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Malignant tumors of the ovary or the breast in association with infertility: a report of thirteen cases. Many questions have been raised recently about the relationship between infertility, fertility drugs and cancer. This prompted us to evaluate our patients having ovarian or breast cancer with a known history of infertility. We report thirteen women who had been examined and/or treated for infertility before the occurrence of malignant tumors of the ovary or the breast at an age under 50 years in 1990-1995 in our unit. Mean age of the patients was 35 years (s.d. 5.9 years, range 28-47 years). Of the 11 ovarian tumors, one was a malignant teratoma, two were granulosa cell tumors and eight epithelial ovarian cancers. Ten women had received either clomiphene citrate alone or together with gonadotrophins, one had used only gonadotrophins, and in two patients ovarian cancer was detected during an infertility work-up but before any treatment. Four women had used clomiphene for more than twelve cycles. Two patients had ductal breast cancer. Our patients emphasize the need for follow-up and long-term prospective studies in infertile women who have been evaluated or treated for infertility.
The present invention relates to a combination meter system of a vehicle particularly for improving the precision of various meters or gauges and reducing construction cost by sharing a drive circuit. An instrument panel of a vehicle is equipped with various gauges such as speed meter, tachometer and the like, which are arranged as a combination meter system in front of a driver sitting on a driver's seat. In a conventional system, independent meters or gauges are merely concentrated in one portion and share only a power source and an earth. An electric power is supplied to a fuel sensor, a temperature sensor of a coolant, a voltage sensor of an alternator to thereby drive a fuel gauge, a temperature gauge, a voltage gauge, respectively. Driving speed of the vehicle is detected by converting a frequency of a signal output from a speed sensor mounted on an output shaft of a transmission to a corresponding voltage, and by supplying the converted voltage to a gauge as a speed meter through a voltage distribution circuit and an amplifier to drive the gauge. The Japanese Patent Laid-open Publication No. 53-120016 discloses a combination meter system described above. In such a prior art, there is merely shown a combination meter system in which respectively independent gauges are merely aggregated and share only the power source and the earth. In addition, the respective gauges are not provided with self-adjusting functions, resulting in inferior accuracy and lacking uniformity of qualities of products.
Toward a concept of homelessness among aged men. New York City homeless aged men living on the Bowery and in single-room occupancy hotels were contrasted using Bogue's model of skid row social formation. Because of their commonality of being unattached urban males, it had been assumed that they would exhibit similar characteristics and modes of adaptation. It is shown that homelessness is not a uniform category, nor can these men always be easily distinguished from the general populace. Only sociability criteria differentiated these men as a group from their nonhomeless age peers suggesting the appropriateness of an interactive conceptual framework for homelessness. Regression analysis revealed that three of Bogue's four criteria differentiated between Bowery and single-room occupancy men, with the socioeconomic being the most powerful data set. There were also important differences in the way each group handled their social world. The ability of these men to adapt to other environments is discussed.
Raw sewage, as received by sewage treatment plants, invariably includes a certain quantity of hard inorganic particles comprising sand, silt and similar type of materials which are generally termed grit. The sewage treatment plant includes various apparatus components and processes that are intended to operate on and treat the organic components, but their functioning and particularly the operating life of various apparatus components are adversely affected by the presence of the grit which is entrained in the fluids comprising raw sewage. Specifically, apparatus in a sewage treatment plant includes fluid pumps that are used to induce flow of the material through the different processes and these pumps are adversely affected by the existence of the hard inorganic grit particles which cause excessive and rapid wearing of their moving components. Consequently, a first procedural step in most sewage treatments plants must, of necessity, include a grit tank having the primary objective of removing at least the larger size grit particles from the sewage. It is essentially impossible to remove all inorganic materials, but the finer grains that cannot be readily or effectively removed within accepted operating economics have a lesser tendency to affect the treatment process or the operation of the mechanical apparatus such as the pumps. In general, particles that are of a size which will pass through a 65 to 70 mesh screen and have a size not greater than 0.2 mm do not present such a serious problem as to pump and machinery wear that they cannot be accepted for processing with the sewage. It is the function of a grit tank to initially receive the raw sewage and effect this seapration of the undesirably large size grit and enable its removal for separate disposal. This separation is accomplished by providing of a grit tank through which the sewage flows at a predetermined rate relative to the grit size and its quantity such that there will be an opportunity for grit of the unacceptably larger sizes to settle out and deposit on the bottom of the tank where it may be collected for removal. Grit tanks have a generally elongated shape with the sewage flowing in at one end and out at the opposite end. During the course of transport of the sewage through the grit tank, it is desired that a circulatory type of current in the form of a helical path be induced to increase the time period during which the sewage will be retained within the grit tank to better enable the grit to settle out onto the bottom of the tank. The settling of the grit is dependent upon time as it is a gravity type of action. Thus, the longer the period of time that sewage is retained in the grit tank, the greater the opportunity for the grit to settle out of the sewage flowing through the tank. Removal of grit by the simple expedient of effecting a separation by gravity is complicated by the practical fact that sewage is received on a continuing basis at different flow rates with the proportional concentration of sewage and grit also being a continually variable factor. During the course of any selected time period, such as a day, week or longer timeperiod, the raw sewage as it is received will have different proportions or percentages of grit to the other fluids and organic sewage components as well as have variations in the proportionate percentages of different grain sizes for the inorganic grit. Effective separation and collection of grit of greater than acceptable size thus depends in a substantial degree upon the velocity of the circulating currents generated within the grit tank as that is a primary factor determining whether the grit of the selected sizes will be retained for a sufficient time within the tank to permit its settling to the tank floor and subsequent collection. Consequently, it is important to be able to exercise control over the velocity of the circulating currents in order to accommodate the variation in grit size and the quantity of grit that is expected in the raw sewage received by the grit tank. Attempts have been made to provide such control in order to better enable the separation of the grit. An example of a grit tank designed to achieve the general objectives, is illustrated in U.S. Pat. No. 3,215,276 granted Nov. 2, 1965 to A. C. Lind et al and assigned to Rex Chain Belt, Inc. The grit tank in that patented structure is of an elongated configuration having a generally rectangular cross-section and includes a relatively large chamber disposed in parallel relationship to a relatively small chamber that is located adjacent one longitudinal wall. A helical flow path circulation of the fluid is effected by introducing streams of air into the sewage along a longitudinal line adjacent a bottom wall and within the region of the relatively smaller chamber with that air then functioning as an airlift to cause upward flow of the fluid in the small chamber and thence transversely across the larger chamber. The result is produced, and the sewage must necessarily move through a relatively long path substantially greater than the actual physical longitudinal length of the tank and the sewage is consequentially retained in the tank for a greater length of time. Additionally, the structure disclosed in this patent includes an air distribution system wherein the amout of air that is introduced throughout the longitudinal extent of the tank is of varying quantities with the quantity decreasing successively from a relatively greater amount at the inlet end of the tank to a lesser amount at the outlet end. The effect of this variation in the quantity of air discharged throughout the length of the tank is that the circulatory velocity of the sewage is successively or sequentially decreased as the fluid progresses longitudinally through the tank so that the smaller particles will have a greater tendency to settle at the lower circulatory velocities as they approach the outlet end of the tank. The longitudinal wall or baffle that divides the tank into two chambers is mounted in a manner such that its lower edge is at a fixed elevation with respect to the bottom of the tank and the upper end or longitudinal edge will be a distance below the upper surface of the fluid within the tank. In a grit tank of the type that is illustrated in U.S. Pat. No. 3,215,276, it is also essential that the circulatory current have a sufficient velocity as to move or displace grit that settles on the bottom of the tank to a collector trough or collection area from which it may be subsequently collected and transported to a discharge point. This circulatory current velocity must be of sufficient magnitude such that it will move grit particles that have settled onto the bottom floor of the tank and to also further aid in separation of any organic particles that may also settle out onto the tank floor along with the grit. The objective is to assure that the organic particles will be separated and again entrained in the fluid for continued transport through the tank and outwardly therefrom for further processing.
Compliance with guidelines for the medical care of first urinary tract infections in infants: a population-based study. No population-based studies have examined the degree to which practice parameters are followed for urinary tract infections in infants. To describe the medical care of children in their first year of life after a first urinary tract infection. Using Washington State Medicaid data, we conducted a retrospective cohort study of children with a urinary tract infection during their first year of life to determine how many of these children received recommended care based on the most recent guidelines from the American Academy of Pediatrics. Recommended care included timely anatomic imaging, timely imaging for reflux, and adequate antimicrobial prophylaxis. Multivariate logistic-regression models were used to evaluate if hospitalization for first urinary tract infection, young age at time of diagnosis, gender, race, primary language of parents, having a managed care plan, and rural location of household residence were associated with recommended care. Less than half of all children diagnosed with a urinary tract infection in their first year of life received the recommended medical care. Children who were hospitalized for their first urinary tract infection were significantly more likely than children who were not hospitalized to receive anatomic imaging (relative risk [RR]: 1.38; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.20-1.57) and imaging for reflux (RR: 1.62; 95% CI: 1.34-1.90). There is poor compliance with guideline-recommended care for first urinary tract infections in infants in a Medicaid population. Given the trend toward increased outpatient management of urinary tract infections, increased attention to outpatient imaging may be warranted.
Natural polymers for gene delivery and tissue engineering. Although the field of gene delivery is dominated by viral vectors and synthetic polymeric or lipid gene carriers, natural polymers offer distinct advantages and may help advance the field of non-viral gene therapy. Natural polymers, such as chitosan, have been successful in oral and nasal delivery due to their mucoadhesive properties. Collagen has broad utility as gene activated matrices, capable of delivering large quantities of DNA in a direct, localized manner. Most natural polymers contain reactive sites amenable for ligand conjugation, cross-linking, and other modifications that can render the polymer tailored for a range of clinical applications. Natural polymers also often possess good cytocompatibility, making them popular choices for tissue engineering scaffolding applications. The marriage of gene therapy and tissue engineering exploits the power of genetic cell engineering to provide the biochemical signals to influence proliferation or differentiation of cells. Natural polymers with their ability to serve as gene carriers and tissue engineering scaffolds are poised to play an important role in the field of regenerative medicine. This review highlights the past and present research on various applications of natural polymers as particulate and matrix delivery vehicles for gene delivery.
The present invention relates to an acceleration sensor for detecting an acceleration operating on a vehicle, and an acceleration detecting system using the acceleration sensor. An acceleration sensor is widely used with an occupant protection device such as an airbag and a seat-belt tensioner. Generally, the acceleration sensor is provided on a floor tunnel in a vehicle room together with a control unit, detects an acceleration operating on a vehicle through the floor tunnel, and gives an analog signal representative of the acceleration to the control unit. The control unit decides based on the acceleration signal from the acceleration sensor and a collision decision threshold value whether to drive the occupant protection device, and controls the occupant protection device according to the decision. By the way, when an impact of collision is absorbed by a crush of a collision part of the car body, it can be assumed that a collision acceleration transmitted to the floor tunnel is weakened. In such a case, an acceleration detected by the acceleration sensor provided on the floor tunnel is small. In particular, a collision, such as an offset collision or an oblique collision, tends to cause a case in which the acceleration transmitted to the floor tunnel is weakened. Because of this, from the viewpoint of providing the acceleration sensor near a collision part, providing the acceleration sensor at a front part of the vehicle can be considered. However, according to this, since the acceleration sensor must be provided near an engine of the vehicle, the acceleration sensor is placed under a state of directly receiving a great variation of temperature. Hence, a conventional acceleration sensor detecting an acceleration as an analog signal can not be provided. Therefore, an object of the present invention is to provide an acceleration sensor which can be provided near an engine of an automobile. Another object of the present invention is to provide an acceleration detecting system using the acceleration sensor. An acceleration sensor in claim 1 comprises: a piezo-electric element for detecting an acceleration; an amplifier circuit for inputting voltage outputs of both ends of said piezo-electric element, and for giving a differential amplification signal, which is obtained by differentially amplifying the voltage outputs of both ends of said piezo-electric element, as a sensor output; a bias resistor circuit provided at an input side of said amplifier circuit; a capacitor inserted in parallel with said piezo-electric element in order to lower a lower cut-off frequency without increasing resistance values of said bias resistor circuit; temperature compensation means for adjusting gain of said amplifier circuit so that an output-temperature characteristic of said piezo-electric element is compensated; and a reference voltage circuit for giving a reference potential to said amplifier circuit and said bias resistor circuit. According to a composition like this, the output fluctuations of the piezo-electric element due to variations in ambient temperature are compensated by the gain adjustment of the amplifier circuits by means of the temperature compensation means. Accordingly, even when the acceleration sensor is provided in a place with extreme ambient temperature variations such that it directly receives heat from a vehicle engine, the sensor output of the acceleration sensor does not fluctuate by variations in ambient temperature. Also, by inserting the capacitor in parallel with the piezo-electric element, the composite capacity is increased. By this, the lower cut-off frequency can be lowered without increasing resistance values of the bias resistor circuit. In the acceleration sensor of claim 2 having a connection with the composition of claim 1, a capacity of said capacitor is set so that resistors of said bias resistor circuit become values that can be used in a normal atmosphere and so that the lower cut-off frequency becomes a low value in which velocity variations can easily be detected. By this, the acceleration sensor can give a lower frequency component, and thereby the sensor output that facilitates a collision decision can be given. Also, it is not necessary to set resistors of the bias resistor circuit to such high resistance values that cannot be used in an ordinary atmosphere. Further, migration in the piezo-electric element, occurring by setting the resistors of the bias resistor circuit to high resistance values, can be prevented. In the acceleration sensor of claim 3 having a connection with the composition of claim 1, said amplifier circuit has a first non-inverting amplifier circuit for non-inversion amplifying one voltage of said piezo-electric element, a second non-inverting amplifier circuit for non-inversion amplifying the other voltage of said piezo-electric element, and a differential amplifier circuit for differentially amplifying outputs of said first and second non-inverting amplifier circuits; and said temperature compensation means is a single temperature compensation element for adjusting gains of said first and second non-inverting amplifier circuits. In the acceleration sensor of claim 4 having a connection with the composition of claim 3, said first non-inverting amplifier circuit has a first operational amplifier, one input terminal of the first operational amplifier being connected to one end of said piezo-electric element, and the other input terminal of the first operational amplifier being connected to an output terminal of the first operational amplifier through a first resistor; said second non-inverting amplifier circuit has a second operational amplifier, one input terminal of the second operational amplifier being connected to the other end of said piezo-electric element, and the other input terminal of the second operational amplifier being connected to an output terminal of the second operational amplifier through a second resistor; and said temperature compensation element is inserted between the other input terminal of the first operational amplifier and the other input terminal of the second operational amplifier, and decreases the gains of the first and second operational amplifiers when temperature rises and increases the gains when temperature