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the Moon's surface , Armstrong collected a contingency soil sample , Armstrong collected a contingency soil sample using Armstrong collected a contingency soil sample using a sample bag He then folded the bag and collected , he removed the TV camera , he removed the TV camera from he removed the TV camera from the MESA photography was accomplished with a Hasselblad camera was accomplished with a Hasselblad camera that accomplished with a Hasselblad camera that could Aldrin joined Armstrong on the surface He described the view with the simple phrase Armstrong said moving in the lunar gravity It 's absolutely no trouble to walk Aldrin joined him on the surface The PLSS backpack created a tendency to tip Loping became the preferred method of movement remarked that moving from sunlight The MESA failed to provide a stable work platform The astronauts planted the Lunar Flag Assembly containing a flag But the astronauts struggled with the telescoping rod the astronauts struggled with the telescoping rod and But he gave " a crisp West Point salute he gave " a crisp West Point salute " with the flag , President Richard Nixon spoke the flag , President Richard Nixon spoke to , President Richard Nixon spoke to them President Richard Nixon spoke to them through They deployed the EASEP , which deployed the EASEP , which included Then Armstrong walked from the LM Armstrong walked from the LM to He used the geologist's hammer to pound The astronauts then collected rock samples using Aldrin shoveled of soil into Two types of rocks were found Three new minerals were discovered in the rock samples discovered in the rock samples collected by Armalcolite was named after Armstrong Mission Control used a coded phrase to warn throughout the walk , Mission Control granted the walk , Mission Control granted the astronauts , Mission Control granted the astronauts a 15-minute extension Aldrin entered "Eagle " first With some difficulty the astronauts lifted film some difficulty the astronauts lifted film and the astronauts lifted film and two sample boxes This proved to be an inefficient tool Armstrong reminded Aldrin of a bag

Armstrong then jumped onto the ladder's third rung to LM life support , the explorers lightened LM life support , the explorers lightened the ascent stage , the explorers lightened the ascent stage for the explorers lightened the ascent stage for the return The remarks were in a memo from the cabin , Aldrin accidentally damaged , Aldrin accidentally damaged the circuit breaker Aldrin accidentally damaged the circuit breaker that accidentally damaged the circuit breaker that would damaged the circuit breaker that would arm There was a concern this would was a concern this would prevent two memorial medals of Soviet cosmonauts Vladimir Komarov rest , the crew was awakened the crew was awakened by Houston was awakened by Houston to awakened by Houston to prepare 17:54:00 UTC , they lifted UTC , they lifted off they lifted off in "Eagle" ascent stage Film taken from the LM ascent stage upon " The ascent stage of the LM separated The ascent stage of the LM separated   I was concentrating on the computers the Moon , Collins never felt any human known such solitude " , Collins felt Collins felt very much a part In his autobiography he wrote : his autobiography he wrote : " One of Collins' first tasks was to over the suspected lunar landing site , he tried the suspected lunar landing site , he tried in , he tried in vain he tried in vain to on the third orbit , Mission Control informed the third orbit , Mission Control informed Collins , Mission Control informed Collins there Mission Control informed Collins there was informed Collins there was a problem Mission Control advised him to assume Instead , Collins flicked the switch , Collins flicked the switch on Collins flicked the switch on the system the Moon again , he was of orbits , he described orbits , he described his time , he described his time on he described his time on the back side completed their EVA , Collins slept their EVA , Collins slept so Eagle"s ascent stage was jettisoned into lunar orbit the Apollo 12 flight , it was noted

" Hornet " embarked the Sikorsky SH-3 Sea King helicopters Hornet " embarked the Sikorsky SH-3 Sea King helicopters of the launch pad , "Hornet " departed , "Hornet " departed Pearl Harbor "Hornet " departed Pearl Harbor for board , they would fly they would fly to "Hornet Brandli alerted Navy Captain Willard S. Houston Jr. , the commander A different sequence of computer programs was used computer programs was used , one P64 was followed by P67 P65 led directly to P67 July 24 , "Hornet " launched , "Hornet " launched four Sea King helicopters "Hornet " launched four Sea King helicopters and Two of the E-1s were designated Two of the Sea Kings carried divers This was observed by the helicopters " Columbia " struck the water Columbia " struck the water forcefully The divers then passed biological isolation garments ( considered remote , but NASA worn until they reached isolation facilities 17:53 UTC , the helicopter was lowered the helicopter was lowered by the elevator was lowered by the elevator into lowered by the elevator into the hangar bay This practice would continue for two more Apollo missions Nixon welcomed the astronauts back to He told them : " Hornet " returned to Pearl Harbor The astronauts arrived at the Lunar Receiving Laboratory at codify its quarantine protocol , the astronauts continued its quarantine protocol , the astronauts continued in , the astronauts continued in quarantine , the astronauts were given a clean bill the astronauts were given a clean bill of On August 10, 1969 , the Interagency Committee on Back Contamination met August 10, 1969 , the Interagency Committee on Back Contamination met in , the Interagency Committee on Back Contamination met in Atlanta the Interagency Committee on Back Contamination met in Atlanta and On August 13 , the three astronauts rode August 13 , the three astronauts rode in , the three astronauts rode in ticker-tape parades the three astronauts rode in ticker-tape parades in the same evening in Los Angeles there was in Los Angeles there was an official state dinner Los Angeles there was an official state dinner to

there was an official state dinner to celebrate The three astronauts spoke before a joint session of They presented two US flags , one This celebration began a 38-day world tour that brought began a 38-day world tour that brought the astronauts during the Apollo 11 landing , Kennedy's speech flashed the Apollo 11 landing , Kennedy's speech flashed on , Kennedy's speech flashed on the screen Kennedy's speech flashed on the screen , Twenty percent of the world's population watched humans of the world's population watched humans walk the world's population watched humans walk on watched humans walk on the Moon the follow-on Apollo missions did not hold the interest One possible explanation was the shift in complexity during the late 1960s did the Gallup Poll indicate the late 1960s did the Gallup Poll indicate that indicate that a majority of Americans 59 percent of those polled favored This was also a time when was also a time when inflation What saved the space program was that saved the space program was that it the space program was that it was was that it was one , officials from the Soviet Union said officials from the Soviet Union said landing from the Soviet Union said landing humans the Soviet Union said landing humans on said landing humans on the Moon At the time the Soviet Union was attempting the time the Soviet Union was attempting to publicly denied there was a race denied there was a race to Mstislav Keldysh said in July 1969 , It was revealed in 1989 revealed in 1989 that the Soviets The public's reaction in the Soviet Union was mixed The Soviet government limited the release of information The Apollo 11 landing is referenced in the songs The command module "Columbia " went on a tour 1971 , it was transferred it was transferred to the Smithsonian Institution This included Space Center Houston from October 14, 2017 Continued renovations at the Smithsonian allowed time For 40 years Armstrong's and Aldrin's space suits were displayed 40 years Armstrong's and Aldrin's space suits were displayed in Armstrong's and Aldrin's space suits were displayed in the museum's "Apollo

A special display of Armstrong's suit was unveiled The descent stage of the LM "Eagle " remains the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO ) imaged the various Apollo landing sites specialists financed by Amazon founder Jeff Bezos located financed by Amazon founder Jeff Bezos located the F-1 engines by Amazon founder Jeff Bezos located the F-1 engines from located the F-1 engines from the S-IC stage that They were found on the Atlantic seabed His team brought parts of two In July 2013 , a conservator discovered July 2013 , a conservator discovered a serial number , a conservator discovered a serial number under a conservator discovered a serial number under the rust The main repository for the Apollo Moon rocks is the Lunar Sample Laboratory Facility For safekeeping , there is safekeeping , there is also , there is also a smaller collection there is also a smaller collection stored Most of the rocks are stored In November 1969 , Nixon asked November 1969 , Nixon asked NASA , Nixon asked NASA to Nixon asked NASA to make Each display included Moon dust from Apollo The rice-sized particles were four small pieces of Moon soil This acrylic button magnified the grains of lunar dust in 2012 , his widow contacted 2012 , his widow contacted the National Air and Space Museum , his widow contacted the National Air and Space Museum to his widow contacted the National Air and Space Museum to inform The bag contained various items , which contained various items , which should On July 15, 2009 , Life.com released July 15, 2009 , Life.com released a photo gallery , Life.com released a photo gallery of Life.com released a photo gallery of previously unpublished photos From July 16 to 24, 2009 , NASA streamed July 16 to 24, 2009 , NASA streamed the original mission audio , NASA streamed the original mission audio on NASA streamed the original mission audio on its website It is in the process of , an act of Congress awarded an act of Congress awarded the three astronauts On June 10, 2015 , Congressman Bill Posey introduced

June 10, 2015 , Congressman Bill Posey introduced resolution , Congressman Bill Posey introduced resolution H.R. Congressman Bill Posey introduced resolution H.R. 2726 The Smithsonian Institute's National Air and Space Museum and NASA sponsored the "Apollo 50 Festival a projection of the tall Saturn V rocket was displayed The program also included a 17-minute show that The projection was joined by a wide recreation was joined by a wide recreation of joined by a wide recreation of the Kennedy Space Center countdown clock Apollo 8 launched on December 21, 1968 early 1969 , the mission profile was changed the mission profile was changed in August 1968 Apollo 8 took 68 hours ( The crew orbited the Moon ten times At the time , the broadcast was the time , the broadcast was the most watched TV program , the broadcast was the most watched TV program ever Apollo8's successful mission paved the way for Apollo11 paved the way for Apollo11 to The Apollo8 astronauts returned to Earth on the United States was engaged in the Cold War On October 4, 1957 , the Soviet Union launched October 4, 1957 , the Soviet Union launched Sputnik 1 , the Soviet Union launched Sputnik 1 , the Soviet Union launched Sputnik 1 , the first artificial satellite This unexpected success stoked fears and imaginations over intercontinental distances , it challenged intercontinental distances , it challenged American claims , it challenged American claims of it challenged American claims of military, economic, and technological superiority The Soviet Union had heavier-lifting carrier rockets , which had heavier-lifting carrier rockets , which meant advisors , he chose such a project , he chose such a project : he chose such a project : to An early and crucial decision was the adoption of lunar orbit rendezvous The Apollo spacecraft therefore had three primary components : Collins was replaced by Jim Lovell was replaced by Jim Lovell in replaced by Jim Lovell in July 1968 This crew was unique among pre-Space Shuttle era missions This would also be the first case the prime crew , Aldrin was moved

Aldrin was moved to CMP Armstrong would later command Apollo11 Gemini , each mission had a prime , each mission had a prime and each mission had a prime and a backup crew a third crew of astronauts was added The support crew maintained the flight plan , checklists The support crew developed procedures in the simulators The mission control teams rotated in three shifts , The triangular shape of the insignia refers to shows a red figure8 looping around the Earth the bottom of the8 are the names of the8 are the names of the8 are the names of the three astronauts The crew wanted to name their spacecraft On September 20, 1967 , NASA adopted September 20, 1967 , NASA adopted a seven-step plan , NASA adopted a seven-step plan for NASA adopted a seven-step plan for Apollo missions Apollo4 and Apollo6 were "A" missions Apollo5 was a "B" mission , a test Further missions depended on the readiness of decided as early as May 1967 that there Apollo8 was planned as the "D" mission Production of the LM fell behind Following the original seven-step plan would have meant allow NASA to test lunar landing procedures On August 9, 1968 , Low discussed August 9, 1968 , Low discussed the idea , Low discussed the idea with Low discussed the idea with Gilruth They then flew to the Marshall Space Flight Center Almost every senior manager at NASA agreed with The only person who needed some convincing was who needed some convincing was James E. Webb needed some convincing was James E. Webb , some convincing was James E. Webb , the NASA administrator of his agency , Webb authorized his agency , Webb authorized the mission Apollo 8 , Slayton asked 8 , Slayton asked McDivitt , Slayton asked McDivitt if Slayton asked McDivitt if he asked McDivitt if he still ; his crew had spent a great deal his crew had spent a great deal of This swap also meant a swap of he had carried was a tenth used by Apollo8 was designated by Apollo8 was designated AS-503

December 20, 1967 , it was thought Apollo6 had suffered several major problems during Teams from the MSFC went to primary concern was the pogo oscillation , which was the pogo oscillation , which would MSFC researchers concluded that the engines researchers concluded that the engines vibrated Of equal importance was the failure of equal importance was the failure of three engines was the failure of three engines during a result , engine three failed engine three failed within one second Further investigation revealed the same problem for the third-stage engine The teams tested their solutions in August 1968 IC was equipped with shock-absorbing devices The Apollo 8 spacecraft was placed on top Testing continued all through December orbit more than one celestial body , Apollo8's profile had more than one celestial body , Apollo8's profile had two different sets , Apollo8's profile had two different sets of Apollo8's profile had two different sets of orbital parameters Apollo lunar missions would begin with a nominal circular Earth parking orbit Apollo8 was launched into an initial orbit The standard lunar orbit for Apollo missions was planned Initial lunar orbit insertion was an ellipse with a perilune The S-IC first stage landed in the Atlantic Ocean at both the crew and Houston flight controllers spent the next 2hours Collins was the first CAPCOM on duty You are Go for TLI The S-IVB engine ignited on time and After the S-IVB had placed the mission the S-IVB had placed the mission on The crew then rotated the spacecraft to from it — this marked it — this marked the first time — this marked the first time humans this marked the first time humans had marked the first time humans had viewed Mission Control first suggested pointing the spacecraft after launch , Mission Control sent launch , Mission Control sent a command , Mission Control sent a command to Mission Control sent a command to the S-IVB The Apollo 8 crew were the first humans to pass predicted that passing through the belts record the actual radiation dosages , each crew member wore the actual radiation dosages , each crew member wore a Personal Radiation Dosimeter

, each crew member wore a Personal Radiation Dosimeter that each crew member wore a Personal Radiation Dosimeter that transmitted wore a Personal Radiation Dosimeter that transmitted data Lovell's main job as Command Module Pilot was as performed all the actual navigation calculations , it was all the actual navigation calculations , it was necessary Lovell navigated by star sightings using into the mission , the crew was the mission , the crew was about 1hour and 40 minutes , the crew was about 1hour and 40 minutes behind the crew was about 1hour and 40 minutes behind flight plan The crew placed the spacecraft into Passive Thermal Control get a perfect roll , the spacecraft swept a perfect roll , the spacecraft swept out , the spacecraft swept out a cone the spacecraft swept out a cone as swept out a cone as it The first mid-course correction came eleven hours into the flight launch , NASA had decided Borman started the first sleep shift but found Testing on the ground had shown the ground had shown that the service propulsion system This first correction burn was only 2.4 seconds and added The crew had to use the small RCS thrusters starting his sleep shift , Borman obtained his sleep shift , Borman obtained permission , Borman obtained permission from Borman obtained permission from ground control of diarrhea ; this left diarrhea ; this left the spacecraft ; this left the spacecraft full this left the spacecraft full of The crew decided to use the Data Storage Equipment using an unoccupied second-floor control room ( there were an unoccupied second-floor control room ( there were two identical control rooms ( there were two identical control rooms in there were two identical control rooms in Houston The cruise phase was a relatively uneventful part of the flight During this time , NASA scheduled this time , NASA scheduled a television broadcast , NASA scheduled a television broadcast at NASA scheduled a television broadcast at 31 hours The Apollo8 crew used a camera that broadcast used a camera that broadcast in During this first broadcast , the crew gave

this first broadcast , the crew gave a tour , the crew gave a tour of the crew gave a tour of the spacecraft proper filters , the Earth image became saturated the Earth image became saturated by any bright source the end , all the crew could show the crew had completely abandoned the planned sleep shifts Lovell went to sleep 32-and-a-half hours Anders also went to sleep Apollo 8 made a second television broadcast at , the crew rigged up filters the crew rigged up filters meant maneuver the entire spacecraft , the crew was the entire spacecraft , the crew was able describing the Earth , what was the Earth , what was visible , the crew of Apollo8 became the crew of Apollo8 became the first humans , Apollo8 was from the Moon Apollo8 was from the Moon and This historic moment was of little interest to It was in retrograde ( from the Moon , the crew burned the Moon , the crew burned the RCS , the crew burned the RCS for the crew burned the RCS for 11 seconds into the flight , the crew began the flight , the crew began to a "no go" decision , the crew was told the crew was told at 68 hours told at 68 hours that they before LOI-1 , the crew began LOI-1 , the crew began one last check , the crew began one last check of the crew began one last check of the spacecraft systems that time , they finally got , they finally got their first glimpses they finally got their first glimpses of The SPS was ignited at 69 hours The crew described the burn as being they could have struck the Moon On Earth , Mission Control continued Earth , Mission Control continued to Lovell continued to describe the terrain continued to describe the terrain they One of the crew's major tasks was reconnaissance Bill Anders spent much of the next 20 hours with Earth , Borman kept Earth , Borman kept asking of the Moon , the crew set

the Moon , the crew set up , the crew set up equipment the crew set up equipment to Anders described the craters that they described the craters that they were Throughout the next two orbits , the crew continued the next two orbits , the crew continued to the crew continued to check the spacecraft During the third pass , Borman read the third pass , Borman read a small prayer , Borman read a small prayer for Borman read a small prayer for his church across the front , the crew witnessed the front , the crew witnessed an "Earthrise , the crew witnessed an "Earthrise " the crew witnessed an "Earthrise " in NASA's Lunar Orbiter 1 had taken the first picture of about the Earth , Earthrise is the Earth , Earthrise is not Anders continued to take photographs in the cramped and noisy spacecraft , Borman was the cramped and noisy spacecraft , Borman was able He ordered Anders and Lovell Anders finally agreed under the condition agreed under the condition that Borman remembered that there was a second television broadcast for the ninth time , the astronauts began the ninth time , the astronauts began the second television transmission Borman introduced the crew , followed introduced the crew , followed by Borman described it as being said that the crew had a message Each man on board read a section Borman finished the broadcast by wishing The TEI was the most critical burn of the flight with the previous burn , the crew had the previous burn , the crew had to the crew had to perform the maneuver The burn occurred exactly on time Later , Lovell used some otherwise idle time , Lovell used some otherwise idle time to Lovell used some otherwise idle time to do changed the module's attitude , they realized the module's attitude , they realized that It took Lovell ten minutes to The cruise back to Earth was was mostly a time for the crew On Christmas afternoon , the crew made Christmas afternoon , the crew made their fifth television broadcast

time , they gave a tour , they gave a tour of they gave a tour of the spacecraft Another Slayton surprise was a gift of three miniature bottles There were also small presents to into the mission , the sixth and final TV transmission showed the mission , the sixth and final TV transmission showed the mission's best video images , the sixth and final TV transmission showed the mission's best video images of the sixth and final TV transmission showed the mission's best video images of the Earth After two uneventful days , the crew prepared two uneventful days , the crew prepared for , the crew prepared for reentry The computer would control the reentry , control the reentry , and all the crew Separation from the service module prepared the command module of the atmosphere , the crew saw the atmosphere , the crew saw the Moon saw the Moon rising above the Earth's horizon hit the thin outer atmosphere , the crew noticed the thin outer atmosphere , the crew noticed that of the spacecraft , Apollo8 rose the spacecraft , Apollo8 rose briefly Apollo8 rose briefly like a skipping stone the drogue parachute deployed , stabilizing the spacecraft hit the water , the parachutes dragged the water , the parachutes dragged it , the parachutes dragged it over the parachutes dragged it over and by a swell , Borman was a swell , Borman was sick splashdown , the command module was righted the command module was righted into a normal apex-up The first frogman from aircraft carrier arrived 43 minutes Apollo 8 came at the end of 1968 Spring , "Time" magazine chose the crew , "Time" magazine chose the crew of "Time" magazine chose the crew of Apollo8 They had been the first people ever They had survived a mission that had survived a mission that even the crew survived a mission that even the crew themselves the flight was the "Earthrise" picture that the crew was the "Earthrise" picture that the crew took This was the first time that humans was the first time that humans had

There were 1,200 journalists covering the mission The Soviet newspaper "Pravda " featured a quote from estimated that a quarter of the people wanted the courts to ban American astronauts in outer space , it caused outer space , it caused NASA In 1969 , the United States Post Office Department issued 1969 , the United States Post Office Department issued a postage stamp , the United States Post Office Department issued a postage stamp ( the United States Post Office Department issued a postage stamp ( Scott catalogue The stamp featured a detail of the famous photograph January 1970 , the spacecraft was delivered the spacecraft was delivered to Osaka Jim Lovell's Apollo8 space suit is on public display in compiled and released by NASA In addition , Spacecraft Films released addition , Spacecraft Films released , Spacecraft Films released , in 2003 Other documentaries include " Race to the Moon " Parts of the mission are dramatized The choral music piece "Earthrise " by Luke Byrne commemorates made by China have led by China have led to 1961 , 600 astronauts have flown 600 astronauts have flown in space 2002 , astronauts were sponsored for astronautics recognizes only flights that astronautics recognizes only flights that exceed recognizes only flights that exceed the Kármán line these , 24 people have traveled 24 people have traveled beyond low Earth orbit under the U.S. definition , 558 people qualify the U.S. definition , 558 people qualify as Space travelers have spent over 41,790 man-days ( Most NASA Space Task Group members preferred "astronaut " , preferred "astronaut " , which A professional space traveler is called an "astronaut " "astronaut " referred to a spacecraft have been inspired by "aeronaut been inspired by "aeronaut " inspired by "aeronaut " , NASA applies the term astronaut to any crew member NASA also uses the term as The word is an Anglicization of "kosmonavt The first cosmonaut was Soviet Air Force pilot Yuri Gagarin , also the first person He was part of the first six Russians Valentina Tereshkova was the first female cosmonaut and the first and youngest woman

