Ali (The believers ... those ... ) who abstain from sex 1962 June 7, The Listener, 1006/2: Why wasn't Bond ‘more tender’ in his love-making? Why did he just ‘have sex’ and disappear? (countable, euphemistic or slang) Genitalia: a penis or vagina/vulva. Sometimes, sex and gender are distinguished. (divisions of organisms by reproductive role): gender (proscribed when referring to humans: see usage note) (copulation): See also Thesaurus:copulation See species (usual): See male and female (in some contexts): See bigender, transgender, genderless, intersex, genderfluid, homosexual, eunuch (jocular, now uncommon): See clergy → Dutch: seks → German: Sex → Hindi: सेक्स (seks) sex (third-person singular simple present sexes, present participle sexing, simple past and past participle sexed) (zoology, transitive) To determine the sex of (an animal). (chiefly US, colloquial, transitive) To have sex with. (chiefly US, colloquial, intransitive) To have sex. (to have sex): do it, get it on, have sex; see also Thesaurus:copulate missex sex up Oxford English Dictionary, "sex, n.1", 2008. Oxford English Dictionary, "sex, v.", 2008. From sect. sex (plural sexes) (obsolete) Alternative form of sect. Oxford English Dictionary, "sex, n.2", 2008. "sex" in Raymond Williams, Keywords (revised), 1983, Fontana Press, page 283. Xes, exs., sXe sexus (rare) Borrowed from Latin sexus. IPA(key): [ˈsɛks] Hyphenation: sex sex m inan sex (sexual intercourse) Synonym: soulož sex in Kartotéka Novočeského lexikálního archivu sex in Slovník spisovného jazyka českého, 1960–1971, 1989 sex in Internetová jazyková příručka From English sex. Homophone: seks sex c (uncountable) Sexual intercourse, sex. analsex gruppesex oralsex sexet (adjective) seksualitet c seksuel (adjective) sex m (uncountable) (proscribed) Alternative spelling of seks Certain magazines use sex instead of seks, since the correct spelling is regarded more neutral and official, and the other more exciting. From Old Norse sex, from Proto-Germanic *sehs. Cognates include Faroese seks and Danish seks. IPA(key): [sɛks], [sɛxs] Rhymes: -ɛks, -ɛxs (regional) IPA(key): [sɛɣs] sex six klukkan sex sexa Borrowed from English sex, from Middle English sexe, from Old French sexe, from Latin sexus. IPA(key): [sɛks] Rhymes: -ɛks sex n (genitive singular sex, nominative plural sex) sex, sexual intercourse From Old Norse sex, from Proto-Germanic *sehs, from Proto-Indo-European *swéḱs (“six”). sex six Symbol: VI, IIIIII From Proto-Italic *seks, from Proto-Indo-European *swéḱs. Cognates include Sanskrit षष् (ṣaṣ), Old Armenian վեց (vecʻ), Ancient Greek ἕξ (héx), and Old English six (English six). (Classical Latin) IPA(key): /seks/, [s̠ɛks̠] (modern Italianate Ecclesiastical) IPA(key): /seks/, [sɛks] sex (indeclinable) six; 6 Appendix:Latin cardinal numerals sex in Charlton T. Lewis and Charles Short (1879) A Latin Dictionary, Oxford: Clarendon Press sex in Charlton T. Lewis (1891) An Elementary Latin Dictionary, New York: Harper & Brothers sex in William Smith, editor (1854, 1857), A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography, volume 1 & 2, London: Walton and Maberly From Latin sex. (Old Lombard) IPA(key): [ˈseʒ] sex (Old Lombard) six Lombard: ses, sees sex sex a. 1382, Bible (Wycliffite), Genesis, Chapter vi, Verse 19: From Old English seax. sex Alternative form of sax From Old English sex, alternative form of six. sex Alternative form of six From English sex, from Latin sexus. sex m (definite singular sexen, uncountable) sex (sexual intercourse) sexliv “sex” in The Bokmål Dictionary. “sex” in Det Norske Akademis ordbok (NAOB). From English sex, from Latin sexus. sex m (definite singular sexen, uncountable) sex (sexual intercourse) sexliv “sex” in The Nynorsk Dictionary. IPA(key): /seks/ sex n (Late West Saxon) Alternative form of seax (“shortsword, dagger, knife”) From Proto-Germanic *sehs. sex six. North Frisian: Föhr-Amrum, Mooring and Wiedingharde: seeks Helgoland: sös Sylt: soks Saterland Frisian: säks West Frisian: seis sjax — broken form From Proto-Germanic *sehs, whence also Old English six (English six), Old Frisian sex, Old Saxon sehs, Middle Dutch sesse (Dutch zes), Old High German sehs (German sechs), Gothic 𐍃𐌰𐌹𐌷𐍃 (saihs). Ultimately from Proto-Indo-European *swéḱs, cognate with Sanskrit षष् (ṣaṣ), Old Armenian վեց (vecʻ), Ancient Greek ἕξ (héx). sex (cardinal number) six Icelandic: sex Faroese: seks Norn: siks Norwegian Bokmål: seks Norwegian Nynorsk: seks Old Swedish: sæx, siæx Swedish: sex Old Danish: sæx, ᛋᛁᛆᚼᛋ, siahs Danish: seks Elfdalian: sjäks Old Gutnish: siex Gutnish: siex, sex sex in Geir T. Zoëga (1910) A Concise Dictionary of Old Icelandic, Oxford: Clarendon Press sechs Compare German sechs, Dutch zes, English six. IPA(key): /sɛk͡s/ sex six Borrowed from Latin sexus. IPA(key): /seks/ Rhymes: -eks sex n (plural sexe or sexuri) gender, sex sex, sexual intercourse The common plural form is sexe; sexuri is regional. sexul slab sexul tare sex Alternative form of sax “sex, num., n.”, in The Dictionary of the Scots Language, Edinburgh: Scottish Language Dictionaries, 2004–present, →OCLC, retrieved 23 May 2024, reproduced from William A[lexander] Craigie, A[dam] J[ack] Aitken [et al.], editors, A Dictionary of the Older Scottish Tongue: […], Oxford, Oxfordshire: Oxford University Press, 1931–2002, →OCLC. “six, num. adj, n.”, in The Dictionary of the Scots Language, Edinburgh: Scottish Language Dictionaries, 2004–present, →OCLC, retrieved 23 May 2024, reproduced from W[illiam] Grant and D[avid] D. Murison, editors, The Scottish National Dictionary, Edinburgh: Scottish National Dictionary Association, 1931–1976, →OCLC. Derived from English sex, from Latin sexus. IPA(key): /ˈsɛks/ sex m inan (genitive singular sexu, nominative plural sexy, genitive plural sexov, declension pattern of dub) sex (intercourse, sexual activity) sexi, sexy (adjective) sexuálny (adjective) sexuálne (adverb) sexuálnosť f “sex”, in Slovníkový portál Jazykovedného ústavu Ľ. Štúra SAV [Dictionary portal of the Ľ. Štúr Institute of Linguistics, Slovak Academy of Science] (in Slovak), https://slovnik.juls.savba.sk, 2024 IPA(key): /sɛks/ Homophone: säcks (in accents that don't distinguish short e and ä) Inherited from Old Swedish sæx, siæx, from Old Norse sex, from Proto-Germanic *sehs, from Proto-Indo-European *swéḱs (“six”). sex six klockan sex sexa sexsnåret sextiden sjätte sjättedel noll, ett, två, tre, fyra, fem, sex, sju, åtta, nio, tio, elva, tolv Borrowed from English sex, from Latin sexus. sex n (uncountable) sex (intercourse, sexual activity) att ha sex ― to have sex samlag könsumgänge ligg nyp knull pök älskog sexig (“sexy”) sexologi (“sexology”) sexual- sexualakt sexualisera (“sexualize”) sexualisering (“sexualization”) sexualitet (“sexuality”) sexuell (“sexual”) penis vagina könsliv sexualkunskap (“sex education”) blommor och bin sex in Svensk ordbok (SO) sex in Svenska Akademiens ordlista (SAOL) sex in Svenska Akademiens ordbok (SAOB) Borrowed from Russian цех (cex), from Polish cech, from Middle High German zëch(e); see modern German Zeche. sex (plural sexlar) shop, section (of a factory)

sexe (archaic) s'x, s*x (censored) enPR: sĕks, IPA(key): /sɛks/ Rhymes: -ɛks Homophone: secs From Middle English sexe (“gender”), from Old French sexe (“genitals; gender”), from Latin sexus (“gender; gender traits; males or females; genitals”), from Proto-Italic *seksus, from Proto-Indo-European *séksus, from *sek- (“to cut, cut off, sever”), thus meaning "section, division" (into male and female). Usage for women influenced by Middle French le sexe (“women”) (attested in 1580). Usage for third and additional sexes calqued from French troisième sexe, referring to masculine women in 1817 and homosexuals in 1847. First used by Lord Byron and others in English in reference to Catholic clergy. Usage for sexual intercourse first attested in 1900 (in the writings of H.G. Wells). sex (countable and uncountable, plural sexes) (countable) A category into which sexually-reproducing organisms are divided on the basis of their reproductive roles in their species. (countable) Another category, especially of humans and especially based on sexuality or gender roles. (countable) The members of such a category, taken collectively. (uncountable) The distinction and relation between these categories, especially in humans; gender. (obsolete or literary, uncountable, with "the") Women; the human female gender and those who belong to it. (uncountable) Sexual activity, usually sexual intercourse unless preceded by a modifier. 1934, translation of the Qur'an (23:5) by Abdullah Yusuf Ali (The believers ... those ... ) who abstain from sex 1962 June 7, The Listener, 1006/2: Why wasn't Bond ‘more tender’ in his love-making? Why did he just ‘have sex’ and disappear? (countable, euphemistic or slang) Genitalia: a penis or vagina/vulva. Sometimes, sex and gender are distinguished. (divisions of organisms by reproductive role): gender (proscribed when referring to humans: see usage note) (copulation): See also Thesaurus:copulation See species (usual): See male and female (in some contexts): See bigender, transgender, genderless, intersex, genderfluid, homosexual, eunuch (jocular, now uncommon): See clergy → Dutch: seks → German: Sex → Hindi: सेक्स (seks) sex (third-person singular simple present sexes, present participle sexing, simple past and past participle sexed) (zoology, transitive) To determine the sex of (an animal). (chiefly US, colloquial, transitive) To have sex with. (chiefly US, colloquial, intransitive) To have sex. (to have sex): do it, get it on, have sex; see also Thesaurus:copulate missex sex up Oxford English Dictionary, "sex, n.1", 2008. Oxford English Dictionary, "sex, v.", 2008. From sect. sex (plural sexes) (obsolete) Alternative form of sect. Oxford English Dictionary, "sex, n.2", 2008. "sex" in Raymond Williams, Keywords (revised), 1983, Fontana Press, page 283. Xes, exs., sXe sexus (rare) Borrowed from Latin sexus. IPA(key): [ˈsɛks] Hyphenation: sex sex m inan sex (sexual intercourse) Synonym: soulož sex in Kartotéka Novočeského lexikálního archivu sex in Slovník spisovného jazyka českého, 1960–1971, 1989 sex in Internetová jazyková příručka From English sex. Homophone: seks sex c (uncountable) Sexual intercourse, sex. analsex gruppesex oralsex sexet (adjective) seksualitet c seksuel (adjective) sex m (uncountable) (proscribed) Alternative spelling of seks Certain magazines use sex instead of seks, since the correct spelling is regarded more neutral and official, and the other more exciting. From Old Norse sex, from Proto-Germanic *sehs. Cognates include Faroese seks and Danish seks. IPA(key): [sɛks], [sɛxs] Rhymes: -ɛks, -ɛxs (regional) IPA(key): [sɛɣs] sex six klukkan sex sexa Borrowed from English sex, from Middle English sexe, from Old French sexe, from Latin sexus. IPA(key): [sɛks] Rhymes: -ɛks sex n (genitive singular sex, nominative plural sex) sex, sexual intercourse From Old Norse sex, from Proto-Germanic *sehs, from Proto-Indo-European *swéḱs (“six”). sex six Symbol: VI, IIIIII From Proto-Italic *seks, from Proto-Indo-European *swéḱs. Cognates include Sanskrit षष् (ṣaṣ), Old Armenian վեց (vecʻ), Ancient Greek ἕξ (héx), and Old English six (English six). (Classical Latin) IPA(key): /seks/, [s̠ɛks̠] (modern Italianate Ecclesiastical) IPA(key): /seks/, [sɛks] sex (indeclinable) six; 6 Appendix:Latin cardinal numerals sex in Charlton T. Lewis and Charles Short (1879) A Latin Dictionary, Oxford: Clarendon Press sex in Charlton T. Lewis (1891) An Elementary Latin Dictionary, New York: Harper & Brothers sex in William Smith, editor (1854, 1857), A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography, volume 1 & 2, London: Walton and Maberly From Latin sex. (Old Lombard) IPA(key): [ˈseʒ] sex (Old Lombard) six Lombard: ses, sees sex sex a. 1382, Bible (Wycliffite), Genesis, Chapter vi, Verse 19: From Old English seax. sex Alternative form of sax From Old English sex, alternative form of six. sex Alternative form of six From English sex, from Latin sexus. sex m (definite singular sexen, uncountable) sex (sexual intercourse) sexliv “sex” in The Bokmål Dictionary. “sex” in Det Norske Akademis ordbok (NAOB). From English sex, from Latin sexus. sex m (definite singular sexen, uncountable) sex (sexual intercourse) sexliv “sex” in The Nynorsk Dictionary. IPA(key): /seks/ sex n (Late West Saxon) Alternative form of seax (“shortsword, dagger, knife”) From Proto-Germanic *sehs. sex six. North Frisian: Föhr-Amrum, Mooring and Wiedingharde: seeks Helgoland: sös Sylt: soks Saterland Frisian: säks West Frisian: seis sjax — broken form From Proto-Germanic *sehs, whence also Old English six (English six), Old Frisian sex, Old Saxon sehs, Middle Dutch sesse (Dutch zes), Old High German sehs (German sechs), Gothic 𐍃𐌰𐌹𐌷𐍃 (saihs). Ultimately from Proto-Indo-European *swéḱs, cognate with Sanskrit षष् (ṣaṣ), Old Armenian վեց (vecʻ), Ancient Greek ἕξ (héx). sex (cardinal number) six Icelandic: sex Faroese: seks Norn: siks Norwegian Bokmål: seks Norwegian Nynorsk: seks Old Swedish: sæx, siæx Swedish: sex Old Danish: sæx, ᛋᛁᛆᚼᛋ, siahs Danish: seks Elfdalian: sjäks Old Gutnish: siex Gutnish: siex, sex sex in Geir T. Zoëga (1910) A Concise Dictionary of Old Icelandic, Oxford: Clarendon Press sechs Compare German sechs, Dutch zes, English six. IPA(key): /sɛk͡s/ sex six Borrowed from Latin sexus. IPA(key): /seks/ Rhymes: -eks sex n (plural sexe or sexuri) gender, sex sex, sexual intercourse The common plural form is sexe; sexuri is regional. sexul slab sexul tare sex Alternative form of sax “sex, num., n.”, in The Dictionary of the Scots Language, Edinburgh: Scottish Language Dictionaries, 2004–present, →OCLC, retrieved 23 May 2024, reproduced from William A[lexander] Craigie, A[dam] J[ack] Aitken [et al.], editors, A Dictionary of the Older Scottish Tongue: […], Oxford, Oxfordshire: Oxford University Press, 1931–2002, →OCLC. “six, num. adj, n.”, in The Dictionary of the Scots Language, Edinburgh: Scottish Language Dictionaries, 2004–present, →OCLC, retrieved 23 May 2024, reproduced from W[illiam] Grant and D[avid] D. Murison, editors, The Scottish National Dictionary, Edinburgh: Scottish National Dictionary Association, 1931–1976, →OCLC. Derived from English sex, from Latin sexus. IPA(key): /ˈsɛks/ sex m inan (genitive singular sexu, nominative plural sexy, genitive plural sexov, declension pattern of dub) sex (intercourse, sexual activity) sexi, sexy (adjective) sexuálny (adjective) sexuálne (adverb) sexuálnosť f “sex”, in Slovníkový portál Jazykovedného ústavu Ľ. Štúra SAV [Dictionary portal of the Ľ. Štúr Institute of Linguistics, Slovak Academy of Science] (in Slovak), https://slovnik.juls.savba.sk, 2024 IPA(key): /sɛks/ Homophone: säcks (in accents that don't distinguish short e and ä) Inherited from Old Swedish sæx, siæx, from Old Norse sex, from Proto-Germanic *sehs, from Proto-Indo-European *swéḱs (“six”). sex six klockan sex sexa sexsnåret sextiden sjätte sjättedel noll, ett, två, tre, fyra, fem, sex, sju, åtta, nio, tio, elva, tolv Borrowed from English sex, from Latin sexus. sex n (uncountable) sex (intercourse, sexual activity) att ha sex ― to have sex samlag könsumgänge ligg nyp knull pök älskog sexig (“sexy”) sexologi (“sexology”) sexual- sexualakt sexualisera (“sexualize”) sexualisering (“sexualization”) sexualitet (“sexuality”) sexuell (“sexual”) penis vagina könsliv sexualkunskap (“sex education”) blommor och bin sex in Svensk ordbok (SO) sex in Svenska Akademiens ordlista (SAOL) sex in Svenska Akademiens ordbok (SAOB) Borrowed from Russian цех (cex), from Polish cech, from Middle High German zëch(e); see modern German Zeche. sex (plural sexlar) shop, section (of a factory)

sex

SEX (computing) (wikipedia)

In computing, the SEX assembly language mnemonic has often been used for the "Sign EXtend" machine instruction found in the Motorola 6809. A computer's or CPU's "sex" can also mean the endianness of the computer architecture used. x86 computers do not have the same "byte sex" as HC11 computers, for example. Functions are sometimes needed for computers of different endianness to communicate with each other over the internet, as protocols often use big endian byte coding by default. On the RCA 1802 series of microprocessors, the SEX, for "SEt X," instruction is used to designate which of the machine's sixteen 16-bit registers is to be the X (index) register. == SEX in software: rarely used jargon == The TLA SEX has humorously been said to stand for Software EXchange, meaning copying of software. As file sharing has sometimes spread computer viruses, it has been stated that “illicit SEX can transmit viral diseases to your computer.” The involvement of FTP servers' /pub directories in this process has led to the name being explained as a contraction of 'pubic'. == References == This article is based in part on the Jargon File, which is in the public domain.

In computing, the SEX assembly language mnemonic has often been used for the "Sign EXtend" machine instruction found in the Motorola 6809. A computer's or CPU's "sex" can also mean the endianness of the computer architecture used. x86 computers do not have the same "byte sex" as HC11 computers, for example. Functions are sometimes needed for computers of different endianness to communicate with each other over the internet, as protocols often use big endian byte coding by default. On the RCA 1802 series of microprocessors, the SEX, for "SEt X," instruction is used to designate which of the machine's sixteen 16-bit registers is to be the X (index) register.

sex

Sex (wikipedia)

Sex is the trait that determines whether a sexually reproducing organism produces male or female gametes. During sexual reproduction, a male and a female gamete fuse to form a zygote, which develops into an offspring that inherits traits from each parent. By convention, organisms that produce smaller, more mobile gametes (spermatozoa, sperm) are called male, while organisms that produce larger, non-mobile gametes (ova, often called egg cells) are called female. An organism that produces both types of gamete is hermaphrodite. In non-hermaphroditic species, the sex of an individual is determined through one of several biological sex-determination systems. Most mammalian species have the XY sex-determination system, where the male usually carries an X and a Y chromosome (XY), and the female usually carries two X chromosomes (XX). Other chromosomal sex-determination systems in animals include the ZW system in birds, and the XO system in some insects. Various environmental systems include temperature-dependent sex determination in reptiles and crustaceans. The male and female of a species may be physically alike (sexual monomorphism) or have physical differences (sexual dimorphism). In sexually dimorphic species, including most birds and mammals, the sex of an individual is usually identified through observation of that individual's sexual characteristics. Sexual selection or mate choice can accelerate the evolution of differences between the sexes. The terms male and female typically do not apply in sexually undifferentiated species in which the individuals are isomorphic (look the same) and the gametes are isogamous (indistinguishable in size and shape), such as the green alga Ulva lactuca. Some kinds of functional differences between individuals, such as in fungi, may be referred to as mating types. == Sexual reproduction == Sexual reproduction, in which two individuals produce an offspring that possesses a selection of the genetic traits of each parent, is exclusive to eukaryotes. Genetic traits are encoded in the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) of chromosomes. The eukaryote cell has a set of paired homologous chromosomes, one from each parent, and this double-chromosome stage is called "diploid". During sexual reproduction, a diploid organism produces specialized haploid sex cells called gametes via meiosis, each of which has a single set of chromosomes. Meiosis involves a stage of genetic recombination via chromosomal crossover, in which regions of DNA are exchanged between matched pairs of chromosomes, to form new chromosomes, each with a new combination of the genes of the parents. Then the chromosomes are separated into single sets in the gametes. When gametes fuse during fertilisation, the resulting zygote has half of the genetic material of the mother and half of the father. The combination of chromosomal crossover and fertilization, bringing the two single sets of chromosomes together to make a new diploid zygote, results in a new organism that contains a different set of the genetic traits of each parent. In animals, the haploid stage only occurs in the gametes, the sex cells that fuse to form a zygote that develops directly into a new diploid organism. In a plant species, the diploid organism produces a type of haploid spore by meiosis that is capable of undergoing repeated cell division to produce a multicellular haploid organism. In either case, the gametes may be externally similar (isogamy) as in the green alga Ulva or may be different in size and other aspects (anisogamy). The size difference is greatest in oogamy, a type of anisogamy in which a small, motile gamete combines with a much larger, non-motile gamete. In anisogamic organisms, by convention, the larger gamete (called an ovum, or egg cell) is considered female, while the smaller gamete (called a spermatozoon, or sperm cell) is considered male. An individual that produces large gametes is female, and one that produces small gametes is male. An individual that produces both types of gamete is a hermaphrodite. In some species, a hermaphrodite can self-fertilize and produce an offspring on its own. === Animals === Most sexually reproducing animals spend their lives as diploid, with the haploid stage reduced to single-cell gametes. The gametes of animals have male and female forms—spermatozoa and egg cells, respectively. These gametes combine to form embryos which develop into new organisms. The male gamete, a spermatozoon (produced in vertebrates within the testes), is a small cell containing a single long flagellum which propels it. Spermatozoa are extremely reduced cells, lacking many cellular components that would be necessary for embryonic development. They are specialized for motility, seeking out an egg cell and fusing with it in a process called fertilization. Female gametes are egg cells. In vertebrates, they are produced within the ovaries. They are large, immobile cells that contain the nutrients and cellular components necessary for a developing embryo. Egg cells are often associated with other cells which support the development of the embryo, forming an egg. In mammals, the fertilized embryo instead develops within the female, receiving nutrition directly from its mother. Animals are usually mobile and seek out a partner of the opposite sex for mating. Animals which live in the water can mate using external fertilization, where the eggs and sperm are released into and combine within the surrounding water. Most animals that live outside of water, however, use internal fertilization, transferring sperm directly into the female to prevent the gametes from drying up. In most birds, both excretion and reproduction are done through a single posterior opening, called the cloaca—male and female birds touch cloaca to transfer sperm, a process called "cloacal kissing". In many other terrestrial animals, males use specialized sex organs to assist the transport of sperm—these male sex organs are called intromittent organs. In humans and other mammals, this male organ is known as the penis, which enters the female reproductive tract (called the vagina) to achieve insemination—a process called sexual intercourse. The penis contains a tube through which semen (a fluid containing sperm) travels. In female mammals, the vagina connects with the uterus, an organ which directly supports the development of a fertilized embryo within (a process called gestation). Because of their motility, animal sexual behavior can involve coercive sex. Traumatic insemination, for example, is used by some insect species to inseminate females through a wound in the abdominal cavity—a process detrimental to the female's health. === Plants === Like animals, land plants have specialized male and female gametes. In seed plants, male gametes are produced by reduced male gametophytes that are contained within pollen which have hard coats that protect the male gamete forming cells during transport from the anthers to the stigma. The female gametes of seed plants are contained within ovules. Once fertilized, these form seeds which, like eggs, contain the nutrients necessary for the initial development of the embryonic plant. The flowers of flowering plants contain their sexual organs. Most flowering plants are hermaphroditic, with both male and female parts in the same flower or on the same plant in single sex flowers, about 5% of plant species have individual plants that are one sex or the other. The female parts, in the center of a hermaphroditic or female flower, are the pistils, each unit consisting of a carpel, a style and a stigma. Two or more of these reproductive units may be merged to form a single compound pistil, the fused carpels forming an ovary. Within the carpels are ovules which develop into seeds after fertilization. The male parts of the flower are the stamens: these consist of long filaments arranged between the pistil and the petals that produce pollen in anthers at their tips. When a pollen grain lands upon the stigma on top of a carpel's style, it germinates to produce a pollen tube that grows down through the tissues of the style into the carpel, where it delivers male gamete nuclei to fertilize an ovule that eventually develops into a seed. Some hermaphroditic plants are self-fertile, but plants have evolved multiple different self-incompatibility mechanisms to avoid self-fertilization, involving sequential hermaphroditism, molecular recognition systems and morphological mechanisms such as heterostyly.: 73, 74  In pines and other conifers, the sex organs are produced within cones that have male and female forms. Male cones are smaller than female ones and produce pollen, which is transported by wind to land in female cones. The larger and longer-lived female cones are typically more durable, and contain ovules within them that develop into seeds after fertilization. Because seed plants are immobile, they depend upon passive methods for transporting pollen grains to other plants. Many, including conifers and grasses, produce lightweight pollen which is carried by wind to neighboring plants. Some flowering plants have heavier, sticky pollen that is specialized for transportation by insects or larger animals such as hummingbirds and bats, which may be attracted to flowers containing rewards of nectar and pollen. These animals transport the pollen as they move to other flowers, which also contain female reproductive organs, resulting in pollination. === Fungi === Most species of fungus can reproduce sexually and have life cycles with both haploid and diploid phases. These species of fungus are typically isogamous, i.e. lacking male and female specialization. One haploid fungus grows into contact with another, and then they fuse their cells. In some cases, the fusion is asymmetric, and the cell which donates only a nucleus (and no accompanying cellular material) could arguably be considered male. Fungi may also have more complex allelic mating systems, with other sexes not accurately described as male, female, or hermaphroditic. Some fungi, including baker's yeast, have mating types that determine compatibility. Yeasts with the same mating types will not fuse with each other to form diploid cells, only with yeast carrying another mating type. Many species of higher fungi produce mushrooms as part of their sexual reproduction. Within the mushroom, diploid cells are formed, later dividing into haploid spores. == Sexual systems == A sexual system is a distribution of male and female functions across organisms in a species. === Animals === Approximately 95% of animal species have separate male and female individuals, and are said to be gonochoric. About 5% of animal species are hermaphroditic. This low percentage is partially attributable to the very large number of insect species, in which hermaphroditism is absent. About 99% of vertebrates are gonochoric, and the remaining 1% that are hermaphroditic are almost all fishes. === Plants === The majority of plants are bisexual,: 212  either hermaphrodite (with both stamens and pistil in the same flower) or monoecious. In dioecious species male and female sexes are on separate plants. About 5% of flowering plants are dioecious, resulting from as many as 5000 independent origins. Dioecy is common in gymnosperms, in which about 65% of species are dioecious, but most conifers are monoecious. == Evolution of sex == It is generally accepted that isogamy was ancestral to anisogamy and that anisogamy evolved several times independently in different groups of eukaryotes, including protists, algae, plants, and animals. The evolution of anisogamy is synonymous with the origin of male and the origin of female. It is also the first step towards sexual dimorphism and influenced the evolution of various sex differences. It is unclear whether anisogamy first led to the evolution of hermaphroditism or the evolution of gonochorism,: 213  and the evolution of sperm and eggs has left no fossil evidence. A 1.2 billion year old fossil from Bangiomorpha pubescens has provided the oldest fossil record for the differentiation of male and female reproductive types and shown that sexes evolved early in eukaryotes. Studies on green algae have provided genetic evidence for the evolutionary link between sexes and mating types. The original form of sex was external fertilization. Internal fertilization, or sex as we know it, evolved later and became dominant for vertebrates after their emergence on land. === Adaptive function of sex === The most basic role of meiosis appears to be conservation of the integrity of the genome that is passed on to progeny by parents. The two most fundamental aspects of sexual reproduction, meiotic recombination and outcrossing, are likely maintained respectively by the adaptive advantages of recombinational repair of genomic DNA damage and genetic complementation which masks the expression of deleterious recessive mutations. Genetic variation, often produced as a byproduct of these processes, may provide long-term advantages in those sexual lineages that favor outcrossing. == Sex-determination systems == The biological cause of an organism developing into one sex or the other is called sex determination. The cause may be genetic, environmental, haplodiploidy, or multiple factors. Within animals and other organisms that have genetic sex-determination systems, the determining factor may be the presence of a sex chromosome. In plants that are sexually dimorphic, such as Ginkgo biloba,: 203  the liverwort Marchantia polymorpha or the dioecious species in the flowering plant genus Silene, sex may also be determined by sex chromosomes. Non-genetic systems may use environmental cues, such as the temperature during early development in crocodiles, to determine the sex of the offspring. Sex determination is often distinct from sex differentiation. Sex determination is the designation for the development stage towards either male or female while sex differentiation is the pathway towards the development of the phenotype. === Genetic === ==== XY sex determination ==== Humans and most other mammals have an XY sex-determination system: the Y chromosome carries factors responsible for triggering male development, making XY sex determination mostly based on the presence or absence of the Y chromosome. It is the male gamete that determines the sex of the offspring. In this system XX mammals typically are female and XY typically are male. However, individuals with XXY or XYY are males, while individuals with X and XXX are females. Unusually, the platypus, a monotreme mammal, has ten sex chromosomes; females have ten X chromosomes, and males have five X chromosomes and five Y chromosomes. Platypus egg cells all have five X chromosomes, whereas sperm cells can either have five X chromosomes or five Y chromosomes. XY sex determination is found in other organisms, including insects like the common fruit fly, and some plants. In some cases, it is the number of X chromosomes that determines sex rather than the presence of a Y chromosome. In the fruit fly individuals with XY are male and individuals with XX are female; however, individuals with XXY or XXX can also be female, and individuals with X can be males. ==== ZW sex determination ==== In birds, which have a ZW sex-determination system, the W chromosome carries factors responsible for female development, and default development is male. In this case, ZZ individuals are male and ZW are female. It is the female gamete that determines the sex of the offspring. This system is used by birds, some fish, and some crustaceans. The majority of butterflies and moths also have a ZW sex-determination system. Females can have Z, ZZW, and even ZZWW. ==== XO sex determination ==== In the XO sex-determination system, males have one X chromosome (XO) while females have two (XX). All other chromosomes in these diploid organisms are paired, but organisms may inherit one or two X chromosomes. This system is found in most arachnids, insects such as silverfish (Apterygota), dragonflies (Paleoptera) and grasshoppers (Exopterygota), and some nematodes, crustaceans, and gastropods. In field crickets, for example, insects with a single X chromosome develop as male, while those with two develop as female. In the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans, most worms are self-fertilizing hermaphrodites with an XX karyotype, but occasional abnormalities in chromosome inheritance can give rise to individuals with only one X chromosome—these XO individuals are fertile males (and half their offspring are male). ==== ZO sex determination ==== In the ZO sex-determination system, males have two Z chromosomes whereas females have one. This system is found in several species of moths. === Environmental === For many species, sex is not determined by inherited traits, but instead by environmental factors such as temperature experienced during development or later in life. In the fern Ceratopteris and other homosporous fern species, the default sex is hermaphrodite, but individuals which grow in soil that has previously supported hermaphrodites are influenced by the pheromone antheridiogen to develop as male. The bonelliidae larvae can only develop as males when they encounter a female. ==== Sequential hermaphroditism ==== Some species can change sex over the course of their lifespan, a phenomenon called sequential hermaphroditism. Teleost fishes are the only vertebrate lineage where sequential hermaphroditism occurs. In clownfish, smaller fish are male, and the dominant and largest fish in a group becomes female; when a dominant female is absent, then her partner changes sex from male to female. In many wrasses the opposite is true: the fish are initially female and become male when they reach a certain size. Sequential hermaphroditism also occurs in plants such as Arisaema triphyllum. ==== Temperature-dependent sex determination ==== Many reptiles, including all crocodiles and most turtles, have temperature-dependent sex determination. In these species, the temperature experienced by the embryos during their development determines their sex. In some turtles, for example, males are produced at lower temperatures than females; but Macroclemys females are produced at temperatures lower than 22 °C or above 28 °C, while males are produced in between those temperatures. ==== Haplodiploidy ==== Certain insects, such as honey bees and ants, use a haplodiploid sex-determination system. Diploid bees and ants are generally female, and haploid individuals (which develop from unfertilized eggs) are male. This sex-determination system results in highly biased sex ratios, as the sex of offspring is determined by fertilization (arrhenotoky or pseudo-arrhenotoky resulting in males) rather than the assortment of chromosomes during meiosis. == Sex ratio == == Sex differences == Anisogamy is the fundamental difference between male and female. Richard Dawkins has stated that it is possible to interpret all the differences between the sexes as stemming from this. === Sexual characteristics === === Sexual dimorphism === In many animals and some plants, individuals of male and female sex differ in size and appearance, a phenomenon called sexual dimorphism. Sexual dimorphism in animals is often associated with sexual selection: the mating competition between individuals of one sex vis-à-vis the opposite sex. Other examples demonstrate that it is the preference of females that drives sexual dimorphism, such as in the case of the stalk-eyed fly. Sex differences in humans include a generally larger size and more body hair in men, while women have larger breasts, wider hips, and a higher body fat percentage. In other species, there may be differences in coloration or other features, and may be so pronounced that the different sexes may be mistaken for two entirely different taxa. Females are the larger sex in a majority of animals. For instance, female southern black widow spiders are typically twice as long as the males. This size disparity may be associated with the cost of producing egg cells, which requires more nutrition than producing sperm: larger females are able to produce more eggs. In many other cases, the male of a species is larger than the female. Mammal species with extreme sexual size dimorphism, such as elephant seals, tend to have highly polygynous mating systems, presumably due to selection for success in competition with other males. Sexual dimorphism can be extreme, with males, such as some anglerfish, living parasitically on the female. Some plant species also exhibit dimorphism in which the females are significantly larger than the males, such as in the moss genus Dicranum and the liverwort genus Sphaerocarpos. There is some evidence that, in these genera, the dimorphism may be tied to a sex chromosome, or to chemical signaling from females. In birds, males often have a more colorful appearance and may have features (like the long tail of male peacocks) that would seem to put them at a disadvantage (e.g. bright colors would seem to make a bird more visible to predators). One proposed explanation for this is the handicap principle. This hypothesis argues that, by demonstrating he can survive with such handicaps, the male is advertising his genetic fitness to females—traits that will benefit daughters as well, who will not be encumbered with such handicaps. === Sex differences in behavior === The sexes across gonochoric species usually differ in behavior. In most animal species, females invest more in parental care, although in some species, such as some coucals, the males invest more parental care. Females also tend to be more choosy for who they mate with, such as most bird species. Males tend to be more competitive for mating than females. == Distinction from gender == == See also == == References == == Further reading == == External links == Sizonenko PC. "Human Sexual Differentiation". Geneva Foundation for Medical Education and Research (GFMER). Archived from the original on 9 February 2010.

Sex is the trait that determines whether a sexually reproducing organism produces male or female gametes. During sexual reproduction, a male and a female gamete fuse to form a zygote, which develops into an offspring that inherits traits from each parent. By convention, organisms that produce smaller, more mobile gametes (spermatozoa, sperm) are called male, while organisms that produce larger, non-mobile gametes (ova, often called egg cells) are called female. An organism that produces both types of gamete is hermaphrodite. In non-hermaphroditic species, the sex of an individual is determined through one of several biological sex-determination systems. Most mammalian species have the XY sex-determination system, where the male usually carries an X and a Y chromosome (XY), and the female usually carries two X chromosomes (XX). Other chromosomal sex-determination systems in animals include the ZW system in birds, and the XO system in some insects. Various environmental systems include temperature-dependent sex determination in reptiles and crustaceans. The male and female of a species may be physically alike (sexual monomorphism) or have physical differences (sexual dimorphism). In sexually dimorphic species, including most birds and mammals, the sex of an individual is usually identified through observation of that individual's sexual characteristics. Sexual selection or mate choice can accelerate the evolution of differences between the sexes. The terms male and female typically do not apply in sexually undifferentiated species in which the individuals are isomorphic (look the same) and the gametes are isogamous (indistinguishable in size and shape), such as the green alga Ulva lactuca. Some kinds of functional differences between individuals, such as in fungi, may be referred to as mating types.

sex

Sex (1920 film) (wikipedia)

Sex is a 1920 American silent drama film directed by Fred Niblo, written by C. Gardner Sullivan, produced by J. Parker Read, and starring Louise Glaum. On its surface, the film was a morality story on the evils of marital infidelity. However, the film's producer, J. Parker Read, had made a series of pictures on sex themes. The release of Sex, with its provocative title and explicit scenes of seduction and debauchery, made it the subject of controversy among censors and commentators. == Plot == The film is a morality story on the evils of marital infidelity and the wild lifestyle of New York actors. At the same time, the film included scenes of seduction and debauchery that made it the subject of controversy over its prurient content. The film's plot centers on Adrienne Renault (played by Louise Glaum), the beautiful queen of the Midnight Follies at the Frivolity Theater. The film opens with Renault's current conquest, a married millionaire, Philip Overman (played by William Conklin). Overman is in his private box watching Renault perform her seductive "Spider Dance". Renault comes on stage dressed as a spider, "clad in a translucent cloak of webs wrapped cloak-like around a body-hugging black sheath". In another scene of debauchery, the film depicts a party at which "stage-door johnnies drink out of women's slippers and scantily clad chorines slide down banisters, their undergarments visible to all and sundry". The film then shifts to Mrs. Overman (played by Myrtle Stedman), home alone in her empty mansion. Her suspicions persuade her to hire a private detective to follow her husband. Eventually, Mrs. Overman uncovers her husband's infidelity. She begs Renault to release her husband, but Renault refuses, and Mrs. Overman obtains a divorce. By this time, Renault has fallen in love with a new millionaire, Dick Wallace (played by Irving Cummings). Renault marries Wallace, but Wallace then betrays Renault, falling in love with Renault's young protege, Daisy (played by Viola Barry). It was Renault who had coached Daisy in the ways of seducing wealthy married men. Renault begs Daisy to release Wallace, harkening back to the scene where Mrs. Overmire had pleaded with Renault. As Renault had done with Mrs. Overman, Daisy refuses to release Wallace. Renault then sails for Europe. She ends up on the same ship with the reunited Overmans, who are on a second honeymoon. The chastened Renault does nothing to disrupt the relationship, resigned to a life of solitude. The film's final intertitle reads, "The standards of morality eternally demand that the naked soul of Sex be stripped of its falsehoods – which can only be atoned for through bitter tears." == Cast == Louise Glaum as Adrienne Renault Irving Cummings as Dave Wallace Peggy Pearce as Daisy Henderson Myrtle Stedman as Mrs. Overman William Conklin as Philip Overman Jean Murat Minor Role (uncredited) == Production == One of the unusual elements in the filming of Sex was the use of three cameras. One camera was used to produce the negative from which prints were to be made for use in the United States, and a second was used to be used for foreign prints. The third camera was "placed at an angle different from either of the others" and "was used in the expectation that a unique angle might provide a more interesting view of the dramatic action". == Reception == The film was a box office hit and received extensive coverage in the newspapers in 1920. A Massachusetts newspaper gave the film the following review: Sex, the wonderplay of the season ... is startling, even bold in spots, but very, very nice. The picture has undeniable virtues and just as undeniable vices but they belong to the characters in the piece for 'Sex' has a 'soul.' ... A problem, beautifully presented and cleverly analyzed that leaves us with a sense of the infinite at the end -- which is distinctly unusual -- and which is entirely free from the sticky-sweet sentimentality of too many photoplays is the theme of sex. ... The art of the producer, applied with lavish, yet discriminating hand and the talents of the star make 'Sex' superlative entertainment and food for thought. A Pennsylvania newspaper wrote: "We have heard a great deal in the past year about 'pictures with a soul' but we never quite got the significance of the 'soul-picture' until we saw 'Sex' with Louise Glaum as the star." A Chicago newspaper called it "a lesson to thousands of frivolous creatures who fool themselves into believing that youth lasts forever, that pleasure is life's chief object and that one can violate the laws that regulate our domestic lives and get away with it". Glaum's performance as the "vampish" Renault drew extensive coverage. One reviewer called it "one of the most perfect vampire characterizations" ever given in a motion picture. Another review called Renault "a dazzling, alluring home wrecker ... who never had a qualm of conscience about taking another's husband". When the film was screened in 2004, Los Angeles Times film critic, Kevin Thomas, wrote: "Six years before Mae West dared to call her play 'Sex', Thomas Ince produced and Fred Niblo directed a 1920 film called 'Sex', starring pioneering screen vamp Louise Glaum as a New York cabaret star, the mistress of a married man. What gives the film its edge is that in truth she is simply a blunt, honest woman who doesn't realize her own vulnerability." == Controversy == The film's title and subject matter were the subject of controversy in some locations. Playing off of the film's provocative title, newspaper advertising urged readers to "SEE SEX SEE SEX SEE SEX". The Pennsylvania State Board of Motion Picture Censors refused to allow the film to be shown in Pennsylvania under its provocative title. To appease the censors, the film was distributed in Pennsylvania under the title Sex Crushed to Earth. In Hagerstown, Maryland, the theater owner defended his showing of the film by pointing to its "social import": Of all the social problems that beset the world that of Sex is indubitably the greatest. The 'mystery' of the sex equation has given rise to innumerable pruderies and pruriencies but Manager Thropp of the Colonial Theatre has come out flatly with the pronouncement that he has booked Sex ... because of its vast social import. The film was a box office success, and the Los Angeles Times reported that it had led to a war being declared in some quarters against "sex pictures". Echoing the response of Sex producer, J. Parker Read, the Times in February 1921 wrote: Sex has an important part in life either for evil or good, and it is the producers' privilege to show the error of the former and the virtue of the latter. Anybody who would wish to ban sex pictures from the screen, would be simply eliminating a highly important, if not the most important phase of life from the pictures. Thus did J. Parker Read, impresario of sensational sex films, outline his attitude toward the present agitation against pictures on sex themes. == References == == External links == Sex at the AFI Catalog of Feature Films Sex at AllMovie Sex at IMDb

Sex is a 1920 American silent drama film directed by Fred Niblo, written by C. Gardner Sullivan, produced by J. Parker Read, and starring Louise Glaum. On its surface, the film was a morality story on the evils of marital infidelity. However, the film's producer, J. Parker Read, had made a series of pictures on sex themes. The release of Sex, with its provocative title and explicit scenes of seduction and debauchery, made it the subject of controversy among censors and commentators.

sex

Sex (2024 film) (wikipedia)

Sex is a 2024 Norwegian drama film written and directed by Dag Johan Haugerud for Viaplay. The film starring Jan Gunnar Røise and Thorbjørn Harr, is the first instalment in the new "Sex Dreams Love" trilogy. It follows two men in heterosexual marriages whose unexpected experiences challenge their perceptions of sexuality, gender and identity. The film was selected in the Panorama section at the 74th Berlin International Film Festival where it had its world premiere on 17 February 2024. == Synopsis == In Dag Johan Haugerud’s film Sex, the story unfolds against the backdrop of modern urban Norway. Through clever wordplay, the film challenges conventional notions of masculinity and societal norms, regardless of whether the characters identify as heterosexual or homosexual. Two chimney sweeps, both in monogamous, heterosexual marriages, find themselves in situations that challenge their perspectives on sexuality and gender norms. One of them has a sexual encounter with another man, yet doesn’t interpret it as an expression of homosexual desire or infidelity. Meanwhile, the other experiences vivid nocturnal dreams where he appears as a woman. This bewildering experience leads him to question how much external perception shapes his identity and whether he has suppressed aspects of himself, thus limiting his true self. == Cast == Jan Gunnar Røise as Chimney Sweeper Thorbjørn Harr as CEO Siri Forberg as Chimey Sweeper’s Wife Birgitte Larsen as CEO’s Wife == Production == On 22 September 2022, Viaplay handed the making of a trilogy of films titled "Sex, Dreams and Love", to director Dag Johan Haugerud. Produced by Norway's Motlys and Viaplay, the trilogy was supported by the Norwegian Film Institute, the Nordisk Film & TV Fond, the Oslo Filmfond and Arthaus. Haugerud in an interview with Variety revealed that he was inspired by Krzysztof Kieślowski’s 1993-1994 Three Colours trilogy to take this project. He said, "The aim was to make three films that deal with the same topics from different perspectives." He elaborated, "They should look and feel very different, but give the impression that they are all part of the same conversation." == Release == Sex had its world premiere on 17 February 2024, as part of the 74th Berlin International Film Festival, in Panorama. In January 2024, m-appeal world sales acquired the international sales rights of the film. == Reception == Savina Petkova reviewing the film at Berlinale for Cineuropa wrote, "the film is very much concerned with talking, and not at all about sexual acts themselves." Petkova concluded, "Sex acknowledges that all of our conventions are constantly in the process of being destroyed and reconfigured." Reviewing the film for the International Cinephile Society, Matthew Joseph Jenner remarked that Sex is "an intelligent and complex film, and outside of a few brief, almost inconsequential moments in which we can feel the desire manifesting in these characters, it is a straightforward film that refuses to resort to shocking imagery or intentionally scintillating conversations to stir a reaction" and called it “one of the most bold and unflinching deconstructions of masculinity we have seen in years.” == Accolades == == References == == External links == Sex at IMDb Sex at m-appeal Sex at Teddy Award Sex at Berlinale

Sex is a 2024 Norwegian drama film written and directed by Dag Johan Haugerud for Viaplay. The film starring Jan Gunnar Røise and Thorbjørn Harr, is the first instalment in the new "Sex Dreams Love" trilogy. It follows two men in heterosexual marriages whose unexpected experiences challenge their perceptions of sexuality, gender and identity. The film was selected in the Panorama section at the 74th Berlin International Film Festival where it had its world premiere on 17 February 2024.

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Sex (Cheat Codes and Kris Kross Amsterdam song) (wikipedia)

"Sex" is a song by American DJ trio Cheat Codes and Dutch DJ trio Kris Kross Amsterdam. The song was released by Spinnin' Records on February 19, 2016, and has since achieved international success. == Composition and release == The song re-uses the chorus from the 1991 single "Let's Talk About Sex" by hip hop trio Salt-N-Pepa. It is set in the key of A minor and has a tempo of 105 beats per minute. The song was first released by Spinnin' Records on February 19, 2016. This was followed by a release as a digital download to Beatport on April 8, 2016, and a release to the iTunes Store by Casablanca Records on May 26, 2016. == Music video == The song's music video was released to the Spinnin' Records YouTube channel on February 19, 2016. Directed by Chris Campbell, it features Cheat Codes and Kris Kross Amsterdam in a sex education class. As of January 2024, the video has received over 210 million views. == Track listing == == Charts == == Certifications == == References ==

"Sex" is a song by American DJ trio Cheat Codes and Dutch DJ trio Kris Kross Amsterdam. The song was released by Spinnin' Records on February 19, 2016, and has since achieved international success.