drops. According to compositions like these, since the gains of the first and second non-inverting amplifier circuits are adjusted by the single temperature compensation element, decrement in the number of elements and simplification of circuit composition can be achieved. In the acceleration sensor of claim 5 having a connection with the composition of claim 4, said first and second resistors are set so that a drop in voltage outputs of said piezo-electric element due to the parallel insertion of said capacitor to said piezo-electric element can be supplemented by the gains of said first and second non-inverting amplifier circuits. By this, since the drop in the voltage outputs of said piezo-electric element is supplemented, it is possible to obtain a desired sensor output. In the acceleration sensor of claim 6 having a connection with the composition of claim 5, said differential amplifier circuit has an operational amplifier, one input terminal of the operational amplifier receiving the output of said second non-inverting amplifier circuit and the reference potential of said reference voltage circuit, and the other input terminal of the operational amplifier receiving the output of said first non-inverting amplifier circuit; and said reference voltage circuit has a reference voltage buffer amplifier for matching with output impedances of said first and second non-inverting amplifier circuits, and gives the reference potential to at least said differential amplifier circuit by way of the reference voltage buffer amplifier. By this, since a common mode rejection ratio of the differential amplifier circuit becomes large, an influence of offset voltage due to the gain increment of the first and second non-inverting amplifier circuits is suppressed by the differential amplifier circuit. In the acceleration sensor of claim 7 having a connection with the composition of claim 1, a sensor power supply line to which a constant voltage is supplied from outside is further included, an output terminal of said amplifier circuit is grounded through an output resistor, and the sensor output given from said amplifier circuit is output as current variations in said sensor power supply line. Because of this, it is not necessary to provide a signal line. Also, since it is not necessary to use a ground potential by car body grounding as a reference, noise prevention can be done more effectively. In the acceleration sensor of claim 8 having a connection with the composition of claim 1, a sensor power supply line to which a constant voltage is supplied from outside, a sensor output signal line for outputting the sensor output of said amplifier circuit, and a reference voltage signal line for outputting the reference potential of said reference voltage circuit are further included, and the sensor output given from said amplifier circuit is output as a voltage signal by means of said sensor output signal line and said reference voltage signal line. According to this, even when the voltage of the sensor power supply line fluctuates for some reason or other, since the sensor output of the amplifier circuit and the reference potential of the reference voltage circuit fluctuate together with the voltage of the sensor power supply line, the voltage fluctuation in the sensor power supply line can be cancelled. In the acceleration sensor of claim 9 having a connection with the composition of claim 1, said amplifier circuit, which has an integrating function, differentially amplifies and integrates the voltage outputs of both ends of said piezo-electric element, and gives an integrated differential amplification signal as the sensor output. In the acceleration sensor of claim 10 having a connection with the composition of claim 9, said amplifier circuit has a first non-inverting amplifier circuit for non-inversion amplifying one voltage of said piezo-electric element, a second non-inverting amplifier circuit for non-inversion amplifying the other voltage of said piezo-electric element, and a differential amplifier circuit for differentially amplifying outputs of said first and second non-inverting amplifier circuits, said first and second non-inverting amplifier circuits and/or said differential amplifier circuit having the integrating function. In the acceleration sensor of claim 11 having a connection with the composition of claim 10, said first non-inverting amplifier circuit has a first operational amplifier, one input terminal of the first operational amplifier being connected to one end of said piezo-electric element, and the other input terminal of the first operational amplifier being connected to an output terminal of the first operational amplifier through a parallel connection of a first resistor and a first capacitor; and said second non-inverting amplifier circuit has a second operational amplifier, one input terminal of the second operational amplifier being connected to the other end of said piezo-electric element, and the other input terminal of the second operational amplifier being connected to an output terminal of the second operational amplifier through a parallel connection of a second resistor and a second capacitor. In the acceleration sensor of claim 12 having a connection with the composition of claim 10, said differential amplifier circuit has a third operational amplifier, one input terminal of the third operational amplifier being connected to an output terminal of said second non-inverting amplifier circuit through a third resistor and being also connected to said reference voltage circuit through a parallel connection of a fourth resistor and a third capacitor, and the other input terminal of the third operational amplifier being connected to an output terminal of said first non-inverting amplifier circuit through a fifth resistor and being also connected to an output terminal of the third operational amplifier through a parallel connection of a sixth resistor and a fourth capacitor. According to compositions like these, since the integrated value of an acceleration is given as the sensor output, it is not necessary to execute an integration processing of the sensor output in a control unit receiving the sensor output. Because of this, a composition of the control unit can be simplified, and a processing speed of control can be risen. In the acceleration sensor of claim 13 having a connection with the composition of claim 1, the acceleration sensor further comprises: a circuit base board, an acceleration sensor circuit which has said piezo-electric element, said amplifier circuit, said bias resistor circuit, said capacitor, said temperature compensation means and said reference voltage circuit being mounted on said circuit base board; a metallic shielding case having a container shape with an opened upper face, said circuit base board being fixed to the upper face of said shielding case so that a face of said circuit base board having the acceleration sensor circuit becomes inside said shielding case; and a plastic housing having a container chamber which houses said shielding case, wherein said shielding case is formed so that a width of said shielding case in acceleration detecting directions is a little larger than a width of the container chamber of said housing, and side walls of said shielding case meeting at right angle to the acceleration detecting directions pressure-contact with an inside face of said container chamber. According to a composition like this, since the side walls of the shielding case meeting at right angle to the acceleration detecting directions are in the pressure-contact with the container chamber of the housing, an acceleration is directly transmitted from the housing to the shielding case. Because of this, dispersion in a sensor performance due to dispersion in a gap between the shielding case and the container camber can be prevented. In the acceleration sensor of claim 14 having a connection with the composition of claim 1, the acceleration sensor further comprises: a circuit base board, an acceleration sensor circuit which has said piezo-electric element, said amplifier circuit, said bias resistor circuit, said capacitor, said temperature compensation means and said reference voltage circuit being mounted on said circuit base board; and a plastic housing having a container chamber of which an inside face is covered with a metallic layer for shielding, wherein said circuit base board is fixed to an upper face of said container chamber so that a face of said circuit base board having the acceleration sensor circuit becomes inside said container chamber. According to this, since there is no need of using a metallic shielding case, it is possible to reduce the number of parts and weight of the acceleration sensor. An acceleration sensor in claim 15 comprises: a piezo-electric element for detecting an acceleration; an amplifier circuit for inputting voltage outputs of both ends of said piezo-electric element, for differentially amplifying and integrating the voltage outputs of both ends, and for outputting an integrated differential amplification signal; a bias resistor circuit provided at an input side of said amplifier circuit; a capacitor inserted in parallel with said piezo-electric element in order to lower a lower cut-off frequency without increasing resistance values of said bias resistor circuit; temperature compensation means for adjusting gain of said amplifier circuit so that an output-temperature characteristic of said piezo-electric element is compensated; a reference voltage circuit for giving a reference potential to said amplifier circuit and said bias resistor circuit; and at least one comparison circuit for inputting the integrated differential amplification signal of said amplifier circuit, for giving a comparison output based on the integrated differential amplification signal and a prescribed threshold value, and for giving the comparison output as a sensor output. According to a composition like this, similarly to the acceleration sensor of claim 1, even when the acceleration sensor is provided in a place with extreme ambient temperature variations such that it directly receives heat from a vehicle engine, the sensor output of the acceleration sensor does not fluctuate by variations in ambient temperature. Also, the lower cut-off frequency can be lowered without increasing resistance values of the bias resistor circuit. Furthermore, according to the acceleration sensor in claim 15, since a collision signal is directly given by the comparison output, a composition of the control unit receiving the sensor output can be further simplified. In the acceleration sensor of claim 16 having a connection with the composition of claim 15, a capacity of said capacitor is set so that resistors of said bias resistor circuit become values that can be used in a normal atmosphere and so that the lower cut-off frequency becomes a low value in which velocity variations can easily be detected. By this, the acceleration sensor can give a lower frequency component, and thereby the sensor output that facilitates a collision decision can be given. Also, it is not necessary to set resistors of the bias resistor circuit to such high resistance values that cannot be used in an ordinary atmosphere. Further, migration in the piezo-electric element, occurring by setting the resistors of the bias resistor circuit to high resistance values, can be prevented. In the acceleration sensor of claim 17 having a connection with the composition of claim 15, said amplifier circuit has a first non-inverting amplifier circuit for non-inversion amplifying one voltage of said piezo-electric element, a second non-inverting amplifier circuit for non-inversion amplifying the other voltage of said piezo-electric element, and a differential amplifier circuit for differentially amplifying outputs of said first and second non-inverting amplifier circuits, said first and second non-inverting amplifier circuits and/or said differential amplifier circuit having the integrating function; and said temperature compensation means is a single temperature compensation element for adjusting gains of said first and second non-inverting amplifier circuits. According to these, since the gains of the first and second non-inverting amplifier circuits are adjusted by the single temperature compensation element, decrement in the number of elements and simplification of circuit composition can be achieved. In the acceleration sensor of claim 18 having a connection with the composition of claim 17, the gains of said first and second non-inverting amplifier circuits are set so that a drop in voltage outputs of said piezo-electric element due to the parallel insertion of said capacitor to said piezo-electric element can be supplemented by the gains of said first and second non-inverting amplifier circuits. By this, since the drop in the voltage outputs of said piezo-electric element is supplemented, it is possible to obtain a desired sensor output. In the acceleration sensor of claim 19 having a connection with the composition of claim 18, said reference voltage circuit has a reference voltage buffer amplifier for matching with output impedances of said first and second non-inverting amplifier circuits, and gives the reference potential to at least said differential amplifier circuit by way of the reference voltage buffer amplifier. By this, since a common mode rejection ratio of the differential amplifier circuit becomes large, an influence of offset voltage due to the gain increment of the first and second non-inverting amplifier circuits is suppressed by the differential amplifier circuit. In the acceleration sensor of claim 20 having a connection with the composition of claim 15, said comparison circuit includes: a comparator for inputting the integrated differential amplification signal of said amplifier circuit and a constant voltage giving the threshold value, for giving a first level signal when the integrated differential amplification signal is below the threshold value, and for giving a second level signal when the integrated differential amplification signal exceeds the threshold value; and a chattering prevention circuit for providing the second level signal as feedback to an input side of said comparator receiving the integrated differential amplification signal when the integrated differential amplification signal exceeds the threshold value. According to this, since chattering of the comparator can be prevented without varying a reference voltage of a comparator, a circuit composition becomes simple. In the acceleration sensor of claim 21 having a connection with the composition of claim 20, a first comparison circuit with a first threshold value and a second comparison circuit with a second threshold value different from the first threshold value are included as said comparison circuit, and a first and second comparison outputs are given as the sensor output based on comparison between the integrated differential amplification signal and the first and second threshold values. According to this, since a time interval between the first comparison output and the second comparison output becomes small under a high-speed collision and becomes large under a low-speed collision, it is possible to give the sensor output including information representative of an extent of collision. Because of this, it is possible to control an occupant protection device such as an airbag more exactly. In the acceleration sensor of claim 22 having a connection with the composition of claim 20, a sensor power supply line to which a constant voltage is supplied from outside is further included, said comparison circuit includes a switching element inserted between said sensor power supply line and the ground, and said comparison output is output as current variations in said sensor power supply line by turning On/Off said switching element with said first and second level signals. Because of this, it is not necessary to provide a signal line. Also, since it is not necessary to use a ground potential by car body grounding as a reference, noise prevention can be done more effectively. In the acceleration sensor of claim 23 having a connection with the composition of claim 15, the acceleration sensor further comprises: a circuit base board, an acceleration sensor circuit which has said piezo-electric element, said amplifier circuit, said bias resistor circuit, said capacitor, said temperature compensation means, said reference voltage circuit and said comparison circuit being mounted on said circuit base board; a metallic shielding case having a container shape with an opened upper face, said circuit base board being fixed to the upper face of said shielding case so that a face of said circuit base board having the acceleration sensor circuit becomes inside said shielding case; and a plastic housing having a container chamber which houses said shielding case, wherein said shielding case is formed so that a width of said shielding case in acceleration detecting directions is a little larger than a width of the container chamber of said housing, and side walls of said shielding case meeting at right angle to the acceleration detecting directions pressure-contact with an inside face of said container chamber. According to a composition like this, since the side walls of the shielding case meeting at right angle to the acceleration detecting directions are in the pressure-contact with the container chamber of the housing, an acceleration is directly transmitted from the housing to the shielding case. Because of this, dispersion in a sensor performance due to dispersion in a gap between the shielding case and the container camber can be prevented. In the acceleration sensor of claim 24 having a connection with the composition of claim 15, the acceleration sensor further comprises: a circuit base board, an acceleration sensor circuit which has said piezo-electric element, said amplifier circuit, said bias resistor circuit, said capacitor, said temperature compensation means, said reference voltage circuit and said comparison circuit being mounted on said circuit base board; and a plastic housing having a container chamber of which an inside face is covered with a metallic layer for shielding, wherein said circuit base board is fixed to an upper face of said container chamber so that a face of said circuit base board having the acceleration sensor circuit becomes inside said container chamber. According to this, since there is no need of using a metallic shielding case, it is possible to reduce the number of parts and weight of the acceleration sensor. In the acceleration sensor of claim 25 having a connection with the composition of claim 13 or 14 or 23 or 24, a metallic layer for shielding is formed on a face opposite to the face of said circuit base board having the acceleration sensor circuit. According to this, electromagnetic interference can be prevented more effectively. An acceleration detecting system in claim 26 comprises: an acceleration sensor provided in a front part of a vehicle, said acceleration sensor having a piezo-electric element for detecting an acceleration, an amplifier circuit for inputting voltage outputs of both ends of said piezo-electric element, and for giving a differential amplification signal, which is obtained by differentially amplifying the voltage outputs of both ends of said piezo-electric element, as a sensor output, bias resistor circuit provided at an input side of said amplifier circuit, a capacitor inserted in parallel with said piezo-electric element in order to lower a lower cut-off frequency without increasing resistance values of said bias resistor circuit, temperature compensation means for adjusting gain of said amplifier circuit so that an output-temperature characteristic of said piezo-electric element is compensated, reference voltage circuit for giving a reference potential to said amplifier circuit and said bias resistor circuit, and a sensor power supply line to which a constant voltage is supplied from outside, said acceleration sensor outputting the sensor output given from said amplifier circuit as current variations in said sensor power supply line; a transmission