" is used by some English-language news media organizations is used by some English-language news media organizations for used by some English-language news media organizations for professional space travelers The word has featured in the Longman and Oxford English dictionaries This is the term used by is the term used by Xinhua News Agency a crewed spacecraft , several other nations have sent , several other nations have sent people several other nations have sent people into other synonyms for astronaut have entered On July 20, 2021 , the FAA issued July 20, 2021 , the FAA issued an order , the FAA issued an order redefining the FAA issued an order redefining the eligibility criteria The first human in space was Soviet Yuri Gagarin space was Soviet Yuri Gagarin , who was Soviet Yuri Gagarin , who was Alan Shepard became the first American and second person in space The first American to orbit the Earth was The first American woman in space was Sally Ride Cosmonaut Alexei Leonov was the first person to conduct through its Intercosmos program , allowed people its Intercosmos program , allowed people from , allowed people from other "socialist" (i.e. Warsaw Pact allowed people from other "socialist" (i.e. Warsaw Pact and An example is Czechoslovak Vladimír Remek , the first cosmonaut Rakesh Sharma became the first Indian citizen to travel 23 July 1980 , Pham Tuan of Vietnam became , Pham Tuan of Vietnam became the first Asian Pham Tuan of Vietnam became the first Asian in in 1980 , Cuban Arnaldo Tamayo Méndez became 1980 , Cuban Arnaldo Tamayo Méndez became the first person , Cuban Arnaldo Tamayo Méndez became the first person of Cuban Arnaldo Tamayo Méndez became the first person of Hispanic and black African descent In April 1985 , Taylor Wang became April 1985 , Taylor Wang became the first ethnic Chinese person , Taylor Wang became the first ethnic Chinese person in Taylor Wang became the first ethnic Chinese person in space In 1985 , Saudi Arabian Prince Sultan Bin Salman Bin AbdulAziz Al-Saud became 1985 , Saudi Arabian Prince Sultan Bin Salman Bin AbdulAziz Al-Saud became the first Arab Muslim astronaut

, Saudi Arabian Prince Sultan Bin Salman Bin AbdulAziz Al-Saud became the first Arab Muslim astronaut in Saudi Arabian Prince Sultan Bin Salman Bin AbdulAziz Al-Saud became the first Arab Muslim astronaut in space on the Space Shuttle , the U.S. began the Space Shuttle , the U.S. began taking , the U.S. began taking international astronauts , Ulf Merbold of West Germany became Ulf Merbold of West Germany became the first non-US citizen In 1985 , Rodolfo Neri Vela became 1985 , Rodolfo Neri Vela became the first Mexican-born person , Rodolfo Neri Vela became the first Mexican-born person in Rodolfo Neri Vela became the first Mexican-born person in space In 2002 , Mark Shuttleworth became 2002 , Mark Shuttleworth became the first citizen , Mark Shuttleworth became the first citizen of Mark Shuttleworth became the first citizen of an African country The youngest person to reach space is space is Oliver Daemen , who is Oliver Daemen , who was reach orbit ; he rounded orbit ; he rounded the planet ; he rounded the planet 17 he rounded the planet 17 times On the same flight as Daemen was She is the first of The oldest person to reach orbit is , the most spaceflights by an individual astronaut is the most spaceflights by an individual astronaut is seven inducted into the USSR's Air Force , which A month later , Joseph Albert Walker became the first American civilian , Joseph Albert Walker became the first American civilian in Joseph Albert Walker became the first American civilian in space The first non-governmental space traveler was Byron K. Lichtenberg , a researcher In December 1990 , Toyohiro Akiyama became December 1990 , Toyohiro Akiyama became the first paying space traveler , Toyohiro Akiyama became the first paying space traveler and Toyohiro Akiyama became the first paying space traveler and the first journalist The first NASA astronauts were selected for training in the space program , military jet test piloting the space program , military jet test piloting and , NASA astronauts go through twenty months NASA astronauts go through twenty months of

Astronauts are susceptible to a variety 2017 , bacteria were found On 2 November 2017 , scientists reported 2 November 2017 , scientists reported that reported that significant changes in the position It can affect the otolith organs and In October 2018 , NASA-funded researchers found October 2018 , NASA-funded researchers found that found that lengthy journeys into outer space in April 2019 stated that astronauts April 2019 stated that astronauts facing stated that astronauts facing space radiation their intellectual capabilities , it temporarily hinders , it temporarily hinders formation it temporarily hinders formation of aboard the International Space Station showed that long-duration spaceflight the International Space Station showed that long-duration spaceflight causes showed that long-duration spaceflight causes many physiological adaptions on brain structure , this study showed brain structure , this study showed that Space Shuttle astronauts worked with nutritionists to flight , menus were selected Caloric requirements are determined using a basal energy expenditure (BEE) formula On Earth , the average American uses Earth , the average American uses about the average American uses about of water Russia , cosmonauts are awarded , cosmonauts are awarded Pilot-Cosmonaut cosmonauts are awarded Pilot-Cosmonaut of those who complete astronaut candidate training receive who complete astronaut candidate training receive a silver lapel pin in space , they receive space , they receive a gold pin who also have active-duty military status receive the Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex , is maintained by , is maintained by the Astronauts Memorial Foundation is maintained by the Astronauts Memorial Foundation and maintained by the Astronauts Memorial Foundation and commemorates Swift goes to great lengths to He uses methods of argument argued that Swift's main target in "A Modest Proposal Swift was especially attacking projects was especially attacking projects that especially attacking projects that tried attacking projects that tried to "A Modest Proposal " also targets the calculating way " also targets the calculating way people also targets the calculating way people perceived targets the calculating way people perceived the The pamphlet targets reformers who " targets reformers who " regard Critics differ about Swift's intentions in

argues that statistically "the logic of the 'Modest proposal argues that Swift's rhetorical style persuades the reader and his narrator's cool approach towards them create his narrator's cool approach towards them create " Swift uses the proposer's serious tone to highlight making his argument , the speaker uses his argument , the speaker uses the conventional, textbook-approved order , the speaker uses the conventional, textbook-approved order of the speaker uses the conventional, textbook-approved order of argument believes that Swift saw major similarities Johnson notes Swift's obvious affinity for Tertullian In structure , Johnson points structure , Johnson points out , Johnson points out the same central theme Johnson points out the same central theme , Swift and Tertullian share the same command with Johnson , Donald C. Baker points Johnson , Donald C. Baker points out , Donald C. Baker points out the similarity Donald C. Baker points out the similarity between which I suppose , have I suppose , have the Principle Aggravation The Reader in A Modest Proposal " focuses stresses that a reader of the pamphlet the 18th century , it was believed " in the mercantilist view no child was in the mercantilist view no child was too the mercantilist view no child was too young Louis A. Landa composed a conducive analysis when he composed a conducive analysis when he noted Landa presents Swift's "A Modest Proposal " as Swift presents the dire state of Ireland the wealth of a country is based 12 February 1729–30:"I did immediately propose it nine , she does begin another woman , he might dispose children ; for I happened I happened to peep the other day For my own part , I had my own part , I had not , I had not the least inclination I had not the least inclination to It also serves as an introduction , the evangelical author Francis Schaeffer emulated Swift's work the evangelical author Francis Schaeffer emulated Swift's work in " A Modest Video Game Proposal " is the title A Modest Video Game Proposal " is the title of Hunter S. Thompson's ' includes a letter in

includes a letter in which he Thompson writes a letter to a local Aspen newspaper Henkel imagined the descendants of folks imagined the descendants of folks who On 3 October 2019 , a satirist spoke 3 October 2019 , a satirist spoke up a satirist spoke up at an event The individual also wore a T-shirt saying Together with hydrogen they constitute with hydrogen they constitute group hydrogen they constitute group 1 they constitute group 1 , constitute group 1 , which results in their having very similar characteristic properties Indeed , the alkali metals provide the best example , the alkali metals provide the best example of the alkali metals provide the best example of group trends The alkali metals are all shiny, soft, highly reactive metals at to its extremely high radioactivity ; francium occurs its extremely high radioactivity ; francium occurs only francium occurs only in minute traces of the group ; none was the group ; none was successful sodium is the sodium-vapour lamp , which is the sodium-vapour lamp , which emits Lithium finds use as a psychiatric medication understood for most of its history Georg Ernst Stahl obtained experimental evidence which led obtained experimental evidence which led him Potassium was the first metal that was was the first metal that was isolated was discovered in 1800 by discovered in 1800 by the Brazilian chemist it was not until 1817 was not until 1817 that This new element was noted by him was noted by him to noted by him to form Berzelius gave the unknown material the name " He named the metal inside the material "lithium Rubidium and caesium were the first elements The next year , they discovered caesium , they discovered caesium in they discovered caesium in the mineral water Their discovery of rubidium came the following year of eight ; he likened eight ; he likened such periodicity ; he likened such periodicity to he likened such periodicity to the octaves His version put all the alkali metals then known After 1869 , Dmitri Mendeleev proposed 1869 , Dmitri Mendeleev proposed his periodic table

, Dmitri Mendeleev proposed his periodic table placing Dmitri Mendeleev proposed his periodic table placing lithium Two years later , Mendeleev revised his table , Mendeleev revised his table , Mendeleev revised his table , placing the 18-column table , the group IB elements were moved the group IB elements were moved to their current position the group's name was changed to "group in Paris , France discovered Paris , France discovered francium , France discovered francium in France discovered francium in 1939 However , Perey noticed decay particles , Perey noticed decay particles with Perey noticed decay particles with an energy level Various tests eliminated the possibility of the unknown element The new product exhibited chemical properties of an alkali metal first attempted in 1985 by attempted in 1985 by bombarding the period 8 elements has been discovered holds that elements with even atomic numbers argues that elements with odd atomic numbers even atomic numbers , protons are paired All the alkali metals have odd atomic numbers and they have odd atomic numbers and they are The Earth formed from the same cloud of , the natural history of the Earth caused the natural history of the Earth caused parts of the Earth caused parts of the Earth caused parts of this planet caused parts of this planet to The mass of the Earth is approximately 5.98 kg They are lithophiles and therefore in Earth's crust ; sodium makes Earth's crust ; sodium makes up ; sodium makes up approximately 2.6% sodium makes up approximately 2.6% of Potassium makes up approximately 1.5% of Sodium is found in many different minerals Other solid deposits include halite , amphibole Many of these solid deposits occur as large amounts ; it is estimated estimated that seawater is approximately 0.14 to 0.25 parts Its diagonal relationship with magnesium often allows with magnesium often allows it magnesium often allows it to allows it to replace magnesium It occurs naturally in the minerals leucite uranium , there is estimated explained by their having an ns1 valence electron configuration They all crystallise in the body-centered cubic crystal structure

The ns1 configuration also results in the alkali metals Their chemistry is dominated by the loss is dominated by the loss of dominated by the loss of their lone valence electron the presentation of its properties here is is known about francium shows known about francium shows that about francium shows that it francium shows that it is a very smooth trend is their reduction potentials : lithium's value is their reduction potentials : lithium's value is has a pale golden tint : it is a pale golden tint : it is one : it is one of it is one of only three metals is one of only three metals that Their lustre tarnishes rapidly in air They all crystallise in the body-centered cubic crystal structure They react aggressively with the halogens The alkali metals also react with water into water , caesium produces water , caesium produces a larger explosion , caesium produces a larger explosion than caesium produces a larger explosion than potassium The alkali metals have the lowest first ionisation energies in their respective periods they almost always lose a single electron The alkalide anions have filled s-subshells , have filled s-subshells , which filled s-subshells , which gives All the stable alkali metals except lithium are known In aqueous solution , the alkali metal ions form aqueous solution , the alkali metal ions form aqua ions , the alkali metal ions form aqua ions of the alkali metal ions form aqua ions of the formula is a dative covalent bond , with the oxygen atom may be attached by hydrogen bonds be attached by hydrogen bonds to attached by hydrogen bonds to other water molecules for the alkali metal cations , the second coordination sphere is the alkali metal cations , the second coordination sphere is not solvation numbers less than 4 may be the result though molecular dynamic simulations may indicate the existence molecular dynamic simulations may indicate the existence of There are also probably six water molecules The chemistry of lithium shows several differences Lithium and magnesium have a diagonal relationship Lithium fluoride is the only alkali metal halide that is

is the only alkali metal halide that is poorly to expectation , caesium is expectation , caesium is the most reactive , caesium is the most reactive of caesium is the most reactive of the alkali metals All known physical properties of francium also deviate The CsFr molecule is polarised as Cs+Fr− Odd–odd nuclei have even mass numbers , whereas odd–even nuclei have even mass numbers , whereas odd–even nuclei have a given odd mass number , there can be , there can be only a single beta-stable nuclide there can be only a single beta-stable nuclide , be only a single beta-stable nuclide , since there of nucleons is that odd-numbered elements nucleons is that odd-numbered elements , , all but one have all but one have an odd atomic number one have an odd atomic number and all have an odd atomic number and all but caesium have at least one naturally occurring radioisotope : sodium-22 have at least one naturally occurring radioisotope : sodium-22 and This natural radioactivity became a basis for a mistaken claim It constitutes most of the radioactivity It is a strong emitter of gamma radiation Caesium-137 has a very low rate of neutron capture of 2005 , caesium-137 is 2005 , caesium-137 is the principal source , caesium-137 is the principal source of caesium-137 is the principal source of radiation The atomic radii of the alkali metals increase going down has more than one electron shell , each electron feels more than one electron shell , each electron feels electric repulsion , each electron feels electric repulsion from each electron feels electric repulsion from the other electrons The ionic radii of the alkali metals are much is because the outermost electron of the alkali metals The factors affecting the first ionisation energy are the nuclear charge The first two factors change the effective nuclear charge the most the only factor which affects the first ionisation energy is which affects the first ionisation energy is the distance down the group , the outermost electron feels the group , the outermost electron feels less attraction , the outermost electron feels less attraction from

the outermost electron feels less attraction from the nucleus This trend is broken in francium The reactivities of the alkali metals increase going down This is the result of a combination down the group , it is the group , it is easier Adding the atomisation and first ionisation energies gives Electronegativity is a chemical property that describes is a chemical property that describes the tendency attracted to the chlorine because the effective nuclear charge , some of its compounds have some of its compounds have a more covalent character The melting point of a substance is the point a substance is the point where it is the point where it changes place weaken so that the atoms , the falling melting and boiling points of the alkali metals indicate the falling melting and boiling points of the alkali metals indicate that of the alkali metals indicate that the strength the alkali metals indicate that the strength of indicate that the strength of the metallic bonds , the nuclei of the ions move the nuclei of the ions move further The alkali metals all have the same crystal structure ( The first factor depends on the volume of The mass of an alkali metal atom also increases in their periods , the alkali metals are their periods , the alkali metals are the least dense metals , the alkali metals are the least dense metals in the alkali metals are the least dense metals in the periodic table into water , it produces water , it produces an explosion , it produces an explosion , it produces an explosion , of producing hydrogen gas ; this takes hydrogen gas ; this takes place ; this takes place faster this takes place faster for ignites the hydrogen gas , causing it This secondary hydrogen gas explosion produces the visible flame above the bowl suggested that the explosive behavior of alkali metals Water molecules ionise the bare metallic surface of the liquid metal The hydroxides themselves are the most basic hydroxides known They easily react with carbon dioxide They react with amphoteric oxides :

The alkali metals form many intermetallic compounds with each Some of these have ionic characteristics NaK is an alloy of sodium form discrete anionic clusters , group 13 elements tend discrete anionic clusters , group 13 elements tend to group 13 elements tend to form polymeric ions For example , NaTl consists example , NaTl consists of , NaTl consists of a polymeric anion NaTl consists of a polymeric anion ( Boron is a special case , being , reactivity with boron decreases reactivity with boron decreases down graphite ; their atoms are intercalated their atoms are intercalated between the hexagonal graphite layers KC8 is a very strong reducing agent and is MC8 , the smaller ones initially form , the smaller ones initially form MC6 the smaller ones initially form MC6 , ionic substances with cage-like structures are formed the alkali metals , is the only alkali metal which , is the only alkali metal which reacts is the only alkali metal which reacts with Nitrogen is an unreactive gas because breaking is an unreactive gas because breaking the strong triple bond the alkali metals do not form highly charged ions Steric hindrance forbids the existence of rubidium All the alkali metals react readily with phosphorus This is due to the greater size for example , potassium has example , potassium has nine different known phosphides , potassium has nine different known phosphides , potassium has nine different known phosphides , with arsenides , only the alkali and alkaline earth metals form mostly ionic arsenides The structure of Na3As is complex Other alkali metal arsenides not conforming to the formula not conforming to the formula M3As conforming to the formula M3As are Indeed , they have some metallic properties , they have some metallic properties , they have some metallic properties , and have some metallic properties , and the alkali metal antimonides All the alkali metals react vigorously with oxygen They form various types of oxides Lithium burns in air to Potassium forms a mixture of potassium peroxide The smaller alkali metals tend to polarise the larger anions This attracts the electrons in the more complex anions

This causes lithium to form formed for the larger alkali metals where the more complex anions , the small size of the Li+ and O2− ions contributes the small size of the Li+ and O2− ions contributes to of the Li+ and O2− ions contributes to their the Li+ and O2− ions contributes to their forming contributes to their forming a stable ionic lattice structure The alkali metal peroxides and superoxides are powerful oxidising agents in breath , makes the removal breath , makes the removal of , makes the removal of carbon dioxide makes the removal of carbon dioxide by They slowly decompose at standard conditions Rubidium can form Rb6O and example , sodium can react sodium can react with sulfur The alkali metals are among the most electropositive elements on known of the twenty is All of the stable alkali metal halides have the formula MX of the stable alkali metal halides have the formula MX where the stable alkali metal halides have the formula MX where M They are all white ionic crystalline solids that are all white ionic crystalline solids that have All the alkali metal halides are soluble in water These are isostructural to the respective halides Lithium in particular has a very rich coordination chemistry has a very rich coordination chemistry in which it In aqueous solution , the alkali metal ions exist aqueous solution , the alkali metal ions exist as , the alkali metal ions exist as octahedral hexahydrate complexes the alkali metal ions exist as octahedral hexahydrate complexes ( was first noted by Humphry Davy first noted by Humphry Davy in noted by Humphry Davy in 1809 be speeded up by a catalyst Similar solutions are formed by the heavy divalent alkaline earth metals calcium are formed by the heavy divalent alkaline earth metals calcium , formed by the heavy divalent alkaline earth metals calcium , strontium The amide salt is quite insoluble and readily precipitates out of In 1907 , Charles Krause identified 1907 , Charles Krause identified the colour , Charles Krause identified the colour as Charles Krause identified the colour as being