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Sex (Elli Kokkinou album) (wikipedia)

Sex is the fourth studio album by Greek artist, Elli Kokkinou. It was released on 3 November 2005 by Heaven Music and certified gold certification, selling 20,000 units. The album was written by Phoebus, with remaining lyrics by Natalia Germanou and Giannis Rentoumis. == Track listing == == Singles == The following singles were officially released to radio stations and made into music videos, except the song "Erotas Einai", and gained a lot of airplay. "Sex" "Talento" (Talent) "Ti Tis Eheis Vrei" (What Have You Found In Her) "Itan Psema" (It Was A Lie) "Erotas Einai" (Love Is) == Credits == Credits adapted from liner notes. === Personnel === Giannis Bithikotsis – bouzouki, cura (tracks: 2, 3, 6, 8, 10) / baglama (tracks: 2, 3, 6, 8) Giorgos Chatzopoulos – guitars (tracks: 1, 5, 6, 7, 8, 11) Victoria Chalkiti – backing vocals (tracks: 1, 2, 5, 7, 9) Achilleas Diamantis – guitars (tracks: 1, 5) Akis Diximos – backing vocals (tracks: 1) / second vocal (tracks: 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11) Nektarios Georgiadis – backing vocals (tracks: 5, 7) Antonis Gounaris – guitars (tracks: 2, 3, 6, 9, 10, 11) / cura (tracks: 7) Trifon Koutsourelis – orchestration, programming, keyboards (tracks: 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11) Fedon Lionoudakis – accordion (tracks: 2, 6, 10) Alex Panagi – backing vocals (tracks: 1, 2, 5, 7, 9) / second vocal (tracks: 5) Liana Papalexi – backing vocals (tracks: 9) Phoebus – orchestration (all tracks) / programming, keyboards (tracks: 4) Giorgos Roilos – percussion (tracks: 6, 7) Filippos Tseberoulis – flute (tracks: 3, 10, 11) === Production === Manolis Chiotis – studio photographer Giannis Ioannidis (Digital Press Hellas) – mastering Konstantinos Kagkas – hair styling Giorgos Klaromenos – imagine director Vanesa Koutsopodiotou – make up Vasilis Nikolopoulos – sound engineer, mix engineer Phoebus – executive producer Panos Pitsilidis – art direction Thodoris Psiachos – cover photographer Vaggelis Siapatis – computer editing, sound engineer Giorgos Stabolis – production manager Aspasia Tsousi – layout Manolis Vlachos – mix engineer Alexis Valourdos – imagine director == Charts == Sex made its debut at number 2 on the 'Top 50 Greek Albums' charts by IFPI. In a month, it was certified gold according to sales. == Ki Allo... Platinum Edition == Ki Allo... Platinum Edition (Greek: Κι Άλλο...; English: More...) is the re-release of fourth studio album Sex by Greek artist, Elli Kokkinou. It was released on 22 November 2006 by Heaven Music and received platinum certification, selling other 20,000 units. Following recent tactics, the album was re-released with four new songs, in one of them featuring Thanos Petrelis. It also includes a DVD with music videos, photos, and interviews. == Track listing == == DVD == DVD contains the video clips of following songs: "Sex" "Ti Tis Eheis Vrei" "Itan Psema" "Making Of" photos Gold status of Sex "Sex" (French version) from Mad Video Awards 2006 Interview with Makis Pounentis == Singles == The following singles were officially released to radio stations and made into music videos and had good airplay. "Sex [French version]" "Ki Allo" (More) "Adiaforos" (Uninterested) == Credits == Credits adapted from liner notes. === Personnel === Hakan Bingolou – oud, säz (tracks: 4) Giannis Bithikotsis – bouzouki (tracks: 1, 3) / cura (tracks: 1) / baglama (tracks: 1, 3) / lute (tracks: 2) Victoria Chalkiti – backing vocals (tracks: 1) Giorgos Chatzopoulos – guitars (tracks: 1, 2, 3) Akis Diximos – backing vocals, second vocal (tracks: 2, 3) Trifon Koutsourelis – orchestration, programming, keyboards (tracks: 1, 2, 3) Alex Panagi – backing vocals (tracks: 1) Phoebus – orchestration (all tracks) / programming, keyboards (tracks: 4) Giorgos Roilos – percussion (tracks: 1, 2, 3) Thanasis Vasilopoulos – clarinet, ney (tracks: 4) === Production === Antonis Aspromourgos – processing Manolis Chiotis – studio photographer Konstantinos Kagkas – hair styling Giorgos Klaromenos – imagine director Vanesa Koutsopodiotou – make up Vasilis Nikolopoulos – sound engineer, mix engineer Elsa Patsadeli – styling Phoebus – executive producer Panos Pitsilidis – art direction Roula Revi – cover photographer Vaggelis Siapatis – computer editing, sound engineer Giorgos Stabolis – production manager Aspasia Tsousi – layout Alexis Valourdos – imagine director Leon Zervos – mastering == Charts == Ki Allo... Platinum Edition made its debut at number 1 on the 'Top 50 Greek Albums' charts by IFPI. With its release, it was certified platinum according to sales. == References ==

Sex is the fourth studio album by Greek artist, Elli Kokkinou. It was released on 3 November 2005 by Heaven Music and certified gold certification, selling 20,000 units. The album was written by Phoebus, with remaining lyrics by Natalia Germanou and Giannis Rentoumis.

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Sex (I'm a ...) (wikipedia)

"Sex (I'm a ...)" is a song by American new wave band Berlin from their second studio album, Pleasure Victim (1982). The song was co-written by group members John Crawford, Terri Nunn, and David Diamond and sung as a duet by Crawford and Nunn. It has an electronic disco arrangement, inspired by Giorgio Moroder, and in particular Donna Summer's "I Feel Love". Released as the album's second single in February 1983, the single became a cult hit on American radio (and a massive hit in Canada, peaking at #4 on the RPM charts) and brought the group into the mainstream. Despite the significant attention, the song's racy lyrics resulted in its being banned from several radio stations. The single peaked at No. 62 on the Billboard Hot 100 for two weeks in late March and early April 1983. The song was also the first single release from the band's new label, Geffen Records. The music video, which received only limited play on MTV, features a cameo appearance by Nunn's mother Joy. Nunn later said the lyrics were inspired by her relationship with KROQ DJ Richard Blade, and her attempts to introduce elements of erotic roleplay into their sex life; this was confirmed by Blade. == Track listing == "Sex (I'm a ...)" - 5:08 "Tell Me Why" - 3:50 == Charts == == Cover versions == Canadian electroclash musician Peaches covered the song as a bonus track for her albums The Teaches of Peaches and Fatherfucker. Australian producer/DJ Mike Felks released a cover of the song in 2009, featuring Annemarie. Lovage released a cover in 2001 on their album Music to Make Love to Your Old Lady By == References ==

"Sex (I'm a ...)" is a song by American new wave band Berlin from their second studio album, Pleasure Victim (1982). The song was co-written by group members John Crawford, Terri Nunn, and David Diamond and sung as a duet by Crawford and Nunn. It has an electronic disco arrangement, inspired by Giorgio Moroder, and in particular Donna Summer's "I Feel Love". Released as the album's second single in February 1983, the single became a cult hit on American radio (and a massive hit in Canada, peaking at #4 on the RPM charts) and brought the group into the mainstream. Despite the significant attention, the song's racy lyrics resulted in its being banned from several radio stations. The single peaked at No. 62 on the Billboard Hot 100 for two weeks in late March and early April 1983. The song was also the first single release from the band's new label, Geffen Records. The music video, which received only limited play on MTV, features a cameo appearance by Nunn's mother Joy. Nunn later said the lyrics were inspired by her relationship with KROQ DJ Richard Blade, and her attempts to introduce elements of erotic roleplay into their sex life; this was confirmed by Blade.

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Sex (Lenny Kravitz song) (wikipedia)

"Sex" is a song written and recorded by American singer Lenny Kravitz and Craig Ross. The song was released on August 6, 2014 as the second single from the Kravitz's tenth studio album Strut. == Background == Kravitz explained to Billboard, "This is one of my favorite tracks on the album. It was recorded with minimal instrumentation, guitar, bass and drums. The strength of the groove comes from the sparse production which creates space." To shoot the music video, Kravitz hired New York photographer and director Dikayl Rimmasch, who previously worked with Jay-Z and Beyoncé. The video is black-and-white and provocative: Kravitz performs the song surrounded by two topless female dancers, their hands hiding their breasts. The film crew is entirely made up of religious figures: the director is a priest, cinematographer a monk, lighting designer a good sister. == Reception == Marcus Floyd of Renowned for Sound wrote, "The album's sophomore single 'Sex' begins the show with its gnarly, enthusiastic arrangement and Kravitz' vocals are as good as ever". Lanetra King of Rated R&B noted, "his soulful track 'Sex' inspired by the groovy disco decade of flared bottoms and high hair fros. Kravitz welcomes the new generation and reintroduces the old to the 80s with his vintage, timeless sound. This track is sure to have listeners itching to pull out their dance moves on the floor... From the looks of his artwork for his 'Sex' single and for his Strut album, Kravitz is sure to keep things hot and spicy for the new album." == Track listing == == Charts == == References ==

"Sex" is a song written and recorded by American singer Lenny Kravitz and Craig Ross. The song was released on August 6, 2014 as the second single from the Kravitz's tenth studio album Strut.

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Sex (Mötley Crüe song) (wikipedia)

Sex is a song by American heavy metal band Mötley Crüe. It was originally thought to be the first single from their intended tenth studio album, but was disproved when bassist Nikki Sixx announced that there would not be another studio album before the end of their final tour. == Personnel == === Members === Vince Neil: Lead vocal Nikki Sixx: Bass guitar Mick Mars: Guitars Tommy Lee: Drums === Lyrics === Tommy Lee: Composer Mick Mars: Composer James Michael: Composer Nikki Sixx: Composer == Charts == == References ==

Sex is a song by American heavy metal band Mötley Crüe. It was originally thought to be the first single from their intended tenth studio album, but was disproved when bassist Nikki Sixx announced that there would not be another studio album before the end of their final tour.

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Sex (TV series) (wikipedia)

Sex, also known as Sex with Sophie Lee, is an Australian television series that ran from 1992 to 1993 on the Nine Network. It was hosted by Sophie Lee in its first season and Pamela Stephenson in its second. As the title of the show suggests, the program was about sex and its related aspects. The series was created by Tim Clucas. Originally planned to be a special, it became a 10-episode series due to "public response". On average (in season 1), it drew 1.6 million viewers with a 35% share. == Controversy == The program caused controversy for a number of reasons, these mainly being the graphic depictions it featured of the subject and featuring such depictions in the early 8:30pm timeslot. Sex pushed boundaries, with explicit shots of genitalia, simulated sex and discussion of controversial topics such as abortion and homosexuality. Viewer reaction to Sex varied. Some saw the program as useful and valid television, while others felt uncomfortable or found the program exploitative. General Motors Holden announced that it would not advertise during Sex because it wanted to be associated with "wholesome" topics. Various church groups and conservative organisations told advertising agencies not to buy spots on the program. Despite receiving over 900 complaints to the Australian Broadcasting Tribunal, "the panel ruled that the show did not violate broadcast standards". In 1993, the show was moved to a later timeslot but despite good ratings, the controversy became too much for then managing director David Gyngell, who announced its departure on the Midday show with the final show airing on 27 May. However, the show's success sparked a similar series on Network Ten, Sex/Life hosted by Tottie Goldsmith and Alyssa-Jane Cook, which ran from 1994 to 1998. == Cast == Sophie Lee's reputation for sexual appeal, from her time as host of The Bugs Bunny Show, delivered a very high rating for Sex, a 32 share for its premiere. By the end of 1992, she became disenchanted with the show and left the program. In 1993, comedian Pamela Stephenson took over as host, presenting in a more humorous style. At that time she was known as a performer, but in later years earned a PhD as a psychologist, specializing in the area of human sexuality. One of the reporters on the show was Dr Kerryn Phelps, who would later go on to become president of the Australian Medical Association and a member of parliament. == References ==

Sex, also known as Sex with Sophie Lee, is an Australian television series that ran from 1992 to 1993 on the Nine Network. It was hosted by Sophie Lee in its first season and Pamela Stephenson in its second. As the title of the show suggests, the program was about sex and its related aspects. The series was created by Tim Clucas. Originally planned to be a special, it became a 10-episode series due to "public response". On average (in season 1), it drew 1.6 million viewers with a 35% share.

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Sex (Telex album) (wikipedia)

Sex (alternately released as Birds and Bees) is the third album by Belgian electronic group Telex, released in 1981. The album is notable for being the first collaboration between Telex and American pop group Sparks. == Production == Marc Moulin and Dan Lacksman were introduced to Ron Mael and Russell Mael of Sparks by their mutual friend, Lio. Facing pressures to release an album in English, Moulin extended an offer to the Maels to contribute lyrics to their upcoming LP. This prompted a long-term friendship between the two bands, and led directly to Lacksman's assistance with production of the 1983 album In Outer Space and 1986's Music That You Can Dance To. Due to concerns about censors and the album's title, the album was released in the UK as Birds and Bees (the phrase "the birds and the bees" is often used as a euphemism for "sex", especially by parents explaining to their children what it is). == Track listing == === Original === The 2023 Mute Records reissue inserts "Dummy" between tracks 8 and 9. === Birds and Bees 1982 release === == References == == External links == Sex at Discogs (list of releases)

Sex (alternately released as Birds and Bees) is the third album by Belgian electronic group Telex, released in 1981. The album is notable for being the first collaboration between Telex and American pop group Sparks.

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Sex (The 1975 EP) (wikipedia)

Sex is the second extended play (EP) by English band the 1975. It was released on 19 November 2012 by Dirty Hit. A modified version was released in the US on 1 January 2013 by Dirty Hit and Polydor Records. The band produced the EP alongside Michael Coles, Robert Coles and Mike Crossey. They drew musical inspiration from Sigur Rós, Brian Eno and filmmaker John Hughes while thematically focusing on the passage of time. Prior to the record's debut, a music video for "Sex" was released. An ambient rock-influenced rock, R&B, electro, pop and emo record, Sex is musically divided into two halves. Its first half is characterised by its ethereal compositions which draw from electropop, while the second half is informed by an extensive use of guitars. The record's lyrics incorporate themes of love, sex and drugs. Upon release, the EP received generally mixed reviews from contemporary music critics, who praised the exploration of various genres but felt the record suffered from a lack of cohesion. == Development and release == In January 2012, the 1975 was formed by lead singer Matty Healy, drummer George Daniel, guitarist Adam Hann and bassist Ross MacDonald, who had played music together since 2002. After being rejected by all major record labels, artist manager Jamie Osborne discovered the band and signed them to his label Dirty Hit. The 1975 began a process of releasing three extended plays (EP) leading to their debut album. In August of the same year, the band released their debut EP, Facedown, to critical success. To aid in developing the follow-up record, Sex, the 1975 approached Mike Crossey, who provided additional production and mixing on "Sex" and "You". In addition to working with producers Michael and Robert Coles, the band self-produced "Intro/Set3". Regarding the creative process behind Sex, Healy said: "We were planning on putting out [the EPs] with absolutely no intention of them being accepted in the way they have. We kind of got used to being in really underground bands - where the world of mainstream radio and media just seems so genuinely far away." The 1975 drew inspiration from Sigur Rós, ambient musician Brian Eno and filmmaker John Hughes. The singer noted that his affection for ambient music stems from the genre's use in movies, which he enjoyed at a young age, saying it "commands you how to feel without the use of words". Discussing the overall theme of the EPs, Healy said they were focused on sex, love, drugs and fear, while also noting: "The songs on Sex are all about passing moments. Moments that we don't analyse at the time – only to understand them retrospectively." A music video for "Sex" was released on 5 October 2012, while the EP was released by Dirty Hit on 19 November 2012. A different version of Sex containing a modified tracklist was released in the US on 1 January 2013 by Dirty Hit and Polydor Records. == Composition == === Music and lyrics === Exploring ambient rock concepts, Sex combines rock, R&B, electro, pop and emo music, while the lyrics deal with themes of love, sex and drugs. Writing for Hit the Floor Magazine, Amy Jones said that in contrast to Facedown, Sex contains a "slightly darker [and] more foreboding" tone, while Paste writer Shaina Pearlman observed "equal parts ethereal and synth pop" throughout the record. Amanda Koellner of Consequence identified two distinct sounds within Sex. She described the first as recalling the "intricate electropop" of Passion Pit's "more mellow songs". Koellner wrote that "Sex" marks the EP's sonic shift from a "companionless headphone" record to the "centre of a party", characterised by "traditional" guitar-heavy compositions. DIY's Martyn Young shared this opinion and said the EP is "arbitrar[ily] split between the first two overtly electronic hazy pop songs and the second two "more straightforward traditional guitar tracks". QRO Magazine writer Robin Sinhababu noted that Sex is composed of four different styles of British emo. === Songs === "Intro/Set3", an electronic, R&B and pop slow jam, opens Sex with "glitching" layers instruments and effects, electronic synth beats and tiered vocals which utilise a "cut up vocal effect". The song gradually builds until reaching a plateau in its mid-section. A "hazy" and "futuristic" 1990s-style electronic, R&B and pop slow jam, "Undo" contains electronic synths and elements of chillwave, indie and acoustic. "Sex" is an indie rock, indie pop and emo-rock song. Drawing from pop-punk, Britpop and power pop, the production features minimal synths and a post-rock-influenced middle eight. Lyrically, the song is about spontaneous sexual intercourse ("But if we're gonna do anything we might as well just fuck") while Healy repeats the hook: "She's got a boyfriend anyway". Incorporating elements of shoegaze, "You" is a guitar-heavy ballad that begins with gentle and quiet distorted guitars as Healy sings: "You're a liar / At least all of your friends are". As the song continues to build, subtle drums are added at the 40-second mark while Healy sings the hook: "It takes a bit more than you". Thematically, Healy said the track was inspired by the dissolution of his social group, noting it represents "that moment when you realise, [']Oh, that was a bit of a waste of time--but fuck it, I'm actually just as happy as I was before so no harm done[']". "Milk" is a hidden track that occupies the final two minutes and twelve seconds of "You". It is a guitar-heavy pop rock and indie song containing elements of electro and shoegaze, while the lyrics deal with drugs and sex. "Head.Cars.Bending (George Daniel Remix)" is an electronic and dance song that incorporates elements of UK garage. The song's original version was later released on the 1975's third EP, Music for Cars (2013). == Critical reception == Awarding Sex a score of 9 out of 10, Amy Jones commended the EP's musical diversity and its development of the 1975's signature sound, asserting the record shows promise for the band's debut album. In addition to praising the title track as a highlight from the EP, she wrote: "Every track on this is incredible and shows off the band's spectrum of talents with ease and simplicity." Pearlman lauded the diversity of genres on Sex, writing that while it did not appear entirely cohesive at first, repeated listens helped the EP "[come] together remarkably well". She was particularly favourable toward the second half of the record, writing that the 1975 excel on pop-oriented songs such as "Sex" and "You", the latter of which she deemed as "undoubtedly the standout". Norman Fleischer of Nothing but Hope and Passion praised the variety of styles present on the EP and deemed the title track an "obvious hit single", writing that the band "stick[s] up to the expectations" set by fellow Manchester musicians. Martyn Young awarded Sex three out of five stars; asserting that while the record showed "a great deal of promise"—with the exception of "You", which he opined ends the EP on a disappointing note—he struggled to understand "exactly who [t]he 1975 are", owing to the band's "wildly fluctuating" sound. Amanda Koellner gave Sex a grade of C−. She commended the 1975's exploration of different styles and called the EP a "fun listen with lots to offer". However, she felt it was "apparent that The 1975 are still searching for their sound" and criticised the transition from the first half of the record to the second, comparing it to "an accidental click of the shuffle button". In a negative review, Robin Sinhababu gave the EP a score of 3.5 out of 10. Despite praising the "dynamic" sound of "You", she called Healy a nuisance and criticised the record's overtly sexual nature, saying the singer "whines melodramatically about all kinds of things, from the irrelevant to the trivial". == Track listing == Later digital editions of Sex replace the 19 minutes of silence with just under 3 minutes; this version is 9:52 in length and "Milk" begins at 7:36. Notes [a] signifies an additional producer On the standard version, "Sex" is alternatively titled "Sex - EP Version" "Head.Cars.Bending (George Daniel Remix)" is alternatively titled "Head.Cars.Bending (The 1975 Remix)" == See also == The 1975 discography List of songs by Matty Healy == References ==

Sex is the second extended play (EP) by English band the 1975. It was released on 19 November 2012 by Dirty Hit. A modified version was released in the US on 1 January 2013 by Dirty Hit and Polydor Records. The band produced the EP alongside Michael Coles, Robert Coles and Mike Crossey. They drew musical inspiration from Sigur Rós, Brian Eno and filmmaker John Hughes while thematically focusing on the passage of time. Prior to the record's debut, a music video for "Sex" was released. An ambient rock-influenced rock, R&B, electro, pop and emo record, Sex is musically divided into two halves. Its first half is characterised by its ethereal compositions which draw from electropop, while the second half is informed by an extensive use of guitars. The record's lyrics incorporate themes of love, sex and drugs. Upon release, the EP received generally mixed reviews from contemporary music critics, who praised the exploration of various genres but felt the record suffered from a lack of cohesion.

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Sex (The 1975 song) (wikipedia)

"Sex" is a song by English band the 1975 from their second extended play (EP) of the same name (2012) and eponymous debut studio album (2013). The song was written by band members George Daniel, Matty Healy, Adam Hann and Ross MacDonald. The band co-produced the EP version of the song with Michael and Robert Coles, while Mike Crossey provided additional production. The album version, produced by Crossey and the band, was released as the lead single on 23 August 2013 by Dirty Hit, Polydor Records and Vagrant Records. Written at the age of 19, Healy said the song represents a love letter to prudish teenage girls. An indie rock, indie pop and emo song, "Sex" contains elements of Britpop, power pop and pop-punk. Centred around spontaneous sexual intercourse and relationship allegiances, the song's lyrics discuss teenage angst, lust and infidelity. Upon release, the song received generally positive reviews from contemporary music critics, who praised its instrumentation, hooks and nostalgic lyrics, with some deeming it a highlight from Sex and The 1975. The song peaked at number 34 on the UK Singles Chart and number 35 on the US Billboard Alternative Airplay chart, and later was certified gold in both countries. Three music videos were released to accompany the song, including one set to an acoustic rendition of the track and a black and white version. The main version, directed by Adam Powell, was released on 26 July 2013. The visual depicts teenagers having sex, partying and taking drugs. == Background and development == In January 2012, The 1975 was formed by singer Matty Healy, drummer George Daniel, guitarist Adam Hann and bassist Ross MacDonald, who had played music together since 2002. After being rejected by a number of major record labels, artist manager Jamie Osborne discovered the band and signed them to his label Dirty Hit. The 1975 were introduced to producer Mike Crossey, who aided them in the development of their debut album. Following the record's completion, the band chose to develop four extended plays (EP) based on the album tracks "The City", "Sex" and "Chocolate": Facedown (2012), Sex (2012), Music for Cars (2013) and IV (2013). The 1975 were recognised as a breakthrough act in 2013, having achieved commercial success with the sleeper hit "Chocolate", which became a radio staple. In May 2013, the band announced their eponymous debut album would be released on 9 September; it was ultimately released on 2 September 2013 and includes "Sex". Written when Healy was 19, "Sex" is a song about dallying with an indecisive yet flirtatious woman who is unable to make up her mind; in a performance hosted by Last.fm, Healy described the track as a love letter to "every prudish 17-year old girl". He also rejected the idea that the song is "brash", instead arguing that "Sex" is "[the singer] at [his] most romantic", and that it reflects the personality of his youth. The song initially appeared on the 1975's EP of the same name; its production was handled by the band alongside Michael and Robert Coles, while Crossey provided additional production and was responsible for mixing the track. An updated version of "Sex", produced by Crossey and the band, was later released as the lead single from The 1975 on 23 August 2013. == Music and lyrics == Musically, "Sex" is an indie rock, indie pop and emo song. The song has a length of three minutes and twenty-six seconds (3:26) and was written by the 1975 members George Daniel, Healy, Adam Hann and Ross MacDonald. The track's production incorporates minimal synths, stadium-rock guitars, coarse guitar lines and "shimmery" riffs, pounding drums, strained chords and a post-rock-influenced middle eight. "Sex" also draws influence from power pop, Britpop and pop-punk music. While the re-recorded album version of the song features additional synths and layers, it largely retains the composition of the original EP version. Healy's vocal delivery in the track was described as near-spoken word by Alexander De Petro of Music Feeds. The lyrics to "Sex" explore themes related to teenage angst, lust, sex, and infidelity. Many of the track's lyrics describe literal scenes, such as the line: "My shirt looks so good, when it's just hanging off your back." Elsewhere, Healy discusses relationship allegiances, pondering the merits of receiving fellatio from a woman who already has a romantic partner with the lyrics: "And I'm not trying to stop you, love, but if we're going to do anything, we might as well just fuck." In the track's hook, Healy repeatedly exclaims: "She's got a boyfriend anyway." == Reception == Amanda Koellner of Consequence wrote that "Sex" is the "attention-grabbing centerpiece" of the EP Sex. Reviewing the original version of the song, Brightest Young Things writer Bryce Rudow complimented Healy's vocals for their melodic quality while also praising the track's "catchy" production. Nothing but Hope and Passion's Norman Fleischer asserted "Sex" represents the EP's "obvious" standout and called it an "instant adolescent anthem". In her review of the EP Sex, Shaina Pearlman of Paste said the song is instrumental in demonstrating the 1975's strengths; she was favourable toward the track's hooks and pop-influenced production, deeming it "the kind of song that makes people—and perhaps major labels—take notice". Reviewing the EP for Hit the Floor Magazine, Amy Jones declared "Sex" the set's standout song, commending the prominence of Healy's vocals and the track's subdued production, which she said allows the band to showcase their "incredible instrumental work". In a ranking of the 1975's ten best songs, NME listed the original version of "Sex" at number three; the list's curator, Tom Connick, lauded its "rough-edged brilliance", Americanised pop-punk production elements and the hook's nostalgic teenage sentiment, commenting it is "punky, youthful and laced in a cheeky charm". Andy Gill of The Independent and Digital Spy writer Lewis Corner declared "Sex" a highlight from The 1975, with the former describing it as an "infectious pop thrill". Pitchfork's Jayson Greene opined that the song is a "a perfect Jimmy Eat World mall-emo anthem" and deemed it the band's best track. Vulture included "Sex" in the publication's unranked list of the 10 Essential 1975 Songs; Larry Fitzmaurice compared it to Jimmy Eat World and LCD Soundsystem's "All My Friends" (2007) while writing that retrospectively, the song acts as a "a practical blueprint for the type of passionate, immediately catchy melodies" which Healy would later employ in the band's future releases. Caryn Ganz of Rolling Stone compared the track to the work of the Killers—specifically their song "Somebody Told Me" (2004)—and "All My Friends", calling it a "would-be smash". The Line of Best Fit's Laurence Day commented that "Sex" is evocative of the Killers' sound and complimented the updated production, which he deemed "fresher" than the original. In contrast, the editorial staff of idobi were ambivalent toward the updated album version of the song, opining that Healy's vocals sounded too Americanised and unrecognisable from the original version. Ray Rahman of Entertainment Weekly and Paste writer Hilary Saunders called the track "radio-friendly". Writing for Gigwise, Chloe Ravat commended Healy's vocals and the production of "Sex", writing: "It deserves a massive stadium to really do it justice." AllMusic writer Matt Collar said the song "drive[s] and climb[s] like the best anthemic '80s stadium rock" and commended its distillation of various influences into a single distinct sound, which he credits to delivering a "timeless" track. DIY's Emma Swan praised the couplet, "she's got a girlfriend anyway", deeming it both the most memorable point on the album and the track's only decipherable line. In the 1975's native United Kingdom, "Sex" peaked at number 34 on the UK Singles Chart and number 23 on the UK Indie Chart, and was later certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI), denoting combined sales and streams of over 400,000 certified units in the UK. Elsewhere in Europe, the song reached number 68 on the Belgian Ultratip Flanders chart. In the United States, the track peaked at number 35 on the Billboard Alternative Airplay chart, and was later certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), denoting combined sales and streams of over 500,000 certified units in the US. == Music video == Prior to their formation as the 1975, the band recorded a music video featuring an acoustic rendition of "Sex" in late 2009. The visual was released under the 1975's former moniker Drive Like I Do. A black and white music video, directed by James Booth, was released on 5 October 2012. A video, directed by Adam Powell and set to the album version of the song, was released on 26 July 2013. Eschewing their signature black and white aesthetic, Healy called the shift toward colour "a massive step for [the band]". The singer also praised the "passion" and "understanding" of Powell, whom he described as a "true collaborative spirit" that led them to film the visual in Los Angeles. Regarding the overall development of the music video, Healy said: "As a video, 'Sex' feels very uncompromised, unpredictable and from a artistic viewpoint, very honest. That is always our main goal as a band. We are very proud of it." The music video for the album version of "Sex" contains themes of love, crime, performance and sex. The visual centres around a pair of teenage lovers partying and taking drugs. Featuring sex scenes, smoking out of bongs, acid tripping and skinny dipping, the video was deemed NSFW by Sarah Bella of Music Feeds and the editorial staff of Variance. Idolator writer Mike Wass called the visual "eye-popping" and compared it to the music videos of Robin Thicke, deeming it "music video simply". Described as "naughty stuff" by Gigwise's Michaels Baggs, Fleischer said the video serves as "visual proof of how far the band has come". The reaction from the 1975's fanbase was mixed, with some expressing their disappointment in the band's decision to film the video in colour. Regarding the fan reaction, Healy said: "I think what that is, is kids reinstating how cool they are and showing people that they saw us first. I get that. That's totally cool." == Charts == == Certifications == == Credits and personnel == Credits adapted from Sex and The 1975 album liner notes. Recorded at Rose Cottage in Wilmslow, Cheshire, England Matthew Healy – composer, guitar, piano, vocals, producer George Daniel – composer, programming, drums, synthesizer, producer Adam Hann – composer, guitar, producer Ross MacDonald – composer, bass guitar, producer Michael Coles – producer (EP version) Robert Coles – producer (EP version) Mike Crossey – producer, additional producer (EP version), mixer Robin Schmidt – mastering engineer == See also == The 1975 discography List of songs by Matty Healy == References == == External links == "Sex [EP Version]" – The 1975 on YouTube "Sex" – Official Audio on YouTube

"Sex" is a song by English band the 1975 from their second extended play (EP) of the same name (2012) and eponymous debut studio album (2013). The song was written by band members George Daniel, Matty Healy, Adam Hann and Ross MacDonald. The band co-produced the EP version of the song with Michael and Robert Coles, while Mike Crossey provided additional production. The album version, produced by Crossey and the band, was released as the lead single on 23 August 2013 by Dirty Hit, Polydor Records and Vagrant Records. Written at the age of 19, Healy said the song represents a love letter to prudish teenage girls. An indie rock, indie pop and emo song, "Sex" contains elements of Britpop, power pop and pop-punk. Centred around spontaneous sexual intercourse and relationship allegiances, the song's lyrics discuss teenage angst, lust and infidelity. Upon release, the song received generally positive reviews from contemporary music critics, who praised its instrumentation, hooks and nostalgic lyrics, with some deeming it a highlight from Sex and The 1975. The song peaked at number 34 on the UK Singles Chart and number 35 on the US Billboard Alternative Airplay chart, and later was certified gold in both countries. Three music videos were released to accompany the song, including one set to an acoustic rendition of the track and a black and white version. The main version, directed by Adam Powell, was released on 26 July 2013. The visual depicts teenagers having sex, partying and taking drugs.

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Sex (The Necks album) (wikipedia)

Sex is the debut album of improvised music trio, The Necks, originally released on the Spiral Scratch label and later rereleased on Fish of Milk and Private Music in the US. The album features a single track of just under an hour in length performed by Chris Abrahams, Lloyd Swanton and Tony Buck improvising over a two-bar motif. On this album the band overdubbed the instrumentation of piano, bass and drums in a dual take creating a "hypnotic repetitive piece". The album is also an early example of the CD format being used to expand the length of recorded performances with one reviewer noting that "time limitations and format restrictions of cassettes, vinyl, and the obtuse eight-track would have meant that their work could only be experienced live". Excerpts from Sex have been used as the theme music on Dan Bodah's Airborne Event show on the WFMU freeform radio station. == Track listing == "Sex" (Abrahams, Buck, Swanton) – 56:07 == Personnel == Chris Abrahams – piano Lloyd Swanton – double bass Tony Buck – drums == References ==

Sex is the debut album of improvised music trio, The Necks, originally released on the Spiral Scratch label and later rereleased on Fish of Milk and Private Music in the US. The album features a single track of just under an hour in length performed by Chris Abrahams, Lloyd Swanton and Tony Buck improvising over a two-bar motif. On this album the band overdubbed the instrumentation of piano, bass and drums in a dual take creating a "hypnotic repetitive piece". The album is also an early example of the CD format being used to expand the length of recorded performances with one reviewer noting that "time limitations and format restrictions of cassettes, vinyl, and the obtuse eight-track would have meant that their work could only be experienced live". Excerpts from Sex have been used as the theme music on Dan Bodah's Airborne Event show on the WFMU freeform radio station.

sex

Sex (Tila Tequila EP) (wikipedia)

Sex is the debut studio EP by American recording artist Tila Tequila. It was released on March 20, 2007 by the Washington-based label The Saturday Team. Released shortly after her debut single, "I Love U", the EP was allegedly not authorized for release by Tequila, which led The Saturday Team and distributor Icon Music Entertainment Services to sue her over breaching her contract related to the album. The Saturday Team won the legal case and made Sex available for digital download on September 22, 2008 via iTunes Store. == Composition == Sex is an electronic pop rock record, which also contains elements of other genres such as punk rock, new wave and classical music. Tequila wrote most of the songs from the perspective of her alter ego Jane. The EP opens with a new-age world music introduction which transitions into an electric guitar instrumental. The second track, "Sex", is an electronic rock song with elements of classical music. "Little Brat" is a punk rock new wave song. Lyrically, it is about "a little rich girl that lives off her daddy's money". The fourth song, "Rat Room", is about fighting with her alter ego Jane, who wants to "destroy everything she has made". Tequila sings: "Eyes shut she just won't go away/Get help that's what my friends would say/But I can't I will just let her be/Because Jane is actually only me". == Critical response == Upon its release, Sex received mixed to negative reviews from critics. Stephen Thomas Erlewine at AllMusic gave it only one star out of five, mostly criticizing its production. He remarked that "she's not trashy enough to be a guilty pleasure and she's not bad enough to be memorable, she's just boring". == Track listing == == Credits and personnel == Tila Tequila – vocals, songwriter Claire Ejanda – artwork Misha – photography == Release history == == References == == External links == Sex at AllMusic Sex at Discogs (list of releases)

Sex is the debut studio EP by American recording artist Tila Tequila. It was released on March 20, 2007 by the Washington-based label The Saturday Team. Released shortly after her debut single, "I Love U", the EP was allegedly not authorized for release by Tequila, which led The Saturday Team and distributor Icon Music Entertainment Services to sue her over breaching her contract related to the album. The Saturday Team won the legal case and made Sex available for digital download on September 22, 2008 via iTunes Store.

sex

Sex (Vintage album) (wikipedia)

Sex (stylized in all caps) is the second studio album by the Russian pop group Vintage, released in 2009. In addition to the regular edition of the album, which was released on October 14, 2009, there is also a collector's edition with an additional DVD. == History == The album is a conceptual work, the main theme of which is sex. The disc received mostly positive reviews from critics, who noted the high quality of the recording and the well-realized concept of the album. The disc was a moderate commercial success, debuting at No. 12 on the Russian Album Chart. In support of the album, a promotional campaign was organized, which included a presentation of the album in Moscow and a promo tour to the cities of the CIS. According to the band members, the album SEX is a musical and sexual encyclopedia where all possible types of love have found their place: venal, fleeting, homosexual. The album was also nominated in the category Album of the Year at the 2010 Muz-TV Awards. == Track listing == SEX – 5:07 Victoria – 3:56 On/Off – 2:54 Make Me Hurt – 4:13 Sleepwalking Girls – 4:11 Boy – 3:48 Eva – 4:11 Bad Girl (with Elena Korikova) – 3:35 Loneliness of Love – 3:57 You Are for Me – 3:37 Striptease – 3:53 Sex Dance – 2:58 XXL – 3:57 == Personnel == Anna Pletnyova — sound production, vocals Alexey Romanov — music (tracks 1-3, 6-13), lyrics (tracks 4-6, 13), sound production, backing vocals Alexander Sakharov — music (tracks 4, 5), lyrics (tracks 1-3, 5-10, 12), arrangement, mixing, mastering, sound production Yuri Usachyov — music (track 7) Alexander Kovalyov — lyrics (tracks 6, 11) Ksenia Sakharova — lyrics (track 13) Eva Polna — lyrics (track 7) Elena Korikova — vocals (track 8) Yevgeny Kuritsyn — photo == References == == External links == "Российская индустрия звукозаписи. Год 2010" (PDF). Lenta.ru. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-01-31. Retrieved 2012-01-23. Аня Плетнёва: «Мы разрешаем то, что в России запретили»

Sex (stylized in all caps) is the second studio album by the Russian pop group Vintage, released in 2009. In addition to the regular edition of the album, which was released on October 14, 2009, there is also a collector's edition with an additional DVD.

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Sex (book) (wikipedia)

