Datasets:

lshowway

/

wikipedia.reorder.natural

like 0

Pillow took up a position at on January 14, 1862 , Johnston ordered January 14, 1862 , Johnston ordered Tilghman , Johnston ordered Tilghman to Johnston ordered Tilghman to fortify Gen. Beauregard arrived at Johnston's headquarters at February 6, 1862 , Union Navy gunboats quickly reduced , Union Navy gunboats quickly reduced the defenses Union Navy gunboats quickly reduced the defenses of Gen. Lloyd Tilghman surrendered the 94 remaining officers and men Johnston also reinforced Fort Donelson with He did order the commanders of Colonel Nathan Bedford Forrest escaped with his cavalry force of The Confederates suffered about 1,500 casualties with an estimated 12,000 to 14,000 taken prisoner The fall of the forts exposed Nashville Johnston had various remaining military units scattered throughout Johnston himself retreated with the force With Beauregard's help , Johnston decided Beauregard's help , Johnston decided to Johnston decided to concentrate forces Johnston kept the Union forces , now Johnston's army of 17,000 men gave the Confederates Johnston started his army in motion , felt the element of surprise felt the element of surprise had Johnston launched a massive surprise attack with his concentrated forces the Union camps , Johnston personally rallied , Johnston personally rallied troops Johnston personally rallied troops up in the battle occurred when he the battle occurred when he witnessed occurred when he witnessed some " Johnston roared at the officer Johnston roared at the officer , The bullet clipped a part of his popliteal artery a few minutes , Johnston was observed Johnston was observed by his staff was observed by his staff to observed by his staff to be Among his staff was Isham G. Harris , his staff was Isham G. Harris , the Governor Johnston glanced down at his leg wound Harris and other staff officers removed Johnston Harris then sent an aide to , Johnston died from blood loss Harris and the other officers wrapped General Johnston's body P. G. T. Beauregard assumed command of the army , Beauregard called off the final Confederate attack Beauregard called off the final Confederate attack around 1900 hours Grant was reinforced by 20,000 fresh troops

was reinforced by 20,000 fresh troops from reinforced by 20,000 fresh troops from Don Carlos Buell's Army Corinth , Johnston's body was taken Johnston's body was taken to the home Johnston was the highest-ranking fatality of the war Johnston was survived by his wife was survived by his wife Eliza survived by his wife Eliza and in Los Angeles , Albert Jr. was Los Angeles , Albert Jr. was on , Albert Jr. was on his way Albert Jr. was on his way out from the ferry , a wave swamped the ferry , a wave swamped the smaller boat , a wave swamped the smaller boat , a wave swamped the smaller boat , causing swamped the smaller boat , causing its boilers the Confederate government : accounts were published a joint resolution of the Texas Legislature was passed - interment occurred in 1867 The Texas Historical Commission has erected a historical marker near , the University of Texas at Austin recognized the University of Texas at Austin recognized several confederate veterans America , Johnston's statue was taken The "Oxford English Dictionary " traces the earliest use ( The term "android " appears in US patents was used in a more modern sense by used in a more modern sense by the French author This story features an artificial humanlike robot named Hadaly As said by the officer in said by the officer in the story Authors have used the term "android other stories , authors have used , authors have used the word authors have used the word "android Japanese robotics have been leading the field Waseda University initiated the WABOT project in 1967 allowed it to measure distances 1984 , WABOT-2 was revealed Wabot-2 had ten fingers and two feet Osaka University , and the Kokoro company demonstrated , and the Kokoro company demonstrated the Actroid at Expo 2005 and the Kokoro company demonstrated the Actroid at Expo 2005 in the Kokoro company demonstrated the Actroid at Expo 2005 in Aichi Prefecture In 2006 , Kokoro developed 2006 , Kokoro developed a new "DER 2" android via a servosystem , the movement is

a servosystem , the movement is very DER2 realized a slimmer body than that to the previous model , DER2 has the previous model , DER2 has thinner arms , DER2 has thinner arms and DER2 has thinner arms and a wider repertoire There are several other initiatives around the world first , the creators decided the positions , the creators decided the positions of the creators decided the positions of the necessary points to the decided positions , they say a year later , they made a couple , they made a couple of they made a couple of major improvements The robot features an elastic mask made from It uses a driving system with a 3DOF unit The WD-2 robot can change its facial features by This one has 17 facial points , for the WD-2's mask is fabricated with a highly elastic material Other technical features reveal a shaft driven behind the researchers can also modify the shape " a face , they need a face , they need only a 3D scanner , they need only a 3D scanner to they need only a 3D scanner to determine Nadine is powered by software is powered by software similar powered by software similar to A remote user can control EDGAR with EveR-1's name derives from the Biblical Eve , EveR-1's advanced computing processing power enables speech recognition and vocal synthesis An independent microchip inside her artificial brain handles gesture expression In South Korea , the Ministry of Information and Communication has South Korea , the Ministry of Information and Communication has an ambitious plan , the Ministry of Information and Communication has an ambitious plan to the Ministry of Information and Communication has an ambitious plan to put The new robot city will feature research and development centers for This Interface AI android was named after the infamous fictional robot Maria Bot is the first AI Android Teaching Assistant at the university level the shoulders up , Maria Bot is up , Maria Bot is a virtual being android , Maria Bot is a virtual being android that

Maria Bot is a virtual being android that has is a virtual being android that has complex facial expressions She uses AI to process Maria Bot was built by an international high-tech company was built by an international high-tech company for built by an international high-tech company for Barry of Texas and KAIST produced Texas and KAIST produced an android portrait and KAIST produced an android portrait of KAIST produced an android portrait of Albert Einstein This Einstein android , also called "Albert Hubo Androids are a staple of science fiction Isaac Asimov pioneered the fictionalization of the science One thing common to most fictional androids is to most fictional androids is that the real-life technological challenges most fictional androids is that the real-life technological challenges associated Some android heroes seek , like Pinocchio Perhaps the clearest example of this is the clearest example of this is John Brunner's 1968 novel Examples include the Greek myth of "Pygmalion Alberta ( ) is one It is part of Western Canada Alberta is bordered by British Columbia is bordered by British Columbia to bordered by British Columbia to the west It is one of the only two landlocked provinces The eastern part of the province is occupied of the province is occupied by the province is occupied by the Great Plains is occupied by the Great Plains , occupied by the Great Plains , while The province has a predominantly continental climate but experiences Alberta is the 4th largest province by area Alberta's capital is Edmonton , while is Edmonton , while Calgary The two are Alberta's largest census metropolitan areas ( two are Alberta's largest census metropolitan areas ( CMAs More than half of Albertans live in English is the official language of the province The oil and gas industry is also a part of Alberta's economy is based on hydrocarbons The oil industry has been a pillar of in hydrocarbons , it provides hydrocarbons , it provides 70% , it provides 70% of it provides 70% of the oil and natural gas of Canada , Alberta was Canada , Alberta was home

, Alberta was home to Alberta was home to several First Nations Canada acquired the lands that would acquired the lands that would become September 1, 1905 , Alberta was separated Alberta was separated from the NWT to early 1900s , many immigrants arrived early 1900s , many immigrants arrived , arrived , the biggest wave of which Alberta is renowned for its natural beauty Alberta is home to six UNESCO World Heritage Sites Alberta was named after Princess Louise Caroline Alberta Princess Louise was the wife of John Campbell Alberta's southern border is the 49th parallel north , which is the 49th parallel north , which separates The province extends north to south of the south-eastern section , the province has the south-eastern section , the province has adequate water resources There are numerous rivers and lakes There are three large lakes , Lake Claire The largest river is the Peace River with an average flow It is the most northerly major city in Canada to Canada's largest oil fields , the region has Canada's largest oil fields , the region has most , the region has most of the region has most of western Canada's oil refinery capacity Calgary is about south of Almost 75% of the province's population lives in is boreal forest , while the Rocky Mountains The southern quarter of the province is prairie The Alberta badlands are located in southeastern Alberta The presence of the Rocky Mountains also influences the weather systems of the Pacific Ocean cause Alberta of the Pacific Ocean cause Alberta to the Pacific Ocean cause Alberta to have cause Alberta to have a dry climate is mostly covered by boreal forest mostly covered by boreal forest and covered by boreal forest and has The agricultural area of southern Alberta has a semi-arid steppe climate southern Alberta has a semi-arid steppe climate because the annual precipitation has a semi-arid steppe climate because the annual precipitation is Western Alberta is protected by the mountains is protected by the mountains and protected by the mountains and enjoys Alberta has a humid continental climate with warm summers

The province is open to cold arctic weather systems Alberta , the temperature can change the summer , continental air masses have produced , continental air masses have produced record maximum temperatures continental air masses have produced record maximum temperatures from Northern Alberta gets about 18 hours of daylight , pushed with great speed by pushed with great speed by the continental polar jetstream are frequently interrupted by warm, dry chinook winds frequently interrupted by warm, dry chinook winds blowing interrupted by warm, dry chinook winds blowing from at Pincher Creek , temperatures soared Pincher Creek , temperatures soared from temperatures soared from in just one hour The region around Lethbridge has the most chinooks After Saskatchewan , Alberta experiences Saskatchewan , Alberta experiences the most tornadoes , Alberta experiences the most tornadoes in Alberta experiences the most tornadoes in Canada The southern and east central parts of Alberta are covered of Alberta are covered by Alberta are covered by short prairie grass are covered by short prairie grass , covered by short prairie grass , which of the North Saskatchewan River , evergreen forests prevail the North Saskatchewan River , evergreen forests prevail for , evergreen forests prevail for thousands of square kilometres , and paper birch are the primary large deciduous species The south and central prairie was the homeland of the American bison Herbivorous animals are found throughout the province Alberta is home to many large carnivores of the canine and feline families include the canine and feline families include coyotes and feline families include coyotes , feline families include coyotes , red foxes Turtles are found in some water bodies Alberta is the only province in Canada the Government of Alberta has operated has operated a rat-control program , which operated a rat-control program , which has the only rat interceptions have been domesticated rats have been domesticated rats that been domesticated rats that have domesticated rats that have been be kept in the province by kept in the province by zoos Alberta has one of the greatest diversities Taxa are represented by complete fossil skeletons are represented by complete fossil skeletons ,

represented by complete fossil skeletons , isolated material At least 38 dinosaur type specimens were collected in the province The Dinosaur Provincial Park area contains outcrops of the Dinosaur Park Formation In the Drumheller Valley and Edmonton regions there are exposed the Drumheller Valley and Edmonton regions there are exposed Horseshoe Canyon facies The latter two have a lower diversity latter two have a lower diversity of two have a lower diversity of documented dinosaurs Their dinosaur fossils are primarily teeth recovered that have produced only a few fossils are The Bearpaw Formation represents strata deposited during Paleo-Indians arrived in Alberta at became part of Rupert's Land which The first European explorer of the Athabasca region was Peter Pond the Athabasca region was Peter Pond , who was Peter Pond , who learned Fur traders formed the North West Company ( NWC The NWC occupied the northern part of Alberta territory Peter Pond built Fort Athabasca on Lac la Biche Roderick Mackenzie built Fort Chipewyan on Lake Athabasca was there he discovered the mighty outflow river Fur trade expanded in the north , The amalgamated Hudson's Bay Company dominated trade in Alberta First Nations negotiated treaties with the Crown The District of Alberta was created local representatives to the North-West Legislative Assembly were added the District of Alberta was enlarged Less than a decade later , the First World War presented special challenges , the First World War presented special challenges to the First World War presented special challenges to the new province June 21, 2013 , during the 2013 Alberta floods Alberta , during the 2013 Alberta floods Alberta experienced during the 2013 Alberta floods Alberta experienced heavy rainfall The 2016 census reported Alberta had a population reported Alberta had a population of a land area of , it had of , it had a population density , it had a population density of it had a population density of in 2000 , Alberta's population has experienced , Alberta's population has experienced a relatively high rate Alberta's population has experienced a relatively high rate of Between 2003 and 2004 , the province had high birthrates

, the province had high birthrates ( the province had high birthrates ( on In 2016 , Alberta continued 2016 , Alberta continued to Alberta continued to have the youngest population About 81% of the population lives in The Calgary – Edmonton Corridor is the most urbanized area – Edmonton Corridor is the most urbanized area in Edmonton Corridor is the most urbanized area in the province to the 2016 census , Alberta has the 2016 census , Alberta has 779,155 residents , Alberta has 779,155 residents ( Alberta has 779,155 residents ( 19.2% English is the most common mother tongue , with This is followed by Tagalog is followed by Tagalog , followed by Tagalog , with 253,460 residents identify as Aboriginal , There are also 933,165 residents who are also 933,165 residents who identify The next most common mother tongues were Chinese with 97,275 native speakers Other mother tongues include : Punjabi , The most common aboriginal language is Cree 17,215 ( Other common mother tongues include Italian with 13,095 speakers Canada , many are descended many are descended from immigrants to Statistics Canada , Alberta is Statistics Canada , Alberta is home , Alberta is home to Alberta is home to the second-highest proportion Despite this , relatively few Albertans claim this , relatively few Albertans claim French , relatively few Albertans claim French as relatively few Albertans claim French as their mother tongue Many of Alberta's French-speaking residents live in in the 2001 census , the Chinese represented the 2001 census , the Chinese represented nearly four percent , the Chinese represented nearly four percent of the Chinese represented nearly four percent of Alberta's population Both Edmonton and Calgary have historic Chinatowns have historic Chinatowns , and Calgary The Chinese presence began with workers employed , the most commonly reported ethnic origins among Albertans were the most commonly reported ethnic origins among Albertans were : ( Each person could choose as many ethnicities Each person could choose as many ethnicities as Alberta is the third most diverse province in terms Aboriginal Identity Peoples made up 5.8% of

There are also a small number of of the 2011 National Household Survey , the largest religious group was the 2011 National Household Survey , the largest religious group was Roman Catholic , the largest religious group was Roman Catholic , the largest religious group was Roman Catholic , representing Alberta had the second-highest percentage of non-religious residents , 7.5% of the population identified 7.5% of the population identified themselves Lutherans made up 3.3% of Alberta has a population of Hutterites Alberta is home to several Byzantine Rite Churches Muslims made up 3.2% of Many of these are immigrants are immigrants , but others Alberta is also home to Alberta's economy was one of the In 2013 , Alberta's per capita GDP exceeded 2013 , Alberta's per capita GDP exceeded that , Alberta's per capita GDP exceeded that of Alberta's per capita GDP exceeded that of the United States , the deviation from the national average was the deviation from the national average was the , the median annual family income after taxes was the median annual family income after taxes was $ In 2014 , Alberta had 2014 , Alberta had the second-largest economy , Alberta had the second-largest economy in Alberta had the second-largest economy in Canada The Calgary-Edmonton Corridor is the most urbanized region in the province The region covers a distance of roughly 400 kilometres , the population of the Calgary-Edmonton Corridor was the population of the Calgary-Edmonton Corridor was 2.15 million It is also one of A 2003 study by TD Bank Financial Group found the corridor by TD Bank Financial Group found the corridor to TD Bank Financial Group found the corridor to be found the corridor to be the only Canadian urban centre In 2014 , Merchandise exports totalled 2014 , Merchandise exports totalled US$121.4 billion Farm Cash receipts from agricultural products totalled $12.9 billion Shipments of forest products totalled $5.4 billion forest products totalled $5.4 billion while exports totalled $5.4 billion while exports were Manufacturing sales totalled $79.4 billion , and In total , Alberta's 2014 GDP amassed total , Alberta's 2014 GDP amassed $364.5 billion

, Alberta's 2014 GDP amassed $364.5 billion in Alberta's 2014 GDP amassed $364.5 billion in 2007 dollars Agriculture has a significant position in the province's economy The province has over three million head of cattle Nearly one half of all Canadian beef is produced Alberta is one of the top producers in spring wheat production ; other grains are spring wheat production ; other grains are also Much of the farming is dryland Alberta is the leading beekeeping province of Canada Forestry plays a vital role in Alberta's economy Alberta is the largest producer of conventional crude oil Alberta is the world's second-largest exporter of natural gas and vinyl manufacturers produce products that vinyl manufacturers produce products that are produce products that are shipped The Athabasca oil sands surrounding Fort McMurray have estimated surrounding Fort McMurray have estimated unconventional oil reserves Fort McMurray have estimated unconventional oil reserves approximately Many companies employ both conventional strip mining and non The oil price increases since 2003 have made since 2003 have made it 2003 have made it profitable rising costs and stabilizing oil prices threatened the provincial government , several high-tech industries have found , several high-tech industries have found their birth several high-tech industries have found their birth in Alberta has been a tourist destination from the Rocky Mountains are visited by about three million people are visited by about three million people per visited by about three million people per year There are also natural attractions like Alberta's Rockies include well-known tourist destinations Banff National Park and The two mountain parks are connected by the scenic Icefields Parkway Banff is located west of Five of Canada's fourteen UNESCO World Heritage Sites are located About 1.2 million people visit the Calgary Stampede , a celebration About 700,000 people enjoy Edmonton's K-Days ( formerly Klondike Days that draws more than 650,000 visitors each year is also had a rich mining history being one had a rich mining history being one of The Government of Alberta is organized of Canada , Elizabeth II is Canada , Elizabeth II is the head , Elizabeth II is the head of

Elizabeth II is the head of state Her duties in Alberta are carried Alberta are carried out by are carried out by Lieutenant Governor Salma Lakhani The Queen and lieutenant governor are figureheads and lieutenant governor are figureheads whose actions lieutenant governor are figureheads whose actions are are figureheads whose actions are highly The lieutenant governor handles numerous honorific duties in the name The government is headed by the premier The premier is normally a member of The City of Edmonton is the seat the 1960s , Alberta has had , Alberta has had three main political parties Alberta has had three main political parties , For 44 years the Progressive Conservatives governed Alberta They lost the 2015 election to the NDP The province is divided into 10 types This organization policed the province until it policed the province until it was It was at that time the now renamed Royal Canadian Mounted Police was at that time the now renamed Royal Canadian Mounted Police resumed In 2006 , Alberta formed 2006 , Alberta formed the Alberta Law Enforcement Response Teams , Alberta formed the Alberta Law Enforcement Response Teams (ALERT Alberta formed the Alberta Law Enforcement Response Teams (ALERT ) Military bases in Alberta include Canadian Forces Base Air force units stationed at CFB Cold Lake have CFB Edmonton is the headquarters for the 3rd Canadian Division , government revenue in that year came government revenue in that year came mainly In 2014 , Alberta received 2014 , Alberta received $6.1 billion , Alberta received $6.1 billion in Alberta received $6.1 billion in bitumen royalties oil in 2015 it was in 2015 it was down 2015 it was down to it was down to $1.4 billion In 2016 , Alberta received 2016 , Alberta received " , Alberta received " about $837 million Alberta received " about $837 million in Alberta is the only province in Canada Alberta's personal income tax system maintained a progressive character by continuing Alberta's municipalities and school jurisdictions have their own governments and school jurisdictions have their own governments who school jurisdictions have their own governments who usually

have their own governments who usually work those that earn about $25,000 to $75,000 pay that earn about $25,000 to $75,000 pay more of income tax , Alberta is income tax , Alberta is the "best province , Alberta is the "best province " Alberta is the "best province " for In 2017/18 Alberta collected about $2.4 billion 2017/18 Alberta collected about $2.4 billion in Alberta collected about $2.4 billion in education property taxes Albertan municipalities raise a significant portion of their income The exceptions to market value assessment are farmland Summer brings many festivals to the province The city's "heritage days" festival sees the participation of over 70 ethnic groups The Stampede is Canada's biggest rodeo festival and features The Banff Centre hosts a range of festivals These cultural events in Alberta highlight the province's cultural diversity Most of the major cities have several performing theatre companies of the major cities have several performing theatre companies who the major cities have several performing theatre companies who entertain have several performing theatre companies who entertain in Culture and Tourism Ricardo Miranda announced and Tourism Ricardo Miranda announced the Alberta Artist Tourism Ricardo Miranda announced the Alberta Artist in Ricardo Miranda announced the Alberta Artist in Residence The award comes with $60,000 funding which comes with $60,000 funding which includes On January 31, 2019 , Lauren Crazybull named January 31, 2019 , Lauren Crazybull named Alberta's 1st Artist , Lauren Crazybull named Alberta's 1st Artist in Lauren Crazybull named Alberta's 1st Artist in Residence There are forty-two public school jurisdictions in Alberta Sixteen of the operating separate school jurisdictions have a Catholic electorate have a Catholic electorate , and one For many years the provincial government has funded many years the provincial government has funded the greater part the provincial government has funded the greater part of , the government of the province eliminated the government of the province eliminated this right the mill rate , the money is collected the money is collected by the local municipal authority is collected by the local municipal authority and collected by the local municipal authority and remitted