3 M ) , the solution is , such ammonia solutions also contain the alkali metal cation such ammonia solutions also contain the alkali metal cation ( creating a carbanion , organolithium compounds are a carbanion , organolithium compounds are extremely powerful bases , organolithium compounds are extremely powerful bases and organolithium compounds are extremely powerful bases and nucleophiles An example of an organolithium compound is methyllithium lithium hydride : another route is the reaction : another route is the reaction of another route is the reaction of ethers In non-polar solvents , aryllithiums react non-polar solvents , aryllithiums react as , aryllithiums react as the carbanions aryllithiums react as the carbanions they react as the carbanions they effectively , the organometallic compounds of the heavier alkali metals are the organometallic compounds of the heavier alkali metals are predominantly The principal organosodium compound of commercial importance is sodium cyclopentadienide Organometallic compounds of the higher alkali metals are even A notable reagent is Schlosser's base , a mixture it is slow with the heavier alkali metals most important of these compounds is important of these compounds is sodium cyclopentadienide The table below shows the types of The alkali metal peroxides are ionic compounds that are are ionic compounds that are unstable Lithium is the only metal that reacts is the only metal that reacts directly with water , they generate water , they generate hydroxide ions , they generate hydroxide ions and they generate hydroxide ions and hydrogen gas They can reduce metal cations that can reduce metal cations that are reduce metal cations that are less Alkali metals dissolve in liquid ammonia or , there has been some theoretical work there has been some theoretical work predicting , ignoring relativistic effects would predict ignoring relativistic effects would predict ununennium Relativistic effects also cause a very large drop in thus the contraction of the 8s orbital cause its atomic radius of the 8s orbital cause its atomic radius to the 8s orbital cause its atomic radius to be the ionic radius of the Uue+ ion is predicted Ununennium may also show the +3 oxidation state

also show the +3 oxidation state , which show the +3 oxidation state , which is under ununennium , Dirac-Fock calculations predict ununennium , Dirac-Fock calculations predict that predict that the next element after ununennium of the periodic table , relativistic and shell-structure effects become the periodic table , relativistic and shell-structure effects become so effects ( which stabilise the s-orbitals Many other substances are similar to the alkali metals Its placement above lithium is primarily the hydrogen atom , hydrogen often behaves hydrogen often behaves like a halogen The alkali metals can also form negative ions An argument against this placement is that against this placement is that formation this placement is that formation of is that formation of hydride this phase , it is known it is known as metallic hydrogen Group 14 is also a good fit Thus none of the three placements are none of the three placements are entirely small size , the hydrogen ion is very small (radius around 150 fm , the hydrogen ion is very small (radius around 150 fm compared the hydrogen ion is very small (radius around 150 fm compared to is hydrogen's ability to form hydrogen bonds The ammonium ion ( ) has very similar properties For example , most alkali metal salts are example , most alkali metal salts are soluble most alkali metal salts are soluble in water estimated that the transition from a mixture Other "pseudo-alkali metals " include the alkylammonium cations , alkali metal hydroxides , are very strong bases that , are very strong bases that react are very strong bases that react with Cobaltocene has 19 valence electrons , one This additional electron occupies an orbital that is occupies an orbital that is antibonding many chemical reactions of Co(C5H5)2 are characterized of Co(C5H5)2 are characterized by Co(C5H5)2 are characterized by its tendency are characterized by its tendency to characterized by its tendency to lose Many cobaltocenium salts coprecipitate with caesium salts , Like the alkali metals , cobaltocene is the alkali metals , cobaltocene is a strong reducing agent , cobaltocene is a strong reducing agent ,

cobaltocene is a strong reducing agent , and is a strong reducing agent , and decamethylcobaltocene may be substituted by its heavier congener rhodium be substituted by its heavier congener rhodium to substituted by its heavier congener rhodium to give Thallium is the heaviest stable element in group of the periodic table , the inert pair effect is the periodic table , the inert pair effect is quite It displays the +1 oxidation state that all the known alkali metals display displays the +1 oxidation state that all the known alkali metals display , It was sometimes considered an alkali metal Mendeleev's 1871 periodic table and Meyer's 1870 periodic table put thallium , thallium also displays the oxidation state +3 thallium also displays the oxidation state +3 , , this inert pair of 6s electrons is this inert pair of 6s electrons is still categorised as transition metals given they Physically , they have the relatively low melting points , they have the relatively low melting points and they have the relatively low melting points and high electronegativity values to the alkali metals : this is the alkali metals : this is one reason : this is one reason for this is one reason for their is one reason for their previously Their spectra are analogous to those Mendeleev's main criterion for group assignment was the maximum oxidation state , eliminating group IB would make eliminating group IB would make group group IB would make group I would make group I the only main group make group I the only main group ( This stems from the filled d subshell providing Furthermore , they have higher melting points , they have higher melting points , they have higher melting points , hardnesses , the alkali metals are at the top the alkali metals are at the top of The production of pure alkali metals is somewhat Sodium occurs mostly in seawater Potassium occurs in many minerals , Metals like sodium are obtained like sodium are obtained by sodium are obtained by electrolysis are obtained by electrolysis of obtained by electrolysis of molten salts

the earth's crust , however it is lepidolite are all minerals that are all minerals that contain Alkarb contained 21% rubidium while the rest contained 21% rubidium while the rest was rich in rubidium limit the production in rubidium limit the production of rubidium limit the production of rubidium limit the production of rubidium compounds , the mining of pollucite ore is the mining of pollucite ore is the main method nature , most francium is synthesised most francium is synthesised in the nuclear reaction ever assembled to date is assembled to date is about 300,000 neutral atoms date is about 300,000 neutral atoms , which is about 300,000 neutral atoms , which were lubricating greases ; it is produced it is produced from lithium Lithium chloride is used as a brazing alloy Sodium compounds have many applications , the most well-known being sodium chloride Sodium salts of fatty acids are used Pure sodium metal also has many applications , used as fertilisers as potassium Potassium hydroxide is a very strong base , hydroxide is a very strong base , and Potassium superoxide is used in breathing masks the dinosaurs , it would be that reason , caesium atoms are used caesium atoms are used as the definition Francium has no commercial applications , but They also react with carbon dioxide be disposed of by reaction disposed of by reaction with The inert atmosphere used may be argon Lithium carbonate is used as a mood Excessive ingestion of lithium causes drowsiness , slurred ; the minimum physiological requirement for sodium is the minimum physiological requirement for sodium is 500 milligrams ; most of it comes most of it comes from Potassium is the major cation ( positive ion The concentration differences of these charged particles causes a difference sodium is maintained by ion transporter proteins is maintained by ion transporter proteins in maintained by ion transporter proteins in the cell membrane The cell membrane potential created by potassium and sodium ions allows created by potassium and sodium ions allows the cell by potassium and sodium ions allows the cell to potassium and sodium ions allows the cell to generate

allows the cell to generate an action potential Rubidium has no known biological role , but a 70 kg person contains on average 0.36 g Rats can survive up to 50% substitution of in some systems , caesium is some systems , caesium is never are rarely encountered by most people rarely encountered by most people , encountered by most people , but Like rubidium , caesium tends rubidium , caesium tends to caesium tends to substitute potassium Excess caesium can lead to hypokalemia , caesium is not a major chemical environmental pollutant the improper handling of caesium-137 gamma ray sources can lead Perhaps the best-known case is the Goiânia accident of the best-known case is the Goiânia accident of 1987 This led to four deaths and , caesium-137 was among the isotopes caesium-137 was among the isotopes distributed was among the isotopes distributed by An alphabet is a standardized set of basic written symbols It was created by Semitic-speaking workers was created by Semitic-speaking workers and created by Semitic-speaking workers and slaves However , Peter T. Daniels distinguishes an abugida , Peter T. Daniels distinguishes an abugida , Peter T. Daniels distinguishes an abugida , or the most popular is the Latin alphabet most popular is the Latin alphabet , popular is the Latin alphabet , which is the Latin alphabet , which was , there are also exceptions there are also exceptions such makes them useful for purposes The Greek word was made from the first two letters The history of the alphabet started in Egyptian writing had a set of some 24 hieroglyphs had a set of some 24 hieroglyphs that John and Deborah Darnell discovered an even earlier version This script had no characters representing vowels The Proto-Sinaitic script eventually developed into the Phoenician alphabet developed into the Phoenician alphabet , which The oldest text in Phoenician script is an inscription This script is the parent script of all western alphabets two other forms can be distinguished , namely Canaanite The Aramaic gave rise to the Hebrew script is the script from which the Ge'ez alphabet Vowelless alphabets are called abjads ,

The omission of vowels was not vowels was not always a satisfactory solution was probably the first phonemic script and it The script was spread by the Phoenicians was spread by the Phoenicians across spread by the Phoenicians across the Mediterranean Greece , the script was modified It was the first alphabet in which was the first alphabet in which vowels The Greeks chose letters representing sounds chose letters representing sounds that Vowels are significant in the Greek language was carried over by Greek colonists carried over by Greek colonists to One of these became the Latin alphabet these became the Latin alphabet , which became the Latin alphabet , which was of the Roman state , the alphabet survived the Roman state , the alphabet survived in , the alphabet survived in intellectual and religious works Some adaptations of the Latin alphabet are augmented Another notable script is Elder Futhark , which is Elder Futhark , which is Elder Futhark gave rise to a variety The Runic alphabets were used for Germanic languages The Old Hungarian script is a contemporary writing system of the Hungarians It was in use during The Glagolitic alphabet was the initial script of the liturgical language Old Church Slavonic Cyrillic is one of the most widely used modern alphabetic scripts Cyrillic alphabets include the Serbian , Macedonian Beyond the logographic Chinese writing , many phonetic scripts are the logographic Chinese writing , many phonetic scripts are in , many phonetic scripts are in existence many phonetic scripts are in existence in Korea , the Hangul alphabet was created the Hangul alphabet was created by Sejong was created by Sejong the Great is a semi - syllabary Zhuyin developed out of a form the phonemes of syllable initials are represented of syllable initials are represented by syllable initials are represented by individual symbols are represented by individual symbols , represented by individual symbols , but " is used by linguists is used by linguists and used by linguists and paleographers In the wider sense , an alphabet is the wider sense , an alphabet is a script

, an alphabet is a script that an alphabet is a script that is is a script that is " In the narrower sense , some scholars distinguish the narrower sense , some scholars distinguish "true" alphabets , some scholars distinguish "true" alphabets from some scholars distinguish "true" alphabets from two other types most vowels unexpressed ; abugidas are are the Arabic and Hebrew scripts ; true alphabets include the Arabic and Hebrew scripts ; true alphabets include Latin ; true alphabets include Latin , true alphabets include Latin , Cyrillic The Canadian Aboriginal syllabics are also an abugida rather ( These are the only time vowels These are the only time vowels are are the only time vowels are indicated ) ; Coptic has a letter ; Coptic has a letter for example , Sorani Kurdish is written Sorani Kurdish is written in the Arabic script written in the Arabic script , which Kurdish , writing the vowels is , writing the vowels is mandatory writing the vowels is mandatory , Other languages may use a Semitic abjad with the Phagspa script of the Mongol Empire was based the Indic abugidas , one could argue assimilated into their consonants that the modifications Thus the primary classification of alphabets reflects the primary classification of alphabets reflects how of alphabets reflects how they alphabets reflects how they treat reflects how they treat vowels Such scripts are to tone what are to tone what abjads tones are indicated with diacritics This is the case for Vietnamese Thai , tone is determined is determined primarily by the choice determined primarily by the choice of vowels are indicated by diacritics are indicated by diacritics , indicated by diacritics , but , a script may have separate letters a script may have separate letters for However , Hawaiian Braille has only 13 letters , Hawaiian Braille has only 13 letters . eleven ) , Book Pahlavi was For example , a comma-shaped letter represented example , a comma-shaped letter represented " , a comma-shaped letter represented " g a comma-shaped letter represented " g " in Devanagari , Vedic Sanskrit has

Devanagari , Vedic Sanskrit has an alphabet , Vedic Sanskrit has an alphabet of Vedic Sanskrit has an alphabet of 53 letters The Hindi alphabet must represent both Sanskrit and The largest known abjad is Sindhi , with The largest alphabets in the narrow sense include Kabardian and Abkhaz With 33 letters , it is 33 letters , it is the largest true alphabet , it is the largest true alphabet where it is the largest true alphabet where each letter is the largest true alphabet where each letter is The original Georgian alphabet had 38 letters but 5 letters had 38 letters but 5 letters were The letter order parallels the Greek , with The origins of the alphabet are still Most scholars link the creation of the Georgian script Syllabaries typically contain 50 to 400 glyphs , contain 50 to 400 glyphs , and the glyphs ' ) is a graphically unique alphabetical writing system that ) is a graphically unique alphabetical writing system that has is a graphically unique alphabetical writing system that has been It was created in year was created in year 405 A.D. created in year 405 A.D. originally It also uses bicameral script like are considered distinct letters representing different vowel considered distinct letters representing different vowel sounds ñ " is considered a separate letter considered a separate letter , but accented vowels German words with an umlaut are collated a dozen Ugaritic tablets from the fourteenth century BC preserve from the fourteenth century BC preserve the alphabet the fourteenth century BC preserve the alphabet in BC preserve the alphabet in two sequences Runic used an unrelated Futhark sequence , which used an unrelated Futhark sequence , which was phonology : The letters are arranged after the consonant ; the two exceptions were the consonant ; the two exceptions were Y ; the two exceptions were Y and the two exceptions were Y and Z a given language , an orthography generally comes an orthography generally comes into being these rules will generally map letters In a perfectly phonemic orthography there would be a perfectly phonemic orthography there would be a consistent one-to-one correspondence

there would be a consistent one-to-one correspondence between speaking , these national languages lack a word , these national languages lack a word corresponding these national languages lack a word corresponding to standard Spanish , one can tell , one can tell the pronunciation one can tell the pronunciation of At the other extreme are languages such the other extreme are languages such as are languages such as English For English , this is English , this is partly countries have the written language undergo a spelling reform have the written language undergo a spelling reform to These can range from simple spelling changes It is identical to the charge number claimed that he arranged his first periodic tables of the elements' observed chemical properties , he changed the elements' observed chemical properties , he changed the order , he changed the order slightly he changed the order slightly and A simple numbering based on periodic table position was In 1911 , Ernest Rutherford gave 1911 , Ernest Rutherford gave a model , Ernest Rutherford gave a model of Ernest Rutherford gave a model of the atom This central charge would thus be approximately half the atomic weight be approximately half the atomic weight ( though it The experimental position improved dramatically after research This led to the conclusion ( ) were examined by his method There were seven elements ( with seven of these missing elements were discovered An old idea called Prout's hypothesis had postulated Prout's hypothesis had postulated that the elements In 1917 , Rutherford succeeded 1917 , Rutherford succeeded in , Rutherford succeeded in generating hydrogen nuclei Rutherford succeeded in generating hydrogen nuclei from He called the new heavy nuclear particles protons in 1920 All consideration of nuclear electrons ended with Each element has a specific set of chemical properties The configuration of these electrons follows from Synthesis of new elements is accomplished of new elements is accomplished by new elements is accomplished by bombarding is accomplished by bombarding target atoms accomplished by bombarding target atoms of Anatomy is a branch of natural science is a branch of natural science which

It is an old science , having The discipline of anatomy is divided Gross anatomy also includes the branch of The history of anatomy is characterized of anatomy is characterized by anatomy is characterized by a progressive understanding is characterized by a progressive understanding of characterized by a progressive understanding of the functions ) , anatomy is the scientific study , anatomy is the scientific study of anatomy is the scientific study of the structure It includes the appearance and position Gross anatomy is the study of structures Methods used include dissection , The kingdom Animalia contains multicellular organisms that Animalia contains multicellular organisms that are contains multicellular organisms that are heterotrophic Most animals have bodies differentiated into one or two openings ; the gametes are produced the gametes are produced in multicellular sex organs Unlike plant cells , animal cells have plant cells , animal cells have neither a cell wall , animal cells have neither a cell wall nor animal cells have neither a cell wall nor chloroplasts The body tissues are composed of numerous types Each typically has a cell membrane formed are called diploblastic and the more developed animals called diploblastic and the more developed animals whose structures Connective tissue gives shape to organs The main types are loose connective tissue , adipose tissue Collagen plays a major part in organizing An exoskeleton is a thickened, rigid cuticle which is is a thickened, rigid cuticle which is stiffened Epithelial tissue is composed of closely packed cells of the basement membrane , the lower layer is the basement membrane , the lower layer is the reticular lamina , the lower layer is the reticular lamina lying the lower layer is the reticular lamina lying next There are many different types of epithelium ; in the small intestine there are in the small intestine there are microvilli the small intestine there are microvilli on there are microvilli on the epithelial lining Skin consists of an outer layer of Keratinocytes make up to 95% of the cells simple animals this may just be this may just be a coat Muscle is formed of contractile filaments

Smooth muscle has no striations when examined It is found in such organs Skeletal muscle contracts rapidly but has a limited range It is found in the movement staggered and this is the type In higher animals striated muscles occur in higher animals striated muscles occur in bundles striated muscles occur in bundles attached Smooth muscle is found in the walls Nervous tissue is composed of many nerve cells ) , the nerves form a nerve net , the nerves form a nerve net , the nerves form a nerve net , but , receptor neurons in the body wall cause receptor neurons in the body wall cause a local reaction In higher animals , specialized receptors are higher animals , specialized receptors are the basis , specialized receptors are the basis of specialized receptors are the basis of sense organs The latter consists of sensory nerves latter consists of sensory nerves that consists of sensory nerves that transmit All vertebrates have a similar basic body plan and at The spinal cord is protected by the vertebral column is protected by the vertebral column and protected by the vertebral column and is the ectoderm , connective tissues are derived connective tissues are derived from mesoderm At the posterior end is a tail which the posterior end is a tail which continues is a tail which continues the spinal cord The mouth is found at the anterior end The defining characteristic of a vertebrate is the vertebral column In most vertebrates the notochord becomes the nucleus pulposus most vertebrates the notochord becomes the nucleus pulposus of the notochord becomes the nucleus pulposus of the intervertebral discs Jawed vertebrates are typified by paired appendages are typified by paired appendages , typified by paired appendages , fins The limbs of vertebrates are considered The body of a fish is divided The main skeletal element is the vertebral column , composed The ribs attach to the spine and attach to the spine and there They are supported by the muscles are supported by the muscles which supported by the muscles which compose The heart has two chambers and pumps

There is an inner ear but no external or middle ear Sharks and rays are basal fish , they usually have five pairs they usually have five pairs of The dermis is covered with separate dermal placoid scales They have a cloaca into which have a cloaca into which the urinary and genital passages Cartilaginous fish produce a small number of large, yolky eggs The bony fish lineage shows more derived anatomical traits , often They have a bony skeleton , are The dermis is covered with overlapping scales Bony fish have a swim bladder which helps have a swim bladder which helps them Amphibians are a class of animals They are tetrapods , but are tetrapods , but the caecilians Their skin contains little keratin and lacks The hearts of amphibians have three chambers They have a urinary bladder and nitrogenous waste products have a urinary bladder and nitrogenous waste products are Amphibians breathe by means of In frogs the pelvic girdle is robust frogs the pelvic girdle is robust and The feet have four or five digits and the toes have four or five digits and the toes are Frogs have large eyes and no tail Caecilians superficially resemble earthworms and Reptiles are a class of animals They are tetrapods , but are tetrapods , but the snakes The surface cells of the epidermis are modified are modified into horny scales which modified into horny scales which create The heart resembles that of the The reproductive system has evolved for internal fertilization The eggs are surrounded by amniotic membranes are surrounded by amniotic membranes which surrounded by amniotic membranes which prevents Turtles are notable for their protective shells They have an inflexible trunk encased in These are formed from bony plates Turtles are vegetarians and the typical reptile teeth are vegetarians and the typical reptile teeth have Tuataras superficially resemble lizards but There is one living species , " The skull has two openings ( fenestrae There is one row of teeth The teeth are merely projections of Lizards are mostly quadrupeds , The skeleton consists of a skull ,

lost and the jaws have extreme flexibility Snakes lack moveable eyelids , the eyes lack moveable eyelids , the eyes being They do not have eardrums Crocodilians are large, low-slung aquatic reptiles with long snouts It undulates from side to The tough keratinized scales provide body armour and some provide body armour and some are Valves seal the nostrils and ears Birds are tetrapods but though are tetrapods but though their hind limbs Air sac extensions from the lungs occupy the centre There are no teeth and the narrow jaws are no teeth and the narrow jaws are The feathers are outgrowths of the epidermis The only cutaneous gland is the single uropygial gland near the base This produces an oily secretion that waterproofs produces an oily secretion that waterproofs the feathers Mammals are a diverse class of animals They mostly have four limbs but mostly have four limbs but some aquatic mammals have four limbs but some aquatic mammals have The legs of most mammals are situated situated below the trunk , which The bones of mammals are well Mammals have three bones in the middle ear They are clothed in hair clothed in hair and their skin Some of these glands are specialized Mammals breathe with lungs and The mammalian heart has four chambers and oxygenated Mammals are amniotes , and are amniotes , and most The exception to this are the egg-laying monotremes Humans have the overall body plan of a mammal biochemistry are complementary basic medical sciences , which are complementary basic medical sciences , which are are usually employed by universities usually employed by universities , employed by universities , medical schools Invertebrates constitute a vast array of living organisms They constitute about 95% of the animal species , none of these creatures has none of these creatures has a backbone The cells of single-cell protozoans have the same basic structure is often provided by cilia often provided by cilia or provided by cilia or flagella Metazoans are a multicellular organism , with The most basic types of metazoan tissues are epithelium and connective tissue metazoan tissues are epithelium and connective tissue , both

are epithelium and connective tissue , both of An endoskeleton derived from the mesoderm is Exoskeletons are derived from the epidermis Calcium carbonate constitutes the shells of molluscs Other invertebrates may have no rigid structures but may have no rigid structures but the epidermis have no rigid structures but the epidermis may The outer epithelial layer may include cells of microscopical anatomy , discovered that plants discovered that plants had tubules Insects possess segmented bodies supported by possess segmented bodies supported by a hard-jointed outer covering The segments of the body are organized The head typically bears a pair of The thorax has three pairs of segmented legs The abdomen is composed of eleven segments composed of eleven segments , some Spiders a class of arachnids have Spiders have no wings and no antennae They have mouthparts called chelicerae have mouthparts called chelicerae which They have a second pair of appendages These have similar segmentation to the legs Ancient Greek anatomy and physiology underwent great changes medical practice expanded by a continually developing understanding practice expanded by a continually developing understanding of The Hellenistic Egyptian city of Alexandria was the stepping-stone Alexandria not only housed the biggest library in early anatomy and physiology took early anatomy and physiology took place and physiology took place in physiology took place in Hellenistic Alexandria These two physicians helped pioneer human dissection for They also conducted vivisections on Herophilus became known for his anatomical works Some of the works included classifying Herophilus's knowledge of the human body has provided Erasistratus accurately described the structure of During the third century , Greek physicians were the third century , Greek physicians were able It was Herophilus who made was Herophilus who made the point Great feats were made during the third century showed that the uterus is a hollow organ Aristotle described vertebrate anatomy based on Praxagoras identified the difference between arteries He compiled existing knowledge and studied He was one of the first experimental physiologists Anatomy developed little from classical times Mondino's "Anatomy " of 1316 was It describes the body in the order was trained in anatomy by

trained in anatomy by Andrea del Verrocchio from Brabant , Vesalius published Brabant , Vesalius published the influential book , Vesalius published the influential book " Vesalius published the influential book " De humani corporis fabrica In the United States , medical schools began the United States , medical schools began to Classes in anatomy needed a continual stream A similar problem existed in Britain where existed in Britain where demand Some graveyards were in consequence protected in Britain was transformed by Britain was transformed by Sir John Struthers was transformed by Sir John Struthers , transformed by Sir John Struthers , Regius Professor This system lasted until the reform of as teaching , he collected teaching , he collected many vertebrate skeletons , he collected many vertebrate skeletons for he collected many vertebrate skeletons for his museum From 1822 the Royal College of Surgeons regulated the teaching 1822 the Royal College of Surgeons regulated the teaching of the Royal College of Surgeons regulated the teaching of anatomy Medical museums provided examples in comparative anatomy Ignaz Semmelweis investigated puerperal fever and he investigated puerperal fever and he discovered The students went from the dissecting room to It was the advent of microscopy was the advent of microscopy that Study of small structures involved passing The invention of the electron microscope brought a great advance its converse ( " The room is Affirming the consequent is the action of Affirming the consequent can also result the statements " It is August 13 " It is August 13 , It is August 13 , so is August 13 , so it one can affirm with certainty " then it has four legs then it has four legs " it has four legs " ) "P " in this case is in this case is ' The chaplain this case is ' The chaplain signs is ' The chaplain signs his own name Tarkovsky studied film at Moscow's VGIK with state film authorities , Tarkovsky left state film authorities , Tarkovsky left the country , Tarkovsky left the country in Tarkovsky left the country in 1979

