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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Don%20Terry

Don Terry

Film career

Don Terry (born Donald Prescott Loker, August 8, 1902 – October 6, 1988) was an American film actor, best known for his lead appearances in and in the 1930s and early 1940s. Perhaps his best-known role is probably playing the recurring character of Naval Commander in serials of the early 1940s, including (1942) and (1943).

Known for his "typical clean-cut American hero roles", he was signed by as a possible replacement for the studio's veteran action star . Terry was one of several tough-guy heroes (including , , and ) who portrayed "bare-knuckled, sleeves-rolled-up hard hats" in various films. Terry's Columbia "B" features include (1937), (1937), (1937), (1938), and (1938). Terry's portrayals are complemented by his distinct New England accent, which he never completely lost. Don Terry also became a star of serials, his first chapter play being , released by Columbia in 1938. His best-known role is probably playing the recurring character of Naval Commander Don Winslow in serials of the early 1940s, including (1942) and (1943), co-starring . Knox previously worked with Terry in (1942). Terry appeared in (1942) as a scientist, co-starring . Other credits include (1929), (1929), (1941), (1942), (1943) and (1943), his last screen appearance before enlisting in the . He rose to the rank of Lieutenant Commander and was awarded the . He left the Navy in 1946 and never returned to film.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal%20mobilisation

Legal mobilisation

Introduction

Legal mobilisation is a tool available to paralegal and groups, to achieve by supporting a marginalized issues of a stakeholder, in negotiating with the other concerned agencies and other stakeholders, by strategic combined use of along with , media engagement and social mobilisation. As per Frances Kahen Zemans (1983) the Legal mobilisation is "a desire or want, which is translated into a demand as an assertion of one's rights". According to Lisa Vanhala (November 2011) Legal mobilisation in its narrowest sense, may refer to high-profile litigation efforts for (or, arguably, against) or more broadly, term legal mobilisation has been used to describe any type of process by which an individual or collective actors invoke legal norms, discourse, or symbols to influence policy or behavior. This typically means that there are policies or regulations to mobilize around and a mechanism by which to do so. Legislative activity does create an opportunity for legal mobilization. The courts become particularly relevant when petitioners have grounds to file suit.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Poland%20in%20the%20Early%20Modern%20era%20%281569%E2%80%931795%29

History of Poland in the Early Modern era (1569–1795)

Introduction

The early modern era of follows the . Historians use the term to refer to beginning in approximately 1500 AD and lasting until around 1800. The act adopted by the in 1505 transferred from the to the diet. This event marked the beginning of the period known as the "Nobles' Democracy" () or "Nobles' Commonwealth" (). The was ruled by the "free and equal" Polish nobility or , albeit in intense, and at times destabilizing, competition with the and then kings. The of 1569 constituted the , a more closely merged continuation of the already existing of the and the . The beginning of the Commonwealth coincided with the period of Poland's greatest territorial expansion, power, civilizational advancement and prosperity. The Polish–Lithuanian state had become an influential player in Europe and a vital cultural entity, eastward. Following the gains accompanied by religious toleration, the embarked on an ideological counter-offensive and claimed many converts from circles. The disagreements over and the difficulties with the assimilation of the eastern Ruthenian populations of the Commonwealth had become clearly discernible; an attempt to settle the issue was made in the religious . On the military front, a series of took place. The Commonwealth, assertive militarily under King , suffered from dynastic distractions during the reigns of the kings and . It had also become a playground of internal conflicts, in which the kings, powerful magnates and factions of nobility were the main actors. The Commonwealth fought wars with , and the . The situation, however, soon radically deteriorated. From 1648 the engulfed the south and east, and was soon followed by a , which raged through core Polish lands. Warfare with the Cossacks and Russia left divided, with the eastern part, lost by the Commonwealth, becoming the 's dependency. , fighting protracted wars with the Ottoman Empire, revived the Commonwealth's military might once more, in the process helping decisively in 1683 to from a onslaught. The Commonwealth, subjected to , suffered devastating population losses, massive damage to its economy and social structure. The government became ineffective because of large scale internal conflicts (e.g. against and other s), corrupted legislative processes () and manipulation by foreign interests. The "ruling" nobility class fell under control of a handful of powerful families with established territorial domains. The reigns of two kings of the , and , brought the Commonwealth further disintegration. The Polish-Lithuanian state was dominated by the from the time of . This foreign control reached its climax under , and involved at that time also the and the Austrian . During the later part of the 18th century the Commonwealth recovered economically, developed culturally and attempted fundamental internal reforms. The reform activity provoked hostile reaction and eventually military response on the part of the neighboring powers. The of 1764 resulted in the reign of . The of 1768 was a szlachta rebellion directed against Russia and the Polish king. It was brought under control and followed in 1772 by the , a permanent encroachment on the outer Commonwealth provinces by Russia, Prussia and Austria. The was convened by Stanisław August in 1788. The Sejm's landmark achievement was the passing of the , considered the first in modern Europe. The constitutional reform generated strong opposition from conservative circles in the Commonwealth's upper nobility and from Catherine II. The nobility's appealed to Empress Catherine for help and in May 1792 the Russian army entered the territory of the Commonwealth. The ended when , convinced of the futility of resistance, capitulated by joining the Targowica Confederation. Russia and Prussia in 1793 arranged for and executed the , which left the country with critically reduced territory, practically incapable of independent existence. Reformers and patriots were soon preparing for a national insurrection. , chosen as its leader, on March 24, 1794 in a . Kościuszko emancipated and enrolled in his army many peasants, but the hard-fought insurrection ended in suppression by the forces of Russia and Prussia. The was , and in 1795 the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth ceased to exist.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Poland%20in%20the%20Early%20Modern%20era%20%281569%E2%80%931795%29

History of Poland in the Early Modern era (1569–1795)

Non-hereditary royal succession

The early modern era of follows the . Historians use the term to refer to beginning in approximately 1500 AD and lasting until around 1800. The act adopted by the in 1505 transferred from the to the diet. This event marked the beginning of the period known as the "Nobles' Democracy" () or "Nobles' Commonwealth" (). The was ruled by the "free and equal" Polish nobility or , albeit in intense, and at times destabilizing, competition with the and then kings. The of 1569 constituted the , a more closely merged continuation of the already existing of the and the . The beginning of the Commonwealth coincided with the period of Poland's greatest territorial expansion, power, civilizational advancement and prosperity. The Polish–Lithuanian state had become an influential player in Europe and a vital cultural entity, eastward. Following the gains accompanied by religious toleration, the embarked on an ideological counter-offensive and claimed many converts from circles. The disagreements over and the difficulties with the assimilation of the eastern Ruthenian populations of the Commonwealth had become clearly discernible; an attempt to settle the issue was made in the religious . On the military front, a series of took place. The Commonwealth, assertive militarily under King , suffered from dynastic distractions during the reigns of the kings and . It had also become a playground of internal conflicts, in which the kings, powerful magnates and factions of nobility were the main actors. The Commonwealth fought wars with , and the . The situation, however, soon radically deteriorated. From 1648 the engulfed the south and east, and was soon followed by a , which raged through core Polish lands. Warfare with the Cossacks and Russia left divided, with the eastern part, lost by the Commonwealth, becoming the 's dependency. , fighting protracted wars with the Ottoman Empire, revived the Commonwealth's military might once more, in the process helping decisively in 1683 to from a onslaught. The Commonwealth, subjected to , suffered devastating population losses, massive damage to its economy and social structure. The government became ineffective because of large scale internal conflicts (e.g. against and other s), corrupted legislative processes () and manipulation by foreign interests. The "ruling" nobility class fell under control of a handful of powerful families with established territorial domains. The reigns of two kings of the , and , brought the Commonwealth further disintegration. The Polish-Lithuanian state was dominated by the from the time of . This foreign control reached its climax under , and involved at that time also the and the Austrian . During the later part of the 18th century the Commonwealth recovered economically, developed culturally and attempted fundamental internal reforms. The reform activity provoked hostile reaction and eventually military response on the part of the neighboring powers. The of 1764 resulted in the reign of . The of 1768 was a szlachta rebellion directed against Russia and the Polish king. It was brought under control and followed in 1772 by the , a permanent encroachment on the outer Commonwealth provinces by Russia, Prussia and Austria. The was convened by Stanisław August in 1788. The Sejm's landmark achievement was the passing of the , considered the first in modern Europe. The constitutional reform generated strong opposition from conservative circles in the Commonwealth's upper nobility and from Catherine II. The nobility's appealed to Empress Catherine for help and in May 1792 the Russian army entered the territory of the Commonwealth. The ended when , convinced of the futility of resistance, capitulated by joining the Targowica Confederation. Russia and Prussia in 1793 arranged for and executed the , which left the country with critically reduced territory, practically incapable of independent existence. Reformers and patriots were soon preparing for a national insurrection. , chosen as its leader, on March 24, 1794 in a . Kościuszko emancipated and enrolled in his army many peasants, but the hard-fought insurrection ended in suppression by the forces of Russia and Prussia. The was , and in 1795 the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth ceased to exist.

The death of in 1572 ended the nearly two centuries of the rule of the in Poland. It was followed by a three-year period, during which the Polish nobility () was searching for ways to continue the governance process and elect a new monarch. Lower szlachta was now included in the selection process and adjustments were made to the constitutional system. The power of the monarch was further circumscribed in favor of the expanding noble class, which sought to ensure its future domination. Each king had to sign the so-called (named after , the first post-Jagiellon king), which were the basis of the political system of Poland, and the , which were various further personal obligations of the chosen king. From that point, the king was effectively a partner with the nobility, a top member of the diet (), and was constantly supervised by a group of upper-rank nobles, s from sejm's upper chamber. The disappearance of the and its replacement with a non-hereditary made the constitutional system much more unstable. With each the noble electors wanted more power for themselves and less for the monarch, although there were practical limits to how much the kings could be constrained. A semi-permanent power struggle resulted, to which the s and lesser szlachta added their own constant manipulations and bickering and authority eroded from the government's center. Eventually foreign states had taken advantage of the vacuum and replaced the nobility of the Commonwealth as the real arbiter of royal elections and of overall power in Poland-Lithuania. In its periodic opportunities to fill the throne, the szlachta exhibited a preference for foreign candidates who would not found another strong dynasty. This policy produced monarchs who were either ineffective or in constant debilitating conflict with the nobility. The kings of alien origin were initially unfamiliar with the internal dynamics of the Commonwealth, had remained distracted by the politics of their native countries, and often inclined to subordinate the interests of the Commonwealth to those of their own country and ruling house.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Poland%20in%20the%20Early%20Modern%20era%20%281569%E2%80%931795%29

History of Poland in the Early Modern era (1569–1795)

Stephen Báthory (1576–1586)

The early modern era of follows the . Historians use the term to refer to beginning in approximately 1500 AD and lasting until around 1800. The act adopted by the in 1505 transferred from the to the diet. This event marked the beginning of the period known as the "Nobles' Democracy" () or "Nobles' Commonwealth" (). The was ruled by the "free and equal" Polish nobility or , albeit in intense, and at times destabilizing, competition with the and then kings. The of 1569 constituted the , a more closely merged continuation of the already existing of the and the . The beginning of the Commonwealth coincided with the period of Poland's greatest territorial expansion, power, civilizational advancement and prosperity. The Polish–Lithuanian state had become an influential player in Europe and a vital cultural entity, eastward. Following the gains accompanied by religious toleration, the embarked on an ideological counter-offensive and claimed many converts from circles. The disagreements over and the difficulties with the assimilation of the eastern Ruthenian populations of the Commonwealth had become clearly discernible; an attempt to settle the issue was made in the religious . On the military front, a series of took place. The Commonwealth, assertive militarily under King , suffered from dynastic distractions during the reigns of the kings and . It had also become a playground of internal conflicts, in which the kings, powerful magnates and factions of nobility were the main actors. The Commonwealth fought wars with , and the . The situation, however, soon radically deteriorated. From 1648 the engulfed the south and east, and was soon followed by a , which raged through core Polish lands. Warfare with the Cossacks and Russia left divided, with the eastern part, lost by the Commonwealth, becoming the 's dependency. , fighting protracted wars with the Ottoman Empire, revived the Commonwealth's military might once more, in the process helping decisively in 1683 to from a onslaught. The Commonwealth, subjected to , suffered devastating population losses, massive damage to its economy and social structure. The government became ineffective because of large scale internal conflicts (e.g. against and other s), corrupted legislative processes () and manipulation by foreign interests. The "ruling" nobility class fell under control of a handful of powerful families with established territorial domains. The reigns of two kings of the , and , brought the Commonwealth further disintegration. The Polish-Lithuanian state was dominated by the from the time of . This foreign control reached its climax under , and involved at that time also the and the Austrian . During the later part of the 18th century the Commonwealth recovered economically, developed culturally and attempted fundamental internal reforms. The reform activity provoked hostile reaction and eventually military response on the part of the neighboring powers. The of 1764 resulted in the reign of . The of 1768 was a szlachta rebellion directed against Russia and the Polish king. It was brought under control and followed in 1772 by the , a permanent encroachment on the outer Commonwealth provinces by Russia, Prussia and Austria. The was convened by Stanisław August in 1788. The Sejm's landmark achievement was the passing of the , considered the first in modern Europe. The constitutional reform generated strong opposition from conservative circles in the Commonwealth's upper nobility and from Catherine II. The nobility's appealed to Empress Catherine for help and in May 1792 the Russian army entered the territory of the Commonwealth. The ended when , convinced of the futility of resistance, capitulated by joining the Targowica Confederation. Russia and Prussia in 1793 arranged for and executed the , which left the country with critically reduced territory, practically incapable of independent existence. Reformers and patriots were soon preparing for a national insurrection. , chosen as its leader, on March 24, 1794 in a . Kościuszko emancipated and enrolled in his army many peasants, but the hard-fought insurrection ended in suppression by the forces of Russia and Prussia. The was , and in 1795 the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth ceased to exist.

The able and militarily as well as domestically assertive n (1576–1586) counts among the few more highly regarded elective kings. During the (1558–1582), fought between of and Poland-Lithuania, was besieged by Polish forces. The city was not captured, but Báthory, with his , led the Polish army in a decisive campaign and forced Russia to return territories previously taken, gaining and . In 1582, the war ended with the . The Commonwealth forces retrieved most of the lost provinces. At the end of Báthory's reign, Poland ruled two main ports: (Gdańsk), controlling the River trade and , controlling the trade. Both cities were among the largest in the country.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Poland%20in%20the%20Early%20Modern%20era%20%281569%E2%80%931795%29

History of Poland in the Early Modern era (1569–1795)

Sigismund III Vasa (1587–1632)

The early modern era of follows the . Historians use the term to refer to beginning in approximately 1500 AD and lasting until around 1800. The act adopted by the in 1505 transferred from the to the diet. This event marked the beginning of the period known as the "Nobles' Democracy" () or "Nobles' Commonwealth" (). The was ruled by the "free and equal" Polish nobility or , albeit in intense, and at times destabilizing, competition with the and then kings. The of 1569 constituted the , a more closely merged continuation of the already existing of the and the . The beginning of the Commonwealth coincided with the period of Poland's greatest territorial expansion, power, civilizational advancement and prosperity. The Polish–Lithuanian state had become an influential player in Europe and a vital cultural entity, eastward. Following the gains accompanied by religious toleration, the embarked on an ideological counter-offensive and claimed many converts from circles. The disagreements over and the difficulties with the assimilation of the eastern Ruthenian populations of the Commonwealth had become clearly discernible; an attempt to settle the issue was made in the religious . On the military front, a series of took place. The Commonwealth, assertive militarily under King , suffered from dynastic distractions during the reigns of the kings and . It had also become a playground of internal conflicts, in which the kings, powerful magnates and factions of nobility were the main actors. The Commonwealth fought wars with , and the . The situation, however, soon radically deteriorated. From 1648 the engulfed the south and east, and was soon followed by a , which raged through core Polish lands. Warfare with the Cossacks and Russia left divided, with the eastern part, lost by the Commonwealth, becoming the 's dependency. , fighting protracted wars with the Ottoman Empire, revived the Commonwealth's military might once more, in the process helping decisively in 1683 to from a onslaught. The Commonwealth, subjected to , suffered devastating population losses, massive damage to its economy and social structure. The government became ineffective because of large scale internal conflicts (e.g. against and other s), corrupted legislative processes () and manipulation by foreign interests. The "ruling" nobility class fell under control of a handful of powerful families with established territorial domains. The reigns of two kings of the , and , brought the Commonwealth further disintegration. The Polish-Lithuanian state was dominated by the from the time of . This foreign control reached its climax under , and involved at that time also the and the Austrian . During the later part of the 18th century the Commonwealth recovered economically, developed culturally and attempted fundamental internal reforms. The reform activity provoked hostile reaction and eventually military response on the part of the neighboring powers. The of 1764 resulted in the reign of . The of 1768 was a szlachta rebellion directed against Russia and the Polish king. It was brought under control and followed in 1772 by the , a permanent encroachment on the outer Commonwealth provinces by Russia, Prussia and Austria. The was convened by Stanisław August in 1788. The Sejm's landmark achievement was the passing of the , considered the first in modern Europe. The constitutional reform generated strong opposition from conservative circles in the Commonwealth's upper nobility and from Catherine II. The nobility's appealed to Empress Catherine for help and in May 1792 the Russian army entered the territory of the Commonwealth. The ended when , convinced of the futility of resistance, capitulated by joining the Targowica Confederation. Russia and Prussia in 1793 arranged for and executed the , which left the country with critically reduced territory, practically incapable of independent existence. Reformers and patriots were soon preparing for a national insurrection. , chosen as its leader, on March 24, 1794 in a . Kościuszko emancipated and enrolled in his army many peasants, but the hard-fought insurrection ended in suppression by the forces of Russia and Prussia. The was , and in 1795 the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth ceased to exist.

was King of Poland 1587–1632 and King of 1592–1599. He was the son of of Sweden and , the daughter of of Poland. He annoyed the Polish nobles by deliberately dressing in Spanish and other Western European styles (including French hosiery). An ardent , Sigismund III was determined to win the Swedish crown and bring Sweden back to Catholicism. Subsequently, Sigismund III involved Poland in unnecessary and unpopular during which the diet refused him money and soldiers and Sweden seized and . The first few years of Sigismund's reign (until 1598) saw Poland and Sweden united in a that made the an internal lake. However, a started the chain of events that would involve the Commonwealth in more than a century of . The embarked on an ideological counter-offensive and claimed many converts from circles. The split the of the Commonwealth. In order to further Catholicism, the Uniate Church (acknowledging papal supremacy but following and ) was created at the in 1596. The Uniates drew many followers away from the in the Commonwealth's eastern territories. Sigismund's attempts to introduce , then becoming prevalent in the rest of Europe, and his goal of reacquiring the throne of Sweden for himself, resulted in a . In 1607, the Polish nobility threatened to suspend the agreements with their elected king but did not attempt his overthrow. For ten years between 1619 and 1629, the Commonwealth was at its greatest geographical extent in history. In 1619, the Russo-Polish came into effect, whereby Russia conceded Commonwealth control over and several other border territories. In 1629, the Swedish-Polish took place; the Commonwealth ceded to Sweden most of Livonia, which the Swedes had invaded in 1626. Sigismund III Vasa failed to strengthen the Commonwealth or to solve its internal problems; he concentrated on futile attempts to regain his former Swedish throne.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Poland%20in%20the%20Early%20Modern%20era%20%281569%E2%80%931795%29

History of Poland in the Early Modern era (1569–1795)

Commonwealth wars with Sweden and Moscow

The early modern era of follows the . Historians use the term to refer to beginning in approximately 1500 AD and lasting until around 1800. The act adopted by the in 1505 transferred from the to the diet. This event marked the beginning of the period known as the "Nobles' Democracy" () or "Nobles' Commonwealth" (). The was ruled by the "free and equal" Polish nobility or , albeit in intense, and at times destabilizing, competition with the and then kings. The of 1569 constituted the , a more closely merged continuation of the already existing of the and the . The beginning of the Commonwealth coincided with the period of Poland's greatest territorial expansion, power, civilizational advancement and prosperity. The Polish–Lithuanian state had become an influential player in Europe and a vital cultural entity, eastward. Following the gains accompanied by religious toleration, the embarked on an ideological counter-offensive and claimed many converts from circles. The disagreements over and the difficulties with the assimilation of the eastern Ruthenian populations of the Commonwealth had become clearly discernible; an attempt to settle the issue was made in the religious . On the military front, a series of took place. The Commonwealth, assertive militarily under King , suffered from dynastic distractions during the reigns of the kings and . It had also become a playground of internal conflicts, in which the kings, powerful magnates and factions of nobility were the main actors. The Commonwealth fought wars with , and the . The situation, however, soon radically deteriorated. From 1648 the engulfed the south and east, and was soon followed by a , which raged through core Polish lands. Warfare with the Cossacks and Russia left divided, with the eastern part, lost by the Commonwealth, becoming the 's dependency. , fighting protracted wars with the Ottoman Empire, revived the Commonwealth's military might once more, in the process helping decisively in 1683 to from a onslaught. The Commonwealth, subjected to , suffered devastating population losses, massive damage to its economy and social structure. The government became ineffective because of large scale internal conflicts (e.g. against and other s), corrupted legislative processes () and manipulation by foreign interests. The "ruling" nobility class fell under control of a handful of powerful families with established territorial domains. The reigns of two kings of the , and , brought the Commonwealth further disintegration. The Polish-Lithuanian state was dominated by the from the time of . This foreign control reached its climax under , and involved at that time also the and the Austrian . During the later part of the 18th century the Commonwealth recovered economically, developed culturally and attempted fundamental internal reforms. The reform activity provoked hostile reaction and eventually military response on the part of the neighboring powers. The of 1764 resulted in the reign of . The of 1768 was a szlachta rebellion directed against Russia and the Polish king. It was brought under control and followed in 1772 by the , a permanent encroachment on the outer Commonwealth provinces by Russia, Prussia and Austria. The was convened by Stanisław August in 1788. The Sejm's landmark achievement was the passing of the , considered the first in modern Europe. The constitutional reform generated strong opposition from conservative circles in the Commonwealth's upper nobility and from Catherine II. The nobility's appealed to Empress Catherine for help and in May 1792 the Russian army entered the territory of the Commonwealth. The ended when , convinced of the futility of resistance, capitulated by joining the Targowica Confederation. Russia and Prussia in 1793 arranged for and executed the , which left the country with critically reduced territory, practically incapable of independent existence. Reformers and patriots were soon preparing for a national insurrection. , chosen as its leader, on March 24, 1794 in a . Kościuszko emancipated and enrolled in his army many peasants, but the hard-fought insurrection ended in suppression by the forces of Russia and Prussia. The was , and in 1795 the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth ceased to exist.

Sigismund desire to reclaim the Swedish throne drove him into prolonged under and later also Russia. In 1598, Sigismund tried to defeat Charles with a mixed army from Sweden and Poland, but was defeated in the . As the went through its "," Poland failed to capitalize on the situation. brought Poland at times close to a conquest of Russia and the Baltic coast during the Time of Troubles and , but military burden imposed by the ongoing rivalry also along other frontiers (the and Sweden) prevented this from being accomplished. After , Polish forces occupied in 1610. The office of tsar, then vacant in Russia, was offered to Sigismund's son, . Sigismund, however, opposed his son's accession as tsar, as he hoped to obtain the Russian throne for himself. Two years later the Poles were driven out of Moscow and Poland lost an opportunity for a Polish-Russian union. Poland escaped the (1618–1648), which ravaged everything to the west, especially Prussia. In 1618, the became hereditary ruler of the on the coast. From then on, Poland's link to the Baltic Sea was bordered on both sides by two provinces of the same .