In early September 2009 , Mount Royal University became early September 2009 , Mount Royal University became Calgary's second public university , Mount Royal University became Calgary's second public university , Mount Royal University became Calgary's second public university , and There are 15 colleges that receive are 15 colleges that receive direct public funding There are also many private post-secondary institutions , Students may also receive government loans There was some controversy in 2005 Alberta provides a publicly funded, fully integrated health system , through The Alberta government provides health services for all its residents Alberta's health care budget was $22.5 billion during the 2018–2019 fiscal year Alberta are delivered operationally by are delivered operationally by Alberta Health Services AHS is the province's single health authority , established Calgary's airport is a hub for WestJet Airlines , and Lethbridge have substantial public transit systems Calgary and Edmonton operate light rail transit (LRT) systems There are more than of The vast majority of this trackage is owned of this trackage is owned by this trackage is owned by the Canadian Pacific Railway is owned by the Canadian Pacific Railway and owned by the Canadian Pacific Railway and Canadian National Railway companies Additional railfreight service in the province is provided in the province is provided by the province is provided by two shortline railways is provided by two shortline railways : provided by two shortline railways : the Battle River Railway Alberta has over of highways The main north–south corridor is Highway 2 , which is Highway 2 , which begins of Edmonton , the highway continues Edmonton , the highway continues to , the highway continues to Athabasca the highway continues to Athabasca , 2 is supplemented by two more highways is supplemented by two more highways that supplemented by two more highways that run One of the most scenic drives is along is along the Icefields Parkway , which Another major corridor through central Alberta is Highway is called Deerfoot Trail as it called Deerfoot Trail as it passes By species count , actinopterygians dominate species count , actinopterygians dominate the vertebrates

, actinopterygians dominate the vertebrates , actinopterygians dominate the vertebrates , and dominate the vertebrates , and they They are ubiquitous throughout freshwater Extant species can range in size The main features of a typical ray-finned fish are shown Ray-finned fishes have many different types of scales In nearly all ray-finned fish , the sexes are nearly all ray-finned fish , the sexes are separate Development then proceeds with a free-swimming larval stage In most cases this involves protogyny most cases this involves protogyny , this involves protogyny , fish Most families use external rather than of the 422 teleost families ; no care is the 422 teleost families ; no care is likely ; no care is likely the ancestral condition of living teleost species ; male care is living teleost species ; male care is far There are a few examples of fish The mangrove rivulus is an amphibious, simultaneous hermaphrodite , producing Actinopterygii is divided into the classes The latter comprises the subclasses Chondrostei latter comprises the subclasses Chondrostei and Cenozoic the teleosts in particular diversified The cladogram below shows the main clades of The latter include mostly terrestrial species but latter include mostly terrestrial species but also Tetrapods evolved from a group of The earliest known fossil actinopterygian is " Andreolepis hedei " The listing below is a summary of Relativity and quantum mechanics are together the two pillars of He received the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics " for ) , Einstein published four groundbreaking papers These outlined the theory of the photoelectric effect thought that the laws of classical mechanics to gravitational fields ; he published gravitational fields ; he published a paper ; he published a paper on he published a paper on general relativity In 1917 , he applied 1917 , he applied the general theory , he applied the general theory of he applied the general theory of relativity of his career , he worked his career , he worked on , he worked on two ultimately unsuccessful endeavors to quantum mechanics , he opposed quantum mechanics , he opposed what , he opposed what it

he opposed what it evolved opposed what it evolved into he attempted to devise a unified field theory Einstein was born in the German Empire at the age of 17 , he enrolled the age of 17 , he enrolled in , he enrolled in the mathematics and physics teaching diploma program he enrolled in the mathematics and physics teaching diploma program at In 1901 , he acquired 1901 , he acquired Swiss citizenship , he acquired Swiss citizenship , he acquired Swiss citizenship , which acquired Swiss citizenship , which he 1905 , he was awarded , he was awarded a PhD he was awarded a PhD by was awarded a PhD by the University of Zurich In 1914 , Einstein moved 1914 , Einstein moved to , Einstein moved to Berlin Einstein moved to Berlin in visiting the United States , Adolf Hitler came the United States , Adolf Hitler came to , Adolf Hitler came to power Adolf Hitler came to power in of the newly elected Nazi government ; he settled the newly elected Nazi government ; he settled in ; he settled in the United States he settled in the United States and the eve of World War II , he endorsed World War II , he endorsed a letter , he endorsed a letter to he endorsed a letter to President Franklin D. Roosevelt Albert Einstein was born in Ulm His parents were Hermann Einstein , a salesman Albert attended a Catholic elementary school in Munich In 1894 , Hermann and Jakob's company lost 1894 , Hermann and Jakob's company lost a bid , Hermann and Jakob's company lost a bid to Hermann and Jakob's company lost a bid to supply The loss forced the sale of the Munich factory of business , the Einstein family moved business , the Einstein family moved to , the Einstein family moved to Italy the Einstein family moved to Italy , wrote that the spirit of learning At the end of December 1894 , he traveled the end of December 1894 , he traveled to , he traveled to Italy

he traveled to Italy to Einstein excelled at math and The 12-year-old Einstein taught himself algebra and Einstein also independently discovered his own original proof He thereupon devoted himself to Soon the flight of his mathematical genius was so his mathematical genius was so high I Einstein was introduced to Kant's "Critique of Pure Reason Kant became his favorite philosopher , his tutor became his favorite philosopher , his tutor stating at the age of 16 , Einstein took the age of 16 , Einstein took the entrance examinations , Einstein took the entrance examinations for Einstein took the entrance examinations for the Swiss Federal polytechnic school He failed to reach the required standard of the polytechnic school , he attended the polytechnic school , he attended the Argovian cantonal school , he attended the Argovian cantonal school ("gymnasium he attended the Argovian cantonal school ("gymnasium " of Professor Jost Winteler , he fell Professor Jost Winteler , he fell in , he fell in love he fell in love with Albert's sister Maja later married Winteler's son with his father's approval , Einstein renounced his father's approval , Einstein renounced his citizenship , Einstein renounced his citizenship in Einstein renounced his citizenship in the German Kingdom In September 1896 he passed the Swiss "Matura September 1896 he passed the Swiss "Matura " he passed the Swiss "Matura " with At 17 , he enrolled 17 , he enrolled in , he enrolled in the four-year mathematics and physics teaching diploma program he enrolled in the four-year mathematics and physics teaching diploma program at She was the only woman among the six students Over the next few years , Einstein's and Marić's friendship developed the next few years , Einstein's and Marić's friendship developed into , Einstein's and Marić's friendship developed into a romance Einstein's and Marić's friendship developed into a romance , Einstein wrote in his letters to In 1900 , Einstein passed 1900 , Einstein passed the exams , Einstein passed the exams in Einstein passed the exams in Maths and Physics Marić returned to Switzerland without The couple moved to Berlin in

in 2015 , Einstein wrote 2015 , Einstein wrote to , Einstein wrote to his early love Einstein wrote to his early love Marie Winteler He wrote in 1910 , Einstein married Löwenthal in 1919 They emigrated to the United States in In 1923 , Einstein fell 1923 , Einstein fell in , Einstein fell in love Einstein fell in love with in 2006 , Einstein described 2006 , Einstein described about six women , Einstein described about six women , Einstein described about six women , including his second wife Elsa , Einstein was Einstein was briefly in a relationship Einstein's son Eduard had a breakdown at in 1900 , Einstein spent 1900 , Einstein spent almost two frustrating years , Einstein spent almost two frustrating years searching Einstein spent almost two frustrating years searching for He acquired Swiss citizenship in February 1901 Einstein evaluated patent applications for a variety met in Bern, Einstein started a small discussion group in Bern, Einstein started a small discussion group in Bern, Einstein started a small discussion group in 1902 they were joined by Mileva were joined by Mileva who joined by Mileva who attentively On 30 April 1905 , Einstein completed 30 April 1905 , Einstein completed his dissertation , Einstein completed his dissertation , Einstein completed his dissertation , " 1908 , he was recognized he was recognized as a leading scientist at the University of Zurich , Alfred Kleiner recommended the University of Zurich , Alfred Kleiner recommended him , Alfred Kleiner recommended him to Alfred Kleiner recommended him to the faculty Einstein became a full professor at the German Charles-Ferdinand University In July 1912 , he returned July 1912 , he returned to , he returned to his alma mater he returned to his alma mater in until 1914 , he was 1914 , he was a professor , he was a professor of he was a professor of theoretical physics " The New York Times " reported confirmation The New York Times " reported confirmation of the spring of 1913 , Einstein was enticed On 3 July 1913 , he became

3 July 1913 , he became a member , he became a member of he became a member of the Prussian Academy of Sciences Max Planck and Walther Nernst visited him Membership in the academy included paid salary Berlin was also influenced by was also influenced by the prospect also influenced by the prospect of influenced by the prospect of living Einstein assumed his position with the academy the plan for Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics was aborted The institute was established on 1 October 1917 In 1911 , Einstein used 1911 , Einstein used his 1907 Equivalence principle , Einstein used his 1907 Equivalence principle to Einstein used his 1907 Equivalence principle to calculate In 1913 , Einstein improved 1913 , Einstein improved upon , Einstein improved upon those calculations Einstein improved upon those calculations by Einstein had successfully completed his general theory deflection prediction was confirmed by Sir Arthur Eddington was confirmed by Sir Arthur Eddington during confirmed by Sir Arthur Eddington during the solar eclipse Those observations were published in the international media In 1920 , he became 1920 , he became a Foreign Member , he became a Foreign Member of he became a Foreign Member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences 1922 , he was awarded , he was awarded the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics he was awarded the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics " Einstein was elected a Foreign Member of Einstein resigned from the Prussian Academy in Einstein visited New York City for the first time He also published an essay , " What strikes a visitor is What strikes a visitor is the joyous, positive attitude strikes a visitor is the joyous, positive attitude to In 1922 , his travels took 1922 , his travels took him , his travels took him to his travels took him to Asia After his first public lecture , he met his first public lecture , he met the emperor , he met the emperor and he met the emperor and empress to his sons , he described his sons , he described his impression

, he described his impression of he described his impression of the Japanese to the Far East , he was the Far East , he was unable On his return voyage , he visited his return voyage , he visited Palestine , he visited Palestine for he visited Palestine for 12 days one reception , the building was stormed the building was stormed by people was stormed by people who stormed by people who wanted From 1922 to 1932 , Einstein was 1922 to 1932 , Einstein was a member , Einstein was a member of Einstein was a member of the International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation of the League of Nations the Swiss delegate , Secretary-General Eric Drummond was persuaded Secretary-General Eric Drummond was persuaded by Catholic activists was persuaded by Catholic activists Oskar Halecki persuaded by Catholic activists Oskar Halecki and April 1925 , Einstein visited South America , Einstein visited South America , Einstein visited South America , where visited South America , where he Einstein's visit was initiated by Jorge Duclout was initiated by Jorge Duclout ( initiated by Jorge Duclout ( 1856–1927 In December 1930 , Einstein visited December 1930 , Einstein visited America , Einstein visited America for Einstein visited America for the second time After the national attention , he received the national attention , he received during , he received during his first trip he received during his first trip to New York City , Einstein was taken Einstein was taken to various places , he was given the keys he was given the keys to Einstein next traveled to California His friendship with Millikan was " This aversion to war also led They had an instant rapport , with had an instant rapport , with Chaplin Chaplin visited Einstein at his home in early 1933 , he undertook early 1933 , he undertook his third two-month visiting professorship , he undertook his third two-month visiting professorship at he undertook his third two-month visiting professorship at the California Institute of Technology , the Gestapo repeatedly raided his family's apartment the Gestapo repeatedly raided his family's apartment in

28 March , Einstein immediately went Einstein immediately went to the German consulate In April 1933 , Einstein discovered April 1933 , Einstein discovered that , Einstein's works were among those Einstein's works were among those targeted were among those targeted by One German magazine included him in a list to England , Einstein wrote England , Einstein wrote , Einstein was now without a permanent home He rented a house in De Haan In late July 1933 , he went late July 1933 , he went to , he went to England he went to England for Locker-Lampson invited him to stay Locker-Lampson took Einstein to meet Einstein asked them to help Locker-Lampson also submitted a bill to one of his speeches he denounced of his speeches he denounced Germany's treatment his speeches he denounced Germany's treatment of he denounced Germany's treatment of Jews In his speech he described Einstein his speech he described Einstein as he described Einstein as a "citizen In October 1933 , Einstein returned October 1933 , Einstein returned to , Einstein returned to the US Einstein returned to the US and Einstein's affiliation with the Institute for Advanced Study would last He was one of the The two would take long walks two would take long walks together Hungarian scientists that included émigré physicist Leó Szilárd attempted that included émigré physicist Leó Szilárd attempted to Szilárd and Wigner visited Einstein to the letter , Einstein used the letter , Einstein used his connections , Einstein used his connections with Einstein used his connections with the Belgian Royal Family Einstein , " war was , " war was a disease " war was a disease   ] he called for resistance he called for resistance to to Roosevelt , some argue Roosevelt , some argue he argue he went against his pacifist principles before his death , Einstein said his death , Einstein said to , Einstein said to his old friend Einstein said to his old friend , Einstein became an American citizen in 1940 New Jersey , he expressed his appreciation , he expressed his appreciation of

he expressed his appreciation of the meritocracy Einstein joined the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People ( NAACP He considered racism America's "worst disease " , of his involvement , he corresponded his involvement , he corresponded with , he corresponded with civil rights activist W. E. B. Du Bois he corresponded with civil rights activist W. E. B. Du Bois and In 1946 , Einstein visited 1946 , Einstein visited Lincoln University , Einstein visited Lincoln University in Einstein visited Lincoln University in Pennsylvania to African Americans ; alumni include African Americans ; alumni include Langston Hughes ; alumni include Langston Hughes and alumni include Langston Hughes and Thurgood Marshall Einstein gave a speech about racism A resident of Princeton recalls that of Princeton recalls that Einstein Princeton recalls that Einstein had Einstein was a figurehead leader in helping 1921 , he was asked he was asked by the biochemist was asked by the biochemist and asked by the biochemist and president Among those , he advised those , he advised first he advised first creating an Institute of Agriculture a nationalist ; he was nationalist ; he was against ; he was against the creation he was against the creation of of Ezriel Carlebach , Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion offered Ezriel Carlebach , Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion offered Einstein , Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion offered Einstein the position Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion offered Einstein the position of The offer was presented by Israel's ambassador was presented by Israel's ambassador in presented by Israel's ambassador in Washington Einstein developed an appreciation for music In his late journals he wrote : his late journals he wrote : " I often think in music I live my daydreams in music I see my life in terms I get most joy in life His mother played the piano reasonably well to conductor Leon Botstein , Einstein began conductor Leon Botstein , Einstein began playing turned 13 , he discovered 13 , he discovered the violin sonatas , he discovered the violin sonatas of he discovered the violin sonatas of Mozart Einstein taught himself to play

age 17 , he was heard he was heard by a school examiner was heard by a school examiner in heard by a school examiner in Aarau Music possessed an unusual meaning for this student Music took on a pivotal and permanent role in of becoming a professional musician himself was becoming a professional musician himself was not a professional musician himself was not on himself was not on his mind Chamber music had also become a regular part at the California Institute of Technology , he visited the California Institute of Technology , he visited the Zoellner family conservatory , he visited the Zoellner family conservatory in he visited the Zoellner family conservatory in Los Angeles In 1918 , Einstein was 1918 , Einstein was one , Einstein was one of Einstein was one of the founding members in his life , Einstein's political view was his life , Einstein's political view was in , Einstein's political view was in favor Einstein's political view was in favor of His opinions on the Bolsheviks also changed In 1925 , he criticized 1925 , he criticized them , he criticized them for he criticized them for not " In Lenin I honor In Lenin I honor a man Lenin I honor a man , I honor a man , who honor a man , who in : men like him are men like him are the guardians He strongly advocated the idea of advocated the idea of a democratic global government that wrote " I advocate world government was deeply impressed by Mahatma Gandhi deeply impressed by Mahatma Gandhi , impressed by Mahatma Gandhi , with He described Gandhi as " The initial connection was established on 27 September 1931 Sundaram was Gandhi's disciple and special envoy During the visit , Einstein wrote the visit , Einstein wrote a short letter , Einstein wrote a short letter to Einstein wrote a short letter to Gandhi wrote a short letter to Gandhi that Einstein spoke of his spiritual outlook in He said he had sympathy said he had sympathy for not believe in a personal god who

believe in a personal god who concerns in an afterlife , Einstein replied an afterlife , Einstein replied , one life is enough for me He served on the advisory board of of the New York Society for Ethical Culture , he stated the New York Society for Ethical Culture , he stated that stated that the idea of Ethical Culture , Einstein wrote : The word Einstein wrote : The word God wrote : The word God is me the Jewish religion like all other religions is the Jewish religion like all other religions is an incarnation And the Jewish people to whom I gladly On 17 April 1955 , Einstein experienced 17 April 1955 , Einstein experienced internal bleeding , Einstein experienced internal bleeding caused Einstein experienced internal bleeding caused by experienced internal bleeding caused by the rupture Einstein refused surgery , saying done my share ; it is my share ; it is time ; it is time to it is time to go I will do it elegantly autopsy , the pathologist Thomas Stoltz Harvey removed Einstein's , the pathologist Thomas Stoltz Harvey removed Einstein's brain the pathologist Thomas Stoltz Harvey removed Einstein's brain for at UNESCO headquarters , nuclear physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer summarized UNESCO headquarters , nuclear physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer summarized his impression , nuclear physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer summarized his impression of nuclear physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer summarized his impression of Einstein There was always with him Throughout his life , Einstein published his life , Einstein published hundreds , Einstein published hundreds of Einstein published hundreds of books He published more than 300 scientific papers and 150 non-scientific ones universities and archives announced the release It was published in 1901 These papers were the foundation for the 1905 paper Einstein returned to the problem of the density fluctuations are controlled by the second derivative are controlled by the second derivative of controlled by the second derivative of the free energy At the critical point , this derivative is the critical point , this derivative is zero , this derivative is zero ,

this derivative is zero , leading The effect of density fluctuations is that of density fluctuations is that light density fluctuations is that light of is that light of all wavelengths Einstein relates this to Rayleigh scattering It reconciled conflicts between Maxwell's equations , the effects of these changes are the effects of these changes are most The theory developed in this paper later There is evidence from Einstein's writings on mass–energy equivalence , Einstein produced mass–energy equivalence , Einstein produced "E , Einstein produced "E " Einstein produced "E "   Einstein originally framed special relativity in In 1908 , Hermann Minkowski reinterpreted 1908 , Hermann Minkowski reinterpreted special relativity , Hermann Minkowski reinterpreted special relativity in Hermann Minkowski reinterpreted special relativity in geometric terms is a theory of gravitation that General relativity has developed into an essential tool of general relativity was that the preference general relativity was that the preference of was that the preference of inertial motions , in 1907 he published in 1907 he published an article 1907 he published an article on he published an article on acceleration It " , he argued In 1911 , Einstein published 1911 , Einstein published another article , Einstein published another article " Einstein published another article " On the Influence of Gravitation on the Propagation of Light In 1916 , Einstein predicted 1916 , Einstein predicted gravitational waves , Einstein predicted gravitational waves , Einstein predicted gravitational waves , ripples The existence of gravitational waves is possible The first, indirect, detection of gravitational waves came in in their orbital period was that they their orbital period was that they were developing general relativity , Einstein became general relativity , Einstein became confused Einstein became confused about the gauge invariance He formulated an argument that led formulated an argument that led him ' ) theory was the result ) theory was the result of theory was the result of these investigations suggests , it was a sketch , it was a sketch of it was a sketch of a theory In 1917 , Einstein applied 1917 , Einstein applied the general theory

, Einstein applied the general theory of Einstein applied the general theory of relativity discovered that the general field equations predicted a universe at the time , Einstein introduced the time , Einstein introduced a new term , Einstein introduced a new term , Einstein introduced a new term , the cosmological constant The modified field equations predicted a static universe of closed curvature in 1929 , Einstein abandoned 1929 , Einstein abandoned his static model , Einstein abandoned his static model of Einstein abandoned his static model of the universe many Einstein biographies , it is claimed led by the Irish physicist Cormac O'Raifeartaigh discovered by the Irish physicist Cormac O'Raifeartaigh discovered evidence the Irish physicist Cormac O'Raifeartaigh discovered evidence that Cormac O'Raifeartaigh discovered evidence that , in early 1931 , Einstein explored early 1931 , Einstein explored a model , Einstein explored a model of Einstein explored a model of the expanding universe appears that Einstein considered a steady-state model a dynamical spacetime , so it is In 1935 , Einstein collaborated 1935 , Einstein collaborated with , Einstein collaborated with Nathan Rosen Einstein collaborated with Nathan Rosen to His motivation was to model elementary particles into general relativity , the affine connection needed general relativity , the affine connection needed to The theory of general relativity has a fundamental lawthe Einstein field equations general relativity has a fundamental lawthe Einstein field equations , which has a fundamental lawthe Einstein field equations , which describe would move on a trajectory which move on a trajectory which is In a 1905 paper , Einstein postulated a 1905 paper , Einstein postulated that light nearly universally rejected by all physicists universally rejected by all physicists , rejected by all physicists , including concluded that each wave of frequency In 1907 , Einstein proposed 1907 , Einstein proposed a model , Einstein proposed a model of Einstein proposed a model of matter was aware that getting the frequency Throughout the 1910s , quantum mechanics expanded the 1910s , quantum mechanics expanded in , quantum mechanics expanded in scope quantum mechanics expanded in scope to