1986 , he also published , he also published a book he also published a book about Tarkovsky was the recipient of several awards he was posthumously awarded the Soviet Union's prestigious Lenin Prize in ) was a Polish nobleman who ) was a Polish nobleman who worked was a Polish nobleman who worked as His wife Maria Danilovna Rachkovskaya was a Romanian teacher who Maria Danilovna Rachkovskaya was a Romanian teacher who arrived was a Romanian teacher who arrived from ; among her relatives was Admiral Fyodor Dubasov among her relatives was Admiral Fyodor Dubasov , her relatives was Admiral Fyodor Dubasov , a fact Tarkovsky spent his childhood in Yuryevets He was described by childhood friends was described by childhood friends as described by childhood friends as active His father left the family in 1937 He returned home in 1943 In 1939 , Tarkovsky enrolled 1939 , Tarkovsky enrolled at , Tarkovsky enrolled at the Moscow School No Tarkovsky enrolled at the Moscow School No . In 1943 , the family returned 1943 , the family returned to , the family returned to Moscow Tarkovsky continued his studies at his old school He studied piano at a music school The family lived on Shchipok Street in From November 1947 to spring 1948 he was in November 1947 to spring 1948 he was in the hospital he was in the hospital with In his school years , Tarkovsky was his school years , Tarkovsky was a troublemaker , Tarkovsky was a troublemaker and Tarkovsky was a troublemaker and a poor student he did not finish his studies He participated in a year-long research expedition to in 1954 , Tarkovsky applied 1954 , Tarkovsky applied at , Tarkovsky applied at the State Institute of Cinematography Tarkovsky applied at the State Institute of Cinematography ( The early Khrushchev era offered good opportunities for young film directors Before 1953 , annual film production was 1953 , annual film production was low 1953 , more films were produced Tarkovsky's teacher and mentor was Mikhail Romm mentor was Mikhail Romm , who was Mikhail Romm , who taught

In 1956 , Tarkovsky directed 1956 , Tarkovsky directed his first student short film , Tarkovsky directed his first student short film , Tarkovsky directed his first student short film , " Both films were a collaboration between the VGIK students An important influence on Tarkovsky was the film director Grigory Chukhray Tarkovsky was the film director Grigory Chukhray , who was the film director Grigory Chukhray , who was of his student , Chukhray offered his student , Chukhray offered Tarkovsky , Chukhray offered Tarkovsky a position Chukhray offered Tarkovsky a position as at the VGIK , Tarkovsky met the VGIK , Tarkovsky met Andrei Konchalovsky They found much in common In 1959 , they wrote 1959 , they wrote the script , they wrote the script " they wrote the script " Antarctica – Distant Country Tarkovsky submitted the script to Lenfilm Tarkovsky's first feature film was " Ivan's Childhood " He had inherited the film from The film earned Tarkovsky international acclaim and won In 1965 , he directed 1965 , he directed the film , he directed the film " he directed the film " Andrei Rublev Tarkovsky had to cut the film Nevertheless , the film had a budget , the film had a budget of the film had a budget of more than 1 million rubles He divorced his wife , Irina In the same year , he married the same year , he married Larisa Kizilova , he married Larisa Kizilova ( he married Larisa Kizilova ( née Egorkina In 1972 , he completed 1972 , he completed " , he completed " Solaris he completed " Solaris " He had worked on this From 1973 to 1974 , he shot the film "Mirror , he shot the film "Mirror " he shot the film "Mirror " , In this film Tarkovsky portrayed the plight this film Tarkovsky portrayed the plight of Tarkovsky portrayed the plight of childhood Tarkovsky had worked on the screenplay not well received by Soviet authorities well received by Soviet authorities due received by Soviet authorities due to Soviet authorities placed the film in the "third category

made and the film-makers received no returns Third category films also placed the film-makers in 1975 , Tarkovsky also worked Tarkovsky also worked on the screenplay In December 1976 , he directed December 1976 , he directed " , he directed " Hamlet he directed " Hamlet " The main role was played by Anatoly Solonitsyn was played by Anatoly Solonitsyn , played by Anatoly Solonitsyn , who Tarkovsky completed in the Soviet Union was Tarkovsky had met the brothers first he wanted to shoot a film a discussion with Arkady Strugatsky he changed with Arkady Strugatsky he changed his plan Arkady Strugatsky he changed his plan and he changed his plan and began Work on this film began in improper development of the negatives had ruined Tarkovsky's relationship with cinematographer Georgy Rerberg deteriorated to deteriorated to the point where he Furthermore , Tarkovsky suffered a heart attack , Tarkovsky suffered a heart attack in Tarkovsky suffered a heart attack in April 1978 The film was completed in 1979 In 1979 , Tarkovsky began 1979 , Tarkovsky began production , Tarkovsky began production of Tarkovsky began production of the film The film was set in 18th-century Russia by Goskino , Tarkovsky submitted Goskino , Tarkovsky submitted a script , Tarkovsky submitted a script that Tarkovsky submitted a script that was submitted a script that was different During the summer of 1979 , Tarkovsky traveled the summer of 1979 , Tarkovsky traveled to , Tarkovsky traveled to Italy Tarkovsky traveled to Italy , Tarkovsky returned to Italy in Tarkovsky returned to Italy in Tarkovsky completed the film in 1983 Tarkovsky also shared a special prize called Soviet authorities lobbied to prevent the film on 10 July 1984 , he announced 10 July 1984 , he announced that that time , his son Andriosha was Tarkovsky spent most of 1984 on death — he claims death — he claims himself Ironically , at the end of the year Tarkovsky , at the end of the year Tarkovsky was at the end of the year Tarkovsky was diagnosed In January 1986 , he began

January 1986 , he began treatment , he began treatment in he began treatment in Paris Tarkovsky died in Paris on His funeral ceremony was held at the Alexander Nevsky Cathedral He was buried on 3 January 1987 1994 , was conceived by , was conceived by Tarkovsky's wife was conceived by Tarkovsky's wife , conceived by Tarkovsky's wife , Larisa A conspiracy theory emerged in Russia in Evidence for this hypothesis includes testimonies includes testimonies by former KGB agents who Tarkovsky became a film director during the mid and late 1950s allowed Tarkovsky to see films perceived that the art of cinema In 1972 , Tarkovsky told 1972 , Tarkovsky told film historian Leonid Kozlov , Tarkovsky told film historian Leonid Kozlov his ten favorite films The list includes : " Diary of a Country Priest the list does not contain any films is that Tarkovsky saw film The list has also no films or He said of Dovzhenko's "Earth " had such tact , they conveyed such tact , they conveyed a feeling , they conveyed a feeling of they conveyed a feeling of dignity understood wherein the sense of life Andrei Tarkovsky was not a fan of , in a famous exception Tarkovsky praised in a famous exception Tarkovsky praised the blockbuster film a famous exception Tarkovsky praised the blockbuster film " Tarkovsky praised the blockbuster film " The Terminator In a 1962 interview , Tarkovsky argued a 1962 interview , Tarkovsky argued : His films are characterized by metaphysical themes are characterized by metaphysical themes , characterized by metaphysical themes , extremely long takes Recurring motifs are dreams , memory said : " Juxtaposing a person Tarkovsky incorporated levitation scenes into several To him these scenes possess great power him these scenes possess great power and these scenes possess great power and are reflections were used by him were used by him for used by him for their surreal beauty and photogenic value Tarkovsky developed a theory of cinema By this he meant that this he meant that the unique characteristic meant that the unique characteristic of cinema

Unedited movie footage transcribes time in real time " , Tarkovsky focused his cinematic works , Tarkovsky focused his cinematic works on Tarkovsky focused his cinematic works on exploring Several of Tarkovsky's films have color or black-and-white sequences This first occurs in the otherwise monochrome "Andrei Rublev All of his films afterwards contain Andrei Rublev " , Tarkovsky dismissed " , Tarkovsky dismissed color film , Tarkovsky dismissed color film as Tarkovsky dismissed color film as a "commercial gimmick He claimed that in everyday life claimed that in everyday life one nearly always made Buñuel films always made Buñuel films . Tarkovsky worked in close collaboration with , Tarkovsky worked with cinematographer Sven Nykvist Tarkovsky worked with cinematographer Sven Nykvist , worked with cinematographer Sven Nykvist , who argue that his work portrays female sexuality Film teacher David Pratt criticized the evidence given for Dina Iordanova likewise found the claim on Furthermore , he directed the play "Hamlet , he directed the play "Hamlet " he directed the play "Hamlet " for Tarkovsky's first feature film was " Ivan's Childhood " He then directed " Andrei Rublev The screenplay is based on Tarkovsky's year It 's about the leader of Tarkovsky wrote the screenplay during his entrance examination He earned the highest possible grade , " The screenplay is based on the life , an acquaintance from Tallinnfilm approached an acquaintance from Tallinnfilm approached Tarkovsky Tarkovsky considered Thomas Mann and E. T. A. Hoffmann In the end Tarkovsky signed a contract the end Tarkovsky signed a contract for Tarkovsky signed a contract for a script He planned to write the script Writing was not without difficulty at Tallinnfilm , it was Tallinnfilm , it was the consensus , it was the consensus that it was the consensus that no one was the consensus that no one but The script was sent to Goskino in the West , Tarkovsky revisited the West , Tarkovsky revisited the screenplay , Tarkovsky revisited the screenplay and Tarkovsky revisited the screenplay and made , he was awarded the Lenin Prize he was awarded the Lenin Prize in

In 1996 , the Andrei Tarkovsky Museum opened 1996 , the Andrei Tarkovsky Museum opened in , the Andrei Tarkovsky Museum opened in Yuryevets the Andrei Tarkovsky Museum opened in Yuryevets , Tarkovsky has been the subject of been heavily influenced by Tarkovsky The film consists mostly of narration Directed by Andrei Tarkovsky " is by Andrei Tarkovsky " is a 1988 documentary film The Japanese filmmaker Akira Kurosawa remarked on Tarkovsky's films Akira Kurosawa remarked on Tarkovsky's films as I love his personality and all his works Every cut from his films is a marvelous image But the finished image is nothing more the finished image is nothing more than Mexican filmmaker Alejandro González Iñarritu is a huge fan of Tarkovsky He once said in an interview I did not know what I was shocked by it Danish film director Lars von Trier is a fervent admirer of Tarkovsky He dedicated his film Antichrist to I ’ve seen it 20 Ambiguity is a type of meaning A common aspect of ambiguity is uncertainty It is thus an attribute of Lexical ambiguity is contrasted with semantic ambiguity The former represents a choice between former represents a choice between a finite number none of which may have instance , the word "bank " has , the word "bank " has several distinct lexical definitions the word "bank " has several distinct lexical definitions , say " I bought herbs not think someone used a shovel think someone used a shovel to The use of multi-defined words requires the author The goal of clear concise communication is that of clear concise communication is that the receiver(s clear concise communication is that the receiver(s ) An exception to this could include this could include a politician whose "weasel words could include a politician whose "weasel words " include a politician whose "weasel words " and are words whose senses express closely related concepts I have a good daughter " is mean that he ate those cookies , you will need an entrance fee you will need an entrance fee of mean that you need EITHER ten dollars

mean that you need your license semantic and syntactic ambiguity go hand in hand We saw her duck " is Spoken language can contain many more types of contain many more types of ambiguities which Metonymy involves referring to one entity of critical semiotics , metonymy encompasses critical semiotics , metonymy encompasses any potentially ambiguous word substitution , metonymy encompasses any potentially ambiguous word substitution that metonymy encompasses any potentially ambiguous word substitution that is encompasses any potentially ambiguous word substitution that is based example , a politician might say will think they oppose taxes think they oppose taxes in may think they oppose only those taxes think they oppose only those taxes that — an opponent can turn a positive statement an opponent can turn a positive statement into ) , there is much greater tolerance , there is much greater tolerance of there is much greater tolerance of ambiguity argued that the relation between the subject In Heidegger's phenomenology , Dasein is Heidegger's phenomenology , Dasein is always Dasein is always in a meaningful world certain , they have little , they have little to they have little to do in phenomenological ontology " Jean-Paul Sartre follows phenomenological ontology " Jean-Paul Sartre follows Heidegger " Jean-Paul Sartre follows Heidegger in Jean-Paul Sartre follows Heidegger in defining Simone de Beauvoir tries to base an ethics It has been a matter of based on the authoritative certainty given by It is in the knowledge of Following Ernest Becker , he argues Ernest Becker , he argues that On this basis , he argues this basis , he argues that , ambiguity can be a useful tool Groucho Marx's classic joke depends on a grammatical ambiguity for It is common practice to omit sees formula 2 , there is formula 2 , there is no way , there is no way to there is no way to distinguish Creators of algorithmic languages try to The order of operations may depend the insertion of parentheses is required The expression formula 23 means formula 24 in formula 23 means formula 24 in several texts

general , formula 30 means formula 31 an "unwritten rule " : the state is Such ambiguities easily lead to confusions Expression formula 40 may mean a state with an ambiguous term should be preceded by should be preceded by the definition be preceded by the definition , preceded by the definition , suitable The Berry paradox arises as a result of Terms of this kind give rise Lojban and Loglan are two related languages and Loglan are two related languages which Loglan are two related languages which have are two related languages which have been Languages composed from many diverse sources contain The analysis of a protein three-dimensional structure consists in Christianity and Judaism employ the concept Many Christians and Jews endorse Rudolf Otto's description The orthodox Catholic writer G. K. Chesterton regularly employed paradox to The music of Africa is often In visual art , certain images are visual art , certain images are visually In social psychology , ambiguity is social psychology , ambiguity is a factor , ambiguity is a factor used ambiguity is a factor used in on a park bench ) make witnesses a park bench ) make witnesses less to the new standard — this led the new standard — this led to — this led to a "new" ambiguity this led to a "new" ambiguity in Abel is a Biblical figure in the Book of Genesis He was the younger brother of Cain He was a shepherd who offered was a shepherd who offered his firstborn flock God accepted his offering but not his brother His name in Hebrew is composed In Jesus speaks of Abel Jesus speaks of Abel as [ speaks ] better things than Abel is invoked in the litany the soul of Abel is described summons Hibil , whom the King of Light Hibil , whom the King of Light proceeds Hibil is dispatched to the World of Darkness He descends to the world of Shdum directs Hibil further down Hibil ascends , sealing the abodes to the Right Ginza , Hibil assumes the Right Ginza , Hibil assumes the appearance

, Hibil assumes the appearance of Hibil assumes the appearance of Anathan Hibil asks Qin what they asks Qin what they are Qin had also revealed the mysteries Hibil disguises himself as Gaf He leads her out of Hibil offers prayers to the King of Light Shi'a are frequent visitors of this mosque Orycteropus afer ) is a medium-sized, burrowing, nocturnal mammal native It is the only living species of the order Unlike most other insectivores , it has most other insectivores , it has a long pig-like snout , it has a long pig-like snout , it has a long pig-like snout , which has a long pig-like snout , which is It roams over most of , it subsists on ants it subsists on ants and The animal is listed as "least concern Aardvarks are afrotheres , a clade are afrotheres , a clade which The name "aardvark " is Afrikaans The name "Orycteropus " means burrowing foot , means burrowing foot , and the name rather , it is the sole extant representative , it is the sole extant representative of it is the sole extant representative of the obscure mammalian order The similarities are based on convergent evolution The closest living relatives of the aardvark are the elephant shrews their extinct relatives , these animals form the superorder Afrotheria fossils , Bryan Patterson has concluded concluded that early relatives of the aardvark The first unambiguous tubulidentate was probably "Myorycteropus africanus " The earliest example from the genus "Orycteropus " was thought to be a tubulidentate that The limbs are of moderate length , The front feet have lost the pollex ( Each toe bears a large, robust nail which is bears a large, robust nail which is somewhat considered digitigrade , it appears digitigrade , it appears at , it appears at times it appears at times to It is tall at the shoulder It is the largest member of the proposed clade Afroinsectiphilia its legs tend to have longer hair The hair surrounding its nostrils is dense The greatly elongated head is set on a short, thick neck

The head of the aardvark contains many unique and different features having a pulp cavity , each tooth has a pulp cavity , each tooth has a cluster , each tooth has a cluster of each tooth has a cluster of thin, hexagonal, upright, parallel tubes The number of columns is dependent The teeth have no enamel coating and are The aardvark is born with conventional incisors a dental formula of : These remaining teeth are The sides of the nostrils are thick The tip of the snout is highly The fleshy dividing tissue between its nostrils probably has has sensory functions , but it of turbinate bones , the aardvark has turbinate bones , the aardvark has more space , the aardvark has more space for the aardvark has more space for the moist epithelium The nose contains nine olfactory bulbs , more Its keen sense of smell is not The aardvark has a long, thin, snakelike, protruding tongue ( as The aardvark's stomach has a muscular pyloric area that acts has a muscular pyloric area that acts as Both sexes emit a strong smelling secretion from an anal gland ring the neck ; their output is the neck ; their output is what Aardvarks are found in sub-Saharan Africa They spend the daylight hours in dark burrows is swamp forest , as the high water table precludes They also avoid terrain rocky They are present throughout sub-Saharan Africa Aardvarks live for up to 23 years in Its keen hearing warns it of predators Some humans also hunt aardvarks for the only fruit eaten by aardvarks is eaten by aardvarks is the aardvark cucumber the cucumber and the aardvark have a symbiotic relationship the aardvark have a symbiotic relationship as they have a symbiotic relationship as they eat to their stringent diet requirements , they require their stringent diet requirements , they require a large range , they require a large range to they require a large range to survive An aardvark emerges from its burrow in food , the aardvark will keep , the aardvark will keep its nose

the aardvark will keep its nose to a foraging period , they will stop It avoids inhaling the dust by ) tongue licks up the insects tongue licks up the insects ; a termite mound , other animals will visit the aardvark , so they look so they look for termites they look for termites that look for termites that are , they can form columns they can form columns long form columns long and these It makes a bleating sound if frightened close it will dig a new one it will dig a new one rapidly at night , they pause night , they pause at , they pause at the entrance they pause at the entrance for watchfulness , it will bound , the aardvark also excavates burrows the aardvark also excavates burrows in Temporary sites are scattered around the home range The aardvark changes the layout of its home burrow The old burrows are an important part of the African wildlife scene they are inhabited by smaller animals are inhabited by smaller animals like inhabited by smaller animals like the African wild dog Other animals that use them are that use them are hares Without these refuges many animals would die these refuges many animals would die during many animals would die during wildfire season the tunnel , it will escape born , the young has flaccid ears , the young has flaccid ears and the young has flaccid ears and many wrinkles it will nurse off each teat , the folds of skin disappear the folds of skin disappear and After 5–6 weeks , body hair starts 5–6 weeks , body hair starts growing They are not considered common There may be a slight decrease in It receives an official designation from the IUCN In African folklore , the aardvark is African folklore , the aardvark is much Hausa magicians make a charm from the heart the chest , the charm is said The supersonic fighter-bomber FB-111 was nicknamed the Aardvark because It also had similarities with the squadron VF-114 was nicknamed the Aardvarks Its name means " earth-wolf "