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Poland%20in%20the%20Early%20Modern%20era%20%281569%E2%80%931795%29

History of Poland in the Early Modern era (1569–1795)

Southern wars

The early modern era of follows the . Historians use the term to refer to beginning in approximately 1500 AD and lasting until around 1800. The act adopted by the in 1505 transferred from the to the diet. This event marked the beginning of the period known as the "Nobles' Democracy" () or "Nobles' Commonwealth" (). The was ruled by the "free and equal" Polish nobility or , albeit in intense, and at times destabilizing, competition with the and then kings. The of 1569 constituted the , a more closely merged continuation of the already existing of the and the . The beginning of the Commonwealth coincided with the period of Poland's greatest territorial expansion, power, civilizational advancement and prosperity. The Polish–Lithuanian state had become an influential player in Europe and a vital cultural entity, eastward. Following the gains accompanied by religious toleration, the embarked on an ideological counter-offensive and claimed many converts from circles. The disagreements over and the difficulties with the assimilation of the eastern Ruthenian populations of the Commonwealth had become clearly discernible; an attempt to settle the issue was made in the religious . On the military front, a series of took place. The Commonwealth, assertive militarily under King , suffered from dynastic distractions during the reigns of the kings and . It had also become a playground of internal conflicts, in which the kings, powerful magnates and factions of nobility were the main actors. The Commonwealth fought wars with , and the . The situation, however, soon radically deteriorated. From 1648 the engulfed the south and east, and was soon followed by a , which raged through core Polish lands. Warfare with the Cossacks and Russia left divided, with the eastern part, lost by the Commonwealth, becoming the 's dependency. , fighting protracted wars with the Ottoman Empire, revived the Commonwealth's military might once more, in the process helping decisively in 1683 to from a onslaught. The Commonwealth, subjected to , suffered devastating population losses, massive damage to its economy and social structure. The government became ineffective because of large scale internal conflicts (e.g. against and other s), corrupted legislative processes () and manipulation by foreign interests. The "ruling" nobility class fell under control of a handful of powerful families with established territorial domains. The reigns of two kings of the , and , brought the Commonwealth further disintegration. The Polish-Lithuanian state was dominated by the from the time of . This foreign control reached its climax under , and involved at that time also the and the Austrian . During the later part of the 18th century the Commonwealth recovered economically, developed culturally and attempted fundamental internal reforms. The reform activity provoked hostile reaction and eventually military response on the part of the neighboring powers. The of 1764 resulted in the reign of . The of 1768 was a szlachta rebellion directed against Russia and the Polish king. It was brought under control and followed in 1772 by the , a permanent encroachment on the outer Commonwealth provinces by Russia, Prussia and Austria. The was convened by Stanisław August in 1788. The Sejm's landmark achievement was the passing of the , considered the first in modern Europe. The constitutional reform generated strong opposition from conservative circles in the Commonwealth's upper nobility and from Catherine II. The nobility's appealed to Empress Catherine for help and in May 1792 the Russian army entered the territory of the Commonwealth. The ended when , convinced of the futility of resistance, capitulated by joining the Targowica Confederation. Russia and Prussia in 1793 arranged for and executed the , which left the country with critically reduced territory, practically incapable of independent existence. Reformers and patriots were soon preparing for a national insurrection. , chosen as its leader, on March 24, 1794 in a . Kościuszko emancipated and enrolled in his army many peasants, but the hard-fought insurrection ended in suppression by the forces of Russia and Prussia. The was , and in 1795 the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth ceased to exist.

The Commonwealth viewed itself as the "bulwark of the " and together with the and the stood in the way of the Ottoman plans of European conquests. Since the second half of the 16th century, the Polish-Ottomans relations were worsened by the escalation of - border warfare, which turned the entire border region between the Commonwealth and the Ottoman Empire into a . A constant threat from supported the appearance of . In 1595, s of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth of . This started a series of conflicts that would soon spread to , and , when the forces of the Polish magnates clashed with the forces backed by the Ottoman Empire and occasionally the Habsburgs, all competing for the domination over that region. With the Commonwealth engaged on its northern and eastern borders with nearly constant conflicts against Sweden and Russia, its armies were spread thin. The southern wars culminated in the Polish defeat at the in 1620. The Commonwealth was forced to renounce all claims to Moldavia, Transylvania, Wallachia and Hungary.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Poland%20in%20the%20Early%20Modern%20era%20%281569%E2%80%931795%29

History of Poland in the Early Modern era (1569–1795)

Religious and social tensions

The early modern era of follows the . Historians use the term to refer to beginning in approximately 1500 AD and lasting until around 1800. The act adopted by the in 1505 transferred from the to the diet. This event marked the beginning of the period known as the "Nobles' Democracy" () or "Nobles' Commonwealth" (). The was ruled by the "free and equal" Polish nobility or , albeit in intense, and at times destabilizing, competition with the and then kings. The of 1569 constituted the , a more closely merged continuation of the already existing of the and the . The beginning of the Commonwealth coincided with the period of Poland's greatest territorial expansion, power, civilizational advancement and prosperity. The Polish–Lithuanian state had become an influential player in Europe and a vital cultural entity, eastward. Following the gains accompanied by religious toleration, the embarked on an ideological counter-offensive and claimed many converts from circles. The disagreements over and the difficulties with the assimilation of the eastern Ruthenian populations of the Commonwealth had become clearly discernible; an attempt to settle the issue was made in the religious . On the military front, a series of took place. The Commonwealth, assertive militarily under King , suffered from dynastic distractions during the reigns of the kings and . It had also become a playground of internal conflicts, in which the kings, powerful magnates and factions of nobility were the main actors. The Commonwealth fought wars with , and the . The situation, however, soon radically deteriorated. From 1648 the engulfed the south and east, and was soon followed by a , which raged through core Polish lands. Warfare with the Cossacks and Russia left divided, with the eastern part, lost by the Commonwealth, becoming the 's dependency. , fighting protracted wars with the Ottoman Empire, revived the Commonwealth's military might once more, in the process helping decisively in 1683 to from a onslaught. The Commonwealth, subjected to , suffered devastating population losses, massive damage to its economy and social structure. The government became ineffective because of large scale internal conflicts (e.g. against and other s), corrupted legislative processes () and manipulation by foreign interests. The "ruling" nobility class fell under control of a handful of powerful families with established territorial domains. The reigns of two kings of the , and , brought the Commonwealth further disintegration. The Polish-Lithuanian state was dominated by the from the time of . This foreign control reached its climax under , and involved at that time also the and the Austrian . During the later part of the 18th century the Commonwealth recovered economically, developed culturally and attempted fundamental internal reforms. The reform activity provoked hostile reaction and eventually military response on the part of the neighboring powers. The of 1764 resulted in the reign of . The of 1768 was a szlachta rebellion directed against Russia and the Polish king. It was brought under control and followed in 1772 by the , a permanent encroachment on the outer Commonwealth provinces by Russia, Prussia and Austria. The was convened by Stanisław August in 1788. The Sejm's landmark achievement was the passing of the , considered the first in modern Europe. The constitutional reform generated strong opposition from conservative circles in the Commonwealth's upper nobility and from Catherine II. The nobility's appealed to Empress Catherine for help and in May 1792 the Russian army entered the territory of the Commonwealth. The ended when , convinced of the futility of resistance, capitulated by joining the Targowica Confederation. Russia and Prussia in 1793 arranged for and executed the , which left the country with critically reduced territory, practically incapable of independent existence. Reformers and patriots were soon preparing for a national insurrection. , chosen as its leader, on March 24, 1794 in a . Kościuszko emancipated and enrolled in his army many peasants, but the hard-fought insurrection ended in suppression by the forces of Russia and Prussia. The was , and in 1795 the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth ceased to exist.

The population of Poland-Lithuania was neither overwhelmingly nor Polish. This circumstance resulted from the federation with the , where n populations predominated. In the days of the "", to be Polish was much less an indication of ethnicity than of rank; it was a designation largely reserved for the , which included members of Polish and non-Polish origin alike. Generally speaking, the ethnically non-Polish noble families of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania gradually adopted the and . As a result, in the eastern territories of the Kingdom the Polish-speaking landed nobility dominated over the peasantry, whose great majority was neither Polish nor Catholic. Moreover, the decades of peace brought huge colonization efforts to , which heightened tensions between peasants, s and nobles. The tensions were aggravated by the conflicts between the and (both ) churches following the and by several . In the west and north of the country, cities had large minorities, often of beliefs. According to the Risāle-yi Tatar-i Leh (an account of the written for by an anonymous during a stay in in 1557–8, on his way to ) there were 100 Lipka Tatar settlements with mosques in Poland. In 1672, the Tatar subjects rose up in an against the Commonwealth.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Poland%20in%20the%20Early%20Modern%20era%20%281569%E2%80%931795%29

History of Poland in the Early Modern era (1569–1795)

John Casimir Vasa (1648–1668)

The early modern era of follows the . Historians use the term to refer to beginning in approximately 1500 AD and lasting until around 1800. The act adopted by the in 1505 transferred from the to the diet. This event marked the beginning of the period known as the "Nobles' Democracy" () or "Nobles' Commonwealth" (). The was ruled by the "free and equal" Polish nobility or , albeit in intense, and at times destabilizing, competition with the and then kings. The of 1569 constituted the , a more closely merged continuation of the already existing of the and the . The beginning of the Commonwealth coincided with the period of Poland's greatest territorial expansion, power, civilizational advancement and prosperity. The Polish–Lithuanian state had become an influential player in Europe and a vital cultural entity, eastward. Following the gains accompanied by religious toleration, the embarked on an ideological counter-offensive and claimed many converts from circles. The disagreements over and the difficulties with the assimilation of the eastern Ruthenian populations of the Commonwealth had become clearly discernible; an attempt to settle the issue was made in the religious . On the military front, a series of took place. The Commonwealth, assertive militarily under King , suffered from dynastic distractions during the reigns of the kings and . It had also become a playground of internal conflicts, in which the kings, powerful magnates and factions of nobility were the main actors. The Commonwealth fought wars with , and the . The situation, however, soon radically deteriorated. From 1648 the engulfed the south and east, and was soon followed by a , which raged through core Polish lands. Warfare with the Cossacks and Russia left divided, with the eastern part, lost by the Commonwealth, becoming the 's dependency. , fighting protracted wars with the Ottoman Empire, revived the Commonwealth's military might once more, in the process helping decisively in 1683 to from a onslaught. The Commonwealth, subjected to , suffered devastating population losses, massive damage to its economy and social structure. The government became ineffective because of large scale internal conflicts (e.g. against and other s), corrupted legislative processes () and manipulation by foreign interests. The "ruling" nobility class fell under control of a handful of powerful families with established territorial domains. The reigns of two kings of the , and , brought the Commonwealth further disintegration. The Polish-Lithuanian state was dominated by the from the time of . This foreign control reached its climax under , and involved at that time also the and the Austrian . During the later part of the 18th century the Commonwealth recovered economically, developed culturally and attempted fundamental internal reforms. The reform activity provoked hostile reaction and eventually military response on the part of the neighboring powers. The of 1764 resulted in the reign of . The of 1768 was a szlachta rebellion directed against Russia and the Polish king. It was brought under control and followed in 1772 by the , a permanent encroachment on the outer Commonwealth provinces by Russia, Prussia and Austria. The was convened by Stanisław August in 1788. The Sejm's landmark achievement was the passing of the , considered the first in modern Europe. The constitutional reform generated strong opposition from conservative circles in the Commonwealth's upper nobility and from Catherine II. The nobility's appealed to Empress Catherine for help and in May 1792 the Russian army entered the territory of the Commonwealth. The ended when , convinced of the futility of resistance, capitulated by joining the Targowica Confederation. Russia and Prussia in 1793 arranged for and executed the , which left the country with critically reduced territory, practically incapable of independent existence. Reformers and patriots were soon preparing for a national insurrection. , chosen as its leader, on March 24, 1794 in a . Kościuszko emancipated and enrolled in his army many peasants, but the hard-fought insurrection ended in suppression by the forces of Russia and Prussia. The was , and in 1795 the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth ceased to exist.

The reign of Władysław's brother , the last of the Vasas, was dominated by the culmination in the , the groundwork for which was laid down by the two previous Vasa kings. In 1660, John Casimir was forced to renounce his claims to the Swedish throne and acknowledge Swedish sovereignty over and city of . Under John Casimir, the Cossacks grew in power and ; the , including Warsaw, the capital; and the King, abandoned or betrayed by his subjects, had to seek temporary refuge in . As a result of the wars with the Cossacks and Russia, the Commonwealth lost , , and all the areas east of the by the (1667). During John Casimir's reign, successfully renounced its formal status as a of Poland. Internally, the process of disintegration started. The nobles, making their own alliances with foreign powers, pursued independent policies; the of shook the throne. John Casimir, a broken, disillusioned man, abdicated the Polish throne on 16 September 1668 amid internal anarchy and strife and returned to France, where he joined the and became a . He died in 1672.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Poland%20in%20the%20Early%20Modern%20era%20%281569%E2%80%931795%29

History of Poland in the Early Modern era (1569–1795)

The Deluge (1648–1667)

The early modern era of follows the . Historians use the term to refer to beginning in approximately 1500 AD and lasting until around 1800. The act adopted by the in 1505 transferred from the to the diet. This event marked the beginning of the period known as the "Nobles' Democracy" () or "Nobles' Commonwealth" (). The was ruled by the "free and equal" Polish nobility or , albeit in intense, and at times destabilizing, competition with the and then kings. The of 1569 constituted the , a more closely merged continuation of the already existing of the and the . The beginning of the Commonwealth coincided with the period of Poland's greatest territorial expansion, power, civilizational advancement and prosperity. The Polish–Lithuanian state had become an influential player in Europe and a vital cultural entity, eastward. Following the gains accompanied by religious toleration, the embarked on an ideological counter-offensive and claimed many converts from circles. The disagreements over and the difficulties with the assimilation of the eastern Ruthenian populations of the Commonwealth had become clearly discernible; an attempt to settle the issue was made in the religious . On the military front, a series of took place. The Commonwealth, assertive militarily under King , suffered from dynastic distractions during the reigns of the kings and . It had also become a playground of internal conflicts, in which the kings, powerful magnates and factions of nobility were the main actors. The Commonwealth fought wars with , and the . The situation, however, soon radically deteriorated. From 1648 the engulfed the south and east, and was soon followed by a , which raged through core Polish lands. Warfare with the Cossacks and Russia left divided, with the eastern part, lost by the Commonwealth, becoming the 's dependency. , fighting protracted wars with the Ottoman Empire, revived the Commonwealth's military might once more, in the process helping decisively in 1683 to from a onslaught. The Commonwealth, subjected to , suffered devastating population losses, massive damage to its economy and social structure. The government became ineffective because of large scale internal conflicts (e.g. against and other s), corrupted legislative processes () and manipulation by foreign interests. The "ruling" nobility class fell under control of a handful of powerful families with established territorial domains. The reigns of two kings of the , and , brought the Commonwealth further disintegration. The Polish-Lithuanian state was dominated by the from the time of . This foreign control reached its climax under , and involved at that time also the and the Austrian . During the later part of the 18th century the Commonwealth recovered economically, developed culturally and attempted fundamental internal reforms. The reform activity provoked hostile reaction and eventually military response on the part of the neighboring powers. The of 1764 resulted in the reign of . The of 1768 was a szlachta rebellion directed against Russia and the Polish king. It was brought under control and followed in 1772 by the , a permanent encroachment on the outer Commonwealth provinces by Russia, Prussia and Austria. The was convened by Stanisław August in 1788. The Sejm's landmark achievement was the passing of the , considered the first in modern Europe. The constitutional reform generated strong opposition from conservative circles in the Commonwealth's upper nobility and from Catherine II. The nobility's appealed to Empress Catherine for help and in May 1792 the Russian army entered the territory of the Commonwealth. The ended when , convinced of the futility of resistance, capitulated by joining the Targowica Confederation. Russia and Prussia in 1793 arranged for and executed the , which left the country with critically reduced territory, practically incapable of independent existence. Reformers and patriots were soon preparing for a national insurrection. , chosen as its leader, on March 24, 1794 in a . Kościuszko emancipated and enrolled in his army many peasants, but the hard-fought insurrection ended in suppression by the forces of Russia and Prussia. The was , and in 1795 the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth ceased to exist.

Although Poland-Lithuania was unaffected by the (1618–1648), the following two decades subjected the nation to one of its worst trials ever. This colorful but ruinous interval, the stuff of legend and popular historical novels of laureate , became known as potop, or the , for the magnitude and suddenness of its hardships. The emergency began when the rose in revolt and declared an independent state based in the vicinity of , allied with the and the Ottoman Empire. Their leader defeated Polish armies in and , and after the Cossacks concluded the with Russia in 1654, Tsar overran the entire eastern part of the Commonwealth (Ukraine) to . Taking advantage of Poland's preoccupation in the east and weakness, intervened. Most of the Polish nobility along with the Polish of agreed to recognize him as king after he promised to drive out the Russians. However, the Swedish troops embarked on an orgy of looting and destruction, which caused the Polish populace to rise up in revolt. The Swedes overran the remainder of Poland except for Lwów and (Gdańsk). Poland-Lithuania rallied to recover most of its losses from the Swedes. In exchange for breaking the alliance with Sweden, Frederick William, the ruler of , was released from his vassalage and became a de facto independent sovereign, while much of the Polish nobility went over to the side of the Swedes. Under Hetman , the Poles and Lithuanians had driven the Swedes from the Commonwealth's territory by 1657. The armies of Frederick William intervened and were also defeated. Frederick William's rule over was , although Poland retained the right of succession until 1773. The included an of Ukraine with the Commonwealth as an equal partner (1658) and Polish military successes in 1660–1662. This was not enough to keep eastern Ukraine. Under the pressure of continuing Ukrainian unrest and the threat of a , the Commonwealth and Russia signed in 1667 an near , according to which eastern Ukraine (left bank of the ) now belonged to Russia. Kiev was also leased to Russia for two years, but never returned and eventually Poland recognized Russian control of the city. The wars episode inflicted irremediable damage and contributed heavily to the ultimate demise of the state. Held responsible for the greatest disaster in Polish history, John Casimir abdicated in 1668. The population of the Commonwealth had been reduced by a staggering 1/3, by military casualties, slave raids, plague epidemics, and mass murders of civilians. Most of Poland's cities were reduced to rubble, and the nation's economic base was decimated. The war had been paid for by large-scale minting of worthless currency, causing runaway inflation. Religious feelings had also been inflamed by the conflict, ending tolerance of non-Catholic beliefs. Henceforth, the Commonwealth would be on the strategic defensive facing hostile and increasingly more powerful neighbors.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Poland%20in%20the%20Early%20Modern%20era%20%281569%E2%80%931795%29

History of Poland in the Early Modern era (1569–1795)

Michael Korybut Wiśniowiecki (1669–1673)

The early modern era of follows the . Historians use the term to refer to beginning in approximately 1500 AD and lasting until around 1800. The act adopted by the in 1505 transferred from the to the diet. This event marked the beginning of the period known as the "Nobles' Democracy" () or "Nobles' Commonwealth" (). The was ruled by the "free and equal" Polish nobility or , albeit in intense, and at times destabilizing, competition with the and then kings. The of 1569 constituted the , a more closely merged continuation of the already existing of the and the . The beginning of the Commonwealth coincided with the period of Poland's greatest territorial expansion, power, civilizational advancement and prosperity. The Polish–Lithuanian state had become an influential player in Europe and a vital cultural entity, eastward. Following the gains accompanied by religious toleration, the embarked on an ideological counter-offensive and claimed many converts from circles. The disagreements over and the difficulties with the assimilation of the eastern Ruthenian populations of the Commonwealth had become clearly discernible; an attempt to settle the issue was made in the religious . On the military front, a series of took place. The Commonwealth, assertive militarily under King , suffered from dynastic distractions during the reigns of the kings and . It had also become a playground of internal conflicts, in which the kings, powerful magnates and factions of nobility were the main actors. The Commonwealth fought wars with , and the . The situation, however, soon radically deteriorated. From 1648 the engulfed the south and east, and was soon followed by a , which raged through core Polish lands. Warfare with the Cossacks and Russia left divided, with the eastern part, lost by the Commonwealth, becoming the 's dependency. , fighting protracted wars with the Ottoman Empire, revived the Commonwealth's military might once more, in the process helping decisively in 1683 to from a onslaught. The Commonwealth, subjected to , suffered devastating population losses, massive damage to its economy and social structure. The government became ineffective because of large scale internal conflicts (e.g. against and other s), corrupted legislative processes () and manipulation by foreign interests. The "ruling" nobility class fell under control of a handful of powerful families with established territorial domains. The reigns of two kings of the , and , brought the Commonwealth further disintegration. The Polish-Lithuanian state was dominated by the from the time of . This foreign control reached its climax under , and involved at that time also the and the Austrian . During the later part of the 18th century the Commonwealth recovered economically, developed culturally and attempted fundamental internal reforms. The reform activity provoked hostile reaction and eventually military response on the part of the neighboring powers. The of 1764 resulted in the reign of . The of 1768 was a szlachta rebellion directed against Russia and the Polish king. It was brought under control and followed in 1772 by the , a permanent encroachment on the outer Commonwealth provinces by Russia, Prussia and Austria. The was convened by Stanisław August in 1788. The Sejm's landmark achievement was the passing of the , considered the first in modern Europe. The constitutional reform generated strong opposition from conservative circles in the Commonwealth's upper nobility and from Catherine II. The nobility's appealed to Empress Catherine for help and in May 1792 the Russian army entered the territory of the Commonwealth. The ended when , convinced of the futility of resistance, capitulated by joining the Targowica Confederation. Russia and Prussia in 1793 arranged for and executed the , which left the country with critically reduced territory, practically incapable of independent existence. Reformers and patriots were soon preparing for a national insurrection. , chosen as its leader, on March 24, 1794 in a . Kościuszko emancipated and enrolled in his army many peasants, but the hard-fought insurrection ended in suppression by the forces of Russia and Prussia. The was , and in 1795 the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth ceased to exist.

Following the abdication of King and the end of the , the Polish nobility (), disappointed with the rule of the monarchs, elected as king, believing that as a non-foreigner he would further the interests of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. He was the first ruler of Polish origin since the last of , , died in 1572. was a son of a controversial but popular with szlachta military commander , known for his actions during the . His reign was not successful. Michael lost a , with the s occupying and most of Ukraine from 1672–1673. Wiśniowiecki was a passive monarch who readily played into the hands of the . He was unable to cope with his responsibilities and with the different quarreling factions within Poland.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Poland%20in%20the%20Early%20Modern%20era%20%281569%E2%80%931795%29

History of Poland in the Early Modern era (1569–1795)

John III Sobieski (1674–1696)

The early modern era of follows the . Historians use the term to refer to beginning in approximately 1500 AD and lasting until around 1800. The act adopted by the in 1505 transferred from the to the diet. This event marked the beginning of the period known as the "Nobles' Democracy" () or "Nobles' Commonwealth" (). The was ruled by the "free and equal" Polish nobility or , albeit in intense, and at times destabilizing, competition with the and then kings. The of 1569 constituted the , a more closely merged continuation of the already existing of the and the . The beginning of the Commonwealth coincided with the period of Poland's greatest territorial expansion, power, civilizational advancement and prosperity. The Polish–Lithuanian state had become an influential player in Europe and a vital cultural entity, eastward. Following the gains accompanied by religious toleration, the embarked on an ideological counter-offensive and claimed many converts from circles. The disagreements over and the difficulties with the assimilation of the eastern Ruthenian populations of the Commonwealth had become clearly discernible; an attempt to settle the issue was made in the religious . On the military front, a series of took place. The Commonwealth, assertive militarily under King , suffered from dynastic distractions during the reigns of the kings and . It had also become a playground of internal conflicts, in which the kings, powerful magnates and factions of nobility were the main actors. The Commonwealth fought wars with , and the . The situation, however, soon radically deteriorated. From 1648 the engulfed the south and east, and was soon followed by a , which raged through core Polish lands. Warfare with the Cossacks and Russia left divided, with the eastern part, lost by the Commonwealth, becoming the 's dependency. , fighting protracted wars with the Ottoman Empire, revived the Commonwealth's military might once more, in the process helping decisively in 1683 to from a onslaught. The Commonwealth, subjected to , suffered devastating population losses, massive damage to its economy and social structure. The government became ineffective because of large scale internal conflicts (e.g. against and other s), corrupted legislative processes () and manipulation by foreign interests. The "ruling" nobility class fell under control of a handful of powerful families with established territorial domains. The reigns of two kings of the , and , brought the Commonwealth further disintegration. The Polish-Lithuanian state was dominated by the from the time of . This foreign control reached its climax under , and involved at that time also the and the Austrian . During the later part of the 18th century the Commonwealth recovered economically, developed culturally and attempted fundamental internal reforms. The reform activity provoked hostile reaction and eventually military response on the part of the neighboring powers. The of 1764 resulted in the reign of . The of 1768 was a szlachta rebellion directed against Russia and the Polish king. It was brought under control and followed in 1772 by the , a permanent encroachment on the outer Commonwealth provinces by Russia, Prussia and Austria. The was convened by Stanisław August in 1788. The Sejm's landmark achievement was the passing of the , considered the first in modern Europe. The constitutional reform generated strong opposition from conservative circles in the Commonwealth's upper nobility and from Catherine II. The nobility's appealed to Empress Catherine for help and in May 1792 the Russian army entered the territory of the Commonwealth. The ended when , convinced of the futility of resistance, capitulated by joining the Targowica Confederation. Russia and Prussia in 1793 arranged for and executed the , which left the country with critically reduced territory, practically incapable of independent existence. Reformers and patriots were soon preparing for a national insurrection. , chosen as its leader, on March 24, 1794 in a . Kościuszko emancipated and enrolled in his army many peasants, but the hard-fought insurrection ended in suppression by the forces of Russia and Prussia. The was , and in 1795 the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth ceased to exist.