Sex is a 1992 coffee table book written by American singer Madonna, with photography by Steven Meisel Studio and Fabien Baron. It was edited by Glenn O'Brien and published by Warner Books, Maverick and Callaway. The book features adult content including softcore pornography and simulations of sexual acts including sadomasochism. Madonna developed Sex after Judith Regan of Simon & Schuster publishers suggested a book of erotic photographs. She wrote it as a character named "Mistress Dita", inspired by 1930s film actress Dita Parlo. It was influenced by punk rock and fashion figures including Guy Bourdin, Helmut Newton and Robert Mapplethorpe. The photos were shot in early 1992 in New York City and Miami, in locations including hotels, burlesque theaters, and city streets. The book includes cameos by actress Isabella Rossellini, rappers Big Daddy Kane and Vanilla Ice, model Naomi Campbell, gay porn star Joey Stefano, actor Udo Kier, and socialite Princess Tatiana von Fürstenberg. The cover is made of aluminium, spiral bound and wrapped in a Mylar sheet. Madonna's publishers were apprehensive about the release and the book's commercial potential. It was released on October 21, 1992, the day after Madonna's fifth studio album Erotica. A CD single was also packaged with the book which contained the song "Erotic", a song similar in composition to her similarly named single "Erotica". It sold over 150,000 copies on its first day in the United States, and topped the New York Times Best Seller list for three weeks. In a matter of days, Sex went on to sell more than 1.5 million copies worldwide and remains the best and fastest-selling coffee table book. It also remains as one of the most in-demand out-of-print publications of all time. Sex attracted extensive media attention and backlash, but Madonna remained unapologetic. Though it initially received negative reviews from fans and critics, who felt she had "gone too far", later reviews have been more positive, with academics deeming it a defining phase in Madonna's career. Sex is noted for its social and cultural impact and is considered a bold post-feminist work. == Background and development == According to Giselle Benatar of Entertainment Weekly, two versions explain how Madonna came up with the idea for the book. One is that she conceived the idea of an erotic photography book during the shooting of the film A League of Their Own in the summer of 1991. The other is that Judith Regan, vice-president and editor-in-chief of Simon & Schuster, armed with a proposal for a collection of photo-erotica, flew to Los Angeles in March 1991 to meet with Madonna and her manager Freddy DeMann. She verified Regan had not approached other celebrities with the concept as she was only interested in the project if it was a unique idea. By the end of the meeting Madonna had agreed "in principle" to do a book titled Madonna's Book of Erotica and Sexual Fantasies. She told Regan that DeMann would call her and work out the book's details. However, Madonna never got back to Regan who assumed she did not want to go ahead with the idea. Madonna's publicist Liz Rosenberg has never confirmed nor denied Regan's claim they had an agreement. According to Benatar Madonna began working on Sex before wrapping up shooting A League of Their Own. At first Warner Bros. Records and the executive directors of Time Warner were reluctant to allow Madonna to publish such a book but finally agreed. Madonna had to sign a contract that forbade the book from including images of child pornography, bestiality, or religious imagery. Not long after signing the agreement Madonna founded Maverick, a multi-media entertainment company in partnership with Time Warner. Since by contract she had total artistic control over any work released by Maverick, who were now the book's publisher, the agreement she signed with Time Warner over the content in Sex was null and void. Sex's stylized, sado-masochistic look had a range of influences from punk rock, to early fashion iconoclasts like Guy Bourdin and his surrealism, and Helmut Newton. Photographs from Brassaï's 1933 book Paris de nuit (Paris by Night) also inspired several of the book's series of images. The book was also influenced by Robert Mapplethorpe's infamous three-part XYZ portfolio, particularly the X portfolio. Madonna had considered using X as a title during the formative stages of Sex, but she changed her mind when promotion for Spike Lee's film Malcolm X began. (It was released three weeks after the book). She would go on to tell Vogue magazine: "We were gonna call it X [...] but then the whole thing with the Malcolm X movie started. At first I thought, 'Fuck it, it's a really good symbol and I thought of it first'. But I realized it might be confusing or look like I was copying Spike [Lee]. Besides, Sex is almost as powerful: it's universal, it doesn't need translation – and it's only two letters more than X." Madonna hired top-notch talent for the book's development, and counted on the help of friends from the music, film and fashion industry. She hired Fabien Baron as the art director, fashion photographer Steven Meisel, editor Glenn O'Brien, make-up artist Francois Nars and hairstylist Paul Cavaco. Madonna originally wanted the book to be an oval shape to simulate a condom, but its printing and manufacturing would have been too expensive. Meisel would later comment: "Madonna and I can keep up with each other", noting "I'm doing things to make people think too. It's not really to antagonize or to push people's buttons. It's really to present another way of seeing things." During the photo sessions for Sex, photographer Steven Meisel was accompanied by art director Fabion Baron who filmed the shoots on Super 8 film for use in the music video for the song "Erotica". The photo sessions took place in New York City and Miami. Locations in New York City included the Hotel Chelsea and Times Square's all-male burlesque Gaiety Theatre whose dancers participated in one of the book's photo sessions along with porn star Joey Stefano and actor Udo Kier. Many of the Miami photo sessions took place at Madonna's Coconut Grove mansion that she had recently purchased before beginning the Sex book project, while other sessions were done on several beaches and streets close to her home. One morning during the four-day Florida shoot Madonna was prancing naked around her 14-bedroom house in Miami when someone jokingly suggested she go out on the street, which she did on two occasions – topless with Vanilla Ice and completely nude while pretending to hitchhike. According to Baron on the street "cars screeched to a halt, motorists whistled, and one entranced cyclist fell off his bike". During the photo shoots Baron said, "[Madonna]'d do something crazy and then we'd come up with something even crazier". One of the most shocking photographs features two women in post-punk attire flanking Madonna with one of them holding a knife to her crotch. It was considered too violent to be used. While the book was being produced some of the photographs were stolen but were quickly recovered by the FBI. According to New York magazine, there were approximately 80,000 photographs taken for the book; only a handful of them were used. It took 15 days to print the book. The total production process took about eight months. Warner Bros. commented that Sex was very difficult to produce, requiring contributions from many printing companies. They noted that to make a profit the book needed to sell at least 350,000 copies. == Design and content == Wrapped and sealed in a polyethylene terephthalate (PET) Mylar bag, Sex has 128 pages and is spiral bound with an aluminium cover that has the word "Sex" stamped in the middle and a warning label. The front page shows Madonna against a sky blue backdrop. Three different types of paper were used for the printing. Madonna and Baron & Baron Inc. (consisting of Fabien Baron and the photographer Siung Fat Tjia), who also collaborated with her designing the cover art for her fifth studio album, Erotica, oversaw the design. As this was Maverick's first project, the packaging was crucial. Madonna had no faith in Warner Book's "mass-market" publication process, however, so Baron suggested they transfer the packaging job to Nicholas Callaway's bespoke Callaway Editions. Charles Melcher, the book's co-publisher with Callaway, said they usually published "exquisite art books, $100 high end, beautiful things". It was a challenge for them to process Madonna's ideas into reality. The artist wanted the packaging to be sealed, so the reader had to tear it open to read the book. They considered various kinds of clasps before deciding on a sealed bag as a reference to a condom package. The metal cover was Madonna's idea. She was inspired by the 1979 album Metal Box by Public Image Ltd. Melcher recalls, "We were talking about materials for the cover, and we went into her kitchen. [Madonna] pointed at the metal plate at the back of her stove and said, 'I want something like this'. I was very impressed with the way she interacted with her world to source things". The company bought about 1,500,000 pounds (680,000 kg) of aluminium, roughly a pound for each book. The designers oversaw the production of the front and back covers, which were stamped and anodized while the aluminium was rolling on a press. The book opens with the introduction: "Everything you are about to see and read is a fantasy, a dream, pretend." Throughout Sex, Madonna offers poems, stories, and essays. She used the pseudonym "Mistress Dita" as an homage to German actress Dita Parlo; her friends in the stories are Bunny, Dex, Stella, Chiclet and Stranger. According to biographer J. Randy Taraborrelli, a big part of the book reads like a letter to a pornographic magazine. Madonna wanted to explore the notion of power in Sex. Melcher said she wanted to talk about "gentle and hard, soft and violent [in Sex]. She was playing out all those elements in her book. That was reflected in the materials: uncoated, soft paper on the inside and hard metal coating on the outside". Like the text—which was mostly printed on the photographs—they are highly sexual and depict nudity, simulations of sexual acts, bondage, homosexuality and analingus, with accessories such as knives, whips, masks and chains; however, intercourse is never shown. Actress Isabella Rossellini, rappers Big Daddy Kane and Madonna's then-boyfriend Vanilla Ice, model Naomi Campbell, gay porn star Joey Stefano, actor Udo Kier, socialite Princess Tatiana von Fürstenberg, and nightclub owner Ingrid Casares and unknown models are featured in the book. Its heterosexual photos involve only Madonna and Vanilla Ice. Madonna herself is featured partially or completely naked. One of the book's most famous photographs shows a naked Madonna hitchhiking in Miami. The book also reflects Dita's perspective towards her own sexuality. She writes that her "pussy" is a temple of learning and exposing it, is really an homage to it. "It's hard to describe it smells like a baby to me fresh and full of life. I love my pussy, it is the complete summation of my life." Sex contains statements like "ass fucking is the most pleasurable way to get fucked and it hurts the most too". "There is something comforting about being tied up. Like when you were a baby and your mother strapped you in the car seat. She wanted you to be safe. It was an act of love". "I wouldn't want a penis. It would be like having a third leg. it seems like a contraption that would get in the way. I think I have a dick in my brain". Dita also points out "A lot of people are afraid to say what they want. That's why they don't get what they want". Since they recovered stolen pictures during the making of Sex, Madonna thanked the FBI for "rescuing photographs that would have made J. Edgar Hoover roll over" in the book's credits. == Publication and promotion == The book's imminent release caused a great deal of controversy. One photo showed a nude Madonna wearing a rabbit's tail, shaving the pubic hair of a naked man, and cavorting outdoors with a dog, suggesting bestiality. The Vatican urged its followers to boycott the book, saying that it was "morally intolerable". Indian customs officials said the book offended the country's public morality. The Press Trust of India (PTI), India's domestic news agency, quoted a top customs official as saying the book would be seized under a section of the Customs Act prohibiting entry of indecent literature. Citizens of Alexandria, Louisiana, filed a complaint with the city's police department on behalf of the Rapides Parish Chapter of the American Family Association, claiming Sex violated Louisiana's anti-obscenity laws. U.S. Southern Baptists did not want their Bibles printed on the same printing presses as Sex and threatened to stop doing business with the printer RR Donnelley. The Nashville-based Baptist Sunday School Board, a division of the Southern Baptist Convention, reviewed their $2.1 million ($4,559,545 in 2023 dollars) printing contract with Donnelley. Board President James Draper said he was infuriated Donnelley printed "such an obscene book". Entertainment Tonight reported Madonna had initiated the mayhem with the explicit content in the music video for "Erotica", walking bare breasted at designer Jean Paul Gaultier's fashion show and posing nude in Vanity Fair magazine. A writer for The Sacramento Bee said that since the press wanted "controversy", Madonna was willing to give them "fodder" with her "antiques". Madonna claimed she was publishing Sex "to liberate America — free us all of our hang-ups". She told Spin: "We live in a very repressed society, and I deal with erotic themes. The point I try to make is: Why should we feel ashamed of our sexuality?". She stated later that the book "does not condone unsafe sexual practices". Nicholas Callaway of Callaway Arts & Entertainment said the book was "inevitably going to be controversial. The book explores every aspect of sexual fantasy. It's hard to calculate the effect, [but], Sex should be considered 'art'". It was rumored that Time Warner was nervous about the book's release, however, in an interview with Vanity Fair, William Sarnoff, president of Warner Books, said he felt Madonna "should pursue all avenues of creativity as she defines it". The Warner company said they would make sure Sex reached its target audience. They reminded the public the book was safely wrapped in a Mylar bag to prevent in-store peeping and contained a warning label. Michael Kilian of the Chicago Tribune published a tongue-in-cheek article on October 7, 1992, about the coming release: "Prepare thyself, [...], The mega-event of the millennium is to occur in precisely two weeks. It's an event far more mega than the November election, the collapse of communism or even the crowning of Leanza Cornett as the new Miss America." Kilian went on to write: "The word on the street (which is precisely where it belongs) is that this is the hottest Truly Twisted personal sexual fantasy picture book in all Christendom, that it goes far beyond all previous Truly Twisted personal sexual fantasy picture books-perhaps beyond all imagining what such a book could be. On October 15, Madonna threw a pre-release party at New York City's Industria Superstudio having signed all the invitations with "Dita" her Sex alter ego. She dressed as Little Bo Peep carrying a stuffed toy lamb. Madonna's publicist Liz Rosenberg expressed concern at first about "what the parents of America's impressionable teens will soon be thinking" of Madonna, but said that it "all depends on your idea of lovemaking, which in Madonna's case, should give new meaning to the word erotic". Waldenbooks and Barnes & Noble prepared corporate statements store managers could share with customers who were offended by Sex. (Both statements defended the right of bookstores to provide "diversity and choice" to customers, saying censorship is not the role of bookstores.) Many book stores stated the book would not be sold to anyone under 18 and it would only be on display behind the cash register. Bookstore owner David Epstein said, "The feeling of most people who have ordered the book is that Madonna is something special, that this is cutting-edge art [...] they're not the kind of people who are buying it because it's smut and dirty pictures. People are interested in it as art." Sex was released on October 21, 1992, the day after Madonna's fifth studio album Erotica. A comic book title Dita in The Chelsea Girl and a promotional single titled "Erotic", wrapped in packaging representing a condom wrapper, was included with the book. "Erotic", a stripped-down arrangement of the song "Erotica", offered an alternate vocal take not used on the album version. Upon its release, the book was banned in India, Ireland, Japan and some Australian states. Given the controversy surrounding the book there was no need for Madonna to promote it. One of the few promotions she did, however, was to appear on the cover of the October edition of Vogue, dressed in "Hippie trip" fashion. These photographs were taken by Meisel. On October 22, 1992, MTV aired a special called The Day in Madonna, hosted by Kurt Loder (a pun on the title of their daily show The Day in Rock). It profiled the release of Madonna's Sex and her album Erotica, even taking the book to the streets to allow people, including a sex therapist and a group of real-life New York City dominatrices, to view it. MTV also interviewed people who had looked at the book on the day of its release at the HMV music store in New York City. To celebrate its release, the store held a Madonna look-alike contest and set up a booth where people could view the book for one dollar a minute, with the proceeds going to Lifebeat, the music industry organization founded to help fund AIDS research. == Critical response == Critics, conservative, feminist and anti-porn groups reacted negatively to the book because of its sexually explicit photographs, which many characterized as hardcore pornography. J. Randy Taraborrelli, in his biography of Madonna, wrote that much of the book appears surprising, not shocking. He derided the concept as childish and impetuous. Though Madonna insisted she was trying to demystify sexuality altogether, he believed she just wanted to publish pornographic text and pictures and get away with it: "She was being a brat, not a revolutionary." Author Lucy O'Brien declared the book a bold, harrowing exercise in frustration, and despite Madonna's attempt at invincibility, it appeared to be "a curious act of self-destruction". Anthony DeCurtis of Rolling Stone said "The overwhelming effect of the book is numbing". Describing the photographs as "derivative", he wrote that "Madonna herself seems far too eager to shock; that, not even prurient arousal, seems the ideal response the book tirelessly seeks. The potency of Sex's subject matter is dissipated by Madonna and Meisel's self-congratulatory – and silly – sense of their own 'bravery,' as if their naughty games were somehow revolutionary." Roger Catlin of the Hartford Courant said some passages from the book were "too dirty to quote ... even the funny ones". The Daily Beast said "the book is neither groundbreaking (save that it features a major star) nor particularly sexy [...] Sex is convincing only when it's playful, as when she appears nude in a Miami pizzeria, chewing a slice while a baffled customer looks on. Elsewhere, she's simply undressed with no place to go." Richard Harrington of The Washington Post, in a mixed review, wrote: "Is Sex shocking? Not really. Mostly because it's Madonna, and somehow we've come to expect this from her. Is Sex boring? Surprisingly, yes." British author Zoë Heller of The Independent wrote that it was "the women who once saw Madonna as a witty feminist role model who have been most alarmist about her latest pornographic incarnation ... Previously, they say, Madonna played with traditional images of feminine sexuality in a subversive, 'empowering' way. But now, with sado-masochism and rape fantasies, she has gone too far." Calvin Tomkins, author and art critic for The New Yorker, wrote that "unfortunately, the book is going to be mistaken for pornography". Vanity Fair deemed it "the dirtiest coffee table book to ever be published". Caryn James, in The New York Times, wrote: "There is plenty here to offend the meek (whips and chains), the self-righteous (gay men and lesbians), not to mention the tasteful (a tacky and cluttered art design)". The Times' Vicki Goldberg was dismissive, writing, "Unfortunately, not many of the images are very good photographically. Many are just pictures, or just porn." Writing for Spin, Bob Guccione, Jr. gave the book a particularly unfavorable review: Madonna has overstayed her welcome. She's becoming the human equivalent of the Energizer Bunny, flashing us her breasts in every magazine that'll let her. [...] Her book Sex, is a rip-off. Because it's not about sex, it's more about a hatred of it. [...] The book is not erotic. It's all somehow, astonishingly, dead. As sexy as a body chart at the doctor's office. Because it's just as precise and soulless. [Sex] is a con job because instead of being flagrant pornography, it dresses itself up as Great Art. The text is pretentious and derives most, if not all, of its impact from the fact that it's Madonna talking, quite a lot... Any other model would sound no more or less coarse, just uninteresting. == Commercial reception == === Pre-release === With Sex, Madonna broke several worldwide records. The retail price of the book was $50 in the United States, or around $109 in 2023 dollars. Across Europe, Sex was sold for £25 in the United Kingdom, and for pta 7500 in Spain (an equivalent of $70 at the time or $152 in 2023). The most expensive sales were found in Argentina with a retail price of $89, which is about $193 in 2023 dollars. The initial print run for the first edition was one million copies in five continents and in five languages. It set the record for the largest first printing of an illustrated book in publishing history. Callaway pointed out the book was an "unprecedented hit", because the print run of an average art book ranges between 5,000 and 10,000 units. Hundreds of copies of the book were pre-ordered, prompting book sellers to say that Sex was "shattering their sales records for advance purchases". John Robinson from Santa Cruz Sentinel informed that many booksellers agreed that "Sex sold, like nothing else before" and "they've never seen anything like it, especially for a $50 book". In Canada, H.B. Fenn and Company, distributors of Sex, reported an order for more than 45,000 copies from bookstores across the country by October 22. === Release === In the United States, Sex sold 150,000 copies on its release day, with additional 500,000 units a week later. The book also reached the number one on both The Washington Post and The New York Times Best Seller list, topping the latter for three weeks. By the end of the year, Sex ended among the Top 15 of the best-selling titles in the United States with sales of over 750,000 units. The book became a "huge bestseller" in Canada after a "careful review" by customs authorities according to Quill & Quire. It sold out 45,000 copies across the country, becoming one of the fastest-selling books in Canadian history. In the United Kingdom, Sex sold 100,000 copies in its first day, including 80,000 units in the first half an hour in London according to Creative Camera. Sex ended as the second best-selling hardcover book of 1992 in the UK, behind Andrew Morton's Diana biography. In France, Madonna held the record for the highest first-month sales for a book in history, before being surpassed by Thierry Meyssan with L'Effroyable Impasture in 2002. In Paris alone, 23,000 copies were sold in the first hour of release. Sex sold 7,220 units in Spain within its first two days, and 2,000 copies in the first five-hours in the city of Buenos Aires, Argentina. In Italy, the book moved 5,000 copies. By October 24, a spokeswoman for Australian distributors, Octopus Publishing, informed thousands of copies of Sex had been sold in Western Australia. Despite the censorship, Sex was able to sell 150,000 units of an edited version of the initial printing in Japan, topping the national best-selling list upon its release. According to the Chinese state newspaper, the book sold 5,000 copies in the first-week in the city of Shanghai alone. Although the book was censored shortly after its publication, several hundred of copies were sold in the Irish capital. Worldwide, the book sold 700,000 units in its first day. In summary, Sex went on to sell 1.5 million copies worldwide in a matter of days, becoming the fastest-selling coffee table book in history. It remains the best-selling coffee table book of all time. In 1999, Ed Brown from Fortune called Sex the best-selling illustrated book in history, further comparing that "for most publishers, selling 20,000 copies of a coffee-table book is a minor miracle". === Reactions === By December 1992, Paul Craig from McClatchy called it the biggest wonder of the year in literature. Giselle Benatar described Sex as "the publishing event of the century". A day prior its release, Tyra Braden of The Morning Call concluded that the book "might become a collector's item a few years down the road". Writing for San Francisco Chronicle in 1999, Joel Selvin noted the prices for the book on the web, ranging from $200 to $500 for sealed copies; ten times the original $50 cover price. According to Barry Walters from Rolling Stone in 2019, Sex remains one of the most in-demand out-of-print publications of all time. A long-lasting title at BookFinder.com's lists, Sex featured as the most requested out-of-print publication from 2011 to 2015. In their database, AbeBooks recalls: "The most famous out-of-print book of modern times is Madonna's Sex book, which remains in demand but the pop star refuses to republish it". == Social impact and aftermath == The book, though widely panned by the press, is regarded as one of the factors that shaped the social reaction and criticism of Madonna during the early 1990s. Her fifth studio album Erotica was affected by the negative press surrounding the book. In March 1993, Spin wrote an article praising the book. Months later in Mexico, social communicologist Nino Canún dedicated an episode of his morning talk show ¿Y usted qué opina? (English: So what's your opinion?), to Madonna. Some members of the audience, among them a priest, presented their arguments why The Girlie Show concert tour by "this morally clueless singer" should not be allowed in Mexico. Later, during the Mexican concert, in response to these comments, Madonna wore a charro sombrero and simulated an orgy with her dancers onstage. Continuing her provocative work, Madonna starred in the erotic thriller Body of Evidence, which features her fully nude engaging in simulated sexual acts. In March 1994, she was a guest on Late Show with David Letterman, used profanity, and handed Letterman a pair of her underwear asking him to smell it. The release of her sexually explicit works, and the aggressive appearance on Letterman led some critics to see Madonna as a sexual renegade. She also faced a strong negative reaction from critics and fans who commented that "she had gone too far" and that her career was over. Author Lucy O'Brien commented: The perfect iconic goddess of True Blue had all gone. In the same way that sixties beauties like Nico, Marianne Faithfull and Brigitte Bardot set about destroying their beauty after they were famous, the very thing they felt limited them, Madonna annihilated hers. Within a few short years she moved from teasing flirtation to desperate sexual display. It is ironic that after the triumph of Like a Prayer, she hits this bathos. Being a blond again set her off in the wrong direction. It was as if with the Sex book she showed the underside of the Hollywood dream. Madonna responded to the huge backlash with the song "Human Nature", from her next album Bedtime Stories (1994), with the lyrics "Did I say something wrong? Oops, I didn't know I couldn't talk about sex," while declaring "And I'm not sorry. It's human nature." She later explained: "I wouldn't say I regret it. I've made mistakes and learned from them. Most people want to hear me say that I regret publishing my Sex book. I don't. The problem was releasing my Erotica album at the same time. I love that album and it got overlooked." In 2003, Madonna said: "I'm not apologizing in any shape or form [...] I was interested in pushing buttons and being rebellious and being mischievous and trying to bend the rules. There was a lot of irony in the Sex book and I am poking fun at a lot of things and I am being kind of silly and adolescent and I am being very f you, if a man can do it, I can do it." In 2002, Naomi Campbell said she had "a lot of respect for Madonna being bold enough to come out and do a book on sex. I've never reneged on that." In 2009, rapper Vanilla Ice confessed to being unhappy with the book once he saw it. "My friends were like, 'Dude, that's cool man', but I was like, 'I'm dating her, it's not cool to see your girlfriend with all these other people' [...] It kinda ruined the whole thing. I wonder what her kids think of that book? Here she is writing kids' books now but they're going to see it and go, 'Mommy, what were you thinking?'" Another of the book's models, actress Isabella Rossellini, told Out that she regretted her participation: "I don't think the book worked, even though the photos were extraordinary, and some of them quite memorable. I think there was a little bit of a moralistic sort of 'I'll teach you how to be free!' – and that bothered the hell out of me." Later reviews of Sex have been more positive. The authors of The Porning of America: The Rise of Porn Culture, What It Means, and Where We Go from Here (2008) commented that "the book is particularly interesting in the way that, like many of Madonna's works, it portrays sex in terms of domination and power". Jane Raphaely, editor-in-chief of Cosmopolitan (South Africa) praised Madonna's "liberated behavior in Sex [...] the fact that she takes all forms of pornography and systematically demystifies it by putting it under her control", in an article in 1996. Brian McNair, author of Striptease Culture: Sex, Media and the Democratisation of Desire (2002) praised this period of Madonna's career, saying she had "porno elegance" and that "Sex is a cultural phenomenon of global proportions" which "established her iconic status and cultural influence". Priya Elan of The Guardian, wrote: "That the Sex book came after a record-breaking album and tour felt like a shrink-wrapped curve ball. But Madge was expressing something unique." Elan felt the book was part of a "slower reveal that began with confessional tracks such as 'Oh Father' (from 1989's Like a Prayer) and continued with the many scenes of narcissism captured in In Bed With Madonna". == Legacy == Several writers consider Sex a bold, post-feminist work of art besides being labeled a "cultural book". Martin Amis of The Observer wrote an essay discussing the book's cultural meaning. Critical theorist Douglas Kellner affirmed that with Sex "Madonna became herself, an artifact of pop culture". French academic writer Georges-Claude Guilbert described Sex as "one of the most successful publicity stunts in history", whereas Russell W. Belk, author of Handbook of Qualitative Research Methods in Marketing, feels its success was a product of marketing. Despite the negative feedback, sales of Sex generated more than US$20 million ($43.42 million in 2023 dollars) for Madonna in 1992 from its first print-run. It was deemed as an "unprecedented entrepreneurial coup". Overall, Sex generated US$70 million in sales at retail. Taraborrelli commented in his book, Madonna: An Intimate Biography, that Madonna's friends knew the book and her behavior were a barrier to shield her from the world. She was tired of the extreme scrutiny from the public and media which she had provoked. Annoyed, Madonna fought back by creating the persona of a renegade, someone so outrageous as to defy explanation, someone found objectionable by most people. Taraborrelli said that in Madonna's view, "she had no other way of fighting back". According to some writers, Sex also helped Madonna make a name in the porn industry, and earned her the title of S&M's first cultural ambassador earning her praise for recreating "porn-chic". Humberto Quiroga Lavié pointed out because Sex was considered pornographic that helped it to become a bestseller. Steve Bachmann, in his book Simulating Sex: Aesthetic Representations of Erotic Activity pointed out that "perhaps one of the most interesting aspects of Madonna's sexual phenomenon is the extent to which her book marked a new threshold in the pornographic franchise". McNair wrote in his book that, "Sex brought out the personal underground to the surface of pop culture". London art critic Sarah Kent wrote in Time Out that the timing of Sex was "impeccable. Obsession about the human body was in vogue. Along with Madonna's book were artist Andres Serrano's "cumming shots" and Jeff Koons' The Jeff Koons Handbook portraying fairy tale pictures of the artist having sex with his pornographic actor wife, Cicciolina. Sex has also become an important book in the LGBT community. Mark Blankenship, of the LGBT-oriented website New Now Next said that "literature changed forever" with the publishing of Sex. Madonna's portrayal of lesbian love scenes in the book sparked debates about her own sexual orientation. This was an adjunct to her public relationship with comedian Sandra Bernhard with whom she visited lesbian nightclubs and partied. The LGBT community felt it was an important portrayal for them. They debated whether Madonna was "ripping" them off for publicity. Carolin Grace of Diva said: "Madonna became meaningful in the early nineties, when Sex came out, and at that point lesbian culture was really changing." She felt women were coming out about their sexuality and the book's handling of the taboo issue was "a legacy, our contribution to the show", stressing "[t]he lesbian sub-cultural references borrowed by Madonna aren't our only possessions." O'Brien argues in her book Madonna: Like an Icon, the book had a confusing philosophy. According to female critics, who pointed out the vacuousness of Madonna's remarks about porn and abuse, she did not understand that behind the fantasies the "reality is too hard" for a woman to endure, referring to the daily hustles that women have to face in red light districts and brothels. The author felt that despite the courageous premise of genuine exploration of queer sex, the book crossed over into pornography and was a wrong portrayal for the community, while being flippant and commercial. She used the example of the death of pornographic actor Joey Stefano, one of the models in the book, from a drug overdose. Stefano had been thrilled to be a part of the book but was underpaid. Once Madonna and her team were done with the shoot, "they packed up and left the Gaiety... They left behind the mundane reality and the boys who have to deal with it seven days a week". In 2017, Matthew Jacobs from the HuffPost wrote that it was "an audacious thesis statement, calculated enough to piss people off but seemly enough to maintain artistic integrity. No one today would dare emulate it", calling it "the most radical career move a pop star has ever made". === 30th anniversary Art Basel exhibition and Christie's auction === From November 29 to December 4, 2022, Madonna partnered with Yves Saint Laurent for an art pop-up exhibition titled Sex by Madonna, at Art Basel in Miami Beach. Curated by Madonna and Anthony Vaccarello, large format prints from the book were shown in a temporarily constructed art gallery on the beach. 800 copies of the Sex book were re-issued, with a handful personally signed by Madonna. The price ranged from $1500–3000 and the signed copies were held up for auction, to raise proceeds for Raising Malawi. Various celebrities attended the event. On May 10, 2023, Christie's announced a collaborative auction on October 6, 2023, with Madonna and Steven Meisel titled Madonna x Meisel – the SEX photographs. The auction will feature over 40 photographs that will go on sale, with proceeds going to Madonna's charity Raising Malawi. Darius Himes, Christie's Deputy Chairman describes the photos as sitting "at a moment in art history of the late 20th century that both summarizes a moment, playful and prescient, and hints at the future of public stardom driven by image-conscious figures. These images are nothing short of brilliant". == In popular culture == Sex has also become an object of modern culture references. American performance artist Ann Magnuson, who worked with Madonna on the 1985 film Desperately Seeking Susan, released a parody of the book's photo sessions, where she simulated sex with a giant stuffed bear. In 2010, writer-performer Greg Scarnici released a book titled Sex in Drag, which featured over 70 images parodying photos in Sex. In a deleted scene from a 1993 episode ("Krusty Gets Kancelled") of the animated sitcom The Simpsons, aired as part of "The Simpsons 138th Episode Spectacular", Krusty the Clown attempts to market a book like Sex to resolve his financial woes. He is seen in a suggestive pose on the front cover. Unlike Madonna, however, Krusty apparently never appeared fully nude, as he quickly claimed that he used a body double. In 2008, People magazine ranked Madonna's look and attire at the Sex pre-release party as one of her 50 Looks We Can't Forget. In April 2012, a nude picture of Madonna taken by Meisel was put up for sale. An outtake from the book, it features a naked Madonna sporting bleach-blonde hair and dark eye make-up; lying on a bed and partially covered by a sheet, she is smoking a cigarette. An unnamed collector purchased it for almost US$24,000 ($31,852 in 2023 dollars). In 2015, Rolling Stone included the book on its list of 20 Great Moments in Rock Star Nudity. Author Keith Harris wrote that "no celebrity had ever commanded control over her own naked image so audaciously". == Notes == == References == == External links == Steven Meisel, Madonna, Sex book at Achtung Photography Miami Photographer Hit Paydirt With Topless Madonna Shots at Adweek full version (pdf) in the Open Source section of the Internet Archive

Sex is a 1992 coffee table book written by American singer Madonna, with photography by Steven Meisel Studio and Fabien Baron. It was edited by Glenn O'Brien and published by Warner Books, Maverick and Callaway. The book features adult content including softcore pornography and simulations of sexual acts including sadomasochism. Madonna developed Sex after Judith Regan of Simon & Schuster publishers suggested a book of erotic photographs. She wrote it as a character named "Mistress Dita", inspired by 1930s film actress Dita Parlo. It was influenced by punk rock and fashion figures including Guy Bourdin, Helmut Newton and Robert Mapplethorpe. The photos were shot in early 1992 in New York City and Miami, in locations including hotels, burlesque theaters, and city streets. The book includes cameos by actress Isabella Rossellini, rappers Big Daddy Kane and Vanilla Ice, model Naomi Campbell, gay porn star Joey Stefano, actor Udo Kier, and socialite Princess Tatiana von Fürstenberg. The cover is made of aluminium, spiral bound and wrapped in a Mylar sheet. Madonna's publishers were apprehensive about the release and the book's commercial potential. It was released on October 21, 1992, the day after Madonna's fifth studio album Erotica. A CD single was also packaged with the book which contained the song "Erotic", a song similar in composition to her similarly named single "Erotica". It sold over 150,000 copies on its first day in the United States, and topped the New York Times Best Seller list for three weeks. In a matter of days, Sex went on to sell more than 1.5 million copies worldwide and remains the best and fastest-selling coffee table book. It also remains as one of the most in-demand out-of-print publications of all time. Sex attracted extensive media attention and backlash, but Madonna remained unapologetic. Though it initially received negative reviews from fans and critics, who felt she had "gone too far", later reviews have been more positive, with academics deeming it a defining phase in Madonna's career. Sex is noted for its social and cultural impact and is considered a bold post-feminist work.

sex

Sex (boutique) (wikipedia)

Sex (stylised SEX) was a boutique run by Vivienne Westwood and her then partner Malcolm McLaren at 430 King's Road, London between 1974 and 1976. It specialised in clothing that defined the look of the punk movement. Westwood and McLaren’s boutique underwent several name and correlating interior decor changes through the 1970s to connect with design inspirations, the boutique finally being renamed Worlds End in 1979, a name which (following a short period of closure) the shop retains to this day. == Paradise Garage == Prior to Westwood and McLaren taking over tenancy in 1971, 430 Kings Road had been the site of several fashion boutiques, including The 430 Boutique, operated by Carol Derry and Bill Fuller in the early 1960s, Hung On You run by Jane Ormsby Gore and Michael Rainey from 1967 to 1969, Mr Freedom, from 1969 to 1970, and Paradise Garage from 1970 to 1971. In October 1971, Malcolm McLaren and a friend from art school, Patrick Casey, opened a stall in the back of what was then the Paradise Garage boutique at 430 King's Road in London's Chelsea district. On sale were items collected by McLaren over the previous year, including rock & roll records, magazines, clothing and memorabilia from the 1950s. == Let It Rock == Trevor Myles (who ran Paradise Garage), relinquished the entire premises to McLaren and Casey in November 1971. They renamed the shop Let It Rock with stock including second-hand and new Teddy Boy clothes designed by McLaren's school teacher girlfriend Vivienne Westwood. The shop-front corrugated iron frontage was painted black with the name pasted in pink lettering. The interior was given period detail, such as "Odeon" wallpaper and Festival of Britain trinkets, furnished in the style of a 1950s living room. Bespoke tailored drape jackets, skin-tight trousers and thick-soled "brothel creepers" shoes were the mainstays of stock retailed under the label. Let It Rock was soon covered in the London Evening Standard. == Too Fast To Live, Too Young To Die == In 1973 the outlet interior was changed and the shop was given a new name, Too Fast To Live, Too Young To Die, to reflect a new range of clothing from Britain's early 1960s "rocker" fashions. Features of garments retailed under Too Fast To Live Too Young To Die included chains, leather, and sleeveless t-shirts adorned with provocative statements, reflecting Westwood's politically-informed design inspirations. With the boutique’s name paying homage to James Dean, the signage featured a black background with white lettering spelling out the shop’s new name around a large skull and crossbones, a new era of youth subculture was echoed. == Sex == In the spring of 1974 the shop underwent another refurbishment and was rebranded with the name SEX. The façade included a 4-foot (1.2 m) sign of pink foam rubber letters spelling "SEX", and the interior of the boutique was covered with graffiti from the SCUM Manifesto and chickenwire. Rubber curtains covered the walls and red carpeting was installed. SEX sold fetish and bondage wear supplied by existing specialist labels such as Atomage, She-And-Me and London Leatherman as well as designs by McLaren and Westwood. Jordan (Pamela Rooke) was a sales assistant. Among customers at SEX were the four original members of Sex Pistols (the bass-player Glen Matlock was an employee as a sales assistant on Saturdays). The group's name was provided by McLaren in partial promotion of the boutique. In August 1975, nineteen-year-old John Lydon was persuaded to audition for the group by singing along to Alice Cooper's "I'm Eighteen" on the jukebox. Other notable patrons included occasional assistant Chrissie Hynde, Adam Ant, Marco Pirroni, Siouxsie Sioux, Steven Severin and the rest of the Bromley Contingent. The store's designs confronted social and sexual taboos, and included T-shirts bearing images of the Cambridge Rapist's face hood, semi-naked cowboys from a 1969 illustration by the US artist Jim French, trompe-l'œil bare breasts by Rhode Island School of Design students Janusz and Laura Gottwald in the late 1960s, and pornographic texts from the book School for Wives ("I groaned with pain...in a soft corrosion") by the beat author Alexander Trocchi. Also featured were T-shirts with the slogan 'Prick Up Your Ears', a reference to the biography of influential proto-punk subversive Joe Orton, and text culled from the biography of Orton stating how cheap clothes suited him. Among the designs were clear plastic-pocketed jeans, zippered tops and the Anarchy shirt which used dead stock from the 1960s manufacturer Wemblex. These were bleached and dyed shirts and adorned with silk Karl Marx patches and anarchist slogans. == Seditionaries == In December 1976, 430 King's Road was renamed Seditionaries, trading under that title until September 1980. As Seditionaries: Clothes for Heroes, the boutique adopted brutalist interior and exterior styling: large murals depicting imagery of bomb damage, harshly bright lighting, and cavities perforating the ceiling created by McLaren, surrounded Westwood's innovative garments now considered punk signatures. Designs were licensed by Westwood to the operators of the boutique at 153 King's Road, Boy (formerly Acme Attractions) who issued them, some with alterations, over the next eight years. Boy London was founded by Stephane Raynor and Israel-based businessman John Krivine in 1976 on the King's Road. Krivine sold the company in 1984. == World's End == In late 1980, the shop at 430 King's Road re-opened under the name World's End. The building was designed by McLaren and Westwood and realised by Roger Burton, aided by Jeremy Blackburn and Tony Devers, to resemble a mixture of the Olde Curiosity Shoppe and an 18th-century galleon. The façade was installed with a large clock which spun backwards with the floor raked at an angle. McLaren and Westwood launched the first of a series of collections from the outlet at the beginning of 1981 and collaborated for a further three years. World's End remains open as part of Vivienne Westwood's global fashion empire. == Famous shop assistants == Many people related with the punk scene worked at the shop in one way or another. A notable employee was Jordan (Pamela Rooke), whose provocative dress sense served as a walking advertisement for the shop. At various times, Glen Matlock, Chrissie Hynde and Sid Vicious also worked there. == Further reading == Albertine, Viv (25 November 2014). Clothes, Clothes, Clothes. Music, Music, Music. Boys, Boys, Boys.: A Memoir. Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-250-06599-5. OCLC 1330344195. Robb, John (15 December 2010). Punk Rock: An Oral History. PM Press. ISBN 9781604860054. OCLC 801388488. Westwood, Vivienne; Kelly, Ian (9 October 2014). Vivienne Westwood. Pan Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-4472-5413-3. OCLC 1028471285. The Look: Adventures in rock & pop fashion by Paul Gorman. Publisher: London, Adelita Ltd, 2006 ISBN 978-0-9552017-0-7 England's Dreaming Sex Pistols and Punk Rock by Jon Savage. Publisher: London, Faber & Faber Ltd, 1991 ISBN 978-0-571-13975-0 Rotten: No Irish, No Blacks, No Dogs by John Lydon. Publisher: Picador, 1995 ISBN 0-312-11883-X SEX & SEDITIONARIES: The incomplete sordid works of Vivienne Westwood and Malcolm McLaren" by PunkPistol. Publisher: First Edition, 2006. ISBN 0-9554643-0-7 "DESTROY by PunkPistol. Vivienne Westwood & Malcolm McLaren: The destruction and deconstruction of punk clothing" by PunkPistol. Publisher: First Edition, 2010. ISBN 978-0-9554643-2-4 == See also == World's End, Kensington and Chelsea, the district. SEX: Too Fast To Live Too Young To Die, a compilation album of songs on their jukebox. == References == == External links == Only Anarchists Are Pretty (archive.org) Seditionaries Clothing designed by Vivienne Westwood & Malcolm McLaren c. 1976–1979. (Shockwave Flash) (archive.org) Punk Pirate 1981 Clothing line designed by Westwood and McLaren. (archive.org) Punk Pistol Seditionaries tribute site to clothing designed by Westwood & McLaren. (Shockwave Flash)

Sex (stylised SEX) was a boutique run by Vivienne Westwood and her then partner Malcolm McLaren at 430 King's Road, London between 1974 and 1976. It specialised in clothing that defined the look of the punk movement. Westwood and McLaren’s boutique underwent several name and correlating interior decor changes through the 1970s to connect with design inspirations, the boutique finally being renamed Worlds End in 1979, a name which (following a short period of closure) the shop retains to this day.

sex

Sex (disambiguation) (wikipedia)

Sex is the biological distinction of an organism between male and female. Sex or SEX may also refer to: == Biology and behaviour == Animal sexual behaviour Copulation (zoology) Group sex Human female sexuality Human male sexuality Human sexual activity Non-penetrative sex, or sexual outercourse Sex drive, a person's overall sexual drive or desire for sexual activity Sexual intercourse, also called copulation or coitus Transgender sexuality Gender, the distinction between male and female or masculinity and femininity within an individual's gender identity Sex–gender distinction Human sexuality Mating types, a distinction of gametes, whether in anisogamous or isogamous species Sexing, the act of discerning the sex of an animal Sexual reproduction, a process of combining and mixing genetic traits, associated with the generation of new individuals, by means of meiosis and fertilization Genetic recombination, the process of mixing genetic traits solely, occurring both in organisms with sexual or asexual reproduction == Art and entertainment == === Film and television === Sex (1920 film), a film by Fred Niblo Sex (2024 film), a Norwegian film by Dag Johan Haugerud "Sex" (Brass Eye), a 1997 television episode "Sex" (Kath & Kim episode) Sex (TV series), an Australian television series Sex: The Annabel Chong Story, a 1999 documentary film === Literature === Sex (book), a 1992 book by Madonna and Steven Meisel Sex (play), a 1926 play by Mae West === Music === SEX, pseudonym of American rapper Young Thug ==== Albums ==== Sex (Elli Kokkinou album), 2005 Sex (The Necks album), 1989 Sex (The 1975 EP), 2012 Sex (Tila Tequila EP), 2007 Sex, by Telex, 1981 Sex (Vintage album), 2009 ==== Songs ==== "Sex" (The 1975 song), 2012 "Sex" (Cheat Codes and Kris Kross Amsterdam song), 2016 "S.E.X." (Lyfe Jennings song), 2006 "Sex" (Lenny Kravitz song), 2014 "Sex" (Mötley Crüe song), 2012 "Sex (I'm a ...)", by Berlin, 1983 "Sex", by Oomph! from Sperm, 1994 "Sex", by Eden from I Think You Think Too Much of Me, 2016 "SEX", by Frank Zappa from The Man from Utopia, 1983 "S.E.X.", by Nickelback from Dark Horse, 2008 "Sex", by Rammstein from the untitled Rammstein album, 2019 "Sexual" (song), by Neiked featuring Dyo, 2016 "Sexual", by Die Toten Hosen from Love, Peace & Money, 1994 "Sexual (Li Da Di)", by Amber from Amber, 1999 "Sexual", by Nick Jonas from Spaceman, 2021 == Other uses == Australian Sex Party, a former political party in Australia Seax, a knife used by ancient Germanic peoples Sextans or Sex, a constellation Sex (boutique), in London SEX (computing), an assembly language mnemonic Sodium ethyl xanthate, or SEX, a chemical compound used in the mining industry Sex-, the Latin prefix meaning 6 Sex Peak, a mountain in Montana, United States == See also == S3X (disambiguation) All pages with titles containing sexes All pages with titles containing sex All pages with titles beginning with sex

Sex is the biological distinction of an organism between male and female. Sex or SEX may also refer to:

sex

Sex (manga) (wikipedia)

Sex (stylized in all caps) is a Japanese manga series written and illustrated by Atsushi Kamijo. It was serialized in Shogakukan's seinen manga magazine Weekly Young Sunday from 1988 to 1992. == Publication == Written and illustrated by Atsushi Kamijo, Sex was serialized in Shogakukan's seinen manga magazine Weekly Young Sunday from 1988 to 1992. Shogakukan initially collected its chapters in two wideban volumes, under the Young Sunday Comics Special imprint, on November 13, 1989, and August 5, 1993; however, the publication of the third volume onwards was halted due to the author's own decision. Over ten years later, Shogakukan republished the series in seven tankōbon volumes from November 5, 2004, to May 2, 2005. Shogakukan re-released the series in five bunkoban volumes from August 10 to December 15, 2012; To commemorate the 30th anniversary of the series, Shogakukan released a 4-volume edition, Sex 30th AnniversaryEdition; they were released from March 25 to August 31, 2017. A promotional video, animated by MAPPA and directed by Sayo Yamamoto, titled Sex ~Prologue~, was launched as a home video exclusive to customers who purchase all four volumes in March 2018. == References == == External links == Sex at Anime News Network's encyclopedia

Sex (stylized in all caps) is a Japanese manga series written and illustrated by Atsushi Kamijo. It was serialized in Shogakukan's seinen manga magazine Weekly Young Sunday from 1988 to 1992.

sex

Sex (play) (wikipedia)

Sex is a 1926 play written by and starring Mae West, who used the pen name "Jane Mast". Staged on Broadway, the play received bad reviews, but was a commercial success. It was eventually shut down by the New York City Police Department due to obscenity, and West was sentenced to 10 days in jail because of it. == Plot == === Act One === The play opens at Rocky's residence on Caidoux Street in Montreal's red-light district. Rocky receives an unwanted visit from Dawson, a police officer he has been paying off to keep quiet about a murder. Rocky offers Margy, a prostitute who works for him, as payment to Dawson, but she refuses. Dawson leaves without trouble, but swears to return for his money. Margy longs to leave Rocky for a better life, but she currently has no realistic alternative. Rocky leaves for a date with a "society dame", whom he plans to seduce and blackmail. Once Rocky has left, Margy receives several visitors. The first is her best friend Agnes, who, despite Margy's warnings about rejection, plans to return home to her parents once she's saved enough money. Margy's second visitor is Gregg, a Royal Navy officer who is both a customer and a friend. Gregg encourages Margy to follow the fleet around and entertain the military men so she can see the world and get rich. To prove he truly cares about her, he takes her out on a nice date with the money he planned on using for her services. Rocky returns with his "society dame" Clara, whom he quickly drugs and hauls into the bedroom once she is unconscious. Margy and Gregg return to have a drink and discover that Rocky has fled and left behind Clara, who is now near death. Gregg and Margy manage to revive her, and she regains consciousness as Dawson returns. Margy tries to cover up for Rocky and Clara by saying Clara is a friend, but Clara takes advantage of Margy and lies to Dawson, saying Margy lured her in and stole all her jewelry. Dawson prepares to take Clara downtown for further investigation but Clara, knowing the publicity would ruin her reputation, convinces Dawson to accept money in exchange for letting her go. As he goes to escort Clara out of Montreal, Margy stops them and curses Clara for trying to frame her to save herself. Margy reminds Clara that all she ever did to her was try to save her life, and if she ever gets the chance to get even with her, she will. === Act Two === The second act opens at The Café Port-au-Prince in Haiti. Margy has begun to follow the fleet and travel the world as Gregg suggested. Gregg and Margy run into Jones, an old customer of Margy's. He keeps trying to seduce Margy, but Gregg is strangely protective and warns him to back off. The captain of the ship introduces Margy to Jimmy, a young millionaire. Jimmy is unaware Margy is a prostitute and quickly falls in love. Jimmy soon proposes to Margy and begs her to return home with him. She tells him he is silly, as they have not even known each other for more than a week. Jimmy insists and eventually Margy says yes to his proposal. After too much wine, Jimmy soon retires to his room. Margy discovers Agnes in a state of despair and learns that Agnes's family rejected her when she tried to return home. Margy consoles her and confides that she is pretending to be an upper-class tourist so that she can marry a rich man. Agnes is delighted, but Margy is considering coming clean because she does not want to lie to such a good man. Agnes makes Margy promise she will marry Jimmy and have a good life. Margy tries to get Agnes a hotel room and some new clothes, but Agnes does not want to ruin Margy's cover, so she refuses and runs off sobbing. Gregg enters and tells Margy he is leaving the next day for Australia, then asks if she will come with him and be his wife. Margy is flattered, but turns him down. Jimmy re-enters and a commotion is heard. Agnes has jumped off the boat into the bay and drowned herself. Margy nearly faints, and Jimmy, surprised at her reaction, tells her not to worry because it is just some worthless prostitute. === Act Three === Act Three opens at Jimmy Stanton's home, where Jimmy is excited for Margy to meet his parents. Upon meeting Jimmy's mother, Clara, Margy instantly recognizes her as the "society dame" from Montreal. Clara cannot reveal who Margy is without exposing herself, and Margy takes advantage of the situation to put Clara in her place. Once alone with Jimmy, Margy brings him up to her room to seduce him before their wedding as a way of getting revenge on Clara. The next morning, Jimmy tells Margy that he is having his friend Lieutenant Gregg over. Gregg also recognizes Clara from Montreal, but Margy stops him before he has the chance to say anything. Clara is so anxious about her past being exposed she feigns illness and rushes off to her room. Once Jimmy and Gregg have left, there is a knock at the door, and Clara answers it to reveal Rocky, who demands money. Clara grabs for a gun, but Margy enters and takes the gun while calling the police. Margy knows that Rocky has been blackmailing Clara, but she lets him run before the police arrive when he promises to leave them alone forever. When the police arrive, Margy tells them it was a mistake, but to her dismay, she recognizes one of the officers as one of her former clients, and he recognizes her as well. Knowing she can never pull off her façade, she silently goes up to her room. Jimmy and Gregg return and begin to talk with Clara, but Margy interrupts, dressed to leave and carrying her suitcase. She explains to Jimmy that she is the same as the woman who threw herself into the bay in Haiti. Jimmy is heartbroken that Margy is not what she appeared to be, and he cannot love her for who she is. Margy, who is not surprised, smiles and says she's leaving for Australia. She takes Gregg's hand, knowing that he has loved her all along. == List of characters == == Production history == The comedy-drama premiered April 26, 1926, at Daly's 63rd Street Theatre in New York City. Sex received many scathing reviews from a variety of critics because of the play's moral implications. The New York Times considered it to be a "crude and inept play, cheaply produced and poorly acted" while Billboard condemned it as "the cheapest most vulgar low show to have dared to open in New York this year". When the show opened, Broadway had been in a commercial slump, yet in spite of this and negative press, Sex played to full audiences. Sex was the only play on Broadway that season to stay open through the summer and into the following year. There were 375 performances before the New York Police Department raided West and her company in February 1927. They were charged with obscenity, after 325,000 people had watched it, including members of the police department and their wives, judges of the criminal courts, and seven members of the district attorney's staff. West was sentenced to 10 days in a workhouse on Roosevelt Island (known then as "Welfare Island") and fined $500. The resulting publicity increased her national renown. The original production of Sex was directed by Edward Elsner, produced by C. William Morganstern, and stage managed by Alfred L. Rigali. The original cast featured Mae West as Margy LaMont, Al Re Alia as Curley, Conde Brewer as Condez, Gordon Earle as Waiter, D. J. Hamilton as Jones, Frank Howard as Jenkins, Michael Markham as Spanish Dancer, Constance Morganstern as Marie, Mary Morrisey as Red, Barry O'Neill as Lieutenant Gregg, Ann Reader as Agnes Scott, Pacie Ripple as Robert Stanton, George Rogers as Captain Carter, Warren Sterling as Rocky Waldron, Eda Von Buelow as Clara Smith, and Lyons Wickland as Jimmy Stanton. The Canadian premiere of Sex was produced by The Shaw Festival for its 2019 season. The show was directed by Canadian director Peter Hinton and designed by Eo Sharpe. == Prosecution == West and the entire cast were arrested on morals charges. West was sentenced to ten days, and served eight days with two days off for "good behavior". Media attention surrounding the incident enhanced her career, by crowning her the darling "bad girl" who "had climbed the ladder of success wrong by wrong". == See also == The Drag (play) Pleasure Man == References ==

Sex is a 1926 play written by and starring Mae West, who used the pen name "Jane Mast". Staged on Broadway, the play received bad reviews, but was a commercial success. It was eventually shut down by the New York City Police Department due to obscenity, and West was sentenced to 10 days in jail because of it.

sex

Brass Eye (wikipedia)

Brass Eye (stylised as brassEYE) is a British satirical television series parodying current affairs news programming. A series of six episodes aired on Channel 4 in 1997, and a further episode in 2001. The series was created and presented by Chris Morris, written by Morris, David Quantick, Peter Baynham, Jane Bussmann, Arthur Mathews, Graham Linehan and Charlie Brooker and directed by Michael Cumming. == Overview == Originally planned as a spin-off from The Day Today (1994), the pilot (then called Torque tv™) was passed on by the BBC. Channel 4 commissioned a new pilot, which would be called Brass Eye. The name mixes together the titles of two popular current affairs shows, (Brass Tacks and Public Eye), while the term "brass eye" is also British slang for the anus. The series satirised media portrayal of social ills, in particular sensationalism, unsubstantiated establishmentarian theory masquerading as fact, and creation of moral panics, and is a sequel to Morris's earlier spoof news programmes On the Hour (1991–92) and The Day Today (1994). The series stars Morris's The Day Today colleague Doon Mackichan, along with Gina McKee, Mark Heap, Amelia Bullmore, Simon Pegg, Julia Davis, Claire Skinner, John Guerrasio, Hugh Dennis, and Kevin Eldon. === Original series (1997) === "Drugs" The second episode, "Drugs", has been described by Professor Michael Gossop as illustrative of the ease with which anti-drug hysteria can be evoked in the United Kingdom. In the opening scene of this episode, a voiceover tells viewers that there are so many drugs on the streets of Britain that "not even the dealers know them all". An undercover reporter (Morris) asks a purportedly real-life drug dealer in London for various fictitious drugs, including "Triple Sod", "Yellow Bentines" and "Clarky Cat", leaving the dealer puzzled and increasingly irritated until he asks the reporter to leave him alone. He also explains that possession of drugs without physical contact and the exchange of drugs through a mandrill are perfectly legal in English law. One drug mentioned was a fictitious drug called "Cake", described as being from Czechoslovakia, despite the country no longer existing when the episode was screened. The drug purportedly affected an area of the brain called "Shatner's Bassoon" (altering the user's perception of time), while also giving them a bloated neck due to "massive water retention", a "Czech neck", and was frequently referred to as "a made-up drug" (i.e. a designer drug) during the show. Other celebrities such as Sir Bernard Ingham, Noel Edmonds, and Rolf Harris were shown holding the bright-yellow cake-sized pill as they talked, with Bernard Manning telling viewers a fictitious story about how one girl regurgitated her own pelvis, and recounting that "one young kiddy on Cake cried all the water out of his body. Just imagine how his mother felt. It's a fucking disgrace". David Amess, the Conservative Member of Parliament for Basildon, was fooled into filming an elaborate video warning against the dangers of this drug, and went as far as to ask a question about "Cake" in the UK Parliament, alongside real substances khat and gamma-hydroxybutyric acid. In response, the Home Office minister incorrectly identified the fictitious drug "Cake" as a pseudonym for the hallucinogenic drug methylenedioxybenzylamphetamine. "Sex" Morris posed as a talk show host who took a starkly discriminatory attitude in favour of those with "Good AIDS" (e.g. from a contaminated blood transfusion) over those with "Bad AIDS" (caught through sexual activity or drug abuse). === "Paedogeddon!" special (2001) === A special one-off edition of the show aired four years after the series had ended. Originally scheduled to broadcast on 5 July 2001, it was delayed as Channel 4 were unhappy with the timing in connection to the disappearances of 15-year-old Danielle Jones in June and 11-year-old Bunmi Shagaya in early July. It eventually aired on Thursday 26 July 2001, and was repeated on Friday 27 July 2001. It tackled paedophilia and the moral panic in parts of the British media following the murder of Sarah Payne, focusing on the name-and-shame campaign conducted by the News of the World in its wake. This included an incident in 2000 in which a paediatrician in Newport had the word "PAEDO" daubed in yellow paint on her home. News of the World's then Editor Rebekah Brooks would years later discuss this campaign at the Leveson Inquiry. To illustrate the media's knee-jerk reaction to the subject, various celebrities were duped into presenting fatuous and often ridiculous pieces to camera in the name of a campaign against paedophiles. Gary Lineker and Phil Collins endorsed a spoof charity, Nonce Sense, (pronounced "nonsense"—"nonce" being British slang for people convicted or suspected of molestation or sexual crimes), with Collins saying, "I'm talking Nonce Sense!" Tomorrow's World presenter Philippa Forrester and ITN reporter Nicholas Owen were shown explaining the details of fictional "Hidden Online Entrapment Control System", or HOECS (pronounced "hoax") computer games, which online paedophiles were using to abuse children via the internet. Capital Radio DJ Neil "Doctor" Fox told viewers that "paedophiles have more genes in common with crabs than they do with you and me", adding "Now that is scientific fact—there's no real evidence for it—but it is scientific fact". At one point, bogus CCTV footage was shown of a paedophile attempting to seduce children by stalking the streets while disguised as a school. Lineker described paedophile text slang, stating that "P2PBSH" translates to "pipe-to-pipe bushman; code for two paedophiles having sex with each other while watching children from a shrub" and "BALTIMORA" translates to "I'm running at them now with my trousers down". Labour MP Syd Rapson related that paedophiles were using "an area of internet the size of Ireland". Richard Blackwood stated that internet paedophiles could make computer keyboards emit noxious fumes to subdue children, subsequently sniffing a keyboard and claiming that he could smell the fumes, which made him feel "suggestible". Blackwood also warned watching parents that exposure to the fumes would make their children "smell like hammers". Other notable figures appearing as themselves were Sebastian Coe, Michael Hames, Andy McNab, Kate Thornton, Barbara Follett MP and Gerald Howarth MP. Morris reported that convicted child murderer Sidney Cooke had been sent into space to keep him away from children. Prior to the launch, an eight-year-old boy had been placed on board the spaceship with Cooke by mistake, with a spokesman saying "this is the one thing we didn't want to happen". During the programme, the studio was "invaded" by a fictional militant pro-paedophile activism organisation called "Milit-pede", and the programme appeared to suffer a short technical disturbance. When it returned, presenter Chris Morris confronted a spokesman, Gerard Chote (played by Simon Pegg), who had been placed in a pillory, asking if he wanted sex with Morris's six-year-old son (actually a child actor). Hesitantly, the spokesman refused, apologetically explaining "I don't fancy him". The episode won a Broadcast magazine award in 2002. === Oxide Ghosts: The Brass Eye Tapes (2017) === In 2017, series director Michael Cumming released a 60-minute film of unbroadcast material from the making of Brass Eye between 1995 and 1997. The film is intended to mark the 20th anniversary of the series's original broadcast and includes scenes previously edited from the series due to time constraints or legal difficulties. It also includes extended or alternative versions of scenes that made the final cut, together with humorous outtakes of several scenes. Cumming also narrates the film and details his first meeting with Chris Morris and the difficulties involved in making the series. Comedy website Chortle described the film as "a thoughtful, curiously touching time capsule which pays fulsome tribute to, and certainly never cheapens, the spirit of the original show". The film premiered at the Pilot Light TV festival in May 2017 and toured to perform at selected UK cinemas throughout 2017. Each performance was followed by a Q&A with the director. It toured again in 2022. Cumming has said that the film will only be shown at such public events and can't ever be released commercially, for rights and legal reasons. == Episodes == === Season 1 (1997) === === Special (2001) === == Controversies == === Postponement === The series had originally been scheduled to air in November 1996, but was postponed and ultimately aired in January 1997. According to Channel 4, this delay was to ensure that broadcasting standards were met, amid fears that some of the series' pranks might violate the Independent Television Commission's code on hoaxes. Two days before airing, the show had been denounced by Tom Sackville, a minister at the Home Office, who criticised "this waste of Home Office time", referring to the programme's 'Cake' hoax which involved Sackville and MP David Amess. The Guardian reported that the postponement was the subject of internet speculation on at least 112 different websites, which featured conspiracy theories that Channel 4 had given into pressure from the Home Office, or that the programme had been pulled by the then chief executive of Channel 4, Michael Grade, owing to the negative effect it might have had on the channel's upcoming campaign against privatisation. In January 1997, it was announced that the series would indeed be broadcast, and would begin airing later in the month. After airing, the programme did indeed attract complaints from MPs David Amess and Sir Graham Bright concerning their appearances on the show involving 'cake', which were held up by the Independent Television Commission. However, the commission also went "out of its way" to praise the series as "amusing and innovative". While the ITC's television code included a provision that "contributors must be made aware of the format and purpose of programmes", the response to the complaints clarified that "The Commission had no criticism of the overall programme concept. It acknowledged that risks were attached to making innovative programmes and felt that Channel 4 should not be discouraged for that reason from seeking to make such programmes. It proposed to take no further action against Channel 4." === Michael Grade === Michael Grade, then chief executive of Channel 4, repeatedly intervened to demand edits to episodes of Brass Eye. The final episode included a single-frame subliminal message reading "Grade is a cunt". === "Paedogeddon!" === Around 3,000 complaints were received concerning "Paedogeddon!", making it reportedly the most objected-to episode in British television history at the time, and politicians spoke out against Morris. Minister for Child Protection Beverley Hughes described the show as "unspeakably sick" based on clips of the episode, and Home Secretary David Blunkett was described by a spokesman as "dismayed", although he may have been relying on a description of the episode. Tessa Jowell, after watching, asked the Independent Television Commission to change its procedures so it could rule more swiftly on similar programmes. There was also a tabloid campaign against Morris, who refused to discuss the issue. The Daily Star decried Morris and the show, and the Daily Mail ran a headline describing Brass Eye as "Unspeakably Sick" (quoting Beverley Hughes). The Observer accused both papers of hypocrisy; it noted that the Star article was positioned adjacent to an article about the developing bust of 15-year-old singer Charlotte Church, and that the Mail's coverage was preceded by "close-ups" of the "bikini princesses" Beatrice and Eugenie, who were 12 and 11 at the time. Columnist for The Guardian Ros Coward wrote at the end of July 2001: "What's so dishonest about Channel 4's defence of Brass Eye as a satire of media forms is the implication that they (and the liberal left in general) have a better truth than the tabloids. They don't. ... [I]t suggests concern about sex abuse is exaggerated and that victims' shame and humiliation doesn't matter. That's why there were so many complaints." == Home media == A DVD released in 2001 reinstated most of the material cut from the original, although a few items were removed, most notably the subliminal messages directed at Michael Grade and an interview with Graham Bright MP in the "Drugs" episode. A disclaimer was also added to the "Drugs" episode at the request of David Amess. == References == == External links == Brass Eye on Channel 4 Brass Eye at IMDb