It is also called "maanhaar-jackal the aardwolf does not hunt large animals one aardwolf can lap up as many as 250,000 termites The aardwolf lives in the shrublands of The aardwolf is the only surviving species in the subfamily Protelinae The generic name "proteles " comes from two words The aardwolf resembles a very thin striped hyena , but It also has one or two diagonal stripes down The mane is raised during confrontations It is missing the throat spot that is missing the throat spot that others missing the throat spot that others in This makes the aardwolf , the smallest extant member The front feet have five toes each , It does still have canines Aardwolves live in open, dry plains and found in regions where termites Termites of this family depend on There are two distinct populations : one In fact , they live fact , they live as , they live as monogamous pairs they live as monogamous pairs with , they will chase the intruder they will chase the intruder up The majority of incursions occur during The territory is marked by both sexes is marked by both sexes , marked by both sexes , as Aardwolves also have scent glands on They often mark near termite mounds An aardwolf pair may have up to 10 dens , have up to 10 dens , and numerous feces at their middens , they dig their middens , they dig a small hole , they dig a small hole and they dig a small hole and cover They will also dig their own dens Aardwolves are not fast runners nor , it may raise its mane it may raise its mane in The aardwolf feeds primarily on termites This genus of termites has different species in central Africa , they eat central Africa , they eat " they eat " Trinervitermes rhodesiensis Their technique consists of licking them They locate their food by sound They do not destroy the termite mound They often memorize the location of of midwinter , the primary termites become midwinter , the primary termites become scarce

these times , the southern aardwolf will seek the southern aardwolf will seek out "Hodotermes mossambicus aardwolves do not eat carrion they do not like meat like meat , unless it The breeding season varies depending on location In South Africa , breeding occurs South Africa , breeding occurs in , breeding occurs in early July During the breeding season , unpaired male aardwolves search the breeding season , unpaired male aardwolves search their own territory , unpaired male aardwolves search their own territory , unpaired male aardwolves search their own territory , as into oestrus , they add oestrus , they add pasting , they add pasting to they add pasting to their tricks mate with the dominant male , which Gestation lasts between 89 and 92 days , producing They are born with their eyes The first six to eight weeks are spent in the den The male may spend up to six hours a After three months , they begin three months , they begin supervised foraging , they begin supervised foraging , they begin supervised foraging , and these factors , the IUCN has rated , the IUCN has rated the aardwolf the IUCN has rated the aardwolf as least concern other areas , the farmers have recognized , the farmers have recognized this the farmers have recognized this , recognized this , but they Aardwolves are rare sights at zoos Adobe ( ;) is a building material the Southwestern United States , the term is used Most adobe buildings are similar in appearance Adobe bricks are rectangular prisms small enough There is no standard size , with In dry climates , adobe structures are dry climates , adobe structures are extremely Adobe buildings offer significant advantages due to Buildings made of sun-dried earth are Adobe had been in use Puebloan peoples built their adobe structures with handsful Adobe bricks were used in Spain Middle Egyptian evolved into Late Egyptian , This was adopted into Arabic This was assimilated into the Old Spanish language An adobe brick is a composite material made of The soil composition typically contains sand ,

Another source quotes 15–25% clay and the remainder sand No more than half the clay content should be expansive clays , hence the adobe must have sufficient compressive strength In the United States , most building codes call the United States , most building codes call for , most building codes call for a minimum compressive strength most building codes call for a minimum compressive strength of The building codes require the building sustain a 1 g lateral acceleration earthquake load Such an acceleration will cause lateral loads on a small resource cost , adobe can serve adobe can serve as a significant heat reservoir the high thermal mass of adobe mediates the high and low temperatures The massive walls require a large and relatively long input of heat Thermodynamic material properties have significant variation in the literature suggest that the standard consideration of conductivity There is an effective R-value for a north is made by placing soft adobe made by placing soft adobe in " Puddle " is a general term Puddle " is a general term for In North America , the brick is North America , the brick is typically The mixture is molded into the frame molded into the frame , which a few hours , the bricks are turned the bricks are turned on edge Reinforcement can include manure , A test is done on the soil content a sample of the soil is mixed adobe wall is significant and foundation settling may cause is significant and foundation settling may cause cracking significant and foundation settling may cause cracking of Modern construction codes call for the use of Adobe bricks are laid by course rise above two stories as they window and door openings , a lintel is placed a lintel is placed on top These protect the adobe wall from water damage be finished with other nontraditional plasters that finished with other nontraditional plasters that provide Across the vigas lie smaller members called the vigas lie smaller members called latillas lie smaller members called latillas and the ends of which were attached Roof design evolved around 1850 in

then 18 inches of dry adobe dirt applied 18 inches of dry adobe dirt applied to The dirt was contoured into a low slope moisture was applied to the roof was applied to the roof the clay particles applied to the roof the clay particles expanded the materials , adobe roofs can be , adobe roofs can be inherently fire-proof Local ordinances , referencing the UBC added requirements These included : restriction of adobe is the Arg-é Bam built by is the Arg-é Bam built by the Achaemenid Empire An adventure is an exciting experience or undertaking is an exciting experience or undertaking that Adventures may be activities with Adventurous experiences create psychological arousal , which create psychological arousal , which can For some people , adventure becomes some people , adventure becomes a major pursuit , adventure becomes a major pursuit in adventure becomes a major pursuit in and excitement : examples are adventure racing : examples are adventure racing and examples are adventure racing and adventure tourism Adventure books may have the theme of Examples include books such as of a quest : the hero goes a quest : the hero goes off the hero goes off in pursuit In video-game culture , an adventure game is video-game culture , an adventure game is a video game , an adventure game is a video game in an adventure game is a video game in which is a video game in which the player The genre's focus on story allows it on story allows it to story allows it to draw Others were personal journals , only There are also books written are also books written by There are many sports classified as Some of these include mountain climbing India offers immense opportunity for adventure lovers ANGLING & FISHING are two remarkable adventure activities among the many others are two remarkable adventure activities among the many others that The Indian Himalaya are an ultimate destination for adventure lovers mountain ranges of India offer ranges of India offer breathtaking, highly challenging trekking routes Mountaineering in India was introduced in India was introduced by

India was introduced by the Europeans was introduced by the Europeans in introduced by the Europeans in the 18th century India offers an exciting mountaineering experience to an adventure sport lover offers a number of high rise peaks that Asia ( ) is a landmass It shares the continental landmass of Eurasia Asia covers an area of , general terms , Asia is bounded Asia is bounded on the east is bounded on the east by bounded on the east by the Pacific Ocean is a historical and cultural construct , as there China was a major economic power and attracted The Silk Road became the main east–west trading route in the Asian hinterlands Asia has exhibited economic dynamism ( Anaximander placed the boundary between Asia the Hellenistic period , this convention was revised was historically defined by European academics The Don River became unsatisfactory to northern Europeans , in 1730 Philip Johan von Strahlenberg published in 1730 Philip Johan von Strahlenberg published a new atlas 1730 Philip Johan von Strahlenberg published a new atlas proposing Philip Johan von Strahlenberg published a new atlas proposing the Ural Mountains The latter had suggested the Emba River as Over the next century various proposals were made the next century various proposals were made until The border had been moved perforce Geographical Asia is a cultural artifact of European conceptions a minority of geographers have rejected Geographically , Asia is the major eastern constituent , Asia is the major eastern constituent of Asia is the major eastern constituent of the continent The English word comes from Latin literature , Before Greek poetry , the Aegean Sea area was Greek poetry , the Aegean Sea area was in , the Aegean Sea area was in a Greek Dark Age the Aegean Sea area was in a Greek Dark Age , The Mycenaean states were destroyed about 1200 BCE by The burning of the palaces caused the clay tablets of the palaces caused the clay tablets holding the palaces caused the clay tablets holding the Mycenaean administrative records caused the clay tablets holding the Mycenaean administrative records to

Some of these are of They were used in trades they were captured in Asia suggests that the names record the locations The name is also in the singular Roman authors translated Ἀσία as Asia The Romans named a province Asia , located There was an Asia Minor and an Asia Major is Greek , it is Greek , it is likely The most likely vehicles were the ancient geographers and historians The first continental use of Asia is attributed He defines it carefully , mentions two Phrygians ( the tribe that The coastal periphery was home to some long been inhabited by horse-mounted nomads been inhabited by horse-mounted nomads who inhabited by horse-mounted nomads who could The earliest postulated expansion out of the steppe is were mostly kept separated by mostly kept separated by mountains kept separated by mountains and The Caucasus and Himalaya mountains and the Karakum and Gobi deserts formed barriers the Karakum and Gobi deserts formed barriers that the steppe horsemen formed barriers that the steppe horsemen could in many cases they could do many cases they could do little they could do little in The Islamic Caliphate's defeats of the Byzantine and Persian empires led to The Mongol Empire conquered a large part of Asia The Ottoman Empire controlled Anatolia , most In the 17th century , the Manchu conquered the 17th century , the Manchu conquered China , the Manchu conquered China and the Manchu conquered China and established The Islamic Mughal Empire and the Hindu Maratha Empire controlled much Asia is the largest continent on Earth It covers 9% of the Earth's total surface area It is located to the east It is bounded on the east is bounded on the east by bounded on the east by the Pacific Ocean Asia is subdivided into 49 countries The Gobi Desert is in Mongolia and The Yangtze River in China is the longest river There are various approaches to the regional division The following subdivision into regions is used It is moist across southeast sections the largest daily temperature ranges on Earth occur ranges on Earth occur in

The monsoon circulation dominates across southern and eastern sections , Southwestern sections of the continent are hot Siberia is one of the coldest places in 2010 by global risk analysis farm Maplecroft identified 2010 by global risk analysis farm Maplecroft identified 16 countries by global risk analysis farm Maplecroft identified 16 countries that global risk analysis farm Maplecroft identified 16 countries that are identified 16 countries that are extremely Each nation's vulnerability was calculated using 42 socio , the largest economies in Asia are the largest economies in Asia are China in Asia are China , Asia are China , Japan on Global Office Locations 2011 , Asia dominated Global Office Locations 2011 , Asia dominated the office locations , Asia dominated the office locations with Asia dominated the office locations with 4 of the top 5 being " , India had the world's largest economy , India had the world's largest economy during India had the world's largest economy during 0 BCE Historically , India was the largest economy , India was the largest economy in India was the largest economy in the world China was the largest and most advanced economy on earth several decades in the late twentieth century Japan was in the late twentieth century Japan was the largest economy the late twentieth century Japan was the largest economy in Japan was the largest economy in Asia : A number of supernational economies are A number of supernational economies are larger early 1990s , Japan's GDP was almost as large (current exchange rate method , Japan's GDP was almost as large (current exchange rate method ) Japan's GDP was almost as large (current exchange rate method ) as was almost as large (current exchange rate method ) as that Goldman Sachs , China will have , China will have the largest economy China will have the largest economy in Asia is the largest continent in the world to Citigroup 9 of 11 Global Growth Generators countries came from Asia Citigroup 9 of 11 Global Growth Generators countries came from Asia driven came from Asia driven by They are Bangladesh , China

Asia has three main financial centers : Hong Kong The increased use of outsourcing has assisted carried out on the sea routes that Individual main routes have emerged from this The main route leads from the Chinese coast south A particularly significant part of the Asian goods traffic is carried In 2010 , Asia had 2010 , Asia had 3.3 million millionaires Citigroup in The Wealth Report 2012 stated The Wealth Report 2012 stated that Asian centa-millionaire stated that Asian centa-millionaire overtook North America's wealth 1970 , is the only country on Its per capita income increased per capita income increased a stunning 21-fold capita income increased a stunning 21-fold over income increased a stunning 21-fold over the last four decades Hong Kong ranked highest among the countries Asia is home to several language families Most Asian countries have more than one language that is have more than one language that is natively Many of the world's major religions have their origins Hindu mythology similarly tells about an avatar Jews are the predominant ethnic group in Israel Outside of Israel there are of Israel there are small ancient Jewish communities Israel there are small ancient Jewish communities in there are small ancient Jewish communities in Turkey In total , there are total , there are 14.4–17.5 million , there are 14.4–17.5 million ( there are 14.4–17.5 million ( 2016, est Christianity is a widespread religion in Asia the predominant religion ; it was introduced it was introduced by the Spaniards was introduced by the Spaniards and introduced by the Spaniards and the Portuguese Georgia , Eastern Orthodoxy is the predominant religion Oriental Orthodoxy are prevalent minority denominations , which are prevalent minority denominations , which are the largest Muslim population in the world is Indonesia in the world is Indonesia , the world is Indonesia , followed The Hajj and Umrah attract large numbers The Baháʼí Faith originated in Asia , Almost all Asian religions have philosophical character and Asian philosophical traditions have philosophical character and Asian philosophical traditions cover Indian philosophy includes Hindu philosophy and Buddhist philosophy They include elements of nonmaterial pursuits

The faith represents around 25% of Asia's population Buddhism has a great following in mainland Southeast Asia Buddhism is the religion of the majority Large Buddhist populations also exist in Singapore Sikhism is found in Northern India He won his Nobel Prize in Literature for notable impact won his Nobel Prize in Literature for notable impact his prose works Ebadi is the first Iranian Another Nobel Peace Prize winner is Aung San Suu Kyi from Burma She is a nonviolent pro-democracy activist and leader She is a Buddhist and was Chinese dissident Liu Xiaobo was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for He is the first Chinese citizen to be Sir C.V. Raman is the first Asian to get Other Asian Nobel Prize winners include Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar , Abdus Salam Dr. Muhammad Yunus of Bangladesh was awarded Dr. Yunus received his PhD in economics The Dalai Lama has received approximately eighty-four awards over On 22 June 2006 , he became 22 June 2006 , he became one , he became one of he became one of only four people On 28 May 2005 , he received 28 May 2005 , he received the Christmas Humphreys Award , he received the Christmas Humphreys Award from he received the Christmas Humphreys Award from the Buddhist Society Curaçao , Aruba forms a group , Aruba forms a group referred Aruba forms a group referred to ; the citizens of these countries are the citizens of these countries are all Aruba has no administrative subdivisions , but of the Caribbean region , Aruba has the Caribbean region , Aruba has a dry climate , Aruba has a dry climate and Aruba has a dry climate and an arid, cactus-strewn landscape The climate has helped tourism , helped tourism , because visitors There has been a human presence on The first identifiable group are the Arawak Caquetío Amerindians who migrated are the Arawak Caquetío Amerindians who migrated from The first Europeans to visit Aruba were Both men described Aruba as an "island Vespucci returned to Spain with Vespucci and Ojeda's tales spurred interest in Aruba Alonso de Ojeda was appointed the island's first governor in

From 1513 the Spanish began enslaving 1513 the Spanish began enslaving the Caquetíos the Spanish began enslaving the Caquetíos , The Netherlands seized Aruba from Spain of colonial administration ; its use increased colonial administration ; its use increased in ; its use increased in the late 19th its use increased in the late 19th and During the Napoleonic Wars , the British Empire took the Napoleonic Wars , the British Empire took control , the British Empire took control of the British Empire took control of the island Aruba subsequently became part of The first oil refinery in Aruba was built was built in 1928 by built in 1928 by Royal Dutch Shell that , another refinery was built another refinery was built by Lago Oil and Transport Company was built by Lago Oil and Transport Company , built by Lago Oil and Transport Company , in The refineries processed crude oil from the vast Venezuelan oil fields World War II , the Netherlands was occupied the Netherlands was occupied by Nazi Germany In August 1947 , Aruba formulated August 1947 , Aruba formulated its first "Staatsreglement , Aruba formulated its first "Staatsreglement " Aruba formulated its first "Staatsreglement " ( That created the Netherlands Antilles , which created the Netherlands Antilles , which united Pueblo , Croes sought greater autonomy , Croes sought greater autonomy for Croes sought greater autonomy for Aruba March 1977 , a referendum was held a referendum was held with the support 82% of the participants voted for In March 1983 , Aruba reached March 1983 , Aruba reached an official agreement , Aruba reached an official agreement within Aruba reached an official agreement within the Kingdom In August 1985 , Aruba drafted August 1985 , Aruba drafted a constitution , Aruba drafted a constitution that Aruba drafted a constitution that was drafted a constitution that was unanimously for its first parliament , Aruba seceded its first parliament , Aruba seceded from , Aruba seceded from the Netherlands Antilles Aruba seceded from the Netherlands Antilles , his death , Croes was proclaimed , Croes was proclaimed "Libertador di Aruba

Croes was proclaimed "Libertador di Aruba " 1985 , Aruba's oil refinery had closed It had provided Aruba with The significant blow to the economy led to Aruba is a generally flat, riverless island in the Leeward Antilles island arc It lies west of Curaçao Aruba has white sandy beaches on the western and southern coasts is where the bulk of the population The hinterland of the island features some rolling hills The Natural Bridge was a large, naturally formed limestone bridge on the island's north shore The flora of Aruba differs from By the Köppen climate classification , Aruba has the Köppen climate classification , Aruba has a hot semi-arid climate , Aruba has a hot semi-arid climate (Köppen "BSh Aruba has a hot semi-arid climate (Köppen "BSh " , the landscape of Aruba is the landscape of Aruba is arid Mean monthly temperature in Oranjestad varies ethnic composition , the population is estimated the features of the islanders clearly indicate , there has been substantial immigration there has been substantial immigration to 2007 , new immigration laws were introduced legal matters , Papiamento is the predominant language , Papiamento is the predominant language used Papiamento is the predominant language used on Papiamento is a Portuguese- and Spanish-based creole language , spoken the government of Aruba has shown among the several Papiamento-speaking islands , there is the several Papiamento-speaking islands , there is a big difference , there is a big difference in there is a big difference in written Papiamento The orthography differs per island , states through eyewitness account that the natives Spanish became an important language in the 18th century Venezuelan TV networks are received on the island Around 13% of the population today speaks Aruba has newspapers published in Roman Catholicism is the dominant religion , practiced is the dominant religion , practiced by Sint Maarten , Aruba is a constituent country , Aruba is a constituent country of Aruba is a constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands defense are handled by the Netherlands the Staten's 21 members are elected by direct, popular vote

are elected by direct, popular vote to elected by direct, popular vote to serve The Aruban legal system is based on the Dutch model In Aruba , legal jurisdiction lies Aruba , legal jurisdiction lies with , legal jurisdiction lies with the "Gerecht legal jurisdiction lies with the "Gerecht in Deficit spending has been a staple in 2006 , the government's debt had grown the government's debt had grown to 1.883 billion Aruban florins In 2006 , the Aruban government changed 2006 , the Aruban government changed several tax laws , the Aruban government changed several tax laws to the Aruban government changed several tax laws to reduce Aruba is one of the overseas countries Defence on Aruba is the responsibility All forces are stationed at Marines base Aruba's educational system is patterned after the Dutch system The island's economy is dominated by four main industries is dominated by four main industries : dominated by four main industries : tourism Aruba has one of the highest standards Gold mining was important in the 19th century Aloe was introduced to Aruba Cornelius Eman founded Aruba Aloe Balm , and two-thirds of the island was covered In 2016 , Aruba had 2016 , Aruba had 0.57 global hectares , Aruba had 0.57 global hectares of Aruba had 0.57 global hectares of biocapacity In 2016 , Aruba used 2016 , Aruba used 6.5 global hectares , Aruba used 6.5 global hectares of Aruba used 6.5 global hectares of biocapacity This means they use almost 12 times the biocapacity means they use almost 12 times the biocapacity that The official exchange rate of the Aruban florin is pegged Until the mid-1980s , Aruba's main industry was the mid-1980s , Aruba's main industry was oil refining , Aruba receives about 1,235,673 (2007) guests Aruba receives about 1,235,673 (2007) guests per Until 2009 , the Netherlands granted 2009 , the Netherlands granted development aid , the Netherlands granted development aid to the Netherlands granted development aid to Aruba This aid was mainly for law enforcement This aid was discontinued at Aruba's request Aruba has a large and well-developed tourism industry , receiving

About of the Aruban gross national product is earned Most tourists are from North America , U.S. Customs and Border Protection (CBP ) has a full pre-clearance facility There are many luxury and lesser luxury hotels This area is also called "Highrise-area Oranjestad is the port for the many cruise ships is the port for the many cruise ships that The cruise industry is a very important pillar of tourism With 334 cruise calls , Aruba received 334 cruise calls , Aruba received 815,161 cruise tourists , Aruba received 815,161 cruise tourists in Aruba received 815,161 cruise tourists in 2018 The 2017/2018 cruise season brought $102.8 million to Aruba's economy , in 2005 there were in 2005 there were ninety-two different nationalities 2005 there were ninety-two different nationalities living there were ninety-two different nationalities living on On 18 March , Aruba celebrates 18 March , Aruba celebrates its National Day 25 January , Betico Croes' birthday is celebrated Dia di San Juan is celebrated on 24 June The festival of Carnaval is also Its celebration in Aruba started in of Aruba was influenced by Aruba was influenced by the Dutch colonial style was influenced by the Dutch colonial style and influenced by the Dutch colonial style and also some Spanish elements the 20th century the architectural style of the island incorporated the architectural style of the island incorporated a more American and international influence Aruba has three ports : Barcadera Nearly one million tourists enter this port per year " Arubus " is a government-owned bus company Its buses operate from 3:30 a.m. until power ; its eponymous plant was one ; its eponymous plant was one of its eponymous plant was one of the world's largest desalination plants Average daily consumption in Aruba is about N.V. Elmar is the sole distributor of electricity There are two telecommunications providers : government-based Setar The Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union was an agreement among the 13 original states It was approved after much debate The Articles of Confederation came into force on A guiding principle of the Articles was to During the ratification process , the Congress looked

the ratification process , the Congress looked to , the Congress looked to the Articles the Congress looked to the Articles for govern the continually growing American states , delegates discovered the continually growing American states , delegates discovered that , some prominent political thinkers in the fledgling union began some prominent political thinkers in the fledgling union began asking Their hope was to create a stronger government the Articles , a meeting was set a meeting was set in Philadelphia the government under the Articles was replaced Civil disobedience resulted in coercive and quelling measures , These actions eroded the number of Crown Loyalists of constitution writing — most states were constitution writing — most states were busy most states were busy at the task During the war , Congress exercised the war , Congress exercised an unprecedented level , Congress exercised an unprecedented level of Congress exercised an unprecedented level of political, diplomatic, military and economic authority into a legitimate nation , the colonists needed a legitimate nation , the colonists needed international recognition , the colonists needed international recognition for the colonists needed international recognition for their cause In early 1776 , Thomas Paine argued early 1776 , Thomas Paine argued in , Thomas Paine argued in the closing pages Thomas Paine argued in the closing pages of expected to aid those they Foreign courts needed to have American grievances Without such a declaration , Paine concluded such a declaration , Paine concluded , , the records of the Second Continental Congress show the records of the Second Continental Congress show that of the Second Continental Congress show that the need the Second Continental Congress show that the need for show that the need for a declaration the same time , he also urged , he also urged Congress he also urged Congress to Congress then created three overlapping committees to Afterward , there were long debates , there were long debates on there were long debates on such issues the constitution , Congress was forced The Articles of Confederation was submitted to the states December 16, 1777 ; 12 states had ratified