cable of which one end is connected to said sensor power supply line; and a receiving circuit, being provided in a room of the vehicle, being connected to the other end of said transmission cable, and having a unit power supply line which supplies the constant voltage to said sensor power supply line, said receiving circuit receiving the sensor output of said acceleration sensor by detecting current variations in said unit power supply line. According to a composition like this, the acceleration sensor is provided in the front part of the vehicle, and the sensor output of the acceleration sensor is received by the receiving circuit provided in the vehicle room. Since the acceleration sensor is provided in the vehicle front, even when a collision acceleration transmitted to a floor tunnel in the vehicle room is weakened, it is possible to detect the collision acceleration quickly. Also, since the sensor output of the acceleration sensor is given as the current variations in the power supply line to the receiving circuit, there is no need of providing a signal line, and thereby simplification of a composition can be achieved. Furthermore, since it is not necessary to use a ground potential by car body grounding as a reference, noise prevention can be done more effectively. In the acceleration detecting system of claim 27 having a connection with the composition of claim 26, said amplifier circuit of said acceleration sensor, which has an integrating function, differentially amplifies and integrates the voltage outputs of both ends of said piezo-electric element, and gives an integrated differential amplification signal as the sensor output. According to a composition like this, since an integrated value of an acceleration is given as the sensor output, it is not necessary to execute an integration processing of the sensor output in a control unit receiving the sensor output. Because of this, a composition of the control unit can be simplified, and a processing speed can be risen. An acceleration detecting system in claim 28 comprises: an acceleration sensor provided in a front part of a vehicle, said acceleration sensor having a piezo-electric element for detecting an acceleration, an amplifier circuit for inputting voltage outputs of both ends of said piezo-electric element, for differentially amplifying and integrating the voltage outputs of both ends, and for outputting an integrated differential amplification signal, a bias resistor circuit provided at an input side of said amplifier circuit, a capacitor inserted in parallel with said piezo-electric element in order to lower a lower cut-off frequency without increasing resistance values of said bias resistor circuit, temperature compensation means for adjusting gain of said amplifier circuit so that an output-temperature characteristic of said piezo-electric element is compensated, a reference voltage circuit for giving a reference potential to said amplifier circuit and said bias resistor circuit, at least one comparison circuit for inputting the integrated differential amplification signal of said amplifier circuit, for giving a comparison output based on the integrated differential amplification signal and a prescribed threshold value, and for giving the comparison output as a sensor output, and a sensor power supply line to which a constant voltage is supplied from outside, said acceleration sensor outputting the sensor output given from said comparison circuit as current variations in said sensor power supply line; a transmission cable of which one end is connected to said sensor power supply line; and a receiving circuit, being provided in a room of the vehicle, being connected to the other end of said transmission cable, and having a unit power supply line which supplies the constant voltage to said sensor power supply line, said receiving circuit receiving the sensor output of said acceleration sensor by detecting current variations in said unit power supply line. According to a composition like this, similarly to the acceleration detecting system of claim 26, even when the collision acceleration transmitted to the floor tunnel in the vehicle room is weakened, it is possible to detect the collision acceleration quickly. Also, there is no need of providing a signal line, and it is not necessary to use a ground potential by car body grounding as a reference. Furthermore, according to the acceleration detecting system of claim 28, since a collision signal is directly given by the comparison output, a composition of the control unit in which the receiving circuit is provided can be further simplified. In the acceleration detecting system of claim 29 having a connection with the composition of claim 26 or 27 or 28, said receiving circuit has: a current mirror circuit, inserted between said unit power supply line and said transmission cable, for giving a current output according to the current variations due to the sensor output of said acceleration sensor; and a detection resistor, inserted between an output side of said current mirror circuit and the ground, for outputting a voltage signal according to the current output of said current mirror circuit. In the acceleration detecting system of claim 30 having a connection with the composition of claim 26 or 27 or 28, said receiving circuit has: a transistor, at its base being connected through a first resistor to said unit power supply line and being also connected to said transmission cable, and at its emitter being connected through a second resistor to said unit power supply line, said transistor giving a collector current according to the current variations due to the sensor output of said acceleration sensor; and a detection resistor, inserted between a collector of said transistor and the ground, for outputting a voltage signal according to the collector current of said transistor. In the acceleration detecting system of claim 31 having a connection with the composition of claim 26 or 27 or 28, said receiving circuit has: a resistor, at its one end being connected to said transmission cable, and at its the other end being connected to said unit power supply line; a constant-current circuit, when a current flowing through said resistor varies by the sensor output of said acceleration sensor, for giving a current output according to variations of the current flowing through said resistor; and a detection resistor, inserted between an output side of said constant-current circuit and the ground, for outputting a voltage signal according to the current output of said constant-current circuit. An acceleration detecting system in claim 32 comprises: an acceleration sensor provided in a front part of a vehicle, said acceleration sensor having a piezo-electric element for detecting an acceleration, an amplifier circuit for inputting voltage outputs of both ends of said piezo-electric element, and for giving a differential amplification signal, which is obtained by differentially amplifying the voltage outputs of both ends of said piezo-electric element, as a sensor output, a bias resistor circuit provided at an input side of said amplifier circuit, a capacitor inserted in parallel with said piezo-electric element in order to lower a lower cut-off frequency without increasing resistance values of said bias resistor circuit, temperature compensation means for adjusting gain of said amplifier circuit so that an output-temperature characteristic of said piezo-electric element is compensated, a reference voltage circuit for giving a reference potential to said amplifier circuit and said bias resistor circuit, a sensor power supply line to which a constant voltage is supplied from outside, a sensor output signal line for outputting the sensor output of said amplifier circuit, and a reference voltage signal line for outputting the reference potential of said reference voltage circuit; a transmission cable of which one end is connected to said sensor power supply line, said sensor output signal line and said reference voltage signal line; and a receiving circuit, being provided in a room of the vehicle, being connected to the other end of said transmission cable, and having a unit power supply line which supplies the constant voltage to said sensor power supply line, said receiving circuit receiving the sensor output of said acceleration sensor by differentially amplifying the sensor output of said acceleration sensor and the reference potential. According to a composition like this, similarly to the acceleration detecting system of claim 26, even when the collision acceleration transmitted to the floor tunnel in the vehicle room is weakened, it is possible to detect the collision acceleration quickly. Furthermore, according to the acceleration detecting system of claim 32, even when the voltage of the sensor power supply line fluctuates for some reason or other, since the sensor output of the amplifier circuit and the reference potential of the reference voltage circuit fluctuate together with the voltage of the sensor power supply line, the voltage fluctuation in the sensor power supply line is cancelled by the differential amplification of the receiving circuit.
[Comparison of friction force between Lock-loose bracket and traditional bracket]. Frictions of Lock-loose brackets with ligated main wings or all six wings were measured as they slid along archwires in dry and artificial saliva environments. The Lock-loose brackets were then compared with traditional brackets and self-ligating brackets. The surface states of the stainless steel archwires were observed with atomic force microscopy before and after mechanical traction. The Lock-loose brackets, traditional brackets, and self-ligating brackets used in this study were composed of 0.406 4 and 0.457 2 mm stainless steel round archwires and 0.457 2 mm x 0.634 9 mm and 0.482 6 mm x 0.634 9 mm stainless steel rectangular archwires. Two different ligating methods were applied to the Lock-loose brackets, i.e., main wings ligated and all six wings ligated. Frictions were measured by using an electronic universal testing machine. No significant differences were found between the roughness of different archwires before and after mechanical traction in different brackets (P > 0.05). When the main wings of the Lock-loose brackets were ligated, the frictions of the four different stainless steel archwires were close to zero, and the difference with frictions of traditional brackets was significant (P < 0.05). When using 0.457 2 mm x 0.634 9 mm rectangular archwires, maximum friction (P < 0.05; significantly different from those of other brackets) was reached when all six wings of the Lock-loose brackets were ligated. Frictions in the dry state were higher than those in the wet state (P < 0.05). The Lock-loose brackets can adjust the friction efficiently with different ligating methods, thus solving the problem of low friction and strengthening anchorage.
The present invention relates to an adaptive cruise control (ACC) system for an automotive vehicle, and more particularly to an ACC system which controls a driving force and/or braking force of the vehicle so as to bring an inter-vehicle distance between a preceding vehicle and a host vehicle closer to a target inter-vehicle distance. A typical ACC system is arranged to detect an inter-vehicle distance and to control a vehicle speed or driving/braking force so as to bring the inter vehicle distance closer to a target value. Such an ACC system employs one of an A-type method of employing a vehicle-speed sensor and generating a vehicle speed command and a B-type method of directly calculating the driving force command. The A-type method can provide an inter-vehicle distance control system where the affect of disturbance is eliminated by a robust design of a vehicle speed control system. However, this A-type method is required to further improve a control accuracy under an extremely low speed region. On the other hand, the B-type method can accurately perform the control under the low speed region, but it is required to simultaneously satisfy riding comfort and robustness against disturbances. The inventors of the present invention have proposed an ACC system which employs both of the A-type method adapted under a high-speed region and the B-type method adapted under a low-speed region. However, this ACC system is further required to improve the responsibility of the ACC under a low-speed region against the increase of load to the system. It is therefore an object of the present invention to provide an improved adaptive cruise control system which enables a controlled vehicle (host vehicle) to accurately execute a following control in the whole vehicle speed region including an extremely low speed region without adding an inter-vehicle distance control system for a low vehicle speed region. An adaptive cruise control (ACC) system according to the present invention is installed to a host vehicle and comprises a vehicle speed detector detecting a vehicle speed of the host vehicle, a distance detector detecting an inter-vehicle distance between a preceding vehicle and the host vehicle, a driving/braking force generator generating driving/braking force according to a signal indicative of a target driving torque, and a controller connected to the vehicle speed detector, the distance detector and the driving/braking force generator. The controller calculates a target inter-vehicle distance between the preceding vehicle and the host vehicle, calculates a target vehicle speed and a first target driving torque based on the inter-vehicle distance and the target inter-vehicle distance, calculates a second target driving torque based on the host vehicle speed and the target vehicle speed, generates a torque select signal based on the host vehicle speed, selects one of the first and second target driving torques as the target driving torque based on the torque select signal, matches the selected target driving torque with a previous target driving torque when the target driving torque is changed, and outputs the control signal indicative of the target driving torque to said driving/braking force generator.
Medication use in the treatment of migraine during pregnancy and lactation. Migraine is very common in women of reproductive age. With peak prevalence of migraine occurring during childbearing years, many women with migraine may knowingly or unknowingly use medication during pregnancy. Although migraine tends to improve during pregnancy, many women may still experience moderate to severe disabling headache and need pharmacologic treatment for the pain, nausea, and vomiting. This article explores the physiologic changes occurring during pregnancy that can affect pharmacokinetic properties of drugs and their metabolism. Acute and preventive treatment of migraine during pregnancy and lactation is discussed, with an emphasis on safety to the fetus and nursing infant. Safety and recommended use of medication during pregnancy may be different when use is considered during breastfeeding. A goal of treatment is to balance potential risk of treatment to the fetus and nursing infant with significant relief and return to normal function of the mother.
Ventilatory compensation for continuous inspiratory resistive and elastic loads during halothane anesthesia in humans. Inspiratory mechanical loads were applied to the airway continuously for 5 min in healthy young adult volunteers maintained in a near steady-state of halothane anesthesia 1.1 MAC. The loads, both flow resistive and elastic in nature, had been selected to reduce the first loaded tidal volume approximately 10, 30 or 50%--these being designated "small," "medium," and "large" loads, respectively. The actual magnitudes of resistive load were 8 +/- 1, 21 +/- 3, and 48 +/- 6 cmH2O X l-1 X s, and of elastic load 6 +/- 1, 18 +/- 1, and 41 +/- 5 cmH2O X l-1 (mean +/- SEM). All loads caused an immediate reduction of ventilation proportional to the size of the load. This was followed by a gradual recovery of ventilation toward control values over approximately 2 min and then nearly stable ventilation for the rest of the loading period. Respiratory frequency was unchanged throughout. At 5 min of loading, ventilation and PaCO2 had been nearly steady for 3 min and O2 uptake and CO2 output at the airway were unchanged from control, suggesting the establishment of a near steady respiratory state. With the small and medium loads of both types, ventilation and PaCO2 in this near steady-state were not detectably different from control. With the large loads, however, ventilation was significantly reduced and PaCO2 slightly increased. The end-expiratory position of the chest wall and the relative contributions of the rib cage and abdomen-diaphragm to ventilation, as estimated by anteroposterior chest wall magnetometers, were not consistently altered by any load.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)
Adoption of healthy lifestyles among Chinese cancer survivors during the first five years after completion of treatment. Objectives: The number of cancer survivors is increasing as a result of advances in detection and treatment. Lifestyle is a significant modifiable factor in the development of cancer. Most studies on healthy lifestyles have been conducted in Western countries. Cultural influences on the pursuit of healthy lifestyles among Chinese cancer survivors remain largely unexplored. The objectives of this qualitative study are to explore the experiences of Chinese cancer survivors in adopting healthy lifestyles, with a focus on their goals, the challenges they face, and the influences of Chinese culture. Design: Thirty-two Chinese breast and colorectal cancer survivors in their first five years after treatment were recruited from a hospital in Hong Kong to participate in eight focus groups. Qualitative content analysis was adopted to analyse the data. Results: The adoption of a healthy lifestyle was a strategy through which the participants exercised choice to restore balance in their health after developing cancer. Diet, exercise, psychological well-being, the use of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) and health/dietary supplements, and attending medical consultations/follow-up visits were the behaviours adopted by the participants, with the goal of improving their health, controlling their cancer and preventing relapse, and managing the residual physical symptoms of their illness. In adopting a healthy lifestyle, the participants encountered challenges such as a lack of reliable and practical instructions from healthcare professionals. Chinese cultural beliefs concerning the nature of food, TCM, minimizing social disturbances, and collaborative control influenced their lifestyle. Conclusions: The cancer survivors adopted a range of healthy lifestyles but encountered challenges. Clarifying the principles of food choice while addressing Chinese beliefs regarding therapeutic food and the use of TCM, clarifying queries about conflicting information, and developing plans according to the needs, and competing demands of survivors can facilitate collaborative control between healthcare professionals and cancer survivors.
Effects of dietary lead and zinc on fetal organ growth. In order to further understand the effects of ingested lead (Pb) on the fetus and the possible interaction of the trace element zinc (Zn) with Pb, groups of rats with dated pregnancies were fed 0, 10, 50, 100, 200 or 500 mg/L of Pb in water throughout pregnancy. Diet was provided ad libitum. A group pair fed with the 200 mg/L of Pb group and a group fed both Zn and Pb, 200 mg/L, were also studied. Placental weight remained constant, but cell division and total protein level were decreased while cell size increased markedly. Fetal carcass and liver weight, cell division, and protein were decrease while cell growth was unchanged. Brain weight decreased while cell division, growth, and protein were unchanged. Kidney weight, cell division and protein level were unchanged but cell growth was decreased. Organ dry weight varied with wet weight while the percentage of water was unchanged. Whether pair feeding and Zn supplements improve carcass and liver weight is questionabel.