Einstein contributed to these developments by shown that the hypothesis of adiabatic invariance Einstein noted in 1911 that noted in 1911 that the same adiabatic principle In 1924 , Einstein received 1924 , Einstein received a description , Einstein received a description of Einstein received a description of a statistical model Einstein also published his own articles describing It was not until 1995 In 1908 , he became 1908 , he became a "Privatdozent , he became a "Privatdozent " he became a "Privatdozent " at in an earlier 1909 paper , Einstein showed an earlier 1909 paper , Einstein showed that This paper introduced the "photon" concept ( although introduced the "photon" concept ( although the name "photon from 1911 to 1913 , Planck reformulated 1911 to 1913 , Planck reformulated his 1900 quantum theory , Planck reformulated his 1900 quantum theory and Planck reformulated his 1900 quantum theory and introduced Soon , this idea attracted the attention , this idea attracted the attention of this idea attracted the attention of Einstein zero-point energy , they then compared , they then compared the theoretical specific heat they then compared the theoretical specific heat of showed that the statistics of absorption Einstein discovered Louis de Broglie's work and supported from this era , Einstein gave this era , Einstein gave a wave equation , Einstein gave a wave equation for Einstein gave a wave equation for de Broglie waves Einstein played a major role in developing he became displeased with modern quantum mechanics The Bohr–Einstein debates were a series of public disputes In 1935 , Einstein returned 1935 , Einstein returned to , Einstein returned to quantum mechanics Einstein returned to quantum mechanics , In a thought experiment , he considered a thought experiment , he considered two particles , he considered two particles , he considered two particles , which considered two particles , which had of local realism , there were local realism , there were two possibilities , there were two possibilities : there were two possibilities : ( question , it must be a physical principle , local realism was shown

The results of these and subsequent experiments demonstrate that of these and subsequent experiments demonstrate that quantum physics these and subsequent experiments demonstrate that quantum physics can on general relativity , Einstein attempted general relativity , Einstein attempted to Einstein attempted to generalize his theory In 1950 , he described 1950 , he described his "unified field theory , he described his "unified field theory " he described his "unified field theory " in Einstein's unification project did not accommodate the strong and weak nuclear forces not accommodate the strong and weak nuclear forces , neither accommodate the strong and weak nuclear forces , neither of Einstein conducted other investigations that were conducted other investigations that were unsuccessful show this , they reversed this , they reversed the magnetization , they reversed the magnetization in they reversed the magnetization in an iron bar confirmed that this leads the bar Einstein suggested to Erwin Schrödinger that suggested to Erwin Schrödinger that he This formulation is a form of second quantization Erwin Schrödinger applied this to derive Einstein wrote daily to his wife The letters were included in the papers Margot Einstein permitted the personal letters to be Einstein's right of publicity was litigated Einstein became one of the most famous scientific celebrities " The New Yorker " published a vignette The New Yorker " published a vignette in He finally figured out a way He told his inquirers " Pardon I am mistaken for Professor Einstein Einstein has been the subject of Einstein received numerous awards and honors It is bordered by Pakistan is bordered by Pakistan to bordered by Pakistan to the east of land , the country is land , the country is predominately Human habitation in Afghanistan dates back Afghanistan also served as the source The modern state of Afghanistan began with Timur Shah , it was divided it was divided into the smaller independent kingdoms in the second war it successfully established the second war it successfully established a British protected state it successfully established a British protected state over in 1919 , the country became 1919 , the country became free

the country became free of foreign dominance the late 1970s has been dominated by has been dominated by prolonged warfare been dominated by prolonged warfare , dominated by prolonged warfare , starting The country has high levels of terrorism Excavations of prehistoric sites suggest that of prehistoric sites suggest that humans prehistoric sites suggest that humans were Archaeological exploration done in the 20th century suggests in the 20th century suggests that the geographical area the 20th century suggests that the geographical area of suggests that the geographical area of Afghanistan In more detail , it extended more detail , it extended from , it extended from what it extended from what today extended from what today is There are several smaller IVC colonies to be the middle of the 6th century BCE , the Achaemenids overthrew BCE , the Achaemenids overthrew the Medes , the Achaemenids overthrew the Medes and the Achaemenids overthrew the Medes and incorporated Darius I of Persia mentions I of Persia mentions the Kabul Valley , the successor state of the Seleucid Empire controlled the successor state of the Seleucid Empire controlled the region The Mauryans controlled the area south of Much of it soon broke The Silk Road appeared during the first century BCE , the first century BCE , the Parthian Empire subjugated BCE , the Parthian Empire subjugated the region , the Parthian Empire subjugated the region but the Parthian Empire subjugated the region but lost The Kushans were overthrown by the Sassanids were overthrown by the Sassanids in overthrown by the Sassanids in the 3rd century CE They were followed by the Kidarites were followed by the Kidarites who followed by the Kidarites who , They were replaced by the Turk Shahi were replaced by the Turk Shahi in replaced by the Turk Shahi in the 7th century 870 , this Hindu dynasty was called , this Hindu dynasty was called Hindu Shahi of the native inhabitants they encountered accepted the native inhabitants they encountered accepted it they encountered accepted it while encountered accepted it while others accepted it while others revolted of Islam , the region used

Islam , the region used to the region would be that people be that people were patrons first conquered in 870 CE by conquered in 870 CE by the Saffarid Muslims Later , the Samanids extended their Islamic influence , the Samanids extended their Islamic influence south the Samanids extended their Islamic influence south of By the 11th century , Mahmud of Ghazni defeated the 11th century , Mahmud of Ghazni defeated the remaining Hindu rulers , Mahmud of Ghazni defeated the remaining Hindu rulers and Mahmud of Ghazni defeated the remaining Hindu rulers and effectively Mahmud made Ghazni into an important city The Ghaznavid dynasty was overthrown by the Ghurids was overthrown by the Ghurids , overthrown by the Ghurids , whose architectural achievements The destruction caused by the Mongols forced caused by the Mongols forced many locals by the Mongols forced many locals to Mongol rule continued with the Ilkhanate in In the early 16th century , Babur arrived the early 16th century , Babur arrived from , Babur arrived from Ferghana Babur arrived from Ferghana and , and Indian Mughals ruled parts and Indian Mughals ruled parts of Indian Mughals ruled parts of the territory the northwestern area of Afghanistan was referred Afghanistan was referred to by was referred to by the regional name referred to by the regional name Khorasan He defeated Gurgin Khan and established Mirwais died of natural causes in Mahmud led the Afghan army in 1722 Nader Shah and his forces captured Kandahar India , Nader Shah had plundered , Nader Shah had plundered Delhi Nader Shah had plundered Delhi , 1747 , Ahmad Shah Durrani had returned Ahmad Shah Durrani had returned to Kandahar 1747 , Ahmad Shah had led , Ahmad Shah had led multiple campaigns Ahmad Shah had led multiple campaigns against Ahmad Shah had captured Kabul and Ahmad Shah had then conquered Herat Ahmad Shah had launched two campaigns into siege Nishapur , however he was in 1754 , he captured 1754 , he captured Tun , he captured Tun , he captured Tun , and Shah rokh was reappointed in 1755

Ahmad Shah invaded India 8 times during during his Invasions of India , he sought his Invasions of India , he sought the reasons , he sought the reasons needed he sought the reasons needed to Ahmad Shah had launched his first invasion in Ahmad Shah had met Mughal armies at Timur Shah Durrani ascended to the throne in Timur Shah began his reign by consolidating also saw the capital of the Durrani Empire saw the capital of the Durrani Empire being This reform saw Kabul as the modern capital Timur Shah would also lead campaigns this campaign would be where Timur Shah be where Timur Shah led his forces The Sikhs would lose over 30,000 by Timur Shah , Timur Shah was Timur Shah , Timur Shah was able would be succeeded by his son be succeeded by his son , succeeded by his son , Zaman Shah Durrani Timur Shah's reign oversaw the attempted stabilization and consolidation Zaman Shah Durrani would succeed to the Durrani Throne This instigated civil war with his brothers With Humayun centered in Kandahar Humayun centered in Kandahar , Zaman Shah would defeat Humayun and the throne , Zaman Shah had led , Zaman Shah had led 3 campaigns Zaman Shah had led 3 campaigns into Zaman Shah embarked on his third campaign for would be deposed by his brother be deposed by his brother , deposed by his brother , Shah Shuja Durrani By the early 19th century , the Afghan empire was the early 19th century , the Afghan empire was under , the Afghan empire was under threat the Afghan empire was under threat from would be sentenced by Mahmud Shah Durrani be sentenced by Mahmud Shah Durrani , sentenced by Mahmud Shah Durrani , having During this turbulent period , Afghanistan had this turbulent period , Afghanistan had many temporary rulers , Afghanistan had many temporary rulers until Afghanistan had many temporary rulers until Dost Mohammad Khan had many temporary rulers until Dost Mohammad Khan declared lost to Ranjit Singh , who In 1838 , a British expeditionary force marched 1838 , a British expeditionary force marched into

, a British expeditionary force marched into Afghanistan a British expeditionary force marched into Afghanistan and to its recapture , the British gave its recapture , the British gave up the British gave up on their attempts Dost Mohammad Khan would spend most of Dost Mohammad Khan would launch numerous campaigns , Dost Mohammad died on 9 June 1863 , Dost Mohammad's successors would fight for the throne in the region , Abdur Rahman Khan replaced the region , Abdur Rahman Khan replaced Ayub Khan , Abdur Rahman Khan replaced Ayub Khan who Abdur Rahman Khan replaced Ayub Khan who had replaced Ayub Khan who had succeeded Britain would gain control of In 1893 , Amir Abdur Rahman signed 1893 , Amir Abdur Rahman signed an agreement , Amir Abdur Rahman signed an agreement in Amir Abdur Rahman signed an agreement in which signed an agreement in which the ethnic Pashtun He was known as the "Iron Amir The "Iron Amir " viewed railway and Habibullah Khan was met by officials was met by officials of met by officials of the Central Powers the Central Powers failed , but it Habibullah was assassinated during a hunting trip on 19 August 1919 , Emir Amanullah Khan declared 19 August 1919 , Emir Amanullah Khan declared the Emirate of Afghanistan He moved to end his country's traditional isolation He proclaimed himself King of Turkey , he introduced several reforms , he introduced several reforms intended he introduced several reforms intended to A key force behind these reforms was Mahmud Tarzi He fought for Article 68 of The institution of slavery was abolished alienated many tribal and religious leaders , and this with the overwhelming armed opposition , King Amanullah abdicated the overwhelming armed opposition , King Amanullah abdicated in , King Amanullah abdicated in January 1929 King Amanullah abdicated in January 1929 , The tribal revolts of 1944–1947 saw King Zahir's reign 1944–1947 saw King Zahir's reign challenged by saw King Zahir's reign challenged by Zadran The 1930s saw the development of roads Road links in the north played a large part Until 1946 , King Zahir ruled

1946 , King Zahir ruled with , King Zahir ruled with the assistance King Zahir ruled with the assistance of He was replaced in 1953 was replaced in 1953 by replaced in 1953 by Mohammed Daoud Khan until 1963 , Daoud Khan pressed 1963 , Daoud Khan pressed for , Daoud Khan pressed for social modernization reforms Daoud Khan pressed for social modernization reforms and However , it was a beneficiary , it was a beneficiary of it was a beneficiary of the latter rivalry On a per capita basis , Afghanistan received a per capita basis , Afghanistan received more Soviet development aid , Afghanistan received more Soviet development aid than Afghanistan received more Soviet development aid than any other country Afghanistan had , therefore, good relations with both Cold War enemies the communist People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA ) seized The PDPA declared the establishment of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan This would trigger a series of trigger a series of events that The PDPA initiated various social, symbolic and land distribution reforms that provoked initiated various social, symbolic and land distribution reforms that provoked strong opposition This caused unrest and quickly with covert training centers , the United States supported covert training centers , the United States supported them , the United States supported them through the United States supported them through Pakistan's Inter-Services Intelligence September 1979 , PDPA General Secretary Taraki was assassinated PDPA General Secretary Taraki was assassinated in an internal coup assassinated in an internal coup orchestrated by The situation in the country deteriorated under with Amin's government , the Soviet Army invaded Amin's government , the Soviet Army invaded the country , the Soviet Army invaded the country in the Soviet Army invaded the country in December 1979 Soviet troops in more substantial numbers were deployed Lasting nine years , the war caused nine years , the war caused the deaths , the war caused the deaths of the war caused the deaths of between 562,000 and 2 million Afghans Heavy air bombardment destroyed many countryside villages , millions destroyed many countryside villages , millions of

Pakistan's North-West Frontier Province functioned as an organisational and networking base for The Soviet-Afghan War had drastic social effects on Afghanistan The militarization of society led to Another civil war broke out after the creation factional infighting , various "mujahideen" factions committed widespread rape , various "mujahideen" factions committed widespread rape , various "mujahideen" factions committed widespread rape , murder The Taliban emerged in September 1994 as Kandahar city that year , they conquered that year , they conquered more territories , they conquered more territories until they conquered more territories until finally Ahmad Shah Massoud and Abdul Rashid Dostum formed the Northern Alliance The Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan was swiftly restored is apparently led by supreme leader Hibatullah Akhundzada apparently led by supreme leader Hibatullah Akhundzada and led by supreme leader Hibatullah Akhundzada and acting Prime Minister Hasan Akhund their previous Emirate ; his appointment was seen his appointment was seen as a compromise A new, all-male cabinet was formed including Abdul Hakim Ishaqzai On 20 September 2021 , United Nations Secretary-General António Guterres received 20 September 2021 , United Nations Secretary-General António Guterres received a letter , United Nations Secretary-General António Guterres received a letter from United Nations Secretary-General António Guterres received a letter from acting minister Western nations have suspended most humanitarian aid to , more than half of Afghanistan's 39 million people faced more than half of Afghanistan's 39 million people faced an acute food shortage over , Afghanistan is the world's 41st largest country , Afghanistan is the world's 41st largest country , Afghanistan is the world's 41st largest country , slightly There is no coastline , as is no coastline , as Afghanistan to the north-east ; India recognizes the north-east ; India recognizes a border ; India recognizes a border with India recognizes a border with Afghanistan The geography in Afghanistan is varied It is dominated by the Hindu Kush range is dominated by the Hindu Kush range , dominated by the Hindu Kush range , the western extension Most of the highest points are in ; these two regions consist of rolling grasslands

these two regions consist of rolling grasslands and Forests exist in the corridor between The country's highest point is Noshaq , at , large parts of the country are large parts of the country are dry The endorheic Sistan Basin is one of the driest regions The Amu Darya rises at the north of flow a number of streams that One exception is the Kabul River which flows is the Kabul River which flows in Afghanistan receives heavy snow during the winter , two-thirds of the country's water flows two-thirds of the country's water flows into is in a geologically active area where earthquakes The last strong earthquakes were in 1998 , were in 1998 , which This was followed by the 2002 Hindu Kush earthquakes was followed by the 2002 Hindu Kush earthquakes in followed by the 2002 Hindu Kush earthquakes in which Afghanistan has a continental climate with harsh winters The lower areas of northern and western Afghanistan are the driest Several types of mammals exist throughout The Marco Polo sheep exclusively live in the Wakhan Corridor region wild pigs and jackals populate the steppe plains Endemic fauna of Afghanistan includes the Afghan flying squirrel Endemic flora include " Iris afghanica " The forest region of Afghanistan has vegetation The colder high elevation regions are composed of hardy grasses designated protected areas ; there are protected areas ; there are three national parks ; there are three national parks : there are three national parks : Band-e Amir The population of Afghanistan was estimated In 1979 the total population was reported 1979 the total population was reported to An estimated 99.7% of the Afghan population is Muslim the Afghan population is Muslim and most to Pew Research Center , as much as 90% are Pew Research Center , as much as 90% are of , as much as 90% are of the Sunni denomination as much as 90% are of the Sunni denomination , The CIA Factbook variously estimates up to 89.7% Sunni There was a small Jewish community in Afghanistan the years , this small community was forced

the end of the twentieth century , the entire community had emigrated the entire community had emigrated to Israel He remained for years , , 26% of the population was 26% of the population was urbanized ; in Asia it is in Asia it is only Asia it is only higher The only city with over a million residents is its capital during the 2021 Taliban offensive , the Taliban declared the 2021 Taliban offensive , the Taliban declared the country , the Taliban declared the country an Islamic Emirate A new caretaker government was announced on 7 September , the Islamic Emirate is undergoing a transitional political period the Islamic Emirate is undergoing a transitional political period with The Kabul meetings on government formation are men-only meetings Many figures within the Taliban generally agree the Taliban generally agree that continuation agree that continuation of the Constitution of Afghanistan 30 August , a Taliban official interviewed said Abdul Ghani Baradar would be named head to CNN , the new government is CNN , the new government is likely by CNN-News18 , sources said CNN-News18 , sources said the new government The Supreme Leader would preside over an executive body , later interviews disclosed to News18 later interviews disclosed to News18 that disclosed to News18 that negotiations This culminated in a skirmish which culminated in a skirmish which led early September , the Taliban were planning , the Taliban were planning the Cabinet the Taliban were planning the Cabinet to Each province has a governor and a capital divided into nearly 400 provincial districts , each are now appointed by the Prime Minister now appointed by the Prime Minister of appointed by the Prime Minister of Afghanistan The provincial governors are representatives of the central government There are also provincial councils that are also provincial councils that are Afghanistan became a member of the United Nations Historically , Afghanistan had strong relations , Afghanistan had strong relations with Afghanistan had strong relations with Germany The present Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan is currently of Afghanistan , it enjoyed Afghanistan , it enjoyed cordial relations

, it enjoyed cordial relations with it enjoyed cordial relations with a number The Islamic Emirate Army captured a large amount of weapons Afghanistan's nominal GDP was $21.7 billion in 2018 Its GDP per capita is $ in mineral deposits , it remains mineral deposits , it remains one , it remains one of it remains one of the world's least developed countries cited as reasons why the country The country imports over $7 billion worth of goods It has $2.8 billion in external debt donor money , only a small portion is provided serves as the central bank of the nation involved in construction , which Some of the major national construction projects include the $35 billion New Kabul City Improvements to the business environment have resulted Afghanistan is a member of WTO It holds an observer status in SCO Agricultural production is the backbone of Afghanistan's economy recent years , there has been , there has been an uptick there has been an uptick in The country's natural resources include : coal , Michael E. O'Hanlon of the Brookings Institution estimated that the Brookings Institution estimated that if Afghanistan estimated in 2006 that northern Afghanistan The country has significant amounts of lithium The Khanashin carbonatite in Helmand Province contains of 2007 , a 30-year lease was granted , a 30-year lease was granted for a 30-year lease was granted for the Aynak copper mine The state-run Steel Authority of India won the mining rights to develop estimate that 30% of the country's untapped mineral deposits The lithium reserves of 21 Mio. tons could amount Other larger deposits are the ones of Bauxit a 2011 news story , the "CSM " reported In 2016 , Afghanistan had 2016 , Afghanistan had 0.43 global hectares , Afghanistan had 0.43 global hectares of Afghanistan had 0.43 global hectares of biocapacity In 2016 Afghanistan used 0.73 global hectares 2016 Afghanistan used 0.73 global hectares of Afghanistan used 0.73 global hectares of biocapacity This means they use just under double as much biocapacity means they use just under double as much biocapacity as , 98% of the rural population have

98% of the rural population have access Overall the figure stands at 98.7% of 2016 , Afghanistan produces 2016 , Afghanistan produces 1,400 megawatts , Afghanistan produces 1,400 megawatts of Afghanistan produces 1,400 megawatts of power The majority of electricity production is via under development are the CASA-1000 project which development are the CASA-1000 project which will are the CASA-1000 project which will transmit Tourism is a small industry in Afghanistan Nevertheless , some 20,000 foreign tourists visit the country , some 20,000 foreign tourists visit the country annually some 20,000 foreign tourists visit the country annually as particular an important region for domestic and international tourism is an important region for domestic and international tourism is the picturesque Bamyan Valley domestic and international tourism is the picturesque Bamyan Valley , which is the picturesque Bamyan Valley , which includes the late 1960s onwards , Afghanistan was onwards , Afghanistan was a popular stop , Afghanistan was a popular stop on Afghanistan was a popular stop on the famous hippie trail from Iran , the trail traveled Iran , the trail traveled through , the trail traveled through various Afghan provinces the trail traveled through various Afghan provinces and The city of Ghazni has significant history by Islam's prophet Muhammad is kept Islam's prophet Muhammad is kept inside Muhammad is kept inside the Shrine is the Shrine of Ali , believed by Telecommunication services in Afghanistan are provided in Afghanistan are provided by Afghanistan are provided by Afghan Telecom are provided by Afghan Telecom , provided by Afghan Telecom , Afghan Wireless The country uses its own space satellite called Afghansat 1 of civil war , telecommunications was civil war , telecommunications was virtually , telecommunications was virtually a non-existent sector telecommunications was virtually a non-existent sector , A key portion of the Ring Road is the Salang Tunnel It is the only land route that connects is the only land route that connects Central Asia Several mountain passes allow travel between the Hindu Kush Serious traffic accidents are common on Afghan roads Air transport in Afghanistan is provided in Afghanistan is provided by