Brass Eye (stylised as brassEYE) is a British satirical television series parodying current affairs news programming. A series of six episodes aired on Channel 4 in 1997, and a further episode in 2001. The series was created and presented by Chris Morris, written by Morris, David Quantick, Peter Baynham, Jane Bussmann, Arthur Mathews, Graham Linehan and Charlie Brooker and directed by Michael Cumming.

sex

I Think You Think Too Much of Me (wikipedia)

I Think You Think Too Much of Me (stylised as i think you think too much of me) is the second EP by Irish musician EDEN, released on 19 August 2016 through his own label MCMXCV and distributed by Astralwerks. The EP was recorded and produced in Dublin and contains seven tracks spanning approximately 27 minutes. i think you think too much of me is the first of Ng's works to be released on physical media, with two 12-inch vinyl formats, clear red and clear being made available on his own store, a clear blue version being produced for general sale, and on Compact Cassette. The EP debuted at No. 43 on the Irish Albums Chart, becoming Ng's first charting album. The EP also charted in Australia, the United Kingdom, and the United States. == Background == The EP was announced after the conclusion of Ng's End Credits tour and release of his cover single "Hey Ya". As with his previous songs, the entirety of the EP was written and produced by himself. During production, he created three different versions of "Drugs" and two versions of "Rock + Roll". By contrast, "And" was written in "a day or two" and became one of the fastest songs he produced. The songs drew on a combination of past experiences. The singles "Sex" and "Drugs" were released on 10 June and 14 July 2016 respectively, with the former garnering praise from the singer Lorde who described "Sex" as "messy and emotional and twitchy and kind of in love and definitely as freaked out as that situation feels." Billboard live streamed "Drugs" on Facebook and released the single exclusively on their platform a day earlier than the worldwide release. The songs "Fumes", "Circles" and "XO" are updated versions of songs released under his old alias The Eden Project. The remastered version of "Fumes" features a collaboration with American musician Gnash. EDEN has stated that the EP "is more of a realization than a journey", while also noting that "the songs are all intertwined, but in different ways." == Promotion == In July 2016, there were reports of mysterious packages containing a virtual reality head set being sent to EDEN fans. It was later revealed that the headsets were included in the VIP packages for the Futurebound tour. On 7 September 2016, a 360-degree music video for "Drugs" was released. I Think You Think Too Much of Me was supported by the Futurebound Tour, which featured 33 performances in North America and Europe. == Music videos == Three music videos were released for this album. The video for "Sex" was uploaded onto YouTube on 14 June 2016. The video takes place in Tokyo, Japan and Sydney, Australia. The music video for "Drugs" was filmed in Los Angeles and was released through YouTube on 18 August 2016. A second music video was released as a 360 degree virtual reality experience on 7 September 2016. The music video for "Rock + Roll" was filmed primarily at the Wild Atlantic Way and in South County Dublin, Ireland and was released on 4 October 2016. == Artwork == The album cover depicts the album name written continuously in a square shape with the EDEN logo spanned across the text on a grey background. The covers of the singles are of his first concert scenes in different lighting environments. == Track listing == All songs were composed by Jonathon Ng. Notes Tracks 1 to 4 are stylized in lowercase. == Personnel == Jonathon Ng – guitar, vocals, piano, sound design, production, mixing, engineering, string arrangement Chris Finney - additional dialogue (track 4) Kate Fleetwood - additional dialogue (track 4) Garrett Nash - vocals (track 5) Hal Ritson - additional engineering and programming == Charts == == References ==

I Think You Think Too Much of Me (stylised as i think you think too much of me) is the second EP by Irish musician EDEN, released on 19 August 2016 through his own label MCMXCV and distributed by Astralwerks. The EP was recorded and produced in Dublin and contains seven tracks spanning approximately 27 minutes. i think you think too much of me is the first of Ng's works to be released on physical media, with two 12-inch vinyl formats, clear red and clear being made available on his own store, a clear blue version being produced for general sale, and on Compact Cassette. The EP debuted at No. 43 on the Irish Albums Chart, becoming Ng's first charting album. The EP also charted in Australia, the United Kingdom, and the United States.

sex

List of Kath & Kim episodes (wikipedia)

The following is an episode list of the Australian comedy program Kath & Kim, initially on ABC TV, and as of 2007, on the Seven Network. There have been four series of eight episodes each, one telemovie, and one movie. The first three series and the telemovie ran on ABC from 2002 to 2005. The fourth series initially aired on the Seven Network in 2007, and the movie was released in 2012. A two-part 20th anniversary special aired in 2022. == Series overview == == Episodes == === Season 1 (2002) === === Season 2 (2003) === === Season 3 (2004) === === Da Kath & Kim Code === Riley and Turner planned to take 2005 off from television, but in July, they announced that they would be writing and filming a 90-minute telemovie. The movie aired on 27 November 2005, and was the ABC's top rated program for 2005, achieving an average audience of 2.1 million and a peak audience of 2.4 million. The telemovie screened in New Zealand in December and was sold to networks in the United Kingdom and the United States. It was the last Kath & Kim production shown on the ABC before it moved to the Seven Network. Kel and Kath return from The Da Vinci Code European tour and begin frantic preparations for Christmas. During the two weeks leading up to Christmas Day Kim discovers that Brett is once again having an affair, this time with his boss Kelly. Brett stays at "The Buckingham Motel". Kim eventually asks him back, but he is still conducting the affair. Sharon meets a man, Marriat, online and they become engaged. She is heart broken to later learn that he does not actually exist, but is just a blog. Kath and Kel become backup dancers for Michael Bublé at Carols by Candlelight, Melbourne. Kath's affection for him results in Kel letting out his "green eyed monster". She tells him that he shouldn't bother going home as he wouldn't be welcome. Kel, too, goes to stay at "The Buckingham". Kath forgives Kel and he returns home for Christmas. Kath and Kel also receive strange messages from John Monk (Barry Humphries), the albino running Da Vinci Code tour, including one saying "44 Euros". John Monk visits their home. Kel thinks he has cracked the code and Monk is going to kill them, but he just wants to offer them a franchise. An epilogue shows Kath's first day as a tour guide on the Da Vinci Code 2 tour: G'day Leonardo. The telemovie featured a number of notable Australian guest cast including Rove McManus, Rhonda Burchmore and The Wiggles. Da Kath and Kim Code was released to DVD as a 2-disc set on 1 December 2005, and was bundled with Kath & Kim Live in London. The DVD was briefly discontinued and repackaged again on 1 April 2010. === Season 4 (2007) === Following a break in 2006, Kath & Kim began shooting a fourth season with the series moving to the Seven Network. The season premiered on Sunday 19 August 2007 at 7:30 pm, attracting an Australian audience of 2.521 million nationally. Sharon and Kim appear on fellow Seven Network show Deal or No Deal in a few specially-filmed scenes. Special guests to feature in this season include Matt Lucas, Shane Warne, Rob Sitch, Andrew O'Keefe, Eric Bana, Maggie Beer, Shannon Bennett, Bill Granger, Donna Hay and Kylie Kwong. === Specials (2022) === == References == == External links == Official website Official BBC website Kath & Kim at IMDb

The following is an episode list of the Australian comedy program Kath & Kim, initially on ABC TV, and as of 2007, on the Seven Network. There have been four series of eight episodes each, one telemovie, and one movie. The first three series and the telemovie ran on ABC from 2002 to 2005. The fourth series initially aired on the Seven Network in 2007, and the movie was released in 2012. A two-part 20th anniversary special aired in 2022.

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Maluma discography (wikipedia)

Colombian singer Maluma has released six studio albums, one mixtape, three extended play, ninety-one singles (including thirty-two as a featured artist), and ten promotional singles. == Albums == === Studio albums === === Soundtrack albums === === Mixtapes === == EPs == == Singles == === As lead artist === === As featured artist === === Promotional singles === == Other charted songs == == Other appearances == == Notes == == Videography == == References ==

Colombian singer Maluma has released six studio albums, one mixtape, three extended play, ninety-one singles (including thirty-two as a featured artist), and ten promotional singles.

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Oomph! discography (wikipedia)

The discography of Oomph!, a German rock band, often considered to be the original Neue Deutsche Härte musical group, consists of fourteen studio albums and one video album. Oomph! has also released twenty-three singles. The band was formed in mid-1989 by three musicians from Wolfsburg: singer/drummer Dero Goi, guitarist/programmer Andreas Crap and guitarist/bassist/programmer Robert Flux. Oomph! debuted with the single "Ich bin Du", released in 1991. The following year, the band released their first studio album, the self-titled Oomph!, their only album to date with Machinery Records. == Studio albums == == Compilation albums == == Live albums == == Singles == == Music videos == 1994 – "Sex" 1995 – "Ice-Coffin" 1998 – "Gekreuzigt" 1998 – "Gekreuzigt" (Remix) 1999 – "Das weiße Licht" 1999 – "Fieber" (feat. Nina Hagen) 2001 – "Supernova" 2001 – "Niemand" 2004 – "Augen auf!" 2004 – "Brennende Liebe" (feat. L'Âme Immortelle) 2004 – "Sex hat keine Macht" 2006 – "Gott ist ein Popstar" 2006 – "Das letzte Streichholz" 2006 – "Die Schlinge" (feat. Apocalyptica) 2006 – "Gekreuzigt 2006" 2006 – "The Power of Love" 2007 – "Träumst du?" (feat. Marta Jandová) 2008 – "Wach auf!" 2008 – "Beim ersten Mal tut's immer weh" 2008 – "Labyrinth" 2008 – "Auf Kurs" 2009 – "Sandmann" 2012 – "Ernten was wir Säen" 2012 – "Zwei Schritte vor" 2015 – "Alles aus Liebe" 2018 – "Tausend Mann und ein Befehl" 2019 – "Im Namen des Vaters" 2023 – "Wem die Stunde schlägt" 2023 – "Richter und Henker" 2023 – "Nur ein Mensch" == Remixes == "Upperworld" – Syntec "Ich sehe dich" – Such A Surge "L 'Oasis" – La Floa Maldita "Good God (The Man)" – Korn "Und ... ich lauf" – Joachim Witt "Painful Reconstructed" EP – Sin "Freedom" – De/Vision "Sheila" – Rauhfaser "Here Comes the Pain" – Farmer Boys "Silver Surger" – Such a Surge "Keilerkopf I" – Keilerkopf "Hülle" – Keilerkopf "Traumschloss" – Keilerkopf "Monochrom" – Herzer "Glas" – Herzer "Supergestört und Superversaut" – Joachim Witt "Krieger" – And One "Ernten was wir säen" – Die Fantastischen Vier == References ==

The discography of Oomph!, a German rock band, often considered to be the original Neue Deutsche Härte musical group, consists of fourteen studio albums and one video album. Oomph! has also released twenty-three singles. The band was formed in mid-1989 by three musicians from Wolfsburg: singer/drummer Dero Goi, guitarist/programmer Andreas Crap and guitarist/bassist/programmer Robert Flux. Oomph! debuted with the single "Ich bin Du", released in 1991. The following year, the band released their first studio album, the self-titled Oomph!, their only album to date with Machinery Records.

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R.O.S.E. (wikipedia)

R.O.S.E. is the fourth studio album by English singer-songwriter Jessie J. It was released by Republic Records in four parts, starting on 22 May 2018, and finishing on 25 May 2018, with a part being released on each day. The four parts released are R (Realisations), O (Obsessions), S (Sex) and E (Empowerment). Jessie co-wrote the album and worked with producers such as DJ Camper and Kuk Harrell. The songs "Real Deal", "Think About That", "Not My Ex" and "Queen" were released as singles before the release of the album. Jessie J promoted the album with the R.O.S.E Tour (2017–2018) performing songs from the album and some of her signature hits. == Background == Following the release of Jessie J's previous album, Sweet Talker, she began to have difficulty with writing and creating new music. In an interview with Billboard, she stated "I wasn't enjoying the music I was making as much as I should. I wasn't writing because I didn't want to make music that escaped me from that. I wanted to make music that put me in the feeling. But to do that I had to be really strong; to know that I wasn't going to be able to be pushed and fall over. That's why it took me a long time. I don't feel that I've ever learned so much about myself at any other time in my life." After some time off working with DJ Camper, Jessie J became inspired to write again. "[DJ Camper] put the 'Think About That' beat on repeat before going outside for a break. I called him a dickhead because I still didn't feel creative yet. I hadn't really written a song for two years, just some poetry. But as I sat there and listened to the beat, words started to come out". When talking about the singles, "Think About That" and "Not My Ex" with Jack White from the UK Charts Company, Jessie described them as "a new energy". While talking about the acronyms of the album's title, Jessie said that "Those four words were what I kept coming back to, that everything I was writing about could fall into. I wrote [R.O.S.E.] out and then thought 'shit, my mum's name is Rose' and it came naturally like that." == Critical reception == Renowned for Sound awarded R.O.S.E. 3.5 out of 5 stars, with Rachael Scarsbrook stating that "splitting an album into four chunks is a brave move for a popstar, in a genre when fans are a little more casual and expect everything to be delivered to them in one all consuming format. That said, R.O.S.E. feels like Jessie J almost fully rejecting her more mainstream appeal in order to put out a collection of tracks that mean a great deal to her on a more personal level. It might not be the kind of thing I normally go for, but as a project it’s actually quite skilled and enjoyable." == Promotion == In August 2017, Jessie teamed up with M&M's to promote her single "Real Deal". In the following months, she released "Think About That", "Not My Ex" and "Queen" as follow-up singles from R.O.S.E. === R.O.S.E Tour 2017–2018 === On 15 September 2017, Jessie J announced a worldwide run of intimate shows. On 20 September 2017 an extra date was added in London at the Shepherd's Bush Empire. Jessie J continued to add more dates through 2018 supporting R.O.S.E. == Track listing == All tracks written by Jessica Cornish and Darhyl Camper, except where noted. == Personnel == Credits adapted from Tidal. Performance Jessica Cornish – vocals, background vocals, songwriting Darhyl Camper – songwriting Shuggie Otis – songwriting Jerry Fuller – songwriting David Foster – songwriting Cheryl Lynn – songwriting David Paich – songwriting Technical Darhyl Camper – programming, production Kuk Harrell – production Hitmaka – production Bongo ByTheWay – production Simone Torres – engineering Sauce Miyagi – engineering Jaycen Joshua – mixing David Nakaji – mixing assistance Iván Jiménez – mixing assistance Maddox Chimm – mixing assistance == Release history == == References ==

R.O.S.E. is the fourth studio album by English singer-songwriter Jessie J. It was released by Republic Records in four parts, starting on 22 May 2018, and finishing on 25 May 2018, with a part being released on each day. The four parts released are R (Realisations), O (Obsessions), S (Sex) and E (Empowerment). Jessie co-wrote the album and worked with producers such as DJ Camper and Kuk Harrell. The songs "Real Deal", "Think About That", "Not My Ex" and "Queen" were released as singles before the release of the album. Jessie J promoted the album with the R.O.S.E Tour (2017–2018) performing songs from the album and some of her signature hits.

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Rebel Heart (wikipedia)

Rebel Heart is the thirteenth studio album by American singer-songwriter Madonna, released by Interscope Records on March 6, 2015. She worked on the album throughout 2014, co-writing and co-producing it with various musicians, including Diplo, Avicii and Kanye West. The album also features guest vocals by boxer Mike Tyson and rappers Nicki Minaj, Nas and Chance the Rapper. Thematically, Rebel Heart represents the singer's romantic and rebellious sides; the ideas grew organically during the writing and recording sessions. Musically, it is a pop record which merges an array of genres such as 1990s house, trap, and reggae, while using acoustic guitars and a gospel choir. Some of the songs are autobiographical in nature, while others talk about love and Madonna's career. Unlike her previous endeavors, working with many collaborators posed problems for Madonna in keeping a cohesive sound and creative direction for the album. The record had been set for a March 2015 release, with the first single to be released on Valentine's Day. However, after a flurry of unexpected album content leaks, Madonna released Rebel Heart for pre-order on the iTunes Store on December 20, 2014, with six songs made available immediately for download. A police investigation led to an Israeli man being arrested and charged with hacking into Madonna's computer and leaking the songs. The album's artwork became popular on social media, leading to numerous memes being created. To promote Rebel Heart, Madonna gave several performances on television and embarked on the Rebel Heart Tour, which visited North America, Europe, Asia, and Oceania, from September 2015 to March 2016. "Living for Love", "Ghosttown", "Bitch I'm Madonna", and "Hold Tight" were released as singles from the album. Rebel Heart received predominantly positive reviews from music critics; multiple reviewers called it Madonna's best effort in a decade. It debuted and peaked at number two on the US Billboard 200 and the UK Albums Chart, while reaching number one in major music markets such as Australia, Canada, Germany, Italy, Netherlands, Spain, and Switzerland. Rebel Heart was certified gold or platinum in seven countries. == Background and development == Following the release of her twelfth studio album, MDNA (2012), Madonna embarked on The MDNA Tour to promote it. The tour created widespread controversy over her statements on violence, human rights, politics, her use of fake firearms, and her on-stage nudity. She was threatened with several lawsuits. Madonna was enraged by many world events, which she claimed were acts of "injustice" against humanity. In September 2013 she released Secretprojectrevolution, a short film she directed with Steven Klein, dealing with artistic freedom and human rights. The film launched a global initiative known as Art for Freedom to promote freedom of expression. Madonna said in a L'Uomo Vogue interview her next album would be connected with Art for Freedom. She is committed to the initiative and must use her voice as an artist. By December 2013, Madonna's manager Guy Oseary commented that the singer was "eager to get started" on her next album. However, she had another project in mind: developing the screenplay for a film adaptation of Andrew Sean Greer's novel The Impossible Lives of Greta Wells. Madonna decided to split her time between writing the screenplay and writing songs for the new album. In February 2014, Madonna confirmed she had begun working on her thirteenth studio album. Her previous work had been produced with a small core group of people developing the music. Working with many collaborators on Rebel Heart, Madonna encountered problems keeping a cohesive sound and creative direction for it. She observed that many of the people she enlisted to work on the album could not stay in one city for any length of time due to their schedules. This resulted her not finishing songs in one session. "It was challenging ... with people coming and going in a revolving door of creativity." == Writing and recording sessions == In March 2014, Madonna began posting a number of images on Instagram hinting at possible songwriters and collaborators with hashtag captions. First, she posted about going into the recording studio with Swedish DJ and producer Avicii. Record producer Carl Falk spoke with the Dagens Nyheter newspaper in April 2014 about these sessions. He recalled that eleven demos with acoustic guitars and piano were recorded within a week at Henson Recording Studios in Hollywood. Avicii's manager Arash "Ash" Pour Nouri selected six people. They were divided into two groups, the first consisted of Falk, Rami Yacoub, and Savan Kotecha; the second consisted of Salem Al Fakir, Vincent Pontare, and Magnus Lidehäll. Avicii worked with both groups to create the demo songs, while Madonna arrived at the studio in the afternoon and stayed until 7:00 am. She worked closely with both teams while writing and changing melodies, and was in charge of the process. A few days later, Madonna posted an image of a sunset with the words "Rebel Heart" on them, and a caption which the media interpreted as lyrics from a new song. The lines posted were: "Day turns into night. I won't give up the fight. Don't want to get to the end of my days... saying I wasn't amazed." Additional images showed Madonna with singer Natalia Kills in front of a microphone, and with Martin Kierszenbaum, the founder and chairman of Cherrytree Records, and senior executive of A&R for Interscope Records, Madonna's label. By mid-April 2014, she had also revealed on Instagram the names of songwriters Toby Gad and Mozella and record producer Symbolyc One with images of the group working in studio. The list of personnel grew to include producer Ariel Rechtshaid and sound engineer Nick Rowe. In May 2014, Madonna posted a selfie in which she talked about working with American DJ Diplo. She had invited him for her annual Oscar party, but he could not attend. They eventually started talking about music through texts and decided to collaborate on the album. Madonna asked him to provide his "craziest record" for the album. Together they wrote and recorded seven songs. "Those records are gonna be crazy-sounding. We really pushed the envelope with some of the stuff we were doing... [S]he was up for anything. I love when an artist gives a producer the confidence, he needs to work with them, and Madonna was very open-minded to my ideas", Diplo added. One song was composed using a hook Madonna had sung in the studio; Diplo described it as "super weird". Another one, later confirmed as "Living for Love", had nearly twenty versions recorded ranging from a piano ballad to an EDM version. Ultimately Madonna and Diplo compromised on a version midway between the two styles. Rechtshaid and British singer MNEK also joined their writing sessions, improving the song's verses. Diplo also confirmed another track, known as "Bitch I'm Madonna", which he believed would push the lyrical boundaries for a pop song. Alicia Keys also contributed to the album by playing piano on "Living for Love". Madonna confirmed two other songs, "Messiah" and "Devil Pray", in different interviews. In 2022, Madonna named Rebel Heart the "most stressful" album she's ever done due to its multiple collaborators. == Titling and themes == Thematically, Caryn Ganz of Rolling Stone felt the album focused on two subjects: listening to one's heart, and being a rebel. Madonna explained that these concepts were not her initial inspiration but emerged during the sessions with Avicii. Madonna observed two distinct themes emerging organically, and felt the need to express them. The record was titled Rebel Heart, since it dealt with two different aspects of the singer's character—her rebellious, renegade side, and her romantic side; she wanted the album to represent both. On the French radio station NRJ, she explained that Rebel Heart could be both autobiographical and fictional, since she mixed both her own experiences with imaginary narratives while writing the songs. The title stemmed from Madonna's belief that contemporary music artists are not encouraged or inspired to be rebellious, take risks, or speak-up, and she wanted to highlight this. However, she understood the importance of having love in the rebellious nature, so added the word Heart to the title. Introspection was also listed as one of the foundational themes prevalent on the album. "[G]enuine statements of personal and careerist reflection [are] scattered among the posturing of 'Bitch I'm Madonna' and 'Unapologetic Bitch'" according to Slant Magazine's Sam C. Mac as well as her "obsessive self-regard". Madonna explained to Jon Pareles of The New York Times that, although she has never looked back at her past endeavors, reminiscing about it felt right for Rebel Heart. "And it's bittersweet for me to think about that. It just seemed like a time where I wanted to stop and look back. It's kind of like survivor guilt. How did I make it and they didn't?" During the album's development phase, she became comfortable expressing her ideas in front of a few people, comparing it to "writing your diary in front of somebody and reading it out loud... It was almost like an acting exercise, you know, just putting myself in a room and letting ideas flow even if I didn't feel so connected to the people." Further inspiration for the album came from Madonna's exploration of other cultures and art, literature, and music, referencing them in the songs. She believed that the tracks should stand on their own, so that one could sing them accompanied by just a guitar. Madonna enlisted the help of her daughter Lourdes and son Rocco, calling them her A&R advisers. They visited night clubs and were able to provide her with news about up-and-coming music and artists, helping to create the sounds she gravitated towards for the album. Generally, a pop record, Rebel Heart was different from Madonna's releases in the last decade according to Bradley Stern of MuuMuse. He called it an "eclectic record" citing the merging of an array of musical genres like 1990s house, trap, and reggae along with the use of acoustic guitars. Stern felt that unlike Hard Candy (2008) and MDNA, which chased then current musical trends, this album's sound was progressive. Adding to this, Mitchell Sunderland from Vice felt that Rebel Heart was a "lesson learned" from the criticism Madonna had received for her previous two albums. Jed Gottlieb of the Boston Herald found the album continued Madonna's "increasingly interesting, innovative approach" by combining contemporary musical styles with her previous tastes. He found Rebel Heart to be an improvement over the generic dance tunes on MDNA. For Jon Pareles of The New York Times, Rebel Heart was like a sequel to MDNA in its composition. While MDNA was marred by its cold mechanized vocals and clichéd songwriting, Rebel Heart portrays Madonna's musical abilities and as a lyricist "who ponders sin along with romance and fame." Jay Lustig of The Record believed that Madonna had always lacked a thematic coherence with her previous endeavors. However, with the songs from Rebel Heart, she was able to create potentially successful singles, despite the tracks' different styles, thereby maintaining consistency on the record. == Music and lyrical interpretation == Rebel Heart opens with the song "Living for Love". Composed in the house genre, it begins with Madonna singing over a "regal" piano line, eventually joined by percussion. Although a breakup song, it talks about being triumphant and hopeful. According to Dean Piper of The Daily Telegraph, the song has "some classic Madonna traits: religious references, a gospel choir, '90s piano beats and a whirling bass". It was compared to her 1989 singles, "Like a Prayer" and "Express Yourself" by Jason Lipshutz of Billboard. The second track, "Devil Pray", was inspired by how one could be enticed to partake of narcotics to achieve a higher level of consciousness and connect to God. Lyrically it asks for salvation from a variety of drug abuses, making allusions to Saint Mary and Lucifer, as well as the pain of healing from drug abuse. Produced by Madonna with Falk, Avicii, DJ Dahi, and Blood Diamonds, "Devil Pray" starts with gentle guitar sounds which build up to an electropop production, accompanied by a house beat. "Ghosttown" talks about civilizations ending and the world encountering an armageddon, but humans seeing hope amid the destruction. Written with Jason Evigan, Evan Bogart, and Sean Douglas, it is a power ballad song, which Madonna sings in "piercing" and "warm" vocals like those of Karen Carpenter; the production is comparable to her 1986 single, "Live to Tell". According to Douglas, "Ghosttown" was written in three days, after Madonna personally requested studio time with him and the other songwriters. The fourth track, "Unapologetic Bitch", has reggae, dancehall, and dubstep influences. It is a ska song where Madonna speaks negatively about a break-up and her lover, with lyrics such as: "It might sound like I'm an unapologetic bitch but sometimes you have to call it like it is." Madonna explained that the song is about having fun regardless of the situation one is in. "Illuminati", the fifth song, was inspired after Madonna learnt that she was considered one of the Illuminati's members. She decided to research the real Illuminati and then wrote the song. Lyrically it refers to the Illuminati conspiracy theory, the Egyptian pyramids, the Phoenix, the Age of Enlightenment, and the Eye of Providence among others, with the chorus's lyrics: "It's like everybody in this party is shining like Illuminati." According to Madonna, Kanye West, who produced the track, loved the melody and changed the composition adding his own spin to it. Minaj appears on the sixth track, "Bitch I'm Madonna", where she raps, asking everybody to "go hard or go home", while Madonna shouts lyrics like: "I just want to have fun tonight, I wanna blow up this house tonight." Produced by Diplo and Sophie, the track has a tearing sound alongside the "bleepy electro" and "churning dubstep" composition. During the writing sessions, Minaj had to rewrite the lyrics until she got the sentiment Madonna wanted. "Hold Tight" consists of an "arresting" chorus and a drum beat sound, described by Sam C. Mac of Slant Magazine as: "innocuous, lyrically platitudinous pop that briefly works itself up into something exciting when it threatens to become a gospelized stomp." Track eight, "Joan of Arc", is a ballad where Madonna sings about the media scrutiny of her life, singing: "Each time they take a photograph, I lose a part of me I can't get back." It also references the Roman Catholic saint of the same name. Madonna's hushed, vibrato-tinged vocals, and confessional lyrics on "Joan of Arc", are enhanced by a new beat instrumentation that utilizes strings and acoustic guitars in the bridge. "Iconic" features Chance the Rapper and boxer Mike Tyson. Tyson does a spoken word introduction to the song, similar to his addition to Canibus's debut single, "Second Round K.O." (1998). Madonna invited him to the recording studio where he talked about his life; he recorded the introduction in one take. Consisting of a "weird" beat, "Iconic"'s lyrics find Madonna embracing herself as an icon. "HeartBreakCity" follows "Iconic". A piano ballad talking about lost love, Madonna sings in a deeper vocal register, inspired by baroque pop. With its synths, banjo sounds, and hollow drums, "Body Shop" describes love as a damaged car on a highway, requiring a body repair to be alive. West also produced the next track, "Holy Water", where the singer compares her bodily fluids to the title. With hedonistic sound effects, the song is reminiscent of Madonna's 1990 single, "Justify My Love" and contains a lyrical excerpt from "Vogue". A bassline accompanies the chorus, consisting of moaning sounds, arcade game music, and synths. "Inside Out" was produced by Mike Dean, and features Madonna's vocals with reverb, accompanied by piano sounds and restrained chords. "Wash All Over Me" follows, and is the last track on the standard version of the album. Baroque piano sounds, and a steady military beat, lead up to the chorus as Madonna sings about the world changing, heartbreaks, and acceptance. A gospel choir and minimum synths back the song's sound. The deluxe version of Rebel Heart continues with the track "Best Night", an '80s electro composition reminiscent of Sade's songs with drums and Indian flute instrumentation. Madonna begins the song with the line, "You can call me M tonight" but her voice is not discernible in the chorus, only in the harmonies. There is another reference to "Justify My Love" at one point during the intermediate bridge. "Veni Vidi Vici" appears next, and is a rap "origin story song" with its lyrics built around Madonna's songs: "I expressed myself, came like a virgin down the aisle / Exposed my naked ass, and I did it with a smile / And when it came to sex, I knew I walked the borderline / and when I struck a pose, all the gay boys lost their minds." Madonna sings the chorus over simple guitar beats, uttering "I came, I saw, I conquered", the English translation of the song's title. Nas appears for a guest verse talking about his own life as Diplo backs it with shotgun and crunching horn sounds. "S.E.X." is the next track where Madonna asks sarcastically "tell me what you know about sex" over sounds of bass, synths and a string arpeggio. Near the end she lists a number of bondage items like: "Twisted rope, handcuffs, blindfold, string of pearls". Described as both an embodiment and critique of the act, "S.E.X." talks about the lack of intimacy with Madonna rapping in a "dispassionate" voice; she purposely made it sound like she had a lisp as she articulated the words. "Messiah" is a dramatic pop ballad with an orchestra backing and violins. Madonna sings in a "deeper velvety" tone. The lyrics talk about lighting candles, necromancy, and casting love spells. The title track finishes the deluxe version and was changed completely from its leaked demo. It consists of acoustic guitar and violins, with autobiographical lyrics. Amy Pettifer of The Quietus noted, "'Rebel Heart' quietly [acknowledges Madonna's] part in building the scene and popularizing stylistics that are the foundation of current trends." The super deluxe version presents tracks like "Graffiti Heart", where Madonna drew inspiration from artists, such as her former boyfriend Jean-Michel Basquiat and friend Keith Haring, evoking the power of art in gaining freedom. It was described by the Pretty Much Amazing blog as "a galloping love letter to creativity", while "Beautiful Scars" is a disco-lite throwback track. "Borrowed Time" deals with war and social issues while "Auto-Tune Baby" features a baby wailing in the background. == Release, leaks, and artwork == In May 2014, photographer Mert Alas posted on his Instagram account that he was listening to a new Madonna album. Billboard clarified that she was still in the process of recording it in Los Angeles. They later posted a 50-second snippet of an instrumental which media claimed was from Madonna, but the sample was traced back to Dutch DJ Sander Kleinenberg and his song "We Are Superstars". Oseary confirmed that Madonna looked forward to a 2015 release date for the album. However, on November 28, 2014, two songs titled "Rebel Heart" and "Wash All Over Me" were leaked onto the Internet; the songs were taken down immediately, and Oseary tweeted asking for help finding the source of the leaks. On December 17, 2014, thirteen songs were leaked, as well as artwork suggesting the album was to be named Iconic. An aggravated Madonna clarified that the songs were demo versions from earlier recordings; she described the leak as "artistic rape". The singer was criticized for referring to the hack as "terrorism", due to the then-recent Peshawar school massacre and the Sydney hostage crisis. Madonna said in a Billboard interview that after the leak she and her team tried to trace it to the source, but ultimately decided to release the finished songs. Referring to the Sony Pictures hack, she was critical of the Internet and explained that the incident led to her securing her laptop and hard drives, and disabling the Wi-Fi. "I wanted to plan everything in advance. Release the single, shoot a video, start talking about my record. And you know, prepare for the release of the entire album and have everything set up just so... But we sort of were left with no choice", she added. On December 20, 2014, the album was made available for pre-order at the iTunes Store. Once ordered, six tracks, "Living for Love", "Devil Pray", "Ghosttown", "Unapologetic Bitch", "Illuminati" and "Bitch I'm Madonna", were automatically downloaded. Madonna said the songs were meant to be "an early Christmas gift" for her fans, with the final release of the album scheduled for March 10, 2015. Originally, "Living for Love" was intended to serve as the album's lead single. It was to be released on Valentine's Day, with the rest of the record slated for the spring. However, due to the leak, the release date had to be pushed up. Oseary recalled that they did not receive a confirmation until Friday night whether the pre-release could be executed, since iTunes was closing for the Christmas weekend. After much discussion on the pros and cons of the release, and with the aid of Interscope Vice-Chairman Steve Berman, and Apple Inc.'s Robert Kondrk, they were able to go live slowly. The six songs Madonna chose had to be polished, and since the tracks' producers were unavailable, she mastered and mixed them herself. The album's release was compared to singer Beyoncé's 2013 surprise album release, with The Guardian calling it a "partial Beyoncé". The leaks continued with fourteen new demos being revealed between December 23 and 27. Three new tracks, "Hold Tight", "Joan of Arc" and "Iconic", became available following Madonna's Grammy performance in February 2015. The final track list for Rebel Heart was revealed on January 20, 2015, including the standard and deluxe version song names. A day later Israeli police arrested a man suspected of hacking into Madonna's, as well as other musicians' computers, stealing and leaking content. Lahav 433, an Israeli crime-fighting umbrella organization, had led a month-long investigation after the leaks occurred, working closely with the FBI. Although Israeli police refused to name the suspect, media identified him as former reality show contestant Adi Lederman, who had participated in the Israeli singing competition, Kokhav Nolad, season ten. As the deluxe edition leaked in full, Lederman was charged by Israel's Magistrate Court on four counts: computer trespassing (two charges), prohibited secret monitoring, copyright infringement, and obstructing investigation. The investigation also revealed that Lederman had leaked the demo of Madonna's lead single from MDNA, "Give Me All Your Luvin'". Copies of songs, including rehearsal recordings of upcoming Madonna performances, were sold for more than $1,000 to various clients. Lederman was ultimately sentenced to fourteen months in a Tel Aviv prison. The cover art, featuring Madonna's face inter-crossed with black wires, became popular on social media resulting in numerous memes being created on Instagram, Tumblr and Twitter. Fans wound black wires across their faces imitating the cover, and created memes using the images of celebrities, including Britney Spears, Michael Jackson, Jim Carrey, and Marlon Brando. Madonna forwarded many of the images to her social media accounts. However, three of the images—those of Martin Luther King Jr., Nelson Mandela and Bob Marley with the same wires around their faces—were heavily criticized for being "disrespectful and racist". The singer explained the photos the next day, saying that she was flattered by the comparison to the three and characterised herself as a "freedom fighter". Rebel Heart became the singer's fourth studio album to bear the Parental Advisory label after Erotica (1992), American Life (2003) and MDNA, due to the profanity and sexual references in tracks such as "Holy Water". == Promotion == === Live appearances === Madonna confirmed her appearance at the 57th Annual Grammy Awards on February 8, 2015; Oseary clarified she would also sing during the ceremony. The singer performed "Living for Love" wearing a one-piece, matador red outfit, surrounded by male dancers dressed as minotaurs similar to the song's music video. Forbes reported that Madonna's performance was the most-watched moment of the night. Her choice to sing live without Auto-Tune during the choreographed performance was widely praised. She also performed the song at the 2015 Brit Awards, on February 25, 2015. However, in the early stages of the performance, a wardrobe malfunction caused her to be pulled down a flight of stairs that made up part of the stage. She later took to Instagram to confirm she was well, posting: "Thanks for the good wishes! I'm fine." It was later revealed that her cape was tied too tightly. When her dancers attempted to remove it from her neck, this caused her to crash to the floor, leaving the audience in shock. After several seconds, she continued her performance as planned. Madonna partnered with the geosocial networking app, Grindr to promote Rebel Heart. A contest was held, and five of the app's users were selected for an exclusive interview with the artist. The contest required re-creating the artwork for Rebel Heart and posting it as a Grindr profile picture. Other winners received signed copies of the album. Joe Stone from The Guardian considered this a "savvy" promotional method allowing Madonna to connect directly with her gay audience. Madonna appeared on The Jonathan Ross Show, for her first UK television interview in three years, on February 26, 2015 (aired on March 14). She performed an edited version of "Living for Love", as well as "Ghosttown" for the first time. On March 1, she traveled to Italy for an appearance on the television show Che tempo che fa (aired on March 8). She performed "Devil Pray" and "Ghosttown" while talking with host Fabio Fazio about a number of topics including the album's development process. The next day she appeared on France's Le Grand Journal show, performing an edited version of "Living for Love" and "Ghosttown". Another interview aired on The Today Show on March 9 and 10, 2015, where she spoke to host Carson Daly about the Rebel Heart leaks. Madonna appeared for the first time on a special edition of The Howard Stern Show on March 11, 2015. She discussed her life and personal relationships, as well as confirming that "Ghosttown" was to be Rebel Heart's second single. Madonna appeared and performed on The Ellen DeGeneres Show in the US for the entire week of March 16 to 20. Songs performed included "Living for Love" with DeGeneres herself joining the singer onstage. She also sang a stripped-down version of "Joan of Arc", "Ghosttown", and finally, her 1985 single "Dress You Up", during a bathroom concert sequence with DeGeneres. On March 29, 2015, Madonna performed "Ghosttown" at the 2nd iHeartRadio Music Awards in Los Angeles, where singer Taylor Swift joined her on stage playing guitar. Two days later, the BBC's Jo Whiley interviewed her for Radio 2, the singer's first radio interview in the UK. Madonna appeared on The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon on April 9, 2015, singing "Bitch I'm Madonna" and her 1983 single, "Holiday". === Singles === "Living for Love" was the first single from the album, released along with five other tracks. It was sent for radio play in the US on February 10, 2015. The song received positive feedback with Slant Magazine listing it at number 25 on their year-end top songs list for 2015, saying: "Overworked and overthought, for sure, but the song's essence remains intact, and if Madonna's message of life after love didn't register as a commercial comeback on the scale of, say, Cher's 'Believe', it remains a pop-gospel sequel of the highest order." An accompanying music video, directed by the French duo Julien Choquart and Camille Hirigoyen, together known as J.A.C.K., was released in February 2015. Its storyline incorporates mythological elements and shows Madonna as a matador, fighting her dancers dressed like minotaurs on a red circular stage. "Ghosttown" was first sent for radio airplay in Italy on March 13, 2015, and a week later in Australia. Jonas Åkerlund directed the music video, which starred actor Terrence Howard. The video's main theme was "an apocalyptic situation mimicking the end of the world", showing the singer and Howard as the sole survivors in a destroyed city. The third single, "Bitch I'm Madonna", was released as a remix EP, featuring remixes by various collaborators. Åkerlund again helmed the video for the song, which featured Minaj and Diplo with Madonna, and cameo appearances by: Rita Ora, Chris Rock, Jon Kortajarena, Miley Cyrus, Alexander Wang, Beyoncé, Katy Perry, Kanye West, and Madonna's two sons, Rocco and David. Shot at the Standard Hotel in New York City, the video shows Madonna and her entourage partying throughout the building, ending on the rooftop. Technical difficulties plagued the release of the video to the streaming service Tidal; it was met with a mixed response. Critics complimented the craziness of the clip but panned the absence of the guest stars from the set. "Bitch I'm Madonna" became the only track from the album to enter the Billboard Hot 100. It debuted and peaked at number 84 on the chart, aided by a total of 2.6 million streams of the song's audio and video. The first three singles reached the top of the Billboard Dance Club Songs. This extended Madonna's record as the artist with the most number one songs on the chart. As well, she became the artist with the most number-one singles ever on a Billboard chart, breaking a tie with country singer George Strait who earned 44 number-ones on the Hot Country Singles chart. "Living for Love" reached number 26 in the United Kingdom, becoming Madonna's 71st top-forty single, extending her record as the female artist with the most top-forty UK singles. "Hold Tight" was a radio only single in Italy, released for airplay on July 24, 2015, and served as the album's fourth single in that country. On June 5, 2024, the song surpassed 100 million streams on Spotify, making Madonna the first female and female lead artist to have one song from five different and consecutive decades to achieve this. === Tour === Many news outlets began reporting on the concert tour supporting Rebel Heart. The Italian newspaper Torino Today reported Madonna was planning on returning to Turin with the tour on November 20 and 21, 2015. The Rebel Heart Tour kicked off on September 9, 2015, and visited North America, Europe, Asia and Oceania. Billboard reported it would only use arenas, and visit cities where Madonna had not performed previously. The initial itinerary included 25–30 shows in North America and 20–25 shows in Europe, with additional dates being revealed later. It was the singer's first visit to Australia since 1993's The Girlie Show, as well as her first time performing in New Zealand and the Philippines. The tour's main stage was elevated and set up at the end of each arena. A long catwalk extended from the middle into the audience ending in a heart-shaped stage. The catwalk was bisected by an arena-wide cross stage. Designers working on the tour's wardrobe included: Jeremy Scott for Moschino, Alessandro Michele for Gucci and Alexander Wang, along with Fausto Puglisi, Prada, Miu Miu, Swarovski, Lebanese designer Nicolas Jebran, as well as Madonna's longtime collaborator Arianne Phillips. The tour generated positive critical reviews, many noting that Madonna appeared to be in a happy mood onstage. It grossed a total of $169.8 million from 82 shows, with over 1.045 million ticket sales. A live album of the tour was released on September 15, 2017, as DVD, Blu-ray and digital download. == Critical reception == On its release, Rebel Heart received predominantly positive critical reviews. At Metacritic, which assigns a weighted mean rating out of 100 to reviews by music critics, the album received an average score of 68, based on 29 reviews, which indicates "generally favorable reviews". The Daily Telegraph writer Neil McCormick, Andy Gill of The Independent, AllMusic's Stephen Thomas Erlewine, and Lauren Murphy of The Irish Times each gave the album 4 out of 5 stars. McCormick felt that " [f]or the first time in years, [Madonna] doesn't sound desperate", praising it in comparison to Hard Candy and MDNA. Murphy wrote "the indisputable pop icon is back with a tentative bang" after MDNA had "few memorable pop hits". For Gill, the most impressive aspect of Rebel Heart was Madonna's vocals, while Erlewine found the album a revival of Madonna's defiant side and her confessional mood. Saeed Saeed of The National called it a "fine collection of sturdy pop tunes in which Madonna finally allows herself to look back and sometimes pilfer from her peak periods of the late 80s and early 2000s." Writing for The Quietus, Amy Pettifer praised the album, describing it as: "a darker return to the club culture roots [for Madonna], and it seems—on some level—to face up to the missteps of her more recent releases. Giving it 3.5 out of 4 stars, USA Today writer Elysa Gardner described the album's sound and lyrics as "piercingly direct". Chicago Tribune writer Greg Kot and Randall Roberts of the Los Angeles Times awarded it 3 out of 4 stars. Kot believed the album would have been better without the songs referencing sexuality, but still considered it "fascinating". Roberts believed Rebel Heart stood out "sturdily" because of its production. Writing for The Boston Globe, James Reed opined that the album was a, "welcome detour in the artist's recent discography... her most satisfying effort in a decade and nimbly connects the dots between Madonna's various eras and guises." Critic Joey Guerra of the Houston Chronicle called Rebel Heart: "a complex, consistently strong album". Slant Magazine editor Sal Cinquemani, Joe Levy of Billboard, and Caryn Ganz of Rolling Stone each awarded the album 3.5 out of 5 stars. Cinquemani wrote that the album was "all over the map", yet felt it was "a surprisingly coherent one". Levy wrote that the album was "subtle" compared to "current standards", adding that: "These songs unfold slowly, building through foreplay-like intros before hooks are displayed over a shifting series of textures". Ganz felt that Rebel Heart "is at its strongest when Madonna shoves everyone to the side and just tells it to us straight", adding: "Deep down, Madonna does have a rebel heart – and you can't fault her for reminding us that pop music is all the better for it." Jamieson Cox of Time commended the album for its consistent production and sound, and for Madonna's vocals and songwriting. Giving it a rating of "B", Kyle Anderson and Adam Markovitz of Entertainment Weekly called the album "Madonna's best outing since 2000's Music". Alexis Petridis of The Guardian and Time Out writer Nick Levine gave the album 3 out of 5 stars. Petridis felt that the two contrasting sides of the album did not "quite gel", reasoning that: "the former might represent the music Madonna wants to make, while the latter is the music she feels obliged to make". Levine wrote: "'Rebel Heart' may lack cohesion, but she's definitely not down for the count: this contains some of the best music Madonna's made in a decade." Annie Zalesky of The A.V. Club said the record had its "fair share of those head scratching moments", but found it to be a move in the right direction musically. Spin writer Andrew Unterberger gave Rebel Heart a 6 out of 10 rating. While calling it "clunky", he felt it contained some of Madonna's "best songs in years." Instinct's Samuel Murrian opined that the album "might have been something like a home run if it were a few tracks shorter". For WhatCulture's Reece Shrewsbury, "there's a lot of experimentation and lots of variation, which sound impressive, but in practice, keep the album disjointed". Despite naming it "closer to the Madonna that earned her Queen of Pop title", Shrewsbury concluded that Rebel Heart "still has a lot of flaws [...] [it] struggles to keep cohesion and a creative direction". Writing for The New Zealand Herald, Lydia Jenkin gave it a mixed review, deeming the album a "bit of a mess" and "confused". Lindsay Zoladz of New York magazine was disappointed, feeling the songs sounded "safe", adding that: "Madonna of Rebel Heart [has] succeeded once again in the increasingly empty goal of sounding current". The staff of The Advocate also expressed disappointment; "too many songs name-check celebrities and drugs and contain insipid lyrics that the Madonna of 15 years ago would have laughed at. Where is our thoughtful icon?". Gavin Haynes of NME panned the album, saying that it "feels like a wasted opportunity. Trite self-empowerment anthem 'Iconic' informs us that there's only two letters difference between Icon and I Can't. Sadly, there are also two letters between class and ass." == Commercial performance == According to Andrew Hampp of Billboard, pre-orders for Rebel Heart were strong after its global release to iTunes Store. They were estimated at around 50,000 to 60,000 copies by industry prognosticators. Rebel Heart debuted at number two on the Billboard 200 chart with 121,000 album equivalent units, behind the soundtrack of the TV series Empire, which sold 9,000 units more. While it was the best-selling album of the week—ranking number one on Billboard's Top Album Sales chart with pure album sales of 116,000 copies (96% of overall units)—it fell behind the soundtrack when it came to streaming and track equivalent album units, with just over 1,000 and 4,000 units respectively. It became Madonna's 21st top-ten album, but was her first studio release not to debut atop the chart since Ray of Light (1998). Rebel Heart's concert tour bundle amounted to less than 10,000 copies compared to the 180,000 copies sold for her previous album, MDNA. The release also saw Madonna debut at number seven on the Billboard Artist 100 chart, moving up by 2,919% in overall Artist 100 points and gaining 31% in social media activity. In Canada, Rebel Heart debuted at number one on the Canadian Albums Chart. With 18,000 copies sold in the first week, it became Madonna's seventh number-one there during the SoundScan era. The next week, the album dropped 19 places on the Billboard 200, while in Canada it dropped only one position. Billboard reported sales dropped by 78% to 26,000 units, a reflection of the high pre-orders during the first week. The album was present for a total of 11 weeks on the chart, and ranked at number 151 on the Billboard 200 year end chart for 2015. As of December 2016, the album has sold 238,000 copies in the US according to Nielsen SoundScan. Despite outselling its nearest competitors by a ratio of nearly 3:1 within 24 hours on sale in the United Kingdom, Rebel Heart entered the UK Albums Chart at number two with 37,245 units. The chart-topper of that week, Sam Smith's In the Lonely Hour, pushed ahead at the last minute and sold 12,000 copies more than Rebel Heart. It became Madonna's first studio album to miss the top spot since Bedtime Stories, which also debuted at number two in 1994. The following week, the album dropped to number seven, with sales declining by 67.46% to 11,983 copies. The album had sold 76,490 copies as of June 2015, and was later certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) for 100,000 units. Rebel Heart debuted at the top of the German Albums Chart, becoming her twelfth chart-topping record there. Madonna surpassed the Beatles and Robbie Williams as the foreign act with the most number-one albums in German chart history. She equaled Herbert Grönemeyer for third place overall, behind only Peter Maffay and James Last with 16 and 13 chart-toppers respectively. In France, the album debuted at number three on the SNEP Albums chart, with three-day sales of 17,000 copies. Rebel Heart also debuted at number one on record charts in: Austria, Belgium (Flanders), Croatia, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Italy, the Netherlands, Portugal, Spain and Switzerland, as well as in the top ten in the rest of Europe. In Australia, Rebel Heart debuted at the top of the ARIA Albums Chart with sales of 6,962 copies. It was Madonna's eleventh number-one album in the country tying her with U2 as the act with the most number-one albums since ARIA's establishment in 1983. Rebel Heart became Madonna's 19th week atop the chart, ranking her at number 24 on the list of artists with most accumulated weeks at the top. The album had a sharp drop the next week, selling 1,312 copies and falling to number 18 on the album chart. In New Zealand, it debuted at number seven on the Official New Zealand Music Chart. In Japan, Rebel Heart debuted at number eight on the Oricon Albums Chart with first-week sales of 7,548 physical units, becoming her record-extending 23rd top-ten album there. It also entered the Oricon International Albums Chart at number one, staying there for a second week. In South Korea, the album gave Madonna two top-ten entries simultaneously on the Gaon International Albums Chart, with the deluxe edition at number one and the standard edition at number seven. Rebel Heart ended 2015 as the 39th best-selling album of the year with sales of 900,000 copies. As of 2018, Rebel Heart has sold one million copies worldwide. == Accolades == In its year end review of albums released in 2015, Rolling Stone ranked Rebel Heart at number 45 noting: "Rebel Heart was [Madonna's] finest album in a decade, picking up the disco-stick baton of her 2005 Confessions on a Dance Floor as Madonna voyages back into the groove and reflects on where she's been lately." It was also listed at number six on its ranking of the 20 Best Pop Albums of 2015. Similarly, in its year end review, Spin magazine listed the album at number 21 as Andrew Unterberger noted that: "For most artists who spent whole decades defining the mainstream, titling an album Rebel Heart would seem misguided at best, but for Madonna, it's truer now than ever: A fifty-something refusing to bend to public demands about how she should age gracefully... is as big an act of defiance as you can stage in contemporary pop music." AllMusic called Rebel Heart one of their Favorite Pop Albums of 2015, describing it as: "Bold, messy, and life-affirming record that finds Madonna simultaneously looking forward and back." For its year end tabulation, Digital Spy listed Rebel Heart at number 10 on the list of Top 25 Albums of 2015. Lewis Corner noted the tracks ranged from: "brilliant, dancehall groove to more reflective and somber pop ballads". He added that: "At this stage in her career, if Madonna doesn't have 'pop chameleon' on her LinkedIn profile... then Rebel Heart alone is enough to endorse that title." He listed "Devil Pray" as a standout track. About.com ranked the record as the fifth best Pop Album of 2015, with reviewer Bill Lamb calling it a "return to form", and her strongest endeavor since Music (2000). Associated Press music editor Mesfin Fekadu ranked the album at number five, describing the album as a "contemporary classic that puts albums from other female artists half [Madonna]'s age to shame." Fekadu felt it "unfortunate" radio stations did not play songs from the album, listing "Bitch I'm Madonna" and "Joan of Arc" as highlights. Billboard listed the Deluxe edition album cover at number 15 in their ranking of the Best Album Covers of 2015. == Track listing == Credits adapted from Madonna's official website. Notes ^[a] signifies a co-producer ^[b] signifies an additional producer ^[c] signifies a remixer ^[d] signifies personnel listed with BMI as songwriter on the song. == Personnel == Personnel adapted from Madonna's official website. == Charts == == Certifications and sales == == Release history == == See also == == Notes == == References == == External links == Rebel Heart at Discogs (list of releases) Rebel Heart playlist on YouTube

Rebel Heart is the thirteenth studio album by American singer-songwriter Madonna, released by Interscope Records on March 6, 2015. She worked on the album throughout 2014, co-writing and co-producing it with various musicians, including Diplo, Avicii and Kanye West. The album also features guest vocals by boxer Mike Tyson and rappers Nicki Minaj, Nas and Chance the Rapper. Thematically, Rebel Heart represents the singer's romantic and rebellious sides; the ideas grew organically during the writing and recording sessions. Musically, it is a pop record which merges an array of genres such as 1990s house, trap, and reggae, while using acoustic guitars and a gospel choir. Some of the songs are autobiographical in nature, while others talk about love and Madonna's career. Unlike her previous endeavors, working with many collaborators posed problems for Madonna in keeping a cohesive sound and creative direction for the album. The record had been set for a March 2015 release, with the first single to be released on Valentine's Day. However, after a flurry of unexpected album content leaks, Madonna released Rebel Heart for pre-order on the iTunes Store on December 20, 2014, with six songs made available immediately for download. A police investigation led to an Israeli man being arrested and charged with hacking into Madonna's computer and leaking the songs. The album's artwork became popular on social media, leading to numerous memes being created. To promote Rebel Heart, Madonna gave several performances on television and embarked on the Rebel Heart Tour, which visited North America, Europe, Asia, and Oceania, from September 2015 to March 2016. "Living for Love", "Ghosttown", "Bitch I'm Madonna", and "Hold Tight" were released as singles from the album. Rebel Heart received predominantly positive reviews from music critics; multiple reviewers called it Madonna's best effort in a decade. It debuted and peaked at number two on the US Billboard 200 and the UK Albums Chart, while reaching number one in major music markets such as Australia, Canada, Germany, Italy, Netherlands, Spain, and Switzerland. Rebel Heart was certified gold or platinum in seven countries.