Mass spectrometric analysis of a sample requires that the sample be provided in the form of a gas or molecular vapor and then ionized. Ionization may be performed in the mass analyzing portion of a mass spectrometer, i.e., in the same low-pressure region where mass sorting is carried out. Alternatively, ionization may be performed in an ion source (or ionization device) that is external to the low-pressure regions of the mass spectrometer. The resulting sample ions are then transmitted from the external ion source into the low-pressure mass analyzer of the mass spectrometer for further processing. The sample may, for example, be the output of a gas chromatographic (GC) column, or may originate from another source in which the sample is not initially gaseous and instead must be vaporized by appropriate heating means. The ion source may be configured to effect ionization by one or more techniques. One class of ion sources is gas-phase ion sources, which include electron impact or electron ionization (EI) sources and chemical ionization (CI) sources. In EI, a beam of energetic electrons is formed by emission from a suitable filament and accelerated by a voltage potential (typically 70 V) into the ion source to bombard the sample molecules. In CI, a reagent gas such as methane is admitted into the ion source conventionally at a high pressure (e.g., 1-5 Torr) and ionized by a beam of energetic electrons. The sample is then ionized by collisions between the resulting reagent ions and the sample. The resulting sample ions may then be removed from the ion source in the flow of the reagent gas and focused by one or more ion lenses into the mass analyzer. The mass spectrometer may be configured to carry out EI and CI interchangeably, i.e., switched between EI and CI modes according to the needs of the user. High-pressure CI ion sources have been employed in conjunction with three-dimensional (3D) quadrupole ion trap mass spectrometers, and would also be applicable to two-dimensional (2D, or “linear”) ion trap mass spectrometers (linear ion traps, or LITs). With either 3D ion traps or LITs, the sample is often introduced into the external ion source at an elevated temperature, such as when the sample is the output of a GC column. When the sample is provided at an elevated temperature, it is necessary to heat the ion source to prevent the sample from condensing in the ion source. However, because the ion source in this case is external to the ion trap and the ion trap itself is not utilized for ionization, it is not necessary to also heat the ion trap in this case, which is an advantage of external ion sources. Yet conventional external CI ion sources operate at high pressure as noted above, which is a disadvantage. High pressure CI requires the use of compressed gas cylinders to supply the reagent gas, as well as vacuum pumping stages between the ion source and the very low pressure ion trap. High pressure CI may increase contamination of the ion source, particularly in the area around the filament utilized to emit electrons where the high temperature causes pyrolysis of the reagent gas and contamination. High pressure also limits the choice of reagent gases able to be utilized and thus also limits the choice of chemical properties and reaction pathways available for CI. High pressure also limits the CI yield. Because ions are not trapped in a high-pressure ion source, the time in which the sample can interact and react with the reagent ions is limited by the volume of the ion source and the total gas flow rate. The gas flow rate in a high-pressure ion source is high, and thus the residence time of sample molecules in the ionization region where the reagent ions reside is low. As an alternative to external ion sources, a 3D ion trap itself may be utilized to effect CI. In this case, the reagent ions are formed directly in the interior region defined by the electrodes of the 3D ion trap and the sample is subsequently introduced into the same interior region. In this case, the sample is ionized in this interior region and the resulting sample ions are subsequently scanned from the same interior region to produce a mass spectrum. Internal ionization is advantageous because it is performed at the low operating pressure of the ion trap. However internal ionization is disadvantageous because, unlike external ionization, it is necessary to heat the entire electrode assembly of the ion trap to prevent the sample from the GC from condensing on the electrodes. Operating the mass analyzer at elevated temperatures is disadvantageous in that it requires heating equipment and may produce inaccurate spectral data due to sample adsorption on the large surface area of the electrodes. Moreover, the electrode assembly must be fabricated by special techniques designed to enable the electrode assembly to reliably withstand repeated high-temperature operation. In view of the foregoing, there is a need for providing apparatus and methods for implementing low-pressure EI and CI in which the sample is ionized in an ion processing device that is external to an ion trap utilized for mass analysis.
Potentiation by ouabain of catecholamine secretion from bovine adrenal chromaffin cells in culture induced by pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide: evidence for involvements of Na+ and Ca2+ movements. The effect of pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP) on catecholamine secretion with ouabain, an inhibitor of Na(+)-K+ ATPase, in cultured bovine adrenal chromaffin cells was examined, to determine whether movement of Na+, as well as Ca2+, is involved in the secretory process. PACAP (10(-10)-10(-6)M)-induced catecholamine secretion was markedly potentiated by addition of ouabain (10(-5)M). When cultured cells were preincubated with PACAP for 30 min in Ca(2+)-free medium in the presence of ouabain and then stimulated for 15 min with Ca(2+)-containing medium without PACAP or ouabain, their catecholamine secretion was dependent on the external Ca2+ concentration, and 45Ca2+ influx into the cells was increased. When the cells had been preincubated with PACAP and ouabain in Na(+)-free sucrose medium, their Ca(2+)-induced catecholamine secretion was greatly reduced. PACAP increased 22Na+ influx into cells treated with ouabain. These results suggest that stimulation by PACAP and inhibition of the Na(+)-pump both increase the intracellular Na+ level, resulting in increase in Ca2+ influx and catecholamine secretion.
Embodiments of the invention are directed, in general, to communication systems and, more specifically, to sensor assisted GNSS receivers. Any satellite-based navigation system suffers significant performance degradation when satellite signal is blocked, attenuated and/or reflected (multipath), for example, indoor and in urban canyons. As MEMS technologies advance, it becomes more interested to integrate sensor-based inertial navigation system (INS) solutions into global navigation satellite system (GNSS) receivers, in pedestrian applications as well as in vehicle applications. As GNSS receivers become more common, users continue to expect improved performance in increasingly difficult scenarios. GNSS receivers may process signals from one or more satellites from one or more different satellite systems. Currently existing satellite systems include global positioning system (GPS), and the Russian global navigation satellite system (Russian: OHACC, abbreviation of OaHaHABaOHHaCyTHKOBaCCTeMa; tr.: GLObal'naya NAvigatsionnaya Sputnikovaya Sistema; “GLObal NAvigation Satellite System” (GLONASS). Systems expected to become operational in the near future include Galileo, quasi-zenith satellite system (QZSS), and the Chinese system Beidou. For many years, inertial navigation systems have been used in high-cost applications such as airplanes to aid GNSS receivers in difficult environments. One example that uses inertial sensors to allow improved carrier-phase tracking may be found in A. Soloviev, S. Gunawardena, and F. van Graas, “Deeply integrated GPS/Low-cost IMU for low CNR signal processing: concept description and in-flight demonstration,” Journal of the Institute of Navigation, vol. 55, No. 1, Spring 2008; incorporated herein by reference. The recent trend is to try to integrate a GNSS receiver with low-cost inertial sensors to improve performance when many or all satellite signals are severely attenuated or otherwise unavailable. The high-cost and low-cost applications for these inertial sensors are very different because of the quality and kinds of sensors that are available. The problem is to find ways that inexpensive or low-cost sensors can provide useful information to the GNSS receiver. Low-cost sensors may not be able to provide full navigation data. Or they may only work in some scenarios. In the past, most integration techniques for GNSS receivers and sensors assumed the sensors constituted a complete stand-alone navigation system or that its expensive components allow it to give precise measurements. Low-cost sensors cannot always allow for these assumptions. In addition, traditionally the INS is assumed to be fully calibrated, which is not always possible. What is needed is low-complexity GNSS/IMU integration apparatus and methods to improve GNSS performance in harsh environments such as indoors, parking garages, deep urban canyons, and the like.
1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to high-frequency complex components and mobile communication devices including the same, and more particularly, the present invention relates to a high-frequency complex component obtained by connecting a receiving-side LC parallel resonant-type filter to a surface acoustic wave filter in a cascade arranged and to a mobile communication device including the same. 2. Description of the Related Art In Japan, a PDC (Personal Digital Cellular) method operating in the 800 MHz band or the 1.5 GHz band is presently adopted in mobile communication devices and corresponding frequency bands are reserved for mobile transmission and station transmission. That is, the transmission band and the reception band of mobile devices are reserved, so that simultaneous transmission and reception are performed using one channel for the transmission band and one channel for the reception band. The interval between the operating channel for transmission and the operating channel for reception is controlled so as to be always constant. At this time, most duplexers, which are used for sharing one antenna for transmission and reception, often have a construction, in which a dielectric filter is used, as proposed in Japanese Unexamined Patent Application Publication No. 9-83214. FIG. 8 shows a block diagram of a conventional duplexer disclosed in Japanese Unexamined Patent Application Publication No. 9-83214. A duplexer 50 includes a branch circuit 51, a receiving-side dielectric filter 52 having a dielectric coaxial resonator, a surface acoustic wave filter 53, and a transmitting-side dielectric filter 54 having a dielectric coaxial resonator. The branch circuit 51, the receiving-side dielectric filter 52, and the surface acoustic wave filter 53 are connected between a first terminal 501 and a second terminal 502. The branch circuit 51 and the transmitting-side dielectric filter 54 are connected between the first terminal 501 and a third terminal 503. In such a construction, an antenna ANT is connected to the first terminal 501, the second terminal 502 is connected to a reception circuit Rx, and the third terminal 503 is connected to a transmission circuit Tx. However, according to the conventional duplexer, use of a dielectric filter causes the duplexer to become large and adjustment of the central frequency becomes difficult. As a result, an increase in the size of a mobile communication device and deterioration of the characteristics thereof become problems. This is because the length of the dielectric filter is equal to xcex/4, where xcex is the wavelength of a reception signal or the wavelength of a transmission signal. For example, the length of the filter is 5 cm in the 1.5 GHz band and it is as long as 9.375 cm in the 800 MHz. Although the dielectric element constituting the dielectric filter must be chiseled in order to adjust the central frequency of the dielectric filter, it is very difficult to apply fine adjustment to the dielectric. In order to overcome the problems described above, preferred embodiments of the present invention provide a duplexer which is easy to miniaturize and in which the central frequency is easily adjusted, and also provide a mobile communication device including such a novel duplexer. According to a first preferred embodiment of the present invention, a duplexer preferably includes a branch circuit connected to an antenna and arranged to branch to a receiving side and a transmitting side, a receiving-side LC parallel resonant-type filter connected to the receiving-side of the branch circuit and arranged to cause a reception signal to be passed and a transmission signal to be attenuated, a surface acoustic wave filter connected to the receiving-side LC parallel resonant-type filter defining a subsequent stage of the receiving-side LC parallel resonant type filter and arranged to cause the reception signal to be passed and the area of the high-frequency side of the reception signal to be attenuated, and a transmitting-side LC parallel resonant-type filter connected to the transmitting-side of the branch circuit and arranged to cause the transmission signal to be passed and the reception signal to be attenuated. Use of an LC parallel resonant-type filter enables the duplexer to be easily adapted to the frequency of the reception signal or the frequency of the transmission signal by changing the values of the inductors and the capacitors without changing the sizes or the appearances of the inductors and the capacitors that constitute the LC parallel resonant-type filter. Therefore, miniaturization of the duplexer is facilitated along with the adjustment of the central frequency. The branch circuit may include a balun element. Since a branch circuit preferably includes a balun element, both of a terminal connected to a transmission circuit observed from a terminal connected to a reception circuit and the terminal connected to the reception circuit observed from the terminal connected to the transmission circuit are open in terms of a high frequency. Therefore, since complete isolation is obtained between these terminals, the reception signal is prevented from interfering with the transmission signal side, and vice versa. Consequently, the reliability of the duplexer is improved. A duplexer may further include a multi-layer substrate defined by a laminated body having a plurality of dielectric layers. In the duplexer, the branch circuit, the receiving side LC parallel resonant-type filter, and the transmitting side LC parallel resonant-type filter may be integrated in the multi-layer substrate and the surface acoustic wave filter may be mounted on the multi-layer substrate. A multi-layer substrate is preferably formed by laminating a plurality of dielectric layers, the multi-layer substrate which the branch circuit, a receiving-side LC parallel resonant-type filter, and a transmitting-side LC parallel resonant-type filter are integrated therein and a surface acoustic wave filter is mounted thereon. Accordingly, matching adjustment can be easily performed between the branch circuit and the receiving-side LC parallel resonant-type filter, between the receiving-side LC parallel resonant-type filter and the surface acoustic wave filter, and between the branch circuit and the transmitting side LC parallel resonant-type filter. This eliminates the necessity of matching circuits that perform corresponding matching adjustment. Therefore, the duplexer can be further miniaturized. In addition, loss due to wiring between the branch circuit and the receiving-side LC parallel resonant-type filter, between the receiving-side LC parallel resonant-type filter and the surface acoustic wave filter, and between the branch circuit and the transmitting-side LC parallel resonant-type filter can be minimized. Therefore, the overall loss of the duplexer is greatly minimized. The connection of each of the branch circuit, the receiving-side LC parallel resonant-type filer, the surface acoustic wave filter, and the transmitting-side LC parallel resonant-type filter can be provided and contained within the multi-layer substrate. Therefore, further miniaturization of the duplexer is achieved. According to a second preferred embodiment of the present invention, a mobile communication device includes a duplexer according to the first preferred embodiment of the present invention. Since the duplexer which can be easily miniaturized and which can have easily the central frequency adjusted is included, a miniaturized and high-performance mobile communication device can be obtained. Other features, elements, characteristics and advantages of the present invention will become apparent from the following detailed description of preferred embodiments with reference to the attached drawings.
The mission of the Program Development Research Group (PDRG) is to carry out a program of basic and applied research supportive of and complementary to the new drug discovery research and development programs of the National Cancer Institute. To this end, PDRG investigators have made substantial progress in a number of interrelated areas, in cellular pharmacology, ultrastructure, immunochemistry, tissue culture, and tumor cell biology, and natural products chemistry. Highlighted in this year's report are studies aimed at the further refinement of the screening models and assay methodologies used in the NCI's high-flux, in vitro antitumor and anti-HIV primary drug screens. Also described are model-development and applications efforts aimed at the detailed, follow-up evaluation of new lead compounds identified in the screens. Detailed biochemical characterizations of human tumor cell lines have included prostanoid biosynthesis, metabolic activation of 4-ipomeanol and molecular genetic approaches to the elucidation of the human lung cytochrome P450 hemoprotein monooxygenase system. New methodology has been defined for the establishment and propagation of certain "normal" (nontumor) lines in vitro. Extensive efforts have been made to develop an in vivo microencapsulation model for anti-HIV drug evaluations; however, results to date indicate this approach will not likely be feasible. Detailed studies of new lead prototype antitumor and anti-HIV compounds, both of synthetic and natural origin, have been underway; however, a more detailed report of these efforts is being deferred until the 1991 Annual Report (i.e., pending declassification of discreet structures).