Afghanistan is provided by the national carrier is provided by the national carrier , provided by the national carrier , Ariana Afghan Airlines These include Air India , Emirates The country has four international airports : Hamid Karzai International Airport Including domestic airports , there are domestic airports , there are 43 The country has three rail links : one These lines are used for freight About of the line will lie Taxis are yellow in color rural Afghanistan , villagers often use , villagers often use donkeys villagers often use donkeys , are primarily used by the Kochi nomads Education in Afghanistan includes K–12 There are over 16,000 schools in the country Of this , about 60% are this , about 60% are males , about 60% are males and about 60% are males and 40% females Over 174,000 students are enrolled in different universities About 21% of these are females The top universities in Afghanistan are the American University of Afghanistan The Afghan Defense University was constructed near Qargha Major universities outside of Kabul include The United States is building six faculties of to the Human Development Index , Afghanistan is the Human Development Index , Afghanistan is the 15th least developed country , Afghanistan is the 15th least developed country in Afghanistan is the 15th least developed country in the world The country's maternal mortality rate is 396 deaths/100,000 live births and its infant mortality rate is 396 deaths/100,000 live births and its infant mortality rate is The Ministry of Public Health plans to cut the infant mortality rate There are over 100 hospitals in Afghanistan It was reported in 2006 reported in 2006 that nearly 60% Afghans have both common cultural features and those have both common cultural features and those that Family is the mainstay of Afghan society In the southern and eastern region , the people live the southern and eastern region , the people live according the people live according to the Pashtun culture Key tenets of Pashtunwali include hospitality been further influenced by the cultures further influenced by the cultures of influenced by the cultures of those neighboring nations

considers the tribal system to be the best way There are various Afghan tribes , and One example is " bacha bazi " ; the legal age for marriage is the legal age for marriage is 16 the villages , families typically occupy , families typically occupy mudbrick houses families typically occupy mudbrick houses , Villages typically have a headman ( These were worn by some women were worn by some women of worn by some women of the Pashtun community Another popular dress is the "chapan " which is the "chapan " which acts The "karakul " is a hat made It was favored by former kings was favored by former kings of favored by former kings of Afghanistan was popularly worn by the guerrilla leader Ahmad Shah Massoud The nation has a complex history that has has a complex history that has survived Afghanistan contains many remnants from all ages most well known are the Great Mosque of Herat well known are the Great Mosque of Herat , known are the Great Mosque of Herat , the Blue Mosque The two famous Buddhas of Bamiyan were destroyed by the Taliban were destroyed by the Taliban , destroyed by the Taliban , who archaeologists are still finding Buddhist relics Carpet weaving is an ancient practice in Afghanistan Every province has its own specific characteristics in making The lands of Afghanistan have a long history is Gandhara Art , produced by Later eras saw increased use of the Persian miniature style Since the 1900s , the nation began the 1900s , the nation began to the nation began to use Western techniques Afghanistan has around 350 radio stations and over 200 television stations Television programs began airing in the 1970s The first Afghan newspaper was published in 1873 the 1920s , Radio Kabul was broadcasting , Radio Kabul was broadcasting local radio services been represented in some Bollywood films by represented in some Bollywood films by actors Many Bollywood film stars have roots in Afghanistan Afghan classical music has close historical links with Indian classical music The rubab is the country's national instrument and precurses

Pop music developed in the 1950s through During this time female artists also started this time female artists also started appearing Perhaps the most famous artist of this genre was the most famous artist of this genre was Ahmad Zahir this genre was Ahmad Zahir , who was Ahmad Zahir , who synthesized Attan is the national dance of Afghanistan Accompanying these staples are native fruits and Kabuli palaw is the national dish of Afghanistan Afghanistan is known for its high quality pomegranates Classic Persian and Pashto poetry are a cherished part of Afghan culture Poetry has always been one One of the poetic styles is called The Afghan region has produced countless Persian-speaking poets and Khushal Khan Khattak of the 17th century is considered Afghanistan's official New Year starts with Nowruz , It occurs every year at the vernal equinox National Independence Day is celebrated on 19 August Sport in Afghanistan is managed in Afghanistan is managed by Afghanistan is managed by the Afghan Sports Federation Cricket and Association football are the two most popular sports in the country Afghanistan's sports teams are increasingly celebrating titles basketball team won the first team sports title at the 2010 South Asian Games Later that year , the country's cricket team followed it , the country's cricket team followed it with the country's cricket team followed it with the winning In 2012 , the country's 3x3 basketball team won 2012 , the country's 3x3 basketball team won the gold medal , the country's 3x3 basketball team won the gold medal at the country's 3x3 basketball team won the gold medal at the 2012 Asian Beach Games It won the ACC Twenty20 Cup in 2007 The team eventually made it and There are several other stadiums throughout the country The national team plays its home games at the Ghazi Stadium It is similar to polo It is located on the Adriatic and Ionian Sea Albania displays varied climatic, geological, hydrological, and morphological conditions , defined has been inhabited by different civilisations been inhabited by different civilisations over inhabited by different civilisations over time The Albanians established the autonomous Principality of Arbër in the 12th century

Europe led by Gjergj Kastrioti Skanderbeg won led by Gjergj Kastrioti Skanderbeg won them by Gjergj Kastrioti Skanderbeg won them acclaim Albania remained under Ottoman rule for , the modern nation state of Albania declared the modern nation state of Albania declared independence the 20th century , the Kingdom of Albania was invaded the Kingdom of Albania was invaded by Italy was invaded by Italy which invaded by Italy which formed Enver Hoxha formed the People's Socialist Republic of Albania after World War II Albania is a unitary parliamentary constitutional republic and a developing country It went through a process of Albania provides universal health care and free primary and secondary education Albania is a member of the United Nations It is an official candidate for membership The term Albania is the medieval Latin name term Albania is the medieval Latin name of Albania is the medieval Latin name of the country The term may have a continuation in the 10th century , the Byzantine historian Michael Attaliates was the Byzantine historian Michael Attaliates was the first Nowadays , Albanians call their country , Albanians call their country ' unearthed in central and southern Albania , which Archaeologists have come to the conclusion come to the conclusion that these regions Albania was historically inhabited by was historically inhabited by Indo-European peoples historically inhabited by Indo-European peoples , inhabited by Indo-European peoples , among of the Illyrian tribes , there is the Illyrian tribes , there is no evidence , there is no evidence that there is no evidence that these tribes is no evidence that these tribes used The first account of the Illyrian groups comes from The west was inhabited by the Thracian tribe was inhabited by the Thracian tribe of inhabited by the Thracian tribe of the Bryges Their Ardiaean Kingdom reached its greatest extent under King Agron Agron extended his rule over other neighbouring tribes Teuta's forces extended their operations further southwards In 229 BC , Rome declared 229 BC , Rome declared war , Rome declared war on Rome declared war on the kingdom The war ended in Illyrian defeat in

eventually succeeded by   Gentius succeeded by   Gentius   Gentius clashed with the Romans in The conflict resulted in Roman conquest of The Roman Empire was split in 395 In the 11th century , the Great Schism formalised the 11th century , the Great Schism formalised the break , the Great Schism formalised the break of the Great Schism formalised the break of communion The Albanian people inhabited the west of Lake Ochrida of Dhimiter , the territory came Dhimiter , the territory came under , the territory came under the rule the territory came under the rule of the 13th century , the principality was dissolved however the first undisputed mention of Albanians dates the first undisputed mention of Albanians dates back In 1272 , he established 1272 , he established the Kingdom of Albania , he established the Kingdom of Albania and he established the Kingdom of Albania and conquered The kingdom claimed all of central Albania territory A catholic political structure was a basis for the papal plans This plan found also the support of Internal power struggles within the Byzantine Empire in In 1367 , various Albanian rulers established 1367 , various Albanian rulers established the Despotate of Arta that time , several Albanian principalities were created of Constantinople , the Ottoman Empire continued Constantinople , the Ottoman Empire continued an extended period , the Ottoman Empire continued an extended period of the Ottoman Empire continued an extended period of conquest They reached the Albanian Ionian Sea Coast in 1385 A prosperous and longstanding revolution erupted after the formation of Skanderbeg consistently pursued the goal relentlessly He thwarted every attempt by the Ottomans the region , Albanian towns were organised Albanian towns were organised into four principal sanjaks The government fostered trade by settling The city of Vlorë saw passing Islam offered them equal opportunities and , motives for conversion were motives for conversion were , , they made up a significant proportion they made up a significant proportion of A couple of Muslim Albanians attained important political and military positions of Muslim Albanians attained important political and military positions who

Muslim Albanians attained important political and military positions who culturally attained important political and military positions who culturally contributed Enjoying this privileged position , they held this privileged position , they held various high administrative positions , they held various high administrative positions with they held various high administrative positions with over two dozen Albanian Grand Viziers Others included members of the prominent Köprülü family The Albanian Renaissance was a period with its roots of nationalism , Albania was nationalism , Albania was under , Albania was under the rule Albania was under the rule of resulted the execution of the Treaty of San Stefano which The league had initially the assistance of Approximately 300 Muslims participated in the assembly composed participated in the assembly composed by Ottomans authorities cancelled their assistance when the league cancelled their assistance when the league , The league used military force to prevent Novšiće , the league was forced Albania declared independence from the Ottoman Empire Its sovereignty was recognised by the Conference of London Vlorë , the International Commission of Control was established the International Commission of Control was established on 15 October 1913 The International Gendarmerie was established as the first law enforcement agency In November , the first gendarmerie members arrived November , the first gendarmerie members arrived in , the first gendarmerie members arrived in the country November 1913 , the Albanian pro-Ottoman forces had offered , the Albanian pro-Ottoman forces had offered the throne the Albanian pro-Ottoman forces had offered the throne of February 1914 , the Autonomous Republic of Northern Epirus was proclaimed the Autonomous Republic of Northern Epirus was proclaimed in Gjirokastër was proclaimed in Gjirokastër by proclaimed in Gjirokastër by the local Greek population of Albania , Prince Wied appointed Albania , Prince Wied appointed their leader , Prince Wied appointed their leader , Prince Wied appointed their leader , Prênk Bibë Doda May and June 1914 , the International Gendarmerie was joined the International Gendarmerie was joined by Isa Boletini was joined by Isa Boletini and joined by Isa Boletini and his men of Fan Noli , the parliament adopted

Fan Noli , the parliament adopted a new constitution , the parliament adopted a new constitution and the parliament adopted a new constitution and proclaimed The politics of Zogu was authoritarian Italians exercised control over nearly every Albanian official was eventually replaced by another monarchy eventually replaced by another monarchy with replaced by another monarchy with a strong support He also made donations of until 1943 , the Kingdom of Albania was 1943 , the Kingdom of Albania was a protectorate , the Kingdom of Albania was a protectorate and the Kingdom of Albania was a protectorate and a dependency In October 1940 , Albania served October 1940 , Albania served as , Albania served as a staging ground Albania served as a staging ground for A counterattack resulted in a sizeable portion of Germans started to occupy the country of the war , the country fell the war , the country fell into , the country fell into a civil war-like state the country fell into a civil war-like state between The communists defeated the last anti-communist forces in the south the end of November , the main German troops had withdrawn the main German troops had withdrawn from Tirana The partisans entirely liberated the country from of the nation , the Communist party sent the nation , the Communist party sent forces , the Communist party sent forces to the Communist party sent forces to northern Albania They faced open resistance in Nikaj-Mërtur On 15 January 1945 , a clash took 15 January 1945 , a clash took place , a clash took place between a clash took place between partisans This event was the starting point of many other issues was the starting point of many other issues which , the institution of agricultural cooperatives brought the institution of agricultural cooperatives brought about of the Axis Powers , the country became the Axis Powers , the country became initially , the country became initially a satellite state the country became initially a satellite state of During this period , the country experienced this period , the country experienced an increasing industrialisation

, the country experienced an increasing industrialisation and the country experienced an increasing industrialisation and urbanisation The new land reform laws were passed granting ownership education , illiteracy was eliminated illiteracy was eliminated among the country's adult population The average annual increase in the country's national income was 29% and 56% The nation incurred large debts initially with In 1945 , the Agrarian Reform Law meant 1945 , the Agrarian Reform Law meant that meant that large swaths of property destroyed , Hoxha proclaimed Albania , Hoxha proclaimed Albania the world's first atheist state Hoxha proclaimed Albania the world's first atheist state in A 1967 law banned all fascist, religious, and antisocialist activity and propaganda many Albanians continued to practise their beliefs devoted to pyramid schemes that The protests turned violent in February 1997 were promptly emptied by militias promptly emptied by militias and emptied by militias and criminal gangs The crisis led both Aleksandër Meksi and Sali Berisha led by Italy , entered by Italy , entered the country of the communist system , Albania focused the communist system , Albania focused on , Albania focused on an active process Albania focused on an active process of , Edi Rama of the Socialist Party won Edi Rama of the Socialist Party won both the 2013 and 2017 parliamentary elections As Prime Minister , he implemented Prime Minister , he implemented numerous reforms , he implemented numerous reforms focused he implemented numerous reforms focused on On 26 November 2019 , a 6.4 magnitude earthquake ravaged 26 November 2019 , a 6.4 magnitude earthquake ravaged Albania , a 6.4 magnitude earthquake ravaged Albania with a 6.4 magnitude earthquake ravaged Albania with the epicentre ravaged Albania with the epicentre positioned The tremor was felt in Tirana From March to June 2020 , the government declared March to June 2020 , the government declared a state , the government declared a state of the government declared a state of emergency Albania has an area of and Its shoreline faces the Adriatic Sea to the northwest at 39° 40' 0" northern latitude ; the westernmost point is

39° 40' 0" northern latitude ; the westernmost point is Sazan ; the westernmost point is Sazan at the westernmost point is Sazan at 19 above the Adriatic ; the lowest point is the Adriatic ; the lowest point is the Mediterranean Sea ; the lowest point is the Mediterranean Sea at , much of Albania rises much of Albania rises into Perhaps the most remarkable feature of the country is the most remarkable feature of the country is the presence The Lake of Shkodër is the largest lake In the southeast rises the Lake of Ohrid that the southeast rises the Lake of Ohrid that is rises the Lake of Ohrid that is one Farther south extends the Large south extends the Large and Rivers rise mostly in the east its source , is the Drin that , is the Drin that starts is the Drin that starts at The climate in the country is extremely Albania experiences predominantly a mediterranean and the contrary , the coldest areas are positioned The mean monthly temperature ranges between in winter Rainfall naturally varies from season The country receives most of the precipitation An expedition from the University of Colorado discovered four glaciers Snowfall occurs frequently in winter hotspot , Albania possesses an exceptionally rich and contrasting biodiversity , Albania possesses an exceptionally rich and contrasting biodiversity on Albania possesses an exceptionally rich and contrasting biodiversity on account of phytogeography , Albania is phytogeography , Albania is part , Albania is part of Albania is part of the Boreal Kingdom be found in Albania which found in Albania which refers The country maintains a vibrant tradition of herbal and medicinal practices The protected areas of Albania are areas There are 15 national parks , 4 ramsar sites Valbonë Valley National Park and Theth National Park cover a combined territory Divjakë-Karavasta National Park extends along the central Albanian Adriatic Sea Coast and Further south sprawls the Butrint National Park on a peninsula that Environmental issues in Albania include air and water pollution, climate change Albania is a parliamentary constitutional republic and sovereign The government is based on the separation

The judicial power is vested in the supreme court Law enforcement in the country is primarily The executive power is exercised by the president is exercised by the president and exercised by the president and prime minister The president is the commander - in The tenure of the president depends on by the parliament , is authorised , Albania has extended its responsibilities Albania has extended its responsibilities and ) was considered by Albanian politicians was considered by Albanian politicians to considered by Albanian politicians to be Albania maintains strong ties with the United States , both countries have signed a number both countries have signed a number of Albania has been an active member of They country took on membership It served as vice president of 2014 , it also joined , it also joined the United Nations Human Rights Council it also joined the United Nations Human Rights Council from The Albanian Armed Forces consist of Land, Air and Naval Forces and communism , the country has participated the country has participated in six international missions February 2008 , Albania has participated Albania reduced the number of active troops In the 1990s , the country scrapped the 1990s , the country scrapped enormous amounts , the country scrapped enormous amounts of the country scrapped enormous amounts of obsolete hardware Increasing the military budget was one of Albania is defined within a territorial area The country is divided into three regions The highest level of administrative divisions are the twelve constituent counties The counties were created on 31 July 2000 The government introduced the new administrative divisions to be The defunct municipalities are known as neighbourhoods There are overall 2980 villages or communities The country has a developing mixed economy classified by has a developing mixed economy classified by the World Bank In 2016 , it had 2016 , it had the 4th lowest unemployment rate , it had the 4th lowest unemployment rate in it had the 4th lowest unemployment rate in the Balkans Its largest trading partners are Italy , Greece The country's most important infrastructure facilities take course through both

, Albania's GDP per capita stood Albania's GDP per capita stood at Albania was one of three countries The International Monetary Fund predicted 2.6% growth for Albania The country had a trade balance of −9.7% Agriculture in the country is based It remains a significant sector of the economy It employs 41% of the population Albania produces significant amounts of fruits Further , the country is a worldwide significant producer , the country is a worldwide significant producer of the country is a worldwide significant producer of salvia, rosemary and yellow gentian Albania has one of Europe's longest histories The today's region was one of the few places The oldest found seeds in the region are 4,000 In 2009 , the nation produced 2009 , the nation produced an estimated 17,500 tonnes , the nation produced an estimated 17,500 tonnes of the nation produced an estimated 17,500 tonnes of wine The secondary sector of Albania have undergone The Antea Cement plant in Fushë-Krujë is considered Albanian oil and gas is represents Albania has the second largest oil deposits in the Balkan peninsula The Albpetrol company is owned by the Albanian state is owned by the Albanian state and owned by the Albanian state and monitors The textile industry has seen an extensive expansion by Albania is a significant minerals producer and is The nation is also a notable producer of The tertiary sector represents the fastest growing sector of the country's economy in the world , telecommunication industry represents the world , telecommunication industry represents nowadays another major contributor , telecommunication industry represents nowadays another major contributor to telecommunication industry represents nowadays another major contributor to the sector It developed largely through privatisation Tourism is recognised as an industry It directly accounted for 8.4% The increase of foreign visitors has been Albania had only 500,000 visitors in 2005 , tourism in summer increased tourism in summer increased by The bulk of the tourist industry is concentrated , the Albanian Riviera in the southwest has the Albanian Riviera in the southwest has the most scenic and pristine beaches The coast has a particular character because it

has a particular character because it is Some parts of this seaside are very The international airport of Tirana is the premier air gateway The airport carried more than 3.3 million passengers in 2019 It will prospectively link Durrës The Autostrada 2 (A2 ) is part , it is as one it is as one of The rail network is administered by the national railway company is administered by the national railway company Hekurudha Shqiptare administered by the national railway company Hekurudha Shqiptare which There has been a considerable increase in In the country , education is the country , education is secular The academic year is apportioned into two semesters Albanian serves as the primary language of The study of a first foreign language is mandatory The languages taught in schools are Compulsory primary education is divided into two levels There is a significant number of private and public institutions The constitution of Albania guarantees equal, free and universal health care The average healthy life expectancy is at 68.8 years and The country's infant mortality rate is estimated at 12 per 1,000 live births Cardiovascular disease remain the principal cause of death In 2009 , the country had 2009 , the country had a fruit and vegetable supply , the country had a fruit and vegetable supply of the country had a fruit and vegetable supply of 886 grams to other developed and developing countries , Albania has other developed and developing countries , Albania has a relatively low rate , Albania has a relatively low rate of Albania has a relatively low rate of obesity natural resources , Albania has a wide variety , Albania has a wide variety of Albania has a wide variety of energy resources , the electricity generation sector of Albania is the electricity generation sector of Albania is dependent Albania has considerably large deposits of oil It has the 10th largest oil reserves in Europe The country's main petroleum deposits are located around the Albanian Adriatic Sea Coast connected to the planned Southern Gas Corridor , that the TAP runs for across Albania's territory

The water resources of Albania are particularly The country's available average quantity of fresh water is estimated In 2009 , the government approved 2009 , the government approved the National Strategy for Science, Technology and Innovation , the government approved the National Strategy for Science, Technology and Innovation in the government approved the National Strategy for Science, Technology and Innovation in Albania Telecommunication represents one of the fastest growing and dynamic sectors in 2018 , the country had 2018 , the country had approximately 2.7 million active mobile users , the country had approximately 2.7 million active mobile users with the country had approximately 2.7 million active mobile users with almost 1.8 million active broadband subscribers the population of Albania was estimated Its population density stands at 259 inhabitants per The overall life expectancy at birth is 78.5 years The country is the 8th most populous country in the Balkans The country's population rose steadily from 2.5 million The explanation for the recent population decrease is the fall That period was marked by economic mass emigration was marked by economic mass emigration from marked by economic mass emigration from Albania At least 900,000 people left Albania during this period About 53.4% of the country's population lives in Almost 30% of the total population is found found in Tirana County followed by Over 1 million people are concentrated in Tirana Tirana is one of largest cities Issues of ethnicity are a delicate topic ) , no declared ethnicity , no declared ethnicity 390,938 no declared ethnicity 390,938 ( National Minorities stated that " the results Albania recognises nine national or cultural minorities : Aromanian, Greek, Macedonian, Montenegrin, Serb, Roma, Egyptian, Bosnian and Bulgarian peoples Other Albanian minorities are the Gorani people and Jews the Greeks , " it is The estimates vary between 60,000 and 300,000 ethnic Greeks in , most of Western sources put most of Western sources put the number The 300,000 mark is supported by Greek government is supported by Greek government as supported by Greek government as well The official language of the country is Albanian of the country is Albanian which

the country is Albanian which is The Shkumbin river is the rough dividing line between the two dialects spoken in areas inhabited by by ethnic minorities in Albania include Macedonian is official in the Pustec Municipality The Greek language is spoken by an important percentage is spoken by an important percentage in spoken by an important percentage in the southern part Among young people aged 25 or less young people aged 25 or less , had a stable interest , while Greek Greek is the second most-spoken language in the country the teaching of Greek was banned Young people have shown a growing interest in Some of them go to Albania and Germany have agreements of the 2011 census , there were the 2011 census , there were 1,587,608 , there were 1,587,608 ( there were 1,587,608 ( 56.7% Religion constitute an important role in the lives considered themselves non - religious 80% believed in God and believed in God and 40% The preliminary results of the 2011 census seemed to Some Muslim Community officials expressed unhappiness with the data The Albanian Catholic Bishops Conference also cast doubts on The Muslim Albanians are spread throughout the country classical times , there are thought Durrës was purportedly founded by was purportedly founded by Paul the Apostle purportedly founded by Paul the Apostle , founded by Paul the Apostle , while medieval times , the Albanian people first appeared the Albanian people first appeared within historical records At this point , they were this point , they were mostly Islam arrived for the first time in The country has never had an official religion the clergy of all faiths was weakened The communist regime persecuted and suppressed religious observance Islam survived communist era persecution and reemerged Some smaller Christian sects in Albania include Evangelicals The first recorded Protestant of Albania was Said Toptani Albania was Said Toptani , who was Said Toptani , who travelled that , he was arrested arrested and imprisoned by the Ottoman authorities The first evangelical Protestants appeared in the 19th century and appeared in the 19th century and the Evangelical Alliance