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Skitszo (wikipedia)

Skitszo is the debut studio album by American singer-rapper Colette Carr, which was released as a whole on July 9, 2013 through Interscope. The album consists of four digital EPs, each featuring four songs, released two months apart. The full album includes all the songs from the EPs, plus four new ones. Produced by Cherry Cherry Boom Boom, Frankmusik and other big names, the album features collaborations with YG, Far East Movement's Kev Nish, E-40 and Porcelain Black. Billboard noted the album's genre as a mixture of sing-speak rapping and pop music refrains. Carr was inspired to craft Skitszo after being exposed to works by artists such as the Spice Girls, Talking Heads, and Eminem among others. == Background and release == Carr originally announced that her album would be released in November 2011. Carr released her first promotional single, "Back It Up" in 2009, which gained her the attention of Nick Cannon. She then released her mixtape, Sex Sells Stay Tooned with the help of his label, NCredible, along with his production on tracks. It was highly successful to Carr's standards, gaining 29,000 downloads in four days. The album was released under Interscope, Cherrytree Records, and NCredible Entertainment. On September 27, 2012 Carr announced that her album would be released in four digital EPs, each released two months apart. Then, on July 9, 2013, the full physical album will be released, featuring all the songs from the EPs, plus four new ones. The complete album was made available for pre-order on November 7, 2012. == Composition and inspiration == Skitszo is a tribute to Carr's uncle, who had schizophrenia. "It's also a tribute to my uncle who suffered from schizophrenia, but more than that it’s a tribute to the man who showed me what true and pure creativity was before he passed away two years ago," said Carr. She described the style of the album as, "musically schizophrenic". Her uncle also inspired the video for Carr's previous single, "Back It Up". Billboard called Skitszo unapologetic pop music that often bounces between sly rapping and affecting refrains. In and interview with Billboard, Carr highlighted various musical monoliths as inspirational to her album's sound and style. Specifically, the rapper listed Suzanne Vega, Led Zeppelin, Talking Heads, Eminem, and the Spice Girls. On the latter, she said: "Girl power for life. Every day of your life, the Spice Girls exist within us. That was such a huge part of growing up. I feel like they really put a stamp on girls in my generation. I dressed up like them for Halloween and did little shows with my sister and stuff. I've been every single one of them. My life goal is to be a perfect combination of all five Spice Girls." == Singles == "(We Do It) Primo" was released on May 10, 2011 as Skitszo's lead single. Written by Carr herself and produced by Frankmusik, it samples Keane's song, "Somewhere Only We Know". "(We Do It) Primo" is a pop song with heavy synths. Lyrically, the record speaks of the just having fun, with "Primo" meaning, "Of top quality or importance". The bridge describes “doing it primo” by using various similes including: "sweeter than vanilla" and "playing all of this like it was Christmas". Despite being released internationally, "(We Do It) Primo" failed to chart. Carr makes lyrical references to label mates and fellow musicians Frankmusik, "feeling frank, spelling out the fear inside", a reference to his name and 2010 single "The Fear Inside", and Far East Movement, "better move it, rocketeer", a reference to their 2009 single "Rocketeer". "Like I Got a Gun" is the second single for Skitszo. Carr released the single on iTunes on June 26, 2012. "Like I Got a Gun" was met with positive reviews from critics. Starpulse called it "a summer-ready party track". and an "ass slapping beat". A remix of the track featuring rapper YG was included on the first installment of the album. "F16" is the third single for Skitszo. It was released on November 13, 2012 having been previously leaked. The music video for the single was released December 20, 2012. "Why Are You Leaving?" is the fourth single. It was released on January 8, 2013 and the music video was released the same week, although the video was down on YouTube for sometime mid-2013, but was re-uploaded on October 17, 2013. The song features American rapper Kev Nish from the group Far East Movement. "Never Gonna Happen" is the fifth single for Skitszo and to date, has become Carr's most successful single. It was released March 5, 2013 as a part of her EP "Skitszo (Part. 3)" on iTunes and the video was released April 5, 2013, Clueless was the music video's main theme. The song also charted #11 on Billboard's Dance Club Songs. == Track listing == "I Don't Wanna Go" samples Britney Spears's "Oops!... I Did It Again" "(We Do It) Primo" samples Keane's "Somewhere Only We Know" == Personnel == As listed on AllMusic.com Colette Carr — Composer, Primary Artist Frankmusik — Composer Martin Kierszenbaum — Composer YG — Primary Artist The Cataracs — Composer Jason Gilbert — Composer Anthony Jeffries — Composer Hannah Kierszenbaum — Composer Kev Nish — Composer, Primary Artist Nate Walka — Composer, Background Vocals AJ Junior — Composer Ameerah — Composer Beatgeek — Composer Bilal "The Chef" Hajji — Composer Niles Hollowell-Dhar — Composer Porcelain Black — Composer, Primary Artist Prophet — Composer RedOne — Composer == Release history == == References ==

Skitszo is the debut studio album by American singer-rapper Colette Carr, which was released as a whole on July 9, 2013 through Interscope. The album consists of four digital EPs, each featuring four songs, released two months apart. The full album includes all the songs from the EPs, plus four new ones. Produced by Cherry Cherry Boom Boom, Frankmusik and other big names, the album features collaborations with YG, Far East Movement's Kev Nish, E-40 and Porcelain Black. Billboard noted the album's genre as a mixture of sing-speak rapping and pop music refrains. Carr was inspired to craft Skitszo after being exposed to works by artists such as the Spice Girls, Talking Heads, and Eminem among others.

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Tesla, Inc. (wikipedia)

Tesla, Inc. ( TESS-lə or TEZ-lə) is an American multinational automotive and clean energy company headquartered in Austin, Texas, which designs, manufactures and sells battery electric vehicles (BEVs), stationary battery energy storage devices from home to grid-scale, solar panels and solar shingles, and related products and services. The company is also developing artificial intelligence and robotics products. Tesla was incorporated in July 2003 by Martin Eberhard and Marc Tarpenning as Tesla Motors. The company's name is a tribute to inventor and electrical engineer Nikola Tesla. In February 2004, Elon Musk joined as the company's largest shareholder; in 2008, he was named chief executive officer. In 2008, the company began production of its first car model, the Roadster sports car, followed by the Model S sedan in 2012, the Model X SUV in 2015, the Model 3 sedan in 2017, the Model Y crossover in 2020, the Tesla Semi truck in 2022 and the Cybertruck pickup truck in 2023. The Model 3 is the all-time bestselling plug-in electric car worldwide, and in June 2021 became the first electric car to sell 1 million units globally. In 2023, the Model Y was the best-selling vehicle, of any kind, globally. Tesla is one of the world's most valuable companies in terms of market capitalization. In October 2021, Tesla temporarily became a trillion dollar company, the seventh U.S. company to do so. In 2023, the company led the battery electric vehicle market, with 19.9% share. Also in 2023, the company was ranked 69th in the Forbes Global 2000. As of March 2024, it is the world's most valuable automaker. Tesla has been the subject of lawsuits, government scrutiny, and journalistic criticism, stemming from allegations of whistleblower retaliation, worker rights violations, safety issues, product defects, fraud, and Musk's many controversial statements. == History == === Founding (2003–2004) === The company was incorporated as Tesla Motors, Inc. on July 1, 2003, by Martin Eberhard and Marc Tarpenning. They served as CEO and CFO, respectively. Eberhard said that he wanted to build "a car manufacturer that is also a technology company", with its core technologies as "the battery, the computer software, and the proprietary motor". Ian Wright was Tesla's third employee, joining a few months later. In February 2004, the company raised US$7.5 million (equivalent to $12 million in 2023) in series A funding, including $6.5 million (equivalent to $10 million in 2023) from Elon Musk, who had received $100 million from the sale of his interest in PayPal two years earlier. Musk became the chairman of the board of directors and the largest shareholder of Tesla. J. B. Straubel joined Tesla in May 2004 as chief technical officer. A lawsuit settlement agreed to by Eberhard and Tesla in September 2009 allows all five – Eberhard, Tarpenning, Wright, Musk, and Straubel – to call themselves co-founders. === Roadster (2005–2009) === Elon Musk took an active role within the company, but was not deeply involved in day-to-day business operations. The company's strategy was to start with a premium sports car aimed at early adopters and then move into more mainstream vehicles, including sedans and affordable compacts. In February 2006, Musk led Tesla's Series B venture capital funding round of $13 million, which added Valor Equity Partners to the funding team. Musk co-led the third, $40 million round in May 2006 which saw investment from prominent entrepreneurs including Google co-founders Sergey Brin and Larry Page, and former eBay President Jeff Skoll. A fourth round worth $45 million in May 2007 brought the total private financing investment to over $105 million. In August 2007, Eberhard was asked by the board, led by Elon Musk, to step down as CEO. Eberhard then took the title of "President of Technology" before ultimately leaving the company in January 2008. Co-founder Marc Tarpenning, who served as the Vice President of Electrical Engineering of the company, also left the company in January 2008. In August 2007, Michael Marks was brought in as interim CEO, and in December 2007, Ze'ev Drori became CEO and President. Musk succeeded Drori as CEO in October 2008. In June 2009, Eberhard filed a lawsuit against Musk for allegedly forcing him out. The case was dismissed in August 2009. Tesla began production of the Roadster in 2008 inside the service bays of a former Chevrolet dealership in Menlo Park. By January 2009, Tesla had raised $187 million and delivered 147 cars. Musk had contributed $70 million of his own money to the company. In June 2009, Tesla was approved to receive $465 million in interest-bearing loans from the United States Department of Energy. The funding, part of the $8 billion Advanced Technology Vehicles Manufacturing Loan Program, supported the engineering and production of the Model S sedan, as well as the development of commercial powertrain technology. Tesla repaid the loan in May 2013, with $12 million in interest. === IPO, Model S, and Model X (2010–2015) === In May 2010, Tesla purchased the NUMMI plant in Fremont, California from Toyota for $42 million. On June 29, 2010, the company went public via an initial public offering (IPO) on the NASDAQ, the first American car company to do so since the Ford Motor Company had its IPO in 1956. The company issued 13.3 million shares of common stock at a price of $17 per share, raising $226 million. In October 2010, Tesla opened the Tesla Factory to start production of the Model S. In January 2012, Tesla ceased production of the Roadster, and in June 2012 the company launched its second car, the Model S luxury sedan. The Model S won several automotive awards during 2012 and 2013, including the 2013 Motor Trend Car of the Year, and became the first electric car to top the monthly sales ranking of a country, when it topped the Norwegian new car sales list in September 2013. The Model S was also the bestselling plug-in electric car worldwide for the years 2015 and 2016. On July 15, 2013, Tesla became a NASDAQ-100 company. Tesla announced the Tesla Autopilot, a driver-assistance system, in 2014. In September that year, all Tesla cars started shipping with sensors and software to support the feature, with what would later be called "hardware version 1". Tesla entered the energy storage market, unveiling its Tesla Powerwall (home) and Tesla Powerpack (business) battery packs in April 2015. The company received orders valued at $800 million within a week of the unveiling. Tesla began shipping its third vehicle, the luxury SUV Tesla Model X, in September 2015, which had 25,000 pre-orders at the time. === SolarCity and Model 3 (2016–2018) === Tesla entered the solar installation business in November 2016 with the purchase of SolarCity, in an all-stock $2.6 billion deal. The business was merged with Tesla's existing battery energy storage products division to form the Tesla Energy subsidiary. The deal was controversial because at the time of the acquisition, SolarCity was facing liquidity issues of which Tesla's shareholders were not informed. In February 2017, Tesla Motors changed its name to Tesla, Inc. to better reflect the scope of its expanded business. Tesla unveiled its first mass market vehicle in April 2016, the Model 3 sedan. The Model 3 was less expensive than Tesla's previous three vehicles, and within a week the company received over 325,000 paid reservations. In an effort to speed up production and control costs, Tesla invested heavily in robotics and automation to assemble the Model 3, but the robotics actually slowed the production of the vehicles. This led to significant delays and production problems, a period which the company described as "production hell." By the end of 2018, the production problems had been overcome, and the Model 3 became the world's bestselling electric car from 2018 to 2021. This period of production hell put significant financial pressure on Tesla, and during this time it became one of the most shorted companies in the stock market. On August 8, 2018, amid the financial issues, Musk posted on social media that he was considering taking Tesla private. The plan did not materialize and gave rise to much controversy and many lawsuits including a securities fraud charge from the SEC, which would force Musk to pay a $20 million fine and step down as the company's chairman, although he was allowed to remain the CEO. === Global expansion and Model Y (2019–present) === From July 2019 to June 2020, Tesla reported four consecutive profitable quarters for the first time, which made it eligible for inclusion in the S&P 500. During 2020, its share price increased 740%, and by December 14, 2020, its market capitalization was more than the next nine largest automakers combined, and it became the sixth most valuable company in the US. Tesla was added to the S&P index on December 21, 2020; it was the most valuable company ever added, and was the sixth-largest member of the index immediately after it was added. Tesla introduced its second mass-market vehicle in March 2019, the Model Y mid-size crossover SUV, based on the Model 3. Deliveries started in March 2020. During this period, Tesla invested heavily in expanding its production capacity, opening three new Gigafactories in quick succession. Construction of Gigafactory Shanghai started in January 2019, as the first automobile factory in China fully owned by a foreign company (not a joint venture). Its first production vehicle, a Model 3, rolled out of the factory in December, less than one year after groundbreaking. Gigafactory Berlin-Brandenburg broke ground in February 2020, and its production of the Model Y began in March 2022. Gigafactory Texas broke ground in June 2020, its production of the Model Y began in April 2022, and it produced the first Cybertruck in November 2023. In March 2023, Tesla announced plans for a Gigafactory Mexico to open in 2025. At the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic, Tesla closed the Fremont Factory in March 2020 due to California state and Alameda county COVID restrictions. When California lifted restrictions, but the county did not, Tesla sued the county, and restarted production on May 11, 2020. The county lifted restrictions on May 13, 2020, and Tesla dropped its lawsuit. After the dispute with county officials, on December 1, 2021, Tesla moved its legal headquarters to Gigafactory Texas. However, Tesla continued to use its former headquarters building in Palo Alto, and over the next two years significantly expanded its footprint in California. The company opened its Megafactory to build Megapack batteries in Lathrop, California in 2022, and announced in February 2023 that it would establish a large global engineering headquarters in Palo Alto, moving into a corporate campus once owned by Hewlett Packard. In early 2021, Tesla became a major investor in bitcoin, acquiring $1.5 billion of the cryptocurrency, and on March 24, 2021, the company started accepting bitcoin as a form of payment for US vehicle purchases. However, after 49 days, the company ended bitcoin payments over concerns that the production of bitcoin was contributing to the consumption of fossil fuels, against the company's mission of encouraging the transition to sustainable energy. After the announcement, the price of bitcoin dropped around 12%. By July 2022 Tesla had sold about 75% of its bitcoin holdings at a loss, citing that the cryptocurrency was hurting the company's profitability. Between May 2023 and February 2024, almost all major North America EV manufacturers announced plans to switch to Tesla's North American Charging Standard adapters on their EVs by 2025, which is expected to be a stable source of recurring revenue for Tesla. In April 2024, the company announced it was laying off 10% of its employees. Tesla FSD was approved in China in late April 2024. == Automotive products and services == As of November 2023, Tesla offers six vehicle models: Model S, Model X, Model 3, Model Y, Tesla Semi, and Cybertruck. Tesla's first vehicle, the first-generation Tesla Roadster, is no longer sold. Tesla has plans for a second-generation Roadster. === Available products === ==== Model S ==== The Model S is a full-size luxury car with a liftback body style and a dual motor, all-wheel drive layout. Development of the Model S began prior to 2007 and deliveries started in June 2012. The Model S has seen two major design refreshes, first in April 2016 which introduced a new front-end design and again in June 2021 which revised the interior. The Model S was the top-selling plug-in electric car worldwide in 2015 and 2016. More than 250,000 vehicles have been sold as of December 2018 (when Tesla merged production numbers for the Model S and Model X). ==== Model X ==== The Model X is a mid-size luxury crossover SUV offered in 5-, 6- and 7-passenger configurations with either a dual- or tri-motor, all-wheel drive layout. The rear passenger doors open vertically with an articulating "falcon-wing" design. A prototype Model X was first shown in February 2012 and deliveries started in September 2015. The Model X shares around 30 percent of its content with the Model S. The vehicle has seen one major design refresh in June 2021 which revised the interior. ==== Model 3 ==== The Model 3 is a mid-size car with a fastback body style and either a dual-motor, all-wheel drive layout or a rear-motor, rear-wheel drive layout. The vehicle was designed to be more affordable than the luxury Model S sedan. A prototype Model 3 was first shown in 2016 and within a week the company received over 325,000 paid reservations. Deliveries started in July 2017. The Model 3 ranked as the world's bestselling electric car from 2018 to 2021, and cumulative sales passed 1 million in June 2021. The vehicle has seen one major design refresh in September 2023 which revised the exterior and interior. ==== Model Y ==== The Model Y is a mid-size crossover SUV offered in 5- and 7-passenger configurations with a single‐motor, rear-wheel drive or a dual-motor, all-wheel drive layout. The vehicle was designed to be more affordable than the luxury Model X SUV. A prototype Model Y was first shown in March 2019, and deliveries started in March 2020. The Model Y shared around 75 percent of its content with the Model 3. In the first quarter of 2023, the Model Y outsold the Toyota Corolla to become the world's best-selling car, the first electric vehicle to claim the title. ==== Tesla Semi ==== The Tesla Semi is a Class 8 semi-truck by Tesla, Inc. with a tri-motor, rear-wheel drive layout. Tesla claims that the Semi has approximately three times the power of a typical diesel semi truck, a range of 500 miles (800 km). Two prototype trucks were first shown in November 2017 and initial deliveries were made to PepsiCo on December 1, 2022. As of December 2023, the truck remains in pilot production. An update in 2024 indicates full production to occur in 2025. ==== Cybertruck ==== The Cybertruck is a full-sized pickup truck. First announced in November 2019, pilot production began in July 2023, after being pushed back multiple times, and deliveries began on November 30, 2023. Three models are offered: rear-wheel drive, dual-motor all-wheel drive, and tri-motor all-wheel drive, with EPA range estimates of 320–340 miles (510–550 km), depending on the model. The truck's exterior design made from flat sheets of unpainted stainless steel earned a notably polarizing reception from media. === Announced products === ==== Roadster (second generation) ==== On November 16, 2017, Tesla unveiled the second generation Roadster with a purported range of 620 miles (1,000 km) with a 200 kilowatt-hours (720 MJ) battery pack that would achieve 0–60 miles per hour (0–97 km/h) in 1.9 seconds; and 0–100 mph (0–161 km/h) in 4.2 seconds, and a top speed over 250 mph (400 km/h). A "SpaceX Package" would include cold-gas thrusters. The vehicle would have three electric motors, allowing all-wheel drive and torque vectoring during cornering. The base price was set at $200,000. Musk said in May 2023 that the Roadster should ship in 2024. ==== Tesla next-generation vehicle ==== The Tesla next-generation vehicle is an announced battery electric platform. It would become the third platform for the company. Vehicles based on this platform are not expected before 2025. === Discontinued Tesla Roadster === The original Tesla Roadster was a two-seater sports car, evolved from the Lotus Elise chassis. It was produced from 2008 to 2012. The Roadster was the first highway-legal serial production electric car to use lithium-ion battery cells and the first production all-electric car to travel more than 200 miles (320 km) per charge. === Connectivity services === Tesla cars come with "Standard Connectivity", which provides navigation using a cellular connection. For a fee, Tesla offers a subscription to "Premium Connectivity" which adds live traffic and satellite maps to navigation, internet browsing, and media streaming. === Vehicle servicing === Tesla's strategy is to service its vehicles first through remote diagnosis and repair. If it is not possible to resolve a problem remotely, a mobile technician is dispatched or customers are referred to a local Tesla-owned service center. Tesla has said that it does not want to make a profit on vehicle servicing, which has traditionally been a large profit center for most auto dealerships. In 2016, Tesla recommended having any Tesla car inspected every 12,500 miles or once a year, whichever comes first. In early 2019, the manual was changed to say: "your Tesla does not require annual maintenance and regular fluid changes," and instead it recommends periodic servicing of the brake fluid, air conditioning, tires and air filters. === Charging services === ==== Supercharger network ==== Supercharger is the branding used by Tesla for its high-voltage direct current fast chargers. ==== Destination charging location network ==== Tesla also has a network of "Destination Chargers," slower than Superchargers and intended for locations where customers are expected to park and stay for several hours, such as hotels, restaurants, or shopping centers. Unlike the Supercharger network, Tesla does not own the destination chargers, instead, property owners set up the devices and set pricing. When the network first launched in 2014, Tesla provided free charging equipment and covered installation costs. One of the largest providers is hotel chain Hilton Worldwide which in 2023 announced an agreement with Tesla to install 20,000 chargers across 2,000 of its properties in North America by 2025. === Insurance services === Tesla has offered its own vehicle insurance in the United States since 2017 and has been acting as an independent insurance producer since 2021 as Tesla Insurance Services, Inc. It was introduced after the American Automobile Association (AAA), a major insurance carrier, raised rates for Tesla owners in June 2017 after a report concluded that the automakers vehicles crashed more often and were more expensive to repair than comparable vehicles. A study in 2018 based on data from the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety confirmed the findings. The company says that it uniquely understands its vehicles, technology and repair costs, and can eliminate traditional insurance carriers' additional charges. In states where allowed, the company uses individual vehicle data to offer personalized pricing that can increase or decrease in cost based on the prior month's driving safety score. As of January 2023, Tesla offers insurance in the U.S. states of Arizona, California, Colorado, Illinois, Maryland, Minnesota, Nevada, Ohio, Oregon, Texas, Utah and Virginia. The company also offers insurance for non-Tesla vehicles owned by Tesla owners. == Energy products == Tesla subsidiary Tesla Energy develops, builds, sells and installs solar energy generation systems and battery energy storage products (as well as related products and services) to residential, commercial and industrial customers. The subsidiary was created by the merger of Tesla's existing battery energy storage products division with SolarCity, a solar energy company that Tesla acquired in 2016. In 2023, the company deployed 14.7 gigawatt-hours of battery energy storage products, an increase of 125% over 2022, but only deployed solar energy systems capable of generating 223 megawatts, a decrease of 36% over 2022. Tesla Energy products include solar panels (built by other companies for Tesla), the Tesla Solar Roof (a solar shingle system) and the Tesla Solar Inverter. Storage products include the Powerwall (a home energy storage device) and the Megapack (a large-scale energy storage system). For large-scale customers, Tesla Energy operates an online platform which allows for automated, real-time power trading, demand forecasting and product control. In March 2021, the company said its online products were managing over 1.2 GWh of storage. For home customers, the company operates a virtual power company in Texas called Tesla Electric, which utilizes the company's online platforms to manage customers Powerwall devices, discharging them into the grid to sell power when prices are high, earning money for customers. == Business strategy == At the time of Tesla's founding in 2003, electric vehicles were very expensive. In 2006, Elon Musk stated that Tesla's strategy was to first produce high-price, low-volume vehicles, such as sports cars, for which customers are less sensitive to price. This would allow them to progressively bring down the cost of batteries, which in turn would allow them to offer cheaper and higher volume cars. Tesla's first vehicle, the Roadster, was low-volume (fewer than 2,500 were produced) and priced at over $100,000. The next models, the Model S and Model X, are more affordable but still luxury vehicles. The most recent models, the Model 3 and the Model Y, are priced still lower, and aimed at a higher volume market, selling over 100,000 vehicles each quarter. Tesla continuously updates the hardware of its cars rather than waiting for a new model year, as opposed to nearly every other car manufacturer. Unlike other automakers, Tesla does not rely on franchised dealerships to sell vehicles. Instead, the company directly sells vehicles through its website and a network of company-owned stores. The company is the first automaker in the United States to sell cars directly to consumers. Some jurisdictions, particularly in the United States, prohibit auto manufacturers from directly selling vehicles to consumers. In these areas, Tesla has locations that it calls galleries that the company says "educate and inform customers about our products, but such locations do not actually transact in the sale of vehicles." In total, Tesla operates nearly 400 stores and galleries in more than 35 countries. These locations are typically located in retail shopping districts, inside shopping malls, or other high-traffic areas, instead of near other auto dealerships. Analysts describe Tesla as vertically integrated given how it develops many components in-house, such as batteries, motors, and software. The practice of vertical integration is rare in the automotive industry, where companies typically outsource 80% of components to suppliers and focus on engine manufacturing and final assembly. Tesla generally allows its competitors to license its technology, stating that it wants to help its competitors accelerate the world's use of sustainable energy. Licensing agreements include provisions whereby the recipient agrees not to file patent suits against Tesla, or to copy its designs directly. Tesla retains control of its other intellectual property, such as trademarks and trade secrets to prevent direct copying of its technology. On April 15, 2024, Tesla secured a deal with Tata Electronics to supply semiconductor chips, marking a significant step in Tesla's expansion into India's automotive market. On May 2, 2024, Tesla announced that it has abandoned its plan for next-generation gigacasting, a cutting-edge manufacturing technique. Initially aiming to revolutionize production and reduce costs, Tesla has now opted for its more proven method of casting vehicle underbodies in three pieces. This strategic shift reflects the company's focus on self-driving vehicles and adjusting to market challenges. == Technology == Tesla is highly vertically integrated and develops many components in-house, such as batteries, motors, and software. === Batteries === As of 2023, Tesla uses four different battery cell form factors: 18650, 2170, 4680, and prismatic. Tesla purchases these batteries from three suppliers, CATL, LG Energy Solution, and Panasonic, the latter of which has co-located some of its battery production inside Tesla's Gigafactory Nevada. Tesla is also currently building out the capacity to produce its own batteries. Tesla batteries sit under the vehicle floor to save interior space. Tesla uses a multi-part aluminum and titanium protection system to protect the battery from road debris and/or vehicle crashes. Business analysis company BloombergNEF estimated Tesla's battery pack cost in 2021 at $112 per kilowatt-hour (kWh), versus an industry average of $132 per kWh. ==== 18650 ==== Tesla was the first automaker to use cylindrical, lithium-ion battery cells. When it built the first generation Roadster, it used off-the-shelf 18650-type (18 mm diameter, 65 mm height) cylindrical batteries that were already used for other consumer electronics. The cells provided an engineering challenge because each has a relatively low capacity, so thousands needed to be bundled together in a battery pack. Electrical and thermal management also proved to be a challenge, requiring liquid cooling and an intumescent fire prevention chemical. However, the decision proved to be pragmatic because there was already a mature manufacturing process that could produce a high volume of the cells at a consistent quality. Although the 18650-type cells are the oldest technology, they are used in the Model S and X vehicles. Tesla sources these batteries with a nickel-cobalt-aluminum (NCA) cathode chemistry from Panasonic's factories in Japan. ==== 2170 ==== The next battery type to be used was 2170-type (21 mm diameter, 70 mm height) cylindrical cell. The larger size was optimized for electric cars, allowing for a higher capacity per cell and a lower number of cells per battery pack. The 2170 was introduced for the Model 3 and Y vehicles. For vehicles built at the Tesla Fremont Factory, the company sources 2170-type batteries with a nickel-cobalt-aluminum cathode chemistry from Panasonic's production line at Gigafactory Nevada. In January 2021, Panasonic had the capacity to produce 39 GWh per year of battery cells there. Tesla Energy also uses 2170 cells in its Powerwall home energy storage product. For vehicles made at Gigafactory Shanghai and Gigafactory Berlin-Brandenburg batteries with a nickel-cobalt-manganese (NMC) cathode chemistry are sourced from LG Energy Solution's factories in China. ==== 4680 ==== Tesla's latest cylindrical cell design is the 4680-type (46 mm diameter, 80 mm height) introduced in 2021. The battery was developed in-house by Tesla and is physically 5-times bigger than the 2170-type, again allowing for a higher capacity per cell and a lower number of cells per battery pack. Currently, Tesla builds the 4680 cells itself and has not disclosed the cathode chemistry. The company has already opened production lines in Fremont, California, and plans to open lines inside Gigafactory Nevada and Gigafactory Texas. The 4680 cells are used in the Model Y and Cybertruck built at Gigafactory Texas. ==== Prismatic ==== Tesla also uses prismatic (rectangular) cells in many entry-level Model 3 and Model Y vehicles. The prismatic cells are a lithium iron phosphate battery (LFP or LiFePO4) which is a less energy-dense type, but do not contain any nickel or cobalt, which makes it less expensive to produce. Tesla sources these batteries from CATL's factories in China. As of April 2022, nearly half of Tesla's vehicle production used prismatic cells. Tesla Energy also uses prismatic cells in its Megapack grid-scale energy storage product. ==== Research ==== Tesla invests in lithium-ion battery research. In 2016, the company established a 5-year battery research and development partnership at Dalhousie University in Nova Scotia, Canada, with lead researcher Jeff Dahn. Tesla acquired Maxwell Technologies for over $200 million – and sold in 2021. It also acquired Hibar Systems. Tesla purchased several battery manufacturing patent applications from Springpower International, a small Canadian battery company. === Software === Tesla uses over-the-air updates to deliver updates to vehicles, adding features or fixing problems. This is enabled by tight integration between a few powerful onboard computers, compared to the way automakers had previously handled technology, by purchasing off-the-shelf electronic components for each subsystem that typically could not interface at the software level. The system also has allowed Tesla to control which features customers have access to. For example, for ease of assembly all Model 3 vehicles were built with heated rear seats, but only customers who purchased a premium interior could turn them on. However, Tesla has allowed customers who didn't pay for a premium interior to purchase access to the heated rear seats. Tesla uses a similar software lock feature for Enhanced Autopilot and Full-Self Driving features, even though all vehicles are equipped with the computers and cameras necessary to enable those features. === Motors === Tesla makes two kinds of electric motors. Its oldest design in production is a three-phase four-pole alternating current induction motor (asynchronous motor) with a copper rotor (which inspired the Tesla logo). These motors use electromagnetic induction, by varying magnetic field to produce torque. Induction motors are used as the rear motor in the Model S and Model X, as the front motor in the Model 3 and Model Y and were used in the first-generation Roadster. Newer, higher efficiency permanent magnet motors have been in use since the introduction of the Model 3 in 2017. They are currently used as the rear motor in the Model 3 and Model Y, the front motor of 2019-onward versions of the Model S and X, and are expected to be used in the Tesla Semi. The permanent magnet motors are more efficient, especially in stop-start driving. === North American Charging Standard === The North American Charging Standard (NACS) is an electric vehicle charging connector system developed by Tesla. It has been used on all North American market Tesla vehicles since 2012 and was opened for use to other manufacturers in 2022. Since then, nearly every other vehicle manufacturer has announced that starting from 2025, their electric vehicles sold in North America will be equipped with the NACS charge port. Several electric vehicle charging network operators and equipment manufacturers have also announced plans to add NACS connectors. === Autopilot === Autopilot is an advanced driver-assistance system developed by Tesla. The system requires active driver supervision at all times. Since September 2014, all Tesla cars are shipped with sensors (initially hardware version 1 or "HW1") and software to support Autopilot. Tesla upgraded its sensors and software in October 2016 ("HW2") to support full self-driving in the future. HW2 includes eight cameras, twelve ultrasonic sensors, and forward-facing radar. HW2.5 was released in mid-2017, and it upgraded HW2 with a second graphics processing unit (GPU) and, for the Model 3 only, a driver-facing camera. HW3 was released in early 2019 with an updated and more powerful computer, employing a custom Tesla-designed system on a chip. In April 2019, Tesla announced that all of its cars will include Autopilot software (defined as just Traffic-Aware Cruise Control and Autosteer (Beta)) as a standard feature moving forward. Full self-driving software (Autopark, Navigate on Autopilot (Beta), Auto Lane Change (Beta), Summon (Beta), Smart Summon (Beta) and future abilities) is an extra cost option. In 2020, Tesla released software updates where its cars recognize and automatically stop at stop signs and traffic lights. In May 2021, Tesla removed the radar sensor and radar features from its Model 3 and Model Y vehicles, opting instead to rely on camera vision alone. The New York Times reported in December 2021 that Musk "repeatedly told members of the Autopilot team that humans could drive with only two eyes and that this meant cars should be able to drive with cameras alone," an analogy some experts and former Tesla engineers described as "deeply flawed." A statistical analysis conducted in A Methodology for Normalizing Safety Statistics of Partially Automated Vehicles debunked a common Tesla claim that Autopilot reduced crash rates by 40 percent by accounting for the relative safety of the given operating domain when using active safety measures. === Full Self-Driving === Full Self-Driving (FSD) is an optional extension of Autopilot promoted as eventually being able to perform fully autonomous driving. At the end of 2016, Tesla expected to demonstrate full autonomy by the end of 2017, which as of July 2022 has not occurred. The first beta version of the software was released on October 22, 2020, to a small group of testers. The release of the beta has renewed concern regarding whether the technology is ready for testing on public roads. The National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) has called for "tougher requirements" for any testing of Autopilot on public roads. Tesla's approach to achieve full autonomy is different from that of other companies. Whereas Waymo, Cruise, and other companies are relying on highly detailed (centimeter-scale) three-dimensional maps, lidar, and cameras, as well as radar and ultrasonic sensors in their autonomous vehicles, Tesla's approach is to use coarse-grained two-dimensional maps and cameras (no lidar) as well as radar and ultrasonic sensors. Tesla claims that although its approach is much more difficult, it will ultimately be more useful, because its vehicles will be able to self-drive without geofencing concerns. Tesla's self-driving software has been trained on over 20 billion miles driven by Tesla vehicles as of January 2021. Tesla also designed a self-driving computer chip that has been installed in its cars since March 2019. Most experts believe that Tesla's approach of trying to achieve full self-driving by eschewing lidar and high-definition maps is not feasible. In March 2021, according to a letter that Tesla sent to the California Department of Motor Vehicles about FSD's capability – acquired by PlainSite via a public records request – Tesla stated that FSD is not capable of autonomous driving and is only at Society of Automotive Engineers Level 2 automation. In a May 2021 study by Guidehouse Insights, Tesla was ranked last for both strategy and execution in the autonomous driving sector. In October 2021, the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) called on Tesla to change the design of its Autopilot to ensure it cannot be misused by drivers, according to a letter sent to Musk. === Robotics === Ahead of the start of production of the Model 3, Tesla invested heavily in robotics and automation to assemble vehicles. To that end, between 2015 and 2017, the company purchased several companies involved in automation and robotics including Compass Automation, Grohmann Automation, Perbix Machine Company, and Riviera Tool and Die. Elon Musk later admitted that the robotics actually slowed the production of the vehicles. Tesla uses massive casting machines (Giga Press) to make large single pieces of vehicle underbodies and to streamline production. The approach saves time, labor, cost and factory space, replacing multiple robots that weld car parts together with a single machine. Critics note that reducing the number of components makes the vehicles harder or more expensive to repair after an accident. In September 2022, Tesla revealed prototypes of a humanoid robot named Optimus, which Musk has stated uses the same core software as FSD. During the presentations at Tesla's AI Day 2022, Musk suggested that, among other use cases, the finalized version of Optimus could be used in Tesla's car factories to help with repetitive tasks and relieve labor shortages. In July 2023, Tesla acquired Wiferion, a Germany-based developer of wireless charging systems for industrial vehicles and autonomous robots, which has since been operating as Tesla Engineering Germany GmbH. Tesla sold the business to Munich-based Puls Group three months later, but retained its staff. === Glass === In November 2016, the company announced the Tesla Glass technology group. The group produced the roof glass for the Tesla Model 3. It also produces the glass used in the Tesla Solar Roof's solar shingles. == Facilities == The company operates seven large factories and about a dozen smaller factories around the world. As of 2024, the company also operates more than 1,200 retail stores, galleries, service, delivery and body shop locations globally. === North America === Tesla was founded in San Carlos, California in 2003. In 2008, the company opened its first production facility at a former Chevrolet dealership in Menlo Park, California. The original roadster was assembled inside the service bays until 2012 and used the company showroom as a retail store. Another retail store was opened in Los Angeles the same year. In 2010, Tesla moved its corporate headquarters and opened a powertrain development facility in Palo Alto. Tesla's first major assembly plant occupies the former NUMMI plant in Fremont, California, known as the Tesla Fremont Factory. The factory was originally opened by General Motors in 1962, and then operated by NUMMI, a joint venture of GM and Toyota from 1984. The joint venture ended when GM entered bankruptcy in 2009. In 2010, Toyota agreed to sell the plant to Tesla at a significant discount. Tesla's first purpose-built facility was opened in Nevada in 2016. Gigafactory Nevada produces the Powerwall, battery cells in partnership with Panasonic, Model 3 drivetrains, and the Tesla Semi. The factory received substantial subsidies (abatements and credits) from the local and state government, that, in exchange for opening in their jurisdiction, allowed Tesla to operate essentially tax free for 10 years, later extended to 20 years in exchange for expanding the factory to add a production line for the Tesla Semi and add additional battery manufacturing capacity. As part of the acquisition of SolarCity in 2016, Tesla gained control of Gigafactory New York in Buffalo on the site of a former Republic Steel plant. The state of New York spent cash to build and equip the factory through the Buffalo Billion program. In 2017, the factory started production of the Tesla Solar Roof, but faced multiple production challenges. Since 2020, Tesla has also assembled Superchargers in New York. The plant has been criticized for offering little economic benefit for the state funding. In 2018, Tesla assembled tension fabric buildings at the Fremont plant to meet production goals of 5,000 cars produced a month. The structure was assembled in two weeks and measured 53 feet high, 150 feet wide, and 900 feet long. On July 23, 2020, Tesla picked Austin, Texas, as the site of its fifth Gigafactory, since then known as Gigafactory Texas. Giga Texas is the only factory that produces the Tesla Cybertruck and produces Model Y cars for the Eastern United States. On December 1, 2021, Tesla announced it relocated its legal headquarters from Palo Alto to the Gigafactory Texas site in Austin. However, Tesla has retained the Palo Alto building. On April 7, 2022, Tesla celebrated the opening of Gigafactory Texas in a public event. Tesla acquired a former JC Penney distribution center near Lathrop, California, in 2021 to build the "Megafactory" to manufacture the Megapack, the company's large scale energy storage product. The location opened in 2022. Tesla announced in February it would open a new global engineering headquarters in Palo Alto, moving into a corporate campus once owned by Hewlett Packard, located a couple of miles from Tesla's former headquarters building. Tesla plans to open Gigafactory Mexico, the company's sixth Gigafactory near Monterrey, Mexico in 2025. === Europe === Tesla opened its first European store in June 2009 in London. Tesla's European headquarters are in the Netherlands, part of a group of Tesla facilities in Tilburg, including the company's European Distribution Centre. In late 2016, Tesla acquired German engineering firm Grohmann Engineering as a new division dedicated to helping Tesla increase the automation and effectiveness of its manufacturing process. After winding down existing contracts with other manufacturers, the renamed Tesla Automation now works exclusively on Tesla projects. Tesla announced its plans to build a car and battery factory in Europe in 2016. Several countries campaigned to be the host, and eventually Germany was chosen in November 2019. On March 22, 2022, Tesla's first European Gigafactory named Gigafactory Berlin-Brandenburg opened with planned capacity to produce 500,000 electric vehicles annually as well as batteries for the cars. === Asia === Tesla opened its first showroom in Asia in Tokyo, Japan, in October 2010. In July 2018, Tesla signed an agreement with Chinese authorities to build a factory in Shanghai, China, which was Tesla's first Gigafactory outside of the United States. The factory building was finished in August 2019, and the initial Tesla Model 3s were in production from Gigafactory Shanghai in October 2019. In 2021, China accounted for 26% of Tesla sales revenue, and was the second largest market for Tesla after the United States, which accounted for 45% of its sales. Tesla has expressed interest in expanding to India and perhaps building a future Gigafactory in the country. The company established a legal presence in the nation in 2021 and plans to open an office in Pune starting in October 2023. == Partners == === Panasonic === In January 2010, Tesla and battery cell maker Panasonic announced that they would together develop nickel-based lithium-ion battery cells for electric vehicles. The partnership was part of Panasonic's $1 billion investment over three years in facilities for lithium-ion cell research, development and production. Beginning in 2010, Panasonic invested $30 million for a multi-year collaboration on new battery cells designed specifically for electric vehicles. In July 2014, Panasonic reached a basic agreement with Tesla to participate in battery production at Giga Nevada. Tesla and Panasonic also collaborated on the manufacturing and production of photovoltaic (PV) cells and modules at the Giga New York factory in Buffalo, New York. The partnership started in mid-2017 and ended in early 2020, before Panasonic exited the solar business entirely in January 2021. In March 2021, the outgoing CEO of Panasonic stated that the company plans to reduce its reliance on Tesla as their battery partnership evolves. === Other current partners === Tesla has long-term contracts in place for lithium supply. In September 2020, Tesla signed a sales agreement with Piedmont Lithium to buy high-purity lithium ore for up to ten years, specifically to supply "spodumene concentrate from Piedmont's North Carolina mineral deposit". In 2022, Tesla contracted for 110,000 tonnes of spodumene concentrate over four years from the Core Lithium's lithium mine in the Northern Territory of Australia. Tesla also has a range of minor partnerships, for instance working with Airbnb and hotel chains to install destination chargers at selected locations. === Former partners === ==== Daimler ==== Daimler and Tesla began working together in late 2007. On May 19, 2009, Daimler bought a stake of less than 10% in Tesla for a reported $50 million. As part of the collaboration, Herbert Kohler, vice-president of E-Drive and Future Mobility at Daimler, took a Tesla board seat. On July 13, 2009, Daimler sold 40% of its acquisition to Aabar, an investment company controlled by the International Petroleum Investment Company owned by the government of Abu Dhabi. In October 2014, Daimler sold its remaining holdings for a reported $780 million. Tesla supplied battery packs for Freightliner Trucks in 2010. The company also built electric-powertrain components for the Mercedes-Benz A-Class E-Cell, with 500 cars planned to be built for trial in Europe beginning in September 2011. Tesla produced and co-developed the Mercedes-Benz B250e's powertrain, which ended production in 2017. The electric motor was rated 134 hp (100 kW) and 230 pound force-feet (310 N⋅m), with a 36 kWh (130 MJ) battery. The vehicle had a driving range of 200 km (124 mi) with a top speed of 150 km/h (93 mph). Daimler division Smart produced the Smart ED2 cars from 2009 to 2012 which had a 14-kilowatt-hour (50 MJ) lithium-ion battery from Tesla. ==== Toyota ==== In May 2010, Tesla and Toyota announced a deal in which Tesla purchased the former NUMMI factory from Toyota for $42 million, Toyota purchased $50 million in Tesla stock, and the two companies collaborated on an electric vehicle. In July 2010, the companies announced they would work together on a second generation Toyota RAV4 EV. The vehicle was unveiled at the October 2010 Los Angeles Auto Show and 35 pilot vehicles were built for a demonstration and evaluation program that ran through 2011. Tesla supplied the lithium metal-oxide battery and other powertrain components based on components from the Roadster. The production version was unveiled in August 2012, using battery pack, electronics and powertrain components from the Tesla Model S sedan (also launched in 2012). The RAV4 EV had a limited production run which resulted in just under 3,000 vehicles being produced, before it was discontinued in 2014. According to Bloomberg News, the partnership between Tesla and Toyota was "marred by clashes between engineers". Toyota engineers rejected designs that Tesla had proposed for an enclosure to protect the RAV4 EV's battery pack. Toyota took over responsibility for the enclosure's design and strengthened it. In 2014, Tesla ended up adding a titanium plate to protect the Model S sedan's battery after some debris-related crashes lead to cars catching fire. On June 5, 2017, Toyota announced that it had sold all of its shares in Tesla and halted the partnership. ==== Mobileye ==== Initial versions of Autopilot were developed in partnership with Mobileye beginning in 2014. Mobileye ended the partnership on July 26, 2016, citing "disagreements about how the technology was deployed." == Lawsuits and controversies == === Sexual harassment === In 2021, seven women came forward with claims of having faced sexual harassment and discrimination while working at Tesla's Fremont factory. They accused the company of facilitating a culture of rampant sexual harassment. The women said they were consistently subjected to catcalling, unwanted advances, unwanted touching, and discrimination while at work. "I was so tired of the unwanted attention and the males gawking at me I proceeded to create barriers around me just so I could get some relief," Brooks told The Washington Post. "That was something I felt necessary just so I can do my job." Stories range from intimate groping to being called out to the parking lot for sex. Women feared calling Human Resources for help as their supervisors were often participants. Musk himself is not indicted, but most of the women pressing charges believe their abuse is connected to the behavior of CEO Elon Musk. They cite his crude remarks about women's bodies, wisecracks about starting a university that abbreviated to "T.IT.S", and his generally dismissive attitude towards reporting sexual harassment. "What we're addressing for each of the lawsuits is just a shocking pattern of rampant harassment that exists at Tesla," said attorney David A. Lowe. In 2017, another woman had accused Tesla of very similar behavior and was subsequently fired. In a statement to the Guardian, Tesla confirmed the company had fired her, saying it had thoroughly investigated the employee's allegations with the help of "a neutral, third-party expert" and concluded her complaints were unmerited. In May 2022, a California judge ruled that the sexual harassment lawsuit could move to court, rejecting Tesla's request for closed-door arbitration. === Labor disputes === ==== United States ==== In June 2016, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) took issue with Tesla's use of nondisclosure agreements (NDAs) regarding customer repairs and, in October 2021, the NHTSA formally asked Tesla to explain its NDA policy regarding customers invited into the FSD Beta. Tesla has used NDAs on multiple occasions with both employees and customers to allegedly prevent possible negative coverage. From 2014 to 2018, Tesla's Fremont Factory had three times as many Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) violations as the ten largest U.S. auto plants combined. An investigation by the Reveal podcast alleged that Tesla "failed to report some of its serious injuries on legally mandated reports" to downplay the extent of injuries. In January 2019, former Tesla security manager Sean Gouthro filed a whistleblower complaint alleging that the company had hacked employees' phones and spied on them, while also failing to report illegal activities to the authorities and shareholders. Several legal cases have revolved around alleged whistleblower retaliation by Tesla. These include the dismissal of Tesla safety official Carlos Ramirez and Tesla security employee Karl Hansen. In 2020, the court ordered Hansen's case to arbitration. In June 2022, the arbitrator filed an unopposed motion with the court stating Hansen "has failed to establish the claims...Accordingly his claims are denied, and he shall take nothing". In September 2019, a California judge ruled that 12 actions in 2017 and 2018 by Musk and other Tesla executives violated labor laws because they sabotaged employee attempts to unionize. In March 2021, the US National Labor Relations Board ordered Musk to remove a tweet and reinstate a fired employee over union organization activities. Later, after appealing, a federal appeals court upheld the decision. The California Civil Rights Department filed a suit in 2022 alleging "a pattern of racial harassment and bias" at the Tesla Fremont factory. As of April 2023, the department is also conducting a probe of the factory based on a 2021 complaint and claims that Tesla has been obstructing the investigation. ==== Europe ==== In October 2023, a strike was initiated by the Swedish labor union IF Metall against a Tesla subsidiary due to the company's refusal to sign a collective agreement. The strike initially involved approximately 120 mechanics at ten workshops servicing Tesla vehicles and later expanded via solidarity strikes to include services provided by postmen, electricians, and other workers involved with Tesla operations. === Fraud allegations === There have been numerous concerns about Tesla's financial reporting. In 2013, Bloomberg News questioned whether Tesla's financial reporting violated Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP) reporting standards. Fortune accused Tesla in 2016 of using creative accounting to show positive cash flow and quarterly profits. In 2018, analysts expressed concerns over Tesla's accounts receivable balance. In September 2019, the SEC questioned Tesla CFO Zach Kirkhorn about Tesla's warranty reserves and lease accounting. In a letter to his clients, hedge fund manager David Einhorn, whose firm suffered losses from its short position against Tesla that quarter, accused Elon Musk in November 2019 of "significant fraud", and publicly questioned Tesla's accounting practices, telling Musk that he was "beginning to wonder whether your accounts receivable exist." From 2012 to 2014, Tesla earned more than $295 million in Zero Emission Vehicle credits for a battery-swapping technology that was never made available to customers. Staff at California Air Resources Board were concerned that Tesla was "gaming" the battery swap subsidies and in 2013 recommended eliminating the credits. A consolidated shareholders lawsuit alleges that Musk knew SolarCity was going broke before the acquisition, that he and the Tesla board overpaid for SolarCity, ignored their conflicts of interest and breached their fiduciary duties in connection with the deal, and failed to disclose "troubling facts" essential to an analysis of the proposed acquisition. The members of the board settled in 2020, leaving Musk as the only defendant. In April 2022, the Delaware Court of Chancery ruled in favor of Musk, and its ruling was upheld by the Delaware Supreme Court in June 2023. In August 2018, Elon Musk tweeted, "Am considering taking Tesla private at $420. Funding secured." The tweet caused the stock to initially rise but then drop when it was revealed to be false. Musk settled fraud charges with the US Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) over his false statements in September 2018. According to the terms of the settlement, Musk agreed to have his tweets reviewed by Tesla's in-house counsel, he was removed from his chairman role at Tesla temporarily, and two new independent directors were appointed to the company's board. Tesla and Musk also paid civil penalties of $20 million each. A civil class-action shareholder lawsuit over Musk's statements and other derivative lawsuits were also filed against Musk and the members of Tesla's board of directors, as then constituted, in regard to claims and actions made that were associated with potentially going private. In February 2023, a California jury unanimously found Musk and Tesla not liable in the class-action lawsuit. In September 2018, Tesla disclosed that it was under investigation by the US Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) regarding its Model 3 production figures. Authorities were investigating whether the company misled investors and made projections about its Model 3 production that it knew would be impossible to meet. A stockholder class action lawsuit against Tesla related to Model 3 production numbers (unrelated to the FBI investigation) was dismissed in March 2019. In May 2024, Reuters reported that US federal prosecutors were investigating whether the company committed securities or wire fraud by "misleading investors and consumers" about Autopilot and Full Self-Driving. === Tesla US dealership disputes === Unlike other automakers, Tesla does not rely on franchised auto dealerships to sell vehicles and instead directly sells vehicles through its website and a network of company-owned stores. In some areas, Tesla operates locations called "galleries" which "educate and inform customers about our products, but such locations do not actually transact in the sale of vehicles." This is because some jurisdictions, particularly in the United States, prohibit auto manufacturers from directly selling vehicles to consumers. Dealership associations have filed lawsuits to prevent direct sales. These associations argued that the franchise system protects consumers by encouraging dealers to compete with each other, lowering the price a customer pays. They also claimed that direct sales would allow manufacturers to undersell their own dealers. The United States Federal Trade Commission ultimately disproved the associations' claims and recommended allowing direct manufacturer sale, which they concluded would save consumers 8% in average vehicle price. Tesla has also lobbied state governments for the right to directly sell cars. The company has argued that directly operating stores improves consumer education about electric vehicles, because dealerships would sell both Tesla and gas-powered vehicles. Doing this, according to the company, would then set up a conflict of interest for the dealers since properly advertising the benefits of an electric car would disparage the gas-powered vehicles, creating a disincentive to dealership EV sales. Musk himself further contended that dealers would have a disincentive to sell electric vehicles because they require less maintenance and therefore would reduce after-sales service revenue, a large profit center for most dealerships. === Intellectual property === In January 2021, Tesla filed a lawsuit against Alex Khatilov alleging that the former employee stole company information by downloading files related to its Warp Drive software to his personal Dropbox account. Khatilov denies the allegation that he was acting as a "willful and malicious thief" and attributes his actions to an accidental data transfer. The case was settled in August 2021 through mediation. Tesla has sued former employees in the past for similar actions, including those who left to work for a rival such as XPeng and Zoox; for example, Guangzhi Cao, a Tesla engineer, was accused of uploading Tesla Autopilot source code to his iCloud account; Tesla and Cao settled in April 2021, in which Cao was ordered to monetarily compensate Tesla. === Misappropriation === In 2018, a class action was filed against Musk and the members of Tesla's board alleging they breached their fiduciary duties by approving Musk's stock-based compensation plan. Musk received the first portion of his stock options payout, worth more than $700 million in May 2020. In July 2023, Tesla board members returned $735 million to the company to settle a claim from a 2020 lawsuit alleging misappropriation of 11 million stock options granted to Elon Musk, Kimbal Musk, Larry Ellison, and others from 2017 to 2020. === Environmental violations === In 2019, The United States Environmental Protection Agency fined Tesla for hazardous waste violations that occurred in 2017. In June 2019, Tesla began negotiating penalties for 19 environmental violations from the Bay Area Air Quality Management District; the violations took place around Tesla Fremont's paint shop, where there had been at least four fires between 2014 and 2019. Environmental violations and permit deviations at Tesla's Fremont Factory increased from 2018 to 2019 with the production ramp of the Model 3. In June 2018, Tesla employee Martin Tripp leaked information that Tesla was scrapping or reworking up to 40% of its raw materials at the Nevada Gigafactory. After Tesla fired him for the leak, Tripp filed a lawsuit and claimed Tesla's security team gave police a false tip that he was planning a mass shooting at the Nevada factory. The court ruled in Tesla's favor on September 17, 2020. In January 2024, 25 California counties sued Tesla, accusing the company of violating state health and safety codes by illegally disposing of hazardous waste. Later that week, the case was settled on the conditions that Tesla pay US$1.5 million and admit to acting "intentionally" and "negligent". On top of that, Tesla also agreed to train its employees on hazardous waste disposal and to have 10 percent of Tesla's facilities audited for waste disposal for the next 5 years. === Property damage === In August 2019, Walmart filed a multi-million-dollar lawsuit against Tesla, claiming that Tesla's "negligent installation and maintenance" of solar panels caused roof fires at seven Walmart stores dating back to 2012. Walmart reached a settlement with Tesla in November 2019; the terms of the settlement were not disclosed. In April 2021, a Norwegian judge found Tesla guilty of throttling charging speed through a 2019 over-the-air software update, after they failed to respond to the lawsuit. The 30 customers who were part of the lawsuit were awarded 136,000 Norwegian kroner each ($16,000). === Racism === Tesla has faced numerous complaints regarding workplace harassment and racial discrimination, with one former Tesla worker who attempted to sue the employer describing it as "a hotbed of racist behavior". As of December 2021, three percent of leadership at the company are African American. A former black worker described the work environment at Tesla's Buffalo plant as a "very racist place". Tesla and SpaceX's treatment of Juneteenth in 2020 also came under fire. Approximately 100 former employees have submitted signed statements alleging that Tesla discriminates specifically against African Americans and "allows a racist environment in its factories." According to the state's Department of Fair Employment and Housing, the Fremont factory is a racially segregated place where Black employees claim they are given the most menial and physically demanding work. The accusations of racism culminated in February 2022 with the California Department of Fair Employment and Housing suing Tesla for "discriminating against its Black workers." In July 2021, former employee Melvin Berry received $1 million in his discrimination case in arbitration against Tesla after he claimed he was referred to by the n-word and forced to work longer hours at the Fremont plant. In October 2021, a jury verdict in the Owen Diaz vs. Tesla trial awarded the plaintiff $137 million in damages after he had faced racial harassment at Tesla's Fremont facility during 2015–2016. In a blog, Tesla stressed that Diaz was never "really" a Tesla worker, and that most utterings of the n-word were expressed in a friendly manner. In April 2022, federal judge William Orrick upheld the jury finding of Tesla's liability but reduced the total damage down to $15 million. Diaz was given a two-week deadline to decide if he would collect the damages. In June 2022, Diaz announced that he would be rejecting the $15 million award, opening the door for a new trial. In April 2023, Diaz was awarded $3.2 million in the new trial. Few of these cases against Tesla ever make it to trial as most employees are made to sign arbitration agreements. Employees are afterwards required to resolve such disputes out of court, and behind closed doors. === COVID-19 pandemic === Tesla's initial response to the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States has been the subject of considerable criticism. Musk had sought to exempt the Tesla Fremont factory in Alameda County, California from the government's stay-at-home orders. In an earnings call in April, he was heard calling the public health orders "fascist". He had also called the public's response to the pandemic "dumb" and had said online that there would be zero cases by April. In May 2020, while Alameda County officials were negotiating with the company to reopen the Fremont Factory on the 18th, Musk defied local government orders by restarting production on the 11th. Tesla also sued Alameda County, questioning the legality of the orders, but backed down after the Fremont Factory was given approval to reopen. In June 2020, Tesla published a detailed plan for bringing employees back to work and keeping them safe, however some employees still expressed concern for their health. In May 2020, Musk told workers that they could stay home if they felt uncomfortable coming back to work. But in June, Tesla fired an employee who criticized the company for taking inadequate safety measures to protect workers from the coronavirus at the Fremont Factory. Three more employees at Tesla's Fremont Factory claimed they were fired for staying home out of fear of catching COVID-19. This was subsequently denied by Tesla, which even stated that the employees were still on the payroll. COVID-19 cases at the factory grew from 10 in May 2020 to 125 in December 2020, with about 450 total cases in that time period out of the approximately 10,000 workers at the plant (4.5%). In China, Tesla had what one executive described as "not a green light from the government to get back to work – but a flashing-sirens police escort." Tesla enjoyed special treatment and strong government support in China, including tax breaks, cheap financing, and assistance in building its Giga Shanghai factory at breakneck speeds. Musk has praised China's way of doing things, a controversial stance due to deteriorating U.S.–Chinese relations, the Persecution of Uyghurs in China, and alleged human rights abuses in Hong Kong. === Right to repair === In March 2023, a class action antitrust lawsuit was filed against Tesla by Virginia M. Lambrix in San Francisco, California, alleging that the company unlawfully monopolized the market for maintenance and repair of its vehicles in violation of the Sherman Act and California antitrust law, as a result of which owners were "forced to pay supracompetitive prices and suffer exorbitant wait times" for maintenance services and repair parts. The lawsuit was later combined with four other similar suits. While six out of eight alleged antitrust violations were dismissed, in June 2024 US District Judge Trina Thompson allowed two claims to proceed, including alleged violations of California’s Cartwright Act and Unfair Competition Law (UCL), with the court finding evidence of a repairs monopoly in Tesla's designing of its vehicles to require diagnostic and software updates that only the company could provide, and evidence of a parts monopoly in Tesla's restricting original equipment manufacturers from selling "to anyone other than Tesla." == Criticism == === Data privacy === Tesla was only the second product ever reviewed by Mozilla foundation which ticked all of their privacy concerns. A Tesla owner filed a lawsuit in 2023 following a Reuters report that Tesla employees shared "highly invasive videos and images recorded by customers' car cameras" with one another. Internal data troves shared with various international government agencies and news organizations by former employee and whistleblower Lukasz Krupski in late 2023 implicated Tesla in "serious data protection lapse[s]." The data Krupski retrieved included "information about current and former Tesla staff, including passport numbers, medical details and salaries" and was readily available on internal systems that most employees had access to. As of November 2023, the Data Protection Authority in the Netherlands is investigating whether Tesla's alleged lack of internal security violated privacy laws. === Short sellers === TSLAQ is a collective of Tesla critics and short sellers who aim to "shape [the] perception [of Tesla] and move its stock." In January 2020, 20% of Tesla stock was shorted, the highest at that time of any stock in the U.S. equity markets. By early 2021, according to CNN, short sellers had lost $40 billion during 2020 as the stock price climbed much higher. Michael Burry, a short seller portrayed in The Big Short, had shorted Tesla previously via his firm Scion Asset Management, but removed his position in October 2021. === Tesla's mission === According to automotive journalist Jamie Kitman, when multiple CEOs of major automotive manufacturers approached Tesla for EV technology that Musk had claimed the company was willing to share, they instead were offered the opportunity to buy regulatory credits from Tesla. This suggested, according to Kitman, that "the company may not be as eager for the electric revolution to occur as it claims." === Giga New York audit === In 2020, the New York State Comptroller released an audit of the Giga New York factory project, concluding that it presented many red flags, including lack of basic due diligence and that the factory itself produced only $0.54 in economic benefits for every $1 spent by the state. === Delays === Musk has been criticized for repeated pushing out both production and release dates of products. By one count in 2016, Musk had missed 20 projections. In October 2017, Musk predicted that Model 3 production would be 5,000 units per week by December. A month later, he revised that target to "sometime in March" 2018. Delivery dates for the Model 3 were delayed as well. Other projects like converting supercharger stations to be solar-powered have also lagged projections. Musk responded in late 2018: "punctuality is not my strong suit...I never made a mass-produced car. How am I supposed to know with precision when it's gonna get done?" == Vehicle product issues == === Recalls === On April 20, 2017, Tesla issued a worldwide recall of 53,000 (~70%) of the 76,000 vehicles it sold in 2016 due to faulty parking brakes which could become stuck and "prevent the vehicles from moving". On March 29, 2018, Tesla issued a worldwide recall of 123,000 Model S cars built before April 2016 due to corrosion-susceptible power steering bolts, which could fail and require the driver to use "increased force" to control the vehicle. In October 2020, Tesla initiated a recall of nearly 50,000 Model X and Y vehicles throughout China for suspension issues. Soon after in November, the NHTSA announced it had opened its own investigation into 115,000 Tesla cars regarding "front suspension safety issues", citing specifically 2015–2017 Model S and 2016–2017 Model X years. Cases of the "whompy wheel" phenomenon, which also included Model X and the occasional Model 3 cars, have been documented through 2020. In February 2021, Tesla was required by the NHTSA to recall 135,000 Model S and Model X vehicles built from 2012 to 2018 due to using a flash memory device that was rated to last only 5 to 6 years. The problem was related to touchscreen failures that could possibly affect the rear-view camera, safety systems, Autopilot and other features. The underlying technical reason is that the car writes a large amount of syslog content to the device, wearing it out prematurely. Also in February 2021, the German Federal Motor Transport Authority (KBA) ordered Tesla to recall 12,300 Model X cars because of "body mouldings problems". In June 2021, Tesla recalled 5,974 electric vehicles due to worries that brake caliper bolts might become loose, which could lead to loss of tire pressure, potentially increasing the chance of a crash. On December 30, 2021, Tesla announced that they are recalling more than 475,000 US model vehicles. This included 356,309 Model 3 Tesla vehicles from 2017 to 2020 due to rear-view camera issues and a further 119,009 Tesla Model S vehicles due to potential problems with the trunk or boot. The Model S recall includes vehicles manufactured between 2014 and 2021. Around 1% of recalled Model 3s may have a defective rear-view camera, and around 14% of recalled model S' may have the defect. The recall was not linked to a contemporaneous issue regarding the Passenger Play feature, which allowed games to be played on the touchscreen while the car is in motion. After an investigation was launched by the NHTSA covering 585,000 vehicles, Tesla agreed to make changes where the feature would be locked and unusable while the car is moving. In September 2022, Tesla announced that they are recalling almost 1.1 million US model vehicles because the automatic window reversal system might not react correctly after detecting an obstruction, increasing the risk of injury. In response, Tesla announced an over-the-air software fix. In February 2023, Tesla recalled its FSD software following a recommendation from NHTSA; the recall applied to approximately 360,000 cars. NHTSA found that FSD caused "unreasonable risk" when used on city streets. In March 2023, about 3,500 Model Y Teslas were recalled for a bolting issue concerning the cars' second-row seats. In December 2023, following a 2-year-long investigation by the NHTSA, Tesla issued a wider recall on all vehicles equipped with any version of Autosteer, including 2012–2023 Model S; 2016–2023 Model X; 2017–2023 Model 3; and 2020–2023 Model Y, covering 2,031,220 vehicles in total. The NHTSA concluded that Autosteer's controls were not sufficient to prevent misuse and did not ensure that the drivers maintained "continuous and sustained responsibility for vehicle operation" and states that affected vehicles will receive an over-the-air software remedy. === Fires === Tesla customers have reported the company as being "slow" to address how their cars can ignite. In 2013, a Model S caught fire after the vehicle hit metal debris on a highway in Kent, Washington. Tesla confirmed the fire began in the battery pack and was caused by the impact of an object. As a result of this and other incidents, Tesla announced its decision to extend its current vehicle warranty to cover fire damage. In March 2014, the NHTSA announced that it had closed the investigation into whether the Model S was prone to catch fire, after Tesla said it would provide more protection to its battery packs. All Model S cars manufactured after March 6, 2014, have had the 0.25-inch (6.4 mm) aluminum shield over the battery pack replaced with a new three-layer shield. In October 2019, the NHTSA opened an investigation into possible battery defects in Tesla's Model S and X vehicles from 2012 to 2019 that could cause "non-crash" fires. === Autopilot crashes === A Model S driver died in a collision with a tractor-trailer in 2016, while the vehicle was in Autopilot mode; the driver is believed to be the first person to have died in a Tesla vehicle in Autopilot. The NHTSA investigated the accident but found no safety-related defect trend. In March 2018, a driver of a Tesla Model X was killed in a crash. Investigators say that the driver of the vehicle had his car in 'self-driving' mode and was using his phone to play games when the vehicle collided with the barrier in the middle of the freeway. Through investigation, the NTSB found that the Tesla malfunctioned due to the system being confused by an exit on the freeway. According to a document released in June 2021, the NHTSA has initiated at least 30 investigations into Tesla crashes that were believed to involve the use of Autopilot, with some involving fatalities. In early September 2021, the NHTSA updated the list with an additional fatality incident and ordered Tesla to hand over all extensive data pertaining to US cars with Autopilot to determine if there is a safety defect that leads Tesla cars to collide with first-responder vehicles. In late September 2021, Tesla released an over-the-air software update to detect emergency lights at night. In October 2021, the NHTSA asked Tesla why it did not issue a recall when it sent out that update. In June 2022, the NHTSA said it would expand its probe, extending it to 830,000 cars from all current Tesla models. The probe will be moved up from the Preliminary Evaluation level to the Engineering Analysis one. The regulator cited the reason for the expansion as the need to "explore the degree to which Autopilot and associated Tesla systems may exacerbate human factors or behavioral safety risks by undermining the effectiveness of the driver's supervision." A safety test conducted by the Dawn Project in August 2022 demonstrated that a test driver using the beta version of Full Self-Driving repeatedly hit a child-sized mannequin in its path, but there has been controversy over its conclusions. Several Tesla owners responded by conducting their own, independent tests using children; NHTSA released a statement warning against the practice. === Software hacking === In August 2015, two researchers said they were able to take control of a Tesla Model S by hacking into the car's entertainment system. The hack required the researchers to physically access the car. Tesla issued a security update for the Model S the day after the exploit was announced. In September 2016, researchers at Tencent's Keen Security Lab demonstrated a remote attack on a Tesla Model S and controlled the vehicle in both Parking and Driving Mode without physical access. They were able to compromise the automotive networking bus (CAN bus) when the vehicle's web browser was used while the vehicle was connected to a malicious Wi-Fi hotspot. This was the first case of a remote control exploit demonstrated on a Tesla. The vulnerability was disclosed to Tesla under their bug bounty program and patched within 10 days, before the exploit was made public. Tencent also hacked the doors of a Model X in 2017. In January 2018, security researchers informed Tesla that an Amazon Web Services account of theirs could be accessed directly from the Internet and that the account had been exploited for cryptocurrency mining. Tesla responded by securing the compromised system, rewarding the security researchers financially via their bug bounty program, and stating that the compromise did not violate customer privacy, nor vehicle safety or security. Later in 2019, Tesla awarded a car and $375,000 to ethical hackers during a Pwn2Own Model 3 hacking event. In June 2022, Martin Herfurt, a security researcher in Austria, discovered that changes made to make Tesla vehicles easier to start with NFC cards also allowed for pairing new keys to the vehicle, allowing an attacker to enroll their own keys to a vehicle. === Phantom braking === In February 2022, Tesla drivers have reported a surge in "phantom braking" events when using Tesla Autopilot which coincides with the automaker's removal of radar as a supplemental sensor in May 2021. In response, NHTSA has opened an investigation. In May 2023, German business newspaper Handelsblatt published a series of articles based on a trove of internal Tesla data submitted to them from informants. The 100 gigabytes of data "contain[ed] over 1,000 accident reports involving phantom braking or unintended acceleration" as well as complaints about Tesla Autopilot. Dutch authorities responded by saying they were investigating the company for possible data privacy violations. === Driving range performance === Tesla has received thousands of complaints from owners that the driving ranges of their vehicles did not meet the ranges advertised by Tesla or the projections of in-dash range meters. When service centers were overwhelmed with appointments to take care of these issues, Tesla established a diversion team to cancel as many appointments as possible. Customers were told that remote diagnostics had determined there was no problem and their appointments were canceled. The company has been fined by South Korean regulators for its exaggerated range estimates. == Vehicle sales == In 2023, Tesla ranked as the world's bestselling battery electric passenger car manufacturer, with a market share of 19.9%. Tesla reported 2023 vehicle deliveries of 1.8 million units, up 38% from 2022. In March 2024, Tesla produced its six millionth car. In Q4 2023, BYD took over the top spot for EVs shipped, but Tesla regained the title in Q1 2024. === Production and sales by quarter === Tesla deliveries vary significantly by month due to regional issues such as availability of car carriers and registration. On March 9, 2020, the company produced its 1 millionth electric car, becoming the first auto manufacturer to achieve such a milestone. In the third quarter of 2021, Tesla sold its 2 millionth electric car, becoming the first auto manufacturer to achieve such a milestone. In the first quarter of 2023, the Model Y became the world's best-selling car, surpassing the Toyota Corolla. == Finances == For the fiscal (and calendar) year 2021, Tesla reported a net income of $5.52 billion. The annual revenue was $53.8 billion, an increase of 71% over the previous fiscal year. Of the revenue number in 2021, $314 million came from selling regulatory credits to other automakers to meet government pollution standards. That number has been a smaller percentage of revenue for multiple quarters. Tesla ended 2021 with $17.6 billion of cash on hand, down $1.8 billion from the end of 2020.: 31  In February 2021, a 10-K filing revealed that Tesla had invested some $1.5 billion in the cryptocurrency Bitcoin, and the company indicated it would soon accept Bitcoin as a form of payment. Critics then pointed out how investing in cryptocurrency can run counter to Tesla's environmental goals. Tesla made more profit from the 2021 investment than the profit from selling cars in 2020, due to the Bitcoin price increase after the investment was announced. The quarter ending June 2021 was the first time Tesla made a profit independent of Bitcoin and regulatory credits. The key trends for Tesla are (as at the financial year ending December 31): == Corporate affairs == === List of chief executives === Martin Eberhard (2004–2007) Ze'ev Drori (2007–2008) Elon Musk (since October 2008) === List of board chairs === Elon Musk (2004–2018) Robyn Denholm (since November 2018) === Board of directors === Tesla has received criticism that its board lacks enough independent directors. In an April 2017 public letter, a group of influential Tesla investors, including the California State Teachers' Retirement System, asked Tesla to add two new independent directors to its board "who do not have any ties with chief executive Elon Musk". The investors wrote that "five of six current non-executive directors have professional or personal ties to Mr. Musk that could put at risk their ability to exercise independent judgement." Tesla's directors at the time included Brad Buss, who served as chief financial officer at SolarCity; Steve Jurvetson, a venture capitalist who also sits on the board of SpaceX; Elon Musk's brother, Kimbal; and Ira Ehrenpreis and Antonio Gracias, both of whom also invested in SpaceX. The letter called for a more independent board that could put a check on groupthink. At first Musk responded on Twitter, writing that the investors "should buy Ford stock" because "their governance is amazing." Two days later, he promised he would add two independent board members; Kathleen Wilson-Thompson and Larry Ellison were added at the end of 2018. Ellison stepped down in August 2022. Former Tesla CTO J. B. Straubel who left the company in 2019, was elected to the board in 2023. Another criticism of the board composition is that most of the independent directors lack automotive industry experience. The exception is Robyn Denholm who served in finance and corporate reporting roles at Toyota Australia from 1989 to 1996. Other previous board members include businessman Steve Westly; Daimler executive Herbert Kohler; CEO and Chairman of Johnson Publishing Company Linda Johnson Rice; and United Nations Special Envoy on Innovative Finance and Sustainable Investments Hiromichi Mizuno. As of May 2023, the board members are: === Ownership structure === The 10 largest shareholders of Tesla in March 2024 were: == See also == List of automobile manufacturers of the United States List of Easter eggs in Tesla products List of production battery electric vehicles Plug-in electric vehicles in California Plug-in electric vehicles in the United States == Notes == Footnotes == References == == Sources == Vance, Ashlee (2015). Elon Musk: Tesla, SpaceX, and the Quest for a Fantastic Future. New York: HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0062301239. OCLC 881436803. == Further reading == Higgins, Tim (2021). Power Play: Tesla, Elon Musk, and the Bet of the Century. Doubleday. ISBN 978-0385545464. McKenzie, Hamish (2018). Insane Mode: How Elon Musk's Tesla Sparked an Electric Revolution to End the Age of Oil. New York: Dutton. ISBN 978-1101985953. Niedermeyer, Edward (2019). Ludicrous: The Unvarnished Story of Tesla Motors. Dallas: BenBella. ISBN 978-1948836326. OCLC 1089841254. == External links == Official website Business data for Tesla, Inc.:

Tesla, Inc. ( TESS-lə or TEZ-lə) is an American multinational automotive and clean energy company headquartered in Austin, Texas, which designs, manufactures and sells battery electric vehicles (BEVs), stationary battery energy storage devices from home to grid-scale, solar panels and solar shingles, and related products and services. The company is also developing artificial intelligence and robotics products. Tesla was incorporated in July 2003 by Martin Eberhard and Marc Tarpenning as Tesla Motors. The company's name is a tribute to inventor and electrical engineer Nikola Tesla. In February 2004, Elon Musk joined as the company's largest shareholder; in 2008, he was named chief executive officer. In 2008, the company began production of its first car model, the Roadster sports car, followed by the Model S sedan in 2012, the Model X SUV in 2015, the Model 3 sedan in 2017, the Model Y crossover in 2020, the Tesla Semi truck in 2022 and the Cybertruck pickup truck in 2023. The Model 3 is the all-time bestselling plug-in electric car worldwide, and in June 2021 became the first electric car to sell 1 million units globally. In 2023, the Model Y was the best-selling vehicle, of any kind, globally. Tesla is one of the world's most valuable companies in terms of market capitalization. In October 2021, Tesla temporarily became a trillion dollar company, the seventh U.S. company to do so. In 2023, the company led the battery electric vehicle market, with 19.9% share. Also in 2023, the company was ranked 69th in the Forbes Global 2000. As of March 2024, it is the world's most valuable automaker. Tesla has been the subject of lawsuits, government scrutiny, and journalistic criticism, stemming from allegations of whistleblower retaliation, worker rights violations, safety issues, product defects, fraud, and Musk's many controversial statements.

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Untitled Rammstein album (wikipedia)

The untitled seventh studio album by German Neue Deutsche Härte band Rammstein, titled Rammstein on digital platforms and on CD-Text enabled devices, was released on 17 May 2019 through Universal Music. Their first studio album in ten years, it is their first not to be produced by Jacob Hellner; it was instead produced by Emigrate guitarist Olsen Involtini, who also serves as Rammstein's live sound engineer. The album received positive reviews from critics. It was also commercially successful, reaching number one in over ten countries. It set a record for the most units of an album sold in its first week in Germany during the 21st century, and was the best-selling album of 2019 in Germany, Austria, and Switzerland. It was also certified 3× Platinum by the BVMI for selling at least 600,000 copies in Germany. The album was supported by the singles "Deutschland", "Radio", and "Ausländer", with "Deutschland" becoming their second number-one hit in Germany and the other two entering the top 5. == Composition == The album features the band's typical sound of Neue Deutsche Härte and industrial metal. "Zeig dich" criticizes the Catholic church. Backed by "powerful thumping guitar riffs", the lyrics demand religious leaders to "stop hiding behind their so-called Lord". The composition also features a Latin-language choir and Spanish-styled finger picking. Louder thought the song is reminiscent of Mutter's "Zwitter". "Sex" discusses sex as something "'disgusting', yet life-giving" and reminded the portal of Rob Zombie and Queens of the Stone Age. "Puppe" contains a strong doom metal influence, and tells the story of a child playing with their doll in a room while their sister - presumably underage - prostitutes herself at the room beside theirs. As the sister screams, the child grows increasingly agitated until they start biting the doll's head off. The ending verses suggest the child eventually sneaks into the sister's room, finds her being beaten to death and kills the attacker. The instrumentation was described by Louder as having "eerie synths, jangling guitars and pummelling vocals". "Was ich liebe" is influenced by Nine Inch Nails' "Closer" and includes an acoustic guitar section similar to one from "Stairway to Heaven" by Led Zeppelin, while "Diamant" is a soft ballad describing "a breakneck voyage through the multifaceted stages of romantic despair". "Weit weg" has elements of Tangerine Dream and Kosmischer Läufer and its lyrics describe a man secretly watching a woman undress through a window, and could be "an allegory for the way cam girls (or, sex workers more broadly) are put at risk from the blurred realities of some of their clients who believe their interactions to be more than they are". "Tattoo" evokes thrash and heavy metal of the 1980s and early 1990s. The lyrics allude to the identification of inmates in German concentration camps while also discussing tattoos as a modern trend. The ending track "Hallomann" is about a child abuser who lures a girl into his car and drowns her later and features "thrumming bass, eerie synths, kick-your-back-door in riffs and a goosebump-inducing vocal". == Promotion and release == In January 2019, Richard Kruspe said there would be five music videos created for the album. Teaser clips for the first music video were released in late March. These clips featured visuals from the video along with the Roman numerals for the date 28 March 2019. On that day, the song "Deutschland" was released as the album's lead single on digital platforms, and its 10-minute-long music video was uploaded onto YouTube. The single also came with a remix by Kruspe. The band said the album had no title and would be released on 17 May 2019. The music video was viewed 19 million times in the first four days after its release. "Deutschland" was released physically as both a 7-inch vinyl and CD single on 12 April, with the remix acting as the B-side. The track list was revealed between 16 April and 19 April on the band's YouTube channel with snippets of riffs from each song. The cover of the album was also revealed there on 18 April. The twenty-seconds video teaser with the album cover presentation featured shots of Kakhovska square in Ukrainian city of Kherson. Less than a week later, the band began teasing a music video for the song "Radio", which was released on 26 April. The album was released on 17 May 2019 through Universal Music. It was distributed by Vertigo/Capitol in Europe, Spinefarm Records in the United Kingdom, and Caroline International in the United States. Physically, it received a double-180 gram vinyl release and two different CD releases. Both CD releases featured digipak packaging and booklets, with the deluxe edition having more panels and a larger booklet. On 26 May, the band teased a music video for the album's third single, "Ausländer". The video was released on 28 May and the single was released on 31 May. == Reception == === Critical === The album received positive reviews. On review aggregator website Metacritic, it holds an average review score of 82/100, based on 11 reviews indicating "universal acclaim". In a positive review, NME wrote, "this album is undoubtedly a resounding triumph". Nick Ruskell at Kerrang! wrote, "this is a record made with care, craft, and nothing allowed in that isn't just-so". Wall of Sound gave the album 9.5/10 stating: "Rammstein is seemingly a culmination of the previous six studio albums, taking the best parts of the last few decades and putting it all in one album, while throwing in a few unexpected surprises." Kory Grow of Rolling Stone wrote, "In some ways, Rammstein have grown up in their decade of hibernation but mostly they have not. The band had ascended in the anything-goes nu-metal Nineties, blending new-wave synths with air-tight heavy-metal guitar riffs and disco drumbeats... Over time, their sound became more polished and more rigid (and by proxy more Germanic?) but they still held onto their puerile impulses. “Deutschland” is the only song of any lyrical consequence on Rammstein — the rest piddle between the benign and letchy. But because it's all in German, it's not entirely clear which is which." Lukas Wojcicky in his review for Exclaim! commented, "Rammstein's Untitled is believed by many to be the band's swan song, as each member's age hovers around 50. Considering the band hadn't released an album in ten years, a retirement announcement would not have come as a surprise, but instead we got one final album and at least a couple of years of touring to follow. For this reason, this album is a welcome addition to Rammstein's discography and one that will be chanted with equal fervour when they come to a city near you." === Commercial === The album debuted atop the German album charts on issue date 24 May 2019. In the first week in Germany, it moved 260,000 album-equivalent units, making it the best-performing album in the first week from a band in the 21st century. The album spent the next two weeks at No. 2 before climbing back up to No. 1 on 14 June. It spent two more non-consecutive weeks at No. 1 afterward. The album also spent an entire year inside the top 40 of the chart, not leaving it until 12 June 2020. Additionally, it spent 127 consecutive weeks in the chart before leaving it on the week of 29 October 2021. Elsewhere, the album peaked at No. 3 on the UK Albums Chart, selling 12,130 copies and spent three consecutive weeks atop the UK Rock & Metal Albums Chart. In the United States, the album peaked at No. 9 on the Billboard 200, earning 28,000 album-equivalent units in its first week. The album is the band's first to reach the top 10 in the United States. Additionally, it topped the Hard Rock Albums chart, the second Rammstein album to do so (previously Liebe ist für alle da in 2009) and World Albums chart, which make it the first German-language studio album to top this chart (previously Rammstein: Paris, a live album, topped this chart, in 2017). On 15 April 2020, the album was certified 5× Gold by the Bundesverband Musikindustrie for sales of over 500,000 album-equivalent units in Germany. === Accolades === == Track listing == == Personnel == == Charts == == Certifications == == Release history == == References ==

The untitled seventh studio album by German Neue Deutsche Härte band Rammstein, titled Rammstein on digital platforms and on CD-Text enabled devices, was released on 17 May 2019 through Universal Music. Their first studio album in ten years, it is their first not to be produced by Jacob Hellner; it was instead produced by Emigrate guitarist Olsen Involtini, who also serves as Rammstein's live sound engineer. The album received positive reviews from critics. It was also commercially successful, reaching number one in over ten countries. It set a record for the most units of an album sold in its first week in Germany during the 21st century, and was the best-selling album of 2019 in Germany, Austria, and Switzerland. It was also certified 3× Platinum by the BVMI for selling at least 600,000 copies in Germany. The album was supported by the singles "Deutschland", "Radio", and "Ausländer", with "Deutschland" becoming their second number-one hit in Germany and the other two entering the top 5.

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Young Thug (wikipedia)