was the Commonwealth's last great military commander; he was active and effective in the continuing . Sobieski was elected as another "Piast" (of Polish family) king. 's most famous achievement was the decisive contribution by the Commonwealth's forces led by him to the defeat of the Ottoman Empire's army in 1683, at the . The Ottomans, if victorious, would have likely become a threat to , but the successful battle eliminated that possibility and marked the turning point in a 250-year struggle between the forces of Europe and the ic Ottoman Empire. Over the 16 years following the battle (the ), the Turks would be permanently driven south of the , never to threaten Central Europe again. For the Commonwealth there was no big payoff for the Turkish victories and the had to cede territories to Russia in return for promised aid against the and Turks. Poland had previously formally relinquished all claims to in 1686. On other fronts John III was even less successful, including agreements with France and Sweden in a failed attempt to regain the . Only when the concluded in 1699, Poland recovered and parts of Ukraine.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Poland%20in%20the%20Early%20Modern%20era%20%281569%E2%80%931795%29

History of Poland in the Early Modern era (1569–1795)

Decay of the Commonwealth

The early modern era of follows the . Historians use the term to refer to beginning in approximately 1500 AD and lasting until around 1800. The act adopted by the in 1505 transferred from the to the diet. This event marked the beginning of the period known as the "Nobles' Democracy" () or "Nobles' Commonwealth" (). The was ruled by the "free and equal" Polish nobility or , albeit in intense, and at times destabilizing, competition with the and then kings. The of 1569 constituted the , a more closely merged continuation of the already existing of the and the . The beginning of the Commonwealth coincided with the period of Poland's greatest territorial expansion, power, civilizational advancement and prosperity. The Polish–Lithuanian state had become an influential player in Europe and a vital cultural entity, eastward. Following the gains accompanied by religious toleration, the embarked on an ideological counter-offensive and claimed many converts from circles. The disagreements over and the difficulties with the assimilation of the eastern Ruthenian populations of the Commonwealth had become clearly discernible; an attempt to settle the issue was made in the religious . On the military front, a series of took place. The Commonwealth, assertive militarily under King , suffered from dynastic distractions during the reigns of the kings and . It had also become a playground of internal conflicts, in which the kings, powerful magnates and factions of nobility were the main actors. The Commonwealth fought wars with , and the . The situation, however, soon radically deteriorated. From 1648 the engulfed the south and east, and was soon followed by a , which raged through core Polish lands. Warfare with the Cossacks and Russia left divided, with the eastern part, lost by the Commonwealth, becoming the 's dependency. , fighting protracted wars with the Ottoman Empire, revived the Commonwealth's military might once more, in the process helping decisively in 1683 to from a onslaught. The Commonwealth, subjected to , suffered devastating population losses, massive damage to its economy and social structure. The government became ineffective because of large scale internal conflicts (e.g. against and other s), corrupted legislative processes () and manipulation by foreign interests. The "ruling" nobility class fell under control of a handful of powerful families with established territorial domains. The reigns of two kings of the , and , brought the Commonwealth further disintegration. The Polish-Lithuanian state was dominated by the from the time of . This foreign control reached its climax under , and involved at that time also the and the Austrian . During the later part of the 18th century the Commonwealth recovered economically, developed culturally and attempted fundamental internal reforms. The reform activity provoked hostile reaction and eventually military response on the part of the neighboring powers. The of 1764 resulted in the reign of . The of 1768 was a szlachta rebellion directed against Russia and the Polish king. It was brought under control and followed in 1772 by the , a permanent encroachment on the outer Commonwealth provinces by Russia, Prussia and Austria. The was convened by Stanisław August in 1788. The Sejm's landmark achievement was the passing of the , considered the first in modern Europe. The constitutional reform generated strong opposition from conservative circles in the Commonwealth's upper nobility and from Catherine II. The nobility's appealed to Empress Catherine for help and in May 1792 the Russian army entered the territory of the Commonwealth. The ended when , convinced of the futility of resistance, capitulated by joining the Targowica Confederation. Russia and Prussia in 1793 arranged for and executed the , which left the country with critically reduced territory, practically incapable of independent existence. Reformers and patriots were soon preparing for a national insurrection. , chosen as its leader, on March 24, 1794 in a . Kościuszko emancipated and enrolled in his army many peasants, but the hard-fought insurrection ended in suppression by the forces of Russia and Prussia. The was , and in 1795 the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth ceased to exist.

Beginning in the 17th century, because of the deteriorating state of internal politics and government and destructive wars, the nobles' democracy gradually declined into , making the once powerful Commonwealth vulnerable to foreign interference and intervention. In the late 17th century Poland-Lithuania had virtually ceased to function as a coherent and genuinely independent state. During the 18th century, the Polish-Lithuanian federation became subject to manipulations by , , the , France and . Poland's weakness was exacerbated by an unworkable parliamentary rule which allowed each deputy in to use his to stop further parliamentary proceedings for the given session. This greatly weakened the central authority of Poland and paved the way for its destruction. The decline leading to foreign domination had begun in earnest several decades after the end of the . Insufficient and ineffective taxation, virulently contested by the szlachta whenever it impinged on their perceived interests, was another contributor to the downfall. There were two kinds of taxes, those levied by the Crown and those levied by legislative assemblies. The Crown raised both customs duties and taxes on land, transportation, salt, lead, and silver. Sejm raised a land tax, a city tax, a tax on alcohol, and a on Jews. The exports and imports by the nobility were tax-free. The disorganized and increasingly decentralized nature of tax gathering and the numerous exceptions from taxation meant that the king and the state had insufficient revenue to perform military or civilian functions. At one point the king secretly and illegally sold crown jewels. The nobles or szlachta became increasingly focused on guarding their own "liberties" and blocked any policies designed to strengthen the nation or build a powerful army. Beginning in 1652, the fatal practice of was their basic tool. It required unanimity in sejm and permitted even a single deputy not only to block any measure but to cause dissolution of a sejm and submission of all measures already passed to the next sejm. Foreign diplomats, using bribery or persuasion, routinely caused the dissolution of inconvenient sessions of sejm. Of the 37 sejms in 1674–96, only 12 were able to enact any legislation. The others were dissolved by the liberum veto of one person or another. The Commonwealth's last martial triumph occurred in 1683 when King drove the from the gates of with a heavy cavalry charge. Poland's important role in aiding the to roll back the was rewarded with some territory in by the (1699). This partial success did little to mask the internal weakness and paralysis of the Polish–Lithuanian political system. For the next quarter century, Poland was often a pawn in Russia's campaigns against other powers. When John III died in 1697, 18 candidates vied for the throne, which ultimately went to , who then converted to Catholicism. Ruling as , his reign presented the opportunity to unite (an industrialized area) with Poland, a country rich in mineral resources. The King however lacked skill in foreign policy and became entangled in a war with Sweden. His allies, the Russians and the Danes, were repelled by , beginning the . Charles installed a in Poland and marched on Saxony, compelling Augustus to give up his crown and turning Poland into a base for the Swedish army. Poland was again devastated by the armies of Sweden, Russia, and Saxony. Its major cities were destroyed and a third of the population killed by the war and . The Swedes finally withdrew from Poland and invaded Ukraine, where they were defeated by the Russians . Augustus was able to reclaim his throne with Russian support, but Tsar decided to annex in 1710. He also suppressed the , who had been in revolt against Poland since 1699. Later on, the Tsar frustrated an attempt by Prussia to gain territory from Poland (despite Augustus' approval of this). After the Great Northern War, Poland became an effective of Russia for the rest of the 18th century. The wide-ranging European , named after the conflict over the succession to , was fought from 1733–1735. In the 18th century, the powers of the monarchy and the central administration became mostly formal. Kings were denied opportunity to provide for elementary requirements of defense and finance, and made treaties directly with foreign sovereigns. Attempts at reform were stymied by the determination of szlachta to preserve their "", most notably the liberum veto. Because of the chaos sown by the veto provision, under (1733–63) only one of the thirteen sejm sessions ran to an orderly adjournment. Unlike Spain and Sweden, great powers that were allowed to settle peacefully into secondary status at the periphery of Europe at the end of their time of glory, Poland endured its decline at the strategic crossroads of the continent. Lacking central leadership and impotent in foreign relations, Poland-Lithuania became a chattel of the ambitious kingdoms that surrounded it, an immense but feeble . During the reign of Peter the Great (1682–1725), the Commonwealth fell under the dominance of Russia, and by the middle of the 18th century Poland-Lithuania had been made a virtual protectorate of its , retaining only a theoretical right to self-rule. By the 18th century, outside commentators routinely ridiculed the ineffectiveness of sejms, blaming the liberum veto. Throughout Europe political commentators unanimously called it a terrible failure. Many Polish nobles regarded the veto as a constructive instrument, to be used as a weapon against the presumably tyrannical aspirations of the monarchy. The long-term result was a weak state that could not compete with its neighbors, especially Prussia and Russia. Inevitably Poland was partitioned among them and the nobles lost all their political rights as well as their nation state. Several decades before the loss independence, intellectuals began to reconsider the role of the veto and the nature of Polish liberty, arguing that Poland had not been progressing as fast as the rest of Europe because of a lack of political stability. The exposure to ideas gave Poles further reason to reconsider concepts such as society and equality, and this led to discovery of the idea of the naród, or nation; a nation in which all people, not just the nobility, should enjoy the rights of political liberty. The reform movement came too late to save the state, but helped to form the coherent nation, able to survive the long period of .

wit-train-topic-003561770

projected-20465358-021

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Poland%20in%20the%20Early%20Modern%20era%20%281569%E2%80%931795%29

History of Poland in the Early Modern era (1569–1795)

Augustus II the Strong (1697–1706, 1709–1733)

The early modern era of follows the . Historians use the term to refer to beginning in approximately 1500 AD and lasting until around 1800. The act adopted by the in 1505 transferred from the to the diet. This event marked the beginning of the period known as the "Nobles' Democracy" () or "Nobles' Commonwealth" (). The was ruled by the "free and equal" Polish nobility or , albeit in intense, and at times destabilizing, competition with the and then kings. The of 1569 constituted the , a more closely merged continuation of the already existing of the and the . The beginning of the Commonwealth coincided with the period of Poland's greatest territorial expansion, power, civilizational advancement and prosperity. The Polish–Lithuanian state had become an influential player in Europe and a vital cultural entity, eastward. Following the gains accompanied by religious toleration, the embarked on an ideological counter-offensive and claimed many converts from circles. The disagreements over and the difficulties with the assimilation of the eastern Ruthenian populations of the Commonwealth had become clearly discernible; an attempt to settle the issue was made in the religious . On the military front, a series of took place. The Commonwealth, assertive militarily under King , suffered from dynastic distractions during the reigns of the kings and . It had also become a playground of internal conflicts, in which the kings, powerful magnates and factions of nobility were the main actors. The Commonwealth fought wars with , and the . The situation, however, soon radically deteriorated. From 1648 the engulfed the south and east, and was soon followed by a , which raged through core Polish lands. Warfare with the Cossacks and Russia left divided, with the eastern part, lost by the Commonwealth, becoming the 's dependency. , fighting protracted wars with the Ottoman Empire, revived the Commonwealth's military might once more, in the process helping decisively in 1683 to from a onslaught. The Commonwealth, subjected to , suffered devastating population losses, massive damage to its economy and social structure. The government became ineffective because of large scale internal conflicts (e.g. against and other s), corrupted legislative processes () and manipulation by foreign interests. The "ruling" nobility class fell under control of a handful of powerful families with established territorial domains. The reigns of two kings of the , and , brought the Commonwealth further disintegration. The Polish-Lithuanian state was dominated by the from the time of . This foreign control reached its climax under , and involved at that time also the and the Austrian . During the later part of the 18th century the Commonwealth recovered economically, developed culturally and attempted fundamental internal reforms. The reform activity provoked hostile reaction and eventually military response on the part of the neighboring powers. The of 1764 resulted in the reign of . The of 1768 was a szlachta rebellion directed against Russia and the Polish king. It was brought under control and followed in 1772 by the , a permanent encroachment on the outer Commonwealth provinces by Russia, Prussia and Austria. The was convened by Stanisław August in 1788. The Sejm's landmark achievement was the passing of the , considered the first in modern Europe. The constitutional reform generated strong opposition from conservative circles in the Commonwealth's upper nobility and from Catherine II. The nobility's appealed to Empress Catherine for help and in May 1792 the Russian army entered the territory of the Commonwealth. The ended when , convinced of the futility of resistance, capitulated by joining the Targowica Confederation. Russia and Prussia in 1793 arranged for and executed the , which left the country with critically reduced territory, practically incapable of independent existence. Reformers and patriots were soon preparing for a national insurrection. , chosen as its leader, on March 24, 1794 in a . Kościuszko emancipated and enrolled in his army many peasants, but the hard-fought insurrection ended in suppression by the forces of Russia and Prussia. The was , and in 1795 the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth ceased to exist.

Augustus II the Strong, also known as Frederick Augustus I, was an over-ambitious ruler. In the contest for the crown of the Commonwealth he defeated his main rival, , who was supported by France, and King 's son, . To ensure his success in becoming the Polish king he converted from to . Augustus II virtually bought the election. Augustus hoped to make the Polish throne hereditary for the House of Wettin, and to use his resources as Elector of Saxony to impose some order on the chaotic Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. However, he was soon distracted from his internal reform projects and became preoccupied by the possibility of external conquests. In alliance with of Russia, Augustus won back and western Ukraine and concluded the long series of Polish-Turkish wars by the (1699). A Cossack revolt that had begun in 1699 was suppressed by the Russians. Augustus tried unsuccessfully to regain the Baltic coast from . He allied with Denmark and Russia, provoking a . After Augustus' allies were defeated, Sweden's king Charles XII marched from into Poland, using it then as the base of his operations. Installing a puppet ruler (King ) in Warsaw, he occupied Saxony and drove Augustus II from the throne. Augustus was forced to cede the crown from 1704 to 1709, but regained it when Tsar Peter defeated Charles XII at the (1709). Poland, which after having suffered extensive damages from wars had only recently returned to its 1650 population level, was once again completely razed to the ground by the armies of Sweden, Saxony, and Russia. Two million people died as a result of the war and disease epidemics. Cities were reduced to rubble, and cultural losses were immense. After the Swedish defeat Augustus II regained the throne with Russian backing, but the Russians proceeded to annex Livonia after driving the Swedes from it. Augustus II was helpless when, in 1701, the Elector of proclaimed himself sovereign "King in Prussia," as and founded the aggressive, militaristic Prussian state, which would eventually form nucleus of a united Germany. The victor from Poltava, Tsar Peter the Great declared Russia to be the guardian of the Polish-Lithuanian Republic's territorial integrity. This effectively meant that the Commonwealth became a Russian ; it had remained in this condition for the duration of its existence (until 1795). The policy of was to exercise political control over Poland in cooperation with and .

wit-train-topic-000834288

projected-20465358-022

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Poland%20in%20the%20Early%20Modern%20era%20%281569%E2%80%931795%29

History of Poland in the Early Modern era (1569–1795)

Stanisław Leszczyński (1706–1709, 1733–1736)

The early modern era of follows the . Historians use the term to refer to beginning in approximately 1500 AD and lasting until around 1800. The act adopted by the in 1505 transferred from the to the diet. This event marked the beginning of the period known as the "Nobles' Democracy" () or "Nobles' Commonwealth" (). The was ruled by the "free and equal" Polish nobility or , albeit in intense, and at times destabilizing, competition with the and then kings. The of 1569 constituted the , a more closely merged continuation of the already existing of the and the . The beginning of the Commonwealth coincided with the period of Poland's greatest territorial expansion, power, civilizational advancement and prosperity. The Polish–Lithuanian state had become an influential player in Europe and a vital cultural entity, eastward. Following the gains accompanied by religious toleration, the embarked on an ideological counter-offensive and claimed many converts from circles. The disagreements over and the difficulties with the assimilation of the eastern Ruthenian populations of the Commonwealth had become clearly discernible; an attempt to settle the issue was made in the religious . On the military front, a series of took place. The Commonwealth, assertive militarily under King , suffered from dynastic distractions during the reigns of the kings and . It had also become a playground of internal conflicts, in which the kings, powerful magnates and factions of nobility were the main actors. The Commonwealth fought wars with , and the . The situation, however, soon radically deteriorated. From 1648 the engulfed the south and east, and was soon followed by a , which raged through core Polish lands. Warfare with the Cossacks and Russia left divided, with the eastern part, lost by the Commonwealth, becoming the 's dependency. , fighting protracted wars with the Ottoman Empire, revived the Commonwealth's military might once more, in the process helping decisively in 1683 to from a onslaught. The Commonwealth, subjected to , suffered devastating population losses, massive damage to its economy and social structure. The government became ineffective because of large scale internal conflicts (e.g. against and other s), corrupted legislative processes () and manipulation by foreign interests. The "ruling" nobility class fell under control of a handful of powerful families with established territorial domains. The reigns of two kings of the , and , brought the Commonwealth further disintegration. The Polish-Lithuanian state was dominated by the from the time of . This foreign control reached its climax under , and involved at that time also the and the Austrian . During the later part of the 18th century the Commonwealth recovered economically, developed culturally and attempted fundamental internal reforms. The reform activity provoked hostile reaction and eventually military response on the part of the neighboring powers. The of 1764 resulted in the reign of . The of 1768 was a szlachta rebellion directed against Russia and the Polish king. It was brought under control and followed in 1772 by the , a permanent encroachment on the outer Commonwealth provinces by Russia, Prussia and Austria. The was convened by Stanisław August in 1788. The Sejm's landmark achievement was the passing of the , considered the first in modern Europe. The constitutional reform generated strong opposition from conservative circles in the Commonwealth's upper nobility and from Catherine II. The nobility's appealed to Empress Catherine for help and in May 1792 the Russian army entered the territory of the Commonwealth. The ended when , convinced of the futility of resistance, capitulated by joining the Targowica Confederation. Russia and Prussia in 1793 arranged for and executed the , which left the country with critically reduced territory, practically incapable of independent existence. Reformers and patriots were soon preparing for a national insurrection. , chosen as its leader, on March 24, 1794 in a . Kościuszko emancipated and enrolled in his army many peasants, but the hard-fought insurrection ended in suppression by the forces of Russia and Prussia. The was , and in 1795 the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth ceased to exist.

Seen as a puppet of Sweden during his first stint on the throne, ruled in times of turmoil, and Augustus II soon recovered the throne, forcing him into exile. He was elected king again following the death of Augustus in 1733, with the support of France and Polish nobles, but not of Poland's neighbors. After the military intervention by Russian and Saxon troops, he was (Gdańsk), and again forced to leave the country. For the rest of his life Leszczyński became a successful and popular ruler in the .

wit-train-topic-001439526

projected-20465358-025

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Poland%20in%20the%20Early%20Modern%20era%20%281569%E2%80%931795%29

History of Poland in the Early Modern era (1569–1795)

Russian protectorate and First Partition

The early modern era of follows the . Historians use the term to refer to beginning in approximately 1500 AD and lasting until around 1800. The act adopted by the in 1505 transferred from the to the diet. This event marked the beginning of the period known as the "Nobles' Democracy" () or "Nobles' Commonwealth" (). The was ruled by the "free and equal" Polish nobility or , albeit in intense, and at times destabilizing, competition with the and then kings. The of 1569 constituted the , a more closely merged continuation of the already existing of the and the . The beginning of the Commonwealth coincided with the period of Poland's greatest territorial expansion, power, civilizational advancement and prosperity. The Polish–Lithuanian state had become an influential player in Europe and a vital cultural entity, eastward. Following the gains accompanied by religious toleration, the embarked on an ideological counter-offensive and claimed many converts from circles. The disagreements over and the difficulties with the assimilation of the eastern Ruthenian populations of the Commonwealth had become clearly discernible; an attempt to settle the issue was made in the religious . On the military front, a series of took place. The Commonwealth, assertive militarily under King , suffered from dynastic distractions during the reigns of the kings and . It had also become a playground of internal conflicts, in which the kings, powerful magnates and factions of nobility were the main actors. The Commonwealth fought wars with , and the . The situation, however, soon radically deteriorated. From 1648 the engulfed the south and east, and was soon followed by a , which raged through core Polish lands. Warfare with the Cossacks and Russia left divided, with the eastern part, lost by the Commonwealth, becoming the 's dependency. , fighting protracted wars with the Ottoman Empire, revived the Commonwealth's military might once more, in the process helping decisively in 1683 to from a onslaught. The Commonwealth, subjected to , suffered devastating population losses, massive damage to its economy and social structure. The government became ineffective because of large scale internal conflicts (e.g. against and other s), corrupted legislative processes () and manipulation by foreign interests. The "ruling" nobility class fell under control of a handful of powerful families with established territorial domains. The reigns of two kings of the , and , brought the Commonwealth further disintegration. The Polish-Lithuanian state was dominated by the from the time of . This foreign control reached its climax under , and involved at that time also the and the Austrian . During the later part of the 18th century the Commonwealth recovered economically, developed culturally and attempted fundamental internal reforms. The reform activity provoked hostile reaction and eventually military response on the part of the neighboring powers. The of 1764 resulted in the reign of . The of 1768 was a szlachta rebellion directed against Russia and the Polish king. It was brought under control and followed in 1772 by the , a permanent encroachment on the outer Commonwealth provinces by Russia, Prussia and Austria. The was convened by Stanisław August in 1788. The Sejm's landmark achievement was the passing of the , considered the first in modern Europe. The constitutional reform generated strong opposition from conservative circles in the Commonwealth's upper nobility and from Catherine II. The nobility's appealed to Empress Catherine for help and in May 1792 the Russian army entered the territory of the Commonwealth. The ended when , convinced of the futility of resistance, capitulated by joining the Targowica Confederation. Russia and Prussia in 1793 arranged for and executed the , which left the country with critically reduced territory, practically incapable of independent existence. Reformers and patriots were soon preparing for a national insurrection. , chosen as its leader, on March 24, 1794 in a . Kościuszko emancipated and enrolled in his army many peasants, but the hard-fought insurrection ended in suppression by the forces of Russia and Prussia. The was , and in 1795 the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth ceased to exist.

More enlightened Poles realized by now that reforms were necessary. , led by the , sought to abolish the fatal liberum veto and promoted a broad reform program; their main rivals were the faction. The Czartoryskis entered into collaboration with the Russians, and in 1764 Empress of Russia dictated the election of a member of the Czartoryski clan, her former favorite and lover, , as king of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. Partially confounding expectations that he would be an obedient servant of his former mistress, Stanislaw August encouraged a modernization of his realm's dysfunctional political system and achieved a temporary moratorium on use of the in sejm (1764–1766). This threatened to increase the strength of central government and brought displeasure in the foreign capitals that preferred an inert, pliable Poland. Displeased Catherine encouraged religious dissension in Poland-Lithuania's substantial population, which had lost the rights in the 16th century. Under heavy Russian pressure, the unhappy sejm introduced religious toleration and Orthodox and Protestant equality with Catholics in 1767. Through the Polish nobles that Russia controlled (the ) and Russian Minister to Warsaw Prince , Catherine forced a sejm constitution (comprehensive legislation), which undid Poniatowski's reforms of 1764. The liberum veto and other old abuses of power were guaranteed as unalterable parts of this new constitution. Poland was however also compelled to sign a treaty of guarantee with Russia, where Catherine was imposed as (guarantor) of the Polish political system. The system could not be changed without Russia's approval, and thus the Commonwealth became de facto a Russian . The real power in Poland lay with the , and the Polish king became to a significant degree an executor of their will. This situation provoked in 1768 a Catholic uprising and civil war known as the . The Confederation was a league of Polish nobles that fought against the King and Russian forces until 1772, to revoke the Empress' mandate. The Confederation's warfare and defeat provoked in part a partition of the Commonwealth (seizure of its outer territories) by its neighbors. Although Catherine initially opposed partition, King of Prussia, interested in territorial gains and in neutralizing Austria's threatening military position, promoted a partition scheme that would be favorable to the interests of all three partitioning states. Emperor of the and then Empress Catherine agreed, and in 1772 Russia, Prussia, and Austria upon the helpless Commonwealth, under the pretext of quelling anarchy and restoring order.

wit-train-topic-000605744

projected-20465358-026

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Poland%20in%20the%20Early%20Modern%20era%20%281569%E2%80%931795%29

History of Poland in the Early Modern era (1569–1795)

National revival

The early modern era of follows the . Historians use the term to refer to beginning in approximately 1500 AD and lasting until around 1800. The act adopted by the in 1505 transferred from the to the diet. This event marked the beginning of the period known as the "Nobles' Democracy" () or "Nobles' Commonwealth" (). The was ruled by the "free and equal" Polish nobility or , albeit in intense, and at times destabilizing, competition with the and then kings. The of 1569 constituted the , a more closely merged continuation of the already existing of the and the . The beginning of the Commonwealth coincided with the period of Poland's greatest territorial expansion, power, civilizational advancement and prosperity. The Polish–Lithuanian state had become an influential player in Europe and a vital cultural entity, eastward. Following the gains accompanied by religious toleration, the embarked on an ideological counter-offensive and claimed many converts from circles. The disagreements over and the difficulties with the assimilation of the eastern Ruthenian populations of the Commonwealth had become clearly discernible; an attempt to settle the issue was made in the religious . On the military front, a series of took place. The Commonwealth, assertive militarily under King , suffered from dynastic distractions during the reigns of the kings and . It had also become a playground of internal conflicts, in which the kings, powerful magnates and factions of nobility were the main actors. The Commonwealth fought wars with , and the . The situation, however, soon radically deteriorated. From 1648 the engulfed the south and east, and was soon followed by a , which raged through core Polish lands. Warfare with the Cossacks and Russia left divided, with the eastern part, lost by the Commonwealth, becoming the 's dependency. , fighting protracted wars with the Ottoman Empire, revived the Commonwealth's military might once more, in the process helping decisively in 1683 to from a onslaught. The Commonwealth, subjected to , suffered devastating population losses, massive damage to its economy and social structure. The government became ineffective because of large scale internal conflicts (e.g. against and other s), corrupted legislative processes () and manipulation by foreign interests. The "ruling" nobility class fell under control of a handful of powerful families with established territorial domains. The reigns of two kings of the , and , brought the Commonwealth further disintegration. The Polish-Lithuanian state was dominated by the from the time of . This foreign control reached its climax under , and involved at that time also the and the Austrian . During the later part of the 18th century the Commonwealth recovered economically, developed culturally and attempted fundamental internal reforms. The reform activity provoked hostile reaction and eventually military response on the part of the neighboring powers. The of 1764 resulted in the reign of . The of 1768 was a szlachta rebellion directed against Russia and the Polish king. It was brought under control and followed in 1772 by the , a permanent encroachment on the outer Commonwealth provinces by Russia, Prussia and Austria. The was convened by Stanisław August in 1788. The Sejm's landmark achievement was the passing of the , considered the first in modern Europe. The constitutional reform generated strong opposition from conservative circles in the Commonwealth's upper nobility and from Catherine II. The nobility's appealed to Empress Catherine for help and in May 1792 the Russian army entered the territory of the Commonwealth. The ended when , convinced of the futility of resistance, capitulated by joining the Targowica Confederation. Russia and Prussia in 1793 arranged for and executed the , which left the country with critically reduced territory, practically incapable of independent existence. Reformers and patriots were soon preparing for a national insurrection. , chosen as its leader, on March 24, 1794 in a . Kościuszko emancipated and enrolled in his army many peasants, but the hard-fought insurrection ended in suppression by the forces of Russia and Prussia. The was , and in 1795 the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth ceased to exist.