The development of drug delivery devices for implantation into a pre-selected locus in mammals has been extensively studied. To date, a variety of surgically implantable drug delivery devices have been developed and patented, and are discussed below. U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,217,895; 6,001,386; 5,902,598; and 5,836,935, Ashton et al. describe a surgically implantable device for local deliver of low solubility therapeutic agents in an internal portion of the body. The device comprises an inner core containing the drug isolated from the surrounding environment by a permeable coating polymer which controls the release rate of the drug. The device delivers the drug in a multidirectional way from the implantation site, exposing all the structures in the site to the delivered agent. Moreover, the drug release occurs and is through a complex technology of a coating polymer that is non-bioerodible and permeable to the drug. U.S. Pat. No. 4,378,016, to Loeb, describes a surgically implantable device for delivering an active factor to a mammalian site. The device comprises a fluid permeable membranous sack for implantation within the mammal and an impermeable hollow tube having one end connected to an opening in the sack and the other end designed to remain outside the body of the mammal. The tube provides an access passageway to the membranous sack, such that after the sack has been surgically implanted into the mammal, a cell-containing envelope may be introduced into the sack via the tube. Upon insertion of the cell-containing envelope into the sack the cells may produce an active factor which subsequently may diffuse into the surrounding tissue or organ of the recipient. U.S. Pat. No. 5,182,111, to Aebischer et al., describes a surgically implantable device for delivering an active factor to a pre-selected site, for example, a tissue or organ in a mammal. The device comprises a semi-permeable membrane enclosing at least one cell type that produces a specific active-factor and a second cell type that produces an augmentory factor. The augmenting factor produced by the second cell type subsequently induces the first cell type to produce the active-factor. U.S. Pat. No. 4,479,796, to Kallok, describes a surgically implantable dispenser for infusing a pre-selected drug directly into the blood stream. Briefly, the dispenser is surgically spliced in line with a blood vessel. The dispenser encloses a replaceable cartridge of cells, micro-organisms, which produce and secrete the drug into blood flowing past the cartridge. U.S. Pat. No. 4,309,776, to Berguer, describes an intravascular drug delivery device having a chamber containing transplanted cells for surgical implantation into the wall of a blood vessel. The device comprises a porous wall that permits a hormone produced by the transplanted cells to diffuse out of the chamber and into the blood stream U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,251,090; 5,830,173 and 5,725,493, to Avery et al., describe a drug delivery device, comprising a refillable reservoir connected to the vitreous cavity through a tube. This concept requires intraocular invasion, which limits its application to situations when the integrity of the targeted tissue is not an issue. U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,416,777 and 6,413,540 disclose a device that once positioned underneath the Tenon's capsule, in contact to the sclera, is supposed to deliver agents to the eye. Such system is composed of an outer layer impermeable to the delivered therapeutic agent, diminishing its wash out by the periocular fluids. The device has a geometry that facilitates its insertion and placement in the sub-Tenon's space, and reference is made to a method to place and hold it under the inferior oblique muscle, avoiding its dislocation from its original location and proportioning its positioning near the macula area. No references are made to methods to hermetically seal it to the sclera or to the targeted tissue. Moreover, the design of those devices does not accommodate methods to carry more than one agent, as in a bi-compartmental reservoir neither it refers to refilling ports to allow reposition of the liquid therapeutic agents. The necessity of the use of a hermetically sealed device arises from characteristics determined by the drugs and tissues. Among the drug-related factors are: narrow difference in the efficacious-toxic concentration; high instability or susceptibility to inactivation before reaching the aimed tissue; the requirement of prolonged and steady release curves, particularly in chronic diseases; and availability in liquid or gel state. The tissue factors are mainly related to the level of topographic specificity that is required from that agent, and not less importantly to the harms and susceptibility of the surrounding tissues to the drug toxic effects. The possibility of drug leakage through the device-tissue junction sharply excludes the use of some important therapeutic agents, not only cytotoxic drugs, but other more specific agents. Angiogenic peptides could never be applied and exposed to other tissues other than where aimed to act. If aimed to the choroid by increasing the blood flow and stimulating capillary growth, its possible exposure to the vascularized periocular tissue before even crossing the sclera, beyond dissipating the angiogenic effect, could increase the flux of blood and plasma around the implant and speed up the degradation or neutralization of its active agent. Moreover, biological processes occurring in that location may alter significantly the release pattern of any agent from the delivery device whether the agent is still active or not. Inflammatory reactions are the basis of the healing process in mammalians, involving the release of a wide range of chemical, biological and cellular factors that ultimately lead to a reorganization of the tissue. Scar formation and foreign body reactions are common responses from an organism to traumatic and surgical injuries, particularly if there is exposure to inert or immunogenic materials. These responses are created to reconstitute the affected or exposed tissue through a series of reactions that frequently culminate with strengthening of the affected tissue and isolation or extrusion of the foreign body. Over the past decades significant experience with periocular implants has been achieved through the well established practice of encircling elements for treating retinal detachment and by the proliferation of filtration devices for the surgical therapy of glaucoma. Many polymers were tested for that purpose and the experience accumulated over the years showed that the encapsulation of the implant invariably happens after periocular implantation. Indeed, even for largely used medical products such as silicone, it was shown that the encapsulation process starts as soon as 3 days following insertion. Nevertheless, a fibrotic reaction to a prosthesis or to a structural implant is not so harmful. Instead, it is even desired to provide mechanical stability to the implant and enhance its structural function19,20,21,22. The lack of a way to hermetically seal the device to the tissue would not only affect the way the carried agent would act and react with the surrounding tissues, but also the way the surrounding tissues would respond to the agent and the system. The encapsulation of such system, and the formation of a layer of scar tissue between the drug reservoir and the organ surface would change significantly the pattern of drug release altering the main determinants of diffusion through that surface, which is primarily composed by a membrane with known characteristics, and diffusion coefficients for certain molecules. In Ophthalmology, several studies were carried out to characterize the sclera, the most external layer of the eyeball, as a membrane. Many experiments justified the use of periocular injections to deliver drugs to the eye. Edelhauser et al. studied extensively the properties of the sclera as a permeable membrane. His in vitro studies were further enhanced by in vivo studies to show how periocular injections can deliver agents to the internal eye tissues. It was shown that molecules as large as 70 KDa can diffuse across the sclera and reach the intraocular space, even against a pressure gradient. Such properties are partially explained by porous characteristics of the scleral collagen, although the whole mechanism is still not totally understood, particularly the mechanisms these large molecules can reach the intravitreal space, bypassing tight junctions of very selective barriers such as the outer blood-retinal barrier. Indeed, the unprotected transcleral route has been used for many years and has proved to be effective with the administration of certain drugs. Anti-inflammatory steroids are injected through the conjuctiva into the subTenon space and put directly in contact with the sclera, which allows the diffusion of the drug toward the intraocular space, providing high therapeutic levels of the drug to the various layers of the eye. Deposit formulas of steroids are available with demonstrated safety and equivalency, or superior effectiveness to the systemic route, but without its inconvenient side effects. However, because these injections are unprotected from the surrounding orbital tissue, much of the injected dose is absorbed systemically and carried away from the site. The therapeutic effect is short-lived7,8,9. Some other drugs cannot be administered by this periocular route because of significant irritation and toxicity to the adjacent tissues at the high levels necessary to permeate the layers of the eye. High concentrations of agents are necessary because of dissipation of the drug in the periocular tissue. This is mainly attributed to a washout mechanism by the periocular soft tissue or inactivation of the agents by inflammatory cells, immunoglobulins and plasma components before they reach the targeted structure. In certain conditions, such as in endophthamitis, the intraocular use of the drug is appropriate by providing high levels of the antibiotic available in a short period of time. However, for chronic use, repeated intraocular injections bring an unnecessary high risk of complications, either from the injection procedure or from high drug concentrations instantaneously provided by the direct injection. Intraocular procedures are not always possible. Inflammatory conditions such as uveitis, particularly in the severe disorders, such as in Behcet's disease, even minimally invasive intraocular procedures can lead to a severe and prolonged hypotony. Intraocular cancers also require non-invasive approaches due to the risk of cancer cells being disseminated throughout the orbit. Retinoblastoma, most common primary intraocular tumor in childhood, is an ideal disorder for the local delivery of chemotherapeutics. One of its clinical presentations, characterized by seeding of tumor cells in the vitreous gel, is currently treated by systemic chemotherapy. The failure of systemic treatment is frequently due to limited achievement of therapeutic levels of the drugs in that location, and often leads to removal of the eye. Administering the drug directly into the vitreous is impossible because of the risk of tumor cell dissemination, directly leading to death. Regional therapy is an alternative and is currently under clinical trials. Promising efficacy has been achieved but some toxic side effects were reported as well. In this specific situation high levels of cytotoxic drugs, such as carboplatin in the orbit, can result in unpredictable side effects during the patient's lifetime, particularly in the retinoblastoma population which is more susceptible to secondary neoplasias due to gene mutations. Similar therapeutic levels of the drug in the eye could be achieved if the periocularly injected drug was isolated or protected from the extraocular connective tissue, which offers potential advantages of prolonged release time and certainly fewer side effects to the orbital structures and optic nerve. Furthermore, a controlled release of those agents could be achieved since the interface area with the drug is well defined, a main predictor of drug diffusion rates across the sclera. The positioning of the drug in contact with a specific area of the sclera would also avoid exposure of more sensitive structures, e.g. optic nerve, to potentially toxic drugs at high concentrations. Regional therapy has been extensively studied and has proved to be efficacious in several conditions. Although drug delivery systems based on polymer technology have improved the bioavailability and pharmacokinetics of therapeutic agents in the targeted sites, lack of local specificity is still a major limitation to its clinical applicability. New classes of therapeutic agents have demonstrated promise, but the inability to efficiently and specifically deliver such agents to the target limited the achievement of successful results to the in vitro studies. A number of those when tested in vivo, fail to produce the same results as in vitro. Moreover, tumor cells as well as infectious agents can spread to other organs or even systemically, once the natural barriers of the organ are surgically broken. The systems aforementioned, when not delivering the agent directly to the interstice of the aimed tissue, can still provide therapeutic levels by releasing the agent to the cavity or the surrounding space and fluids. This ultimately can lead to uptake from the organ and from any of the adjacent structures. Such perfusion systems lack specificity and are not suitable for clinical use when the drugs are toxic to the surrounding structures. This problem becomes more prominent when the agent may trigger other pathologic processes. This is more frequent when using viral gene vectors, inhibitors of biological factors and non-specific sensitizers. Patched delivery systems have been developed for transdermal or transmucosal release of drugs. Such systems are designed to have one interface with the dermal or mucosal epithelium through which the diffusion of drug occurs. The other interface is usually external of the target body tissue, e.g. the external environment in the case of a transdermal patch, or the intestinal lumen or oral cavity, in transmucosal models. The main concern in designing those devices is to protect the carried agent from the secretions of the gastrointestinal, oral and nasal tracts and consequently to allow more drug to reach the systemic circulation, instead of directly acting in a targeted organ or tissue1,2,3. With transmucosal devices any release from the external surface will be neutralized by luminal enzymes, flora or physical inactivation, or will reach the systemic circulation after distal absorption what is ultimately the goal of most of these drug delivery systems. Neither transdermal or transmucosal delivery systems were conceptualized to be surgically implanted nor designed to meet the level of biocompatibility necessary to be exposed to internal body fluids, e.g. blood, connective tissue, or any internal cellular response. Their application is under exposure to body secretions, therefore, they are not usually subject to severe inflammatory reactions and do not require high levels of biocompatibility, factors that make them unsuitable for surgical implantation1,2. Systems like polymer shields for drug release as the ones available for ocular use, share some of the characteristics of the transdermal and transmucosal systems. They do not aim to deliver the drug directly to the cornea or conjunctiva or to any specific ocular structure, but release the agent to a body secretion fluid as the the lacrimal film, in a multidirectional way. From the tear film agent diffusion occurs throughout the ocular surface and later to the lacrimal drainage system and nasopharyngeal mucosa, again exposing other tissues to side toxic effects. These systems can provide a sustained release of an agent, but in a non-selective way, dissipating its effects to all the surrounding structures, e.g. conjunctiva, lid skin, cornea, lacrimal system. As with the transdermal and transmucosal systems, those systems were designed to offer the advantage of non-invasive sustained release, not be implanted through surgical procedures, but just attachment to body or mucosal surfaces.4,5 Experimental and clinical evidences suggest that organ surfaces exposed to high levels of drugs can lead to internal therapeutic levels even higher than those achieved by systemic administration. The potential diffusion properties of organs and tissues are discussed, as well as the advantages of its exploration as a therapeutic route. Bioactive peptides are agents necessary and naturally present in biological process, but may also be undesirably present in pathogenic situations, e.g. tumors, choroidal neovascular membranes, and absent as well, e.g. ischemic areas of the myocardium. The over or down regulation of such factors can lead to the improvement of pathologic conditions, and their efficient use as therapeutic agents, require the ability to provide to the target tissue the desired quantity in a sustained and prolonged fashion. The same protected regulated delivery is required for gene vectors, antisense agents, antibiotics, cytotoxic drugs, enzymes, certain hormones, etc. Other agents known as sensitizers also require a specific action, and the drug uptake by the targeted tissue will later define the efficiency of the definitive treatment, e.g. chemo, laser, radio or thermal therapies, in restricting and enhancing its effects, as well as side effects, to that site. Local drug delivery is also under clinical studies for the treatment of intracranial tumors. Some neural origin tumors, such as malignant glioma have received most of the attention. These tumors are treated by a standard combination of surgical resection and external beam radiation. Due to the ability of this tumor to invade the normal adjacent brain it often recurs in the adjacent margins of resection. Based on those characteristics and the tumor unresponsiveness to systemic chemotherapy, the local delivery of drugs, sensitizers and peptide vectors started to be considered and studied as a treatment option, with potential effects on the quality of life of affected subjects. Brem et al. have reported prolonged survival using polymers containing BCNU in controlled trial for recurrent glioblastoma. Such polymers are prepared to release 50% of the drug in the first 24 hours, and 95% by 120 hours10,11. Another study reported a high incidence of perioperative complications, such as wound infection and seizures, without showing advantages over the conventional treatment12. Exposing tissues to higher concentrations of a therapeutic agent increases the chance of a greater efficacy without systemic side effects, but also increases the risk of local side effects, usually dose-related. The prior art did not recognize that a selective and protected local delivery system could substantially improve the effectiveness of the treatment, as well as make available other agents never accepted for that use because of potential toxicity to the adjacent structures, and prior art systems designed to deliver drugs to the site where they are implanted provide no protection for other sensitive normal structures nearby. For example, regional therapy to deliver bioactive agent to the myocardium and epicardial space has been extensively explored. Pericardial effusion syndrome and metastatic tumors were shown to respond very well to local delivery of chemotherapeutics by intrapericardial perfusion of 5-Fluorouracil and cisplatin through a catheter. This technique is efficacious in providing the epicardium space with high levels of drug, but imposes the risk of secondary infection if used in a chronic basis.13,14 An elegant study by Darsinos et al. showed the pharmacokinetics of digoxin and lidocain in the various heart tissues, including valves. Their study showed that these compounds follow an irregular distribution among cardiac tissues, after pericardium injection. Again, specificity of an agent to a determined region of the same organ is desirable for conditions such arrythmias and dysfunctional cardiopathies. Absorption of digoxin by the atria and absorption of both drugs by intrapericardial aorta were higher than that of other heart tissues, between 20 and 60 minutes. At 30 and 60 minutes, lidocaine was evenly distributed across the LV wall while digoxin 50 micrograms was mainly concentrated subepicardially. This distribution limits the intrapericardial route for administering those agents to situations where higher levels in those areas are desired15. The same author showed in another study that the concentration of amiodarone injected into the pericardium was higher in the subepicardium compared to deeper layers of the left ventricule, without measurable concentration in the blood16. The preferential distribution of those agents is due to an increased uptake of the drug by certain areas. Since this injection exposes the whole area of the myocardium surface to the agent, it is susceptible to different uptake rates between regions, and consequently to a non-controlled preferential delivery. The effectiveness of bioactive agents as therapeutics depends on their delivery routes. For some bioactive reagents, their natural biological occurrence make them subject to inactivation or saturation by a variety of factors normally present in fluids and tissues before they reach their targets. Some growth factors and other compounds were shown to increase the vascularization of infarcted areas of the myocardium. Uchida et al. showed in a dog model of myocardial infarction, that the transcatheter intrapericardial injection of basic Fibroblast Growth Factor (bFGF) plus heparin sulfate is effective in causing angiogenesis and myocardial salvage more in the subepicardial infarcted area than in the subendocardial area. Further studies done in porcine model of chronic myocardial infaction confirmed the effectiveness of intrapericardial injection of b-FGF in inducing vascularization of myocardium.17,18. Although this shows promising results in animal studies, it is still questionable whether this route will be feasible in patients with prior instrumentation, including bypass surgeries. The intravenous route was also considered and clinically studied, but did not show benefits compared to placebo. The use of this delivery route imposes concerns about a potential acceleration of retinal vascular diseases and occult neoplasias. Vascular growth factors tend to bind to their receptors or be inactivated, so they are subject to saturation before reaching deeper layers of the tissues. Consequently, if vascular growth factors are unequally distributed among different layers of the tissue, their effects are expected to be as well. To allow them to reach deeper layers of the myocardium, it is necessary to protect them from unaffected areas, and limit their action to a defined pathologic area, where they will have a better chance to reach deeper after a longer period of exposure. A method for delivering the agent in a localized, sustained, protected and very selective manner, would more likely perform those tasks, with less side effects, through a minimally invasive implantation procedure, potentially benefiting a significant affected population that is not eligible for more morbid procedures. This strategy offers the advantages of the intrapericardial procedures, with comparable efficacy to intramyocardial approaches. The use of bioactive agents locally has been subject to a number of studies. Inhibitors of vasculogenesis are potential tools for treating angioproliferative eye diseases such as retinopathy of prematurity and age-related macular degeneration, two leading causes of blindness in premature newborns and the elderly population.