Nowadays , it has 160 member congregations , it has 160 member congregations from it has 160 member congregations from different Protestant denominations Albania shares many symbols associated with The flag of Albania is a red flag The red colour used in the flag symbolises has been used by Albanians been used by Albanians since used by Albanians since the Middle Ages been particularly influenced by a multitude particularly influenced by a multitude of influenced by a multitude of ancient and medieval people in the Middle Ages was accompanied by the Middle Ages was accompanied by a corresponding growth was accompanied by a corresponding growth in accompanied by a corresponding growth in Christian and Islamic art Centuries later , the Albanian Renaissance proved crucial , the Albanian Renaissance proved crucial to the Albanian Renaissance proved crucial to the emancipation The architecture of Albania reflects the legacy Major cities in Albania have evolved the cities and towns reflect a whole spectrum Ancient architecture is found throughout Albania of the Byzantine Empire , they introduced the Byzantine Empire , they introduced castles , they introduced castles , they introduced castles , citadels The 20th century brought new architectural styles such as Socialist classicism arrived during the communist era in Three Albanian archaeological sites are included in the list These include the ancient remains of Butrint been widely influenced by Albanian culture widely influenced by Albanian culture , influenced by Albanian culture , geography Albanians produce and use many varieties Fërgesë is another national dish , made Flia consists of multiple crêpe-like layers brushed Coffee is an integral part of the Albanian lifestyle The country has more coffee houses per capita It is cultivated across Southern Albania Albania has a long and ancient history of wine production the right to free expression is guaranteed in the constitution Albania was ranked 84th on Albanian cinema has its roots in the 20th century During the Peoples Republic of Albania , Albanian cinema developed the Peoples Republic of Albania , Albanian cinema developed rapidly Albanian cinema developed rapidly with the inauguration 2003 , the Tirana International Film Festival was established

Albanian folk music is a prominent part of the national identity The first compilation of Albanian folk music was made of Albanian folk music was made by Albanian folk music was made by two Himariot musicians was made by two Himariot musicians , made by two Himariot musicians , Neço Muka Festivali i Këngës is a traditional Albanian song contest organised Këngës is a traditional Albanian song contest organised by is a traditional Albanian song contest organised by the national broadcaster Every cultural and geographical region of Albania has its own specific variety has its own specific variety of costume that Some elderly people continue to wear traditional clothing The Albanian language comprises an independent branch and is The cultural renaissance was first of all The Protestant reforms invigorated hopes for the development written by Gjon Buzuku was published by Gjon Buzuku was published in The earliest evidence dates from 1332 AD with Other significant examples include : a baptism formula ( They are mentioned by the humanist Marin Barleti are mentioned by the humanist Marin Barleti , mentioned by the humanist Marin Barleti , who The most famous Albanian writer in the 20th and 21st century is probably Albania participated at the Olympic Games in The country made their Winter Olympic Games debut in 2006 Albania missed the next four games , two Albania have participated in all games Albania normally competes in events normally competes in events that competes in events that include have been represented by the National Olympic Committee of Albania been represented by the National Olympic Committee of Albania since represented by the National Olympic Committee of Albania since 1972 The nation has participated at the Mediterranean Games Popular sports in Albania include Football in Albania include Football , Albania include Football , weightlifting Football is by far the most popular sport It is governed by the Football Association of Albania is governed by the Football Association of Albania ( governed by the Football Association of Albania ( , Albania scored their first ever goal in a major tournament Weightlifting is one of the most successful individual sport

Albanian weightlifters have won a total of , the Albanian people have established several communities the Albanian people have established several communities in large numbers of Albanians have migrated Albanian minorities are present in the neighbouring territories In Kosovo , Albanians make Kosovo , Albanians make up , Albanians make up the largest ethnic group Albanians make up the largest ethnic group in the English language , the word generally refers the word generally refers to God has been used by Arabic people been used by Arabic people of used by Arabic people of different religions The pre-Islamic Arabs worshipped a supreme deity whom they worshipped a supreme deity whom they called Muhammad used the word " Allah been discussed extensively by classical Arab philologists Grammarians of the Basra school regarded it of the name "Allāh " exist the name "Allāh " exist in "Allāh " exist in other Semitic languages The corresponding Aramaic form is "Elah " ( the word " Allah " occur Allah " occur in both pagan the Islamic scholar Ibn Kathir , Arab pagans considered Ibn Kathir , Arab pagans considered Allah , Arab pagans considered Allah as Arab pagans considered Allah as an unseen God considered Allah as an unseen God who Pagans believed worship of humans believed worship of humans or Pre-Islamic Meccans worshiped Allah alongside a host Islam forbade worship of anyone suggested that polytheistic Arabs used the name Quraysh ) was a designation that ) was a designation that consecrated was a designation that consecrated the superiority , there is also evidence there is also evidence that is also evidence that Allah to that hypothesis , the Kaaba was that hypothesis , the Kaaba was first Some inscriptions seem to indicate the use There is disagreement on whether is disagreement on whether Allah No iconic representation of Allah is known Allah is the only god in Mecca is the only god in Mecca that The Christian Arabs of today have no other word Arab Christians have used two forms of used two forms of invocations that They adopted the Muslim ' ,

The Syriac, Latin and Greek invocations do not have the words the name used for God was Irfan Shahîd quoting the 10th-century encyclopedic collection Kitab al-Aghani notes the 10th-century encyclopedic collection Kitab al-Aghani notes that pre-Islamic Arab Christians " Allah " is the unique, omnipotent and only deity Allah " is the unique, omnipotent and only deity and divine ordinances and commandments is the pivot " He is the only God , He is the only God , creator No human eyes can see Allah till The Qur'an declares " the reality of God is not a part of In Islamic tradition , there are Islamic tradition , there are 99 Names , there are 99 Names of there are 99 Names of God All these names refer to Allah , Most Muslims use the untranslated Arabic phrase " Insha'Allah Muslim discursive piety encourages beginning things with Pre-Islamic pagan Arabs believed in a blind, powerful, inexorable and insensible fate over believed in a blind, powerful, inexorable and insensible fate over which man Francis Edward Peters , " The Qur’ān insists The Qur’an's Allah is the same Creator God who covenanted is the same Creator God who covenanted with no hamza , the initial is elided may still contain popular expressions which still contain popular expressions which use contain popular expressions which use the word Some Muslims leave the name "Allāh " This goes back to early translation work but the Malayan High Court in 2009 revoked the Malayan High Court in 2009 revoked the law more than four centuries , the contemporary controversy was triggered the contemporary controversy was triggered by usage was triggered by usage of triggered by usage of "Allah The government appealed the court ruling , and appealed the court ruling , and the High Court In October 2013 the court ruled in October 2013 the court ruled in favor the court ruled in favor of In early 2014 the Malaysian government confiscated more than 300 bibles early 2014 the Malaysian government confiscated more than 300 bibles for the Malaysian government confiscated more than 300 bibles for using

in these two states is that usage these two states is that usage has some media criticism , the Malaysian government has introduced , the Malaysian government has introduced a "10-point solution the Malaysian government has introduced a "10-point solution " the pre-Islamic Zabad inscription , God is referred is referred to by the term referred to by the term , this is discouraged for new text " Algorithms " is a monthly peer-reviewed open-access scientific journal Algorithms " is a monthly peer-reviewed open-access scientific journal of The journal is published by MDPI is published by MDPI and published by MDPI and was It is a part of the South Caucasus region The modern Republic of Azerbaijan proclaimed its independence , the ethnic Armenian majority of the Nagorno-Karabakh region formed the ethnic Armenian majority of the Nagorno-Karabakh region formed self-proclaimed Republic of Artsakh It is one of six independent Turkic states Azerbaijan has diplomatic relations with 182 countries It is one of the founding members Azerbaijan is a developing country and ranks It has a high rate of economic development a modern etymology , the term "Azerbaijan " derives the term "Azerbaijan " derives from that The original etymology of this name is thought ) , there is a mention , there is a mention of there is a mention of "âterepâtahe ashaonô fravashîm ýazamaide The Greek name was mentioned by Diodorus Siculus was mentioned by Diodorus Siculus and mentioned by Diodorus Siculus and Strabo Early settlements included the Scythians during the 9th century Following the Scythians , Iranian Medes came the Scythians , Iranian Medes came to Iranian Medes came to dominate the area The Medes forged a vast empire between 900 and 700 BC The Sasanian Empire turned Caucasian Albania into a vassal state Despite Sassanid rule , Albania remained Sassanid rule , Albania remained an entity , Albania remained an entity in Albania remained an entity in the region The Umayyad Caliphate repulsed both the Sasanians and Byzantines of the Abbasid Caliphate was filled by the Abbasid Caliphate was filled by numerous local dynasties was filled by numerous local dynasties such

filled by numerous local dynasties such as was gradually seized by the waves gradually seized by the waves of seized by the waves of Oghuz Turks the possessions of the subsequent Seljuk Empire were ruled of the subsequent Seljuk Empire were ruled by the subsequent Seljuk Empire were ruled by Eldiguzids were ruled by Eldiguzids , ruled by Eldiguzids , technically vassals The local dynasty of the Shirvanshahs became a vassal state Following Timur's death , two independent and rival states emerged Timur's death , two independent and rival states emerged : , the Safavid dynasty of Iran subdued the Safavid dynasty of Iran subdued the Shirvanshahs of the next century , the Safavids converted the next century , the Safavids converted the formerly Sunni population , the Safavids converted the formerly Sunni population to the Safavids converted the formerly Sunni population to Shia Islam the early 17th century , they were ousted were briefly occupied by the Russians briefly occupied by the Russians as occupied by the Russians as a consequence the Safavids , the area was ruled the area was ruled by the Iranian Afsharid dynasty , the area was under the successive rule the area was under the successive rule of From the late 18th century , Imperial Russia switched the late 18th century , Imperial Russia switched to , Imperial Russia switched to a more aggressive geo-political stance Imperial Russia switched to a more aggressive geo-political stance towards In 1804 , the Russians invaded 1804 , the Russians invaded and the Russians invaded and sacked the Iranian town territory lies the contemporary Republic of Azerbaijan , was , was Iranian territory until Russia was Iranian territory until Russia occupied of the Gulistan treaty , the Russians invaded the Gulistan treaty , the Russians invaded Iran's Erivan Khanate This sparked the final bout of hostilities The resulting Treaty of Turkmenchay , forced Qajar Iran to It was followed by the March Days massacres was followed by the March Days massacres that followed by the March Days massacres that took in May 1918 , the leading Musavat party declared

May 1918 , the leading Musavat party declared independence , the leading Musavat party declared independence as the leading Musavat party declared independence as the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic The ADR was the first modern parliamentary republic in the Muslim world By March 1920 , it was March 1920 , it was obvious Independent Azerbaijan lasted only 23 months until the Bolshevik 11th Soviet Red Army lasted only 23 months until the Bolshevik 11th Soviet Red Army invaded Azerbaijanis did not surrender their brief independence , and Georgia signed an agreement and Georgia signed an agreement with Georgia signed an agreement with Turkey The previously independent Republic of Aras would also become the Nakhchivan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic During World War II , Azerbaijan played World War II , Azerbaijan played a crucial role , Azerbaijan played a crucial role in Azerbaijan played a crucial role in the strategic energy policy Operation Edelweiss carried out by the German Wehrmacht carried out by the German Wehrmacht targeted A fifth of all Azerbaijanis fought in Some 250,000 people from Azerbaijan were killed More than 130 Azerbaijanis were named Heroes of in 1990 , the Supreme Council of the Azerbaijan SSR dropped 1990 , the Supreme Council of the Azerbaijan SSR dropped the words , the Supreme Council of the Azerbaijan SSR dropped the words " the Supreme Council of the Azerbaijan SSR dropped the words " Soviet Socialist on 18 October 1991 , the Supreme Council of Azerbaijan adopted 18 October 1991 , the Supreme Council of Azerbaijan adopted a Declaration , the Supreme Council of Azerbaijan adopted a Declaration of the Supreme Council of Azerbaijan adopted a Declaration of Independence adopted a Declaration of Independence which The early years of independence were overshadowed of independence were overshadowed by independence were overshadowed by the First Nagorno-Karabakh war were overshadowed by the First Nagorno-Karabakh war with overshadowed by the First Nagorno-Karabakh war with the ethnic Armenian majority in 1994 , Armenians controlled 1994 , Armenians controlled up , Armenians controlled up to 14–16 percent Armenians controlled up to 14–16 percent of During the war many atrocities were committed

the war many atrocities were committed including many atrocities were committed including the massacres 1993 , democratically elected president Abulfaz Elchibey was overthrown democratically elected president Abulfaz Elchibey was overthrown by a military insurrection was overthrown by a military insurrection led overthrown by a military insurrection led by 1995 , another coup was attempted another coup was attempted against Aliyev the same time , the country was tainted the country was tainted by rampant corruption was tainted by rampant corruption in tainted by rampant corruption in the governing bureaucracy October 1998 , Aliyev was reelected Aliyev was reelected for a second term He was reelected to a third term In April 2018 , President Ilham Aliyev secured April 2018 , President Ilham Aliyev secured his fourth consecutive term , President Ilham Aliyev secured his fourth consecutive term in President Ilham Aliyev secured his fourth consecutive term in the election secured his fourth consecutive term in the election that , new clashes in the unresolved Nagorno-Karabakh conflict resumed new clashes in the unresolved Nagorno-Karabakh conflict resumed along Azerbaijan is located in the South Caucasus region It lies between latitudes 38 The total length of Azerbaijan's land borders is , is , of which 1,007 kilometers Three physical features dominate Azerbaijan : the Caspian Sea There are also three mountain ranges , are also three mountain ranges , the Greater The highest peak of Azerbaijan is Mount Bazardüzü Only 24 of the 8,350 rivers are greater All the rivers drain into the Caspian Sea in , and the longest river is Kur and the longest river is Kur ( the longest river is Kur ( 1,515 km 1991 , the Azerbaijani government has taken , the Azerbaijani government has taken measures the Azerbaijani government has taken measures to National protection of the environment accelerated after accelerated after 2001 when the state budget Within four years , protected areas doubled four years , protected areas doubled and Azerbaijan is home to a wide variety The rest of Azerbaijan's terrain consists of Azerbaijan is influenced particularly by is influenced particularly by cold arctic air masses

influenced particularly by cold arctic air masses of Azerbaijan's diverse landscape affects the ways air masses enter affects the ways air masses enter the country The Greater Caucasus protects the country from direct influences That leads to the formation of 9 out of 11 existing climate zones are Azerbaijan , they were formed they were formed over a long geological timeframe is particularly evidenced by remnants particularly evidenced by remnants of evidenced by remnants of ancient rivers of water supply , Azerbaijan is water supply , Azerbaijan is below , Azerbaijan is below the average Azerbaijan is below the average in All big water reservoirs are built on Kur The Kura and Aras are the major rivers " , is a natural gas fire which , is a natural gas fire which blazes is a natural gas fire which blazes continuously Flames jet out into the air There are 106 species of mammals The national animal of Azerbaijan is the Karabakh horse The Karabakh horse has a reputation for its good temper Azerbaijan's flora consists of more than 4,500 species of in Azerbaijan , the flora is Azerbaijan , the flora is much whole Caucasus can be found The country lies within four ecoregions : The structural formation of Azerbaijan's political system was completed of Azerbaijan's political system was completed by Azerbaijan's political system was completed by the adoption was completed by the adoption of completed by the adoption of the new Constitution , the state symbols of the Azerbaijan Republic are the state symbols of the Azerbaijan Republic are the flag The Constitution of Azerbaijan states that of Azerbaijan states that it Azerbaijan states that it is states that it is a presidential republic The legislative power is held by the unicameral National Assembly is held by the unicameral National Assembly and held by the unicameral National Assembly and the Supreme National Assembly The Parliament of Azerbaijan , called Milli Majlis , The executive power is held by the President is held by the President , held by the President , who The Cabinet of Azerbaijan consists primarily of the prime minister

The president does not have the right the presidential veto , the parliament must have , the parliament must have a majority the parliament must have a majority of The judicial power is vested in the Constitutional Court The president nominates the judges in these courts the government is the Executive Power headed by is the Executive Power headed by President The President appoints the Cabinet of Ministers and other high-ranking officials The Local Executive Authority is merely a continuation of The Provision determines the legal status of local state administration In June 2012 , the President approved June 2012 , the President approved the new Regulation , the President approved the new Regulation , the President approved the new Regulation , which approved the new Regulation , which granted The other nominal tier of governance is municipalities Currently , there are 1,607 municipalities , there are 1,607 municipalities across there are 1,607 municipalities across the country The Law on Municipal Service regulates the activities of municipal employees The Security Council is the deliberative body under the president It was established on 10 April 1997 of democracy , it remains democracy , it remains classified by the European Parliament in September 2015 described , the President of Azerbaijan signed the President of Azerbaijan signed a decree This decree was welcomed as a positive step at home , a practice termed home , a practice termed Caviar diplomacy ESISC in that report asserted that ) , ESISC is a part , ESISC is a part of ESISC is a part of Baku's lobbying efforts The short-lived Azerbaijan Democratic Republic succeeded in establishing diplomatic relations The most recent country to recognize Azerbaijan was Azerbaijan has diplomatic relations with 158 countries It holds observer status in the Non-Aligned Movement 9 May 2006 Azerbaijan was elected to membership The term of office began on Azerbaijan is an active member of international coalitions Azerbaijan was one of the first countries The country is contributing to peacekeeping efforts Azerbaijan is an active member of NATO's Partnership for Peace On 1 July 2021 , the US Congress advanced

The history of the modern Azerbaijan army dates back the Soviet Union , the Armed Forces of the Republic of Azerbaijan were created of 2021 , Azerbaijan had 2021 , Azerbaijan had 126,000 active personnel , Azerbaijan had 126,000 active personnel in Azerbaijan had 126,000 active personnel in its armed forces There are also 17,000 paramilitary troops and The armed forces have three branches : the Land Forces Additionally the armed forces embrace several military sub - the armed forces embrace several military sub - groups embrace several military sub - groups that These are the Internal Troops of the Ministry of Internal Affairs and the State Border Service Azerbaijan closely cooperates with NATO ) of which 12 are of which 12 are under which 12 are under the direct authority 12 are under the direct authority of Moreover , Azerbaijan includes the Autonomous Republic , Azerbaijan includes the Autonomous Republic ( Azerbaijan includes the Autonomous Republic ( " in 1991 , Azerbaijan became 1991 , Azerbaijan became a member , Azerbaijan became a member of Azerbaijan became a member of the International Monetary Fund The banking system of Azerbaijan consists of (now Central) Bank was created in 1992 The Central Bank serves as Azerbaijan's central bank , demand growth , the 2007 Q1 inflation rate reached 16.6% the early 2000s , chronically high inflation was brought chronically high inflation was brought under control Azerbaijan is also ranked 57th World Bank's Doing Business report 2019 , Azerbaijan improved 2019 , Azerbaijan improved its position , Azerbaijan improved its position in Azerbaijan improved its position in the Ease There are many pipelines in Azerbaijan The region of the Lesser Caucasus accounts for September 1994 , a 30-year contract was signed a 30-year contract was signed between the State Oil Company the Soviet exploitation , Azerbaijan is considered , Azerbaijan is considered one Azerbaijan is considered one of In 2016 , Azerbaijan had 2016 , Azerbaijan had 0.8 global hectares , Azerbaijan had 0.8 global hectares of Azerbaijan had 0.8 global hectares of biocapacity In 2016 Azerbaijan used 2.1 global hectares 2016 Azerbaijan used 2.1 global hectares of