The first partition in 1772 did not directly threaten the stability of the Polish-Lithuanian state. Poland still retained extensive territory that included the Polish heartlands. Moreover, the shock of the annexations made clear the dangers of decay in government institutions, creating a body of opinion favorable to reform along the lines of the . King Stanisław August supported the progressive elements in the government and promoted the ideas of foreign political figures such as and . Polish intellectuals studied and discussed Enlightenment philosophers such as and . During the period of , the concept of democratic institutions for all classes was accepted in the more progressive circles of Polish society. Education reform included the establishment of the first ministry of education in Europe (the ). Taxation and the army underwent thorough reform, and central executive government was established as the . Landholders emancipated large numbers of peasants, although there was no official government decree. Polish cities and business enterprises, in decline for many decades, were revived by the influence of the , especially in mining and textiles. Stanisław August's process of renovation reached its climax when, after three years of intense debate, the "" produced the , which historian called "the first constitution of its kind in Europe". Conceived in the liberal spirit of the contemporaneous document in the United States, the constitution recast Poland-Lithuania as a hereditary monarchy and got rid of many of the eccentricities and antiquated features of the old system of government. The new constitution abolished the in parliament; provided a separation of powers among the legislative, executive, and judicial branches of government; and established "people's sovereignty" (for the noble and classes). Although never fully implemented, the Constitution of May 3 gained a cherished position in the Polish political heritage; tradition marks the anniversary of its passage as the country's most important civic holiday.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Poland%20in%20the%20Early%20Modern%20era%20%281569%E2%80%931795%29

History of Poland in the Early Modern era (1569–1795)

Destruction of Poland-Lithuania

The early modern era of follows the . Historians use the term to refer to beginning in approximately 1500 AD and lasting until around 1800. The act adopted by the in 1505 transferred from the to the diet. This event marked the beginning of the period known as the "Nobles' Democracy" () or "Nobles' Commonwealth" (). The was ruled by the "free and equal" Polish nobility or , albeit in intense, and at times destabilizing, competition with the and then kings. The of 1569 constituted the , a more closely merged continuation of the already existing of the and the . The beginning of the Commonwealth coincided with the period of Poland's greatest territorial expansion, power, civilizational advancement and prosperity. The Polish–Lithuanian state had become an influential player in Europe and a vital cultural entity, eastward. Following the gains accompanied by religious toleration, the embarked on an ideological counter-offensive and claimed many converts from circles. The disagreements over and the difficulties with the assimilation of the eastern Ruthenian populations of the Commonwealth had become clearly discernible; an attempt to settle the issue was made in the religious . On the military front, a series of took place. The Commonwealth, assertive militarily under King , suffered from dynastic distractions during the reigns of the kings and . It had also become a playground of internal conflicts, in which the kings, powerful magnates and factions of nobility were the main actors. The Commonwealth fought wars with , and the . The situation, however, soon radically deteriorated. From 1648 the engulfed the south and east, and was soon followed by a , which raged through core Polish lands. Warfare with the Cossacks and Russia left divided, with the eastern part, lost by the Commonwealth, becoming the 's dependency. , fighting protracted wars with the Ottoman Empire, revived the Commonwealth's military might once more, in the process helping decisively in 1683 to from a onslaught. The Commonwealth, subjected to , suffered devastating population losses, massive damage to its economy and social structure. The government became ineffective because of large scale internal conflicts (e.g. against and other s), corrupted legislative processes () and manipulation by foreign interests. The "ruling" nobility class fell under control of a handful of powerful families with established territorial domains. The reigns of two kings of the , and , brought the Commonwealth further disintegration. The Polish-Lithuanian state was dominated by the from the time of . This foreign control reached its climax under , and involved at that time also the and the Austrian . During the later part of the 18th century the Commonwealth recovered economically, developed culturally and attempted fundamental internal reforms. The reform activity provoked hostile reaction and eventually military response on the part of the neighboring powers. The of 1764 resulted in the reign of . The of 1768 was a szlachta rebellion directed against Russia and the Polish king. It was brought under control and followed in 1772 by the , a permanent encroachment on the outer Commonwealth provinces by Russia, Prussia and Austria. The was convened by Stanisław August in 1788. The Sejm's landmark achievement was the passing of the , considered the first in modern Europe. The constitutional reform generated strong opposition from conservative circles in the Commonwealth's upper nobility and from Catherine II. The nobility's appealed to Empress Catherine for help and in May 1792 the Russian army entered the territory of the Commonwealth. The ended when , convinced of the futility of resistance, capitulated by joining the Targowica Confederation. Russia and Prussia in 1793 arranged for and executed the , which left the country with critically reduced territory, practically incapable of independent existence. Reformers and patriots were soon preparing for a national insurrection. , chosen as its leader, on March 24, 1794 in a . Kościuszko emancipated and enrolled in his army many peasants, but the hard-fought insurrection ended in suppression by the forces of Russia and Prussia. The was , and in 1795 the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth ceased to exist.

Passage of the constitution alarmed many nobles, some of whom would lose considerable stature under the new order. In autocratic states such as Russia, the democratic ideals of the new constitution also threatened the existing order, and the prospect of Polish recovery threatened to end domination of Polish affairs by Poland's neighbors. In 1792, Polish conservative factions formed the and appealed for Russian assistance in restoring the status quo. Empress Catherine was happy to use this opportunity; enlisting Prussian support, she invaded Poland under the pretext of defending Poland's ancient liberties. A against powerful Russian armies was fought in 1792 with some measure of success, but the irresolute Stanislaw August, who did not believe in the possibility of defeating the Russian Empire, capitulated, defecting to the Targowica Confederation. Arguing that Poland had fallen prey to radical , then at high tide in France, Russia and Prussia abrogated the Constitution of May 3, carried out the in 1793, and placed the remainder of the country under occupation by Russian troops. The Second Partition was far more injurious than the first. Russia received a vast area of eastern Poland, extending southward nearly to the . To the west, Prussia received an area that became known as South Prussia, nearly twice the size of its First Partition gains along the Baltic, as well as the port of (Gdańsk). Poland's neighbors thus reduced the Commonwealth to a rump state and signaled their intention to abolish it altogether at their convenience. The , a great Polish revolt, broke out in 1794 under the leadership of , a military officer who had rendered notable service in the . Kościuszko's ragtag insurgent armies won some initial successes, but they eventually fell before the superior forces of Russian General . In the wake of the insurrection of 1794, Russia, Prussia, and Austria carried out the in 1795, erasing the Commonwealth of Two Nations from the map and pledging to never allow its return. Much of Europe condemned the dismemberment as an international crime without historical parallel. Amid the distractions of the and its attendant however, no state actively opposed the final annexations. In the long term, the dissolution of Poland-Lithuania upset the traditional European balance of power, dramatically magnifying the influence of Russia and paving the way for the powerful Germany that would emerge in the nineteenth century with Prussia at its core. For the Poles, the Third Partition began a period of continuous foreign rule that would endure for well over a century.

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projected-20465372-000

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lauri%20Asikainen

Lauri Asikainen

Introduction

Lauri Asikainen (born 28 May 1989) is a Nordic combined athlete. He was born in , and made his senior debut in 2009, at the world championships in . He was previously a ski jumper, winning team bronze in 2007 at the World Junior Championships in Tarvisio.

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projected-44497653-000

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20tallest%20buildings%20in%20Brooklyn

List of tallest buildings in Brooklyn

Introduction

, the most populous of 's five , contains over 60 high-rises that stand taller than . , a condominium and rental tower in the neighborhood of the borough, is Brooklyn's tallest building at following its topping out in October 2021. The in , at , was the tallest building in Brooklyn for 80 years from its completion in 1929 until 2009, when was topped out at .

wit-train-topic-000527283

projected-44497653-001

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20tallest%20buildings%20in%20Brooklyn

List of tallest buildings in Brooklyn

History

, the most populous of 's five , contains over 60 high-rises that stand taller than . , a condominium and rental tower in the neighborhood of the borough, is Brooklyn's tallest building at following its topping out in October 2021. The in , at , was the tallest building in Brooklyn for 80 years from its completion in 1929 until 2009, when was topped out at .

The construction of high-rise buildings in Brooklyn began during the late 19th century, following the completion of the in 1883 and the building of elevated railroads and streetcar lines during the late 1880s. Increased accessibility to Downtown Brooklyn brought greater economic growth and propagated denser commercial development, which increased the heights of downtown buildings throughout the 1890s. This led to the 1891 construction of Brooklyn's first skyscraper, the 10-story Franklin Trust Company Building. By 1901, the 13-story Temple Bar Building was completed and was the borough's first steel-beam high-rise, its largest office building, and its tallest at . In the early 20th-century, the opening of multiple lines in Downtown Brooklyn spurred further development of tall commercial buildings. The , which required buildings to incorporate setbacks from the street to allow for sunlight, influenced the construction of taller, more slender buildings. In 1918, the 22-story and building at 32 Court Street was completed and regarded as Brooklyn's first "true skyscraper", and thus initiated a skyscraper building boom in Brooklyn centered on Court and Montague Streets. Brooklyn's high-rise development continued unabated into the 1920s. The Court and Remsen Building, built in 1926 at in height, was the first of the major high-rises to be built in Brooklyn during the 1920s and briefly held the title of Brooklyn's tallest building until 1927, when the was completed and became Brooklyn's tallest building at . Brooklyn's skyscraper building boom ceased during the , and the Williamsburgh Savings Bank Tower in Fort Greene, which was completed in 1929, remained Brooklyn's tallest building until 2009. In 2004, several portions of Downtown Brooklyn were rezoned to promote more commercial, residential, and retail development. This rezoning allowed for greater density of development, and combined with an increased demand for housing, these areas experienced a boom in the construction of tall buildings. In addition to Downtown Brooklyn, high-rise buildings are also concentrated in the , Fort Greene, and , although other Brooklyn neighborhoods have significant numbers of high-rises.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20tallest%20buildings%20in%20Brooklyn

List of tallest buildings in Brooklyn

Tallest buildings

, the most populous of 's five , contains over 60 high-rises that stand taller than . , a condominium and rental tower in the neighborhood of the borough, is Brooklyn's tallest building at following its topping out in October 2021. The in , at , was the tallest building in Brooklyn for 80 years from its completion in 1929 until 2009, when was topped out at .

There are over 60 completed or topped out skyscrapers in Brooklyn that stand at least tall, based on standard height measurement which includes spires and architectural details but does not include antenna masts. An equal sign (=) following a rank indicates the same height between two or more buildings. An asterisk (*) indicates that the building is still under construction, but has been topped out. The "Year" column indicates the year in which a building was completed.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20tallest%20buildings%20in%20Brooklyn

List of tallest buildings in Brooklyn

Under construction

, the most populous of 's five , contains over 60 high-rises that stand taller than . , a condominium and rental tower in the neighborhood of the borough, is Brooklyn's tallest building at following its topping out in October 2021. The in , at , was the tallest building in Brooklyn for 80 years from its completion in 1929 until 2009, when was topped out at .

There are a number of buildings under construction in Brooklyn that are expected to rise at least in height. , which has started initial construction work relating to foundation preparation, is set to rise over 1,000 feet. If completed, the tower will become the tallest building in the NYC area outside of , and the tallest building on .

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20tallest%20buildings%20in%20Brooklyn

List of tallest buildings in Brooklyn

Timeline of tallest buildings

, the most populous of 's five , contains over 60 high-rises that stand taller than . , a condominium and rental tower in the neighborhood of the borough, is Brooklyn's tallest building at following its topping out in October 2021. The in , at , was the tallest building in Brooklyn for 80 years from its completion in 1929 until 2009, when was topped out at .

This lists buildings that once held the title of tallest building in Brooklyn.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mats%20Zuccarello

Mats Zuccarello

Introduction

Mats André Zuccarello Aasen (born 1 September 1987) is a Norwegian professional for the of the (NHL). He has also played for the and . Prior to joining the NHL, Zuccarello previously played for in the . In 2010, he won the (Golden Helmet), awarded annually to the in the Swedish Hockey League. He is regarded as one of the best Norwegian players to play in the NHL.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mats%20Zuccarello

Mats Zuccarello

Return to New York

Mats André Zuccarello Aasen (born 1 September 1987) is a Norwegian professional for the of the (NHL). He has also played for the and . Prior to joining the NHL, Zuccarello previously played for in the . In 2010, he won the (Golden Helmet), awarded annually to the in the Swedish Hockey League. He is regarded as one of the best Norwegian players to play in the NHL.

On 28 March 2013, Zuccarello agreed to terms on a one-year contract with the New York Rangers. Zuccarello played in the last 15 games of the , helping the Rangers reach the . He played in all 12 Ranger playoff games, tallying his first playoff goal in Game 7 of the Eastern Conference Quarterfinals against the Washington Capitals. Zuccarello re-signed with the Rangers at the end of the 2012–13 season for another one-year contract, worth $1.15 million. The turned out to be a breakout season for Zuccarello. He tallied career highs in goals, assists and team-highs in points, as his contributions helped the Rangers reach the , where they faced-off against the . Although New York lost the series 4–1, Zuccarello made history by becoming the first Norwegian to ever participate in the . His all-around game also took a step forward throughout the season, as he established himself as a hard worker with the ability to get under the skin of his opponents. His work was recognized by being awarded the 2013–14 . On 22 July 2014, Zuccarello agreed to a one-year, $3.5 million contract with the Rangers. During the , Zuccarello agreed to a four-year, $18 million contract worth $4.5 million annually that extends through to the 2018–19 season. He finished fifth on the team in scoring, playing a large role with linemate , having the second-most goals in the NHL, as the Rangers won the with the League's best regular season record. Early into the , Zuccarello was hit in the head by a shot by his own teammate, Rangers captain . It was determined Zuccarello suffered a serious brain contusion and concussion and would most likely miss the rest of the playoffs. But rumors escalated as the Rangers continued their run that he may be available if the Rangers made it to the Stanley Cup Finals. However, they lost to the in seven games in the 2015 Eastern Conference Finals, ending their season. At the beginning of the , Zuccarello got off to a fast start in his return, quickly becoming the team leader in scoring. On 30 October, Zuccarello recorded a hat-trick (the first of his NHL career) against the , and on 15 November, he scored the game-winning goal in another game against the Maple Leafs, with less than one minute remaining in regulation. In his comeback season, Zuccarello scored a career-high 26 goals, with 35 assists. His performance, coupled with his tremendous effort, especially returning to the ice after the aforementioned injury the previous postseason, culminated in Zuccarello winning the again and being selected as a finalist for the for the 2015–16 season. To start the , Zuccarello was named an of the Rangers on 4 October 2017. On 12 March 2018, Zuccarello recorded his 100th career NHL goal, in a game against the , which the Rangers won 6–3. On 23 October 2018, Zuccarello became the ninth player in Rangers history to lead the team in points for three consecutive seasons, joining , , , , , , and .

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles%20Hinman

Charles Hinman

Selected institutional collections

Charles Hinman born 1932 in is an painter, notable for creating three-dimensional paintings in the mid-1960s.

Museum of Modern Art, New York, NY, USA Whitney Museum of American Art, New York, NY, USA Los Angeles County Museum, Los Angeles, CA, USA Hirshhorn Museum, Washington, DC, USA Musee' des Beaux Arts de l'Ontario, Toronto, Ontario, Canada Tel Aviv Museum, Tel Aviv, Israel Albright Knox Art Gallery, Buffalo, NY, USA Source:

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank%20Geyer

Frank Geyer

Introduction

{{Infobox police officer | name = Detective Frank P. Geyer | image = File:Philadelphia City Detective Frank Geyer.jpg | caption =Geyer in 1896 | currentstatus = | department =City of Philadelphia Police Department | birth_date = | death_date = | nickname = |rank=Detective, January 1888 until retirement, August 1903, appointed by Philadelphia Mayor Special Officer, from February 1877 to January 1888Patrolman, May 6, 1876 to February 1887, appointed by Mayor |birth_place=, |death_place= Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |resting_place=Hillside Cemetery, |badgenumber=840, 887, and detective badge|serviceyears=27 years at City of |laterwork=Author of Holmes-Pitezel case: a history of the greatest crime of the century and of the search for the missing Pitezel children, 1896Invented "Shutter or Door Fastener," 1896Invented "Safety-Lock," 1907Founded "Frank P. Geyer Detective Agency," Philadelphia, PA, after retirement |spouse= |children = 1 daughter }} Frank Geyer (July 28, 1853 – October 4, 1918) was an American police detective from , best known for his investigation of , one of America's first serial killers. Geyer was a longtime city employee of the Philadelphia Police Department, and in 1894 was assigned to investigate the Holmes-Pitezel Case. He published the story in his book The Holmes-Pitezel Case: a history of the greatest crime of the century and of the search for the missing Pitezel children. Son of Reuben K. Geyer and Camilla Buck, Frank Geyer died at the age of 65 due to La Grippe () and his funeral was attended by hundreds of policemen and detectives.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank%20Geyer

Frank Geyer

Other Work by Detective Geyer

{{Infobox police officer | name = Detective Frank P. Geyer | image = File:Philadelphia City Detective Frank Geyer.jpg | caption =Geyer in 1896 | currentstatus = | department =City of Philadelphia Police Department | birth_date = | death_date = | nickname = |rank=Detective, January 1888 until retirement, August 1903, appointed by Philadelphia Mayor Special Officer, from February 1877 to January 1888Patrolman, May 6, 1876 to February 1887, appointed by Mayor |birth_place=, |death_place= Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |resting_place=Hillside Cemetery, |badgenumber=840, 887, and detective badge|serviceyears=27 years at City of |laterwork=Author of Holmes-Pitezel case: a history of the greatest crime of the century and of the search for the missing Pitezel children, 1896Invented "Shutter or Door Fastener," 1896Invented "Safety-Lock," 1907Founded "Frank P. Geyer Detective Agency," Philadelphia, PA, after retirement |spouse= |children = 1 daughter }} Frank Geyer (July 28, 1853 – October 4, 1918) was an American police detective from , best known for his investigation of , one of America's first serial killers. Geyer was a longtime city employee of the Philadelphia Police Department, and in 1894 was assigned to investigate the Holmes-Pitezel Case. He published the story in his book The Holmes-Pitezel Case: a history of the greatest crime of the century and of the search for the missing Pitezel children. Son of Reuben K. Geyer and Camilla Buck, Frank Geyer died at the age of 65 due to La Grippe () and his funeral was attended by hundreds of policemen and detectives.

In 1896, Detective Geyer became an author and inventor. He authored the Holmes-Pitezel case: a history of the greatest crime of the century and of the search for the missing Pitezel children, which became an instant best seller. Shortly after its release, his "Shutter or Door Fastener" patent application was approved by the United States Patent Office on March 10, 1896, Patent No. 556,141. After 27 years with the City of Philadelphia Police Department, Geyer opened the Frank P. Geyer Detective Agency, located at 1328 Arch Street in Philadelphia and investigated high profile cases, mostly in the Pennsylvania and New Jersey areas. In 1907, he invented the "Safety-Lock for Pocket Books and Hand Bags, which was approved by the Patent Office December 3, 1907, Patent No. 872,619.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ineos%20Grenadiers

Ineos Grenadiers

2010: The beginning

Ineos Grenadiers () (stylised as INEOS Grenadiers) (formerly Team Sky from 2010–2019, and Team Ineos from 2019–2020) is a British professional that competes at the level. The team is based at the in , England, with a logistics base in , Belgium. The team is managed by 's former performance director, . The company Tour Racing Ltd. is the corporate entity behind the team in all its iterations, which in line with cycling practice adopts the name of their current primary sponsor. The team launched in 2010 with the ambition of winning the with a British rider within five years, a goal achieved in two years when won the , becoming the first British winner in its history, while teammate and fellow Briton finished as the runner up and then went on to win the . Froome won Sky's third Tour de France title in , fourth in and fifth in . Froome also went on to win the and the , making him the champion of all three Grand Tours at once. Froome was also retrospectively awarded victory in the , after the original victor was stripped of his title due to doping. The team also won the with , the and with , and the with , meaning that the team won seven of the eight editions of the Tour de France between 2012 and 2019, with four different riders, and five further grand tours between 2011 and 2021. Following the decision by British media company not to renew sponsorship, the team secured financial support from the British chemicals group , with the team thereby renamed as Team Ineos from April 2019. The team was rebranded to reflect Ineos Automotive's proposed new off-road vehicle, the .

The team gained a victory in its first race in January 2010, the in , Australia, a one-day race prior to the Tour Down Under, with Greg Henderson and Chris Sutton taking first and second respectively. Team Sky's first event was the in January. The team was awarded a wild-card entry for the . Team Sky was also invited to compete in the other two of the year's . In February 2010 the team got its first one-day victory when Juan Antonio Flecha won the Belgian semi-classic with a solo break. On 9 May Wiggins became the first Sky rider to wear the leader's jersey of a Grand Tour when he won the opening prologue of the . That same month Ben Swift became the first rider to win an overall classification winning the . In the Team's first Tour de France, Geraint Thomas finished second on the cobblestones of stage three, and wore the white jersey as leader of the . The Tour was a disappointment for Sky though, with Thomas Löfkvist in 17th overall being their highest placed rider (Wiggins finished in 24th place). Löfkvist led Team Sky at the , but the team withdrew after stage seven following the death of soigneur Txema González. In total Team Sky recorded 22 wins in their debut season, with a further 50 podiums.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ineos%20Grenadiers

Ineos Grenadiers

2011: Grand Tour breakthrough

Ineos Grenadiers () (stylised as INEOS Grenadiers) (formerly Team Sky from 2010–2019, and Team Ineos from 2019–2020) is a British professional that competes at the level. The team is based at the in , England, with a logistics base in , Belgium. The team is managed by 's former performance director, . The company Tour Racing Ltd. is the corporate entity behind the team in all its iterations, which in line with cycling practice adopts the name of their current primary sponsor. The team launched in 2010 with the ambition of winning the with a British rider within five years, a goal achieved in two years when won the , becoming the first British winner in its history, while teammate and fellow Briton finished as the runner up and then went on to win the . Froome won Sky's third Tour de France title in , fourth in and fifth in . Froome also went on to win the and the , making him the champion of all three Grand Tours at once. Froome was also retrospectively awarded victory in the , after the original victor was stripped of his title due to doping. The team also won the with , the and with , and the with , meaning that the team won seven of the eight editions of the Tour de France between 2012 and 2019, with four different riders, and five further grand tours between 2011 and 2021. Following the decision by British media company not to renew sponsorship, the team secured financial support from the British chemicals group , with the team thereby renamed as Team Ineos from April 2019. The team was rebranded to reflect Ineos Automotive's proposed new off-road vehicle, the .