This invention relates to a tape measure capable to be uncoiled and coiled. Tape measures, which are stored coiled in a housing and pulled out therefrom for the measuring operation while the tape measure is uncoiled from a reel or the like in the housing, so-called number meters, are well-known. The tape measure, in order to have a certain self-supporting capacity in pulled-out state, in the horizontal plane, is made of metal and has a curved cross-sectional shape. A conventional tape measure of this kind is self-supporting when the length pulled out is shorter than about 1 m. When the length pulled out is longer, a fold is formed in the tape transverse to its longitudinal direction. When the housing or the tape are treated with slight incautiousness, said self-supporting length is only about 0.5 m. These stated lengths, of course, vary from one case to another. It is, however, a very great disadvantage that the tape cannot be pulled out to its entire length, which most often is 2 m or longer, without giving rise to fold formation in the tape. The said disadvantage implies above all, that measurements of a length exceeding that at which the tape is self-supporting, are carried out with great difficulty.
Musculoskeletal findings in obese subjects before and after weight loss following bariatric surgery. To determine the point prevalence of painful musculoskeletal (MSK) conditions in obese subjects before and after weight loss following bariatric surgery. Longitudinal, interventional, unblended. Forty-eight obese subjects (47 women, one man, mean age 44+/-9 years; mean body mass index (BMI) 51+/-8 kg/m(2)) recruited from an academic medical center bariatric surgery program. Comorbid medical conditions; MSK findings; BMI; Western Ontario McMaster Osteoarthritis Index (WOMAC) for pain, stiffness and function; and SF-36 for quality of life. Consecutive subjects were recruited from the University Hospitals of Cleveland Bariatric Surgery Program. Musculoskeletal signs and symptoms and non-MSK comorbid conditions were documented at baseline and at follow-up. SUBJECTS completed the SF-36 and the WOMAC questionnaires. Analyses were carried out for each MSK site, fibromyalgia syndrome (FMS) and for the cumulative effect on the spine, upper and lower extremities. The impact of change in comorbid medical conditions, BMI, physical and mental health domains of the SF-36 on the WOMAC pain subscale score was evaluated. SF-36 outcomes were compared to normal published controls. Forty-eight subjects were available for baseline and a follow-up assessment 6-12 months after gastric bypass surgery. They lost an average of 41+/-15 kg and the mean BMI decreased from 51+/-8 to 36+/-7 kg/m(2). Baseline comorbid medical conditions were present in 96% before surgery and 23% after weight loss. There was an increased prevalence of painful MSK conditions at baseline compared to general population frequencies. Musculoskeletal complaints had been present in 100% of obese subjects before, and 23% after weight loss. The greatest improvements occurred in the cervical and lumbar spine, the foot and in FMS (decreased by 90, 83, 83 and 92%, respectively). Seventy-nine percent had upper extremity MSK conditions before and 40% after weight loss. Before surgery, 100% had lower extremity MSK conditions and only 37% did after weight loss. The WOMAC subscale and composite scores all improved significantly, as did the SF-36((R)). Change in BMI was the main factor impacting the WOMAC pain score. There was a higher frequency of multiple MSK complaints, including non-weight-bearing sites compared to historical controls, before surgery, which decreased significantly at most sites following weight loss and physical activity. These benefits may improve further, as weight loss may continue for up to 24 months. The benefits seen with weight loss indicate that prevention and treatment of obesity can improve MSK health and function.
The natural course of nonoperatively treated rotator cuff tears: an 8.8-year follow-up of tear anatomy and clinical outcome in 49 patients. The natural course of nonoperatively treated rotator cuff tears is not fully understood. We explored the long-term development of tear anatomy and assessed functional outcomes. Eighty-nine small to medium-sized full-thickness tears of the rotator cuff, all primarily treated by physiotherapy, were identified retrospectively. Twenty-three tears needed surgical treatment later on, and 17 patients were unable to meet for follow-up. The remaining 49 still unrepaired tears were re-examined after 8.8 (8.2-11.0) years with sonography. Re-examination by magnetic resonance imaging was possible for 37 patients. Shoulder function was assessed with shoulder scores. Primary outcome measures were progression of tear size, muscle atrophy, and fatty degeneration and the Constant score (CS). Mean tear size increased by 8.3 mm in the anterior-posterior plane (P = .001) and by 4.5 mm in the medial-lateral plane (P = .001). Increase of tear size was -5 to +9.9 mm in 33 patients, 10 to 19.9 mm in 8 patients, and ≥20 mm in 8 patients. The CS was 81 points for tear increases <20 mm and 58.5 points for increases ≥20 mm (P = .008). Muscle atrophy and fatty degeneration progressed in 18 and 15 of the 37 patients, respectively. In tears with no progression of atrophy, the CS was 82 points compared with 75.5 points in tears with progression (P = .04). Anatomic tear deterioration was found in the majority of patients, but it was often moderate. Large tear size increases and progression of muscle atrophy were correlated to a poorer functional outcome.
The present invention generally relates to aluminum nitride (AlN) powder slurries having a viscosity that favors processing of the slurries into ceramic greenware. The present invention also relates to the use of certain organic compounds to modify reactivity of aluminum nitride with organic components of the slurries and preclude thickening thereof to such an extent that they are not readily processible. AlN exhibits certain physical properties that make it particularly suitable for use in a variety of applications. Some applications, such as those in packaging components for electronic circuitry, require substantially full theoretical density and high thermal conductivity. High quality AlN powder, when densified by sintering, hot-pressing or other suitable means, generally satisfies these requirements. AlN powder is typically converted to ceramic greenware suitable for sintering by slip casting or tape casting a slurry of the powder in a suitable solvent. As an alternative, AlN powder can be recovered from the slurry by spray drying. After recovery, the AlN powder can be dry pressed, cold pressed, cold isostatic pressed or otherwise converted to greenware via conventional technology. Because AlN powder readily hydrolyzes or reacts with water, organic solvents are favored over water. In an effort to increase density of the greenware, organic lubricants are often added to a slurry of AlN powder and one or more sintering aids in an organic solvent. A principal reason for adding the lubricants is to enhance particle-particle sliding. Typical lubricants include stearic acid, oleic acid and aluminum stearate. Unfortunately, these lubricants tend to react with AlN surfaces and form reaction products that thicken the slurry to a consistency resembling that of pudding. Such a consistency is not readily processible in ceramic forming equipment. One means of overcoming reactivity of AIN powder surfaces involves oversaturating said surfaces with the lubricant(s). Oversaturation may occur by doubling or even tripling what might otherwise be regarded as a "normal" amount of lubricant. Unfortunately, this also leads to other problems. One such problem is a phenomenon known as "springback" during forming. Springback, as used herein, means the elastic release of stored elastic energy to cause a dimensional increase upon release of a pressed ceramic body from a die. In other words, dimensions of the body after release from the die exceed those of the body prior to release from the die. This can, in turn, lead to delamination or separation of pressed material within the ceramic body. The delamination or material separation induces cracks within the ceramic body. A second problem is a high residual carbon content after organic compounds are "burned out" or removed by heating prior to sintering. A high residual carbon content can adversely affect physical properties of a resultant sintered body. Such physical properties include thermal conductivity, density and electrical performance. It would be desirable if there were a simple, yet effective means or method of modifying the surfaces of AlN powder in an organic liquid slurry to minimize thickening of the slurry. It would also be desirable if there were a material that could be added to a thickened organic liquid slurry based upon aluminum nitride to reduce its viscosity to a level that equates to ready processibility.
While electric powered vehicles appeared from time-to-time, they have not heretofore reached their expected production potential. For example, Decker U.S. Pat. No. 1,179,407 issued in 1916, disclosing an electric truck including a transmission having aligned armature shaft 31, pocket shaft 19 and main shaft 18, and a counter shaft 22 parallel thereto. Two pinion gears are slidably mounted on the main shaft 18, while a third gear is secured thereon, and four pinion gears are secured to the shaft 22, one in mesh with the third gear. By sliding the two slidably mounted gears along the main shaft to selectively engage the third gear of the main shaft and three of the four gears of the countershaft, low, second, high and reverse speeds are attained. Kelly U.S. Pat. No. 1,442,220 issued in 1923, disclosing an electric powered automotive vehicle, preferably a truck, including a transmission having parallel motor and rear wheel drive shafts. A pair of gears are keyed to the motor shaft, and a second pair of gears are rotatably mounted on the drive shaft and mesh with the first pair of gears. Clutch means are slidably keyed to the drive shaft intermediate the second pair of gears for establishing two drive speeds by selectively manually engaging the one or the other of the second pair of gears. Heany U.S. Pat. No. 1,794,613 issued in 1931, disclosing a transmission system for automobiles and including a combination of electro-magnetic and mechanical clutches so arranged in connection with suitable gears as to give automatic change of speeds depending on the relative speed of driving means and driven member and torque requirements of the car, and also containing means of manually shifting into various forward and reverse speeds. The transmission includes a main drive shaft, a parallel countershaft and a short shaft supporting an idler gear. Three gears are mounted on a sleeve slidably keyed to the main shaft, and three gears are secured to the countershaft, one of which meshes with the idler gear. Selectively sliding the three sleeve-mounted gears in cooperation with two of the three gears of the countershaft and the idler gear produce low, second, and reverse speed ratios. Busch U.S. Pat. No. 3,861,485 issued in 1975, disclosing an electric motor vehicle including a two-part transmission having an input shaft from a shunt-wound electric motor, a parallel final output shaft of an electric clutch, and a parallel output shaft to the drive wheels, an input gear on the input shaft, a meshing gear on the final output shaft, along with ring, planet and sun gears on the latter connected by a unidirectional clutch to a separately mounted gear which meshes with a gear carried on the electric clutch shaft. Variable-pitch pulleys on the input and the electric clutch shafts are interconnected by a V-belt. At low speeds the electric motor is connected via the variable-pitch pulleys and V-belt to the wheels, and for higher speeds the motor is connected thereto via the above referenced gearing. Reverse is effected by reversing the motor electrically.
The world is becoming an increasingly diverse place and one really must be skilled in understanding the culture within which grows up and was socialized and the cultures and subcultures that one is going to encounter in the community work one does. For most students in the program, would probably say their internship that's the single most important thing they do in the program because that's where ideally they get great supervision, they have a mentor, they get to do this sort of work they are going to be doing in their career and it's an opportunity to develop those skills that are going to be crucial to being successful and for those students who want to go on to doctoral work an internship is also really important because if you're going to go to a doctoral program in an applied area, like community psychology or clinical psychology, it's important to have somebody employed by the internship site be able to say "I've seen this student actually do the sorts of things that are important for work in this field and I can vouch for their credibility and their skill level." It's hard to do that simply on the basis of classroom courses that students take. UNH masters program of Community Psychology is one of the oldest, freestanding masters programs in community psychology in the country.
Public and professional attitudes to transplanting alcoholic patients. The discrepancy between the number of people who might benefit from liver transplantation continues to exceed the availability of donor livers available, so rationing of grafts must occur. Alcoholic liver disease (ALD) is an excellent indication for liver transplantation, with outcomes at least as good as for other indications.ALD remains a controversial indication for liver transplantation. There is no robust evidence that public disquiet over distribution of donor livers to those with ALD (even if they return to alcohol) greatly affects organ donation, although this does not mean there is no consequence of such disquiet. Numerous surveys of the general public, patients, and health care professionals indicate the these patients are thought to have lower priority for access to available liver grafts. Public education is required to demonstrate that patients with ALD are carefully selected for liver transplantation and available grafts are used with attention to equity, justice, and utility.
Thalassemia major between liver and heart: Where we are now. The aim of the study was to assess the current state in terms of liver and heart iron overload as well as of liver and heart related morbidity and mortality in a large cohort of thalassemia patients. Myocardial iron loading was present in 28.9% patients, which was severe in 3.2%. Liver iron was normal in 9.3% and severe in 15%. The rate of cardiac deaths started to decrease between 2000 and 2003 and dropped significantly afterwards. The prescription of combination therapy soon after the hospital admission for decompensated heart failure was associated with a decrease in the short-term mortality. In 111 adult patients who underwent liver elastometry, 14 HCVRNA positive subjects and 2 HCVRNA negative, had stiffness values suggestive of cirrhosis. No cases of hepatocarcinoma were reported. Liver "iron free foci" occurred in a HCV negative patient and the occurrence of a malignant epithelioid hemangioendothelioma led to liver transplantation in another. The study suggests that a subset of patients continues to develop progressive hemosiderosis that may lead to cardiac disease and death. Beyond its key role in preventing myocardial iron overload, liver iron chelation is essential for hampering the onset of hepatic tumors, which may not be limited to hepatocarcinoma.
Assessment of iron status in association with excess alcohol consumption. Biochemical evidence of iron overload (transferrin saturation greater than 60% and/or serum ferritin concentration greater than 1000 micrograms/L) was observed in 16% of patients admitted to an alcohol withdrawal unit. No subjects in an age and sex matched control group showed such biochemical changes. Whilst changes in serum ferritin concentration closely correlated with aspartate aminotransferase activity and could be explained by alcohol induced liver damage, the increased transferrin saturation was not similarly explained. In nine patients withdrawal of alcohol resulted in a decrease in transferrin saturation and serum ferritin, the former due to a reduction in serum iron concentration. In patients with high alcohol intake biochemical measures of iron status may be misleading and a decrease in both transferrin saturation and serum ferritin concentration after withdrawal of alcohol may help to rule out the possible diagnosis of hereditary haemochromatosis.