Azerbaijan used 2.1 global hectares of biocapacity This means they use more biocapacity means they use more biocapacity than Azerbaijan is one of the sponsors Baku–Tbilisi–Kars railway line will connect the Caspian region with Azerbaijan has the largest agricultural basin in the region About 54.9 percent of Azerbaijan is agricultural land At the beginning of 2007 there were 4,755,100 hectares the beginning of 2007 there were 4,755,100 hectares of there were 4,755,100 hectares of utilized agricultural area In the same year the total wood resources counted 136 million m3 Azerbaijan's agricultural scientific research institutes are focused on meadows In some areas it is profitable some areas it is profitable to The Caspian fishing industry concentrates on the dwindling stocks of Tourism is an important part of the economy The country was a well-known tourist spot in the 1980s It was not until the 2000s Azerbaijan has also become a popular destination The government of Azerbaijan has set It is a national strategy to make is a national strategy to make tourism Azerbaijan is also an important economic hub in In 2002 , the Azerbaijani government established 2002 , the Azerbaijani government established the Ministry of Transport , the Azerbaijani government established the Ministry of Transport with the Azerbaijani government established the Ministry of Transport with a broad range In the same year , the country became the same year , the country became a member , the country became a member of the country became a member of the Vienna Convention on Road Traffic The 2012 construction of Kars–Tbilisi–Baku railway was meant In the 21st century , a new oil and gas boom helped the 21st century , a new oil and gas boom helped improve , a new oil and gas boom helped improve the situation a new oil and gas boom helped improve the situation in The government launched a campaign aimed at 2007–2008 ; rapid growth is forecast rapid growth is forecast for at least five more years Public payphones are available for local calls Tokens allow a call of indefinite duration , there were 1,397,000 main telephone lines and

there were 1,397,000 main telephone lines and 1,485,000 internet users The Azerbaijan National Aerospace Agency launched its first satellite AzerSat 1 into The satellite covers Europe and a significant part 50.1% of the total population is female The 2011 population growth-rate was 0.85% , compared A significant factor restricting population growth is a high level In total , Azerbaijan has total , Azerbaijan has 78 cities , Azerbaijan has 78 cities , Azerbaijan has 78 cities , 63 city districts The official language is Azerbaijani , which is Azerbaijani , which is Azerbaijani is spoken by approximately 92% is spoken by approximately 92% of spoken by approximately 92% of the population There are a dozen other minority languages spoken natively are all spoken by small minorities Some of these language communities are very Armenian was the majority language in Nagorno-Karabakh Around 97% of the population are Muslims Sunni ; the Republic of Azerbaijan has the second-highest proportion ; the Republic of Azerbaijan has the second-highest proportion of the Republic of Azerbaijan has the second-highest proportion of Shia Muslims Other faiths are practised by the country's various ethnic groups of its Constitution , Azerbaijan is its Constitution , Azerbaijan is a secular state , Azerbaijan is a secular state and Azerbaijan is a secular state and ensures In 2003 , there were 2003 , there were 250 Roman Catholics Other Christian denominations as of 2002 include with a 2,000-year history ; Jewish organizations estimate a 2,000-year history ; Jewish organizations estimate that Azerbaijan also is home to A relatively high percentage of Azerbaijanis have obtained Initial alterations have included the reestablishment of to elementary schools , the education institutions include elementary schools , the education institutions include thousands , the education institutions include thousands of the education institutions include thousands of preschools of many influences ; that 's many influences ; that 's why The latter is derived from the traditional celebration The profile of Azerbaijan's population consists , Azerbaijani national and traditional dresses are the Chokha and Papakhi There are radio broadcasts in Russian, Georgian, Kurdish, Lezgian and Talysh languages In Baku several newspapers are published

Baku several newspapers are published in several newspapers are published in Russian Music of Azerbaijan builds on Azerbaijan builds on folk traditions that builds on folk traditions that reach For centuries Azerbaijani music has evolved centuries Azerbaijani music has evolved under Azerbaijani music has evolved under the badge Azerbaijani music has a branchy mode system , where has a branchy mode system , where chromatization Among national musical instruments there are 14 string instruments national musical instruments there are 14 string instruments , there are 14 string instruments , eight percussion instruments Mugham is usually a suite with performing mugham , the singers have mugham , the singers have to the singers have to transform their emotions UNESCO proclaimed the Azerbaijani mugham tradition a Masterpiece proclaimed the Azerbaijani mugham tradition a Masterpiece of Ashiq combines poetry , storytelling, dance, and vocal and instrumental music It is a mystic troubadour or traveling This tradition has its origin in the Shamanistic beliefs Azerbaijani pop and Azerbaijani folk music arose with the international popularity of Azerbaijan is an enthusiastic participant in the Eurovision Song Contest Azerbaijan made its debut appearance at the 2008 Eurovision Song Contest The country's entry gained third place in 2009 Ell and Nikki won the first place There are dozens of Azerbaijani folk dances They are performed at formal celebrations performed at formal celebrations and the dancers The earliest known figure in Azerbaijani literature was Izzeddin Hasanoglu Azerbaijani literature was Izzeddin Hasanoglu , who was Izzeddin Hasanoglu , who composed Classical literature in Azerbaijani was formed the poets of this period were Gazi Burhanaddin of this period were Gazi Burhanaddin , this period were Gazi Burhanaddin , Haqiqi The end of the 14th century was also the period of Book of Dede Korkut " consists of two manuscripts It is a collection of 12 stories The 16th-century poet , Muhammed Fuzuli produced his timeless philosophical and lyrical "Qazals , Muhammed Fuzuli produced his timeless philosophical and lyrical "Qazals " Muhammed Fuzuli produced his timeless philosophical and lyrical "Qazals " in his predecessors , Fuzuli was destined His major works include " The Divan of Ghazals "

the same century , Azerbaijani literature further flourished Azerbaijani literature further flourished with the development Shah Ismail I wrote about 1400 verses in I wrote about 1400 verses in Azerbaijani were taken up by prominent poets taken up by prominent poets and , Azerbaijanis also celebrate the Epic of Koroglu Azerbaijanis also celebrate the Epic of Koroglu ( Modern Azerbaijani literature in Azerbaijan is based the mid-19th century , it was taught it was taught in the schools Azerbaijanis have a rich and distinctive culture , a major part have a rich and distinctive culture , a major part of This art form is represented by a wide range is represented by a wide range of represented by a wide range of handicrafts The Azerbaijani carpet is a traditional handmade textile of various sizes Azerbaijan has been since ancient times Scientific research of the Azerbaijani carpet is connected The traditional cuisine is famous for an abundance reflected in the national dishes , which Saffron-rice plov is the flagship food in Azerbaijan Azerbaijanis often use traditional armudu (pear-shaped) glass as often use traditional armudu (pear-shaped) glass as they use traditional armudu (pear-shaped) glass as they have Azerbaijani architecture typically combines elements of Azerbaijani architecture has heavy influences from Persian architecture Among other architectural treasures are Quadrangular Castle in other architectural treasures are Quadrangular Castle in Mardakan are Quadrangular Castle in Mardakan , the 19th and early 20th centuries , little monumental architecture was created The task for modern Azerbaijani architecture is diverse application They consist of some 1500 dislodged the centuries , Azerbaijani art has gone Azerbaijani art has gone through many stylistic changes is traditionally characterized by a warmth traditionally characterized by a warmth of characterized by a warmth of colour Azerbaijani painting enjoyed preeminence in Caucasus The film industry in Azerbaijan dates back In fact , Azerbaijan was fact , Azerbaijan was among , Azerbaijan was among the first countries Azerbaijan was among the first countries involved this bay town on the Caspian was producing like today , the oil industry attracted today , the oil industry attracted foreigners , the oil industry attracted foreigners eager

the oil industry attracted foreigners eager to the Soviet Union , the first Baku International Film Festival East-West was held the first Baku International Film Festival East-West was held in Baku There are three state-owned television channels : AzTV The Constitution of Azerbaijan claims to , the media environment in Azerbaijan deteriorated the media environment in Azerbaijan deteriorated rapidly " Racial discrimination contributes to the country’s lack Racial discrimination contributes to the country’s lack of the last few years , three journalists were killed Azerbaijan had the biggest number of journalists Amnesty's 2015/16 annual report on the country stated ' the country stated ' ... persecution At least 18 prisoners of conscience remained in Some of this money went to Football is the most popular sport in Azerbaijan The national football team of Azerbaijan demonstrates relatively low performance The most successful Azerbaijani football clubs are Neftchi Baku , Qarabağ In 2012 , Neftchi Baku became 2012 , Neftchi Baku became the first Azerbaijani team , Neftchi Baku became the first Azerbaijani team to Neftchi Baku became the first Azerbaijani team to advance In 2014 , Qarabağ became 2014 , Qarabağ became the second Azerbaijani club , Qarabağ became the second Azerbaijani club advancing Qarabağ became the second Azerbaijani club advancing to of the UEFA Champions League , Qarabağ became the UEFA Champions League , Qarabağ became the first Azerbaijani club , Qarabağ became the first Azerbaijani club to Qarabağ became the first Azerbaijani club to reach Futsal is another popular sport in Azerbaijan The Azerbaijan national futsal team reached fourth place in the 2010 UEFA Futsal Championship Azerbaijan is one of the traditional powerhouses Backgammon also plays a major role in Azerbaijan Women's Volleyball Super League is one of the strongest women Its women's national team came fourth at the 2005 European Championship Azerbaijan has a Formula One race-track , made Azerbaijan hosted several major sport competitions since the late 2000s 8 December 2012 , Baku was selected Amateur astronomy is a hobby where participants is a hobby where participants enjoy Amateur astronomers do not use the field Most amateurs are hobbyists , while

are hobbyists , while others Amateur astronomers typically view the sky at Some just look at the sky join as members of amateur astronomical societies Collectively , amateur astronomers observe a variety , amateur astronomers observe a variety of amateur astronomers observe a variety of celestial objects Common targets of amateur astronomers include the Sun Most amateur astronomers work at visible wavelengths , An early pioneer of radio astronomy was Grote Reber was Grote Reber , an amateur astronomer who Non-visual amateur astronomy includes the use of infrared filters Some amateur astronomers use home-made radio telescopes , while use home-made radio telescopes , while others Amateur astronomers use a range of instruments Amateur astronomers also use star charts that also use star charts that , use star charts that , depending Observing logs typically record details typically record details about which objects record details about which objects were of a star chart , many others are a star chart , many others are so Star hopping is a method often used is a method often used by It involves the use of maps These apps make use of the inbuilt hardware Setting circles are angular measurement scales that can are angular measurement scales that can be , the telescope user can use the setting circle the telescope user can use the setting circle to A computerized setting circle is called a "digital setting circle " display a telescope's RA and Dec coordinates , they are a telescope's RA and Dec coordinates , they are not they are not simply a digital read-out the object is chosen from the electronic database chosen from the electronic database , which moved until the two angular distance values reach zero the object should be in the eyepiece Computerized systems provide the further advantage of computing coordinate precession Traditional printed sources are subtitled by the "epoch" year are subtitled by the "epoch" year , subtitled by the "epoch" year , which these computer-driven telescopes , the user typically enters , the user typically enters the name the user typically enters the name of They have several notable advantages for amateur astronomers

For example , GOTO telescopes tend example , GOTO telescopes tend to allows manufacturers to add equatorial tracking in computer controlled telescope mounts and CCD cameras "Remote Telescope" astronomy is computer controlled telescope mounts and CCD cameras "Remote Telescope" astronomy is now and CCD cameras "Remote Telescope" astronomy is now a viable means CCD cameras "Remote Telescope" astronomy is now a viable means for enables anyone to control a telescope The observer can image through the telescope by the telescope is then transmitted Amateur astronomers engage in many imaging techniques including Scientific research is most often not the "main" goal Work of scientific merit is possible applies where large numbers of amateur astronomers Amateur astronomers often contribute toward activities professional setups , amateur astronomers can measure , amateur astronomers can measure the light spectrum amateur astronomers can measure the light spectrum emitted , amateur astronomers have played a major role amateur astronomers have played a major role in There are a large number of amateur astronomical societies Members range from active observers with Societies range widely in their goals Major national or international societies generally publish their own journal or , ) is a modern Japanese martial art that ) is a modern Japanese martial art that is is a modern Japanese martial art that is split was originally developed by Morihei Ueshiba originally developed by Morihei Ueshiba , developed by Morihei Ueshiba , as Ueshiba's goal was to create an art Its curriculum comprises various techniques , primarily throws Aikido derives mainly from the martial art Ueshiba's senior students have different approaches to aikido was created by ( 1883–1969 created by ( 1883–1969 ) is Daitō-ryū Aiki-jūjutsu , which Ueshiba The art of is the primary technical influence on with empty-handed throwing and joint-locking techniques , Ueshiba incorporated empty-handed throwing and joint-locking techniques , Ueshiba incorporated training movements , Ueshiba incorporated training movements with Ueshiba incorporated training movements with weapons ; His official association with Daitō-ryū continued His official association with Daitō-ryū continued until At that time Ueshiba referred to that time Ueshiba referred to his martial art Ueshiba referred to his martial art as

in 1919 , he met 1919 , he met and This idea was a great influence on Ueshiba's martial arts philosophy Aikido demonstrates this philosophy in its emphasis , the connection with Deguchi gave the connection with Deguchi gave Ueshiba entry of this exposure , he was this exposure , he was able He was followed by Tadashi Abe was followed by Tadashi Abe in followed by Tadashi Abe in 1952 Kenji Tomiki toured with a delegation of Koichi Tohei was sent by Aikikai Hombu was sent by Aikikai Hombu to sent by Aikikai Hombu to Hawaii This trip was followed by several subsequent visits was followed by several subsequent visits and followed by several subsequent visits and is The United Kingdom followed in 1955 ; by Morihei Ueshiba , Masamichi Noro arrived Morihei Ueshiba , Masamichi Noro arrived in , Masamichi Noro arrived in France Masamichi Noro arrived in France in The largest aikido organization is the Aikikai Foundation , which is the Aikikai Foundation , which remains The earliest independent styles to emerge were Yoseikan Aikido were Yoseikan Aikido , begun by not cause any major upheavals when they cause any major upheavals when they were in 1969 , two more major styles emerged Significant controversy arose with the departure of Tohei left as a result of The disagreement was over the proper role of followers of Saito subsequently split The study of is an important component of Ueshiba's application of in aikido took This concept was known as Takemusu Aiki in virtually all Japanese martial arts , there are virtually all Japanese martial arts , there are both , there are both physical and mental aspects there are both physical and mental aspects of The physical training in aikido is diverse of throws , beginners learn throws , beginners learn how ; the techniques for defense consist the techniques for defense consist of pushing or extending movements are Aikido-related training emphasizes the use of coordinated whole-body movement Both are studying aikido principles of Good involves attention to the technique The following are a sample of following are a sample of the basic or widely practiced throws

Many of these techniques derive from styles ; the following are the terms ; the following are the terms used the following are the terms used by are the terms used by the Aikikai Foundation Aikido makes use of body movement their side ; a technique is applied a technique is applied with motion From these few basic techniques , there are these few basic techniques , there are numerous there are numerous of possible implementations For instance , Gozo Shioda described instance , Gozo Shioda described using Gozo Shioda described using in a brawl Weapons training in aikido traditionally includes Some schools incorporate firearm-disarming techniques , where The founder developed many of the empty-handed techniques One feature of aikido is training Freestyle practice with multiple attackers called is during training , it is training , it is the responsibility , it is the responsibility of it is the responsibility of to in the martial arts showed that the type the martial arts showed that the type of showed that the type of injuries Soft tissue injuries are one of the most common types Some aikido organizations use belts to distinguish so a particular rank in one organization is a particular rank in one organization is not Most aikido systems add a pair of wide pleated black or indigo trousers Aikido styles vary in their intention as counteract this , some styles allow this , some styles allow students Shodokan Aikido addresses the issue by practicing There is no generally agreed definition of what is no generally agreed definition of what constitutes The three classical branches of visual art are painting the 17th century , "art " referred "art " referred to any skill feel that the typical concept of "artistic works related to the older Latin meaning , which English words derived from this meaning include Several dialogues in Plato tackle questions He speaks approvingly of this "Ion " , Socrates gives " , Socrates gives no hint , Socrates gives no hint of Socrates gives no hint of the disapproval the musical arts , Aristotle considered epic poetry , Aristotle considered epic poetry ,

Aristotle considered epic poetry , tragedy For example , music imitates example , music imitates with , music imitates with the media music imitates with the media of The forms also differ in their object , the forms differ in their manner the forms differ in their manner of are a collection of disciplines which Art is something that stimulates is something that stimulates an individual's thoughts a common or practical way , people will consider it may be considered commercial art argued that the difference between fine art , even fine art often has goals even fine art often has goals beyond art has been described by has been described by philosopher Richard Wollheim been described by philosopher Richard Wollheim as described by philosopher Richard Wollheim as " Art as mimesis has deep roots Leo Tolstoy identified art as a use Benedetto Croce and R. G. Collingwood advanced the idealist view R. G. Collingwood advanced the idealist view that art advanced the idealist view that art expresses influenced by Martin Heidegger have interpreted by Martin Heidegger have interpreted art George Dickie has offered an institutional theory of offered an institutional theory of art that Larry Shiner has described fine art as A set of eight 130,000 years old white-tailed eagle talons bear cut marks bear cut marks and abrasion that Many great traditions in art have a foundation more of their art works have survived their art works have survived and more survived and more of their influence Some also have provided the first records provided the first records of how artists of the Western Middle Ages , much art focused the Western Middle Ages , much art focused on , much art focused on the expression much art focused on the expression of , Islamic art's rejection of iconography led Islamic art's rejection of iconography led to east , religion dominated artistic styles , religion dominated artistic styles and religion dominated artistic styles and forms India and Tibet saw emphasis China saw the flourishing of many art forms Chinese styles vary greatly from era for example , Tang dynasty paintings are

example , Tang dynasty paintings are monochromatic Japan names its styles after imperial dynasties This led to Romantic rejections of The history of 20th-century art is a narrative Increasing global interaction during this time saw an equivalent influence influenced by Western Renaissance draftsmanship ) had by Western Renaissance draftsmanship ) had an immense influence were taken up by Picasso taken up by Picasso and Theodor W. Adorno said in 1970 , Relativism was accepted as an unavoidable truth accepted as an unavoidable truth , which Works of art are not An example of this is the Silk Road is the Silk Road , where Hellenistic, Iranian, Indian and Chinese influences Greco Buddhist art is one of the most vivid examples Art form " refers to the elements It covers the methods adopted by covers the methods adopted by the artist In general there are three schools general there are three schools of there are three schools of philosophy Extreme Formalism is the view that all aesthetic properties is the view that all aesthetic properties of Philosophers almost universally reject this view Unfortunately , there is little consensus , there is little consensus on there is little consensus on terminology Extreme Intentionalism holds that authorial intent plays a decisive role holds that authorial intent plays a decisive role in It defines the subject as the persons defines the subject as the persons or by the title , the subject is the title , the subject is Napoleon , the subject is Napoleon , the subject is Napoleon , and is Napoleon , and the content The cultural context often reduces to the artist's techniques in other cases historical and material conditions may predominate other cases historical and material conditions may predominate , Art can connote a sense of A common contemporary criticism of some modern art occurs along conceptual art , Marcel Duchamp's "Fountain " is Marcel Duchamp's "Fountain " is among the first examples Hirst came up with the conceptual design Art has had a great number of imply that the purpose of Art The non-motivated purposes of art are those

of art are those that art are those that are are those that are integral much of the finest art has represented , there have been many periods there have been many periods where have been many periods where art been many periods where art of Reproductive methods such as moulds made Another important innovation came in the 15th century in its collection is distinguished by an impressively wide historic span is distinguished by an impressively wide historic span , distinguished by an impressively wide historic span , from Its various areas of emphasis give it Italy the art tourism of the Grand Tour became the art tourism of the Grand Tour became a major industry The Uffizi in Florence opened entirely Museums in the United States tend to example , was created by , was created by John Taylor Johnston was created by John Taylor Johnston , created by John Taylor Johnston , a railroad executive There have been attempts by was to create art that than mere objects " said the major post war German artist Joseph Beuys This time period saw the rise of such things Artists broadly identified under the heading Many of these performances create works of these performances create works that these performances create works that are create works that are only The marker of status becomes understanding Iconoclasm is the destruction of art is the destruction of art that Aniconism is a general dislike of either all figurative images It has been a crucial factor in The iconographic content of art could cause of art , the artists' vision became art , the artists' vision became the usual determinant , the artists' vision became the usual determinant of the artists' vision became the usual determinant of the content what the appropriate balance is have shifted After Greenberg , several important art theorists emerged Greenberg , several important art theorists emerged , Pop artists like Andy Warhol became both proposed that art is any activity There is evidence that there is evidence that there may In ' , Larry Shiner examines ' , Larry Shiner examines the construction

, Larry Shiner examines the construction of Larry Shiner examines the construction of the modern system Ancient Greek society did not possess the term art , a significant shift to general aesthetic theory took a significant shift to general aesthetic theory took place to general aesthetic theory took place which general aesthetic theory took place which attempted took place which attempted to This resulted in the rise of William K. Wimsatt and Monroe Beardsley published a classic and controversial New Critical essay later be repudiated by theorists be repudiated by theorists from repudiated by theorists from the reader-response school was himself trained by New Critics Gaut and Livingston define the intentionalists " The task of criticism is The task of criticism is the reconstruction The end of the 20th century fostered an extensive debate known as 1981 , the artist Mark Tansey created , the artist Mark Tansey created a work the artist Mark Tansey created a work of Influential theorists include Judith Butler , Luce Irigaray historical discourse was explored by Hayden White thought had been stressed by had been stressed by a very different form been stressed by a very different form of stressed by a very different form of philosophy He was challenged on the basis Classificatory disputes in the 20th century have included argued that disagreement about the definition to Novitz , classificatory disputes are Novitz , classificatory disputes are more often disputes , classificatory disputes are more often disputes about classificatory disputes are more often disputes about societal values they are not advancing a definition 1998 , Arthur Danto , suggested , Arthur Danto , suggested a thought experiment Arthur Danto , suggested a thought experiment showing of art ; it is art ; it is term ; it is term associated it is term associated with It is this use of the word Making judgments of value requires "art " is whether it an artist's prime motivation need not be the pursuit , art often depicts terrible images art often depicts terrible images made at the same time , the horrific imagery demonstrates the same time , the horrific imagery demonstrates Goya's keen artistic ability