Team Sky again began the season in Australia, with Ben Swift winning two stages of the Tour Down Under, and finishing third overall. Juan Antonio Flecha and Jeremy Hunt finished fourth and sixth respectively in the in February, while Boasson Hagen finished first in the points classification and second overall in the later that month. In the Classics season, Wiggins finished third overall in and Geraint Thomas finished second overall at the . The team enjoyed a successful , with Ben Swift winning stage two and Greg Henderson taking victory in stage three. At the , Thomas Lofkvist was the highest placed Sky rider, finishing 21st overall. The closest the team came to a stage victory was Davide Appollonio's second place on stage 12. Geraint Thomas secured Sky's first overall victory of the season, by winning the five-day race at the end of May. Boasson Hagen and Wiggins also won stages in the event, with Boasson Hagen claiming the points jersey. In June, Wiggins won the , an important victory for Sky at the time. At the Sky finished third on stage two, the team time trial. Boasson Hagen secured the team's first ever Tour stage win on stage six. On stage seven, just over from the finish, a crash brought down team leader Wiggins breaking his collarbone and ending his tour. This prompted a change of approach from Sky, with their riders targeting stage wins. On stage nine, Juan Antonio Flecha was hit by a French media car, which resulted in Flecha colliding with rider , who crashed into a barbed-wire fence. Both riders were able to continue despite sustaining injuries in the incident. Geraint Thomas won the combativity award on stage 12. Boasson Hagen came second to compatriot () on stage 16, before winning the next stage with a solo breakaway. He also finished second on the stage 21 on the . was the highest placed Sky rider with 24th overall, whilst Boasson Hagen's efforts gave the team two stage wins in an eventful Tour. After the Tour de France, Boasson Hagen's good form continued, as he won the and took a clean sweep of jerseys at the . In the third and final of the 2011 season, the , Sky riders Froome and Wiggins finished second and third respectively in the general classification. Chris Sutton won stage two, while Froome won stage 17 of the event. On 11 October, it was announced that world champion would be joining the team for the 2012 season, bringing an end to months of speculation. He was joined by his teammate . On 17 July 2019, the UCI awarded Froome the Vuelta title after then winner was disqualified for abnormalities related to performance-enhancing drugs on his biological passport. This now recognizes Froome as the first British cyclist to win any of the Grand Tours, and the result also elevated Wiggins to second place.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ineos%20Grenadiers

Ineos Grenadiers

2012: Tour de France victory

Ineos Grenadiers () (stylised as INEOS Grenadiers) (formerly Team Sky from 2010–2019, and Team Ineos from 2019–2020) is a British professional that competes at the level. The team is based at the in , England, with a logistics base in , Belgium. The team is managed by 's former performance director, . The company Tour Racing Ltd. is the corporate entity behind the team in all its iterations, which in line with cycling practice adopts the name of their current primary sponsor. The team launched in 2010 with the ambition of winning the with a British rider within five years, a goal achieved in two years when won the , becoming the first British winner in its history, while teammate and fellow Briton finished as the runner up and then went on to win the . Froome won Sky's third Tour de France title in , fourth in and fifth in . Froome also went on to win the and the , making him the champion of all three Grand Tours at once. Froome was also retrospectively awarded victory in the , after the original victor was stripped of his title due to doping. The team also won the with , the and with , and the with , meaning that the team won seven of the eight editions of the Tour de France between 2012 and 2019, with four different riders, and five further grand tours between 2011 and 2021. Following the decision by British media company not to renew sponsorship, the team secured financial support from the British chemicals group , with the team thereby renamed as Team Ineos from April 2019. The team was rebranded to reflect Ineos Automotive's proposed new off-road vehicle, the .

In January, Team Sky confirmed their squad for the 2012 season which included eight new signings, Cavendish, Eisel, , , , , and . At the in January, Boasson Hagen won the sprint classification. In February Sky claimed the team classification at the , with Porte winning the overall and Boasson Hagen the points classification. Wiggins won the overall classifications in the in March and the in April. Sky dominated the with Wiggins first and Froome second overall, and Cavendish winning three stages including the sprint on the final stage on the in Paris. On 9 September, the team achieved their 100th victory with 's win in the . The team also topped the teams classification, with a total score of 1767 points. In preparation for the 2013 season, the signings of and from and 2012 Italian national time trial champion, from were secured. The team also signed , and on 1 October it was revealed that the team had also signed and from the Bontrager-Livestrong team as . The year's winner, had signed a two-year deal with the team. At the end of the 2012 season, Cavendish moved to , Lars Petter Nordhaug moved to , moved to , Juan Antonio Flecha moved to , moved to , and Michael Rogers moved to . Michael Barry and both retired. Doctor Geert Leinders, who had been employed by the Team since 2011, was subject of an internal investigation after allegations of involvement in doping at earlier in his career, and on 9 October it was announced he would no longer work for the team. The impact of the reasoned decision on doping by and teammates at the team led Sky to re-inforce its zero tolerance anti-doping policy, with all riders and staff being subjected to internal interviews. Two members of the coaching staff, and were released from their contracts under the policy. Head Director Sportif also left the squad in October citing personal reasons, although the linked his departure to past involvement in doping.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ineos%20Grenadiers

Ineos Grenadiers

2013: The second Tour de France victory

Ineos Grenadiers () (stylised as INEOS Grenadiers) (formerly Team Sky from 2010–2019, and Team Ineos from 2019–2020) is a British professional that competes at the level. The team is based at the in , England, with a logistics base in , Belgium. The team is managed by 's former performance director, . The company Tour Racing Ltd. is the corporate entity behind the team in all its iterations, which in line with cycling practice adopts the name of their current primary sponsor. The team launched in 2010 with the ambition of winning the with a British rider within five years, a goal achieved in two years when won the , becoming the first British winner in its history, while teammate and fellow Briton finished as the runner up and then went on to win the . Froome won Sky's third Tour de France title in , fourth in and fifth in . Froome also went on to win the and the , making him the champion of all three Grand Tours at once. Froome was also retrospectively awarded victory in the , after the original victor was stripped of his title due to doping. The team also won the with , the and with , and the with , meaning that the team won seven of the eight editions of the Tour de France between 2012 and 2019, with four different riders, and five further grand tours between 2011 and 2021. Following the decision by British media company not to renew sponsorship, the team secured financial support from the British chemicals group , with the team thereby renamed as Team Ineos from April 2019. The team was rebranded to reflect Ineos Automotive's proposed new off-road vehicle, the .

The 2013 season began with the , where Geraint Thomas won stage two and claimed the points classification. In February Froome won the overall classification, points classification and stage 5 . In March Richie Porte won the , including two of the last three stages in the race, the and the concluding time trial. claimed his first victory for the team at the , whilst Froome took a stage win at . The team then picked up a one–two at the with Froome securing victory with a win on the final stage and Porte finishing runner up with a victory in the stage two time trial, also securing the points competition. After his victory in the built his early season around targeting the and supporting Froome in the Tour de France. The team took victory in the stage 2 team time trial, culminating in taking over the pink jersey as leader of the . Wiggins was hampered behind a crash on stage 7 and then himself crashed on stage 8. Wiggins abandoned the Giro due to a chest infection on stage 13. Froome followed up with overall wins at the in April and in June. Boasson Hagen retained his title, winning the points classification and stage four of the race in the process. In July, Froome went on to win the 100th and 2013 edition of the ; claiming dominant stage victories on the stage eight final climb of , stage 15 to the summit of and the stage 17 individual time trial. Froome was narrowly beaten to the King of the Mountains prize by s Colombian climber and runner up, . After the Tour de France, some of the team's key secured stage victories at the (), and (). After the disappointment of the Giro, Wiggins returned with a renewed focus on the Individual time trial event. As part of his build up he won the seventh stage time trial at the from by a winning margin of 56 seconds. The team then recorded their first ever victory in their home stage race, with Wiggins claiming the overall title in the winning the stage three time trial in Safari park. Wiggins finished his season with second in the World time trial championships, finishing 46 seconds behind triple world champion, , with the team taking the bronze in the team time trial.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ineos%20Grenadiers

Ineos Grenadiers

2014: Tour failure and the rainbow jersey

Ineos Grenadiers () (stylised as INEOS Grenadiers) (formerly Team Sky from 2010–2019, and Team Ineos from 2019–2020) is a British professional that competes at the level. The team is based at the in , England, with a logistics base in , Belgium. The team is managed by 's former performance director, . The company Tour Racing Ltd. is the corporate entity behind the team in all its iterations, which in line with cycling practice adopts the name of their current primary sponsor. The team launched in 2010 with the ambition of winning the with a British rider within five years, a goal achieved in two years when won the , becoming the first British winner in its history, while teammate and fellow Briton finished as the runner up and then went on to win the . Froome won Sky's third Tour de France title in , fourth in and fifth in . Froome also went on to win the and the , making him the champion of all three Grand Tours at once. Froome was also retrospectively awarded victory in the , after the original victor was stripped of his title due to doping. The team also won the with , the and with , and the with , meaning that the team won seven of the eight editions of the Tour de France between 2012 and 2019, with four different riders, and five further grand tours between 2011 and 2021. Following the decision by British media company not to renew sponsorship, the team secured financial support from the British chemicals group , with the team thereby renamed as Team Ineos from April 2019. The team was rebranded to reflect Ineos Automotive's proposed new off-road vehicle, the .

On 4 June 2013 it was announced that Australian of the Continental team, , had been signed by the team for the 2014 season. On 1 August 2013, the first day of the cycling transfer window, it was confirmed that would move to for the 2014 season. On 22 August it was announced that would leave the team at the completion of the season and join on a 2-year deal. On 6 September it was announced that the Irishman of would be joining the team after a strong 2013 season. After heavy speculation at the it was announced on 1 October that Spanish climber, , would join the team on a two-year contract, following the closure of his current team () at the end of the season. On 23 December (cousin of Team Sky rider ) was announced as the team's final signing for the 2014 season. The started off well. Froome defended and retained his crown and Kennaugh won his first stage race, the . Throughout the season, the team endured repeated illnesses and injuries. Geraint Thomas pulled out of the after crashing out on stage seven whilst leading the general classification. Richie Porte abandoned the and the , resulting in Porte not competing in the . A further blow came when Kennaugh pulled out of the Giro, with the team citing illness. In April, the team's fortune began to turn; Froome defended and won the , Wiggins won the overall classification of the and Geraint Thomas won overall classification of the – each taking control of the race by winning the individual time trial stage respectively. Poor luck returned at the , where Froome crashed whilst wearing the leaders jersey, despite taking three stage wins (two stages for Froome, one for Nieve) Froome finished outside of the top 10, 4' 25" down on race winner . In July, Froome returned to racing to defend his victory, hopeful of overall victory. However, Froome crashed twice on stage four and abandoned the race (having also crashed the day before) with abandoning on the sixth stage of the race. As a result, Richie Porte inherited team leadership duties but lost time in both the Alpine and Pyrenean stages. The team's highest rider on general classification was Nieve in 18th position, 46 minutes 31 seconds behind the winner, this marked one of the worst performances of the team at the . Not selected to ride the Tour, Kennaugh went on to take his second overall race victory at the , taking the points classification in the process. After abandoning the Tour de France, Froome announced he would ride the where he finished in second position, finishing one minute ten seconds, behind the winner . Froome was awarded the overall combativity award for the entire race. In September, Wiggins returned to the with the stated aim of defending his title. He finished third overall, winning the final day time trial by eight seconds from . Wiggins returned to action later in September at the , again with the aim of winning the time trial event. Wiggins won the time trial by over 25 seconds from perennial opponent, . Wiggins won Team Sky's first ever rainbow jersey. On 28 July 2014, the team announced that Thomas had signed a two-year contract extension, keeping him at the team until the end of the 2016 season. In September Swift signed a two-year contract extension. On 13 August 2014, Cyclingnews.com reported that would not renew his contract and would leave the team at the end of the season. After the cycling World Championships, Sky announced that they had signed , , , and , with rejoining the team after two years at Belkin. On 1 October 2014, it was announced that would leave the team at the end of the season to join . On 24 October, the team announced the signing of their sixth rider, . American climber also left Team Sky to join . On 5 January 2015, Wiggins signed a contract extension with the team up until and including the .

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ineos%20Grenadiers

Ineos Grenadiers

2015: The Third Tour de France and another World Championship

Ineos Grenadiers () (stylised as INEOS Grenadiers) (formerly Team Sky from 2010–2019, and Team Ineos from 2019–2020) is a British professional that competes at the level. The team is based at the in , England, with a logistics base in , Belgium. The team is managed by 's former performance director, . The company Tour Racing Ltd. is the corporate entity behind the team in all its iterations, which in line with cycling practice adopts the name of their current primary sponsor. The team launched in 2010 with the ambition of winning the with a British rider within five years, a goal achieved in two years when won the , becoming the first British winner in its history, while teammate and fellow Briton finished as the runner up and then went on to win the . Froome won Sky's third Tour de France title in , fourth in and fifth in . Froome also went on to win the and the , making him the champion of all three Grand Tours at once. Froome was also retrospectively awarded victory in the , after the original victor was stripped of his title due to doping. The team also won the with , the and with , and the with , meaning that the team won seven of the eight editions of the Tour de France between 2012 and 2019, with four different riders, and five further grand tours between 2011 and 2021. Following the decision by British media company not to renew sponsorship, the team secured financial support from the British chemicals group , with the team thereby renamed as Team Ineos from April 2019. The team was rebranded to reflect Ineos Automotive's proposed new off-road vehicle, the .

On 8 January, scored the team's first victory of the season by winning the Australian National Time Trial championships and went on to record the team's first stage win at the . scored his first win for the team, taking sprint victory on stage two of the . In February the team dominated the and with both Froome and Thomas taking both overall wins respectively. At the end of February Stannard scored the team second classic, taking a second successive victory at . The victory was made more impressive as Stannard made the four-man selection with three riders; Boonen, Terpstra and Vandenbergh. The team's next victory came at where Porte led a team one-two (along with Thomas) at the summit finish of Croix de Chaubouret. Porte won the stage 7 time trial to the summit of . In the same week, recorded his first win for the team when he secured victory on the fifth stage of to . In late March, Thomas emerged victorious in after attacking his co-breakaway companions, and , and soloing to victory. then won the second stage of the same day and Richie Porte moved into the lead and eventually won the Victory in Catalunya represented Porte's second overall win of the season and the fourth for the team. In April, Bradley Wiggins won his final time trial for the team at the . Later in the same week, Bradley Wiggins retired from the team and joined his own team, allowing him to focus on the . In late April Porte won the taking a decisive stage victory on the queen stage summit finish to . The team then rounded off a successful April by taking victory in the at the , placing Geraint Thomas in the yellow leaders jersey whilst new signing underwent surgery on a broken shoulder bone courtesy of his crash at . The team began May with success; took the opening stage win at the inaugural , whilst crashed out later requiring surgery. The team entered the with Porte as team leader with the aim of winning the . After limiting the time loss in the stage 1 team time trial secured the first win for the team in a Grand Tour since the 2013 Vuelta a España on stage 2, also taking over the Maglia rossa. On stage 10 Porte lost 47 seconds, docked two minutes fine for accepting outside intervention, resulting in Porte dropping down to 12th on the general classification. Porte lost more time on the uphill finish on stage 12, a further two minutes on stage 13, and 27 minutes on stage 15. He then abandoned on the second rest day. Chris Froome returned to action at the , as part of his build up for the , and the team won three stages and took the overall title for the fourth time. opened the team's account taking the victory on stage one, just in front of the bunch sprint finish. Froome went on to dominate the final two summit finish stages, taking victory at (stage 7) and (stage 8) giving him a lead of 10 seconds over . The team went into the with their "strongest team ever" After a strong performance on the Froome took over the race lead, and general classification by one second over . As the Tour entered the second week of racing stage 10 saw the first mountains stage, the summit finish of , where Froome went on to take the stage win, putting significant time into his general classification rivals. During the remainder of the race the team faced intense scrutiny regarding their dominant performances; Porte was punched in the ribs by a spectator in the Pyrenees, and Froome had urine thrown at him by another spectator. On the first rest of the Tour de France Porte confirmed he would leave the team at the end of the season. This would later, in August, be confirmed to be . The team signed and as stagiares for the remainder of the season, with the former also signing for two years. In September, confirmed his move to the team for the 2016 season, with also signing a two-year extension with the team. Later, in the same month the team then signed their second neo-pro, , , , and the 2014 World Road Race champion . On 28 September the team confirmed that Nathan Earle, Bernhard Eisel, Danny Pate, Richie Porte, Kanstantsin Siutsou and Chris Sutton would be leaving the team. The team also confirmed that Ian Boswell, Philip Deignan, Sebastian Henao, Peter Kennaugh, Vasil Kiryienka, Christian Knees, Mikel Nieve, Luke Rowe, Ian Stannard and Xabier Zandio would be staying after signing new contract extensions. Later in September Sky retained the in Richmond when won by nine seconds from .

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ineos%20Grenadiers

Ineos Grenadiers

2016: First Monument win and the fourth Tour victory

Ineos Grenadiers () (stylised as INEOS Grenadiers) (formerly Team Sky from 2010–2019, and Team Ineos from 2019–2020) is a British professional that competes at the level. The team is based at the in , England, with a logistics base in , Belgium. The team is managed by 's former performance director, . The company Tour Racing Ltd. is the corporate entity behind the team in all its iterations, which in line with cycling practice adopts the name of their current primary sponsor. The team launched in 2010 with the ambition of winning the with a British rider within five years, a goal achieved in two years when won the , becoming the first British winner in its history, while teammate and fellow Briton finished as the runner up and then went on to win the . Froome won Sky's third Tour de France title in , fourth in and fifth in . Froome also went on to win the and the , making him the champion of all three Grand Tours at once. Froome was also retrospectively awarded victory in the , after the original victor was stripped of his title due to doping. The team also won the with , the and with , and the with , meaning that the team won seven of the eight editions of the Tour de France between 2012 and 2019, with four different riders, and five further grand tours between 2011 and 2021. Following the decision by British media company not to renew sponsorship, the team secured financial support from the British chemicals group , with the team thereby renamed as Team Ineos from April 2019. The team was rebranded to reflect Ineos Automotive's proposed new off-road vehicle, the .

With Chris Froome delaying the start of his season a number of key deluxe-domestiques were afforded opportunities to aim for race victories at the start of the season. Peter Kennaugh took the team's first one-day race win at the second , whilst Wout Poels claimed his first overall GC victory at the , in the process taking two stages, the mountains and the points classifications. Froome returned towards the end of the Australian cycling season to claim the team's first ever GC win at the . Geraint Thomas enjoyed a successful start to his 2016 campaign, notching up overall victories at (for the second successive year) and . Thomas' victory in the French stage race means that Sky have won four of the past five editions. Sky entered the spring classics campaign with the perennial aim of claiming their first monument race. New recruit, , took his first victory for the team in the semi-classic. As the classics campaign progressed the team showed great consistency, but fell short of their goal again, taking second in , fifth at the and third at . Upon entering the Ardennes classics the team pinned their hopes on Kwiatkowski at , to no avail. Entering the final monument of the spring, , the team again led with Kwiatkowski. Sky finally achieved their coveted monument win, but it wasn't Kwiatkowski, but rather, domestique who emerged victorious on a day with poor weather conditions and enduring snow. New recruit claimed his first overall win for team – taking the GC at the only a week after claiming his first stage win for the team. Landa's stated aim for the first half of the season is the . Froome added to Sky's race win total by successfully defending his title after taking the overall lead with a victory on stage 5 to , becoming the fifth rider to win the overall title three times. The team went into the with what was without question an even stronger squad than the previous year. A week into the race on stage 8, Froome took many by surprise by attacking on the descent of the which caught his main rivals off guard, resulting in a solo victory into to take the yellow jersey. On stage 11 to in crosswinds, he gained more time as part of a 4-man breakaway in the final 12 kilometres of the stage alongside green jersey wearer , Sagan's Tinkoff teammate , and Froome's own teammate Geraint Thomas, placing second to Sagan in a sprint finish. On stage 12 to (which was shortened to Chalet Reynard due to high winds), Froome was involved in a crash involving a stopped motorbike that also sent and down. With no usable bike, Froome had no choice but to run partway up the mountain until he was able to get a spare bike from his team car. Provisionally he had fallen to sixth place overall which would have given the yellow jersey to , however race officials decided to give him and Porte the same time as Mollema, ensuring Froome would hold on to his first overall position. Superb performances in both the individual time trials (second on stage 13 to and winner of stage 18 to ) allowed Froome to gain even more time on his rivals, and despite a crash on stage 19 to where he finished the stage on Thomas' bike with support from Wout Poels, it was enough for him to win the race overall 4:05 ahead of second-placed , becoming the first British rider to win the Tour on three occasions, the fourth rider to become a 3-time winner (joining , and ), and the first since in 1995 to successfully defend his title. It was also the first time the team finished a Grand Tour with all nine riders intact. Sky started off their campaign in late August by winning the team time trial on stage 1 and holding the red jersey for 2 days before surrendering it on stage 3, where Chris Froome took a 4th-place finish at to elevate himself into third place in the overall standings. He then got the victory on stage 11 at , the very same mountain where he got his first-ever Grand Tour stage win in 2011, and put himself into second overall just under a minute behind race leader . A series of early attacks by Quntana and on stage 15 to blew the race apart, causing Froome to be isolated from his teammates and to lose more than 2 and a half minutes on his rival. He gained most of that time back on the stage 19 time trial to with a dominant performance, but was unable to make up the difference in the penultimate stage, finishing second overall in the end by just 1:23 behind Quintana. It was Froome's second Grand Tour podium following his win at the Tour de France, and just coming off of winning the bronze medal in the time trial at the Olympic Games in Rio. In August 2016 the news broke that the team had signed Olympic Team Pursuit champion, from and from Later, in the same month, the team confirmed their third signing of the season – Polish rider from . For the 2017 season will leave for , as well as , (both to new Irish team ) and (to ). , , , and have renewed with the team. In September the team announced the signing of from on a two-year deal. On 30 September, signed a three-year contract extension with the team. signed a new 2-year deal on 26 October. The team announced on 27 October that it had signed from on a 3-year deal, and on 8 November announced the signing of Doull's WIGGINS teammate . The team finished the 2016 season 3rd overall in the UCI World Tour team rankings, with Froome as its highest-ranked rider, finishing 3rd overall in the individual rider ranking.

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Ineos Grenadiers

2017: The Grand Tour double and Milan–San Remo

Ineos Grenadiers () (stylised as INEOS Grenadiers) (formerly Team Sky from 2010–2019, and Team Ineos from 2019–2020) is a British professional that competes at the level. The team is based at the in , England, with a logistics base in , Belgium. The team is managed by 's former performance director, . The company Tour Racing Ltd. is the corporate entity behind the team in all its iterations, which in line with cycling practice adopts the name of their current primary sponsor. The team launched in 2010 with the ambition of winning the with a British rider within five years, a goal achieved in two years when won the , becoming the first British winner in its history, while teammate and fellow Briton finished as the runner up and then went on to win the . Froome won Sky's third Tour de France title in , fourth in and fifth in . Froome also went on to win the and the , making him the champion of all three Grand Tours at once. Froome was also retrospectively awarded victory in the , after the original victor was stripped of his title due to doping. The team also won the with , the and with , and the with , meaning that the team won seven of the eight editions of the Tour de France between 2012 and 2019, with four different riders, and five further grand tours between 2011 and 2021. Following the decision by British media company not to renew sponsorship, the team secured financial support from the British chemicals group , with the team thereby renamed as Team Ineos from April 2019. The team was rebranded to reflect Ineos Automotive's proposed new off-road vehicle, the .