Jeffery Lamar Williams (born August 16, 1991), known professionally as Young Thug, is an American rapper. Known for his eccentric vocal style and fashion, he is considered an influential figure in modern hip hop and trap music, and a pioneer of the mumble rap microgenre. Williams embarked on a musical career in 2011, releasing a series of mixtapes beginning with I Came from Nothing. In 2013, he signed with fellow Atlanta rapper Gucci Mane's 1017 Records and gained further attention and praise for his debut mixtape with the label, 1017 Thug, released in February of that year. Williams first received mainstream recognition in 2014 for his singles "Stoner" and "Danny Glover," in addition to his guest appearances on numerous singles, including T.I.'s "About the Money", Tyga's "Hookah", and Rich Gang's "Lifestyle". That same year, he released a mixtape with Rich Gang titled Rich Gang: Tha Tour Pt. 1, and signed a solo recording contract with 300 Entertainment, an imprint of Atlantic Records. In 2015, he amassed a number of mixtapes to critical acclaim, including Barter 6 and two installments of his Slime Season series. Throughout 2016, Williams saw continued success with the release of his commercial mixtapes I'm Up, Slime Season 3, and Jeffery. In 2017, Williams guest performed on the worldwide hit "Havana" by singer Camila Cabello, which became his first number-one single on the Billboard Hot 100. The following year, he won the Grammy Award for Song of the Year for his contributions to Childish Gambino's "This Is America". Williams' debut studio album, So Much Fun (2019) peaked atop the US Billboard 200 and yielded the Billboard Hot 100 top-20 singles "The London" (featuring J. Cole and Travis Scott) and "Hot" (featuring Gunna). The following year, his single "Go Crazy"—with Chris Brown, from their collaborative mixtape Slime & B (2020)—peaked at number three on the chart and became his first top-ten single as a lead artist. That same year, he peaked the chart once more for his guest appearance alongside M.I.A. on Travis Scott's single "Franchise". In 2021, he did so for a third time with his guest appearance alongside Future on Drake's "Way 2 Sexy". His second studio album, Punk was released in October of that year to continued success, followed by his third studio album, Business Is Business in June 2023. In addition to his solo career, he has released two compilation albums with his record label, YSL Records: Slime Language (2018) and Slime Language 2 (2021) to concurrent success; the latter debuted atop the Billboard 200. Since May 2022, Williams has faced mounting legal troubles. He has been held without bail in the Fulton County Jail on remand due to being charged with violating the Georgia RICO Act, as well as a total of 56 counts of illegal substance trafficking or firearm possession charges. Williams was arrested alongside 27 other members of YSL on gang-related charges. He has been denied bail four times, and Business Is Business was released during his incarceration. == Early life == Jeffery Lamar Williams was born on August 16, 1991, in Atlanta, Georgia, the tenth of 11 children. He is from Sylvan Hills, but grew up in the Jonesboro South projects near Cleveland Avenue. Other rappers from Jonesboro South include Waka Flocka Flame, Ludacris and Williams' childhood friend Peewee Longway, from whom Williams lived four doors down. Williams has told interviewers that he was expelled in the sixth grade for breaking a teacher's arm. He was sent to juvenile prison for four years. == Career == === 2010–2013: Early career and record deal === Young Thug began his musical career in 2010, debuting as a guest appearance on rapper TruRoyal's song "She Can Go". After releasing the first three installments of his mixtape series I Came from Nothing throughout 2011 and 2012, Young Thug caught the attention of fellow Atlanta-based rapper Gucci Mane, who went on to sign Young Thug to his label 1017 Brick Squad Records, an Asylum/Atlantic imprint, in 2013. Thug released his first project on the label, his fourth mixtape, 1017 Thug. The mixtape was met with positive reviews from music critics, which noted it for its original style. 1017 Thug was included in a number of year-end lists for 2013, such as the Pitchfork Albums of the Year: Honorable Mention and Complex's The 50 Best Albums of 2013. FACT called it the best mixtape of 2013, Rolling Stone placed it at number five on their 10 Best Mixtapes of 2013 and The Guardian placed it among The Five Best Mixtapes of 2013. Young Thug's song "Picacho" was noted as one of the standout tracks from the mixtape; although it was not released as a single, the song was included on a number of 2013 year-end lists, such as Rolling Stone's 100 Best Songs of 2013, Pitchfork's The Top 100 Tracks of 2013, and Spin's 50 Best Songs of 2013. In July 2013, Complex included him in their list of 25 New Rappers to Watch Out For. In October 2013, Young Thug released his commercial debut single "Stoner". The song spawned a number of unofficial remixes by several rappers, including Wale, Jim Jones, Jadakiss, Iamsu! and Trick-Trick, among others. Thug expressed his disapproval for the remixes, commenting "If you feel like my song isn't tough enough to the point where you have to freestyle... Don't think I'm happy that you're doing it because of who you are. I'm ready for war." His song "Danny Glover" received a number of remixes by Waka Flocka Flame and Nicki Minaj, among others. In October 2013, Young Thug appeared on a few tracks on 19 & Boomin by Metro Boomin, including "Some More", the first song he made with Alex Tumay, who became his go-to engineer for almost everything from then until "Slime Season 2". In December 2013, Thug performed at Fool's Gold Day Off show in Miami, among Danny Brown, Trick Daddy and Travis Scott. Pitchfork ranked 1017 Thug as one of the best albums of the first half of the 2010s decade, at number 96. === 2014: Rise to popularity and label issues === In January 2014, Young Thug revealed that he had been offered $8.5 million to sign to Future's Freebandz record label. In March 2014, Young Thug's affiliation with Cash Money Records and its chief executive officer (CEO) Birdman, resulted in much speculation in the media about him signing to the label. The label's publicist later stated this was untrue. On March 28, 2014, Ronald "Caveman" Rosario, director of Urban Music at 1017 Distribution, cleared the situation, stating that Young Thug signed a management deal with Birdman's Rich Gang, not a record deal, and is still signed to 1017 Brick Squad. In 2014, Thug also recorded several songs with Kanye West, who praised him for his ability to make songs so fast. Thug announced that he had upcoming mixtapes with Rich Homie Quan, Chief Keef and Bloody Jay. Young Thug would go on to be featured on the March 2014 cover of The Fader. On March 11, 2014, his debut single "Stoner", was serviced to rhythmic contemporary radio in the United States by Asylum and Atlantic Records. On March 24, 2014, Thug stated his debut album would be titled Carter 6, referencing the highly acclaimed Tha Carter album series by American hip hop superstar Lil Wayne, who has been the biggest influence in Young Thug's music career. Two days later, it was revealed that Young Thug was working on a collaborative album with American record producer Metro Boomin, which is titled Metro Thuggin and set for release in spring 2014. The first song from the project, titled "The BLanguage", uses elements from Canadian rapper Drake's "The Language", was released the same day. In April 2014, Young Thug released a new 808 Mafia-produced song titled "Eww", which was named one of the five best songs of the week by XXL. A remix of the song was supposed to be on Thug's debut album with verses from Lil Wayne and Drake, but that never happened. On June 17, 2014, Kevin Liles confirmed that Young Thug had been officially signed to his and Lyor Cohen's label 300 Entertainment. On July 1, 2014, Asylum Records and Atlantic Records officially released Young Thug's 2013 fan-favorite song "Danny Glover", re-titling it "2 Bitches". Also on July 1, Mass Appeal Records released "Old English", the first single from their compilation album Mass Appeal Vol. 1, which features Young Thug alongside fellow American rappers ASAP Ferg and Freddie Gibbs. On October 16, 2014, the first single from Cash Money Records Rich Gang 2 compilation, was released titled "Take Kare", featuring Young Thug and Lil Wayne. The December 4, 2014, issue of Rolling Stone called Young Thug the "most exciting new voice of hip-hop" and "hip-hop's new crown prince". At the end of the year, music critic Robert Christgau named Black Portland—Young Thug's collaborative mixtape with Bloody Jay—the fourth best album of 2014. === 2015–2016: Barter 6 and Slime Season series === In 2015, a series of data breaches leaked hundreds of unreleased tracks from Young Thug's archives to the Internet. Young Thug's planned debut album was set for release in 2015, and was said to be named Carter 6, in homage to Lil Wayne's upcoming album, Tha Carter V. Lil Wayne, however, wasn't happy about the tribute, telling the audience of a show in April 2015 to "stop listening" to Young Thug. After claiming he's been threatened with lawsuits, Young Thug announced that he was changing the title to Barter 6 and clarified that it would be a mixtape rather than his debut album. Young Thug announced April 18, 2015, that his official debut album will be titled Hy!£UN35, which translates to "HiTunes". In May 2015, after much confusion as to who he was signed to and managed by, having been aligned with Gucci Mane's 1017 Records, Future's Freebandz, Lyor Cohen's 300 Entertainment and Birdman's Rich Gang, Young Thug revealed "I manage myself. I'm signed with Atlantic. I have a big, special deal with Atlantic, and it's only Atlantic. Birdman is my homie." He revealed he would be releasing another mixtape prior to the album, titled Tha Carter V. To circumvent their further spread of leaked tracks, Thug released the well-received compilation mixtapes Slime Season and Slime Season 2. Young Thug revealed in late June 2015 that he and Kanye West have discussed the prospect of a joint album together, both agreeing after a meeting in the spring. Details are still scarce, but Thug said Kanye was impressed after previewing his unreleased music. "I was letting him hear all the music. Then he said I was like Bob Marley and he wanted to do an album with me. I was like, 'Let's roll!'" the rapper said. Young Thug appeared on West's 2016 album The Life of Pablo, and West tweeted that he would release further collaborations with Young Thug on Tidal. In July 2015, 300 Entertainment released a promotional single, "Pacifier", in support of Young Thug's debut album HiTunes (stylized as Hy!£UN35). The song features production from Mike Will Made-It, and was noted by critics for its experimentation with more extreme vocal scatting. On February 4, 2016, Young Thug released a mixtape titled I'm Up. On March 26, 2016, he released the final installment of the Slime Season series in Slime Season 3, declaring the mixtape the end of a phase marked by leaked material. Young Thug toured the United States on his May 2016 Hi-Tunes tour, which featured artists Dae Dae, TM88, and Rich The Kid. === 2016–2018: Jeffery and collaborations === Young Thug was featured in Calvin Klein's Fall 2016 fashion campaign, along with Frank Ocean among others. On July 9, 2016, he announced his self-titled mixtape Jeffery was coming out soon. On August 16, 2016, Thug announced he would change his name to Jeffery for one week, the week during the release of the Jeffery mixtape. The album artwork features Young Thug dressed in an androgynous dress designed by Italian designer Alessandro Trincone, and was photographed by Garfield Lamond. The artwork went viral and prompted a wide range of responses on social media. In November 2016, he announced he was starting his own record label imprint called YSL records. In March 2017, Thug was featured on Drake's songs "Sacrifices" and "Ice Melts" on the former's commercial mixtape, More Life, the former song being alongside 2 Chainz. He was featured on Calvin Harris' song "Heatstroke" along with Ariana Grande and Pharrell Williams, released in March 2017. In April 2017, Young Thug announced the commercial mixtape Beautiful Thugger Girls, originally titled E.B.B.T.G. The project was executively-produced by Drake and was released on June 16, 2017. In August, he featured on Camila Cabello's single "Havana", which peaked at number one on the Billboard Hot 100, becoming his first number-one hit. In September 2017, he released a joint EP with DJ Carnage titled Young Martha. In October 2017, Thug released a collaborative mixtape with Future titled Super Slimey. It includes tracks recorded by each of the artists individually as well as both together, and features guest vocals from rapper Offset. In 2018, Young Thug released the single "Ride for Me", a collaboration by A-Trak, Falcons, and 24hrs via A-Trak's record label Fool's Gold. He released the EP Hear No Evil in April 2018. Young Thug co-wrote and provided background vocals on Childish Gambino's "This Is America", which debuted at number one on the Billboard Hot 100 chart for May 19, 2018. In August 2018, he released another compilation album, Slime Language. === 2019–2020: So Much Fun and Slime & B === On May 23, 2019, Young Thug released the single "The London", featuring American rappers J. Cole and Travis Scott. On the same day, also announced his forthcoming debut studio album, which was originally called Gold Mouf Dog. On July 19, 2019, Young Thug announced that the album had been renamed to So Much Fun. On August 10, 2019, Young Thug announced the album's release date and cover art. The track listing was revealed on August 15. The album was released on August 16, 2019, the rapper's 28th birthday. It features guest appearances from Future, Machine Gun Kelly, Gunna, Lil Baby, Lil Uzi Vert, Lil Duke, 21 Savage, Doe Boy, Lil Keed, Quavo, Juice Wrld, Nav, J. Cole, and Travis Scott. The album debuted at number one on the US Billboard 200. On October 20, 2019, Young Thug appeared on The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon alongside Gunna. On October 31, 2019, a song from the album called "Hot", featuring American rapper and fellow labelmate Gunna, became the album's second single due to a remix with an additional feature from Travis Scott. "The London", which peaked at number 12 and 11, respectively, on the Billboard Hot 100. The deluxe edition of the album was released on December 20, 2019, with extra guest appearances from Gunna and Travis Scott, separately and including the remix of "Hot". On April 29, 2020, Young Thug and American singer Chris Brown announced their collaborative mixtape, Slime & B. It was released on May 5, 2020, which was the latter's 31st birthday. It features guest appearances from Major Nine, Gunna, Lil Duke, Too Short, E-40, HoodyBaby, and Future. The mixtape's lead single, "Go Crazy", peaked at number three on the Billboard Hot 100, becoming Thug's highest-charting single as a lead artist. On September 25, Thug was featured alongside British rapper M.I.A. on fellow American rapper and singer Travis Scott's single "Franchise", which debuted at number one on the Billboard Hot 100, making Thug's second number-one single. Throughout the year, he had fourteen chart entries on the Hot 100, due to several collaborations with other artists. === 2021–present: Punk and Business Is Business === On April 16, 2021, YSL Records, along with Young Thug and Gunna, released their second compilation album Slime Language 2. The album debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 and included guest appearances from notable non-YSL Record members Travis Scott, Drake, Rowdy Rebel, Lil Baby, YTB Trench, Lil Uzi Vert, Coi Leray, Big Sean, NAV, Skepta, Future, YNW Melly, BSlime, Sheck Wes, and Kid Cudi, with production mainly handled by Southside, Wheezy, and Turbo. It was supported by two singles "Take It to Trial", and "That Go!". A deluxe edition was released on April 23, containing eight new songs. Thug later released a deluxe, which featured artists including DaBaby and Don Toliver. In July 2021, Young Thug advertised his second studio album Punk with a release date of October 15, 2021. The album was originally announced in August 2019 and was expected shortly after the release of So Much Fun. "Tick Tock" was released as the intended lead single from the album, on August 20, 2021, but was excluded from the final track listing. In September 2021, Thug reached number one on the Billboard Hot 100 for the third time in his career with his feature alongside Future on "Way 2 Sexy", the lead single off Drake's album Certified Lover Boy. On October 15, Thug released his album Punk. In November 2021, after the release of Punk, Kobalt Music Group announced a new global publishing deal with Young Thug. In this deal, Young Thug's publishing administration, global synch, and creative services will be handled by Kobalt. In June 2023, Young Thug's social media accounts posted a QR code which led to a countdown which was set to conclude on June 23. Many of Thug's peers reposted the code, with Metro Boomin confirming that he executive produced his upcoming album shortly after. On June 23, Young Thug's third studio album, Business is Business was released with features from Drake, Travis Scott, Future, Lil Uzi Vert, 21 Savage, and more, making for Thug's first project released since his May 2022 arrest. == Artistry == === Musical style and influence === Young Thug has received both praise and criticism for his eccentric vocal style, which has been described as departing from traditional rap lyricism and sometimes intelligible meaning. Jeff Weiss of BBC called him the "most influential rapper of the 21st century." According to The Fader, "in a typical Young Thug verse, he slurs, shouts, whines and sings, feverishly contorting his voice into a series of odd timbres like a beautifully played but broken wind instrument." Pitchfork called his style "extraordinarily distinctive" and "a weird, experimental approach to rapping" while praising his "presence, persona, mystique, and, potentially, star power." Billboard wrote that "Thug uses this multiplicative vocal delivery to his advantage: where another rapper might lapse into repetition, he finds a new way to distress and warp his tone, to burrow resourcefully into rhythmic cracks and crevices." Complex noted his aptitude for creating catchy, melodic hooks. XXL called him a "rap weirdo", stating that "Thug's charisma, unhinged flow and hooks make his music intriguing." Critic Sheldon Pearce wrote that "Thug understands the modern pop song construction better than anyone: anything and everything can be a hook." Young Thug has been noted for his fast working method, with several collaborators observing his tendency to freestyle tracks live in the studio or quickly develop lyrics on the spot. He doesn't write down lyrics on paper, but has been known to plan lyrics by drawing shapes and signs. Consequence of Sound stated that "his work is constantly rooted in improvisation, an inherently thrilling concept that's embedded itself in black music." Discussing his work, Williams has claimed the ability to write a hit song in ten minutes and said "I'm in the studio so much, I'll just try stuff. I just think and try, think and try. I don't really know how to sing, but I've been trying for years." Young Thug has cited American rapper Lil Wayne, as his biggest idol and influence. In an interview with Complex magazine he says, "I want to get in the studio with Wayne more than anybody in the world." He has cited mentor Gucci Mane and Kanye West as influences. === Image and fashion === Vibe Magazine called Young Thug "one of the most unpredictable, charismatic, and outlandish personalities in hip hop today." Rovi called him a "fashion icon". His wardrobe has been described as eccentric and consists predominantly of women's clothing, which he has preferred to wear since age 12. The Seattle Times wrote that "with a fashion sense as unconventional as his rapping, Young Thug can regularly be seen on his Instagram account rocking painted fingernails, skintight jeans or a kids-size dress as a shirt, which, along with his habit of regularly referring to close male friends as 'hubbie' or 'lover' has led to rumors about his sexual orientation." In an advertisement for Calvin Klein, Thug proclaimed "In my world, you can be a gangsta with a dress or you can be a gangsta with baggy pants." Fusion described him as "defying gender stereotypes and agitating the way hip-hop defines black masculinity, through his eccentric sense of style." He has been compared to David Bowie, Prince, and Little Richard. The media has called him gender fluid and androgynous. GQ called him "at once a hero and an outsider and a leader of the psychedelic fashion movement of rap hippies." In February 2018, Young Thug rebranded himself as "SEX". == Personal life == Young Thug has six children by four women: three sons and three daughters. He became a father at the age of 17. In April 2015, he became engaged to Jerrika Karlae, who runs a swimsuit line and whose mother managed the late Young Dolph. Thug bought his first home in September 2016 after the release of his mixtape Jeffery. The home, in Buckhead, Atlanta, is more than 11,000 square-feet, has six bedrooms, 11 bathrooms, a full bar, a theater room and a four-car garage. During his childhood, one of Thug's older brothers was shot and killed in front of the family home. In April 2020, during a concert livestream, Thug revealed a recent brush with death, stating: I kinda just stayed in the bed and I was like, 'Yo, call the ambulance. I can't move my body, then later, when the ambulance came, I couldn't get out of bed. They had to get me out of the bed, basically. I felt like my whole body was numb and I couldn't move. I went to the hospital and I had found out that I had liver and kidney failure. And I kinda had sorta passed away, like I kinda died. In December 2020, Young Thug broke up with his ex-fiancé Jerrika Karlae. Months later, in 2021, Thug began to date Atlanta singer Mariah the Scientist. === Philanthropy === In December 2016, Thug joined the #fightpovertyagain campaign. On June 29, 2017, Thug donated all proceeds of a sold-out concert to Planned Parenthood, stating on Twitter that "I was a teenage parent. Planned+unplanned parenthood is beautiful." == Legal issues == In April 2015, after a Lil Wayne tour bus was fired at by members of the Bloods street-gang, Young Thug was among those sued by the bus driver alongside Cash Money Records, Young Money Records and Birdman. A lawsuit was filed against Thug in January 2017 after he failed to show up at a concert in Sahlen's Stadium after he signed a $55,000 contract. This was not the first time a lawsuit was filed against him for not appearing at a concert, as a Texas production company had done the same in April 2016 after he failed to perform at a concert. Thug was cleared of battery in April 2017 after reportedly slapping a woman outside a nightclub the previous month. The woman was arguing with Thug's fiancée, Jerrika Karlae, when Thug allegedly stepped in and struck the woman. The charges were dropped due to a lack of evidence. Young Thug's gun and drug charges were dropped in April 2017 following a raid of his then-home in Sandy Springs, Georgia, which resulted in him being charged with felony cocaine possession, felony marijuana possession, and three counts of felony gun possession. Thug's lawyers argued that police conducted the search without a warrant which led to the D.A. dropping all charges except felony marijuana possession. It was reported in April 2017 that Thug was being sued by Heritage Select Homes for owing almost $2.2 million in house payments. On September 24, 2017, Thug was arrested in Brookhaven, Georgia, on multiple drug possession charges and possession of a firearm. He was released on bond three days later. On September 7, 2018, he was charged with possession and intent to distribute meth, hydrocodone, and marijuana. He was also charged with possession of amphetamine, alprazolam, codeine (2 counts), and a firearm; this indictment was related to his 2017 arrest. On May 9, 2022, Thug was arrested in Atlanta on gang-related charges. Thug and Gunna were among the 28 people associated with YSL who were charged in a 56-count Georgia RICO (Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations) Act indictment filed by Fulton County District Attorney Fani Willis. Following a search of his home, he was charged with seven additional felonies related to possession of illegal substances and illegal firearms. He was held at the Fulton County Superior Court. He was denied bond several times and has remained in the Cobb County Jail since his arrest. On November 27, 2023, his state RICO criminal trial officially began. Five of his co-defendants will stand trial with him as well. On December 12, 2023, it was agreed that the continuation of the trial would be delayed until January 2024 after his co-defendant Shannon Stillwell was stabbed multiple times during a fight that occurred in the Fulton County Jail. The trial resumed on January 2, 2024. == Discography == Studio albums So Much Fun (2019) Punk (2021) Business Is Business (2023) == Awards and nominations == == References == == External links == Young Thug at AllMusic Young Thug discography at Discogs Young Thug discography at MusicBrainz Official website

Jeffery Lamar Williams (born August 16, 1991), known professionally as Young Thug, is an American rapper. Known for his eccentric vocal style and fashion, he is considered an influential figure in modern hip hop and trap music, and a pioneer of the mumble rap microgenre. Williams embarked on a musical career in 2011, releasing a series of mixtapes beginning with I Came from Nothing. In 2013, he signed with fellow Atlanta rapper Gucci Mane's 1017 Records and gained further attention and praise for his debut mixtape with the label, 1017 Thug, released in February of that year. Williams first received mainstream recognition in 2014 for his singles "Stoner" and "Danny Glover," in addition to his guest appearances on numerous singles, including T.I.'s "About the Money", Tyga's "Hookah", and Rich Gang's "Lifestyle". That same year, he released a mixtape with Rich Gang titled Rich Gang: Tha Tour Pt. 1, and signed a solo recording contract with 300 Entertainment, an imprint of Atlantic Records. In 2015, he amassed a number of mixtapes to critical acclaim, including Barter 6 and two installments of his Slime Season series. Throughout 2016, Williams saw continued success with the release of his commercial mixtapes I'm Up, Slime Season 3, and Jeffery. In 2017, Williams guest performed on the worldwide hit "Havana" by singer Camila Cabello, which became his first number-one single on the Billboard Hot 100. The following year, he won the Grammy Award for Song of the Year for his contributions to Childish Gambino's "This Is America". Williams' debut studio album, So Much Fun (2019) peaked atop the US Billboard 200 and yielded the Billboard Hot 100 top-20 singles "The London" (featuring J. Cole and Travis Scott) and "Hot" (featuring Gunna). The following year, his single "Go Crazy"—with Chris Brown, from their collaborative mixtape Slime & B (2020)—peaked at number three on the chart and became his first top-ten single as a lead artist. That same year, he peaked the chart once more for his guest appearance alongside M.I.A. on Travis Scott's single "Franchise". In 2021, he did so for a third time with his guest appearance alongside Future on Drake's "Way 2 Sexy". His second studio album, Punk was released in October of that year to continued success, followed by his third studio album, Business Is Business in June 2023. In addition to his solo career, he has released two compilation albums with his record label, YSL Records: Slime Language (2018) and Slime Language 2 (2021) to concurrent success; the latter debuted atop the Billboard 200. Since May 2022, Williams has faced mounting legal troubles. He has been held without bail in the Fulton County Jail on remand due to being charged with violating the Georgia RICO Act, as well as a total of 56 counts of illegal substance trafficking or firearm possession charges. Williams was arrested alongside 27 other members of YSL on gang-related charges. He has been denied bail four times, and Business Is Business was released during his incarceration.

warning

Kriegen (wiktionary)

IPA(key): /ˈkʁiːɡŋ̩/, /ˈkʁiːɡən/ Hyphenation: Krie‧gen Rhymes: -iːɡŋ̍ Kriegen n (strong, genitive Kriegens, no plural) gerund of kriegen: "catching" Kriegen dative plural of Krieg

IPA(key): /ˈkʁiːɡŋ̩/, /ˈkʁiːɡən/ Hyphenation: Krie‧gen Rhymes: -iːɡŋ̍ Kriegen n (strong, genitive Kriegens, no plural) gerund of kriegen: "catching" Kriegen dative plural of Krieg

warning

kriegen (wiktionary)

From Middle High German kriegen (“to war, to conquer property or land”). Verbalisation of Krieg (“war”). Cognate to Bavarian kriagn, Dutch krijgen, Hunsrik krien. (Standard, Germany) IPA(key): /ˈkriːɡən/, [ˈkʰʁ̞̊iːɡ(ə)n], [ˈkʰʁ̞̊iːŋ̩] (Southern Germany) IPA(key): /ˈkriəɡən/, [ˈkriɐɡ̊ɐn], [kʁ̞̊iɛɡɐ(n)] Rhymes: -iːɡən Hyphenation: krie‧gen kriegen (weak, third-person singular present kriegt, past tense kriegte, past participle gekriegt, auxiliary haben) (colloquial) to get Synonyms: bekommen, erhalten (colloquial) to catch, to come down with (colloquial) to get (something to a desired state) (auxiliary, colloquial) to get (with the past participle form of a verb) Synonym: bekommen Hab ich geschenkt gekriegt. ― I got it as a present. Ich krieg's geschenkt. ― I get it for free. (dated, rare) to war Synonym: bekriegen Kriegen is relatively infrequent in the formal standard language, which prefers bekommen or erhalten instead. However, kriegen is very frequent in colloquial German, where the verb often retains the vowel shortening that is occurring in local dialects in the second and third person singular of verbs. Thus, (du) kriegst is often pronounced /krɪ(ç)s(t)/, (er) kriegt may be /krɪkt/, /krɪç(t)/. These pronunciations are not used for the rare sense “to war”. “kriegen” in Duden online “kriegen” in Duden online “kriegen” in Digitales Wörterbuch der deutschen Sprache “kriegen” in Deutsches Wörterbuch von Jacob und Wilhelm Grimm, 16 vols., Leipzig 1854–1961. krygen (New Saxon Spelling) From Middle Low German krîgen. Verbalisation of krich (“war”). Compare German kriegen, Dutch krijgen. kriegen (past singular kreeg, past participle kregen, auxiliary verb hebben) to get to catch to come down with

From Middle High German kriegen (“to war, to conquer property or land”). Verbalisation of Krieg (“war”). Cognate to Bavarian kriagn, Dutch krijgen, Hunsrik krien. (Standard, Germany) IPA(key): /ˈkriːɡən/, [ˈkʰʁ̞̊iːɡ(ə)n], [ˈkʰʁ̞̊iːŋ̩] (Southern Germany) IPA(key): /ˈkriəɡən/, [ˈkriɐɡ̊ɐn], [kʁ̞̊iɛɡɐ(n)] Rhymes: -iːɡən Hyphenation: krie‧gen kriegen (weak, third-person singular present kriegt, past tense kriegte, past participle gekriegt, auxiliary haben) (colloquial) to get Synonyms: bekommen, erhalten (colloquial) to catch, to come down with (colloquial) to get (something to a desired state) (auxiliary, colloquial) to get (with the past participle form of a verb) Synonym: bekommen Hab ich geschenkt gekriegt. ― I got it as a present. Ich krieg's geschenkt. ― I get it for free. (dated, rare) to war Synonym: bekriegen Kriegen is relatively infrequent in the formal standard language, which prefers bekommen or erhalten instead. However, kriegen is very frequent in colloquial German, where the verb often retains the vowel shortening that is occurring in local dialects in the second and third person singular of verbs. Thus, (du) kriegst is often pronounced /krɪ(ç)s(t)/, (er) kriegt may be /krɪkt/, /krɪç(t)/. These pronunciations are not used for the rare sense “to war”. “kriegen” in Duden online “kriegen” in Duden online “kriegen” in Digitales Wörterbuch der deutschen Sprache “kriegen” in Deutsches Wörterbuch von Jacob und Wilhelm Grimm, 16 vols., Leipzig 1854–1961. krygen (New Saxon Spelling) From Middle Low German krîgen. Verbalisation of krich (“war”). Compare German kriegen, Dutch krijgen. kriegen (past singular kreeg, past participle kregen, auxiliary verb hebben) to get to catch to come down with

warning

warning (wiktionary)

(General American) IPA(key): /ˈwɔɹnɪŋ/ (Received Pronunciation) IPA(key): /ˈwɔːnɪŋ/ Rhymes: -ɔː(ɹ)nɪŋ Hyphenation: warn‧ing warning present participle of warn warning (countable and uncountable, plural warnings) The action of the verb warn; an instance of warning someone. Something spoken or written that is intended to warn. warning Used to warn of danger in signs and notices. Borrowed from English warning. IPA(key): /waʁ.niŋ/ warning m (plural warnings) (colloquial) hazard light Synonym: feux de détresse “warning”, in Trésor de la langue française informatisé [Digitized Treasury of the French Language], 2012.

(General American) IPA(key): /ˈwɔɹnɪŋ/ (Received Pronunciation) IPA(key): /ˈwɔːnɪŋ/ Rhymes: -ɔː(ɹ)nɪŋ Hyphenation: warn‧ing warning present participle of warn warning (countable and uncountable, plural warnings) The action of the verb warn; an instance of warning someone. Something spoken or written that is intended to warn. warning Used to warn of danger in signs and notices. Borrowed from English warning. IPA(key): /waʁ.niŋ/ warning m (plural warnings) (colloquial) hazard light Synonym: feux de détresse “warning”, in Trésor de la langue française informatisé [Digitized Treasury of the French Language], 2012.

warning

Warning (wikipedia)

Warning may refer to: == Signal == Precautionary statement Warning sign Warning system Warning (traffic stop), issued by a police officer in lieu of a citation following a traffic stop == Books == A Warning (book), a 2019 book by an anonymous Trump administration official later identified as Miles Taylor Warnings (book), a 2017 book by Richard A. Clarke The Warning (novel), a 1998 Animorphs novel by K. A. Applegate "Warning", a 1962 poem by Jenny Joseph == Films == The Warning, a 1915 film produced by Equitable Motion Picture Company The Warning (1927 film), an American silent film The Warning (1928 film), a British silent film Warning (1946 film), a Czechoslovak film A Warning (film), a 1953 Czechoslovak drama film The Warning (1980 film), an Italian giallo film Warning (2013 film), an Indian Hindi thriller film Warning (2015 film), a Bangladeshi action comedy film The Warning (2015 film), an American horror thriller film The Warning (2018 film), a Spanish thriller film Warning (2021 film), an American-Polish science fiction thriller film == Music == Warning (French band), a 1980–1985 hard-rock band Warning (German band), a 1982–1983 electronic music band Warning (British band), a doom metal band The Warning (band), a Mexican hard rock band === Albums === Warning (Antigama album), 2009 Warning (Green Day album) or the title song (see below), 2000 Warning (R. Stevie Moore album), 1988 Warning (EP), by Sunmi, 2018 Warning, an EP by SS501, 2005 The Warning (Hot Chip album) or the title song, 2006 The Warning (Queensrÿche album) or the title song, 1984 The Warning, by Daysend, 2007 Warnings (album), an album by I Break Horses === Songs === "Warning" (Green Day song), 2000 "Warning" (Incubus song), 2002 "Warning" (The Notorious B.I.G. song), 1994 "Warning" (Sejeong song), 2021 "The Warning" (Eminem song), 2009 "Warning", by the Aynsley Dunbar Retaliation, 1967 "Warning", by A from 'A' vs. Monkey Kong "Warning!", by Band-Maid from Unseen World, 2021 "Warning", by Fat Joe and Remy Ma from Plata O Plomo, 2017 "Warning", by Morgan Wallen from Dangerous: The Double Album, 2021 "Warning", by MC Cheung and Kaho Hung from Frenemy, 2022 "Warning", by Nick Jonas from Nick Jonas, 2014 "Warning", by Oneohtrix Point Never from Age Of, 2018 "Warning", by Skindred from Union Black, 2011 "The Warning", by Nine Inch Nails from Year Zero == Television == "The Warning" (Dynasty 1986) "The Warning" (Dynasty 1988) == Other uses == Mount Warning, New South Wales, Australia Warning (Australian horse) (born 2016), Australian Thoroughbred racehorse Warning (British horse) (1985–2000), British Thoroughbred racehorse == See also == All pages with titles beginning with Warning Fair Warning (disambiguation) Warn (disambiguation) Warning label

Warning may refer to:

warning

Warning (1946 film) (wikipedia)

Warning (Slovak: Varúj...!) is a 1946 Slovak drama film directed by Martin Frič and Paľo Bielik. == Cast == Paľo Bielik as Ondrej Muranica Július Pántik as Miso Andrej Bagar Mikulás Huba as Ing. Gregor Ondrej Jariabek Frantisek Zvarík == References == == External links == Warning at IMDb

Warning (Slovak: Varúj...!) is a 1946 Slovak drama film directed by Martin Frič and Paľo Bielik.

warning

Warning (2013 film) (wikipedia)

Warning is a 2013 Hindi adventure thriller 3D film directed by Gurmmeet Singh and produced by Anubhav Sinha and Jitendra Jain. The film was released on 27 September 2013 and features Madhurima Tuli, Santosh Barmola, Suzana Rodrigues and Manjari Fadnis as main characters. Warning is a remake of the 2006 German English-language psychological horror thriller Open Water 2: Adrift. == Cast == Santosh Barmola - Taranjit Singh Bakshi Madhurima Tuli - Gunjan Dutta Manjari Fadnis - Sabina Sanyal Varun Sharma - Anshul Pandey Jitin Gulati - Deepak Sharma Sumit Suri - Aman Puri Suzana Rodrigues - Jeanine James (Nagar Baul) == Soundtrack == The music was composed by Toshi Sabri, Meet Bros, John Stewart and released by Sony Music India. == References == == External links == Warning at Bollywood Hungama

Warning is a 2013 Hindi adventure thriller 3D film directed by Gurmmeet Singh and produced by Anubhav Sinha and Jitendra Jain. The film was released on 27 September 2013 and features Madhurima Tuli, Santosh Barmola, Suzana Rodrigues and Manjari Fadnis as main characters. Warning is a remake of the 2006 German English-language psychological horror thriller Open Water 2: Adrift.

warning

Warning (2015 film) (wikipedia)

Warning (Bengali: ওয়ার্নিং) is a 2015 Bangladeshi action thriller film directed by Shafi Uddin Shafi. The cast includes Arifin Shuvoo, Mahiya Mahi, Rubel and Misha Sawdagor. It is produced under the banner of Maple Films. In the film, Arifin Shuvo plays the role of a part-time journalist cum kidnapper and Mahiya Mahi plays the role a journalist. == Plot == The film starts with a special operation to rescue a few children from human traffickers. DCDB Murad Anti kidnapping Squad in charge. He helps the rescue team and rescues these children. Meanwhile, a fax comes to the police station and it's informed that someone will kidnap Dr. Masud. Police officers don't emphasize in this fax that someone kidnapped Dr. Masud. Then the kidnapper wants ransom. Then the police team hit upon a plan. They will arrest him when he will come to take ransom. The kidnapper comes and picks up money then DCDB Murad chases him. Chasing him they enter to Channel X office. There he catches Jishan (Arifin Shuvoo). Jishan enquires about the kidnappers. At the same time, there was a showing on television that Dr. Masud is confessing all his iniquity. After a few days, a fax come again and inform me that engineer Belal will be kidnapped. To know this police team ensures the security of engineer Belal. But the kidnapper kidnap engineer Belal. But the police team got the actual image of the kidnapper from CCTV footage and the kidnapper is reporter Jishan. Murad goes to Jishan's house to catch him but he become able to flee from there with the help of Trina. Then Trina ask him why he did that. Jishan tells everything that he lost his father and sister in a building destroyed, his mother got mentally unstable, and he gets news about some person who is connected with this. He will kidnap all of those people to take revenge. == Cast == Arifin Shuvoo as Jishan Mahiya Mahi as Trina Rubel as DCDB Murad Hasan, Anti kidnapping Squad incharge Misha Sawdagor as Ustagar Kazi Hayat as Jishan's father Rebeka Rouf as Jishan's mother Shiba Shanu as Jahangir Abdullah Saki as Dr. Masud Abu Sayeed Khan as Engr. Belal Shimul Khan as Meraj Jadu Azad Pirzada Shahidul Harun as Channel Y's owner Sohel Rashid as Mr. Sazzad Chikon Ali as Mamun Sanko Panja Bipasha Kabir in Special Appearance == Production == === Casting === Upon success of Agnee, Maple Films Limited announced the production of Warning with a similar ensemble cast, which includes Arifin Shuvoo, Mahiya Mahi and Misha Sawdagor, however the film has no connection with Agnee. === Location === The film is entirely shot in Bangladesh. Majority of the film was shot in Dhaka while a few scenes were captured in Cox's Bazzar and Sylhet. The music track "Facebook" and "Shono Tumi" was entirely shot in Cox's Bazzar. Approximately 10% of the film was shot in Thailand. === Release === Warning was scheduled to release on 9 January 2015. However, The release date was pushed forward to 1 May 2015 due to conflict with other events such as Bishwa Ijtema, and 2015 Cricket World Cup. == Music == Warning's soundtrack album includes six songs, lyrics were written by Kabir Bakul. Shouquat Ali Emon has composed all the tracks for the album. The track "Eto Kosto" was released on 8 December 2014. Track "Facebook" was released on 17 December 2014 and "Shono Tumi", sung by Shafin Ahmed was released on 24 December 2014. === Track listing === == References ==

Warning (Bengali: ওয়ার্নিং) is a 2015 Bangladeshi action thriller film directed by Shafi Uddin Shafi. The cast includes Arifin Shuvoo, Mahiya Mahi, Rubel and Misha Sawdagor. It is produced under the banner of Maple Films. In the film, Arifin Shuvo plays the role of a part-time journalist cum kidnapper and Mahiya Mahi plays the role a journalist.

warning

Warning (2021 film) (wikipedia)

Warning is a 2021 science fiction thriller film directed by Agata Alexander in her directorial debut, from a screenplay by Alexander, Jason Kaye and Rob Michaelson. It stars Alex Pettyfer, Alice Eve, Annabelle Wallis, Benedict Samuel, Charlotte Le Bon, Thomas Jane, Patrick Schwarzenegger, Rupert Everett, Tomasz Kot, Kylie Bunbury and Garance Marillier. The film premiered at the 2021 Sitges Film Festival. == Synopsis == "Set in the not-too-distant future, this intense sci-fi thriller explores the repercussions that humanity faces when omniscient technology becomes a substitute for human contact. But life begins to unravel when a meteor shower and a global storm causes electronics to go haywire, leading to terrifying, deadly consequences." == Cast == Alex Pettyfer as Liam Alice Eve as Claire Annabel Mullion as Dora Annabelle Wallis as Nina Benedict Samuel as Vincent Charlotte Le Bon as Charlotte Garance Marillier as Magda Kylie Bunbury as Anna Patrick Schwarzenegger as Ben Rupert Everett as Charlie Thomas Jane as David Tomasz Kot as Brian Toni Garrn as Olivia Richard Pettyfer as Ron James D’Arcy as the voice of God == Production == In September 2018, it was announced James D'Arcy, Laura Harrier, Mena Massoud, Alex Pettyfer, Charlotte Le Bon, Lana Condor and Benedict Samuel would star in the film, with Agata Alexander directing from a screenplay by herself, Jason Kaye and Rob Michaelson. Cybill Lui will produce under her Anova Pictures banner. In October 2018, Alice Eve joined the cast of the film. In November 2018, Annabelle Wallis joined the cast of the film. In February 2019, Raúl Castillo and Thomas Jane joined the cast of the film. In March 2019, it was announced Patrick Schwarzenegger, Rupert Everett, Tomasz Kot, Kylie Bunbury and Garance Marillier had joined the cast of the film. In April 2019, Toni Garrn, Annabel Mullion and Richard Pettyfer joined the cast of the film. Principal photography began on March 13, 2019. == Reception == === Critical response === On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, Warning holds an approval rating of 30% based on 10 reviews, with an average rating of 4.8/10." On Metacritic, the film holds a score of 53 out of 100, based on 5 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". === Box office === As of April 7, 2024, Warning grossed $188,173 in United Kingdom, Australia, and New Zealand. == References == == External links == Warning at IMDb Warning at AllMovie

Warning is a 2021 science fiction thriller film directed by Agata Alexander in her directorial debut, from a screenplay by Alexander, Jason Kaye and Rob Michaelson. It stars Alex Pettyfer, Alice Eve, Annabelle Wallis, Benedict Samuel, Charlotte Le Bon, Thomas Jane, Patrick Schwarzenegger, Rupert Everett, Tomasz Kot, Kylie Bunbury and Garance Marillier. The film premiered at the 2021 Sitges Film Festival.

warning

Warning (Antigama album) (wikipedia)

Warning is the fifth full-length studio album by Polish grindcore band Antigama. It was released on 3 March 2009 on Relapse Records. == Overview == Warning was recorded in September 2008. A music video was released for "Disconnected". The music video was shot at the Progresja Club in Warsaw, Poland, with producer and director Bartek Rogalewicz. Shortly after the release, Antigama was part of the first European edition of Relapse Records' Contamination Tour alongside Origin, Skinless, Obscura, and Man Must Die. == Track listing == "Disconnected" – 1:14 "Jealousy" – 1:33 "City" – 2:32 "Another" – 1:26 "Not True" – 1:12 "War" – 2:13 "Heartbeat" – 2:11 "Preachers Pray" – 2:17 "Sequenzia Dellamorte" – 1:32 "You Have The Right to Remain Violent" – 1:37 "Lost Skull" – 2:53 "Nightmare" – 2:50 "Paganini Meets Barbapapex" – 1:54 "Empty Room" – 2:15 "Orange Pills" – 1:04 "Black Planet" – 7:02 == Personnel == Patryk Zwolinski – vocals Sebastian Rokicki – guitar Szymon Czech – bass Krzysztof Bentkowski – drums == References == == External links == Official Antigama Myspace Official Relapse Records Website

Warning is the fifth full-length studio album by Polish grindcore band Antigama. It was released on 3 March 2009 on Relapse Records.

warning

Warning (Australian horse) (wikipedia)

Warning (foaled 30 September 2016) is a Group 1 winning Australian bred thoroughbred racehorse who is most notable for winning the 2019 Victoria Derby. == Background == Warning was purchased for A$ 65,000 at the 2018 Magic Millions Adelaide Yearling Sale. == Racing career == === 2018/19: two-year-old season === Warning made his race debut on the 23 April 2019 at Ballarat Racecourse and finished in 7th placing. His only other start as a two-year-old was at Bendigo over 1,400 metres finishing in 4th place. === 2019/20: three-year-old season === Warning returned to racing four months later at Sandown over a distance of 1,400 metres finishing in 4th place. After finishing unplaced at his next start at Sale, Warning contested his first stakes race on the 5 October 2019 in the Listed Super Impose Stakes at Flemington. Ridden by Martin Harley at the odds of 15/1, Warning won the race over 1,800 metres by two lengths. After finishing second in the Norman Robinson Stakes at Caulfield, Warning then started the third favourite at $9.50 at his next start in the Victoria Derby. Ridden by Damien Oliver in wet conditions, Warning settled in 4th position during the run and hit the front with 250 metres to go and extended his lead to win by over three lengths. The win was jockey Oliver's sixth Victorian Derby success. Warning returned to racing on the 22 February 2020 in the Hobartville Stakes at Rosehill where he finished in 7th place. A further two unplaced runs followed in both the Randwick Guineas and Rosehill Guineas. Warning then contested the Australian Derby at Randwick. Starting the 4/1 second favourite, Warning finished in sixth placing beaten 9 lengths by Quick Thinker. Jockey Tommy Berry said after the race the horse was “gone at the half mile”. Warning then contested the Chairman's Stakes at Morphettville where he finished in third placing, followed by another third placing in the South Australian Derby behind winner Russian Camelot. === 2020/21: four-year-old season === After an 18 week break between races, Warning returned in the Makybe Diva Stakes on the 12 September 2020 at Flemington. After settling midfield at the odds of 90/1, he worked to the line steadily to run in 7th position. After unplaced runs in the Turnbull Stakes and Caulfield Cup, Warning took part in the 2020 Melbourne Cup. Starting at odds of 40/1 he settled midfield and battled on gamely without threatening, eventually beaten 6.8 lengths by Twilight Payment. Jockey Luke Currie said after the race, "He couldn't quicken as well as some of those better ones." After finishing second last in the 2021 Australian Cup and in fifth placing in a 1,700 metre Handicap race at Flemington, Warning contested the 2021 Chairman's Handicap at Doomben. After settling well back he stormed home to win in the last stride. == References ==

Warning (foaled 30 September 2016) is a Group 1 winning Australian bred thoroughbred racehorse who is most notable for winning the 2019 Victoria Derby.

warning

Warning (British band) (wikipedia)

Warning was a British doom metal band from Harlow, Essex. Founded in 1994 by vocalist, guitarist and songwriter Patrick Walker, the band released two albums and is regarded as highly influential on the doom metal sound. Following the band's breakup in 2009, Walker continued to release music with a new band 40 Watt Sun, which is now a solo project. Warning briefly reunited in 2017 to perform Watching from a Distance in its entirety at the Roadburn Festival, which was followed by a tour of the United States and Europe. == History == Warning was formed by Patrick Walker in 1994 with bassist John Sellings and drummer Stuart Springthorpe. The band released two demo tapes, Revelation Looms in February 1996 and Blessed by the Sabbath in March 1997, which led them to gain underground metal press attention and label interest. Warning debuted in 1999 with The Strength to Dream on the Miskatonic Foundation label. With this album, Warning gained a cult status within doom metal circles, but they soon disbanded after their 2001 European tour with Jack Frost. They regrouped for an acclaimed performance at the Doom Shall Rise festival in Germany, 2005. In April 2006, following a Scandinavian tour with Reverend Bizarre at the start of the year, the band flew to Rosenquarz Studio in Lübeck, Germany, where they recorded their second album, Watching from a Distance. Released the following winter to enormous acclaim, it has been heralded as one of the most influential doom metal albums of the past 25 years, and one of the milestone metal albums of the decade. Both albums were initially released on vinyl by Metal Supremacy, each on gatefold double vinyl, as limited pressings, and later by Cyclone Empire, again as one-off pressings. After an unauthorised and low-quality vinyl release by Kreation Records surfaced in 2012, Patrick acquired the rights to the band's recordings, and since then the many subsequent vinyl repressings have been licensed to Svart Records, with whom Patrick continues to have a strong working relationship. In January 2009, Walker disbanded Warning, stating, "in order to make music that retains some semblance of integrity and wholeness, I realize I need to move on." He continues to write and record music as 40 Watt Sun. Warning reunited for a performance at the 2017 edition of Roadburn Festival in the Netherlands, where they played Watching from a Distance in its entirety, after which they toured the album on both sides of the Atlantic in a series of celebrated live concerts. == Legacy == In 2019, Kerrang! named 'Watching from a Distance' number 1 of their "13 Bleakest Rock And Metal Albums Ever", writing, "the depths of anguish conjured by Essex-based frontman Patrick Walker (now of 40 Watt Sun)... are still utterly, utterly unmatched." Metal Hammer magazine listed the album's title track as number 1 on its list of "The 10 most heartbreaking doom metal songs", and featured Warning in their "Top 50 Greatest Cult Bands" feature. Decibel Magazine included Watching from a Distance among its Top 20 Doom Metal Albums of All Time. Terrorizer Magazine featured the album in its Top Albums of the Decade (2000–2009). In their 2017 book A History of Heavy Metal, author Andrew O'Neill described Warning as "the best doom band of the bunch", writing, "their 2006 release 'Watching from a Distance' contains possibly the most emotionally affecting song in all of heavy metal – the incomparable 'Bridges'." == Line-up == === Final members === Patrick Walker – vocals, guitar Marcus Hatfield – bass Andrew Prestidge – drums Wayne Taylor – guitar === Former members === John Sellings – bass (1994–1997) Wayne Taylor – bass (1997–1998) Stuart Springthorpe – drums (1994–2008) Christian Leitch – drums (2008–2009) == Discography == === Studio albums === The Strength to Dream (1999) Watching from a Distance (2006) === Live albums === Watching from a Distance – Live at Roadburn (2021) === Extended plays === Bridges (2010) === Demos === Revelation Looms (1996) Blessed by the Sabbath (1997) === Compilations === The Demo Tapes (2011) Casting Shadows (2017, complete discography) === Compilation appearances === At the Mountains of Madness CD, 1999 (The Miskatonic Foundation) – features "Cemetery Eyes" == References ==

Warning was a British doom metal band from Harlow, Essex. Founded in 1994 by vocalist, guitarist and songwriter Patrick Walker, the band released two albums and is regarded as highly influential on the doom metal sound. Following the band's breakup in 2009, Walker continued to release music with a new band 40 Watt Sun, which is now a solo project. Warning briefly reunited in 2017 to perform Watching from a Distance in its entirety at the Roadburn Festival, which was followed by a tour of the United States and Europe.

warning

Warning (British horse) (wikipedia)

Warning (13 April 1985 – 27 December 2000) was a British Thoroughbred racehorse and sire. He was the leading two-year-old colt in Europe in 1987 when he was unbeaten in four races including the Richmond Stakes and the Champagne Stakes. As a three-year-old he missed the British Classic Races but proved himself to be an outstanding specialist miler, winning the Sussex Stakes and the Queen Elizabeth II Stakes. He was less successful in 1989, but added a win in the Queen Anne Stakes. He was retired to stud at the end of that year and became a successful sire of winners in Britain and Japan. == Background == Warning was a dark bay or brown horse with a narrow white stripe and a white sock on his left hind leg bred by Juddmonte Farms, the breeding organisation of his owner Khalid Abdulla. The colt raced in Abdulla's green, pink and white racing silks and was trained at Pulborough, West Sussex by Guy Harwood. Warning was ridden in all his races by the Irish jockey Pat Eddery. He was sired by the 2000 Guineas and Queen Elizabeth II Stakes winner Known Fact and thus was a male-line descendant of the Godolphin Arabian, unlike more than 95% of modern thoroughbreds, who trace their ancestry to the Darley Arabian. Warning's dam Slightly Dangerous finished second in the 1982 Epsom Oaks and later became an outstanding broodmare. Apart from Warning she produced The Derby winner Commander in Chief, the Derby runner-up Dushyantor, the Irish Derby runner-up Deploy and the Flower Bowl Invitational Stakes winner Yashmak. She was also a sister of I Will Follow, the dam of the Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe winner Rainbow Quest. == Racing career == === 1987: two-year-old season === Warning was undefeated in four races as a two-year-old in 1987. After two wins in minor races he was moved up in class for the Group Two Richmond Stakes at Goodwood Racecourse and won at odds of 4/11 from Bellefella and Lapierre (a colt which later won the Group One Prix Jean Prat). In September at Doncaster Racecourse, Warning won the Champagne Stakes, beating the Coventry Stakes winner Always Fair. Warning was scheduled to end his season by meeting another unbeaten colt, Reprimand, in the Group One Dewhurst Stakes at Newmarket in October, but was withdrawn from the race as Harwood felt he would be unsuited by the soft ground. The race was subsequently abandoned as a result of damage caused by the Great Storm of 1987. === 1988: three-year-old season === Warning was the early favourite for the 2000 Guineas but in his prep race he was beaten four lengths by Doyoun in the Craven Stakes at Newmarket. Shortly after this race the colt was found to be sick and was withdrawn from the Guineas. Warning did not appear until July when he ran in the Bet With The Tote Trophy, a Listed race over one mile at Lingfield Park. He started the 4/9 favourite, took the lead inside the final furlong and won by half a length from Salse. The runner-up went on to win five Group races including the Prix de la Forêt. In July, Warning was matched against older horses in the Group One Sussex Stakes at Goodwood. Eddery restrained the colt in the early stages before challenging in the straight. He finished strongly to win from the five-year-old Then Again and the four-year-old Most Welcome. Two and a half weeks later, Warning was sent to France to contest the Prix Jacques Le Marois at Deauville Racecourse. Despite having "every chance" in the closing stages, he was beaten a length by the Breeders' Cup Mile winner Miesque at weight-for-age terms with the July Cup winner Soviet Star in fourth. In the Queen Elizabeth II Stakes at Ascot Racecourse on 24 September, Warning started 9/4 joint-favourite with Soviet Star, who had defeated Miesque in the Prix du Moulin. The field also included Persian Heights (St James's Palace Stakes), Magic of Life (Coronation Stakes), Prince Rupert (Waterford Crystal Mile) and Indian Ridge (Jersey Stakes). Warning turned into the straight in sixth place but accelerated to take the lead a furlong from the finish and drew clear of the field to win "very easily" by five lengths. On his final appearance of the season, Warning was sent to the United States for the Breeders Cup Mile at Churchill Downs. He started the 19/10 favourite but was never in contention and finished tenth of the eleven runners, more than 25 lengths behind the winner Miesque. === 1989: four-year-old season === Warning remained in training at four, but won only one of his four races. On his seasonal debut he started 8/15 favourite for the Lockinge Stakes at Newbury, but was beaten two lengths by Most Welcome. At Royal Ascot in June he appeared to recover his best form in the Queen Anne Stakes, taking the lead approaching the final furlong and accelerating clear to win by four lengths from Reprimand. In July he was moved up to middle distances for the only time for the Eclipse Stakes at Sandown. He started second favourite but tired badly in the closing stages and finished fourth behind Nashwan, Opening Verse and Indian Skimmer. On his final appearance he was made favourite for a second win in the Sussex Stakes, but finished sixth of the nine runners behind the three-year-old Zilzal. Warning was being prepared for another attempt at the Breeders' Cup Mile when his career was ended by injury. == Assessment == In 1987 Warning was the top-rated two-year-old colt in Europe's official International Classification with a rating of 125, placing him equal with the filly Ravinella. The independent Timeform organisation concurred, making him their highest-rated two-year-old of either sex with a rating of 127p (the "p" indicated that they felt the colt likely to improve on his rating). In the following year the colt was officially Europe's best horse, with a rating of 133 placing him one pound ahead of Miesque and two ahead of the leading middle-distance horses Mtoto and Tony Bin. Following a "recalibration" of historic ratings in 2013, the ratings of all horses in the 1988 classification were moved down by one pound, giving Warning a new official rating of 132. Timeform assigned a rating of 136 to Warning in 1988, making him their highest-rated horse of the year. In their book A Century of Champions, based on a modified version of the Timeform system, John Randall and Tony Morris rated Warning the best British-trained racehorse of his generation. Pat Eddery described Warning as "a brilliant horse" and an "absolutely top miler" adding that he was "a lovely little fellow, not very big but a gentleman". == Stud record == Warning was based at the Banstead Manor Stud and proved to be a successful breeding stallion, particularly as a sire of sprinters. The best of his progeny included Diktat, Piccolo, Give Notice, Charnwood Forest (Queen Anne Stakes), Decorated Hero (Challenge Stakes) and Annus Mirabilis (Dubai Duty Free). He was exported to Japan in 1996 where the most successful of his runners was Calstone Light O, winner of the 2004 Sprinters Stakes. Warning died of heart failure at the Shizunai Stallion Station on 27 December 2000. == Sire line tree == == Pedigree == == References ==

Warning (13 April 1985 – 27 December 2000) was a British Thoroughbred racehorse and sire. He was the leading two-year-old colt in Europe in 1987 when he was unbeaten in four races including the Richmond Stakes and the Champagne Stakes. As a three-year-old he missed the British Classic Races but proved himself to be an outstanding specialist miler, winning the Sussex Stakes and the Queen Elizabeth II Stakes. He was less successful in 1989, but added a win in the Queen Anne Stakes. He was retired to stud at the end of that year and became a successful sire of winners in Britain and Japan.

warning

Warning (EP) (wikipedia)

Warning (stylized in all caps) is the second extended play by South Korean singer Sunmi. It was released on September 4, 2018, by Makeus Entertainment. It is her first solo Korean material since the release of Full Moon in February 2014. "Gashina" was released as the lead single. == Background and release == On August 22, 2017, Sunmi released her third single "Gashina", which became her first release since the disbandment of Wonder Girls and the expiration of her contract with JYP Entertainment. The song was a commercial success and topped the Gaon Digital Chart, selling over 1,100,000 digital downloads as of December 2017. Her fourth single "Heroine" was released on January 18, 2018 and peaked at number 2 on Gaon Digital Chart. It was produced by The Black Label, marking her second collaboration with the YG-owned label after "Gashina". On July 11, it was reported that Sunmi has officially began working on her new album. In response to the reports, her agency MAKEUS Entertainment confirmed that she is preparing for a comeback aimed for September. On August 20, Sunmi's agency revealed the first teaser for her new album Warning on Twitter along with the release date set for September 4. On August 26, the tracklist of Warning was released via official social media channels of Make Us Entertainment. "Siren" was released on September 4, along with the EP and music video. It topped the Gaon Digital Chart, becoming Sunmi's second number one on the chart. In support of the EP, Sunmi embarked on her first solo world tour visiting cities in North America, Asia and Europe. == Track listing == == Accolades == == Charts == == Sales == == Release history == == References ==