Reduced levels of neuraminidase of influenza A viruses correlate with attenuated phenotypes in mice. We have previously obtained four transfectant influenza A viruses containing neuraminidase (NA) genes with mutated base pairs in the conserved double-stranded RNA region of the viral promoter by using a ribonucleoprotein transfection system. Two mutant viruses (D2 and D1/2) which share a C-G-->A-U mutation at positions 11 and 12 of the 3' and 5' ends, respectively, of the NA gene, showed an approximate 10-fold reduction of NA-specific mRNA and protein levels (Fodor et al., Journal of Virology 72, 6283-6290, 1998). These viruses have now allowed us to determine the effects of decreased NA levels on virus pathogenicity. Both D2 and D1/2 viruses were highly attenuated in mice, and their replication in mouse lungs was highly compromised as compared with wild-type influenza A/WSN/33 virus. The results highlight the importance of the level of NA activity in the biological cycle and virulence of influenza viruses. Importantly, mice immunized by a single intranasal administration of 10(3) infectious units of D2 or D1/2 viruses were protected against challenge with a lethal dose of wild-type influenza virus. Attenuation of influenza viruses by mutations resulting in the decreased expression of a viral protein represents a novel strategy which could be considered for the generation of live attenuated influenza virus vaccines.
HIV risk among drug-using men who have sex with men, men selling sex, and transgender individuals in Vietnam. Knowledge about drug use and its association with HIV risk among men who have sex with men is limited. Although the HIV epidemic among this population in Vietnam is increasingly acknowledged, understanding the impact of drug use on the spread of HIV is largely lacking. Using qualitative data from in-depth interviews and focus group discussions with 93 drug users, 15 non-drug users and 9 community stakeholders, this analysis explores emerging patterns of drug use and risk factors for engaging in risk behaviours among drug-using men having sex with men, men selling sex and transgender individuals in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City. Findings revealed that drug use is shifting from heroin to ecstasy and ice. Drug users reported unsafe sex associated with drug use and men selling sex were particularly at elevated risk because of using drugs as a tool for sex work and trading sex for drugs. These findings are guiding development of programmes addressing unmet HIV-prevention needs in Vietnam.
The invention relates to compositions, methods, and apparatuses for improving the production and recycling of antimicrobial fluids used to treat raw meat and poultry in meat and poultry slaughter and processing facilities. Fresh food animal products, including raw meat and poultry, are susceptible to contamination by microorganisms that contact meat surfaces immediately after slaughter and evisceration, including organisms in the gastrointestinal tracts which can be transferred during processing. Contaminating microorganisms include bacteria such as Salmonella and Campylobacter species, Listeria monocytogenes, Escherichia coli and other coliforms, and other enteric organisms. Once bacteria such as Salmonella contact tissue surfaces, they rapidly attach and are difficult to remove even with chlorine disinfectant permitted for use in poultry sprays and chill tanks. In beef processing, for example, a particularly virulent strain of E. coli, denoted O157:H7, reportedly contaminated hamburger meat sold by a fast-food chain and caused several deaths in the U.S. in 1993. The problems created by Salmonella and Campylobacter bacteria in poultry products are particularly noteworthy. The presence of these organisms in food are serious dangers which impose significant costs and dangers. Improper cooking and physical transfer of the bacteria to food handling surfaces and thereafter to other foods result in the spread of the microorganisms, can cause gastrointestinal disorders and, in some cases, death. Breeders, hatcheries, feed ingredient suppliers, farms, processors, and distributors have all been implicated as contributors to Salmonella contamination in chickens and turkeys (Villarreal, M. E., et al., J. Food Protection 53: 465-467 (1990)). Contamination of but a few birds can lead to broader range contamination of other birds and cross-contamination to carcasses. Bacterial proliferation and other signs of spoilage can be delayed by refrigeration, but there is a limit to the degree of refrigeration that can be imposed on meat products, short of freezing the meat, and some bacteria such as psychrophiles can survive and even flourish at temperatures approaching the freezing point. It is thus preferable to control and destroy pathogenic and other microbial contaminants during processing to reduce the number of organisms on the meat. Poultry processing is similar to the processing of other meat animals. Briefly summarized, caged birds arrive by truck at the processing plant. Typically, the birds are not fed for at least one to four hours before slaughter to allow the bird's intestinal tract to clear, thereby lowering the risk of fecal contamination during subsequent processing. The birds are hung by their feet on shackles in a dressing line, stunned and bled via throat cuts. After bleeding and while still hung, the birds are scalded, plucked and transferred to an evisceration line, where they are manually or mechanically eviscerated, inspected and spray-washed. The spray may contain chlorine or other approved as a disinfecting agents. Historically, the last step of the process has been chilling in a hydro-chill tank, by movement through a counterflow of cold water containing chlorine or other approved antimicrobial agent are chilled, which usually takes about 45 minutes to one hour in a typical many-thousand gallon tank. The carcasses may additionally pass through a post chill spray, drench or dip antimicrobial treatment before being rehung, packaged or further processed into parts, other value-added products including but not limited to ground, mechanically separated and subsequently refrigerated or frozen. Salmonella, Campylobacter and other organisms can survive the scalding process, which involves temperatures of about 50° C. to 58° C. Though cross-contamination can occur during any stage of processing, the major problems arise during and after evisceration when microorganisms are freed from the intestinal tract and transferred to other tissue surfaces. For example, the water becomes contaminated with organic matter and microbes from meat, and other organic matter provides nutrients for microbial growth over time or through additional use. The microbes can grow and contaminate additional meat, poultry, and equipment. Processing water can also serve as a source of contamination and cross-contaminate to other meat carcasses if organism in the water are not removed, inactivated or otherwise controlled. A number of mechanisms have been attempted to address this problem. Such mechanisms include the application of chlorine, chlorine dioxide, peroxyacetic acids, GRAS acids, organic acids and mixtures thereof, octanoic acid, acetic acid, acidifed sodium chlorite, carnobacterium maltaromaticum stain CB1; cetylpyridinium chloride; citric acid; 1,3 di-bromo-5,5-dimethylhydantoin; citric acid, phosphoric acid, and hydrochloric acid mixtures; lactic acid; lactoferrin; lauramide arginine ethyl ester; nisin, oZone; hydrogen peroxide; peroxyacetic acid; peroxyoctanoic acid; potassium diacetate; lactic acid and acidic calcium sulfate mixtures; lactic acid, acidic calcium sulfate, and propionic acid mixtures; lactic acid, calcium sulfate, and sodium phosphate mixtures; sodium metasilicate; trisodium phosphate; or combinations thereof. An example of a suitable commercially available antimicrobial solution includes, but is not limited to: irradiation, trade designated SANOVA® acidifed sodium chlorite, available from Ecolab, Incorporated, Saint Paul, Minn.; and high pressure pasteurization applied during various stages of the meat/poultry handling process. As described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 7,887,850, 6,475,527, 6,761,911, 6,063,425, 5,830,511, and 5,389,390, the use of metal chlorites/chlorates are a particularly effective strategy for reducing or eliminating microbiological contamination of raw meat and poultry. An impediment to the use of such metal chlorites/chlorates however is the cost and expense of producing and applying them. Metal chlorites/chlorates typically are acidified to a very narrow pH range to obtain a specific pKa value and to be highly selective regarding which chlorine species are produced. Efficient in situ maintenance of such conditions is an ongoing challenge in the industry. Moreover this complexity has proven to make the re-use of already used metal chlorite/chlorate solutions extremely difficult. As a result the cost of applying metal chlorite/chlorate antimicrobial solutions is much higher than is optimal. Thus there is clear utility in novel methods, chemicals, and apparatuses for the production and re-use of antimicrobial fluids used to treat raw meat and poultry in meat and poultry slaughter and processing facilities. The present invention addresses these needs and provides further related advantages. The art described in this section is not intended to constitute an admission that any patent, publication or other information referred to herein is “prior art” with respect to this invention, unless specifically designated as such. In addition, this section should not be construed to mean that a search has been made or that no other pertinent information as defined in 37 CFR § 1.56(a) exists.
The present invention relates to ultrasonic transducers generally. Various types of ultrasonic or acoustic transducers are known in the art. (It is noted that the terms ultrasonic transducer and acoustic transducer shall be used interchangeably herein throughout the specification and claims.) The following U.S. Patents are believed to represent the state of the art: U.S. Pat. No. 5,103,129 to Slayton et al., U.S. Pat. No. 5,094,108 to Kim et al., U.S. Pat. No. 5,054,470 to Fry et al., U.S. Pat. No. 4,959,674 to Khri-Yakub et al., U.S. Pat. No. 4,912,357 to Drews et al., U.S. Pat. No. 4,888,516 to Daeges et al., U.S. Pat. No. 4,869,278 to Bran, U.S. Pat. No. 4,825,116 to Ito et al., U.S. Pat. No. 4,659,956 to Trzaskos et al., U.S. Pat. No. 4,528,853 to Lerch et al., and U.S. Pat. No. 4,208,661 to Vokurka. Acoustic transducers are characterized inter alia by an angle of dispersion, and the ability to vary this angle is of major concern in transducer design. There are three major approaches in the prior art to vary the angle of dispersion: 1. Modification of transducer frequency 2. Modification of transducer size 3. Use of a horn to limit the angle of dispersion Each of these approaches has its advantages and disadvantages, and the transducer designer generally selects a solution which best fits his/her requirements, The present invention seeks to provide an improved ultrasonic transducer which provides a compact and inexpensive solution to the problem of varying the angle of dispersion. The present invention provides an ultrasonic transducer in off-axis relationship with a reflective surface, which surface is preferably paraboloidal. The ultrasonic transducer directs a beam onto the reflective surface, which beam is reflected therefrom to the outside world. If the beam is reflected from an object in the outside world back to the reflective surface, the reflective surface focuses the returned ultrasonic energy onto the transducer, thereby causing the transducer to provide a signal output in accordance with the reflected energy. A stray energy shield is mounted on the ultrasonic transducer for limiting the angular range of ultrasonic energy which impinges on the transducer. It is noted that U.S. Pat. No. 3,792,480 to Graham and U.S. Pat. No. 4,791,430 to Mills both describe ultrasonic antennas with the source of ultrasonic energy off-axis to the reflective surface. However, both of these references are not concerned with transducers and indeed the structures shown in both of these references are not readily applicable for reflecting ultrasonic energy from the reflective surface back to a transducer for providing a signal output, as is of course essential in ultrasonic transducer design. It is the present invention which provides a novel arrangement of off-axis transducer and stray energy shield in order to achieve a compact and inexpensive transducer design with remarkably accurate and reliable performance. This novel arrangement is not taught nor suggested by any of the above cited art. There is thus provided in accordance with a preferred embodiment of the present invention an ultrasonic transmitting and receiving transducer reflector assembly including an ultrasonic transducer support and a reflector extending therefrom, the reflector defining a reflective surface having optical power, an ultrasonic transducer producing a beam which is directed onto the reflective surface and providing a signal output from ultrasonic energy reflected thereonto from the reflective surface, the transducer being mounted on a mounting surface of the support in off-axis relationship with the reflective surface, and a stray energy shield at least partially enveloping the ultrasonic transducer for limiting the angular range of ultrasonic energy which impinges on the ultrasonic transducer. In accordance with a preferred embodiment of the present invention the ultrasonic transducer support and the reflector are integrally formed as one piece. Alternatively the ultrasonic transducer support, the reflector and the stray energy shield are together integrally formed as one piece. As another alternative, the ultrasonic transducer support, the reflector and the stray energy shield are together integrally formed as one piece with a housing of the transducer. Further in accordance with a preferred embodiment of the present invention the ultrasonic transducer is selectably locatable within the stray energy shield. Still further in accordance with a preferred embodiment of the present invention a distance of the ultrasonic transducer relative to the reflective surface determines a shape of a beam emanating from the transducer and reflected by the reflective surface. In accordance with a preferred embodiment of the present invention the ultrasonic transducer is located at a focus of the reflecting surface. Alternatively the ultrasonic transducer may be located inwardly or outwardly of a focus of the reflecting surface. Further in accordance with a preferred embodiment of the present invention the ultrasonic transducer is threadably mounted within the stray energy shield. In accordance with a preferred embodiment of the present invention the reflecting surface is a paraboloid. Additionally in accordance with a preferred embodiment of the present invention the ultrasonic transducer and the stray energy shield are pivotally connected to the support, such that an angle of incidence of a beam reflected from the reflecting surface with respect to the transducer is variable. There is also provided in accordance with a preferred embodiment of the invention an integral ultrasonic transmitting and receiving transducer assembly comprising an ultrasonic transducer producing a beam and a multiple beam path horn assembly operatively associated with said ultrasonic transducer and directing said beam along at least two distinct paths. In accordance with one embodiment of the present invention, the two distinct paths are at least partially overlapping. Alternatively, the two distinct paths are not overlapping.
In data communications it is often required that secure communications be provided between users of network stations (also referred to as "network nodes") at different physical locations. Secure communications must potentially extend over public networks as well as through secure private networks. Secure private networks are protected by "firewalls", which separate the private network from a public network. Firewalls ordinarily provide some combination of packet filtering, circuit gateway, and application gateway technology, insulating the private network from unwanted communications with the public network. One approach to providing secure communications is to form a virtual private network. In a virtual private network, secure communications are provided by encapsulating and encrypting messages. Encapsulated messaging in general is referred to as "tunneling". Tunnels using encryption may provide protected communications between users separated by a public network, or among a subset of users of a private network. Encryption may for example be performed using an encryption algorithm using one or more encryption "keys". When an encryption key is used, the value of the key determines how the data is encrypted and decrypted. When a public-key encryption system is used, a key pair is associated with each communicating entity. The key pair consists of an encryption key and a decryption key. The two keys are formed such that it is unfeasible to generate one key from the other. Each entity makes its encryption key public, while keeping its decryption key secret. When sending a message to node A, for example, the transmitting entity uses the public key of node A to encrypt the message, and then the message can only be decrypted by node A using node A's private key. In a symmetric key encryption system a single key is used as the basis for both encryption and decryption. An encryption key in a symmetric key encryption system is sometimes referred to as a "shared" key. For example, a pair of communicating nodes A and B could communicate securely as follows: a first shared key is used to encrypt data sent from node A to node B, while a second shared key is to be used to encrypt data sent from node B to node A. In such a system, the two shared keys must be known by both node A and node B. More examples of encryption algorithms and keyed encryption are disclosed in many textbooks, for example "Applied Cryptography--Protocols, Algorithms, and Source Code in C", by Bruce Schneier, published by John Wiley and Sons, New York, N.Y. copyright 1994. Information regarding what encryption key or keys are to be used, and how they are to be used to encrypt data for a given secure communications session is referred to as "key exchange material". Key exchange material may for example determine what keys are used and a time duration for which each key is valid. Key exchange material for a pair of communicating stations must be known by both stations before encrypted data can be exchanged in a secure communications session. How key exchange material is made known to the communicating stations for a given secure communications session is referred to as "session key establishment". A tunnel may be implemented using a virtual or "pseudo" network adapter that appears to the communications protocol stack as a physical device and which provides a virtual private network. A pseudo network adapter must have the capability to receive packets from the communications protocol stack, and to pass received packets back through the protocol stack either to a user or to be transmitted. A tunnel endpoint is the point at which any encryption/decryption and encapsulation/decapsulation provided by a tunnel is performed. In existing systems, the tunnel end points are pre-determined network layer addresses. The source network layer address in a received message is used to determine the "credentials" of an entity requesting establishment of a tunnel connection. For example, a tunnel server uses the source network layer address to determine whether a requested tunnel connection is authorized. The source network layer address is also used to determine which cryptographic key or keys to use to decrypt received messages. Existing tunneling technology is typically performed by encapsulating encrypted network layer packets (also referred to as "frames") at the network layer. Such systems provide "network layer within network layer" encapsulation of encrypted messages. Tunnels in existing systems are typically between firewall nodes which have statically allocated IP addresses. In such existing systems, the statically allocated IP address of the firewall is the address of a tunnel end point within the firewall. Existing systems fail to provide a tunnel which can perform authorization based for an entity which must dynamically allocate its network layer address. This is especially problematic for a user wishing to establish a tunnel in a mobile computing environment, and who requests a dynamically allocated IP address from an Internet Service Provider (ISP). Because existing virtual private networks are based on network layer within network layer encapsulation, they are generally only capable of providing connection-less datagram type services. Because datagram type services do not guarantee delivery of packets, existing tunnels can only easily employ encryption methods over the data contained within each transmitted packet. Encryption based on the contents of multiple packets is desirable, such as cipher block chaining or stream ciphering over multiple packets. For example, encrypted data would advantageously be formed based not only on the contents of the present packet data being encrypted, but also based on some attribute of the connection or session history between the communicating stations. Examples of encryption algorithms and keyed encryption are disclosed in many textbooks, for example "Applied Cryptography--Protocols, Algorithms, and Source Code in C", by Bruce Schneier, published by John Wiley and Sons, New York, N.Y. copyright 1994. Thus there is required a new pseudo network adapter providing a virtual private network having a dynamically determined end point to support a user in a mobile computing environment. The new pseudo network adapter should appear to the communications protocol stack of the node as an interface to an actual physical device. The new pseudo network adapter should support guaranteed, in-order delivery of frames over a tunnel to conveniently support cipher block chaining mode or stream cipher encryption over multiple packets.