, the horrific imagery demonstrates Goya's keen artistic ability in the horrific imagery demonstrates Goya's keen artistic ability in composition Countless schools have proposed their own ways to It can arouse aesthetic or moral feelings , Artists express something so that express something so that their audience of the human condition ; that is the human condition ; that is , ; that is , what that is , what it is , what it is Internationally there are also extensive efforts there are also extensive efforts to This should also secure the economic basis “ Cultural goods are part of Cultural goods are part of the identity their culture , you also destroy , you also destroy their identity Agnostida is an order of arthropod is an order of arthropod which They are present in the Lower Cambrian fossil record The Agnostida are divided into two suborders As a group , agnostids are a group , agnostids are isopygous Agnostida within the class Trilobita remains within the class Trilobita remains uncertain the class Trilobita remains uncertain , The challenge to the status has focused the limbs of agnostids closely resemble debated whether the agnostids lived a pelagic swimming , and their fossils found and their fossils found in association their fossils found in association with Their wide geographic dispersion in the fossil record is uncharacteristic The thoracic segment appears to form a hinge The orientation of the thoracic appendages appears ill Abortion is the termination of a pregnancy a pregnancy , it is called , it is called an induced abortion it is called an induced abortion , done , abortion is one , abortion is one of abortion is one of the safest procedures Modern methods use medication or surgery The most common surgical technique involves dilating the cervix and induced abortions do not increase Countries that permit abortions have that permit abortions have different limits In some areas , abortion is some areas , abortion is legal There is debate over the moral, ethical, and legal issues who oppose abortion often argue abortion often argue that an embryo

abortion often argue that it argue that it is part 1 to 2% of abortions are done Only 30% to 50% of conceptions progress past Between 15% and 30% of known pregnancies end in Other causes include vascular disease ( such Medical abortions are those induced by are those induced by abortifacient pharmaceuticals The most common early first-trimester medical abortion regimens use mifepristone in combination Mifepristone –misoprostol combination regimens work faster –misoprostol combination regimens work faster and This regimen is effective in the second trimester medical abortion using a mifepristone–misoprostol combination regimen is considered Early medical abortion regimens using mifepristone , followed mifepristone , followed 24–48 hours later by , followed 24–48 hours later by buccal or vaginal misoprostol followed 24–48 hours later by buccal or vaginal misoprostol are A 2020 Cochrane Systematic Review concluded that providing women concluded that providing women with permitting women to self-administer abortion medication has Up to 15 weeks' gestation, suction-aspiration or vacuum aspiration are the most common surgical methods of induced abortion used in very early pregnancy when cervical dilation D&C is a standard gynecological procedure performed for be performed surgically by hysterotomy performed surgically by hysterotomy or Hysterotomy abortion is a procedure similar to It requires a smaller incision than a caesarean section Gravid hysterectomy refers to removal of induced by first inducing labor This is sometimes called "induced miscarriage Only limited data are available comparing this method may be complicated by the occurrence be complicated by the occurrence of complicated by the occurrence of brief fetal survival In Southeast Asia , there is Southeast Asia , there is an ancient tradition , there is an ancient tradition of there is an ancient tradition of attempting Reported methods of unsafe, self-induced abortion include misuse The health risks of abortion depend principally Legal abortions performed in the developed world are 2012 , abortion was estimated CDC estimated in 2019 that estimated in 2019 that US pregnancy-related mortality to 2009 , abortion had 2009 , abortion had a mortality rate , abortion had a mortality rate lower abortion had a mortality rate lower than There is little difference in terms

Vacuum aspiration in the first trimester is the safest method Infections account for one-third of second-trimester abortion are similar to those to the U.S. , historian Linda Gordon states the U.S. , historian Linda Gordon states : Current evidence finds no relationship between most induced abortions A report by the American Psychological Association concluded that by the American Psychological Association concluded that a woman's first abortion the American Psychological Association concluded that a woman's first abortion is A long term-study among US women found that among US women found that about 99% US women found that about 99% of found that about 99% of women Relief was the primary emotion with few women was the primary emotion with few women feeling Women seeking an abortion may use They may attempt self-induced abortion or Unsafe abortions are a major cause of injury Estimates of deaths vary according , opponents of abortion point opponents of abortion point out Countries with restrictive abortion laws have higher rates A 2011 study concluded that in the United States estimated that the incidence of unsafe abortion Forty percent of the world's women are able from safe abortions , unsafe abortions result safe abortions , unsafe abortions result in , unsafe abortions result in 70,000 deaths unsafe abortions result in 70,000 deaths and Secondary infertility caused by an unsafe abortion affects caused by an unsafe abortion affects an estimated 24 million women The rate of unsafe abortions has increased , medical reporting of abortion is medical reporting of abortion is not The abortion rate worldwide was 28 per , the incidence of abortion is the incidence of abortion is similar restrictive abortion laws are associated with increases The rate of legal , induced employees of Guttmacher Institute it ranged of Guttmacher Institute it ranged from Guttmacher Institute it ranged from 7 it ranged from 7 per An American study in 2002 concluded that in 2002 concluded that about half 2002 concluded that about half of concluded that about half of women reported that 26% of reported legal induced abortions 91% of these were classified during 2000 ; this accounts

2000 ; this accounts for ; this accounts for <0.2% this accounts for <0.2% of , 89% of terminations occurred 89% of terminations occurred at 64% of those reported were why women have abortions are women have abortions are diverse Some of the reasons may include Some abortions are undergone as the result These might include the preference for ruled that the state's interest in the life the state can not favor the life privacy , physicians must be Roe , it also decided , it also decided Doe it also decided Doe v. All these factors may relate to health This allows the attending physician the room he allows the attending physician the room he needs Public opinion shifted in America following in the United States , she traveled the United States , she traveled to , she traveled to Sweden , an outbreak of German measles left an outbreak of German measles left 15,000 babies 1967 , the American Medical Association publicly supported , the American Medical Association publicly supported liberalization the American Medical Association publicly supported liberalization of may be treated by radical hysterectomy be treated by radical hysterectomy and treated by radical hysterectomy and pelvic lymph node dissection Exposure to a single chemotherapy drug is estimated Exposures above 0.005–0.025 Gy cause Vaginal delivery may result in dissemination performing abortions ; other scholars disagree abortions ; other scholars disagree with ; other scholars disagree with this interpretation other scholars disagree with this interpretation , The physician Scribonius Largus wrote in 43 CE Scribonius Largus wrote in 43 CE that wrote in 43 CE that the Hippocratic Oath which he belonged — was of its history the Catholic Church was divided its history the Catholic Church was divided on From 1750 , excommunication became 1750 , excommunication became the punishment , excommunication became the punishment for excommunication became the punishment for abortions Islamic tradition has traditionally permitted abortion advertised their services , and they to some sources , abortion was some sources , abortion was more a law was passed permitting abortions Induced abortion has long been the source

Ethical, moral, philosophical, biological, religious and legal issues surrounding abortion are related In both public and private debate , arguments presented both public and private debate , arguments presented in , arguments presented in favor arguments presented in favor of are often spearheaded by groups often spearheaded by groups advocating spearheaded by groups advocating one argues that a human fetus is a human person Current laws pertaining to abortion are Religious, moral, and cultural factors continue to influence abortion laws These requirements usually depend on the age Some jurisdictions require a waiting period before the procedure require that a woman obtain the consent Many restrictions are waived in emergency situations Other jurisdictions ban abortion almost entirely These circumstances vary based on jurisdiction Nicaragua , medical authorities have recorded , medical authorities have recorded rises medical authorities have recorded rises in may also support clinics that also support clinics that perform support clinics that perform abortions This is also a terminology in heavy social stigma , pregnant women may engage pregnant women may engage in medical tourism The organization Women on Waves has The NGO created a mobile medical clinic inside a shipping container in the Netherlands , Dutch law prevails the Netherlands , Dutch law prevails when allow parents to determine sex The development of this technology has led The preference for male children is reported occurs despite the fact that the country Many countries have taken legislative steps to Anti-abortion violence is classified by both governmental and scholarly sources is classified by both governmental and scholarly sources as classified by both governmental and scholarly sources as terrorism have been recorded by providers been recorded by providers since recorded by providers since 1977 brought into some countries where abortion In 2003 , Chris Danze organized 2003 , Chris Danze organized anti-abortion organizations , Chris Danze organized anti-abortion organizations throughout Chris Danze organized anti-abortion organizations throughout Texas The organizations released the personal information online , sheep it may be caused may be caused by stress be caused by stress or caused by stress or physical exertion may be caused by contagious disease

be caused by contagious disease , caused by contagious disease , such Viral infection can cause abortion in Cats can experience spontaneous abortion for be induced in mares that induced in mares that have Feticide can occur in horses The abstract also records all deeds , , searching through abstracts is searching through abstracts is a common way Fighting began on April 19, 1775 , The American Patriots were supported by France were supported by France and supported by France and Spain in the 17th and 18th centuries , the American colonies were the 17th and 18th centuries , the American colonies were largely in 1763 , tensions arose 1763 , tensions arose over , tensions arose over trade tensions arose over trade , on September 5, 1774 , the First Continental Congress drafted September 5, 1774 , the First Continental Congress drafted a Petition , the First Continental Congress drafted a Petition to the First Continental Congress drafted a Petition to the King achieve a peaceful solution , fighting began a peaceful solution , fighting began with , fighting began with the Battle of Lexington fighting began with the Battle of Lexington on Parliament , both sides increasingly viewed , both sides increasingly viewed conflict both sides increasingly viewed conflict as He captured New York City in November In summer 1777 , Howe succeeded summer 1777 , Howe succeeded in Howe succeeded in taking Philadelphia in 1763 , France provided 1763 , France provided the Patriots , France provided the Patriots informal economic and military support France provided the Patriots informal economic and military support from After Saratoga , the two countries signed Saratoga , the two countries signed a commercial agreement , the two countries signed a commercial agreement and the two countries signed a commercial agreement and a Treaty of Alliance of independence , Congress joined independence , Congress joined France , Congress joined France in Congress joined France in their global war This undermined the 1778 "Southern Strategy " devised undermined the 1778 "Southern Strategy " devised by by September 1781 Cornwallis was besieged September 1781 Cornwallis was besieged by

Cornwallis was besieged by a Franco-American force was besieged by a Franco-American force in besieged by a Franco-American force in Yorktown the garrison failed , Cornwallis surrendered , Cornwallis surrendered in October Cornwallis surrendered in October , to the Pacific ; the Mississippi River became the Pacific ; the Mississippi River became the dividing line ; the Mississippi River became the dividing line between the Mississippi River became the dividing line between British and Spanish possessions , inhabited largely by French or Spanish-speaking Catholics inhabited largely by French or Spanish-speaking Catholics , The Proclamation Line of 1763 sought to were largely governed by native-born property owners London , colonial militia were funded The 1763 to 1765 Grenville ministry instructed the Royal Navy to stop to 1763 , it had 1763 , it had a significant economic impact , it had a significant economic impact since it had a significant economic impact since 85% had a significant economic impact since 85% of These measures were followed by the Sugar Act and Stamp Act were followed by the Sugar Act and Stamp Act , followed by the Sugar Act and Stamp Act , which in 1768 , a riot started 1768 , a riot started in , a riot started in Boston a riot started in Boston when started in Boston when the authorities Tensions escalated further in March 1770 The Massacre coincided with the partial repeal of Tensions escalated following the destruction of support it , Parliament passed it , Parliament passed the Tea Act , Parliament passed the Tea Act , Parliament passed the Tea Act , giving the Dutch , the Act was opposed the Act was opposed by those was opposed by those who opposed by those who managed In December 1773 , a group called December 1773 , a group called the Sons of Liberty , a group called the Sons of Liberty disguised a group called the Sons of Liberty disguised as called the Sons of Liberty disguised as Mohawk Parliament responded by passing the so-called Intolerable Acts the elected lower houses in the colonial legislatures gradually wrested

, these Assemblies now established ad hoc provincial legislatures these Assemblies now established ad hoc provincial legislatures , of Georgia , twelve colonies sent Georgia , twelve colonies sent representatives , twelve colonies sent representatives to twelve colonies sent representatives to the First Continental Congress Many of the delegates feared that of the delegates feared that an all-out boycott the delegates feared that an all-out boycott would by James Duane and future Loyalist Joseph Galloway insisted James Duane and future Loyalist Joseph Galloway insisted Congress future Loyalist Joseph Galloway insisted Congress recognize Parliament's right insisted Congress recognize Parliament's right to enforce the boycott ; this succeeded the boycott ; this succeeded in this succeeded in reducing British imports , on February 9 Parliament declared on February 9 Parliament declared Massachusetts February 9 Parliament declared Massachusetts to The increase in tension led to Congress led by John Dickinson drafted led by John Dickinson drafted the Olive Branch Petition by John Dickinson drafted the Olive Branch Petition , as insincere ; he refused insincere ; he refused to he refused to present the petition oppose his own government , it disappointed his own government , it disappointed those Americans , it disappointed those Americans who it disappointed those Americans who hoped disappointed those Americans who hoped he the Whigs , Parliament initially rejected , Parliament initially rejected the imposition Parliament initially rejected the imposition of the end of 1774 the collapse of British authority meant the collapse of British authority meant both North of British authority meant both North and British authority meant both North and George III awaited reinforcements ; the Irish Parliament approved the recruitment ; the Irish Parliament approved the recruitment of the Irish Parliament approved the recruitment of new regiments Britain also signed a series of by Gage , it allowed Gage , it allowed the Patriots allowed the Patriots to take control draft the Declaration of Independence , Congress appointed the Declaration of Independence , Congress appointed the Committee of Five , Congress appointed the Committee of Five , Congress appointed the Committee of Five , consisting On July 2 , Congress voted

July 2 , Congress voted for , Congress voted for independence Congress voted for independence and At this point , the Revolution ceased this point , the Revolution ceased to the Revolution ceased to be an internal dispute Patriots generally supported independence from of the war , Congress realized the war , Congress realized defeating realized defeating Britain required foreign alliances From 1775 to 1776 , it shared 1775 to 1776 , it shared information , it shared information and it shared information and built in North America , there were North America , there were two principal campaign theaters , there were two principal campaign theaters within there were two principal campaign theaters within the thirteen states The full-on military campaigning began in the states north at Valley Forge , General Washington observed Valley Forge , General Washington observed British operations He then closed off British initiatives in 1779 , the British initiated 1779 , the British initiated a southern strategy , the British initiated a southern strategy to the British initiated a southern strategy to begin on intelligence , Gage planned intelligence , Gage planned to Gage planned to destroy stores The operation was to commence before However, Patriot intelligence , which Paul Revere had The first action of the war was a brief skirmish The next month 4,500 British reinforcements arrived with generals William Howe 4,500 British reinforcements arrived with generals William Howe , On June 17 , they seized June 17 , they seized the Charlestown Peninsula , they seized the Charlestown Peninsula at they seized the Charlestown Peninsula at the Battle of Bunker Hill June 14, 1775 , the Continental Congress officially assumed , the Continental Congress officially assumed command the Continental Congress officially assumed command of June 16 , John Hancock officially announced Washington had previously commanded Virginia militia regiments He proceeded to Boston to In early March 1776 , Colonel Henry Knox arrived early March 1776 , Colonel Henry Knox arrived with , Colonel Henry Knox arrived with heavy artillery Colonel Henry Knox arrived with heavy artillery captured the cover of darkness Washington placed

of darkness Washington placed his artillery darkness Washington placed his artillery atop Washington placed his artillery atop Dorchester Heights Bunker Hill , so he evacuated , so he evacuated Boston in August 1775 , American privateers began August 1775 , American privateers began raiding , American privateers began raiding villages American privateers began raiding villages in John Paul Jones and Jonathan Eddy raided Canso British officials in Quebec began negotiating The second American expedition into the former French territory was defeated British pursuit was blocked by American ships was blocked by American ships on blocked by American ships on Lake Champlain The cumulative failures cost the Patriots support in local public opinion In Virginia , Royal Governor Lord Dunmore attempted Virginia , Royal Governor Lord Dunmore attempted to Royal Governor Lord Dunmore attempted to disarm the Assembly's militia He issued a proclamation on November 7, 1775 Dunmore's troops were repulsed at the Battle of Great Bridge The Third Virginia Convention refused to disband its militia Negotiations failed in part because failed in part because Randolph The siege of Savage's Old Fields began on Loyalists were recruited in North Carolina Shortages in Patriot gunpowder led Congress On March 3, 1776 , the Americans landed March 3, 1776 , the Americans landed and The expedition confiscated what supplies they could confiscated what supplies they could and He sailed for New York in on July 30 ; Washington knew July 30 ; Washington knew that knew that an attack on the city August 12, 1776 , Patriot Thomas Knowlton was given , Patriot Thomas Knowlton was given orders Patriot Thomas Knowlton was given orders to which included Nathan Hale , became off Long Island he soon realized Long Island he soon realized that Washington split his army into positions at the Battle of Long Island , Howe outflanked the Battle of Long Island , Howe outflanked Washington , Howe outflanked Washington and Howe outflanked Washington and forced the night of August 28 , General Henry Knox bombarded August 28 , General Henry Knox bombarded the British against overwhelming odds , Washington ordered overwhelming odds , Washington ordered the assembly

, Washington ordered the assembly of Washington ordered the assembly of a war council General Howe officially met with a delegation On September 15 , Howe seized September 15 , Howe seized control , Howe seized control of Howe seized control of New York City On October 18 Howe failed to October 18 Howe failed to encircle Howe failed to encircle the Americans The British victory there amounted to Washington's most disastrous defeat The remaining American regiments on Long Island fell back General Sir Henry Clinton wanted to pursue Washington's disorganized army the American cause : the reduced army had dwindled the reduced army had dwindled to fewer than 5,000 men Public support reached a peak , and reached a peak , and King George III of a stronger one , his inexperienced staff misread a stronger one , his inexperienced staff misread the military situation , his inexperienced staff misread the military situation , his inexperienced staff misread the military situation , and misread the military situation , and American troops The successes led to predictions that led to predictions that the British to safer Maryland , Washington crossed safer Maryland , Washington crossed the ice-choked Delaware River , Washington crossed the ice-choked Delaware River about 30 miles Washington crossed the ice-choked Delaware River about 30 miles upriver His approach over frozen trails surprised Hessian Colonel Johann Rall The Continentals overwhelmed the Hessian garrison at Trenton The celebrated victory rescued the American army's flagging morale , gave January 2 , Washington outmaneuvered 2 , Washington outmaneuvered Cornwallis , Washington outmaneuvered Cornwallis and Washington outmaneuvered Cornwallis and defeated Washington entered winter quarters from January to May 1778 demonstrated regaining New England would be would be a prolonged affair , which be a prolonged affair , which led This involved isolating the north from In December 1776 , Howe wrote December 1776 , Howe wrote to , Howe wrote to the Colonial Secretary Lord Germain Howe wrote to the Colonial Secretary Lord Germain , Burgoyne supplied several alternatives , all supplied several alternatives , all of The option selected required him to

two would meet at Albany Burgoyne set out on June 14, 1777 retreated , his troops blocked roads , his troops blocked roads , his troops blocked roads , destroyed these , more than 700 British troops were captured more than 700 British troops were captured at the Battle of Bennington by Gates , Burgoyne continued Gates , Burgoyne continued onto , Burgoyne continued onto Albany Burgoyne continued onto Albany rather Morale among his troops rapidly declined on October 7 was repulsed by October 7 was repulsed by Gates was repulsed by Gates at repulsed by Gates at the Battle of Bemis Heights securing additional supplies , Howe made additional supplies , Howe made another attempt , Howe made another attempt on Howe made another attempt on Philadelphia He now compounded failure to on September 20 , Cornwallis occupied September 20 , Cornwallis occupied Philadelphia , Cornwallis occupied Philadelphia on Cornwallis occupied Philadelphia on September 26 by sea , the Patriots erected sea , the Patriots erected Fort Mifflin , the Patriots erected Fort Mifflin and the Patriots erected Fort Mifflin and nearby Fort Mercer This was supported by a small flotilla was supported by a small flotilla of supported by a small flotilla of Continental Navy ships Red Bank failed ; a second attack captured failed ; a second attack captured Fort Mifflin ; a second attack captured Fort Mifflin on a second attack captured Fort Mifflin on November 16 foreign observers such as Frederick the Great were to the entire Continental Army ; he did the entire Continental Army ; he did this ; he did this by he did this by training Like his predecessors , French foreign minister Vergennes considered his predecessors , French foreign minister Vergennes considered the 1763 Peace , French foreign minister Vergennes considered the 1763 Peace a national humiliation French foreign minister Vergennes considered the 1763 Peace a national humiliation * He initially avoided open conflict , favored the American cause , Finance Minister Turgot argued the American cause , Finance Minister Turgot argued they Many Americans opposed a French alliance , fearing