Warning (stylized in all caps) is the second extended play by South Korean singer Sunmi. It was released on September 4, 2018, by Makeus Entertainment. It is her first solo Korean material since the release of Full Moon in February 2014. "Gashina" was released as the lead single.

warning

Warning (French band) (wikipedia)

Warning was a French hard-rock band active from 1980 until 1985. They released three albums sung in French language, their second being produced by Dieter Dierks. == Discography == Warning I, Polydor 1981, CD re-issue by Axe Killer, gold certification in France Warning II, Polydor 1982, CD re-issue by Axe Killer, gold certification in France Metamorphose, Columbia 1984 == Musicians == Raphael Garrido : vocals on Warning I and Warning II Francis Petit : vocals on Metamorphose Christophe Aubert : guitars, died in a car crash in 1994 Didier Bernoussi : guitars on Warning I and Warning II, died in 2011 Michel Aymé : bass on Warning II and Metamorphose Gerald Manceau : drums on Warning II and Metamorphose == External links == Warning french website France Metal Museum

Warning was a French hard-rock band active from 1980 until 1985. They released three albums sung in French language, their second being produced by Dieter Dierks.

warning

Warning (German band) (wikipedia)

Warning was a German electronic music band founded in 1982. They are best known for their 1982 single "Why Can the Bodies Fly", which was featured in a 1983 episode of the TV series Tatort == History == Edgar Schlepper, owner of a music store, and Hans Müller, who worked for a record label, created several songs during a joint jam session on a guitar synthesizer , which were compiled on their debut album Warning in 1982. The two musicians used the pseudonyms Ed Vanguard (Schlepper) and Mike Yonder (Müller). The recordings for the album were performed by the former Rattles drummer Dicky Tarrach, while the background vocals came from two former singers of the Les Humphries Singers. The lyrics for "Why Can the Bodies Fly" were written by the Spaniard Ines Gaim, while the other lyrics were written by Jürgen Barz. Schlepper and Müller presented themselves on the album cover wearing masks like Darth Vader. The song "Why Can the Bodies Fly" caught the attention of director Wolfgang Becker while he was on vacation due to his morbid mood, so he added it to the soundtrack of a 1983 episode of the TV series Tatort, "Peggy hat Angst". In the film, the offender (portrayed by Hans-Georg Panczak) plays the song in stressful situations before each murder that he commits. "Why Can the Bodies Fly" reached number 11 in the German and 17th place in the Austrian single charts and remained the only hit of the duo. Edgar Schlepper later produced radio plays. Hans Müller died in 2004 of cancer, Edgar Schlepper died in 2015. "Why Can the Bodies Fly" was covered by the Austrian death metal band Pungent Stench on the 1993 EP Dirty Rhymes & Psychotronic Beats. "Darkness" was covered by the German death metal band Morgoth on their first full length album "Cursed". == Discography == === Albums === Warning (1982) Electric Eyes (1983) === Singles === "Why Can the Bodies Fly" b/w "In Crowd" (1982) "Journey to the Other Side" b/w "Warning" (1983) == References == == External links == Discogs

Warning was a German electronic music band founded in 1982. They are best known for their 1982 single "Why Can the Bodies Fly", which was featured in a 1983 episode of the TV series Tatort

warning

Warning (Green Day album) (wikipedia)

Warning is the sixth studio album by the American rock band Green Day, released on October 3, 2000, by Reprise Records. Building upon its predecessor Nimrod (1997), it eschewed the band's trademark punk rock sound and incorporated acoustic elements and pop and folk styles. Lyrically, the album contains more optimistic and inspirational themes in comparison to the band's earlier releases. Warning was also Green Day's first album since Kerplunk (1991) that was not produced by Rob Cavallo, although he did have a hand in its production and was credited as executive producer. Despite mixed criticism towards the band's stylistic change, the album received mostly positive reviews from critics, who praised vocalist/guitarist Billie Joe Armstrong's songwriting. Although it peaked at number four on the US Billboard 200, Warning represented the lowest commercial slump in Green Day's career, being their first album since signing to a major label not to achieve multi-platinum status. However, the album being leaked onto Napster three weeks before its release may have been a contributing factor to its low sales. The album has nonetheless been certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America, and has sold over 1.2 million copies as of 2012. Worldwide it has sold 3.5 million copies. == Background == After taking a break from touring in promotion of the band's fourth album Insomniac (1995), Green Day recorded the more experimental Nimrod (1997). The record, which delved into a wider variety of genres including punk, folk, power pop, hardcore punk, ska, and surf, featured the unprecedented acoustic hit "Good Riddance (Time of Your Life)". Vocalist/guitarist Billie Joe Armstrong recalled that the song's stylistic departure from the group's earlier work made him anxious about the song's release: "I was scared for that song to come out...because it was such a vulnerable song, to put that song out and it was like which way will it end up going? It was really exciting and it kind of sparked more in us as songwriters to expand on that." The band embarked on the Nimrod promotional tour, which largely featured more intimate shows with audiences of 1,500 to 3,000 people. By the end of the tour, the band noted that its audience had evolved. 924 Gilman Street, the punk club in the band's hometown that had once banned Green Day after the group signed with a major label, booked bassist Mike Dirnt's side project the Frustrators for a show. Dirnt described the experience as "a wonderful piece of closure". Punk rock music was no longer popular in the mainstream because nu metal acts such as Korn, Limp Bizkit, and Kid Rock were experiencing success. According to Studio 880 owner John Lucasey, the band was "definitely at a very big crossroads." == Recording == For Warning, Green Day initially opted to work with a producer other than Rob Cavallo, who had handled the production of the band's previous three albums. The group selected Scott Litt, who had previously worked with Nirvana and R.E.M. However, the band had disagreements with Litt over the album's musical direction; vocalist/guitarist Billie Joe Armstrong recalled that "It just didn't work out. He was really cool, but for that particular project, it just wasn't the right chemistry." The group subsequently brought Cavallo back in, but this time the band handled most of the production duties, with Cavallo instead serving as "executive producer". During the album's writing and early recording sessions, Armstrong repeatedly listened to Bob Dylan's 1965 record Bringing It All Back Home, which had a major influence over both Warning's musical experimentation and socially conscious lyrics. The band began work on the album two years before entering the studio to record on April 1, 2000. During this period, the group members met five days a week to write new songs and rehearse old ones, with Tre Cool observing, "We've been practicing and writing songs and playing them and playing them and writing new songs and playing them and playing them... People think we're off in Hawaii kicking back and shit, but we're in Oakland playing our jams." The album was recorded at Studio 880 in Oakland. Cool noted of the band's work ethic in the studio, "We're not really sprinting. We're working at the same pace, but it's a pretty fast pace for recording. We're faster than every other band, pretty much. That's what I've been told." With the record, the band aimed to construct a solid list of tracks where "each song could be its own album". The group also made sure to make each song "well thought out and well placed" with regard to the album's tracklisting. == Music and lyrics == With Warning, the band experimented with more acoustic guitars, and strove for a "not sappy acoustic... more aggressive, percussive acoustic" sound. Cool and bassist Mike Dirnt also emphasized "deeper" grooves on the record. The title track, a "densely produced blast of layered vocals [and] strummed acoustic guitars", features a "circling bass riff" similar to that of "Picture Book" by the Kinks. "Waiting", which has been categorized as a "retro-pop lament", is based on the riff from Petula Clark's 1964 song "Downtown". Its melody has also been stylistically compared to the Mamas & the Papas and Kiss. Ken Tucker of Entertainment Weekly felt that "Misery" is "probably Billie Joe's idea of a Brecht-Weill pop operetta." It features "mariachi brass" instrumentation, as well as strings, accordions, and acoustic guitar. The song's five-minute length has been called "an epic by Green Day standards". The use of a harmonica on "Hold On" has been compared to the Beatles' "Love Me Do" and "I Should Have Known Better." "Macy's Day Parade" contains elements of folk and pop. The album features more positive and uplifting lyrics in comparison with Green Day's earlier work. Cool noted that, "It's got the sarcasm, it's got the snottiness, but it's got a little light at the end of the tunnel." Warning also contains more explicitly political themes, as exemplified by tracks such as "Minority". This was inspired by Armstrong's fear that presidential nominee Al Gore was going to lose the 2000 U.S. presidential election and that "someone really conservative" would take office. He recalled, "We've always tried to keep an ear to the ground and keep our eyes open to what's going on...that's one reason why I was really taking my time writing songs to really [make an impact]. Instead of just writing an overly knee-jerk reaction." According to Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine, the lyrics of "Minority" serve as "a reminder of the youthful mentality of Green Day's early work". "Misery" tells various stories in its verses, all of which end unhappily. The first verse centers on a girl named Virginia who was a "lot lizard", a term for a prostitute who exchanges sex for money with truck drivers at interstate highway truck stops. "Blood, Sex and Booze" explores the subject of sadomasochism. "Church On Sunday" features lyrics in its pre-chorus that were originally written for the Nimrod demo "Black Eyeliner," which didn't see an official release until 2023. According to some publications, such as LA Times, The Buffalo News, Sun-Sentinel, and Music Box Magazine Green Day departs from their punk rock sound with this album. Despite this, some other publications label the album as punk rock. In addition, the album has also been cited as pop-punk, power pop, folk punk, pop rock, and alternative rock. == Release == === Commercial performance === Warning peaked at number four on the Billboard 200, remaining on the chart for 25 weeks and it sold 156,000 copies on its first week according to Billboard. On December 1, 2000, the record was certified gold by Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), for shipments of over 500,000 copies. In Canada, the record reached the number two position and stayed on the chart for five weeks. On August 1, 2001, the album was certified platinum by the Canadian Recording Industry Association for shipments of over 100,000 units. Warning also reached the top ten in multiple countries outside of North America, including Australia, Italy, and the United Kingdom. The album was later certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) for shipments of over 70,000 copies. As of December 20, 2012, Warning has sold 1.2 million copies, according to Nielsen SoundScan. === Critical reception === Warning received generally positive reviews from music critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalised rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the album received an average score of 72 based on 19 reviews, which indicates "generally favorable reviews". Entertainment Weekly's Ken Tucker perceived a maturity in the album's lyrical content and called its music "as peppy as any Green Day have recorded". Charlotte Robinson of PopMatters commended Billie Joe Armstrong's lyrics and noted the band for embracing "the pop bent that has always been a part of their sound". The A.V. Club's Stephen Thompson stated "Green Day has never made a record so slick and musically mature". Los Angeles Times writer Natalie Nichols wrote that the album "reveal[s] them shaking off the transitional aspects of 1997's 'Nimrod' to craft a more coherent, less aggressive but still rebellious collection that also draws on the even older pop traditions of Bob Dylan, the Beatles and the Who". "Metal" Mike Saunders of The Village Voice viewed Warning as the band's best work and compared its music to that of the Beatles' Rubber Soul (1965). In his consumer guide for The Village Voice, critic Robert Christgau gave the album an A− rating, indicating "the kind of garden-variety good record that is the great luxury of musical micromarketing and overproduction. Anyone open to its aesthetic will enjoy more than half its tracks". Christgau noted "professionalism, craft, artistic growth" rather than maturity in Armstrong's songwriting and elaborated on his change in musical direction, stating: He's abandoning the first person. He's assuming fictional personas. And he's creating for himself the voice of a thinking left-liberal who 'want[s] to be the minority' and cautions against caution itself--a voice that scolds rather than whines, a nice age-appropriate shift. Crucially, his knack for simple punk tunes remains unchanged; also crucially, these do fine at moderate tempos, and one even gives off a whiff of Brecht-Weill. By contrast, NME's Andy Capper was ambivalent towards the band's "less electric, more organic sound" and stated "Older. More Mature. 'Warning' is the sound of a band losing its way". Greg Kot of Rolling Stone wrote that Armstrong "can't muster the same excitement for his more mature themes" and stated "Who wants to listen to songs of faith, hope and social commentary from what used to be snot-core's biggest-selling band?". Adam Downer of Sputnikmusic gave it three out of five stars and commented that it "consists of instant classics like Minority and Macy's Day Parade, but it also is filled with garbage songs as well". Spin writer Jesse Berrett stated "these maturity moves buoy muzzy be-yourselfism ... Nor does everything in the stylistic grab bag fit", but concluded by complimenting Armstrong's "earnestly good-hearted" lyrics and wrote that "this album is after... evidence that even the snottiest deserve grace and the chance to age into warmth". Q gave the album three out of five stars and described it as "Hugely likeable, terribly noisy and cute, as well as being jammed with proper pop songs". Neal Weiss of Yahoo! Music called the album "crafty pop-rock" and stated "Some might wish Green Day never decided to grow up like this, but others might consider it a starting point to take the band seriously". Slant Magazine editor Sal Cinquemani perceived elements of folk and "pop sensibilities", writing that the album "displays just how well Green Day can construct pop songs". === Retrospect === Writing in 2009 with regard to Warning's lackluster commercial performance, James Montgomery of MTV News called the record "unjustly overlooked" and applauded Armstrong's "super strong" songwriting on the album. In The New Rolling Stone Album Guide (2004), Rolling Stone journalist Nick Catucci gave the album four out of five stars and wrote that the band "fully focus on the textures that have always differentiated their sturdy grooves and simple melodies". Catucci called the songs "speedy, neatly packaged reinterpretations of pop-rock history, from the Beatles to Creedence Clearwater Revival to the Ramones themselves". AllMusic editor Stephen Thomas Erlewine called it "gleeful, unabashed fun" and complimented Green Day for "embracing their fondness for pop and making the best damn album they'd ever made". Erlewine expressed that the band displays "melodic ingenuity and imaginative arrangements" and elaborated on its musical significance, stating "Warning may not be an innovative record per se, but it's tremendously satisfying; it finds the band at a peak of songcraft and performance, doing it all without a trace of self-consciousness. It's the first great pure pop album of the new millennium". Dom Passantino of Stylus Magazine cited it as "the most influential album on the British pop landscape since 1996 (Spice, naturally)", noting it as a significant influence on "the two biggest bands in the UK at the moment, and indeed for the past few years, Busted and McFly". Passantino called Warning "a great album" and viewed that Green Day "seemed to be bored with their genre-medium, but simultaneously knowledgeable that any attempt to boundary-hop will end with them falling on their face". == Promotion == While Green Day was nearing completion of Warning, the band announced it would be performing on the 2000 Vans Warped Tour during the summer before the album's October release. Although the group had been invited to perform on the tour before, they were unable to because of scheduling conflicts. Because of Green Day's new stylistic change displayed on Warning, the band was considered an unconventional choice for the tour. Jason White, guitarist for Armstrong's side project Pinhead Gunpowder, was recruited to perform with the band to add "more power" to the group's sound; White observed that "Even I was like, 'Why are Green Day on the Warped Tour?'". Fat Mike of NOFX recalled, "They were the biggest band on the tour but it wasn't by far. Green Day weren't super popular at that time. I think they did the Warped tour because they wanted to get popular again." He also went on to call Warning "probably their worst album, I think. It's what happens, the ups and downs." However, Joel Madden of Good Charlotte, whose 2002 release The Young and the Hopeless outsold Warning, opined that "I was definitely aware that our record at the time sold more maybe than their record but I think we idolized them so much that it didn't matter. We thought Warning was one of their best records." In January 2001, Colin Merry of the English rock band Other Garden filed a breach of copyright lawsuit against Green Day, claiming that the album's title track is a "reworked" version of his band's 1992 song "Never Got the Chance". Merry noted that despite both songs' similarity to the riff of "Picture Book" by the Kinks, the similarity between "Warning" and "Never Got the Chance" was more "striking". Green Day denied the accusations, and although Merry requested to halt all royalties from "Warning", the lawsuit was later dropped. Green Day also co-headlined a "shared bill" with fellow Californian pop-punk band Blink-182 on the Pop Disaster Tour from April to June 2002. The two bands traded off headlining positions throughout the tour, because Blink-182 was experiencing higher record sales at the time, while Green Day had experienced mainstream success for a longer period of time. Armstrong explained Green Day's desire to perform on the tour by stating, "We really wanted to be part of an event. We figured putting the two biggest pop punk bands on the planet together was definitely going to be an event." In his book Nobody Likes You: Inside the Turbulent Life, Times and Music of Green Day, author Marc Spitz likened Blink-182 headlining a tour with Green Day to "Frank Sinatra, Jr. headlining over Frank Sinatra." == Track listing == == Personnel == Credits for Warning adapted from liner notes. == Charts == === Singles === == Certifications and sales == == References == Works cited Brackett, Nathan; Hoard, Christian, eds. (2004). The New Rolling Stone Album Guide. Completely Revised and Updated 4th Edition. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-7432-0169-8. Ditmore, Melissa Hope. (August 30, 2006) Encyclopedia of Prostitution and Sex Work. Greenwood. ISBN 978-0313329685. Spitz, Marc. (November 1, 2006) Nobody Likes You: Inside the Turbulent Life, Times, and Music of Green Day. Hyperion. ISBN 978-1401309121. == External links == Warning at YouTube (streamed copy where licensed) Warning at Discogs (list of releases) Warning at Metacritic

Warning is the sixth studio album by the American rock band Green Day, released on October 3, 2000, by Reprise Records. Building upon its predecessor Nimrod (1997), it eschewed the band's trademark punk rock sound and incorporated acoustic elements and pop and folk styles. Lyrically, the album contains more optimistic and inspirational themes in comparison to the band's earlier releases. Warning was also Green Day's first album since Kerplunk (1991) that was not produced by Rob Cavallo, although he did have a hand in its production and was credited as executive producer. Despite mixed criticism towards the band's stylistic change, the album received mostly positive reviews from critics, who praised vocalist/guitarist Billie Joe Armstrong's songwriting. Although it peaked at number four on the US Billboard 200, Warning represented the lowest commercial slump in Green Day's career, being their first album since signing to a major label not to achieve multi-platinum status. However, the album being leaked onto Napster three weeks before its release may have been a contributing factor to its low sales. The album has nonetheless been certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America, and has sold over 1.2 million copies as of 2012. Worldwide it has sold 3.5 million copies.

warning

Warning (Green Day song) (wikipedia)

"Warning" is a song by American rock band Green Day. It is the second single and title track from their sixth album of the same name. Billie Joe Armstrong has said that the original concept was to create a song whose lyrics were made up of all signs and labels, and the idea grew from there. The song was a number-three modern-rock hit in the United States. The song also entered the top 40 of the UK Singles Chart. == Composition == This is the first Green Day song to feature a tremolo effect on the guitar—an effect used prominently in the 2004 single "Boulevard of Broken Dreams". It has been noted that the song's main guitar riff bears strong resemblance to the Kinks' song "Picture Book". == Music videos == "Warning" has two music videos. The first and main music video premiered on MTV in January 2001. It was directed by Francis Lawrence and shows the life of a rather oblivious young man who does dangerous, socially unacceptable and trivial things during his day examples being rubbing soap in his eyes, swallowing toothpaste, running into moving traffic and crossing police tape. His punch-in card reveals his name to be John Earle. The second music video features the recording and touring of the song and album edited together. == Live performances == Despite being included in the band's greatest hits albums International Superhits! and God's Favorite Band, as well as appearing as a playable track in the video game Green Day: Rock Band, the band did not perform the song live for 21 years since 2001, until it was performed during a warm-up show before their performance at the 2022 Lollapalooza. == Track listings == == Charts == == Release history == == References ==

"Warning" is a song by American rock band Green Day. It is the second single and title track from their sixth album of the same name. Billie Joe Armstrong has said that the original concept was to create a song whose lyrics were made up of all signs and labels, and the idea grew from there. The song was a number-three modern-rock hit in the United States. The song also entered the top 40 of the UK Singles Chart.

warning

Warning (Incubus song) (wikipedia)

"Warning" is a song by American rock band Incubus, released as a single from their fourth studio album, Morning View (2001). It reached number three on the US Billboard Modern Rock Tracks chart (now known as Alternative Airplay), number 27 on the Mainstream Rock Tracks chart, and number four on the Bubbling Under Hot 100. == Music video == The video (set in Sydney, Australia and directed by Francis Lawrence) shows a girl in a hoodie, wearing a digital watch, who stares blankly ahead, apparently oblivious to anyone around her, even though she stands in the middle of crowded areas, namely: an airport terminal a school classroom a church sanctuary aisle a grocery aisle a busy urban intersection an office a supermarket However, at exactly 10:23 AM, she screams in an extremely shrill voice (which is, like most character dialogue in the video save for the band's singers, inaudible and subtitled), and screams for exactly one whole minute. This process, according to the video, takes place over the course of three days. At the end of the video, it is revealed that exactly 10:24, all the places featured in the video are abandoned, as if the individuals who beheld the girl in any of these environments, and eventually, the entire city's populace, had suddenly vanished or were abducted. This is exemplified by: an inner-city public bus whose drivers and passengers have disappeared, but eventually runs onto the sidewalk. a dropped coffee mug a still-moving cart in the grocery store The band itself is playing the song in a loft; they also disappear at the end of the video. The message of this song and video urges people to live life to the fullest, because at any moment it could be over. == Personnel == Incubus Brandon Boyd – lead vocals Mike Einziger – guitar, backing vocals Dirk Lance – bass Chris Kilmore – turntables José Pasillas – drums == Charts == == External links == "Warning" Official music video on YouTube == References ==

"Warning" is a song by American rock band Incubus, released as a single from their fourth studio album, Morning View (2001). It reached number three on the US Billboard Modern Rock Tracks chart (now known as Alternative Airplay), number 27 on the Mainstream Rock Tracks chart, and number four on the Bubbling Under Hot 100.

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Warning (Morgan Wallen song) (wikipedia)

"Warning" is a song recorded by American country music singer Morgan Wallen. It was from his second studio album Dangerous: The Double Album. The song was co-wrote by Ashley Gorley, Ernest Keith Smith and Ryan Vojtesak, and produced by Joey Moi. == Background == Wallen first teased "Warning" on May 1, 2020, with an Instagram post that featured an acoustic performance of just him and his guitar singing about how various things throughout his night "shoulda come with a warning" to prevent him from further heartbreak, and asked his fans if it should be on his second album. == Charts == == Certifications == == References ==

"Warning" is a song recorded by American country music singer Morgan Wallen. It was from his second studio album Dangerous: The Double Album. The song was co-wrote by Ashley Gorley, Ernest Keith Smith and Ryan Vojtesak, and produced by Joey Moi.

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Warning (R. Stevie Moore album) (wikipedia)

...warning: r. stevie moore... is the ninth 12" vinyl record album by DIY home recording pioneer and one-man band R. Stevie Moore. It was the last of four RSM albums released by New Rose Records in Paris, France. Most of the disc's material resulted from studio sessions for the previous album, Teenage Spectacular. Never officially reissued on compact disc, the expanded CD-R version is available by mail from the artist. == Track listing == === Side one === "Manufacturers" (5:26) "It's What You Do (It's Not What You Are)" (4:16) "Alecia" (5:37) "You Always Want What You Don't Have" (3:56) === Side two === "Jailbait" (Williams) (3:41) "The Whereabouts" (3:35) "Diary" (Gates) (3:23) "Thinking" (5:12) "Getting Better" (John Lennon, Paul McCartney) (2:54) CDR Bonus Tracks: "Melbourne" (3:18) "Melbourne" [Factory Mix] (3:17) "Rock 'N' Roll Kit" (3:01) "I'm Only Sleeping" (Lennon, McCartney) (3:03) "And Your Bird Can Sing" (Lennon, McCartney) (2:03) "And Your Bird Can Play" (Lennon, McCartney) (2:03) "Time of the Season" (Rod Argent) (4:39) == External links == RSM's Warning webpage

...warning: r. stevie moore... is the ninth 12" vinyl record album by DIY home recording pioneer and one-man band R. Stevie Moore. It was the last of four RSM albums released by New Rose Records in Paris, France. Most of the disc's material resulted from studio sessions for the previous album, Teenage Spectacular. Never officially reissued on compact disc, the expanded CD-R version is available by mail from the artist.

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Warning (Sejeong song) (wikipedia)

"Warning" is a song recorded by South Korean singer Sejeong featuring South Korean rapper lIlBOI, released on March 29, 2021, by Jellyfish Entertainment and distributed by Kakao Entertainment. The single serves as the title track for her second EP, I'm. == Background == On March 9, 2021, plans and preparation for a comeback was revealed. "Warning" will serve as the lead single for her second EP, I'm on March 29. The teaser video for her comeback on March 17. The video shows an unexpected error code on the computer monitor's background screen with a warning saying "Warning". Unknown errors beginning with "Error 502" and the instruction "0x7e5311" referenced at "10101 00011 11101" were shown. A sound teaser was released on March 21. The music video teaser was released on March 27. The single was released on March 29, 2021. == Composition and lyrics == "Warning" is a rock metal track written by Kim Se-jeong along with lIlBOI. The track comes from her inspiration and thought that "it is okay to take breaks" where everyone feels the limit at some point. If one is unaware of it and keep on running endlessly, they will be overwhelmed, by the unbearable pain. The track aims to comfort listeners with her own colour while showing the importance of taking breaks when you need one. The lyrics also shows that breaks will allow you make your next step feel lighter. == Commercial performance == The single peaked at number 98 on the Gaon Digital Chart. == Music video == The music video was released on March 29, 2021. Sejeong appears in a starry and moonlit night sky and a house. The scene then turned to show the singer in a white costume as the moon rises and sets. In the video, Sejeong appeared in various forms such as holding a microphone and playing a joke, worrying, cleaning, or reading a book, creating a lovely and lively atmosphere. == Promotion == Sejeong promoted the single and her album on music programs. She promoted the single with Verivery's Hoyoung it on M Countdown and other music programs. The single was nominated for first place on April 6, 2021, at SBS MTV's The Show. However, it placed third, just behind Cosmic Girls and Pentagon. Sejeong placed third again, this time on M Countdown, behind Rosé's "On the Ground" and Kang Seung-yoon's "Iyah". == Credits and personnel == Credits adapted from Melon. Sejeong – vocals, lyricist, composer lIlBOI – lyricist Coke Paris – composer, arranger Kim Gi-san – composer == Charts == == Release history == == References ==

"Warning" is a song recorded by South Korean singer Sejeong featuring South Korean rapper lIlBOI, released on March 29, 2021, by Jellyfish Entertainment and distributed by Kakao Entertainment. The single serves as the title track for her second EP, I'm.

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Warning (traffic stop) (wikipedia)

When a traffic stop is made, a warning issued by the officer is a statement that the motorist has committed some offense, but is being spared the actual citation. Officers use their own discretion whether to issue a citation or warning. The motorist may receive the warning either verbally or written, but will not be charged with the offense, will not have to pay a fine, and will not receive any points. Depending on the laws of the jurisdiction, the warning may or may not appear on records visible to officers, which, if it does, could result in another stop within a fixed period of time leading to an actual citation, or in some cases, the motorist may be charged with both offenses. == Criticism of warnings == One criticism of warnings is the possibility that officers may offer them to some motorists and not to others based on favoritism, singling them out over factors such as their race, attractive appearance, the vehicle they are driving, the way they are dressed, or their social class. Warnings can be difficult to challenge, which could be a violation of due process of law. They adversely affect a driver's CSA score, and cannot be reversed like a successfully challenged citation. == See also == Police caution Honor system == References ==

When a traffic stop is made, a warning issued by the officer is a statement that the motorist has committed some offense, but is being spared the actual citation. Officers use their own discretion whether to issue a citation or warning. The motorist may receive the warning either verbally or written, but will not be charged with the offense, will not have to pay a fine, and will not receive any points. Depending on the laws of the jurisdiction, the warning may or may not appear on records visible to officers, which, if it does, could result in another stop within a fixed period of time leading to an actual citation, or in some cases, the motorist may be charged with both offenses.

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Age Of (wikipedia)

Age Of is the eighth studio album by American electronic producer Oneohtrix Point Never, released on June 1, 2018, on Warp Records. Recorded over two years, it is the first Oneohtrix Point Never album to prominently feature Daniel Lopatin's own vocals. The album was accompanied by the MYRIAD tour, which premiered as a "conceptual concertscape" in 2018 at the Park Avenue Armory and ended its run in 2019. It features contributions from James Blake (who additionally produced and mixed the album), Anohni, Prurient, Kelsey Lu and Eli Keszler. The artwork, which employs Jim Shaw's "The Great Whatsit" as a central image, was designed by David Rudnick. While not entering the official United States Billboard 200 chart, it peaked at number 59 on the magazine's Top Current Albums chart. == Background == Lopatin produced Age Of in parts of a two-year period, during which he was also producing for other artists, including Anohni, FKA Twigs, Iggy Pop, and David Byrne. After composing the soundtrack for the Safdie Brothers' 2017 film Good Time, Lopatin moved to an Airbnb lodge in South Central Massachusetts, derived from his aspiration to live out the modern cliche of musicians moving to the woods to record albums; the eerie atmosphere in the lodge at nighttime influenced his desire to make "weird, little nightmare ballads". In addition to Lopatin's own singing, the album also features vocal performances from Anohni and Prurient, while instrumentalists Kelsey Lu and Eli Keszler contribute to several tracks. When the record was nearly finished, Lopatin reached out to musician James Blake to contribute to the mixing process, eventually traveling to Los Angeles to complete the album. The track "The Station" was originally composed as a demo for R&B singer Usher which was ultimately not used. On July 9, 2018, Lopatin released the original topline (vocal melody) demo for The Station through Sendspace. The track "Toys 2" imagines a theoretical sequel to the 1992 film Toys where actor Robin Williams' image has been recreated with CGI (as his will specifically forbade any usage of his image after his death), and pokes fun at the common electronic music trope of composing a soundtrack to a theoretical film (which Lopatin described as "horribly cliché"). == Concept and MYRIAD == Influences on Age Of included Stanley Kubrick's 1968 film 2001: A Space Odyssey, which inspired the narrative of album's accompanying performance installation and tour MYRIAD, as well as William Strauss's The Fourth Turning, a favorite book of former White House Chief Strategist Steve Bannon, which Lopatin described as "insidious, like the voice of a computer insisting on the truth about history without any sensitivity given to how complex and non-linear systems might be"; Lopatin was subsequently inspired to "[use] that sort of taxonomy as a kind of farce to then create these little frameworks for understanding". Other inspirations included the writings of the 1990s multidisciplinary collective Cybernetic Culture Research Unit and the works of singer-songwriters such as Bruce Cockburn, Bob Dylan, and Paul Simon. Around the time Lopatin began finalizing Age Of in his Airbnb lodge, he began working on the concept for MYRIAD, a conceptual concert performance which premiered at Park Avenue Armory. He described the concept as a four-part "epochal song cycle" showcasing the idiocy of previous generations of living organisms. The loose story concerns a group of artificial intelligences near the end of time named a "Limitless Living Informational Intelligence" (represented in the MYRIAD logo as nine squares) which, for leisurely purposes, attempt to replicate the cultures and behaviors of the previously existent human species. It does this by determining an "average" of human experiences through the species' "recorded output", and does so through imperfect, heuristic techniques. The show was consequently divided into four sections, each representing an epoch of the cycle concept loosely inspired by the Strauss–Howe generational theory: the Age of Ecco, the Age of Harvest, the Age of Excess, and the Age of Bondage. Ecco is "a phase of pre-evolutionary ignorance", Harvest is "living in agrarian harmony with the world", Excess is "the age of unchecked industrial ambition", and Bondage is "an era of engorgement, wherein "we keep making more and more shit until there's no space left."" MYRIAD mainly featured "three-hundred pound sculptures that hang from the ceiling like kebabs that secrete ooze", and a full ensemble that toured to perform songs from Age Of, including Eli Keszler, Kelly Moran and Aaron David Ross. The sculptures, as well as the visuals displayed on five polygon panels, were created by frequent Oneohtrix Point Never collaborator Nate Boyce. Initially, Lopatin planned for each of the album's four epoches to be represented by fragrances, the more noisy epochs being pleasant to the nose to make a "weird dissonance". However, due to lack of time and resources, that part of the plan was scrapped. == Composition == Whereas previous Oneohtrix Point Never albums followed musical styles from only distinctive eras, Age Of is the first album by Lopatin to incorporate elements of unique genres from a variety of periods, hence the "incompleteness" of its title according to reviewer Heather Phares, and his first pop-song-oriented release since his work for Ford & Lopatin. The sound palettes it uses are those from a variety of styles such as chamber pop, "android"-like folk and country music, yacht rock, smooth jazz, R&B, Future-style soul, black metal, new age, and stadium pop, as well as post-industrial sounds on tracks like "Warning", "We'll Take It" and "Same", and, in particular, baroque music and medieval music on the opening title track, "Age Of". Critics also noted elements of Lopatin's past discography being present on Age Of. The instrumentation of Age Of is made up of MIDI harpsichords, guitars, pianos, brass and vocals, as well as Lopatin's trademark unorthodox sound design, samples and synth presets. The LP's use of the harpsichord shows its similarities "with Eastern instruments such as the koto and with rapid-fire electronic melodies", wrote Phares. == Critical reception == Age Of was critically well-received upon its distribution. Some reviewers praised the album's use of collaborators. Reviewing the album for AllMusic, Heather Phares called Age Of a "landmark work" for Lopatin. She praised it as his "widest-ranging" release, elaborating that he "matches the album's ambition with plenty of emotion" and "gives his music exciting new shapes." Ross Devlin of The Skinny, in a five-star review of the record, also highlighted the album's amount of ambition, particularly the "wealth of exquisitely baroque moments, exploring history as a pliable, multi-dimensional rift", that gave it "exceptional sonic depth". The Observer praised Age Of for continuing the "off-kilter composition and unexpected instrumentation" of Lopatin's previous releases, and critic Matt McDermott highlighted that the producer increased his musical range with the record: "It's a dizzying trip meant to shore up Lopatin's status as an avant-garde auteur while aiding his forays into mainstream pop culture." Age Of was ranked the 15th best release of the year in The Wire magazine's annual critics' poll. == Track listing == Notes "Myriad Industries" is stylized as "myriad.industries". Sample credits "Age Of" contains a sample of "Blow the Wind" by Jocelyn Pook. "Manifold" contains a sample from "Overture (Ararat the Border Crossing)" by Tayfun Erdem; and a sample from "Reharmonization" by Julien Bradley. "Myriad Industries" contains a sample of "EchoSpace" by Gil Trythall. == Accolades == == Personnel == Daniel Lopatin – production, lead vocals, album art, design James Blake – additional production, mixing, keyboards Gabriel Schuman, Joshua Smith and Evan Sutton – assistance Greg Calbi – mastering David Rudnick – album art, design Prurient – vocals Kelsey Lu – keyboards Anohni – vocals Eli Keszler – drums Shaun Trujillo – words == Charts == == References ==

Age Of is the eighth studio album by American electronic producer Oneohtrix Point Never, released on June 1, 2018, on Warp Records. Recorded over two years, it is the first Oneohtrix Point Never album to prominently feature Daniel Lopatin's own vocals. The album was accompanied by the MYRIAD tour, which premiered as a "conceptual concertscape" in 2018 at the Park Avenue Armory and ended its run in 2019. It features contributions from James Blake (who additionally produced and mixed the album), Anohni, Prurient, Kelsey Lu and Eli Keszler. The artwork, which employs Jim Shaw's "The Great Whatsit" as a central image, was designed by David Rudnick. While not entering the official United States Billboard 200 chart, it peaked at number 59 on the magazine's Top Current Albums chart.

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Aynsley Dunbar (wikipedia)

Aynsley Thomas Dunbar (born 10 January 1946) is an English drummer. He has worked with John Mayall, Frank Zappa, Jeff Beck, Journey, Jefferson Starship, Nils Lofgren, Eric Burdon, Shuggie Otis, Ian Hunter, Lou Reed, David Bowie, Mick Ronson, Whitesnake, Pat Travers, Sammy Hagar, Michael Schenker, UFO, Michael Chapman, Jake E. Lee, Leslie West, Kathi McDonald, Keith Emerson, Mike Onesko, Herbie Mann and Flo & Eddie. Dunbar was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as a member of Journey in 2017. == Career == Aynsley Thomas Dunbar was born in Liverpool, England. He started his professional career in Derry Wilkie and the Pressmen in 1963. In December 1964 he joined Merseybeat group the Mojos, who were renamed Stu James & the Mojos, with original members vocalist Stu James and guitarist Nick Crouch and bass player Lewis Collins (later an actor in The Professionals). This line-up continued until 1966. Dunbar then auditioned for the Jimi Hendrix Experience – losing to Mitch Mitchell on a coin toss. Dunbar then joined John Mayall's Bluesbreakers replacing Hughie Flint. He stayed with Mayall until the spring of 1967 (playing on the A Hard Road album), and was replaced by Mick Fleetwood. After a short stint in the Jeff Beck Group, Dunbar founded 'the Aynsley Dunbar Retaliation', so named to chide Mayall, who had fired him. They issued four albums during their existence. Dunbar co-wrote the song "Warning" (later recorded by Black Sabbath on their first album). The Dunbar single version was recorded in 1967 for the Blue Horizon label, prior to his band's first album release The Aynsley Dunbar Retaliation (1968). Subsequently, Dunbar founded a short-lived progressive rock band called Blue Whale, which debuted with a tour of Scandinavia in January 1970. Following the recent collapse of the original lineup of King Crimson, Dunbar unsuccessfully tried to recruit Robert Fripp as Blue Whale's guitarist. Fripp, in turn, unsuccessfully tried to recruit Dunbar as King Crimson's new drummer. Blue Whale recorded one album, which featured Paul Williams (vocals), Ivan Zagni (guitar), Roger Sutton (guitar), Tommy Eyre (from Retaliation, keys) and Peter Friedberg (bass). Dunbar was later the drummer for Frank Zappa, playing on the solo albums Apostrophe (') and Waka/Jawaka, and the Mothers' albums The Grand Wazoo, Fillmore East – June 1971, and Just Another Band from L.A., as well as the film 200 Motels. He filled in for Flo and Eddie when they left the Zappa group after an irate British "fan" pushed Zappa off the Rainbow stage in 1971. In 1974 he played on the soundtrack of Dirty Duck, an adult animated film directed by Charles Swenson. In the mid-1970s Dunbar played drums for former Grin leader, Nils Lofgren, before joining Journey for their first four albums. He joined Jefferson Starship for three albums. On 28 December 1978, he played at Winterland in San Francisco with the Tubes. Dunbar joined Whitesnake in 1985 and performed on their 1987 album, Whitesnake. He also spent some time working with Pat Travers, Eric Burdon, UFO, Michael Schenker, Mogg/Way and the Animals. He has been the drummer for the World Classic Rockers since 2003. In 2005, he drummed on Jake E. Lee's solo Retraced album. In 2008 Dunbar recorded an album of material for Direct Music with Mickey Thomas of Starship, and musicians such as Jake E. Lee, former guitarist for Ozzy Osbourne. The complete recordings of Dunbar's drumming with Frank Zappa at Carnegie Hall in October 1971 were released exactly 40 years after the event in a four-CD set. In 2009 the blues album The Bluesmasters featuring Mickey Thomas was released, featuring Dunbar on drums along with Tim Tucker on guitar and Danny Miranda on bass as well as guest stars such as Magic Slim on guitar and vocals. Drummerworld recognized Dunbar as the only drummer to have played with such a robust variety of successful bands and musicians. In 2017 Aynsley was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as a member of Journey. Dunbar was ranked by Rolling Stone as 27th greatest drummer of all time. == Personal life == Dunbar's youngest son Dash was diagnosed with cancer in June 1999 and died on 9 May 2000. == Discography == === With John Mayall & the Bluesbreakers === A Hard Road (1967) Looking Back (1969) So Many Roads (1969) Thru the Years (1971) === With Eddie Boyd === Eddie Boyd and His Blues Band Featuring Peter Green (1967) === With Michael Chapman === Rainmaker (1969) === The Aynsley Dunbar Retaliation === The Aynsley Dunbar Retaliation (July 1968) Doctor Dunbar's Prescription (December 1968) To Mum, From Aynsley & The Boys (Oct 1969) Remains to Be Heard (May 1970) Watchin' Chain (unknown; BYG 529501) === With Blue Whale === Blue Whale (1971) === With Frank Zappa and the Mothers === Chunga's Revenge (1970) Fillmore East - June 1971 (1971) 200 Motels (1971) Just Another Band from L.A. (1972) Waka/Jawaka (1972) The Grand Wazoo (1972) Apostrophe (') (1974) You Can't Do That on Stage Anymore, Vol. 1 (1988) You Can't Do That on Stage Anymore, Vol. 3 (1991) You Can't Do That on Stage Anymore, Vol. 6 (1992) Playground Psychotics (1992) The Lost Episodes (1996) Joe's Garage (2004) Quaudiophiliac (2004) Carnegie Hall (2011) Finer Moments (2012) Road Tapes, Venue 3 (2016) The Mothers 1970 (2020) Zappa - Original Motion Picture Soundtrack (2021) Funky Nothingness (2023) === With Shuggie Otis === Freedom Flight (1971) === With Flo & Eddie === The Phlorescent Leech & Eddie (album) (1972) Flo & Eddie (album) (1973) === With David Bowie === Pin Ups (1973) Diamond Dogs (1974) === With Lou Reed === Berlin (1973) === With Herbie Mann === London Underground (Atlantic, 1973) === With Ava Cherry and the Astronettes === People from Bad Homes (1973) === With Kathi McDonald === Insane Asylum (1974) === With Mick Ronson === Slaughter on 10th Avenue (1974) Play Don't Worry (1975) === With Nils Lofgren === Nils Lofgren (1975) Cry Tough (1976) === With Ian Hunter === All American Alien Boy (1976) === With Journey === Journey (1975) Look into the Future (1976) Next (1977) Infinity (1978) === With Sammy Hagar === Nine on a Ten Scale (1976) === With Jefferson Starship === Freedom at Point Zero (1979) Modern Times (1981) Winds of Change (1982) === With Paul Kantner === Planet Earth Rock and Roll Orchestra (1983) === With Whitesnake === Whitesnake (1987) 1987 Versions (1987) === With Ronnie Montrose === The Diva Station (1990) === With Pat Travers === Just a Touch (1992) Blues Magnet (1994) P.T. Power Trio (2003) === With Mogg/Way === Edge of the World (1997) === With Mother's Army === Fire on the Moon (1998) === With Michael Schenker === Adventures of the Imagination (2000) === With UFO === Covenant (2000) Sharks (2002) === With Leslie West === Blues to Die For (2003) === With Jake E. Lee === Retraced (2005) === With Keith Emerson === Best Revenge (1985) Off the Shelf (2006) === Aynsley Dunbar === Mutiny (2008). == Bibliography == Bob Brunning (1986) Blues: The British Connection, London: Helter Skelter, 2002, ISBN 1-900924-41-2 Dick Heckstall-Smith (2004) The Safest Place in the World: A Personal History of British Rhythm and blues, Clear Books, ISBN 0-7043-2696-5 – First Edition : Blowing The Blues – Fifty Years Playing The British Blues Christopher Hjort Strange Brew: Eric Clapton and the British Blues Boom, 1965–1970, foreword by John Mayall, Jawbone (2007) ISBN 1-906002002 Paul Myers: Long John Baldry and the Birth of the British Blues, Vancouver 2007 – GreyStone Books Harry Shapiro Alexis Korner: The Biography, Bloomsbury Publishing PLC, London 1997, Discography by Mark Troster == References == == External links == Aynsley Dunbar discography at Discogs

Aynsley Thomas Dunbar (born 10 January 1946) is an English drummer. He has worked with John Mayall, Frank Zappa, Jeff Beck, Journey, Jefferson Starship, Nils Lofgren, Eric Burdon, Shuggie Otis, Ian Hunter, Lou Reed, David Bowie, Mick Ronson, Whitesnake, Pat Travers, Sammy Hagar, Michael Schenker, UFO, Michael Chapman, Jake E. Lee, Leslie West, Kathi McDonald, Keith Emerson, Mike Onesko, Herbie Mann and Flo & Eddie. Dunbar was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as a member of Journey in 2017.

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Nick Jonas (album) (wikipedia)

Nick Jonas is the second studio album by American singer-songwriter Nick Jonas. It was released on November 10, 2014, by Island Records. The album features guest appearances from Angel Haze, Demi Lovato and Mike Posner. The album received generally favorable reviews from music critics and reached the top 10 in the United States, the top 20 in the United Kingdom, Mexico and Canada, and also reached the top 40 in Australia and New Zealand. It was re-released on November 20, 2015, under the title Nick Jonas X2; including three new tracks and four remixes. == Background and recording == In an interview with Rolling Stone, Jonas stated that when Demi Lovato's The Neon Lights Tour gets off the ground, he will turn his attention towards his upcoming solo project. "Some of it is done and ready to be released," he said. "I've got a lot of things in the pipeline right now and I'm waiting to release some news about my music and my next steps. It isn't quite locked in yet, but I have started making some music and now it's all about lining up the pieces. "I came in really wanting to make a record that was different from anything I'd done in the past, but that was true to my influences: Stevie Wonder, Prince, Bee Gees," he told Time. "And then, more recently, The Weeknd and Frank Ocean. That whole vibe of alternative R&B and pop. It just fell into a really natural place really early. I came in really sure of what I wanted to do", Jonas said about his new record. On July 30, 2014, it was announced that after Jonas' stint as a creative and musical director for The Neon Lights Tour, that there will be an duet between him and fellow Camp Rock star Demi Lovato on the record. "It's a great song that we both love. Her voice is just amazing on it. She's the real deal. It's the perfect fit for this record", Jonas said about the song. On September 5, 2014, it was announced along with the tour that his self-titled album would release on November 11, 2014. Jonas opened up to Entertainment Weekly about the prospect of re-releasing the album with some additional tracks. He revealed, "I feel like the next step is just going to be getting a collection of a few more songs and maybe repackaging the album. [...] I still feel like there’s some life left on the record I released last year." == Singles == "Chains" was released as the lead single from Nick Jonas on July 24, 2014. The song was written and produced by Jason Evigan, with additional songwriting provided by Ammar Malik, and Daniel Parker. The song peaked at number 31 on the US Pop Digital Songs chart. The music video (directed by Ryan Pallotta) was released on July 30, 2014. After the single's re-release in January 2015, it has since peaked at number 13 on the US Billboard Hot 100. The single was released on June 21, 2015 in the United Kingdom. The album's second single, "Jealous" was released on September 7, 2014. It was written by Jonas, Simon Wilcox, and Nolan Lambroza; with production, which was helmed by Lambroza. On September 5, Jonas previewed 30 seconds of the new single. It was announced on September 6, 2014, that his fans could pre-ordered his upcoming album to get early access to the tour ticket sale. They will also receive a download of his single, "Jealous" on September 8, 2014. The song peaked at number 7 on the Billboard Hot 100, becoming Jonas' highest charting single in the United States as of August 2016. The music video (directed by Peter Tunney and featuring a cameo appearance by Jonas' real-life girlfriend Olivia Culpo) premiered on September 16, 2014. The single was released on April 5, 2015 in the United Kingdom and it peaked at number 2 on the UK Singles Chart. With the re-release of the album, Jonas released a new single, "Levels", on August 21, 2015, to help with promoting. The music video to accompany with the song was released on August 30, 2015. Within a few days later, the singer dropped "Area Code" on his SoundCloud account, with a music video being later released on October 9, 2015. == Release and reception == Upon the album's announcement, Jonas promoted the album during various radio and television appearances, including a performance of "God Bless America" at the televised US Open Women's Finals on September 7, and both Watch What Happens: Live and Fashion Rocks on September 9, 2014. To promote the album Jonas released a track called "Numb" featuring Angel Haze as a countdown single from the album on October 7, 2014. The album's third track, called "Teacher", was released as the second countdown single on October 14, 2014. Also the album's fifth track, called "Wilderness", was released as the third countdown single on October 21, 2014. Jonas embarked on the album's supporting tour, the Nick Jonas Live Tour which kicked off in Seattle on September 22, 2014. Nick Jonas earned generally favorable reviews from music critics upon release, holding an aggregate score of 69 out of 100 based on five reviews. Stephen Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic stated, "For all the guests and modern accouterments, Nick Jonas is at its best when Jonas plays it straight, when he relies on his eternal Prince and Stevie Wonder fixations, which give him not only a fairly rich palette to draw from but provide him with a good direction to channel his melodic skills". == Commercial performance == The album debuted at number 6 on the US Billboard 200, with first week sales of 37,000 copies in the United States. It has sold 225,000 copies in the United States as of May 2016. == Track listing == Notes ^[a] signifies a vocal producer. == Charts == === Weekly charts === === Year-end charts === == Release history == == References ==

Nick Jonas is the second studio album by American singer-songwriter Nick Jonas. It was released on November 10, 2014, by Island Records. The album features guest appearances from Angel Haze, Demi Lovato and Mike Posner. The album received generally favorable reviews from music critics and reached the top 10 in the United States, the top 20 in the United Kingdom, Mexico and Canada, and also reached the top 40 in Australia and New Zealand. It was re-released on November 20, 2015, under the title Nick Jonas X2; including three new tracks and four remixes.