Sky started the 2017 season with three stage wins at the as well as winning the teams classification, with new team member finishing on the podium in 3rd place and Chris Froome finishing sixth overall. The team's first race win of the season came at when took a solo victory after attacking 15 kilometers from the finish. took a stage win at and held the leader's jersey for one day, also taking the overall victory and one stage win at the . Sky won for the fifth time in sixth years courtesy of , who won the race overall by just two seconds over Alberto Contador. Kwiatkowski added to Sky's win total by winning in a three-up sprint, giving the team its second Monument win. Neo-pro won the individual time trial stage at the , the team also winning the team classification with and placing in the final top ten overall. Thomas and were appointed the team's joint leaders for the . At one point in the race, Thomas was sitting second in the general classification, however on the 9th stage to Blockhaus a fair chunk of the peloton was involved in a crash involving a stopped motorbike, which took down Thomas, Landa and most of the other members of the team. Thomas attempted a comeback after placing second in the following day's time trial, but the extent of his injuries were as such that he abandoned the race prior to stage 11. Landa continued as sole leader, taking several top-3 finishes on several mountain stages before finally winning stage 19 to . He went on to win the mountains classification and the super-combativity prize, also winning the for being the first to cross the summit of the on stage 16. The team then participated in the inaugural , a three-day event pitting teams against each other in various skills competitions. Impressive performances by Tao Geoghegan Hart in the climbing event and Elia Viviani in the sprint event gave the team enough points to take the overall lead. In the team time trial-style Chase event, they held on by one second over Team Sunweb to win the entire competition. Froome returned to action at the and finished fourth overall, just one second off the podium. Teammate won the penultimate stage at . The team then went into the with yet another strong lineup and the goal to help Froome achieve his fourth overall victory. In the opening prologue stage in the team placed four riders within the top eight led by Geraint Thomas, who became the first Welsh rider to wear the yellow jersey. He was followed by in third, Froome in 6th and Kwiatkowski in eighth – Froome putting between 35 seconds and nearly a minute into most of his general classification rivals. On stage five to , Froome took third place behind stage winner , moving him into yellow and Thomas to second place. The 1–2 placing on GC held until stage nine to , when Thomas was involved in a crash on the descent of the and had to abandon the race with a fractured collarbone. On stage 12 to , Froome cracked within the final kilometer, ceding 22 seconds and the yellow jersey to Aru. On the final approach on stage 14 to the team stretched out the peloton, splitting it into several groups due to crosswinds allowing Froome to put 25 seconds into Aru, enough to retake yellow by a margin of 18 seconds overall. On stage 15 to , Froome ran into mechanical trouble on the ascent of the Col de Peyra Taillade and was distanced by more than 40 seconds thanks to a brutal acceleration by the AG2R La Mondiale team, but with the help of his teammates he managed to make it back to the main group of GC contenders to keep his overall lead intact. Froome and Landa performed strongly in the Alpine stages to and helping Landa move into fourth overall. In the final time trial in , Froome's strength in the discipline helped him put nearly two minutes into Romain Bardet and 25 seconds into Rigoberto Urán, finishing third on the stage six seconds behind stage winner and 5 seconds behind second-place Kwiatkowski. Froome secured his fourth Tour victory and third consecutively, putting him one win away from joining the likes of Anquétil, Indurain, Merckx and Hinault. He also became the 7th man to win the Tour overall without winning a stage, however he did amass ten top-ten finishes. Sky also won the team classification for the first time in their history, leading from start to finish. A week after the end of the Tour de France, Kwiatkowski continued his strong rides in the one-day classics by winning the , and on 8 August signed a three-year contract extension. After months of recovery following his injury, returned to form by winning the final stage of the and finishing third overall, with teammate taking the mountains classification. Landa followed up his performance in the Tour with overall victory in the , also winning two stages, the mountains classification and the points classification. The team sent its strongest-ever squad to the , with Froome on a mission to finally win the race that had eluded him on multiple occasions. After a 4th-place finish in the opening team time trial in , Froome took third place on the third stage at behind . Combined with bonus seconds picked up from the stage's intermediate sprint, it was enough to move him into the overall race lead, collecting his first red jersey since stage 10 in 2011. Several days later, he took his first stage win of his season at , which also moved him into the lead in the points classification, followed by a second-place finish at on stage 11. The following day to , Froome crashed twice after a mechanical, but managed to limit his time losses with the help of his teammates and bounced back on the next 3 stages with consecutive top-10 finishes and regained the points lead after stage 15. Froome then dominated the stage 16 individual time trial to , extending his lead to nearly 2 minutes ahead of Nibali. However, he struggled on the steep slopes to the next day, dropping about 40 seconds to Nibali. He regained half that loss on stage 18, and cemented the overall lead as well as the combination classification with a third-place finish at behind on stage 20. In a bunch sprint finish on the final stage in , he held on to the points classification by two points over . With the victory, Froome became the first British rider to win the Vuelta, the third man to complete the Tour-Vuelta double in the same year (joining and ), and the first to complete the feat in the modern era since the Vuelta moved to its current August–September time period. A week after the Vuelta victory, the team won the bronze medal in the team time trial at the in . On 30 June, the eve of the Tour de France Grand Départ, Froome signed a 2-year contract extension with the team. The team announced the signings of () and () for the 2018 season. On 27 August 2017, the team also announced the signing of 2017 winner (). A day later, they announced the signings of reigning Under 23 Road Race World Champion () and 2017 overall winner (), Then on 1 September, it was revealed that 2017 British Under-23 road race champion had also been signed from . () was signed on 18 September 2017. On 5 December 2017, the team announced that they had signed , a stagaire with . Whilst transferred to Movistar, to , to and to . ended his contract a year early to join QuickStep for the 2018 and 2019 seasons. Christian Knees, Michal Golas, Sebastian Henao, Phil Deignan, David Lopez and Ian Stannard all signed multi-year contract extensions. The team finished the 2017 season on top of the UCI World Tour team ranking for the first time since 2012. Chris Froome was the highest-ranked rider in the individual rankings, placing second.

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Ineos Grenadiers

2018: Grand Tour domination

Ineos Grenadiers () (stylised as INEOS Grenadiers) (formerly Team Sky from 2010–2019, and Team Ineos from 2019–2020) is a British professional that competes at the level. The team is based at the in , England, with a logistics base in , Belgium. The team is managed by 's former performance director, . The company Tour Racing Ltd. is the corporate entity behind the team in all its iterations, which in line with cycling practice adopts the name of their current primary sponsor. The team launched in 2010 with the ambition of winning the with a British rider within five years, a goal achieved in two years when won the , becoming the first British winner in its history, while teammate and fellow Briton finished as the runner up and then went on to win the . Froome won Sky's third Tour de France title in , fourth in and fifth in . Froome also went on to win the and the , making him the champion of all three Grand Tours at once. Froome was also retrospectively awarded victory in the , after the original victor was stripped of his title due to doping. The team also won the with , the and with , and the with , meaning that the team won seven of the eight editions of the Tour de France between 2012 and 2019, with four different riders, and five further grand tours between 2011 and 2021. Following the decision by British media company not to renew sponsorship, the team secured financial support from the British chemicals group , with the team thereby renamed as Team Ineos from April 2019. The team was rebranded to reflect Ineos Automotive's proposed new off-road vehicle, the .

The team's first victory of the year came via highly regarded new recruit, claiming victory in the Colombian national time trial championships. Teammate would also claim victory in the national road race championships leading to a clean sweep of national titles. Bernal continued his strong early season form, claiming overall victory at the . As the European stage racing season kicked-off and claimed victories at . and claimed a one–two victory at . Poels and de la Cruz continued their strong form, claiming stage victories at , whilst Kwiatkowski claimed a second overall general classification victory, winning – the team's first victory at the race. In the lead up to the first Grand Tour of the year, the , emerged victorious at , claiming his first overall win for the team. New recruits; and also claimed their first classification victories for the team, with Lawless also winning a stage of the race. Bernal had been en route to claim second place at his first World Tour event of the year, , however a late crash on the final stage of the race saw Bernal abandon. Bernal would next race at the where he would win the stage three time trial and with it, the young rider classification. Moving on to the , Bernal would lead the team's general classification ambitions, resulting in his first World Tour stage race victory, claiming two stages as well. would enter the Giro d'Italia as favourite to win the overall race. As the current champion of both the and , Froome had the opportunity to join an elite group of riders who concurrently held all Grand Tour titles. The Giro started in for the first time and before the race had begun Froome had already crashed during a recon of the first stage time trial route. Froome would cede over 30 seconds to main race rival, as well as 20 seconds to . As the race returned to Italian land, Froome found himself over 50 seconds down on the maglia rosa – . By the end of stage six, the races first summit finish at the top of Froome had moved up to eighth position overall, but had lost over a minute to new race leader, Yates. By the end of the eighth stage and third mountain-top finish at , Froome trailed Yates by nearly two and a half minutes, with general classification hopes looking all but impossible. Froome's domestiques, Poels and Sergio Henao, were 18th and 25th overall 3' 14" and 5' 56" behind the race leader. By the end of stage 13, Froome had slipped back to 12th overall 3' 20" behind race leader, Yates. Stage 14 would see the riders face the fearsome climb of , with gradients reaching nearly 20%. Froome attacked the main selection of favourites, winning the stage from Yates. Unfortunately however, Froome's improved form would not be maintained into stage 15, with Yates claiming the victory on the medium-mountain stage by a margin of 41 seconds over everyone else. Yates' lead in the race would now grow to 2' 11" over Dumoulin and 4' 52" over Froome – who was now sat in seventh place overall. The time trial on stage 16, from to , had been a focus-point for Froome, hoping to claw back significant amounts of time over Yates' by virtue of his stronger time-trialling ability. Froome would cut the deficit to 3' 50" by the end of the stage, having taken back over a minute from Yates. Deep into the third week of the race, stage 18 would see the first sign of weakness from Yates, cracking on the final climb of the day to , with the deficit to Dumoulin in second cut to 28 seconds and 3' 22" to Froome. Stage 19 of the 2018-edition of the race had been designated as the races' , starting in , the stage would climb over a trio of mountains; the part-gravel , climb to ending at . Yates' poor form continued into stage 19, culminating in him being dropped by the peloton on the lower slopes of the Finestre, promoting Domoulin to virtual race leader. With over 80 kilometres remaining in the stage Froome attacked the peloton on the gravel section of the Finestre, pulling away from the main group of favourites. This attack would continue over the subsequent two climbs with Froome ultimately winning the stage by three minutes from second place , but importantly by over 3' 20" from Dumoulin. Froome was now leading the race overall by 40 seconds from Dumoulin with two stages remaining. Froome would maintain his race lead, becoming the fifth rider to simultaneously hold all three grand tour titles. Froome also won the mountains classification largely due to his stage 19 exploits, and Team Sky won the overall team classification. As the cycling season entered the European summer, the build to the had begun. claimed overall victory at the improving his chances of being promoted to team-leader for the Tour de France. The team would go on to score a number of national title victories: won the Spanish time trial title, Kwiatkowski the Polish road race, the Dutch time trial, Thomas the British time trial and the Belarusian time trial. As the Tour de France began, the team lead with a two-pronged attack, incumbent champion Froome hoping for a fourth straight grand tour win and fifth overall title and Thomas reigning Dauphiné champion and super-domestique in previous editions of the race. By the end of the first week of racing Thomas had ridden a flawless race and was second overall, only six seconds behind . Froome on the other hand was 14th, over a minute behind the Belgian race leader. Thomas and Froome both lost time to Van Avermaet on stage nine as the race transitioned across the cobbles of Roubaix, with Thomas 43 seconds and Froome 1' 42" behind the race leader. By the end of stage 10 these deficits had grown to 2' 22 for Thomas and 3' 21" for Froome. As the race entered the Thomas would cement his control on the race and the team, claiming consecutive victories at the summit finishes of and . By the end of stage 12 Thomas lead had grown to 1' 39" over team-mate Froome. Colombian prodigy, Bernal, in his first grand tour of his career was 19th overall 21' 22" behind Thomas. Following the 15th stage, controversy arouse around , who had been seen punching rider during the opening kilometres of the stage. After reviewing footage of the incident, the race jury disqualified him for 'particularly serious aggression', leaving Sky with 7 riders for the remaining stages. On stage 17 Froome cracked, slipping to third overall 2' 31" behind Thomas. This promoted Giro d'Italia runner-up, Tom Dumoulin, to second overall 1' 59" behind Welshman Thomas. Thomas would ultimately win the race overall, and the team would record their fourth consecutive grand tour win, fifth Tour de France title and second successive year achieving more than one grand tour win. Thanks to his second-place performance on the penultimate day time trial, Froome joined Thomas on the final podium finishing third overall. Into the latter part of the season, Kwiatkowski would maintain his good form from the Tour de France, winning his home stage race – the , claiming two stage wins. He would head into the final grand tour of the year, the , as the team's general classification leader but would finish 43rd overall, nearly an hour and three quarters behind race winner, Simon Yates. The teams best finisher was de la Cruz, 15th overall and 28 minutes behind the race winner. The team would go onto claim two stage wins at the courtesy of Poels and . returned after a five-week suspension in good form as the road to the final monument of the year began, winning and the , as well as the Italian national time trial title. Moscon would go onto take the overall victory at the – the team's final victory of the year.

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Ineos Grenadiers

2019: Transition to new sponsorship

Ineos Grenadiers () (stylised as INEOS Grenadiers) (formerly Team Sky from 2010–2019, and Team Ineos from 2019–2020) is a British professional that competes at the level. The team is based at the in , England, with a logistics base in , Belgium. The team is managed by 's former performance director, . The company Tour Racing Ltd. is the corporate entity behind the team in all its iterations, which in line with cycling practice adopts the name of their current primary sponsor. The team launched in 2010 with the ambition of winning the with a British rider within five years, a goal achieved in two years when won the , becoming the first British winner in its history, while teammate and fellow Briton finished as the runner up and then went on to win the . Froome won Sky's third Tour de France title in , fourth in and fifth in . Froome also went on to win the and the , making him the champion of all three Grand Tours at once. Froome was also retrospectively awarded victory in the , after the original victor was stripped of his title due to doping. The team also won the with , the and with , and the with , meaning that the team won seven of the eight editions of the Tour de France between 2012 and 2019, with four different riders, and five further grand tours between 2011 and 2021. Following the decision by British media company not to renew sponsorship, the team secured financial support from the British chemicals group , with the team thereby renamed as Team Ineos from April 2019. The team was rebranded to reflect Ineos Automotive's proposed new off-road vehicle, the .

In mid-December 2018, announced they would withdraw their sponsorship as part of an ongoing review brought on by their acquisition by . also announced that it would end its partnership at the end of the season, forcing the team into a sponsorship search in order to continue. In February 2019, reported that potential sponsorship could be sourced via a combination of the Colombian government and state-controlled oil and gas company, . Later reports claimed that no deal had been forthcoming. In mid-March, Cyclingnews.com again broke the news that another potential sponsor had been found. The report linked the team with British-based multi-national chemical company, , with the team expected to become Team Ineos for the 2020 season. Ineos is controlled by Manchester-born billionaire, , who has amassed an estimated fortune of over £21 billion. Ratcliffe has also invested over £100 million in 's sailing team. The web-domain "TeamIneos.com" was discovered to have been registered on 5 March, and the handle "@teamineos" was also registered. On 19 March, Team Sky confirmed its new title sponsor, announcing it was to be renamed 'Team Ineos' on 1 May, ahead of the 2019 Tour de Yorkshire. However, the UCI's rules prevent teams from racing under different names at the same time – Sky had planned to take part in the , starting on 30 April as well as the Tour de Yorkshire. As a consequence, it announced that the Romandie would be the first race under the Ineos name, with the team wearing a special black kit, while the Yorkshire would see the launch of the team's new colours. For the 2019 season the team signed world individual pursuit champion, and former rider, (); former Ecuadorian national road champion, (). After a protracted transfer the team also signed Colombian talent – (). and retired, left to join , joined and joined the newly Polish-sponsored BMC team, . also left the team.

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Ineos Grenadiers

2020: Ineos Grenadiers

Ineos Grenadiers () (stylised as INEOS Grenadiers) (formerly Team Sky from 2010–2019, and Team Ineos from 2019–2020) is a British professional that competes at the level. The team is based at the in , England, with a logistics base in , Belgium. The team is managed by 's former performance director, . The company Tour Racing Ltd. is the corporate entity behind the team in all its iterations, which in line with cycling practice adopts the name of their current primary sponsor. The team launched in 2010 with the ambition of winning the with a British rider within five years, a goal achieved in two years when won the , becoming the first British winner in its history, while teammate and fellow Briton finished as the runner up and then went on to win the . Froome won Sky's third Tour de France title in , fourth in and fifth in . Froome also went on to win the and the , making him the champion of all three Grand Tours at once. Froome was also retrospectively awarded victory in the , after the original victor was stripped of his title due to doping. The team also won the with , the and with , and the with , meaning that the team won seven of the eight editions of the Tour de France between 2012 and 2019, with four different riders, and five further grand tours between 2011 and 2021. Following the decision by British media company not to renew sponsorship, the team secured financial support from the British chemicals group , with the team thereby renamed as Team Ineos from April 2019. The team was rebranded to reflect Ineos Automotive's proposed new off-road vehicle, the .

For the 2020 season the team announced a number of new signings: champion, (), double and reigning , , , () and . left the team to join , joined , joined (), joined and joined . Ineos had the highest payroll of any team in cycling for the 2020 season, and of the top ten highest paid riders in the sport, five of them rode for Ineos. In Euros, Carapaz was paid 2.1 million, Kwiatkowski 2.5 million, Bernal 2.7 million, Geraint Thomas 3.5 million and Chris Froome was the 2nd highest paid cyclist in the sport contracted to make 4.5 million. On 30 January 2020, the team announced the retirement of due to heart problems. The following day, Australian joined the squad. On 3 March 2020, the team's lead sports director passed away suddenly of a heart attack at the age of 40. A day later, the team announced that it would temporarily withdraw from racing until 23 March in time for the . The reasoning behind the decision was twofold: to allow the team to properly mourn Portal's passing, and to keep all its members safe amidst the growing coronavirus outbreak which saw the final two stages of the UAE Tour cancelled. Additional races on the 2020 calendar were either postponed to later in the year or cancelled outright due to restrictions and lockdowns in several European countries forced by the pandemic. On 12 April, the entire team took part in a special event via interactive cycling site . Over 15,000 fans from around the world rode with the team in a virtual group ride, which was followed by an e-race where all 30 riders on the active roster competed against each other. It was streamed on YouTube and the team's Facebook page, with commentary by Eurosport's Rob Hatch and Matt Stephens. The race was won by . On 9 July 2020, it was announced that the contract of would not be renewed, ending his 10-year association with the team. An hour later, Froome signed a multi-year deal with for the 2021 season.

wit-train-topic-005144092

projected-23572922-014

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ineos%20Grenadiers

Ineos Grenadiers

Sponsorship and budgets

Ineos Grenadiers () (stylised as INEOS Grenadiers) (formerly Team Sky from 2010–2019, and Team Ineos from 2019–2020) is a British professional that competes at the level. The team is based at the in , England, with a logistics base in , Belgium. The team is managed by 's former performance director, . The company Tour Racing Ltd. is the corporate entity behind the team in all its iterations, which in line with cycling practice adopts the name of their current primary sponsor. The team launched in 2010 with the ambition of winning the with a British rider within five years, a goal achieved in two years when won the , becoming the first British winner in its history, while teammate and fellow Briton finished as the runner up and then went on to win the . Froome won Sky's third Tour de France title in , fourth in and fifth in . Froome also went on to win the and the , making him the champion of all three Grand Tours at once. Froome was also retrospectively awarded victory in the , after the original victor was stripped of his title due to doping. The team also won the with , the and with , and the with , meaning that the team won seven of the eight editions of the Tour de France between 2012 and 2019, with four different riders, and five further grand tours between 2011 and 2021. Following the decision by British media company not to renew sponsorship, the team secured financial support from the British chemicals group , with the team thereby renamed as Team Ineos from April 2019. The team was rebranded to reflect Ineos Automotive's proposed new off-road vehicle, the .

According to the results of a study commissioned by and performed by Repucom, the team gave more media value to their sponsors and partners than any other cycling team. The team delivered approximately $550m in advertising value, the highest amount achieved by any professional team. BSkyB provided £30 million in sponsorship for the team and will back the team as name sponsor until the end of 2013. The team also receives further sponsorship from (previously ) and . supplies bicycle frames and forks. On 5 January 2010, were announced as the team's official apparel and accessories partner. , , , are additional sponsors and are providers of the team cars. The team jerseys were changed to black and green beginning with the , when the team formed Sky Rainforest Rescue, a three-year partnership with to help raise awareness of . At the , the team wore special kit in support of the Sky Ocean Rescue initiative, with the goal of eliminating single-use plastic team-wide by 2020. On 25 June 2013, the team announced that the logo of 21st Century Fox (the direct successor to News Corporation following the ) would appear on the team's kit and team vehicles. On the second rest day of the , the team announced they had signed a four-year extension with Pinarello – supplying the team with bikes until 2020. started providing the team's kit beginning in 2017 after their 3-year partnership with ended. The new kit was revealed during the Rouleur Classic event on 3 November 2016. On 12 December 2018, Sky's parent company confirmed that they would withdraw sponsorship of the team at the end of the 2019 season, but would until the seek a new sponsor. On 19 March 2019, Team Sky announced that , a multinational chemicals company owned by , would become the new title sponsor as of 1 May 2019. In 2021, the team announced that Belgian kit manufacturer will provide the team kit from 2022 onwards.

wit-train-topic-001713802

projected-23572922-016

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ineos%20Grenadiers

Ineos Grenadiers

Doping policy

Ineos Grenadiers () (stylised as INEOS Grenadiers) (formerly Team Sky from 2010–2019, and Team Ineos from 2019–2020) is a British professional that competes at the level. The team is based at the in , England, with a logistics base in , Belgium. The team is managed by 's former performance director, . The company Tour Racing Ltd. is the corporate entity behind the team in all its iterations, which in line with cycling practice adopts the name of their current primary sponsor. The team launched in 2010 with the ambition of winning the with a British rider within five years, a goal achieved in two years when won the , becoming the first British winner in its history, while teammate and fellow Briton finished as the runner up and then went on to win the . Froome won Sky's third Tour de France title in , fourth in and fifth in . Froome also went on to win the and the , making him the champion of all three Grand Tours at once. Froome was also retrospectively awarded victory in the , after the original victor was stripped of his title due to doping. The team also won the with , the and with , and the with , meaning that the team won seven of the eight editions of the Tour de France between 2012 and 2019, with four different riders, and five further grand tours between 2011 and 2021. Following the decision by British media company not to renew sponsorship, the team secured financial support from the British chemicals group , with the team thereby renamed as Team Ineos from April 2019. The team was rebranded to reflect Ineos Automotive's proposed new off-road vehicle, the .

The team claims to have a approach to . All its riders and staff must sign an agreement that they have no past or present involvement in taking illegal substances. Anyone breaching the agreement at any time must leave the squad. Previous team members such as team doctor Geert Leinders, sports director Steven de Jongh and coach Bobby Julich have all left the team when their involvement in doping prior to working with Sky became known. This approach has been criticised by David Howman of , who has argued that fear of losing their job will discourage people with a history of doping from confessing. Although there have been speculations that Team Sky's tactics and success imply use of banned substances, Brailsford has strenuously denied any team use of illegal substances, citing his team's success in the Olympics as proof that you don't need to dope to dominate. In September 2013, was asked by the UCI to explain a potential discrepancy in his data. In December 2013, British Cycling confirmed it had been instructed to begin disciplinary proceedings against Tiernan-Locke by the UCI. Sky stated the blood values in question were taken in 2012, when Tiernan-Locke was a member of the squad, and he was suspended from all team activities pending a decision. In July 2014 Tiernan-Locke was banned from competition until 31 December 2015 by the UCI, resulting in his contract with the team being terminated with immediate effect. In March 2014, was removed from race schedules for at least eight weeks pending the conclusion of an "altitude research programme", following tests that were taken over the winter whilst Henao was training at altitude in Colombia. In June 2014, Henao returned to racing at the , after completing an independent research programme investigating the physiology of "altitude natives" in conjunction with the . In April 2016, the (CADF) opened an investigation into Sergio Henao's biological passport data from between 2011 and 2015. As a result, the team withdrew Henao from their active roster. After investigation, including a review of the research done in the previous year for Team Sky, CADF declared Henao had no case to answer, and he was restored to the racing squad. In December 2017 returned an adverse analytical finding (AAF) for salbutamol over the WADA threshold of 1000 ng/mL, potentially resulting in a ban and the loss of his 2017 Vuelta title. On 2 July 2018, the UCI with the assistance of WADA concluded there was no AAF upon further investigation of the evidence and closed the case against Froome, exonerating him from any wrongdoing which allowed his Vuelta title to stand. Both Froome and the team welcomed the decision.

wit-train-topic-001858769

projected-23572922-023

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ineos%20Grenadiers

Ineos Grenadiers

National, continental, world and Olympic champions

Ineos Grenadiers () (stylised as INEOS Grenadiers) (formerly Team Sky from 2010–2019, and Team Ineos from 2019–2020) is a British professional that competes at the level. The team is based at the in , England, with a logistics base in , Belgium. The team is managed by 's former performance director, . The company Tour Racing Ltd. is the corporate entity behind the team in all its iterations, which in line with cycling practice adopts the name of their current primary sponsor. The team launched in 2010 with the ambition of winning the with a British rider within five years, a goal achieved in two years when won the , becoming the first British winner in its history, while teammate and fellow Briton finished as the runner up and then went on to win the . Froome won Sky's third Tour de France title in , fourth in and fifth in . Froome also went on to win the and the , making him the champion of all three Grand Tours at once. Froome was also retrospectively awarded victory in the , after the original victor was stripped of his title due to doping. The team also won the with , the and with , and the with , meaning that the team won seven of the eight editions of the Tour de France between 2012 and 2019, with four different riders, and five further grand tours between 2011 and 2021. Following the decision by British media company not to renew sponsorship, the team secured financial support from the British chemicals group , with the team thereby renamed as Team Ineos from April 2019. The team was rebranded to reflect Ineos Automotive's proposed new off-road vehicle, the .