; 12 states had ratified the Articles 12 states had ratified the Articles by During this time , Congress observed this time , Congress observed the Articles , Congress observed the Articles as Congress observed the Articles as its de facto frame Maryland finally ratified the Articles on The Articles of Confederation contain a preamble, thirteen articles , a conclusion The individual articles set the rules for current and future operations Under the Articles , the states retained the Articles , the states retained sovereignty , the states retained sovereignty over the states retained sovereignty over all governmental functions However Congress had no power to Congress had no power to compel No progress was made in Congress on the petitions , Knox wrote the petitions , Knox wrote to , Knox wrote to Gouverneur Morris Knox wrote to Gouverneur Morris , , each of the states had each of the states had an army claimed that state politicians understood their duty The 1783 Treaty of Paris , which The resulting paralysis embarrassed and frustrated many American nationalists There never will be money the 1786 Jay–Gardoqui Treaty with Spain also showed it could not compel the British army Confederation , the central government's power was kept the central government's power was kept quite limited The Confederation Congress could make decisions but it could only request money by Congress , the continental dollars depreciated In 1779 , George Washington wrote 1779 , George Washington wrote to , George Washington wrote to John Jay George Washington wrote to John Jay , wrote to John Jay , who Some States paid off their war debts and , the Confederation Congress did take two actions the Confederation Congress did take two actions with The Land Ordinance of 1785 established both the general practices Frontier lands were surveyed into the now-familiar squares The Northwest Ordinance of 1787 noted the agreement of 1787 noted the agreement of 1787 noted the agreement of the original states noted the agreement of the original states to The Northwest Ordinance of 1787 also made No new states were admitted to the Union

The Articles provided for a blanket acceptance of the presiding officer of Congress — referred There were 10 presidents of Congress The peace treaty left the United States independent and The Articles envisioned a permanent confederation but granted There was no president , no executive agencies The absence of a tax base meant that of a tax base meant that there a tax base meant that there was meant that there was no way the British blockade , the new nation was regaining , the new nation was regaining its prosperity trade opportunities were restricted by the mercantilism were restricted by the mercantilism of restricted by the mercantilism of the British and French empires The ports of the British West Indies were closed were closed to all staple products which France and Spain established similar policies Simultaneously , new manufacturers faced sharp competition , new manufacturers faced sharp competition from new manufacturers faced sharp competition from British products faced sharp competition from British products which increased the anxiety of the political and economic elites which The Continental Congress printed paper money which was printed paper money which was so Congress could not levy taxes of the United States , he found the United States , he found it Demands were made for favors made for favors and there each State acted individually against Great Britain By 1787 Congress was unable 1787 Congress was unable to The Second Continental Congress approved the Articles for distribution A copy was made for each state made for each state and one Congress began the signing process by examining On July 9, 1778 , the prepared copy was July 9, 1778 , the prepared copy was ready They dated it and began They also requested each of delegates signed at the next meeting they , John Wentworth of New Hampshire added John Wentworth of New Hampshire added his name Georgia signed on July 24 , Maryland refused to ratify the Articles the United States , felt that the Articles February 2, 1781 , the much-awaited decision was taken the much-awaited decision was taken by the Maryland General Assembly

was taken by the Maryland General Assembly in taken by the Maryland General Assembly in Annapolis signed and sealed by Governor Thomas Sim Lee Congress had debated the Articles for Many participants in the original debates were no , Charles Pinckney of South Carolina proposed Charles Pinckney of South Carolina proposed that of South Carolina proposed that Congress South Carolina proposed that Congress revise proposed that Congress revise the Articles of Confederation Recommended changes included granting Congress power Historians have given many reasons for Rakove identifies several factors that explain identifies several factors that explain the collapse The lack of compulsory direct taxation power was objectionable It could not collect customs The second group of factors Rakove identified , holders of war scrip and land speculators wanted holders of war scrip and land speculators wanted a central government of war scrip and land speculators wanted a central government to war scrip and land speculators wanted a central government to pay North Carolina believed that " the authority The apparent tension between these two provisions was addressed In 1788 , James Madison remarked 1788 , James Madison remarked ( Nevertheless , it is a historical and legal question , it is a historical and legal question whether it is a historical and legal question whether opponents is a historical and legal question whether opponents of At the time , there were the time , there were state legislators , there were state legislators who there were state legislators who argued were state legislators who argued that Modern scholars such as Francisco Forrest Martin agree as Francisco Forrest Martin agree that the Articles of Confederation Francisco Forrest Martin agree that the Articles of Confederation had On July 3, 1788 , the Congress received July 3, 1788 , the Congress received New Hampshire's all-important ninth ratification , the Congress received New Hampshire's all-important ninth ratification of the Congress received New Hampshire's all-important ninth ratification of the proposed Constitution following day delegates considered a bill day delegates considered a bill to delegates considered a bill to admit 11 of the 13 states had ratified Saturday, September 13, 1788 , the Confederation Congress voted the resolve

, the Confederation Congress voted the resolve to the Confederation Congress voted the resolve to implement It covers approximately 20% of Earth's surface The Atlantic Ocean occupies an elongated, S-shaped basin extending longitudinally the south ( other definitions describe south ( other definitions describe the Atlantic ( other definitions describe the Atlantic as other definitions describe the Atlantic as extending The oldest known mentions of an "Atlantic" sea come from In these uses , the name refers these uses , the name refers to , the name refers to Atlas the name refers to Atlas , The pond is a term often used is a term often used by The Atlantic Ocean is bounded on the west It connects to the Arctic Ocean through The Atlantic has irregular coasts indented by has irregular coasts indented by numerous bays These include the Baltic Sea , Black Sea Including its marginal seas , the Atlantic covers its marginal seas , the Atlantic covers an area , the Atlantic covers an area of the Atlantic covers an area of or Excluding its marginal seas , the Atlantic covers its marginal seas , the Atlantic covers and the Atlantic covers and has a volume The bathymetry of the Atlantic is dominated of the Atlantic is dominated by the Atlantic is dominated by a submarine mountain range is dominated by a submarine mountain range called dominated by a submarine mountain range called the Mid-Atlantic Ridge The MAR divides the Atlantic longitudinally into The MAR rises above the surrounding ocean floor and The MAR produces basaltic volcanoes in Eyjafjallajökull The remainder of the ridge was discovered was discovered in the 1920s by discovered in the 1920s by the German "Meteor" expedition Most of the MAR runs under The Atlantic is surrounded by passive margins is surrounded by passive margins except surrounded by passive margins except at There are numerous submarine canyons off north-eastern North America The USS "Stewart " used a Navy Sonic Depth Finder to This involved little guesswork because the idea involved little guesswork because the idea of Maximum temperatures occur north of the equator

The Coriolis effect circulates North Atlantic water in a clockwise direction ; surface water salinity in the open ocean ranges surface water salinity in the open ocean ranges from , the lowest values are in the high latitudes the lowest values are in the high latitudes and The Atlantic Ocean consists of four major, upper water masses with The Atlantic Subarctic Upper Water in the northernmost North Atlantic is the source divided into the Eastern and Western North Atlantic central Water since the western part The eastern water is saltier because of There are five intermediate waters : four low-salinity waters are five intermediate waters : four low-salinity waters formed Arctic Intermediate Water , flows from north These two intermediate waters have different salinity in the western and eastern basins The NADW is fed by a flow is fed by a flow of fed by a flow of warm shallow water the North Atlantic , surface circulation is dominated surface circulation is dominated by three inter-connected currents is dominated by three inter-connected currents : dominated by three inter-connected currents : the Gulf Stream of the North Atlantic Gyre , the cyclonic North Atlantic Subpolar Gyre plays the North Atlantic Gyre , the cyclonic North Atlantic Subpolar Gyre plays a key role , the cyclonic North Atlantic Subpolar Gyre plays a key role in the cyclonic North Atlantic Subpolar Gyre plays a key role in climate variability The subpolar gyre forms an important part of the global thermohaline circulation Its eastern portion includes eddying branches of this water is cooled during winter A third of this water becomes part The South Atlantic is dominated by the anti-cyclonic southern subtropical gyre Both these currents receive some contribution from the Indian Ocean is partly masked by a wind-induced Ekman layer The residence time of the gyre is 4.4–8.5 years Other species endemic to the Sargasso Sea include In the early 19th century it was discovered the early 19th century it was discovered that discovered that the southern Sargasso Sea is the spawning ground Climate is influenced by the temperatures is influenced by the temperatures of

influenced by the temperatures of the surface waters release heat , maritime climates are heat , maritime climates are more The oceans are the major source of the atmospheric moisture are the major source of the atmospheric moisture that with latitude ; the warmest zones stretch latitude ; the warmest zones stretch across ; the warmest zones stretch across the Atlantic north the warmest zones stretch across the Atlantic north of The coldest zones are in high latitudes , Ocean currents influence the climate by transporting Europe , the North Atlantic Drift is thought For example , the Gulf Stream helps example , the Gulf Stream helps moderate winter temperatures , the Gulf Stream helps moderate winter temperatures along the Gulf Stream helps moderate winter temperatures along the coastline The Gulf Stream also keeps extreme temperatures from The cold water currents contribute to heavy fog off winter , the Icelandic Low produces frequent storms Icebergs are common from early February Hurricanes are a hazard in the western parts The break-up of Pangaea began in This period also saw the first stages of The formation of the Central American Isthmus closed the Central American Seaway The formation of the isthmus resulted in Geologically , the Northern Atlantic is the area , the Northern Atlantic is the area delimited the Northern Atlantic is the area delimited to The opening of the Northern Atlantic closely followed Seafloor spreading led to the extension Spreading began opening the Labrador Sea around erupted at this time period are found The opening of the North Atlantic caused significant uplift The North Atlantic Ocean contains about 810 seamounts , most contains about 810 seamounts , most of was noted on the first maps that noted on the first maps that included proven problematic and later reconstructions have introduced various deformation zones Etendeka Large Igneous Province produced by the Tristan hotspot resulted produced by the Tristan hotspot resulted in by the Tristan hotspot resulted in an estimated volume It covered an area of in suggest the LIP originally covered a much larger area In the Falkland segment rifting began with

the Falkland segment rifting began with dextral movements rifting began with dextral movements between In the central segment rifting started to the central segment rifting started to break rifting started to break Africa The equatorial segment is the last phase of the break-up Various estimates date the propagation of sea About 50 Ma the opening of the Drake Passage resulted The Gibraltar Arc in the western Mediterranean is migrating the now-submerged plains of the Agulhas Bank were exposed The GCFR is delimited to the north is delimited to the north by delimited to the north by the Cape Fold Belt Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) studies indicate that 80–60,000 years ago a major demographic expansion within Africa the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM ) 20,000 years ago humans had humans had to abandon their initial settlements of the LGM this region was repopulated the LGM this region was repopulated by this region was repopulated by Magdalenian culture Other hunter-gatherers followed in waves interrupted followed in waves interrupted by This human dispersal left abundant traces along the coasts , only some 26,600 molluscs were deposited over 10 kya , and Brazil generated thousands of tons and Brazil generated thousands of tons of Brazil generated thousands of tons of debris The Ertebølle middens in Denmark , described as accompanied by new technologies During the LGM the Laurentide Ice Sheet covered most of the LGM the Laurentide Ice Sheet covered most of northern North America In 1973 , late American geoscientist Paul S. Martin proposed 1973 , late American geoscientist Paul S. Martin proposed a "blitzkrieg" colonization , late American geoscientist Paul S. Martin proposed a "blitzkrieg" colonization of late American geoscientist Paul S. Martin proposed a "blitzkrieg" colonization of the Americas Others later proposed a "three-wave" migration over and atDNA data respectively support neither the "blitzkrieg atDNA data respectively support neither the "blitzkrieg " most likely deliver future hypotheses that likely deliver future hypotheses that will deliver future hypotheses that will , A settlement on Greenland was established Iceland was initially settled 865–930 CE at 1080 CE summer temperatures had reached a maximum 1080 CE summer temperatures had reached a maximum of

Christopher Columbus reached the Americas in 1492 Six years later Vasco da Gama reached India under Vasco da Gama reached India under the Portuguese flag following Vasco da Gama , Pedro Alvares Cabral reached Vasco da Gama , Pedro Alvares Cabral reached Brazil , Pedro Alvares Cabral reached Brazil , Pedro Alvares Cabral reached Brazil , taken reached Brazil , taken by Spain and Portugal monopolized this trade A peace treaty mediated by the Pope divided mediated by the Pope divided the conquered territories by the Pope divided the conquered territories into and slavery quickly reduced the indigenous population slavery quickly reduced the indigenous population of the slave trade , an estimated ten million Africans were exported an estimated ten million Africans were exported as slaves exported as slaves , most Spain ) 1500–1800 was a period ) 1500–1800 was a period of 1500–1800 was a period of sustained growth Colonialism evolved as part of facing the Atlantic , urbanization grew the Atlantic , urbanization grew from , urbanization grew from 8% urbanization grew from 8% in , GDP doubled in Atlantic countries GDP doubled in Atlantic countries but also encased in rock that encased in rock that must Blue whiting reached a 2.4 million tons peak in 2004 Arctic cod reached its lowest levels in the 1960s–1980s fished ; Sand eel is overfished overfished as was capelin which Limited data makes the state of redfishes makes the state of redfishes and During the 21st century some species have shown the 21st century some species have shown weak signs some species have shown weak signs of In 1497 , John Cabot became 1497 , John Cabot became the first Western European , John Cabot became the first Western European since John Cabot became the first Western European since the Vikings became the first Western European since the Vikings to as "Newfoundland Currency " this discovery yielded "Newfoundland Currency " this discovery yielded some 200 million tons " this discovery yielded some 200 million tons of this discovery yielded some 200 million tons of fish In the late 19th and early 20th centuries new fisheries started to

the late 19th and early 20th centuries new fisheries started to exploit new fisheries started to exploit haddock It also expanded the exploited areas from Overfishing in the area was recognised the early 1990s , this finally resulted this finally resulted in the collapse In the Eastern Central Atlantic small pelagic fishes constitute about 50% of the Eastern Central Atlantic small pelagic fishes constitute about 50% of landings Pelagic fish stocks are considered fully fished Almost half of the stocks are fished Round sardinella was an important species in the 1990s Horse mackerel and hake are the most important species the South-West Atlantic , a peak was reached a peak was reached in the mid-1980s reached in the mid-1980s and catches 2013 it is now considered it is now considered overfished Endangered marine species include the manatee , seals Marine pollution is a generic term for the entry The biggest culprits are rivers and with Dover Air Force Base , Delaware was carrying , Delaware was carrying three nuclear bombs Delaware was carrying three nuclear bombs over increased in strength , which it is clear from statistical analyses The ocean mixed layer plays an important role in heat storage This heat uptake provides a time-lag for climate change , Schopenhauer developed an atheistic metaphysical and ethical system that Schopenhauer developed an atheistic metaphysical and ethical system that rejected developed an atheistic metaphysical and ethical system that rejected the contemporaneous ideas He was among the first thinkers in during his lifetime , Schopenhauer had his lifetime , Schopenhauer had a posthumous impact , Schopenhauer had a posthumous impact across Schopenhauer had a posthumous impact across various disciplines Arthur Schopenhauer was born on February 22, 1788 religious ; both supported the French Revolution ; both supported the French Revolution , both supported the French Revolution , and in 1793 , Heinrich moved 1793 , Heinrich moved to , Heinrich moved to Hamburg Heinrich moved to Hamburg — His firm continued trading in Danzig 1797 , Arthur was sent Arthur was sent to Le Havre He seemed to enjoy his two year , Arthur started playing the flute

In 1803 , he accompanied 1803 , he accompanied his parents , he accompanied his parents on he accompanied his parents on a European tour a choice : he could stay he could stay at home He deeply regretted his choice later regretted his choice later because the merchant training He spent twelve weeks of the tour In 1805 , Heinrich drowned 1805 , Heinrich drowned in , Heinrich drowned in a canal Heinrich drowned in a canal near believed that it was suicide He was prone to anxiety even his wife started to doubt his mental health There was , in the father's life Arthur showed similar moodiness during his youth There were other instances of serious mental health history Despite his hardship , Schopenhauer liked his hardship , Schopenhauer liked his father , Schopenhauer liked his father and Schopenhauer liked his father and later Heinrich Schopenhauer left the family with a significant inheritance left the family with a significant inheritance that Arthur Schopenhauer was entitled to control He invested it conservatively in from his mother , he dedicated his mother , he dedicated himself , he dedicated himself to he dedicated himself to studies , he also enjoyed social life he also enjoyed social life among He left the Gymnasium after writing Arthur spent two years as a merchant During this time , he had this time , he had doubts , he had doubts about he had doubts about being In one letter , she wrote one letter , she wrote : He moved to Weimar but He accused his mother of being Arthur concentrated on his studies , concentrated on his studies , which most celebrated of them being celebrated of them being Goethe Arthur attended her parties , usually was also captivated by the beautiful Karoline Jagemann also captivated by the beautiful Karoline Jagemann , captivated by the beautiful Karoline Jagemann , mistress sexuality , Schopenhauer occasionally had to his friend Anthime he claims his friend Anthime he claims that He left Weimar to become There are no written reasons about why are no written reasons about why Schopenhauer

income ; he chose medicine ; he chose medicine due he chose medicine due to Among his notable professors were Bernhard Friedrich Thibaut , his notable professors were Bernhard Friedrich Thibaut , Arnold Hermann Ludwig Heeren He studied metaphysics , psychology regret his medicinal and scientific studies ; he claimed his medicinal and scientific studies ; he claimed that at Göttingen , he spent Göttingen , he spent considerable he spent considerable time studying He arrived at the newly founded University of Berlin for begun her literary career ; she published her literary career ; she published her first book ; she published her first book in she published her first book in 1810 his ; he also found He later mentioned Fichte only He also attended the lectures of on Schleiermacher's lectures show that Schopenhauer Schleiermacher's lectures show that Schopenhauer was Fichte he also read the works he also read the works of Schopenhauer left Berlin in a rush than her ; he considered her ; he considered the relationship ; he considered the relationship an act he considered the relationship an act of He settled for a while in He spent his time in solitude He completed his dissertation at about the same time He became irritated by the arrival She tried to convince him His mother had just published her second book temper Arthur told her that people told her that people would of dubious quality , the Brockhaus publishing firm held dubious quality , the Brockhaus publishing firm held her , the Brockhaus publishing firm held her in the Brockhaus publishing firm held her in high esteem to his mother's prediction , Schopenhauer's dissertation made his mother's prediction , Schopenhauer's dissertation made an impression , Schopenhauer's dissertation made an impression on Schopenhauer's dissertation made an impression on Goethe Schopenhauer's philosophical positions , he was impressed he was impressed by his intellect was impressed by his intellect and impressed by his intellect and extensive scientific education Their subsequent meetings and correspondence were a great honor Schopenhauer soon started writing his own treatise other , their growing theoretical disagreementsand especially Schopenhauer's extreme self-confidence and tactless criticismssoon made

was immediately impressed by the "Upanishads immediately impressed by the "Upanishads " impressed by the "Upanishads " ( He continued his studies by reading loved Hindu texts , he was Hindu texts , he was more His studies on Hindu and Buddhist texts were constrained on Hindu and Buddhist texts were constrained by Hindu and Buddhist texts were constrained by the lack were constrained by the lack of constrained by the lack of adequate literature Schopenhauer read the Latin translation and praised , in May 1814 he left in May 1814 he left Weimar May 1814 he left Weimar and he left Weimar and moved He continued his philosophical studies , enjoyed His friends in Dresden were Johann Gottlob von Quandt His criticisms of local artists occasionally caused occasionally caused public quarrels when he caused public quarrels when he ran He was recommended to the publisher caused an unwanted pregnancy , Schopenhauer left an unwanted pregnancy , Schopenhauer left Dresden , Schopenhauer left Dresden for Schopenhauer left Dresden for a year-long vacation He visited Venice , Bologna He spent the winter months in Rome He enjoyed art , architecture One of his affairs supposedly became He corresponded regularly with his sister She informed him about their financial troubles Arthur offered to share his assets The women managed to receive only thirty percent He shortened his stay in Italy responses to his book he decided to his book he decided to his book he decided to take he decided to take an academic position He contacted his friends at universities He scheduled his lectures to coincide was especially appalled by Hegel's supposedly poor knowledge especially appalled by Hegel's supposedly poor knowledge of appalled by Hegel's supposedly poor knowledge of natural sciences Hegel was also facing political suspicions own , Hegel still voted Only five students turned up to Schopenhauer's lectures in academia , he continued academia , he continued to for his three-year travel , Schopenhauer had his three-year travel , Schopenhauer had an incident , Schopenhauer had an incident with Schopenhauer had an incident with his Berlin neighbor The details of the August 1821 incident are unknown