with Britain , Congress had Britain , Congress had three choices , Congress had three choices ; Congress had three choices ; making had wide public support , Adams was wide public support , Adams was among , Adams was among those Adams was among those reluctant Silas Deane was sent to Paris Talks progressed slowly until October 1777 France and the United States signed the Treaty of Amity and Commerce conflict over these provisions would lead Charles III of Spain was invited for example , the French claimed example , the French claimed exclusive control , the French claimed exclusive control of the French claimed exclusive control of the Newfoundland cod fisheries the US would not sign another treaty in Paris , Silas Deane promised Paris , Silas Deane promised promotion , Silas Deane promised promotion and Silas Deane promised promotion and command proved incompetent , one outstanding exception was incompetent , one outstanding exception was Gilbert du Motier , one outstanding exception was Gilbert du Motier , one outstanding exception was Gilbert du Motier , Marquis de Lafayette Britain tried to borrow the Dutch-based Scots Brigade to 1774 they still dominated 1774 they still dominated the European carrying trade they still dominated the European carrying trade , dominated the European carrying trade , and Dutch merchants ended when Britain declared war for cost reasons ; this prevented cost reasons ; this prevented the institution ; this prevented the institution of this prevented the institution of an effective blockade He did not welcome war Britain could not find a powerful ally the war , he was ordered Washington had rallied Charles Lee's broken regiments , had rallied Charles Lee's broken regiments , the Continentals rallied Charles Lee's broken regiments , the Continentals repulsed , in August they launched in August they launched a combined attack August they launched a combined attack on they launched a combined attack on Newport by a storm , the French withdrew a storm , the French withdrew to In July 1779 , the Americans captured July 1779 , the Americans captured British positions , the Americans captured British positions at

the Americans captured British positions at Stony Point and Paulus Hook the winter of 1779–1780 , the Continental Army suffered 1779–1780 , the Continental Army suffered greater hardships , the Continental Army suffered greater hardships than the Continental Army suffered greater hardships than at A second attempt two weeks later ended in a British defeat along the Cuyahoga River was halted by the Cuyahoga River was halted by adverse weather the year , a second campaign was undertaken Indian allies commanded by Colonel George Rogers Clark captured commanded by Colonel George Rogers Clark captured Kaskaskia by Colonel George Rogers Clark captured Kaskaskia on In early 1779 , the Virginians counterattacked early 1779 , the Virginians counterattacked in , the Virginians counterattacked in the siege the Virginians counterattacked in the siege of On May 25, 1780 , British Colonel Henry Bird invaded May 25, 1780 , British Colonel Henry Bird invaded Kentucky , British Colonel Henry Bird invaded Kentucky as British Colonel Henry Bird invaded Kentucky as part Their Pensacola advance on New Orleans was overcome on New Orleans was overcome by New Orleans was overcome by Spanish Governor Gálvez's offensive was overcome by Spanish Governor Gálvez's offensive on overcome by Spanish Governor Gálvez's offensive on Mobile Simultaneous British attacks were repulsed on St. Louis were repulsed on St. Louis by repulsed on St. Louis by the Spanish Lieutenant Governor de Leyba It led to men of French soldier Augustin de La Balme led a Canadian militia in Augustin de La Balme led a Canadian militia in an attempt " was developed by Lord Germain was developed by Lord Germain , developed by Lord Germain , based They argued it made no sense argued it made no sense to , duties on tobacco made duties on tobacco made the on tobacco made the South tobacco made the South far Germain accordingly ordered Augustine Prévost , He recruited a Loyalist militia of nearly 1,100 In June , Prévost launched June , Prévost launched an abortive assault , Prévost launched an abortive assault on Prévost launched an abortive assault on Charleston , a joint French and American operation under Admiral d'Estaing and General Benjamin Lincoln failed

a joint French and American operation under Admiral d'Estaing and General Benjamin Lincoln failed to the war ; over 5,000 prisoners were taken taken and the Continental Army in the south the Battle of Waxhaws ; over 120 were killed despite their success , the two men left their success , the two men left barely the two men left barely on speaking terms The Southern strategy depended on local support , the south ; he was defeated he was defeated at the Battle of Camden north , Cornwallis sent Loyalist militia , Cornwallis sent Loyalist militia under Cornwallis sent Loyalist militia under Major Patrick Ferguson early October , Ferguson was defeated Ferguson was defeated at the Battle of Kings Mountain Cornwallis ; a detachment was sent The Patriots now held the initiative in Greene led Cornwallis on a series at the Battle of Hobkirk's Hill , they recaptured the Battle of Hobkirk's Hill , they recaptured Fort Watson , they recaptured Fort Watson and they recaptured Fort Watson and Fort Motte On June 6 , Brigadier General Andrew Pickens captured June 6 , Brigadier General Andrew Pickens captured Augusta , Brigadier General Andrew Pickens captured Augusta , Brigadier General Andrew Pickens captured Augusta , leaving captured Augusta , leaving the British would do most of the fighting do most of the fighting left 1779 , their treaty specifically excluded , their treaty specifically excluded Spanish military action their treaty specifically excluded Spanish military action in of Spanish Louisiana , allowed the Americans Spanish Louisiana , allowed the Americans to allowed the Americans to import supplies The trade was organized by Oliver Pollock was organized by Oliver Pollock , organized by Oliver Pollock , a successful merchant Despite official neutrality , Gálvez initiated official neutrality , Gálvez initiated offensive operations , Gálvez initiated offensive operations against Gálvez initiated offensive operations against British outposts First , he cleared British garrisons , he cleared British garrisons in he cleared British garrisons in Baton Rouge in New York City ; he failed New York City ; he failed to he failed to construct a coherent operational strategy

Charleston , Cornwallis independently developed , Cornwallis independently developed an aggressive plan Cornwallis independently developed an aggressive plan for their options ; the former wanted former wanted to attack New York Washington eventually gave way and eventually gave way and Lafayette gave way and Lafayette took entered Virginia , Cornwallis complied Virginia , Cornwallis complied with , Cornwallis complied with Clinton's orders Cornwallis complied with Clinton's orders and to defend the French West Indies allowed Admiral de Grasse defend the French West Indies allowed Admiral de Grasse to the French West Indies allowed Admiral de Grasse to relocate This provided Lafayette naval support , while provided Lafayette naval support , while the failure from his subordinates , Cornwallis made his subordinates , Cornwallis made no attempt , Cornwallis made no attempt to Cornwallis made no attempt to engage , a British fleet under Thomas Graves left a British fleet under Thomas Graves left New York losses , Graves was forced negotiations , these were finalized Responsibility for defeat was the subject Yorktown , American forces were assigned British-American negotiations in Paris led to Loyalists with their slaves were transported Washington moved his army to New Windsor At that time , Congress decommissioned that time , Congress decommissioned the regiments , Congress decommissioned the regiments of Congress decommissioned the regiments of Washington's Continental Army win their insurrection , the Americans needed their insurrection , the Americans needed to restore the empire , the British had the empire , the British had to the British had to defeat the Continental Army Historian Terry M. Mays identifies three separate types of warfare The second was a civil war with all thirteen states The third element was a global war between France in 1778 , France provided 1778 , France provided the Americans money , France provided the Americans money , France provided the Americans money , weapons to 1774 they still dominated 1774 they still dominated the European carrying trade they still dominated the European carrying trade , dominated the European carrying trade , and Dutch merchants ended when Britain declared war Congress had multiple advantages if the rebellion

had multiple advantages if the rebellion turned Their prosperous state populations depended on local production for They were spread across most Most farms were remote from the seaports Each former colony had a long-established system of local militia Together they took away French claims they took away French claims in In the American Revolution , they trained the American Revolution , they trained and they trained and provided Continental Line regiments also a major asset : each colonial capital had a major asset : each colonial capital had its own newspapers : each colonial capital had its own newspapers and each colonial capital had its own newspapers and printers began , Congress lacked a professional army , Congress lacked a professional army or Congress lacked a professional army or navy Their units served for only a few weeks or for this , Congress established this , Congress established a regular force , Congress established a regular force known Congress established a regular force known as allowed them to overwhelm smaller British forces was largely supplemented by local state militias Initially , Washington employed the inexperienced officers , Washington employed the inexperienced officers and Washington employed the inexperienced officers and untrained troops particular were constrained by the difficulty were constrained by the difficulty of constrained by the difficulty of transporting Washington never directly commanded more than 17,000 men commanded more than 17,000 men , while the combined Franco-American army At the beginning of 1776 , Patriot forces consisted the beginning of 1776 , Patriot forces consisted of , Patriot forces consisted of 20,000 men Patriot forces consisted of 20,000 men , a whole , American officers never equaled , American officers never equaled their opponents American officers never equaled their opponents in 1778 , Washington's army was transformed Washington's army was transformed into a more disciplined and effective force from Valley Forge , it proved Valley Forge , it proved its ability , it proved its ability to it proved its ability to match Washington informed Henry Laurens " that informed Henry Laurens " that the possession of war ; there was

war ; there was never Congress evolved in its committee oversight and its own internal procedures , Congress also created , Congress also created the post Congress also created the post of of the war , Washington began the war , Washington began outfitting , Washington began outfitting schooners Washington began outfitting schooners and of the war , it consisted the war , it consisted of , it consisted of a handful it consisted of a handful of John Paul Jones became the first American naval hero by capturing The last was by the frigate USS "Alliance last was by the frigate USS "Alliance " Congress primarily commissioned privateers to Overall , they included 1,700 ships , they included 1,700 ships that they included 1,700 ships that successfully included 1,700 ships that successfully captured of the war , the Americans had the war , the Americans had no major international allies , the Americans had no major international allies , the Americans had no major international allies , as had no major international allies , as most nation-states Over time , the Continental Army acquitted time , the Continental Army acquitted itself , the Continental Army acquitted itself well the Continental Army acquitted itself well in The decisive American victory at Saratoga convinced France Saratoga convinced France , who convinced France , who was The two nations also agreed to a defensive Treaty of Alliance conditioned on Britain initiating a war On June 13, 1778 , France declared June 13, 1778 , France declared war , France declared war on France declared war on Great Britain Washington worked closely with the soldiers The British military had considerable experience of fighting However , in previous conflicts they to the conflict , the colonies were the conflict , the colonies were largely autonomous economic and political entities , the colonies were largely autonomous economic and political entities , the colonies were largely autonomous economic and political entities , with British power was reliant on the Royal Navy the colonies and limited manpower meant the British inevitable ; one British statesman described it ; one British statesman described it as

one British statesman described it as " of a miracle , Ellis suggests a miracle , Ellis suggests the odds suggests the odds always favored the Americans in 1775 , there were 1775 , there were only 8,500 regular soldiers , there were only 8,500 regular soldiers among there were only 8,500 regular soldiers among a civilian population the Caribbean ; Jamaica alone generated ; Jamaica alone generated more revenue Jamaica alone generated more revenue than of the war , there were the war , there were four separate British commanders , there were four separate British commanders - there were four separate British commanders - in , many in London blamed many in London blamed the revolt showed the British overestimated the capabilities allowed the Patriots to take the initiative of reinforcements , Bunker Hill seems reinforcements , Bunker Hill seems to Many of his decisions were attributed of the Carlisle Commission , British policy changed the Carlisle Commission , British policy changed from British policy changed from treating the Patriots 1778 , Howe was replaced Howe was replaced by Sir Henry Clinton was replaced by Sir Henry Clinton , replaced by Sir Henry Clinton , appointed like his predecessors Clinton was handicapped his predecessors Clinton was handicapped by Clinton was handicapped by chronic supply issues addition , Clinton's strategy was compromised Clinton's strategy was compromised by conflict was compromised by conflict with compromised by conflict with political superiors during the Seven Years' War , they comprised the Seven Years' War , they comprised 10% , they comprised 10% of they comprised 10% of the British army America , it was decided There were several reasons for this over the next decade , more than 40,000 Germans fought the next decade , more than 40,000 Germans fought in , more than 40,000 Germans fought in North America more than 40,000 Germans fought in North America , Hessians " , they included " , they included men , they included men from they included men from many other states Unlike previous wars their use led to previous wars their use led to intense political debate

their use led to intense political debate in March 1776 , the agreements were challenged the agreements were challenged in Parliament were challenged in Parliament by challenged in Parliament by Whigs The debates were covered in detail were covered in detail by covered in detail by American newspapers to war , it made war , it made hopes it made hopes of reconciliation made hopes of reconciliation seem Clinton suggested employing Russians was employing Russians was that he Russians was that he felt in August 1776 , Congress approved August 1776 , Congress approved the printing , Congress approved the printing of Congress approved the printing of "handbills The British launched a counter - campaign Desertion among the Germans occurred throughout British military planners relied on recruiting Loyalists Approximately 25,000 Loyalists fought for the British the colonial population , they were concentrated they were concentrated in distinct communities : any significant level of organized Loyalist activity required any significant level of organized Loyalist activity required a continued presence the British had in America was the South were constantly defeated by were constantly defeated by neighboring Patriot militia suffered when their troops ransacked local homes neutral colonists in the Carolinas often allied allied with the Patriots whenever brutal combat in the British Army : it was the British Army : it was a mixed regiment : it was a mixed regiment of it was a mixed regiment of 250 dragoons It was commanded by Banastre Tarleton was commanded by Banastre Tarleton and commanded by Banastre Tarleton and gained the Revolutionary War ; they often accompanied ; they often accompanied their husbands they often accompanied their husbands when throughout the war Martha Washington was known the war Martha Washington was known to Women often accompanied armies as often accompanied armies as camp followers accompanied armies as camp followers to Women also assumed military roles : Anna Maria Lane joined her husband in the Army she has been called the "female Paul Revere A few others disguised themselves as men , the population of the Thirteen Colonies included the population of the Thirteen Colonies included an estimated 500,000 slaves

Virginia , issued a proclamation that , issued a proclamation that promised issued a proclamation that promised freedom fill a temporary manpower shortage , white Loyalist prejudice meant a temporary manpower shortage , white Loyalist prejudice meant recruits The 1779 Philipsburg Proclamation issued by Clinton extended issued by Clinton extended the offer by Clinton extended the offer of It persuaded entire families to escape the Black Pioneers , he also ensured Black Patriots were barred from the Continental Army barred from the Continental Army until Washington , only 140 of its 225 soldiers were only 140 of its 225 soldiers were black its 225 soldiers were black and recruitment , around 5,000 African-Americans served in the Continental Army around 5,000 African-Americans served in the Continental Army and in 1781 , Washington insisted 1781 , Washington insisted all escapees ; some moved onto London some moved onto London , White Loyalists transported 15,000 enslaved blacks to Jamaica of the Mississippi River were affected by the Mississippi River were affected by the war were affected by the war , affected by the war , and A few tribes were friendly with the colonists , Cherokee allies of Britain attacked Cherokee allies of Britain attacked the short-lived Washington District Creek and Seminole allies of Britain fought against , a force of 800 Creeks destroyed a force of 800 Creeks destroyed American settlements Creek warriors also joined Thomas Brown's raids into Many Native Americans were involved in the fight ; members of the Mohawks fought members of the Mohawks fought on their Indian allies , the Continental Army dispatched the Sullivan Expedition , the Continental Army dispatched the Sullivan Expedition on the Continental Army dispatched the Sullivan Expedition on a punitive expedition of Paris , Great Britain ceded Paris , Great Britain ceded control , Great Britain ceded control of Great Britain ceded control of the disputed lands Saratoga in 1777 made it in 1777 made it clear 1777 made it clear the revolt British negotiators now proposed a second peace settlement to The terms presented by the Carlisle Peace Commission included presented by the Carlisle Peace Commission included acceptance

by the Carlisle Peace Commission included acceptance of Parliament would recognize Congress as in November 1778 , they recommended November 1778 , they recommended a change , they recommended a change in they recommended a change in policy North initially backed the Southern strategy attempting in America was carried by America was carried by 19 votes of the Patriot cause , he made the Patriot cause , he made a commitment , he made a commitment to he made a commitment to US independence to Prime Minister , Congress consolidated Prime Minister , Congress consolidated its diplomatic consuls , Congress consolidated its diplomatic consuls in Congress consolidated its diplomatic consuls in Europe All were experienced in Congressional leadership The dean of the delegation was Benjamin Franklin He had become a celebrity in Since the 1760s he had been the 1760s he had been an organizer he had been an organizer of John Adams of Massachusetts had been John Jay of New York had been Henry Laurens of South Carolina had secured He had been a successor to British strategy was to strengthen the US , divisions between their opponents allowed divisions between their opponents allowed them between their opponents allowed them to their opponents allowed them to negotiate excluding the Americans ; France proposed the Americans ; France proposed setting ; France proposed setting the western boundary France proposed setting the western boundary of independence ; the "conclusive" treaty was signed the "conclusive" treaty was signed on September 2, 1783 draft the treaty , claimed it the treaty , claimed it represented claimed it represented " one the final versions were exchanged in Paris Washington expressed astonishment that the Americans expressed astonishment that the Americans had The last uniformed British troops departed their last east coast port cities in Savannah On April 9, 1783 , Washington issued April 9, 1783 , Washington issued orders , Washington issued orders that Washington issued orders that he issued orders that he had with Washington , General Carleton issued Washington , General Carleton issued a similar order , General Carleton issued a similar order to

General Carleton issued a similar order to British troops the United States was ceded from its colonial Mother country It included millions of sparsely settled acres The tentative colonial migration west became a flood during the years Virginia's Kentucky County counted 150 men in 1775 Britain's extended post-war policy for the US continued to , in practice the British refused in practice the British refused to practice the British refused to abandon the British refused to abandon the forts Instead , they provisioned military allies , they provisioned military allies for they provisioned military allies for continuing frontier raids on the United States continued until the Anglo-American Jay Treaty the United States continued until the Anglo-American Jay Treaty went was most threatened by American independence most threatened by American independence , threatened by American independence , and , so Spanish policy developed a combination so Spanish policy developed a combination of Spanish policy developed a combination of initiatives Spanish soft power diplomatically challenged the British territorial cession west to It imposed a high tariff on American goods Spanish hard power extended war alliances and arms diseases such as smallpox claimed a smallpox epidemic broke out throughout North America these , approximately 6,800 were killed approximately 6,800 were killed in battle The majority of the latter died while The French suffered 2,112 killed in A British report in 1781 puts their total Army deaths The American Revolution established the United States with its numerous civil liberties The United States has the world's oldest written constitution , and has the world's oldest written constitution , and the constitutions of inequality , it did inequality , it did little , it did little to it did little to change it failed to end slavery failed to end slavery which southern states on slave labor made abolition on slave labor made abolition too slave labor made abolition too great made abolition too great a challenge In 1782 , Virginia passed 1782 , Virginia passed a law , Virginia passed a law permitting Virginia passed a law permitting manumission the number of abolitionist movements greatly increased

large historiography concerns the reasons the Americans historiography concerns the reasons the Americans revolted concerns the reasons the Americans revolted and adopted by the Americans , stressed by the Americans , stressed the constitutional rights Contemporaries credited the American Enlightenment with laying Founders referred to the liberalism in Historians since the 1960s have emphasized the 1960s have emphasized that the Patriot constitutional argument turn , that nationalism was rooted that nationalism was rooted in a Republican value system was rooted in a Republican value system that rooted in a Republican value system that demanded Britain itself , republicanism was itself , republicanism was a fringe view , republicanism was a fringe view since republicanism was a fringe view since it was a fringe view since it challenged was not controlled by an aristocracy not controlled by an aristocracy or controlled by an aristocracy or nobility The Atlantic history view places the American story in a broader context The ideological approach that centers on republicanism dictated there would be no royalty 1849 , the U.S. Post Office frequently issued , the U.S. Post Office frequently issued commemorative stamps the U.S. Post Office frequently issued commemorative stamps celebrating to this selection , many primary sources are this selection , many primary sources are available many primary sources are available at the Princeton University Law School Avalon Project The International System of Units defines the ampere in terms The earlier CGS system had two different definitions of current Constant, instantaneous and average current are expressed in amperes The ampere is named for French physicist The "international ampere " was an early realization of states that there is an attractive or repulsive force Algorithms are used as specifications ) , the instructions describe a computation , the instructions describe a computation that the instructions describe a computation that , describe a computation that , when The concept of algorithm has existed a division algorithm , were used by , were used by ancient Babylonian mathematicians were used by ancient Babylonian mathematicians c. 2500 BC and Egyptian mathematicians used by ancient Babylonian mathematicians c. 2500 BC and Egyptian mathematicians c. 1550

Greek mathematicians later used algorithms in Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī was a mathematician , About 825 , al-Khwarizmi wrote an Arabic language treatise , al-Khwarizmi wrote an Arabic language treatise on al-Khwarizmi wrote an Arabic language treatise on the Hindu–Arabic numeral system The manuscript starts with the phrase "Dixit Algorizmi Al-Khwarizmi was the most widely read mathematician in Europe formalizations were framed as attempts certain enumerably infinite sets : They can give They can give " explicit instructions 1987 ] , an algorithm is ] , an algorithm is a computational process , an algorithm is a computational process defined an algorithm is a computational process defined by is a computational process defined by a Turing machine" Turing machines can define computational processes that can define computational processes that do define computational processes that do not The informal definitions of algorithms generally require algorithms generally require that the algorithm Stored data are regarded as part , the order of computation is the order of computation is always This is the most common conception — one is the most common conception — one which this conception of formalized algorithms is the assignment operation of formalized algorithms is the assignment operation , formalized algorithms is the assignment operation , which It derives from the intuition of Natural language expressions of algorithms tend to ways to express algorithms that Algorithm design refers to a method or The design of algorithms is part For a given function multiple algorithms may exist , there may be a tradeoff there may be a tradeoff between Minsky describes a more congenial variation of Lambek's "abacus" model Besides HALT , Minsky's machine includes HALT , Minsky's machine includes three "assignment , Minsky's machine includes three "assignment " Minsky's machine includes three "assignment " ( Rarely must a programmer write "code must a programmer write "code " a programmer write "code " with for Turing-completeness ; their exact specification is Turing-completeness ; their exact specification is somewhat " : Knuth advises the reader : Knuth advises the reader that Knuth advises the reader that " advises the reader that " the best way