2010 British Road Race, Geraint Thomas British Time Trial, Bradley Wiggins Norway Time Trial, Edvald Boasson Hagen 2011 British Road Race, Bradley Wiggins British Time Trial, Alex Dowsett Finland Road Race, Kjell Carlström Norway Time Trial, Edvald Boasson Hagen 2012 Norway Road Race, Edvald Boasson Hagen British Road Race, Ian Stannard British Time Trial, Alex Dowsett World Track (Team Pursuit), Geraint Thomas and Peter Kennaugh , Bradley Wiggins , Geraint Thomas and Peter Kennaugh 2013 Norway Time Trial, Edvald Boasson Hagen Belarus Time Trial, Kanstantsin Sivtsov 2014 British Road Race, Peter Kennaugh British Time Trial, Bradley Wiggins Belarus Time Trial, Kanstantsin Sivtsov World Time Trial, Bradley Wiggins 2015 Australian Time Trial, Richie Porte Belarus Time Trial, Vasil Kiryienka British Road Race, Peter Kennaugh World Time Trial, Vasil Kiryienka European Omnium, Elia Viviani 2016 Czech Time Trial, Leopold König Irish Time Trial, Nicolas Roche Irish Road Race, Nicolas Roche , Elia Viviani 2017 Colombia Road Race, Sergio Henao Polish Time Trial, Michał Kwiatkowski Italian Time Trial, Gianni Moscon 2018 Colombia Time Trial, Egan Bernal Colombia Road Race, Sergio Henao Spain Time Trial, Jonathan Castroviejo Polish Road Race, Michał Kwiatkowski Dutch Time Trial, Dylan van Baarle British Time Trial, Geraint Thomas Belarusian Time Trial, Vasil Kiryienka Italian Time Trial, Gianni Moscon 2019 World Track (Individual Pursuit), Filippo Ganna Italian Time Trial, Filippo Ganna Spain Time Trial, Jonathan Castroviejo British Road Race, Ben Swift 2020 World Track (Individual Pursuit), Filippo Ganna Italian Time Trial, Filippo Ganna World Time Trial, Filippo Ganna 2021 , Richard Carapaz , Tom Pidcock , Filippo Ganna , Filippo Ganna World Time Trial, Filippo Ganna British Time Trial, Ethan Hayter British Criterium, Ethan Hayter British Road Race, Ben Swift , Filippo Ganna , Ethan Hayter 2022 Australian Road Race, Luke Plapp World Cyclo-cross, Tom Pidcock Colombian Time Trial, Daniel Martínez Ecuador Time Trial, Richard Carapaz Italian Time Trial, Filippo Ganna British Time Trial, Ethan Hayter Spain Road Race, Carlos Rodríguez , Tom Pidcock , Filippo Ganna , Ethan Hayter , Elia Viviani , Ethan Hayter

wit-train-topic-004095238

projected-23572929-000

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dunaverney%20flesh-hook

Dunaverney flesh-hook

Introduction

The Dunaverney Flesh-Hook is a sophisticated artefact from , thought to be an item of ceremonial feasting gear, and a symbol of authority. It is believed it was used to remove chunks of meat from a stew in a large cauldron for serving. It dates to the , between 1050 and 900 BC. Since 1856, it has been in the in London.

wit-train-topic-004741172

projected-23572929-002

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dunaverney%20flesh-hook

Dunaverney flesh-hook

Discovery

The Dunaverney Flesh-Hook is a sophisticated artefact from , thought to be an item of ceremonial feasting gear, and a symbol of authority. It is believed it was used to remove chunks of meat from a stew in a large cauldron for serving. It dates to the , between 1050 and 900 BC. Since 1856, it has been in the in London.

The Dunaverney Flesh-Hook was discovered in 1829 by workmen who were cutting at Dunaverney Bog to the north of in . At the time of its discovery, the Dunaverney Flesh-Hook was unparalleled and for a long time many experts could not agree on its age and function. However, as more examples were found, not only in and Britain, but along the seaboard of the European continent, it became clear from their style, technology and context that they belonged to the and were clearly important instruments used during ceremonial . To this day, the representation of seen on the Dunaverney Flesh-Hook remains unique in north-west Europe.

wit-train-topic-002483040

projected-23572939-000

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanhopea%20saccata

Stanhopea saccata

Introduction

Stanhopea saccata is a species of occurring from () to Central America.

wit-train-topic-000985031

projected-20465475-000

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%A9ronique%20Cloutier

Véronique Cloutier

Introduction

Véronique Cloutier (born December 31, 1974), also known as Véro, is a popular French Canadian TV and radio personality. She is the daughter of and the sister of Stéphanie Cloutier. She has hosted various programs on , including , and Paquet Voleur. Her daily show Le Véro Show on is one of the most popular Quebec radio programs.

wit-train-topic-004835086

projected-23572956-000

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nguy%E1%BB%85n%20Ti%E1%BA%BFn%20Trung

Nguyễn Tiến Trung

Introduction

Nguyễn Tiến Trung (born 1983 in district, province) is a in . As the founder and leader of the Trung has been one of the outspoken in Vietnam. He was arrested on July 7, 2009, by the public security of Vietnam for allegedly "plotting to overthrow the government of Vietnam." The accusation was persistently rejected domestically and internationally by some Vietnam analysts such as and Carl Thayer.

wit-train-topic-002248752

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanhopea%20shuttleworthii

Stanhopea shuttleworthii

Introduction

Stanhopea shuttleworthii is a species of to ().

wit-train-topic-000706420

projected-23572959-000

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real%20estate%20development

Real estate development

Introduction

Real estate development, or property development, is a , encompassing activities that range from the and re- of existing s to the purchase of raw and the sale of or parcels to others. Real estate developers are the people and companies who coordinate all of these activities, converting ideas from paper to real . Real estate development is different from or , although many developers also manage the construction process or engage in housebuilding. Developers buy land, finance real estate deals, build or have builders build projects, develop projects in joint venture, create, imagine, control, and orchestrate the process of development from the beginning to end. Developers usually take the greatest in the creation or renovation of real estate and receive the greatest rewards. Typically, developers purchase a tract of land, determine the of the property, develop the building program and design, obtain the necessary public approval and financing, build the structures, and rent out, manage, and ultimately sell it. Sometimes property developers will only undertake part of the process. For example, some developers source a property and get the plans and permits approved before selling the property with the plans and permits to a builder at a premium price. Alternatively, a developer that is also a builder may purchase a property with the plans and permits in place so that they do not have the risk of failing to obtain planning approval and can start construction on the development immediately. Developers work with many different counterparts along each step of this process, including architects, city planners, engineers, surveyors, inspectors, contractors, lawyers, leasing agents, etc. In the context in the United Kingdom, 'development' is defined in the s55.

wit-train-topic-003402995

projected-44497886-000

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San%20Simon%20Church

San Simon Church

Introduction

The Our Lady of the Pillar Parish Church, also known as the San Simon Church, is a 19th-century church located at Barangay San Juan, , , . The parish church, under the protection of its patron saints, the and , is under the .

wit-train-topic-002910764

projected-23572973-000

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanhopea%20stevensonii

Stanhopea stevensonii

Introduction

Stanhopea stevensonii is a species of to ().

wit-train-topic-001741413

projected-23573011-000

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bludov%20%28Kutn%C3%A1%20Hora%20District%29

Bludov (Kutná Hora District)

Introduction

Bludov is a municipality and village in in the of the . It has about 20 inhabitants.

wit-train-topic-002871945

projected-20465484-001

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Timbalier%20%28AVP-54%29

USS Timbalier (AVP-54)

Construction and commissioning

USS Timbalier (AVP-54) was a of the . She was commissioned shortly after the end of , and served between 1946 and her decommissioning in 1954. She later saw commercial service as the Greek MV Rodos.

Timbalier was built at the , at , with her on 9 November 1942. She was launched on 18 April 1943, sponsored by Mrs. S. B. Dunlap. Timbalier, and her sister , were initially ordered in February 1944 to be completed at the , but were transferred back to the Lake Washington Shipyard in June 1945. The resulting delay meant that she was not until 24 May 1946.

wit-train-topic-001454762

projected-20465484-002

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Timbalier%20%28AVP-54%29

USS Timbalier (AVP-54)

US Navy career

USS Timbalier (AVP-54) was a of the . She was commissioned shortly after the end of , and served between 1946 and her decommissioning in 1954. She later saw commercial service as the Greek MV Rodos.

Timbalier departed from , Washington on 20 June 1946, arriving at , , two days later on 22 June 1946. She transferred to , California, where she loaded stores and spare parts before sailing for , California, on 26 June 1946. She underwent a period of s off the , completing them on 27 July 1946. She then departed bound for , transiting the on 3 August 1946. Timbalier then proceeded to the shipyards at . Timbalier was at the at , , until 8 November 1946, when she departed for , , which she reached on 9 November 1946. She spent the rest of November 1946 in the vicinity of , Virginia. Timbalier departed Hampton Roads on 3 December 1946, bound for , . She arrived there on 7 December 1946, beginning service with 11 (FAW-11). She was based at , and carried out operations in the and off the . She served with FAW-11 as a tender for their s for the rest of her naval career. With the increase in the submarine threat by 1951, the PBM Mariner squadrons deployed to carry out reconnaissance off the U.S. East Coast, and plansd called for them to concentrate on defense and in the event of conflict with the , supported by Timbalier, her , and the seaplane tender . In 1952 Timbalier supported flying boat operations during , a large-scale exercise of the 's navies, off the n and ic coasts. During Mainbrace, Timbalier tended flying boats operating from in the .

wit-train-topic-001391149

projected-23573013-000

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban%20stream

Urban stream

Introduction

An urban stream is a formerly natural that flows through a . Urban streams are often by and outflows. makes flow management in the rehabilitation of urban streams problematic. Governments may alter the flow or course of an urban stream to prevent localized by : lining s with or other materials, diverting the stream into s and s, or other means. Some urban streams, such as the , run completely underground. These modifications have often reduced habitat for and other species, caused downstream flooding due to alterations of s, and worsened . Some communities have begun projects in an attempt to correct the problems caused by alteration, using techniques such as and fixing stream bank caused by heavy runoff. Streamflow augmentation to restore habitat and aesthetics is also an option, and recycled water can be used for this purpose.

wit-train-topic-000587780

projected-44497928-000

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ovidiu%20Constantinescu

Ovidiu Constantinescu

Introduction

Ovidiu Constantinescu (1933 – January 23, 2012) was a Romanian known for his work on the of the .

wit-train-topic-002770803

projected-23573018-000

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brat%C4%8Dice%20%28Kutn%C3%A1%20Hora%20District%29

Bratčice (Kutná Hora District)

Introduction

Bratčice () is a municipality and village in in the of the . It has about 400 inhabitants.

wit-train-topic-000013192

projected-23573023-000

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%ADrkvice%20%28Kutn%C3%A1%20Hora%20District%29

Církvice (Kutná Hora District)

Introduction

Církvice is a municipality and village in in the of the . It has about 1,300 inhabitants.

wit-train-topic-000177065

projected-20465550-000

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire%20forming

Fire forming

Introduction

The term fire forming in refers to the process of reshaping a case to optimally fit a new by firing it within that chamber. This might expand a cartridge to a new size, such as a , or just to the chamber of a specific gun. Fire forming a wildcat differs from the normal manufacturing process; in that it relies on firing a loaded of differing dimensions than the chamber which it is being fired in. After fire forming, the spent case will take on the new dimensions of the firearm's chamber. Fire forming is the final process in creating a wildcat or an . There are two methods of fire forming. One method is to cold form a parent case using forming dies, creating some form of , load the case and fire the cold formed cartridge in the chamber of the firearm. This first method is the most common and will create a wildcat cartridge. The second method is to fire form a factory cartridge by using its factory headspace to headspace on. The factory cartridge is then fired in the chamber of the firearm. This second method will create an improved cartridge.

wit-train-topic-002512463

projected-23573029-000

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doln%C3%AD%20Pohle%C4%8F

Dolní Pohleď

Introduction

Dolní Pohleď is a municipality and village in in the of the . It has about 100 inhabitants.

wit-train-topic-001384340

projected-23573030-003

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dr.%20Bhim%20Rao%20Ambedkar%20College

Dr. Bhim Rao Ambedkar College

Library

Dr. Bhim Rao Ambedkar College is a constituent college of the . It was established on 8 February 1991 during the birth centenary year of . It is sponsored by central Government to cater to the needs of higher education in trans-Yamuna area of Delhi. It is a co-educational institution. The college launched four professional courses in the university, namely, BA (Hons) Business Economics, BA (Hons) Social Work, BA (Hons) Hindi Journalism and Mass Communication, and BA (Hons) Applied Psychology. The prominent academic programs include B.Com & B.Com (Hons.), B.A. (Hons.) Geography, B.A. (Hons.) History and B.A. (Programme).

The library has reading areas and houses more than 35000 books. Each year new books are added as needed. The college maintains current and previous issues of relevant nationally and internationally published journals and magazines like , Computers Today's, , , National Geographic, , Frontier, , , Taipei to name a few. In Hindi the library receives Aajkal, Hans, India Today, Kurukshetra, Kadambani, Manushi, Mukta and Yojana among others. The library also has arrangements to provide books to the deserving students coming from economically weaker sections of the society. The library is fully computerized with online facilities available to students and faculty of the college.

wit-train-topic-002932553

projected-23573030-005

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dr.%20Bhim%20Rao%20Ambedkar%20College

Dr. Bhim Rao Ambedkar College

Banking

Dr. Bhim Rao Ambedkar College is a constituent college of the . It was established on 8 February 1991 during the birth centenary year of . It is sponsored by central Government to cater to the needs of higher education in trans-Yamuna area of Delhi. It is a co-educational institution. The college launched four professional courses in the university, namely, BA (Hons) Business Economics, BA (Hons) Social Work, BA (Hons) Hindi Journalism and Mass Communication, and BA (Hons) Applied Psychology. The prominent academic programs include B.Com & B.Com (Hons.), B.A. (Hons.) Geography, B.A. (Hons.) History and B.A. (Programme).

The college is host to a fully computerised branch of which provides banking facilities to the teaching & non-teaching staff, students of the college and residents of the area. The college is also planning to provide an facility.

wit-train-topic-003390837

projected-23573033-001

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%8Cejkovice%20%28Kutn%C3%A1%20Hora%20District%29

Čejkovice (Kutná Hora District)

History

Čejkovice is a municipality and village in in the of the . It has about 30 inhabitants.

The first written mention of Čejkovice is from 1360.

wit-train-topic-001374037

projected-23573039-000

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanhopea%20tricornis

Stanhopea tricornis

Introduction

Stanhopea tricornis is a species of to western South America (Colombia).

wit-train-topic-001302665

projected-23573041-000

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horky%20%28Kutn%C3%A1%20Hora%20District%29

Horky (Kutná Hora District)

Introduction

Horky is a municipality and village in in the of the . It has about 400 inhabitants.

wit-train-topic-002864480

projected-17327836-005

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2008%20Lebanon%20conflict

2008 Lebanon conflict

May 8 - May 9: Takeover of Beirut

The 2008 Lebanon conflict (Or the 7 May 2008 clashes, : أحداث 7 أيار) was a brief intrastate military conflict in May 2008 in between opposition militias (mainly ) and pro-government , after the spiraled out of control, when the government's decision to dismantle Hezbollah's telecommunication system, which led to Hezbollah seizing control of west , and ended with the adoption of the in 2008. The fighting between pro-government and opposition militias affiliated to respectively the and political parties on one side and , , , and the on the other side, was sparked by a government move to shut down Hezbollah's telecommunication network and remove 's head of security after the discovery of a hidden remote-controlled camera monitoring one of the airport's runway and his alleged ties to Hezbollah. Clashes first occurred on May 7 after a general strike called for by the country's union federation to demand higher wages and decry high consumer prices became overshadowed by the government's decisions and escalated into low-level violence between pro-government and opposition protesters. Violence severely escalated the next morning on May 8 after a televised speech by Hezbollah leader . In his speech, Nasrallah responded to the government's decision to declare the organization's telecommunication network illegal by calling it a declaration of war on the organization, shortly after which fighting between pro-government and opposition militias broke out in . Within two days, Hezbollah-led opposition fighters had seized control of several West Beirut neighbourhoods from pro-government militiamen. In the following days, fighting between pro-government and opposition militias spread to other parts of the country with major clashes in the and . On May 15, an intervention by the brokered an immediate end to hostilities and a pledge from warring parties to send emissaries to for a mediation process. The resulting , reached on May 21, 2008, brought an end to the 18-month political feud that exploded into fighting and nearly drove the country to a new civil war.

After a tense night with sporadic gunfire, Hezbollah's secretary-general addressed the country in a speech televised on Hezbollah affiliated station in the morning of May 8. He referred to the cabinet's decisions of that week as "despotic" and having inaugurated a new phase in Lebanese history, similar to in 2005. He stated that the telecommunication network was not a simple commercial operation aimed merely at generating profit for the organization, but "integral and fundamental" as part of its military apparatus. He claimed that his opponents had already known about the existence of the telecommunication network years before and in drawing attention to the timing of the decision, insinuated that the cabinet's actions were aimed at obstructing the forces of the (against ) in the region. Hezbollah had the right to defend itself, he argued, and metaphorically stated that they would cut-off the hand of anyone that would touch the Resistance. "All red lines had been crossed", according to Nasrallah, and the actions therefore amounted to no mere than a "declaration of war." Minutes after Nasrallah's speech, heavy street battles began between pro-government and opposition militias. Fighting erupted along , an avenue separating Shiite and Sunni areas, later spreading to the western, southern and eastern parts of Beirut where Sunni and Shiite neighborhoods overlapped. Combat was also heard near the office of Lebanon's Sunni religious leader - an ally of the government - and the palatial compound of the Hariri family in Koreitem was hit by fire. More barricades were set up, closing major highways. Opposition militants eventually overran the positions of pro-government militias in West Beirut and burnt-down three pro-government offices. , leader of the Future Movement, quickly responded to the outbreak of violence, describing the events as a form of , criticizing the actions of Hezbollah as a threat to the unity of the country and calling on Nasrallah to stop the descendance towards civil war. Faced with large-scale inter-communal violence erupting all over the city, the decided not to intervene in the clashes for fear of sparking divisions in the army along lines, as had happened during the civil war. Other factors that as to why the army did not act in line with the cabinet are, according to political scientist Aram Nerguizian, the apprehension among army commanders at how the cabinet chose to address the issue of Hezbollah's telecommunication network. Secondly, the perception among them that cabinet also did not sufficiently consult the army prior to their decision to dismiss Beirut's airport head of security. Thirdly, the presidential ambitions of Army Commander - who would indeed within two weeks become the country's next president - and his resulting need not to antagonize the March 8 coalition and its Syrian allies may also have influenced his decision not to intervene against Hezbollah according to Nerguizian. The army's decision to refrain from intervention did spark objections from within however. Some saw it as a "missed opportunity" for the army to "signal its objection to domestic military action by any of the country's competing political/sectarian forces." Around 120 Sunni officers later even offered their resignation as response to "the humiliation felt from the military's conduct during the militias' invasion of Beirut" as their resignation letter stated. All of the officers except one later repealed their resignation however. Fighting from the previous day lasted throughout the night and only stopped for a short time a little bit after dawn on May 9, 2008. However, fighting quickly resumed after the brief lull. Pro-government militias were however no match to the Hezbollah led opposition forces. All over West Beirut, pro-government militias had lost ground. Media outlets related to the pro-government Future Movement, amongst which , , , and Future-owned Armenian radio station Sevan had been raided by opposition fighters and forced to close. Future TV and Al Mustaqbal were particularly targeted by opposition fighters. RPG missiles were launched from empty adjacent buildings under construction to Mustaqbal's offices, setting fire to two floors. Future TV offices were raided by Hezbollah members who subsequently cut all of its broadcasts. According to Habib Battah, a media analyst, shutting down Future TV was not only a psychological attack on Future Movement's supporters, but also gave the opposition a monopoly on propaganda messages. Overpowered by Hezbollah's military apparatus and besieged in his residence, Saad Hariri had by then ordered militia members loyal to his Future Movement to stand down. The opposition had now firmly moved in and taken over abandoned positions of pro-government fighters, seizing large parts of the capital's western neighbourhoods. The Lebanese Army also stepped in to take over position deserted by pro-government militiamen and in some instance were handed over control of recently conquered position by Hezbollah. In some neighbourhoods, the takeover had been peaceful with opposition fighters facing no resistance as they moved throughout West Beirut.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2008%20Lebanon%20conflict

2008 Lebanon conflict

May 10 - May 12: Fighting spreads to Aley and the North

The 2008 Lebanon conflict (Or the 7 May 2008 clashes, : أحداث 7 أيار) was a brief intrastate military conflict in May 2008 in between opposition militias (mainly ) and pro-government , after the spiraled out of control, when the government's decision to dismantle Hezbollah's telecommunication system, which led to Hezbollah seizing control of west , and ended with the adoption of the in 2008. The fighting between pro-government and opposition militias affiliated to respectively the and political parties on one side and , , , and the on the other side, was sparked by a government move to shut down Hezbollah's telecommunication network and remove 's head of security after the discovery of a hidden remote-controlled camera monitoring one of the airport's runway and his alleged ties to Hezbollah. Clashes first occurred on May 7 after a general strike called for by the country's union federation to demand higher wages and decry high consumer prices became overshadowed by the government's decisions and escalated into low-level violence between pro-government and opposition protesters. Violence severely escalated the next morning on May 8 after a televised speech by Hezbollah leader . In his speech, Nasrallah responded to the government's decision to declare the organization's telecommunication network illegal by calling it a declaration of war on the organization, shortly after which fighting between pro-government and opposition militias broke out in . Within two days, Hezbollah-led opposition fighters had seized control of several West Beirut neighbourhoods from pro-government militiamen. In the following days, fighting between pro-government and opposition militias spread to other parts of the country with major clashes in the and . On May 15, an intervention by the brokered an immediate end to hostilities and a pledge from warring parties to send emissaries to for a mediation process. The resulting , reached on May 21, 2008, brought an end to the 18-month political feud that exploded into fighting and nearly drove the country to a new civil war.

As fighting in Beirut dwindled down, violence began to spread to other parts of the country, in particular the south of Beirut and the north of the country. In the evening of May 9 sporadic clashes erupted in , where two civilians were killed; and in Bar Elias in the where a woman was killed. Also, eight people were killed near the town of in clashes between government supporters and opponents. Seven people who were Hezbollah supporters were killed. On May 10, 2008, a funeral procession was attacked by a shop-owner affiliated with the , whose shop was previously burned down by Sunni militants, leaving six people dead. An photographer who witnessed the shooting said the attack came as a procession of 200 people headed toward a nearby cemetery to bury a 24-year-old pro-government supporter killed in previous fighting. At least 14 people were killed in the town of , in the region of north Lebanon, as about 100 pro-Future Movement gunmen attacked an office of the . 10 of the dead were SSNP members, three were government loyalists and one was an citizen of Lebanese descent on vacation in Lebanon, who was trying to get information at the SSNP offices about evacuating from the city. The Australian father of four, Fadi Sheikh, reportedly had his hands and feet cut off. The SSNP says Fadi Sheikh was a member of the party - but was not a militant. He was just in the wrong place at the wrong time. One other person was killed in fighting in and two soldiers died in fighting east of Beirut. Heavy fighting had also broken out between Hezbollah sympathizers and Sunni supporters of the government in the neighbourhoods of Jabal Mohsen and Bab al-Tabbaneh, two neighbourhoods in notorious for its sectarian violence, leading thousands to flee their homes. Faced with the escalated situation as a result of the cabinet's decisions, Prime Minister Fouad Siniora announced on May 10 that the cabinet would handover the issue of telecommunication network to the army and, in addition, announced the reinstatement of the head of security of Beirut's international airport. Subsequently, the Lebanese army took a more active stance in the events and announced it had frozen the measures taken by the government and called for all armed militants to withdraw from the streets. In response, Hezbollah announced that it would withdraw its fighters together with other opposition fighters from West Beirut in compliance with the Lebanese army's request, but that a civil disobedience campaign will continue until the group's political demands are met. The next day, Beirut was quiet as control of areas seized by the opposition was handed over to the Lebanese army. Many roads in the capital remained blockaded however, including the strategic airport road, as the opposition continued their campaign of civil disobedience.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2008%20Lebanon%20conflict

2008 Lebanon conflict

International reactions

The 2008 Lebanon conflict (Or the 7 May 2008 clashes, : أحداث 7 أيار) was a brief intrastate military conflict in May 2008 in between opposition militias (mainly ) and pro-government , after the spiraled out of control, when the government's decision to dismantle Hezbollah's telecommunication system, which led to Hezbollah seizing control of west , and ended with the adoption of the in 2008. The fighting between pro-government and opposition militias affiliated to respectively the and political parties on one side and , , , and the on the other side, was sparked by a government move to shut down Hezbollah's telecommunication network and remove 's head of security after the discovery of a hidden remote-controlled camera monitoring one of the airport's runway and his alleged ties to Hezbollah. Clashes first occurred on May 7 after a general strike called for by the country's union federation to demand higher wages and decry high consumer prices became overshadowed by the government's decisions and escalated into low-level violence between pro-government and opposition protesters. Violence severely escalated the next morning on May 8 after a televised speech by Hezbollah leader . In his speech, Nasrallah responded to the government's decision to declare the organization's telecommunication network illegal by calling it a declaration of war on the organization, shortly after which fighting between pro-government and opposition militias broke out in . Within two days, Hezbollah-led opposition fighters had seized control of several West Beirut neighbourhoods from pro-government militiamen. In the following days, fighting between pro-government and opposition militias spread to other parts of the country with major clashes in the and . On May 15, an intervention by the brokered an immediate end to hostilities and a pledge from warring parties to send emissaries to for a mediation process. The resulting , reached on May 21, 2008, brought an end to the 18-month political feud that exploded into fighting and nearly drove the country to a new civil war.