Schopenhauer enjoyed Italy , where enjoyed Italy , where he It was his last visit to the country the treatment his doctor used suggests syphilis his doctor used suggests syphilis ) He contacted publishers , offering to Berlin , he began Berlin , he began to he began to study Spanish He liked Pedro Calderón de la Barca , Lope de Vega He also made failed attempts to his Berlin years , Schopenhauer occasionally mentioned , Schopenhauer occasionally mentioned his desire Schopenhauer occasionally mentioned his desire to a while he was unsuccessfully courting he was unsuccessfully courting 17-year-old Flora Weiss unsuccessfully courting 17-year-old Flora Weiss , who courting 17-year-old Flora Weiss , who was His unpublished writings from that time show that from that time show that he that time show that he was He had an on-and-off relationship with a young dancer an unnamed foreign diplomat ( she soon had ( she soon had another pregnancy she soon had another pregnancy but soon had another pregnancy but the child had another pregnancy but the child was to a cholera epidemic , he offered a cholera epidemic , he offered to he offered to take her Frankfurt , he supposedly had , he supposedly had another supernatural experience he supposedly had another supernatural experience , This experience led him to spend in Frankfurt , he experienced Frankfurt , he experienced a period , he experienced a period of he experienced a period of depression He renewed his correspondence with his mother Johanna's writing did not bring her much income bring her much income , and her popularity In July 1832 Schopenhauer left Frankfurt July 1832 Schopenhauer left Frankfurt for Schopenhauer left Frankfurt for Mannheim In 1836 , he published 1836 , he published " he published " On the Will In 1836 , he sent 1836 , he sent his essay , he sent his essay " he sent his essay " On He sent another essay , " , was enraged by this rejection He published both essays as " he was still pouring insults after some negotiations , he managed

some negotiations , he managed to he managed to convince his publisher Schopenhauer began to attract some followers He jokingly referred to them One of the most active early followers was Julius Frauenstädt the most active early followers was Julius Frauenstädt , who was Julius Frauenstädt , who wrote to his ideas , Frauenstädt continued his ideas , Frauenstädt continued to Frauenstädt continued to promote Schopenhauer's work They renewed their communication in 1859 In 1848 , Schopenhauer witnessed 1848 , Schopenhauer witnessed violent upheaval , Schopenhauer witnessed violent upheaval in Schopenhauer witnessed violent upheaval in Frankfurt He became worried for his own safety in life he had had life he had had such worries he had had such worries and He gave a friendly welcome to Austrian soldiers gave a friendly welcome to Austrian soldiers who The rebellion passed without any loss to He even modified his will , In 1851 , Schopenhauer published 1851 , Schopenhauer published " , Schopenhauer published " Parerga Schopenhauer published " Parerga and It was his first successful, widely read book , partly that proved most popular were most popular were the ones that popular were the ones that actually were the ones that actually did In 1856 , the University of Leipzig sponsored 1856 , the University of Leipzig sponsored an essay contest , the University of Leipzig sponsored an essay contest about the University of Leipzig sponsored an essay contest about Schopenhauer's philosophy Schopenhauer's friend Jules Lunteschütz made the first Schopenhauer seemed flattered and amused seemed flattered and amused by People visited Frankfurt's "Englischer Hof " to Admirers gave him gifts and He remained healthy in his own old age He had a great appetite and could ; in September he suffered in September he suffered inflammation September he suffered inflammation of he suffered inflammation of the lungs to him , Schopenhauer was him , Schopenhauer was concerned He died of pulmonary-respiratory failure on Schopenhauer saw his philosophy as an extension his main work : " The world is : " The world is my representation " The world is my representation (

The world is my representation ( " that belongs to the world is In November 1813 Goethe invited Schopenhauer November 1813 Goethe invited Schopenhauer to Goethe invited Schopenhauer to help matter , he accepted the invitation , he accepted the invitation out he accepted the invitation out of admitted that it was Hume's skeptical assault this : Kant simply declared declared that the empirical content of perception having an external cause , the external world arises With vision , finding the cause of perception ; the senses furnish perception ; the senses furnish the raw material ; the senses furnish the raw material by the senses furnish the raw material by which furnish the raw material by which the intellect beyond representation , the world considered representation , the world considered " The empirical world that appears to us , each element of this multiplicity has each element of this multiplicity has the same blind essence Human rationality is merely a secondary phenomenon that is merely a secondary phenomenon that does Schopenhauer argues , serve the ends of sufficient reason : a person's actions are sufficient reason : a person's actions are a necessary consequence : a person's actions are a necessary consequence of a person's actions are a necessary consequence of motives Necessity extends to the actions of Albert Einstein quoted the Schopenhauerian idea that " quoted the Schopenhauerian idea that " a man salvation from our miserable existence can come stems from the insight that the world A temporary way to escape this pain is one moves away from ordinary cognizance From this aesthetic immersion , one is this aesthetic immersion , one is no one is no longer an individual is no longer an individual who Art is the practical consequence of this brief aesthetic contemplation Daniel Albright , " Schopenhauer thought thought that music was the only art Schopenhauer's realist views on mathematics are evident asserts that the task of ethics Reality in itself is free is relevant for ethics are for ethics are individuals who ethics are individuals who can are individuals who can act to us , the egoist asserts

us , the egoist asserts a gap , the egoist asserts a gap between the egoist asserts a gap between two individuals What motivates the altruist is compassion The suffering of others is for Schopenhauer calls the principle through which calls the principle through which multiplicity we behold nature we see behold nature we see that nature we see that it see that it is a cruel battle the only thing that exists , has that exists , has no other option There are no delays or reprieves punishment is tied to the offence Tormenter and tormented are one Suffering is the moral outcome of our attachment abhor life itself since he affirm life , but exhibit They welcome poverty and neither Human life is a ceaseless struggle for satisfaction of evolution , a claim met evolution , a claim met with , a claim met with satisfaction a claim met with satisfaction by " , Schopenhauer described himself , Schopenhauer described himself as Schopenhauer described himself as a proponent Schopenhauer shared the view of Thomas Hobbes Schopenhauer did not give much thought and a few continent-shaking wars , he maintained a few continent-shaking wars , he maintained his position , he maintained his position of he maintained his position of " He wrote many disparaging remarks about Germany Schopenhauer claimed , punishes criminals It places " beside every possible motive the criminal code is as complete a register All this is due to the fact of the United States , he condemned the United States , he condemned " , he condemned " those devils he condemned " those devils in Blondes prefer dark persons , or of the pole , are they the pole , are they indigenous I may here express my opinion made to them he is to them he is furious them he is furious and Europe ; for it is ; for it is a religion for it is a religion without it is a religion without any metaphysical tendency " , Schopenhauer expressed opposition , Schopenhauer expressed opposition to Schopenhauer expressed opposition to what

expressed opposition to what he Schopenhauer's writings influenced many , from in 1859 , he was 1859 , he was much was much impressed by the young woman's wit with Ney , he told Ney , he told Richard Wagner's friend , he told Richard Wagner's friend Malwida von Meysenbug he told Richard Wagner's friend Malwida von Meysenbug : ) , Schopenhauer added an appendix , Schopenhauer added an appendix to Schopenhauer added an appendix to his chapter wrote that pederasty has the benefit Schopenhauer ends the appendix with the statement Schopenhauer viewed personality and intellect mental faculties , we are led we are led to the view led to the view that a real and thorough improvement Plato had something of the kind In another context , Schopenhauer reiterated another context , Schopenhauer reiterated his eugenic thesis , Schopenhauer reiterated his eugenic thesis : Schopenhauer reiterated his eugenic thesis : " This proposal constitutes my Utopia and my Platonic Republic of his monistic philosophy , Schopenhauer was his monistic philosophy , Schopenhauer was very desire ; it is the closest word ; it is the closest word we it is the closest word we have is the closest word we have that In 1841 , he praised 1841 , he praised the establishment , he praised the establishment in he praised the establishment in London Schopenhauer considered India as " It has been the solace of They met during the winter of 1813–1814 in Majer was a follower of Herder Schopenhauer did not begin serious study This was through his neighbor of Krause was then a minor and rather unorthodox philosopher who was then a minor and rather unorthodox philosopher who attempted Krause had also mastered Sanskrit He called the opening up of Schopenhauer noted a correspondence between his doctrines suffering is caused by desire is caused by desire ( caused by desire ( taṇhā over the intellect ; desire is the intellect ; desire is prior desire is prior to thought truth , I should have any case , it must be , it must be a pleasure it must be a pleasure to

Schopenhauer's philosophy more than any other Dharmic faith loses more than any other Dharmic faith loses credence than any other Dharmic faith loses credence since any other Dharmic faith loses credence since he loses credence since he did They are included in a recent case study are included in a recent case study that included in a recent case study that traces Schopenhauer grounded magic in the Will and claimed This theory notably parallels Aleister Crowley's system of to Schopenhauer's overarching system , this amounts Schopenhauer's overarching system , this amounts to Schopenhauer rejected the theory of disenchantment In his student years , Schopenhauer went his student years , Schopenhauer went more ; Schopenhauer especially liked the operas Schopenhauer especially liked the operas of As a polyglot , he knew a polyglot , he knew German, Italian, Spanish, French, English, Latin and ancient Greek , he knew German, Italian, Spanish, French, English, Latin and ancient Greek , he knew German, Italian, Spanish, French, English, Latin and ancient Greek , and Schopenhauer saw Bruno and Spinoza Consequently , there is no place , there is no place for there is no place for God Schopenhauer expressed regret that Spinoza expressed regret that Spinoza stuck it could be considered complete Kant's philosophy was the foundation of Schopenhauer Kant , causality can find , causality can find application causality can find application on this reasoning was also acknowledged by was also acknowledged by Schopenhauer Schopenhauer reserved his most unqualified damning condemnation for Hegel ) , Hegel was a "commonplace, inane , Hegel was a "commonplace, inane , Hegel was a "commonplace, inane , loathsome , Schopenhauer wrote in the preface Schopenhauer wrote in the preface to Schopenhauer remained the most influential German philosopher until the First World War His philosophy was a starting point for a new generation His legacy shaped the intellectual debate , and was well read by physicists well read by physicists , read by physicists , most notably Einstein Einstein described Schopenhauer's thoughts as a "continual consolation In his Berlin study three figures hung on his Berlin study three figures hung on the wall

the West " ) he considered ) he considered switching his study he considered switching his study of He maintained the idealistic views during the rest But most of all Schopenhauer is most of all Schopenhauer is famous Richard Wagner became one of the earliest and most famous adherents he has been nicknamed "the artist's philosopher read Schopenhauer's philosophy , Tolstoy exclaimed Schopenhauer's philosophy , Tolstoy exclaimed " It is the whole world in an incomparably beautiful and clear reflection strongly influenced by Schopenhauer were influenced by Schopenhauer were Thomas Mann by Schopenhauer were Thomas Mann , Billy Budd " , he read " , he read Schopenhauer's essays , he read Schopenhauer's essays and he read Schopenhauer's essays and marked " With his truths Schopenhauer gave With his truths Schopenhauer gave me his truths Schopenhauer gave me a spiritual world Schopenhauer gave me a spiritual world and in his career , Ludwig Wittgenstein adopted his career , Ludwig Wittgenstein adopted Schopenhauer's epistemological idealism , Ludwig Wittgenstein adopted Schopenhauer's epistemological idealism , Ludwig Wittgenstein adopted Schopenhauer's epistemological idealism , and adopted Schopenhauer's epistemological idealism , and some traits on , Wittgenstein rejected epistemological transcendental idealism , Wittgenstein rejected epistemological transcendental idealism for Wittgenstein rejected epistemological transcendental idealism for Gottlob Frege's conceptual realism In later years , Wittgenstein became later years , Wittgenstein became highly mathematics , the Dutch mathematician L. E. J. Brouwer incorporated , the Dutch mathematician L. E. J. Brouwer incorporated Kant's and Schopenhauer's ideas the Dutch mathematician L. E. J. Brouwer incorporated Kant's and Schopenhauer's ideas in It is the second-largest Lusophone (Portuguese-speaking) country in It is bordered by Namibia is bordered by Namibia to bordered by Namibia to the south Angola has an exclave province , the province the 19th century , European settlers gradually began After a protracted anti-colonial struggle , Angola achieved a protracted anti-colonial struggle , Angola achieved independence , Angola achieved independence in Angola achieved independence in 1975 The country descended into a devastating civil war the same year has been governed by MPLA been governed by MPLA ever governed by MPLA ever since

Angola has vast mineral and petroleum reserves , and has vast mineral and petroleum reserves , and its economy the government of João Lourenço has made Angola is a member of the United Nations 2021 , the Angolan population is estimated the Angolan population is estimated at 32.87 million The name "Angola " comes from the Portuguese colonial name The toponym was derived by the Portuguese was derived by the Portuguese from derived by the Portuguese from the title was populated predominantly by nomadic Khoi populated predominantly by nomadic Khoi and The Khoi and San peoples were neither pastoralists They were displaced by Bantu peoples were displaced by Bantu peoples arriving displaced by Bantu peoples arriving from - known of these was known of these was the Kingdom of the It established trade routes with other city-states Portuguese explorer Diogo Cão reached the area in 1484 , the Portuguese had established relations the Portuguese had established relations with The Portuguese established their primary early trading post at Soyo Paulo Dias de Novais founded São Paulo de Loanda ( Luanda The Portuguese established several other settlements , forts and trading posts In the 16th century Portugal gained control the 16th century Portugal gained control of Portugal gained control of the coast Life for European colonists was difficult European colonists was difficult and progress During the Portuguese Restoration War , the Dutch West India Company occupied the Portuguese Restoration War , the Dutch West India Company occupied the principal settlement , the Dutch West India Company occupied the principal settlement of the Dutch West India Company occupied the principal settlement of Luanda of the territory was completed by the territory was completed by 1650 The slave trade was abolished in Angola a more progressive administration appointed by Portugal abolished appointed by Portugal abolished slavery by Portugal abolished slavery altogether By the mid-nineteenth century Portugal had established the mid-nineteenth century Portugal had established its dominion Portugal had established its dominion as Until the late 1880s , Portugal entertained the late 1880s , Portugal entertained proposals , Portugal entertained proposals to Portugal entertained proposals to link

The Berlin Conference in 1884–1885 set the colony's borders colonial law , black Angolans were forbidden The first nationalist movements did not take root During the early 1960s they were joined the early 1960s they were joined by they were joined by other associations were joined by other associations stemming joined by other associations stemming from self-determination provoked an armed conflict , which provoked an armed conflict , which erupted with Zaire , Angolan political exiles were Zaire , Angolan political exiles were able of Mobutu Sese Seko's state employment programme , some found Mobutu Sese Seko's state employment programme , some found work , some found work as some found work as middlemen from 1966 was spearheaded by 1966 was spearheaded by Jonas Savimbi was spearheaded by Jonas Savimbi and spearheaded by Jonas Savimbi and the "National Union for the Total Independence of Angola hills north of Luanda came by the Angolan Communist Party , the organisation's leadership remained the Angolan Communist Party , the organisation's leadership remained predominantly , the former harboured strong anti-imperialist views the former harboured strong anti-imperialist views and former harboured strong anti-imperialist views and was The MPLA attempted to move its headquarters were severely hampered by political and military factionalism severely hampered by political and military factionalism , hampered by political and military factionalism , as and the FNLA competed for influence the FNLA competed for influence in This was ratified by the Alvor Agreement was ratified by the Alvor Agreement later that month ratified by the Alvor Agreement later that month , With tacit American and Zairean support the FNLA began massing tacit American and Zairean support the FNLA began massing large numbers the FNLA began massing large numbers of , the MPLA began securing control the MPLA began securing control of Sporadic violence broke out in Luanda The fighting intensified with street clashes in In August 1975 , the MPLA requested August 1975 , the MPLA requested direct assistance , the MPLA requested direct assistance from the MPLA requested direct assistance from the Soviet Union By independence , there were independence , there were over a thousand Cuban soldiers

, there were over a thousand Cuban soldiers in there were over a thousand Cuban soldiers in the country They were kept supplied by were kept supplied by a massive airbridge kept supplied by a massive airbridge carried The persistent buildup of Cuban and Soviet military aid allowed the MPLA of Cuban and Soviet military aid allowed the MPLA to Cuban and Soviet military aid allowed the MPLA to drive allowed the MPLA to drive its opponents Between 1975 and 1991 , the MPLA implemented an economic and political system , the MPLA implemented an economic and political system based the MPLA implemented an economic and political system based on It embarked on an ambitious programme of Under the MPLA , Angola experienced the MPLA , Angola experienced a significant degree , Angola experienced a significant degree of Angola experienced a significant degree of modern industrialisation The MPLA abandoned its former Marxist ideology at its third party congress By May 1991 it reached a peace agreement May 1991 it reached a peace agreement with it reached a peace agreement with UNITA secured a major electoral victory , UNITA objected a major electoral victory , UNITA objected to , UNITA objected to the results UNITA objected to the results of 22 March 2002 , Jonas Savimbi was killed Jonas Savimbi was killed in action UNITA and the MPLA reached a cease-fire UNITA gave up its armed wing and Angola has a serious humanitarian crisis ; the result A drought in 2016 caused the worst food crisis , the Northern Angolan province of Cabinda is the Northern Angolan province of Cabinda is unusual Cabinda borders the Congo Republic to the north to a 1995 census , Cabinda had a 1995 census , Cabinda had an estimated population , Cabinda had an estimated population of Cabinda had an estimated population of 600,000 , is its oil , which is its oil , which has Cabinda's petroleum production from its considerable offshore reserves now accounts the territory of Cabinda has been The Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda-Armed Forces of Cabinda (FLEC-FAC ) announced the virtual Federal Republic of Cabinda

The Angolan government is composed of three branches The legislative branch comprises a 220-seat unicameral legislature , the National Assembly of Angola 2017 President dos Santos stepped Santos stepped down from MPLA leadership the Dos Santos family , Lourenço subsequently sacked , Lourenço subsequently sacked the chief Lourenço subsequently sacked the chief of Both are considered allies of The Constitution of 2010 establishes the broad outlines The legal system is based on Portuguese law a Constitutional Court does not hold the powers Governors of the 18 provinces are appointed of the 18 provinces are appointed by the 18 provinces are appointed by the president of the civil war , the regime came the civil war , the regime came under , the regime came under pressure the regime came under pressure from indirectly , the president controls all other organs , the president controls all other organs of the president controls all other organs of the state in constitutional law , this government falls constitutional law , this government falls under , this government falls under the category this government falls under the category of ) are headed by a Chief are headed by a Chief of headed by a Chief of Staff There are three divisions — the Army Its equipment includes Russian-manufactured fighters , bombers There are also Brazilian-made EMB-312 Tucanos for The National Police departments are Public Order , Criminal Investigation The National Police are in the process of The National Police are developing their criminal investigation and The National Police have implemented a modernisation and development plan to A Supreme Court serves as a court of The Constitutional Court is the supreme body of the constitutional jurisdiction The legal system is based on Portuguese There are 12 courts in more than 140 counties Its first task was the validation of the candidacies 25 June 2008 , the Constitutional Court was institutionalized institutionalized and its Judicial Counselors assumed the position In 2014 , a new penal code took 2014 , a new penal code took effect , a new penal code took effect in a new penal code took effect in Angola