The condemned Hezbollah's actions with a spokesman denouncing the organization as a "destabilizing force" which had turned "its arms against the Lebanese people and challenged Lebanon's security forces for control of the streets." In addition, pronounced the continuing support by the US for the Lebanese government. Saudi Foreign Minister Prince accused Iran of "backing what happened in Lebanon, a coup" and called for "all regional parties to respect the independence and sovereignty of Lebanon and to stop meddling in its affairs and inciting sectarian tensions". He further accused Hezbollah of taking "violent, offensive measures, which aim at an annihilation of people." A diplomatic cable released by two years later show, however, that Prince Saud al-Faisal had proposed to the US Ambassador in Saudi Arabia the creation of an "Arab force" to be supported by the US and which was to restore order in Beirut in response to "Hezbollah's military challenge to the Government of Lebanon." Furthermore, he feared that a Hezbollah victory would lead to the fall of the Siniora cabinet and the "Iranian takeover of Lebanon." Iran's Foreign Ministry Spokesman Mohammad-Ali Hosseini has called on national unity among the Lebanese adding that the situation can be "managed through talks and consensus-building." Hosseini blamed the U.S. and Israel for the ongoing hostilities in Lebanon.

wit-train-topic-002786080

projected-20465760-000

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dick%20Harrison

Dick Harrison

Introduction

Dick Walther Harrison (born 10 April 1966) is a historian. He is currently a of at . His main areas of interest are the European , including the medical history of the period and the history of slavery. Harrison regularly writes articles for the Swedish journal (Popular History). He has also written popular historical works and, during Spring 2010, a blog covering the history of monarchs and monarchies with emphasis on the Swedish monarchy. Harrison regularly gives lectures to the general public on a broad range of historical topics. Harrison is the editor-in-chief of a comprehensive series about Swedish history published by Norstedts with the first volume released in September, 2009. The Swedish TV channel TV4 has made a companion television series for which Harrison is the historical consultant and co-host along with . The TV series has 12 episodes of which the first six aired on TV4 during spring 2010. The second set of six episodes aired spring 2011. In addition to his historical writing, Harrison has written three historical novels about Ulvbjörn Vamodsson, a 7th-century (fictitious) warrior: Ofärd, Niding and Illdåd. Harrison was born in , , and spent much of his youth in in . He married Katarina Lindbergh in 2010.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kompania%20Zamkowa

Kompania Zamkowa

Introduction

Kompania Zamkowa (Castle Company) was the unit the size of an , responsible for providing protection for the from 1926 to 1939. They also had a ceremonial function. Castle Company, named after , then a presidential residence, consisted of: Commanding Three infantry s Heavy platoon platoon The Company was created after disbanding the Presidential military office and the previous protective squad. The only President under its protection was . In 1928 Company was merged with a castle motorcade, gendarmerie platoon and horse unit to for the Castle Unit. Commanders: Major Stanisław Kłopotowski Captain Witold Grębo Captain Zygmunt Roszkowski Major Wiktor Gębalski

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avery%20Bradley

Avery Bradley

Introduction

Avery Antonio Bradley Jr. (born November 26, 1990) is an American professional player who last played for the of the (NBA). He played for the before being drafted 19th overall by the in the . With the Celtics, he was twice recognized as an member. Bradley has also played for the , , , , and .

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projected-23573057-005

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avery%20Bradley

Avery Bradley

Boston Celtics (2010–2011)

Avery Antonio Bradley Jr. (born November 26, 1990) is an American professional player who last played for the of the (NBA). He played for the before being drafted 19th overall by the in the . With the Celtics, he was twice recognized as an member. Bradley has also played for the , , , , and .

Bradley was selected with the 19th overall pick in the by the . On July 2, 2010, he signed his rookie scale contract with the Celtics. The same day, he underwent successful ankle surgery and subsequently missed the 2010 NBA Summer League. Still just 19 years old, Bradley joined a Celtics team that was one of the best in the . He did not see his first regular season action until the fourteenth game of the season, a 23-point win over the in which Bradley scored two points and committed two turnovers. On January 14, 2011, Bradley was assigned to the of the and on the same day made his debut game for the team, playing 21 minutes and scoring 11 points. Following a injury to during a game against the on February 6, 2011, Bradley was recalled by the on February 7, and joined the team for the game against the . In the one Celtics game of Bradley's rookie season in which he played more than 15 minutes, Bradley scored 20 points to go with three rebounds, two assists and two steals. However, he played ten or more minutes in just two other NBA games and did not appear in any of the Celtics' postseason contests. On June 30, 2011, the Celtics exercised their third-year team option on Bradley's rookie scale contract, extending the contract through the 2012–13 season.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avery%20Bradley

Avery Bradley

2011–12 season

Avery Antonio Bradley Jr. (born November 26, 1990) is an American professional player who last played for the of the (NBA). He played for the before being drafted 19th overall by the in the . With the Celtics, he was twice recognized as an member. Bradley has also played for the , , , , and .

During the , Bradley enjoyed much more playing time and was promoted to a starting role following an injury to . Bradley's scoring output increased significantly during the season, and he managed a career-high 28 points against the on April 20, 2012. He also received praise for his tremendous hustle and defense, including memorable blocks on and , among others. However, Bradley suffered a during the . This injury, which led to season-ending surgery, was a significant setback to the Celtics, who lost in seven games to the in the Conference Finals.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kluky%20%28Kutn%C3%A1%20Hora%20District%29

Kluky (Kutná Hora District)

Introduction

Kluky is a municipality and village in in the of the . It has about 500 inhabitants.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kobylnice%20%28Kutn%C3%A1%20Hora%20District%29

Kobylnice (Kutná Hora District)

Introduction

Kobylnice is a municipality and village in in the of the . It has about 200 inhabitants.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magdalenenkirche%2C%20Hildesheim

Magdalenenkirche, Hildesheim

Introduction

The Magdalenenkirche or St. Magdalenen (Church St. ) is one of the churches in , , . The Magdalenenkirche is a Catholic church that was once a church, and is situated in the old town at 25 Mühlenstraße. Founded in 1224, the current building was consecrated in 1294, the first building in Hildesheim. Extensive rebuilding took place in the 15th century and further additions were made in the 19th century. In the fifteenth century (ca. 1416) an was created by an unknown artist, referred to as the depicting scenes from the life of Mary Magdalene (Magdalenenlegende). This has since been broken up and various panels are found in different museums. One of these, the is in the . The church was badly damaged in on 22 March 1945 and partly restored in a simplified manner. The restoration was completed in 1961. , a baroque park laid out 1720–25, is close by. The small street Süsternstraße beside the church features a well-preserved part of the medieval city wall with a round tower.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krchleby%20%28Kutn%C3%A1%20Hora%20District%29

Krchleby (Kutná Hora District)

Introduction

Krchleby is a municipality and village in in the of the . It has about 400 inhabitants.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaiser-Joseph-Stra%C3%9Fe

Kaiser-Joseph-Straße

Introduction

The Kaiser-Joseph-Straße (often shortened to Kajo) in is a of about 900 meters, which runs through the center of Freiburg's historic downtown from north to south. It is one of the most expensive locations in .

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaiser-Joseph-Stra%C3%9Fe

Kaiser-Joseph-Straße

History

The Kaiser-Joseph-Straße (often shortened to Kajo) in is a of about 900 meters, which runs through the center of Freiburg's historic downtown from north to south. It is one of the most expensive locations in .

The Kaiser-Joseph-Straße was originally called the "Große Gass" (big alley), where a weekly market was held in medieval times. This is the reason for the great width compared to other streets in historic downtown. In the 15th century the weekly market was relocated to the area in front of the . The connection between the "Große Gass" and the settlements outside the city walls – in the form of the – was severed in the 17th century when had the city fortified and the settlements outside the city walls leveled. Salzstraße was then used as an access road from . For the bridal procession of the future French Queen , consisting of 235 people, 57 wagons and 250 draft and saddle horses, however, the street was not wide enough. In order to give her a welcome which befitted her social status in spite of this, it was decided that she was to enter the city through the gateway called Breisacher Tor via Gartenstraße on 4 May 1770. For this reason two new streets, "Dreisamstraße" and "Schreiberstraße", were built on the northern bank of the Dreisam. Three arcs of triumph were constructed in honor of the by three of the city’s greater organisations: one by the City of Freiburg erected at the "Karlskaserne", barracks near the town; one by the University where what is today the Old City Hall (Altes Rathaus) and one by the representation of the on "Große Gass". The latter was the biggest of them, measuring 24 meters in height and 18 meters in width. The arc was constructed by Johann Christian Wentzinger, using only wood and plaster. Marie Antoinette stayed at the Kageneckschen House, a locally well-known landmark, on Salzstraße, right before moving on to on the morning of May 6. After a visit from in 1777, the thoroughfare was renamed "Kaiserstraße" in his honor. Around 1840, the thoroughfare was extended southwards, starting from the Martinstor down to the . This section was initially named "Stephanienstraße" in honor of , Grand Duchess of . As a result, the new quarter built in this context was named "Stephanien-Vorstadt". At the turn of the century, there were two wells on the thoroughfare: the "Fischbrunnen" (German for "Fish Well") from the 16th century, which was superseded by the in 1806, and the Albert-Ludwig-Brunnen by from 1868. It was located close to the on the former Kaiser-Wilhelms-Platz. During the time of the entirety of the Kaiserstraße, including its extensions to the north (Zähringerstraße) and to the south (Günterstalstraße), was renamed Adolf-Hitler-Straße. After the Second World War the part that led from the city center to the Dreisam was called Kaiser-Joseph-Straße, while the northern part of the former Adolf-Hitler-Straße was given the name of Habsburgerstraße, in reference to the descent of the emperor. In order to keep the established house numbers, however, today they start at 143 on the east side and at 166 on the west side of the Kaiser-Joseph-Straße. Numerous branches of big trading companies own offices on this street. In the 1970s there were five department stores here, at the beginning of the 21st century only two remained. Basler Hof, which was built by as a residence in the 15th century, is the only building without any commercial use nowadays. It is one of the most important secular buildings in Freiburg. The name derives from the Basel who used the residence from 1587 to 1677 when they were forced to relocate to Freiburg as a result of the in their home town. It currently serves as the representative official residence of Freiburg's district president. The Kaiser Bridge, which originates from the turn of the century and is located at the other end of the Kaiser-Joseph-Straße, used to be decorated with bronze statues of the and of the , created by Julius Seitz, as well as statues of and , by Fridolin Dietsche. In 1942 they were dismantled and taken to Hamburg to be melted down. Although this did not happen until the war had ended, the municipal council voted down a potential recall of the statues in 1950 because of the potentially substantial transport costs. The statues' foundations can still be seen today.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nov%C3%A9%20Dvory%20%28Kutn%C3%A1%20Hora%20District%29

Nové Dvory (Kutná Hora District)

Introduction

Nové Dvory () is a market town in in the of the . It has about 900 inhabitants. The town centre is well preserved and is protected by law as an .

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onomy%C5%A1l

Onomyšl

Administrative parts

Onomyšl is a municipality and village in in the of the . It has about 300 inhabitants.

Villages and hamlets of Budy, Křečovice, Miletín and Rozkoš are administrative parts of Onomyšl.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pertoltice%20%28Kutn%C3%A1%20Hora%20District%29

Pertoltice (Kutná Hora District)

Introduction

Pertoltice is a municipality and village in in the of the . It has about 200 inhabitants.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ra%C5%A1ovice%20%28Kutn%C3%A1%20Hora%20District%29

Rašovice (Kutná Hora District)

Introduction

Rašovice is a municipality and village in in the of the . It has about 400 inhabitants.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rohozec%20%28Kutn%C3%A1%20Hora%20District%29

Rohozec (Kutná Hora District)

Introduction

Rohozec is a municipality and village in in the of the . It has about 400 inhabitants.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann%20Michael%20W%C3%A4chter

Johann Michael Wächter

Introduction

Johann Michael Wächter (2 March 1794 – 26 May 1853) was an n most famous for appearing in the operas of . Born in in Austria, Wächter sang in various church choirs in , making his stage début in 1819 at as Don Giovanni in 's . He also appeared at , and Berlin. In 1827 he joined the Dresden Hofoper, where he remained for the rest of his career. Here his roles included Mozart's , and he sang in three premières, playing Orsini in in 1842, the title role in in 1843, and Biterolf in in 1845. , who heard The Flying Dutchman in Dresden, considered Wächter's baritone ‘...one of the finest I have ever heard, and he uses it like a consummate singer. It is of that rich and vibrant timbre that has such a wonderful power of expression, provided that the artist sings with soul and feeling, which Wächter does to a high degree’. Wächter, an old friend of Wagner's, was not equal to the demanding role of the Dutchman. Wagner later wrote: "His total incapacity in the difficult role of my spectral, suffering mariner dawned on unfortunately only after the rehearsals were too far along to make any change. Wächter's distressing corpulence, particularly his broad, round face and the curious way he moved his arms and legs like shrivelled stumps, sent my Senta in transports of despair." His wife, the Thérèse Wächter-Wittman (31 August 1802 in – 3 October 1879 in Dresden), also sang at Dresden, creating the role of Mary in The Flying Dutchman. Wächter died in in 1853.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline%20of%20the%20American%20Old%20West

Timeline of the American Old West

Introduction

This timeline of the American Old West is a chronologically ordered list of events significant to the development of the as a region of the continental . The term "American Old West" refers to a vast geographical area and lengthy-time period of imprecise boundaries, and historians' definitions vary. The events in this timeline occurred primarily in the portion of the modern continental United States west of the , and mostly in the period between the in 1803 and the admission of the last western territories as states in 1912 where most of the frontier was already settled and became urbanized; a few typical frontier episodes happened after that, such as the into the Union in 1959. A brief section summarizing early exploration and settlement prior to 1803 is included to provide a foundation for later developments. Rarely, events significant to the history of the West but which occurred within the modern boundaries of Canada and Mexico are included as well. Western North America was inhabited for millennia by various groups of and later served as a to the , which began starting in the 16th century. , , and claims followed in the 18th and 19th centuries, though these did not result in settlement and the region remained in Spanish hands. After the , the newly independent United States began securing its own frontier from the westward for settlement and economic investment by s. The long into these lands has played a central role in shaping American culture, iconography, and the modern national identity, and remains a popular topic for study by scholars and historians. Events listed below are notable developments for the region as a whole, not just for a particular state or smaller subdivision of the region; as historians Hine and Faragher put it, they "tell the story of the creation and defense of communities, the use of the lands, the development of markets, and the formation of states.... It is a tale of conquest, but also one of survival, persistence, and the merging of peoples and cultures."

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline%20of%20the%20American%20Old%20West

Timeline of the American Old West

Early exploration and settlement

This timeline of the American Old West is a chronologically ordered list of events significant to the development of the as a region of the continental . The term "American Old West" refers to a vast geographical area and lengthy-time period of imprecise boundaries, and historians' definitions vary. The events in this timeline occurred primarily in the portion of the modern continental United States west of the , and mostly in the period between the in 1803 and the admission of the last western territories as states in 1912 where most of the frontier was already settled and became urbanized; a few typical frontier episodes happened after that, such as the into the Union in 1959. A brief section summarizing early exploration and settlement prior to 1803 is included to provide a foundation for later developments. Rarely, events significant to the history of the West but which occurred within the modern boundaries of Canada and Mexico are included as well. Western North America was inhabited for millennia by various groups of and later served as a to the , which began starting in the 16th century. , , and claims followed in the 18th and 19th centuries, though these did not result in settlement and the region remained in Spanish hands. After the , the newly independent United States began securing its own frontier from the westward for settlement and economic investment by s. The long into these lands has played a central role in shaping American culture, iconography, and the modern national identity, and remains a popular topic for study by scholars and historians. Events listed below are notable developments for the region as a whole, not just for a particular state or smaller subdivision of the region; as historians Hine and Faragher put it, they "tell the story of the creation and defense of communities, the use of the lands, the development of markets, and the formation of states.... It is a tale of conquest, but also one of survival, persistence, and the merging of peoples and cultures."

For almost three centuries after , much of western North America remained unsettled by white colonists, despite various territorial claims made by European colonial powers. European interest in the vast territory was initially motivated by the search for precious metals, especially gold, and the fur trade, with miners, trappers, and hunters among the first people of European descent to permanently settle in the West. The early years were also a period of scientific exploration and survey, such that by 1830 the rough outline of the western half of the continent had been mapped to the Pacific Ocean.

wit-train-topic-002954247

projected-06900801-000

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlotte%20Harbor%20and%20Northern%20Railway%20Depot

Charlotte Harbor and Northern Railway Depot

Introduction

The Charlotte Harbor and Northern Railway Depot is a historic (CH&N) in , . It is located at Park and 4th Streets. The station was built by the CH&N in 1910; the railroad's parent company, the American Agriculture and Chemical Company, had several mines in the area and wanted a railroad to ship its phosphate and other goods. The company played an important role in Boca Grande's early development, both by building the railroad and station and by opening a hotel and selling land. The station continued service when the railroad was acquired by the in the 1920s. Rail service began to diminish during the Great Depression, and later during the post-World War II period, when it closed in 1958. Until its closure, the railroad was the only land connection between Boca Grande and mainland Florida. On December 13, 1979, the station was added to the . Since 1985, the station has been a notable landmark along the .

wit-train-topic-001341172

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heckler%20%26%20Koch%20FABARM%20FP6

Heckler & Koch FABARM FP6

Introduction

{{Infobox weapon |name=FP6 | image= H&KFabarmFP6entry.jpg | image_size = 300 |origin=Italy |type= |is_ranged=yes |service= |used_by=See |wars= |designer= |design_date= 1998 |manufacturer=FABARM |production_date= 1998–present |number= |variants= 4 |weight=6.6 lb |length=41.25 in, 105cm |part_length=20 in, 51cm |cartridge= 2 & 3 inch shells |caliber= |action= |rate= |velocity= |range=30 m |max_range= |feed=5+1 rounds or 7+1 rounds, internal tube |sights=Night }} The Fabarm FP6 is a that was manufactured by the Italian firearms company Fabbrica Bresciana Armi S.p.A. () and sold by . It was intended for civilian and law enforcement use. History Upon severing business association with in 1998, Heckler & Koch replaced their entire line of shotguns with those manufactured by FABARM. The line featured hunting and sport shotguns in over-and-under, side-by-side, semi-automatic autoloaders and pump shotguns including youth models. For military, law enforcement and home defense use, released four variants of the FP6 model. Design details The machined receiver is manufactured from lightweight and is drilled and tapped for ing. Three of the four variants were sold with an attached for mounting optics or accessories and the bottom forward edge of the forend is also drilled to accept an accessory rail. With the exception of the short-barreled model, FABARM shotguns are sold with their Tribore barrel which is a deep-drilled, machined barrel with three separate internal bore profiles. Beginning at the chamber and forcing cone, the bore is enlarged to .7401" to soften recoil while the second profile is in the middle of the barrel gradually choking down to .7244" to emulate a cylinder bore profile to increase velocity. The final bore is the FABARM choke system which consists of standard choking followed by a cylinder profile at the muzzle which serves to improve shot patterns and distribution. The muzzle is threaded to accept one of five different chokes or a muzzle brake/compensator. Some models were sold with a ventilated barrel shroud. Features of the weapon include a chrome-plated trigger, slide release, and shell carrier. There is also an oversized triangular push-button safety. The trigger group is held in the receiver by two pins which makes removal for cleaning and maintenance very easy. Some models have a flip-up frontsight (which serves as a low-profile sight when closed) while others have a small blade sight. Other models were issued with sights. The forend and buttstock are synthetic black polymer with the latter having a synthetic rubber recoil pad mounted on the end. One model was issued instead with a heavy wire gauge folding stock and pistol grip. Models were available with either a black protective finish, matte finish, or were finished in . Operation The forend is connected to dual action bars which cycle the bolt when pulled back towards the receiver. As it travels to the rear, the shell latch is pushed out of the way by a camming surface on the action bar allowing a cartridge to drop into the carrier while the remaining shells in the magazine tube are held by the cartridge retaining latch. As the forend is returned, the action bars bring the bolt forward while the carrier aligns the shell before seating it into the chamber. After the shell is fully seated, the action bars continue forward forcing the locking bolt into a recess which is on top of the barrel extension causing the action to lock into battery. Upon firing the weapon, the slide unhooking lever releases and the action is allowed to cycle, extracting and ejecting the spent shell while cocking the hammer and releasing the next round from the magazine. Accessories All FP6 shotguns are sold with a choke adjustment wrench, owners manual and a hard plastic vacu-formed impact case. Additional accessories available from H&K include an assortment of chokes, muzzle brakes/compensators, magazine tube extensions, pistol grips and folding stocks. There is an adapter available for the receiver of the FP6 to allow use of Remington 870 stocks such as BlackHawk and Knoxx stocks. Variants H&K released four variants of the FP6. Standard FP6 (H&K 40621HS) featuring a 20" Tribore barrel, black protective finish, perforated heatshield, small front blade sight, fixed synthetic buttstock, and a rounded forend. Carbon fiber finish model (H&K 40621CF) featuring a 20" Tribore barrel, no heatshield, receiver-mount Picatinny rail, small front blade sight, fixed synthetic buttstock, and a rounded forend. Folding stock and pistol gripped model with a 20" Tribore barrel, no heatshield, receiver-mount Picatinny rail, and a large flip-up blade sight. Tactical short-barreled model, the FP6 Entry (H&K 40621T), featuring a 14" barrel, matte finish, perforated heatshield, receiver-mount Picatinny rail, large flip-up blade sight, fixed synthetic buttstock, and a contoured forend. This variant has a 33.75" overall length and is regulated by the National Firearms Act as a firearm in the United States. Users - - , replacing all P See also Notes References Fortier, David M. "Italian alley sweeper: pumping lead with the Fabarm FP6", Guns Magazine, August 2003. Gangarosa, Gene Jr., (2001). Heckler & Koch—Armorers of the Free World. Stoeger Publishing, Maryland. . Ramage, Ken. (2008). Gun Digest 2008''. Krause Publications. p. 419.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San%20Francisco%2C%20Nayarit

San Francisco, Nayarit

Introduction

San Francisco, also known as San Pancho, is a Mexican town situated in the on the central Pacific coast of Mexico about 50 km north of on Federal Hwy 200.

wit-train-topic-002682065

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suchdol%20%28Kutn%C3%A1%20Hora%20District%29

Suchdol (Kutná Hora District)

Introduction

Suchdol is a market town in in the of the . It has about 1,100 inhabitants.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svat%C3%BD%20Mikul%C3%A1%C5%A1

Svatý Mikuláš

Introduction

Svatý Mikuláš is a municipality and village in in the of the . It has about 900 inhabitants.

wit-train-topic-002501341

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanhopea%20wardii

Stanhopea wardii

Introduction

Stanhopea wardii is a species of found from to .

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A0tipoklasy

Štipoklasy

Introduction

Štipoklasy is a municipality and village in in the of the . It has about 200 inhabitants.

wit-train-topic-000731188

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C5%99ebe%C5%A1ice%20%28Kutn%C3%A1%20Hora%20District%29

Třebešice (Kutná Hora District)

Introduction

Třebešice is a municipality and village in in the of the . It has about 300 inhabitants.

wit-train-topic-004777353

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%9A%C5%BEice%20%28Kutn%C3%A1%20Hora%20District%29

Úžice (Kutná Hora District)

Introduction

Úžice () is a municipality and village in in the of the . It has about 700 inhabitants.

wit-train-topic-002298240

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vidice%20%28Kutn%C3%A1%20Hora%20District%29

Vidice (Kutná Hora District)

Introduction

Vidice is a municipality and village in in the of the . It has about 300 inhabitants.

wit-train-topic-004141661

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vrdy

Vrdy

Introduction

Vrdy is a municipality and village in in the of the . It has about 3,000 inhabitants.

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