16 October 2014 , Angola was elected Angola was elected for the second time the Republic of Angola has been chairing the International Conference for the Great Lakes Region A 2012 report by the U.S. Department of State said , Angola ranked forty-two of forty-eight sub-Saharan African states It was ranked 39 out 2019 , homosexual acts were decriminalized homosexual acts were decriminalized in Angola Angola has diamonds , oil Angola's economy has in recent years moved China is Angola's biggest trade partner and export destination as well Bilateral trade reached $27.67 billion in 2011 The Angolan economy grew 18% in 2005 to the global recession , the economy contracted the global recession , the economy contracted an estimated −0.3% , the economy contracted an estimated −0.3% in the economy contracted an estimated −0.3% in 2009 The security brought about by the 2002 peace settlement brought about by the 2002 peace settlement has Angola's financial system is maintained by the National Bank of Angola is maintained by the National Bank of Angola and maintained by the National Bank of Angola and managed in the oil sector , Angola faces the oil sector , Angola faces huge social and economic problems These are in part a result " Secondary beneficiaries " are the middle strata Secondary beneficiaries " are the middle strata that " are the middle strata that are are the middle strata that are about in 2008 by the Angolan Instituto Nacional de Estatística found 2008 by the Angolan Instituto Nacional de Estatística found that by the Angolan Instituto Nacional de Estatística found that in found that in rural areas roughly 58% In urban areas social inequality is most urban areas social inequality is most evident Angola has upgraded critical infrastructure , Mortality rates for children fell from , Angola is now the third-largest financial market Angola is now the third-largest financial market in , the Capital Market in Angola started almost entirely driven by rising oil production entirely driven by rising oil production which driven by rising oil production which surpassed Control of the oil industry is consolidated oil production from Angola has increased

to a recent Human Rights Watch report , 32 billion US dollars disappeared a recent Human Rights Watch report , 32 billion US dollars disappeared from , 32 billion US dollars disappeared from government accounts 32 billion US dollars disappeared from government accounts in to this market control , the company ends this market control , the company ends up the company ends up determining the profit out quasi-fiscal activities , it invests quasi-fiscal activities , it invests public funds , it invests public funds , it invests public funds , and This multifarious work programme creates conflicts of interest In 2016 , Angola had 2016 , Angola had 1.9 global hectares , Angola had 1.9 global hectares of Angola had 1.9 global hectares of biocapacity In 2016 , Angola used 2016 , Angola used 1.01 global hectares , Angola used 1.01 global hectares of Angola used 1.01 global hectares of biocapacity This means they use about half as much biocapacity means they use about half as much biocapacity as Agriculture and forestry is an area The country now depends on expensive food imports Angola centers its port trade in five main ports In many areas drivers have established many areas drivers have established alternate tracks drivers have established alternate tracks to The Angolan government has contracted the restoration of the building of an optic fiber underwater cable was announced the First Angolan Forum of Telecommunications and Information Technology was held It was launched from the Baikonur space center The satellite was built by Russia's RSC Energia was built by Russia's RSC Energia , built by Russia's RSC Energia , a subsidiary The satellite payload was supplied by Airbus Defence & Space on 27 December , RSC Energia revealed 27 December , RSC Energia revealed that revealed that they lost communications contact the satellite eventually stopped sending data stopped sending data and RSC Energia The launch of AngoSat-1 was aimed Telecommunications , the satellite was aimed A replacement satellite named AngoSat-2 is in of February 2021 , Ango-Sat-2 was February 2021 , Ango-Sat-2 was about 60% Angola has a population of 24,383,301 inhabitants

It is composed of Ovimbundu (language Umbundu The Ambundu and Ovimbundu ethnic groups combined form a majority of estimated that Angola was host 11,400 of those refugees were originally in 1975 , Angola had 1975 , Angola had a community , Angola had a community of Angola had a community of approximately 350,000 Portuguese currently , there are about 200,000 , there are about 200,000 registered there are about 200,000 registered with The Chinese population stands at 258,920 , The languages in Angola are those are those originally spoken by The most widely spoken indigenous languages are Umbundu , Kimbundu mentions that Portuguese is the first language There are about 1,000 religious communities , mostly Christian the U.S. Department of State estimates the Muslim population at 80,000–90,000 Muslims consist largely of migrants Many regions in this country have high incidence rates ) are other diseases carried by are other diseases carried by insects Angola has one of the highest infant mortality rates ) was created by presidential decree was created by presidential decree , created by presidential decree , and The purpose of this new centre is to In 2014 , Angola launched 2014 , Angola launched a national campaign , Angola launched a national campaign of Angola launched a national campaign of vaccination The measure is part of the Strategic Plan for eight years , the government reports eight years , the government reports that reports that a percentage of pupils In 1999 , the gross primary enrollment rate was 1999 , the gross primary enrollment rate was 74 per cent , the gross primary enrollment rate was 74 per cent and the gross primary enrollment rate was 74 per cent and in There continue to be significant disparities of children ages 7 to 14 years were attending children ages 7 to 14 years were attending school reported that higher percentages of boys The Ministry of Education recruited 20,000 new teachers in 2005 Some teachers may reportedly demand payment , the adult literacy rate in 2011 was the adult literacy rate in 2011 was 70.4% 2015 , this had increased

this had increased to 71.1% In September 2014 , the Angolan Ministry of Education announced September 2014 , the Angolan Ministry of Education announced an investment , the Angolan Ministry of Education announced an investment of the Angolan Ministry of Education announced an investment of 16 million Euros In 2010 , the Angolan government started 2010 , the Angolan government started building , the Angolan government started building the Angolan Media Libraries Network the Angolan government started building the Angolan Media Libraries Network , Each site has a bibliographic archive , multimedia resources The plan envisages the establishment of one media library The project also includes the implementation of this urban culture , Portuguese heritage has become African roots are evident in music In 2014 , Angola resumed 2014 , Angola resumed the National Festival of Angolan Culture , Angola resumed the National Festival of Angolan Culture after Angola resumed the National Festival of Angolan Culture after a 25-year break Basketball is the second most popular sport in Angola Its national team has won the AfroBasket 11 times in Africa , it is Africa , it is a regular competitor , it is a regular competitor at it is a regular competitor at the Summer Olympic Games In football , Angola hosted football , Angola hosted the 2010 Africa Cup of Nations The Angola national football team qualified for the 2006 FIFA World Cup , They were eliminated after one defeat Angola has participated in the World Women's Handball Championship Ethnically , there are three main groups , there are three main groups , there are three main groups , each are three main groups , each speaking Other numerically important groups include the closely interrelated Chokwe and Lunda until 1975 , Angola possesses 1975 , Angola possesses a Portuguese population , Angola possesses a Portuguese population of Angola possesses a Portuguese population of over 200,000 white , 1 million Angolans are mixed race , 1 million Angolans are mixed race ( 1 million Angolans are mixed race ( black In 1974 , white Angolans made 1974 , white Angolans made up

, white Angolans made up a population white Angolans made up a population of The only reliable source on these numbers is Gerald Bender & Stanley Yoder Estimates on the overall population are given the 2000s , many Chinese have settled claim that the Chinese community in Angola In 1974/75 , over 25,000 Cuban soldiers arrived 1974/75 , over 25,000 Cuban soldiers arrived in , over 25,000 Cuban soldiers arrived in Angola over 25,000 Cuban soldiers arrived in Angola to this was over , a massive development cooperation The largest religious denomination is Catholicism , to is Catholicism , to which Roughly 26% are followers of traditional forms one out of 221 people were Registration of vital events is in The population is growing by 3.52% There are 44.2 births and 9.2 deaths The net migration rate is 0.2 migrants per 1,000 citizens The fertility rate of Angola is 6.16 children The infant mortality rate is 67.6 deaths for every 1,000 live births The risk of contracting disease is very Only 0.1% are Muslims - generally immigrants from other African countries Portuguese is the official language of Angola ce="preserve">The Angolan government is composed of three branches , the politics of Angola takes the politics of Angola takes place Executive power is exercised by the government Angola changed from a one-party Marxist-Leninist system ruled changed from a one-party Marxist-Leninist system ruled by The MPLA won an absolute majority in the parliamentary elections In the presidential elections , President José Eduardo dos the presidential elections , President José Eduardo dos Santos President José Eduardo dos Santos won the first round election dos Santos won the first round election with Santos continued to exercise his functions by the constitution of 1992 functioned The executive branch of the government was composed Governors of the 18 provinces were appointed of the 18 provinces were appointed by the 18 provinces were appointed by and The Constitutional Law of 1992 established the broad outlines of government structure The legal system was based on Portuguese Courts operated in only 12 of The ongoing grave economic situation largely prevents any government support for

The President is also provided a variety The general elections in 1997 were rescheduled The ruling party MPLA won 82% ( 191 seats judges of the Supreme Court are appointed of the Supreme Court are appointed by the Supreme Court are appointed by the president Angola remains heavily influenced by remains heavily influenced by the effects heavily influenced by the effects of influenced by the effects of four decades ended , government policy prioritized the repair , government policy prioritized the repair and government policy prioritized the repair and improvement During the first decade of the 21st century , Angola's economy was the first decade of the 21st century , Angola's economy was one , Angola's economy was one of Angola's economy was one of the Corruption is rife throughout the economy has been dominated by the production been dominated by the production of dominated by the production of raw materials across the Atlantic ; Luanda became the Atlantic ; Luanda became the greatest slaving port ; Luanda became the greatest slaving port in Luanda became the greatest slaving port in Africa in 1858 , it began 1858 , it began using , it began using concessional agreements it began using concessional agreements , In Mozambique , this policy spawned Mozambique , this policy spawned a number , this policy spawned a number of this policy spawned a number of companies in Angola , only Diamang showed Angola , only Diamang showed even moderate success At the same time , Portuguese began the same time , Portuguese began emigrating Portuguese began emigrating to Angola , and salt fish joined the principal exports and salt fish joined the principal exports , salt fish joined the principal exports , with joined the principal exports , with small quantities The principal imports were foodstuffs , cotton goods Legislation against foreign traders was implemented World War II , the Portuguese government was concerned It built no roads until the mid-1920s , only 35,000 Portuguese emigrants settled in Angola only 35,000 Portuguese emigrants settled in Angola , the rural areas , Portuguese settlers often found and the parallel requirements for raw materials led

the parallel requirements for raw materials led Portugal In the 1930s , Portugal started the 1930s , Portugal started to Portugal started to develop closer trade ties after the war , the Portuguese government began the war , the Portuguese government began to the Portuguese government began to reinvest some profits the 1950s , Portugal built dams addition , Portuguese citizens were encouraged Finally , the Portuguese initiated mining operations , the Portuguese initiated mining operations for the Portuguese initiated mining operations for iron ore The economy was in complete disarray in which had been abandoned by had been abandoned by their owners been abandoned by their owners ) Many of the white settlers had come , these settlers had appropriated Angolan lands these settlers had appropriated Angolan lands , , Angola's industries depended on trade Angola's industries depended on trade with Only the petroleum and diamond industries boasted a wider clientele for investment the Portuguese had not trained Angolans As a result , the government intervened a result , the government intervened , the government intervened , nationalizing most businesses It established state farms to continue United Nations Angola Verification Mission III and MONUA spent US$1.5 billion overseeing implementation In October 1997 the UN imposed travel sanctions October 1997 the UN imposed travel sanctions on the UN imposed travel sanctions on UNITA leaders between 1986 and 1991 , UNITA made US$1.72 billion between 1994 and 1999 exporting diamonds , UNITA made US$1.72 billion between 1994 and 1999 exporting diamonds , UNITA made US$1.72 billion between 1994 and 1999 exporting diamonds , primarily At the same time the Angolan government received large amounts the same time the Angolan government received large amounts of the Angolan government received large amounts of weapons in late 1998 , the economy grew late 1998 , the economy grew by , the economy grew by an estimated 4% the economy grew by an estimated 4% in An economic reform effort was launched in 1998 Angola ranked 160 of 174 nations In April 2000 Angola started an International Monetary Fund April 2000 Angola started an International Monetary Fund (

Angola started an International Monetary Fund ( IMF) Staff-Monitored Program June 2001 , but the IMF remains the Government of Angola has succeeded The civil war internally displaced 3.8 million people , Angola produced over of diamonds In 2004 , China's Eximbank approved 2004 , China's Eximbank approved a $2 billion line , China's Eximbank approved a $2 billion line of China's Eximbank approved a $2 billion line of credit The economy grew 18% in 2005 The construction industry is taking advantage of ChevronTexaco started pumping from Block 14 Angola joined the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries on January 1, 2007 , output per capita is output per capita is among Subsistence agriculture provides the main livelihood for 85% almost entirely driven by rising oil production entirely driven by rising oil production which driven by rising oil production which surpassed Control of the oil industry is consolidated of the colonial period , Angola was the colonial period , Angola was a major African food exporter , Angola was a major African food exporter but Angola was a major African food exporter but now imports Expanding oil production is now almost half Diamonds provided much of the revenue The following table shows the main economic indicators in 1980–2017 Exports in 2004 reached US$ Nearly all of Angola's oil goes to In the first quarter of 2008 , Angola became the first quarter of 2008 , Angola became the main exporter , Angola became the main exporter of Angola became the main exporter of oil The rest of its petroleum exports go to U.S. companies account for more than half the investment in Angola produces and exports more petroleum In January 2007 Angola became a member January 2007 Angola became a member of Angola became a member of OPEC Block Zero provides the majority of Angola's crude oil production The largest fields in Block Zero are Takula Chevron operates in Block Zero with Angola is the third-largest trading partner of the United States The U.S. imports 7% of its oil Angola is the third largest producer of diamonds Production rose by 30% in

The Angolan government loses $375 million annually from In 2003 , the government began 2003 , the government began Operation Brilliant , the government began Operation Brilliant , the government began Operation Brilliant , an anti-smuggling investigation began Operation Brilliant , an anti-smuggling investigation that Marques called on foreign countries to In December 2014 , the Bureau of International Labor Affairs issued December 2014 , the Bureau of International Labor Affairs issued a "List of Goods Produced by Child Labor , the Bureau of International Labor Affairs issued a "List of Goods Produced by Child Labor or the Bureau of International Labor Affairs issued a "List of Goods Produced by Child Labor or Forced Labor Under Portuguese rule , Angola began Portuguese rule , Angola began mining iron , Angola began mining iron in Angola began mining iron in 1957 , 70% of Portuguese Angola's iron exports went 70% of Portuguese Angola's iron exports went to Reconstruction of these three lines began in began in 2005 and they International and domestic services are maintained by TAAG Angola Airlines are maintained by TAAG Angola Airlines , maintained by TAAG Angola Airlines , Aeroflot ) or FAA is the military or FAA is the military of FAA is the military of Angola The FAA include the General Staff of the Armed Forces Reported total manpower in 2013 was The FAA succeeded to the previous People's Armed Forces for the Liberation of Angola (FAPLA , troops from both armies were troops from both armies were to The Angolan Armed Forces were created on 9 October 1991 The institutionalization of the FAA was made It is organized in six military regions by the six military regions / infantry divisions , there are the six military regions / infantry divisions , there are 25 motorized infantry brigades , there are 25 motorized infantry brigades , there are 25 motorized infantry brigades , one tank brigade The Army also includes an artillery regiment , It is organized in six aviation regiments total about 8,000 ; its equipment includes about 8,000 ; its equipment includes transport aircraft ; its equipment includes transport aircraft and

its equipment includes transport aircraft and six Russian-manufactured Sukhoi Su-27 fighter aircraft Marinha de Guerra de Angola " ) is the naval component It is organized in two naval zones It includes a Marines Brigade and a Marines School to the present the Angolan Navy has shrunk the present the Angolan Navy has shrunk from the Angolan Navy has shrunk from around 4,200 personnel Angola's 1 600 km long coastline , the Angolan Navy is undergoing , the Angolan Navy is undergoing modernisation the Angolan Navy is undergoing modernisation but Portugal has been providing training However the navy acquired new boats from the navy acquired new boats from Spain In September 2014 it was reported September 2014 it was reported that The FAA include several types of special forces The Commandos and the Special forces are part The BRIFE includes two battalions of commandos The BRIFE also included the Special Actions Group (GAE the FAA do not have a specialized paratrooper unit It had 600,000 members , having had both armed and unarmed units dispersed in villages the military health system ; It also promotes ; It also promotes post-graduate education It also promotes post-graduate education and Currently , the Main Military Hospital serves 39 special medical specialties The Supreme Military Court is the highest organ of the hierarchy of the Supreme Military Court are appointed by the Supreme Military Court are appointed by the President are appointed by the President of appointed by the President of the Republic The FAA maintains Portuguese-style military bands in all three branches on 15 August 1998 , the National Air Force created 15 August 1998 , the National Air Force created a music band , the National Air Force created a music band within the National Air Force created a music band within an artistic brigade The FAPLA's main counterinsurgency effort was directed against UNITA The FAPLA first performed its external assistance mission with During the next several years , Angolan forces conducted the next several years , Angolan forces conducted joint exercises , Angolan forces conducted joint exercises with Angolan forces conducted joint exercises with their counterparts

A small number of FAA personnel are stationed 1975 to 1989 , Angola was aligned Angola was aligned with the Eastern bloc In 1993 , it established 1993 , it established formal diplomatic relations , it established formal diplomatic relations with it established formal diplomatic relations with the United States It has entered the Southern African Development Community as Zimbabwe and Namibia joined Angola , it has extended those efforts it has extended those efforts to the same time , Angola has promoted , Angola has promoted the revival Angola has promoted the revival of Robert E. Lee , he was killed Johnston was the highest-ranking Confederate officer killed during Davis believed the loss of General Johnston believed the loss of General Johnston " Johnston was born in Washington His father was a native of Salisbury in Kentucky , he lived Kentucky , he lived much , he lived much of he lived much of his life Both were appointed to the United States Military Academy Johnston was assigned to posts In 1829 , he married 1829 , he married Henrietta Preston , he married Henrietta Preston , he married Henrietta Preston , sister They had one son , William Preston Johnston from 1838 to 1840 , Johnston resigned 1838 to 1840 , Johnston resigned and In 1843 , he married 1843 , he married Eliza Griffin , he married Eliza Griffin , he married Eliza Griffin , his late wife's first cousin The couple moved to Texas , Johnston named the property "China Grove " Here they raised Johnston's two children from they raised Johnston's two children from his first marriage In 1836 , Johnston moved 1836 , Johnston moved to , Johnston moved to Texas He enlisted as a private in He was named Adjutant General as On February 5, 1837 , he fought February 5, 1837 , he fought in , he fought in a duel he fought in a duel with He provided for the defense of The enlistments of Johnston's volunteers ran out Johnston convinced a few volunteers to stay He remained on his plantation after

He served in that role for In 1855, 14th president Franklin Pierce appointed him 1855, 14th president Franklin Pierce appointed him colonel president Franklin Pierce appointed him colonel of in the Utah War , Johnston took the Utah War , Johnston took command , Johnston took command of Johnston took command of the U.S forces reached and in late June 1858 Johnston He received a brevet promotion to brigadier general Johnston was a proponent of slavery In 1846 , he owned 1846 , he owned a family , he owned a family of he owned a family of four slaves from the army payroll , Johnston refused the army payroll , Johnston refused to In 1856 , he called 1856 , he called abolitionism , he called abolitionism "fanatical, idolotrous, negro worshipping he called abolitionism "fanatical, idolotrous, negro worshipping " to California , Johnston sold California , Johnston sold one slave , Johnston sold one slave to Johnston sold one slave to his son Ran accompanied Johnston throughout the Civil War of the American Civil War , Johnston was the American Civil War , Johnston was the commander , Johnston was the commander of Johnston was the commander of the U.S. Army Department the South , he was opposed he was opposed to secession But he resigned his commission soon he resigned his commission soon after resigned his commission soon after he It was accepted by the War Department was accepted by the War Department on accepted by the War Department on May 6, 1861 On April 28 he moved to April 28 he moved to Los Angeles he moved to Los Angeles , Johnston remained there until May , Johnston enlisted in the Los Angeles Mounted Rifles Johnston enlisted in the Los Angeles Mounted Rifles as He participated in their trek across in the Civil War , Confederate President Jefferson Davis decided the Civil War , Confederate President Jefferson Davis decided that before Johnston arrived in the Confederacy's capital Johnston arrived in the Confederacy's capital of Polk and Pillow's action gave Union Brig September 10, 1861 , Johnston was assigned

He became commander of the Confederacy's western armies had been confirmed by the Confederate Senate been confirmed by the Confederate Senate on confirmed by the Confederate Senate on August 31, 1861 his appointment , Johnston immediately headed Johnston immediately headed for his new territory On September 13, 1861 , Johnston ordered September 13, 1861 , Johnston ordered Brig By September 18 , Johnston had September 18 , Johnston had Brig had fewer than 40,000 men spread throughout Kentucky Of these , 10,000 were these , 10,000 were in , 10,000 were in Missouri 10,000 were in Missouri under quickly gain many recruits when he gain many recruits when he first in the East , they gave the East , they gave Johnston , they gave Johnston small numbers they gave Johnston small numbers of Johnston maintained his defense by conducting Gen. William Tecumseh Sherman in Kentucky that he Sherman overestimated Johnston's forces , and was held for the Confederacy by held for the Confederacy by two unimpressive brigadier generals in Richmond , Zollicoffer moved Richmond , Zollicoffer moved his forces , Zollicoffer moved his forces to Zollicoffer moved his forces to the north bank against the Confederates , Crittenden decided the Confederates , Crittenden decided to Crittenden decided to attack one at the Mill Springs , Davis sent the Mill Springs , Davis sent Johnston , Davis sent Johnston a brigade Davis sent Johnston a brigade and He also assigned him Gen. P. G. T. Beauregard assigned him Gen. P. G. T. Beauregard , who The brigade was led by Brig He took command at Fort Donelson Historians believe the assignment of Beauregard believe the assignment of Beauregard to Tennessee initially had sent men Both forts were located in Tennessee Fort Henry on the Tennessee River was in Maj. Gen. Polk ignored the problems of the forts asserted his authority , Polk had his authority , Polk had to Johnston wanted Major Alexander P. Stewart to command join a partisan group , Johnston ordered a partisan group , Johnston ordered him , Johnston ordered him to Johnston ordered him to send