As an image display device increasingly develops, people have higher requirements for high-quality and high definition image information. In practice, a digital image is usually affected by an imaging device, noise interference in an external environment, and the like, during processes of digitalization and transmission. Therefore, such a digital image with noise interference is usually referred to as an image with noise or a noisy image. Noise may reduce a resolution of a digital image and affects display details of the image, which is extremely disadvantageous to subsequent processing of the image. Therefore, effective noise suppression is essential to an image application. Image noise reduction is of great significance in a video processing system. In a television system, deinterlacing, anti-aliasing, and image scaling require that the system provide an image without noise or with low noise as input image information. In a surveillance system, image noise reduction is also a main method for improving quality of a surveillance image. TNR is an important technical method for image noise reduction. A TNR method that is commonly used in the prior art can be implemented in the following manner:pixeltnr(x,y,t)=pixeltnr(x,y,t+Δt)×alpha+pixel(x,y,t)×(1−alpha)where pixel indicates an original noisy image, pixeltnr is an image obtained after TNR, and in a digital image, the foregoing variables are both replaced with discrete variables, x and y are two-dimensional space coordinates, and t is a one-dimensional time coordinate, where x and y determine a position of an indicated pixel, and t represents a position of a current image in an image sequence, that is, a quantity of frames, Δt is a time offset, and Δt is usually set to 1, alphaε[0,1], and alpha is a blending coefficient and is used to determine a noise reduction intensity, a larger alpha indicates a higher noise reduction intensity, and vice versa. The TNR in the prior art is mainly TNR based on determining of movement/still. A movement level of corresponding image content is determined according to a size of a frame difference, and a corresponding blending coefficient is selected according to the movement level. When the frame difference is lower, it is considered that a corresponding movement level is lower, a movement is tending to be still, and a higher blending coefficient alpha is selected, and vice versa. During a process of implementing the present disclosure, the inventors of the present disclosure found that in the TNR based on determining of movement/still, only a frame difference is used as a basis for determining whether an image moves, and a corresponding blending coefficient is selected according to a result of the determining. However, a detection error may easily occur if only a frame difference is used as a basis for determining a movement of an image. If a moving image is determined to be a still image, smearing of the image may occur, and details of the image may be lost. If a still image is determined to be a moving image, a noise reduction effect may be poor for an image with large noise. Therefore, the TNR based on determining of movement/still cannot adapt to different noise scenarios.
Prazosin and stress effect on tumoral growth of 7,12-dimethylbenz[A]anthracene-induced rat mammary tumors. Repeated isolation stress and prazosin effect were evaluated in 7,12-dimetylbenz[A]anthracene (DMBA) mammary tumors. Tumor volume was significantly lower in stressed than in control animals from 10 to 52 days considering day 1 the moment when tumors became palpable and treatment began. Control Prazosin (0.5 mg/kg) rats showed diminished tumor volume after 40 days. Stress Prazosin curve was similar to stress alone. The proportion of progressing tumors in control was significantly higher than in stressed groups, regardless of Prazosin administration. Body weight gain was similar in every group throughout the experiment. Behavioral studies were performed when stress effect was no longer evident. Grooming and the number of fecal boli were similar in all groups, as well as prolactin serum levels, suggesting that habituation took place. No significant differences were observed between groups for estrogen receptors. However, a greater concentration of progesterone receptors was found in Stressed rats, compared to all other groups. We conclude that the decrease of tumor volume provoked by stress could not be reversed by the alpha 1-adrenergic antagonist prazosin. Then, it appears that the main effect of stress is not mediated by the alpha 1-adrenergic receptors. Higher progesterone receptors in stressed rats could explain the differences observed.
Would children be adequately protected by existing intervention levels during a radionuclear emergency? The question arises as to whether radiation standards and guidelines set for adults are sufficiently protective of children. To answer this question, published literature values have been used to calculate radiation doses to children and adults from external and internal exposure to a suite of 30 radionuclides commonly found in the environment. It was found that older children and adults face about the same degree of risk from external radiation exposures, although doses may be ∼30 % elevated for infants due to their smaller body size. Inhalation risks in children are to a large degree offset by lower breathing rates and it is only in the case of iodine isotopes that children are more at risk. Ingestion of contaminated food products is more complex. Isotopes of iodine and the bone-seeking elements strontium and radium can give radiation doses up to an order of magnitude higher than for adults.
Prevalence of Mycobacterium bovis skin positivity and associated risk factors in cattle from western Uganda. A cross-sectional study was undertaken to determine the prevalence of Mycobacterium bovis skin positivity and associated risk factors in cattle in western Uganda. Herds were selected using multi-stage cluster sampling. The comparative cervical intradermal tuberculin test (CCT) was used to determine cattle tuberculosis status using US Department of Agriculture protocols. Risk factor data were collected from cattle owners through questionnaires collected by in-person interviews. Multivariable logistic regression models were used to measure the association between risk factors and herd CCT reactor prevalence. A total of 525 cattle from 63 herds were screened for M. bovis infection. Of the 525 cattle tested, 2.1 % were CCT reactors and 15.43 % were CCT suspects. Of herds tested, 14.28 % had at least 1 CCT reactor. Using a private water source for cattle and not introducing new cattle into the farm were associated with lower prevalence of M. bovis skin positivity. The herd-level prevalence of M. bovis reactors in Kashaari County of Mbarara District was 14.5 %, and the individual cattle prevalence was low (2.1 %). Using communal sources of drinking water for cattle and introducing new cattle on the farm were farm management practices associated with increased risk of M. bovis exposure in cattle. Despite the low prevalence of bovine tuberculosis (TB), there is a need to educate the populace on the possibility of human infection with zoonotic TB and for educating farmers on practices to reduce the risk of acquiring M. bovis in the Mbarara District.
Castration-induced changes in the expression profiles and promoter methylation of the GHR gene in Huainan male pigs. Castration plays a regulatory role in growth and carcass traits, particularly in fat deposition, but its molecular mechanisms are still not clear. The present study showed that castration significantly reduced the serum growth hormone and the responses of the growth hormone receptor (GHR), insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-I), IGF-IR and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ) to castration were similar in different adipose tissues. However, the GHR expression trends were opposite between the liver and the adipose tissues; bisulfite sequencing PCR (BSP) showed that its methylation in these two tissues was different. In particular, the GHR methylation rate in the liver of castrated and intact pigs were 93.33% and 0, respectively, which was consistent with its higher expression level in the intact group. It was predicted that there were potential binding sites for 11 transcription factors in the ninth CpG site (which was methylated and demethylated in subcutaneous adipose tissue of the intact and castrated groups, respectively), including androgen receptor (AR), CCAAT/enhancer binding protein-α (C/EBPα) and C/EBPβ, all of which are important factors in lipid metabolism. These results indicate that DNA methylation may participate in castration-induced fat deposition.
Metabolic disease may result in various conditions including obesity, hypertension, diabetes, coronary artery disease, stroke, congestive heart failure, multiple orthopedic problems, pulmonary insufficiency, sleep apnea, infertility, and markedly decreased life expectancy. Additionally, the complications or co-morbidities associated with metabolic disease may affect an individual's quality of life. Accordingly, the monetary, physical, and psychological costs associated with metabolic disease may be substantial in some cases. A variety of bariatric surgical procedures have been developed to treat complications of metabolic disease, such as obesity. One such procedure is the Roux-en-Y gastric bypass (RYGB). In a RYGB procedure, a small stomach pouch is separated from the remainder of the gastric cavity and attached to a re-sectioned portion of the small intestine. However, because this complex procedure may require a great deal of operative time, as well as extended and painful post-operative recovery, the RYGB procedure is generally only utilized to treat people with morbid obesity. In view of the highly invasive nature of the RYGB procedure, other less invasive bariatric procedures have been developed such as the Fobi pouch, bilio-pancreatic diversion, gastroplasty (“stomach stapling”), vertical sleeve gastrectomy, and gastric banding. In addition, implantable devices are known which limit the passage of food through the stomach. Gastric banding procedures, for example, involve the placement of a small band around the stomach near the junction of the stomach and the esophagus to restrict the passage from one part of the digestive tract to another, thereby affecting a patient's feeling of satiety. While the above-described bariatric procedures may be used for the treatment of morbid obesity, in some cases the risks of these procedures may outweigh the potential benefits for the growing segment of the population that is considered overweight. The additional weight carried around by these persons may still result in significant health complications, but does not necessarily justify more invasive treatment options. However, because conservative treatment with diet and exercise alone may be ineffective for reducing excess body weight in some cases, there is a need for treatment options that are less invasive and lower cost than the procedures discussed above. It is known to create cavity wall plications through both laparoscopic and endoscopic procedures. Laparoscopic plication techniques can be complicated and complex, however, as one or more surgical entry ports may need to be employed to gain access to the surgical site. Furthermore, laparoscopically approaching the stomach may require separating the surrounding omentum prior to plication formation. In endoscopic procedures, plication depth may suffer due to the size restrictions of the endoscopic lumen. For example, the rigid length and diameter of a surgical device are limited based on what sizes can be reliably and safely passed trans-orally into the stomach. Furthermore, access and visibility within the gastric and peritoneal cavities may be progressively limited in an endoscopic procedure as the extent of the reduction increases, because the volume of the gastric cavity is reduced. In addition, existing devices for forming endoluminal plications may utilize opposing jaws and a grasper element to draw tissue between the jaws. These devices may approach the cavity wall such that a longitudinal axis of the device is perpendicular to the cavity wall. The grasper element can then be advanced from the center of the open jaws, and used to draw tissue between the jaws to create the fold. However, the geometry of these devices limits the size of the plication that can be formed to approximately the length of the jaws, as the grasper may be able to only draw the cavity wall tissue to the center of the jaws and no further. Moreover, in order to secure a plication with a plurality of fasteners, these devices may need to release the tissue and be repositioned anew to apply each fastener. A merely exemplary plication device is disclosed in U.S. Pat. Pub. No. 2013/0153642, entitled “Devices and Methods for Endoluminal Plication,” published Jun. 20, 2013, now U.S. Pat. No. 9,119,615, issued Sep. 1, 2015, the disclosure which is incorporated by reference herein. While various kinds of bariatric surgical instruments and associated components have been made and used, it is believed that no one prior to the inventor(s) has made or used the invention described in the appended claims. The drawings are not intended to be limiting in any way, and it is contemplated that various embodiments of the technology may be carried out in a variety of other ways, including those not necessarily depicted in the drawings. The accompanying drawings incorporated in and forming a part of the specification illustrate several aspects of the present technology, and together with the description serve to explain the principles of the technology; it being understood, however, that this technology is not limited to the precise arrangements shown.
1. Field of the Invention This invention relates in general to sliders for magnetic thin film heads, and more particularly, to sliders for magnetic thin film heads having a silicon coating formed over the air bearing surface thereof. 2. Description of Related Art Magnetic disk devices have been in widespread use and are popular as external storage. A magnetic disk device includes a magnetic disk, a motor for rotating the magnetic disk, a slider radially movable along the magnetic disk, and a magnetic head mounted on the slider to perform data read and write operations with respect to the magnetic disk. Achieving higher recording densities has required a reduction in the separation between the head and the surface of the magnetic disk. Storage systems in use commercially today use a slider that rides on a hydrodynamic air bearing during normal operation. The disk is typically coated with a lubricant, such as perfluoropolyether (PFPE), to prevent wear to the disk and slider during contact start and stop maneuvers and occasional asperity contacts. Two primary recording concepts are currently being used: true contact and near-contact recording. True contact recording uses very small sliders coated with low wear rate materials that are allowed to slide directly against the disk. In near-contact recording, a liquid bearing surface or an air bearing surface is used to separate the head from the disk. Nevertheless, with either recording concept, the slider may rest upon the surface of the magnetic disk when not in use. During information retrieval and recording, however, the magnetic disk is rotated. When the disk first begins rotating, the slider slides along the surface of the magnetic disk. With near-contact recording, as the rotational speed of the disk increases, a boundary layer of air is formed which causes the slider to lift off of the disk and "fly" above the surface of the disk. When the power to the disk drive is once again shut off, the disk rotational speed gradually decreases, and the slider lands upon the disk, sliding along the surface of the disk until the disk comes to rest. Several problems arise from the contact of the slider with the disk. With respect to both types of recording systems, the slider may be sliding directly in contact with the disk surface during start up and slow down of the disk. This frictional contact causes wear of the disk and slider. The excessive wear on the disk reduces the effective useful life of the disk. Furthermore, even with near-contact recording systems, contact between the slider and disk also may occur when the disk is at full rotational speed. Although the boundary layer of air normally acts to support the slider above the disk, high points (asperities) on the otherwise smooth surface of the disk at times cause the slider to make contact with these projections on the disk. When the slider impacts these asperities on the disk, the slider often gouges the disk surface, further degrading the disk surface, as well as causing damage to the head and slider. Accordingly, there is a need to protect the slider and disk surface from damage, namely by depositing a final layer at the air bearing surface in the fabrication of magnetic thin film heads. This surface provides a durable interface between the head and disk during file operation. Another function of the final layer is to provide a surface on which the flyheight can be measured, e.g. a surface with simple and consistent optical properties. In order to provide a durable interface, a low friction, durable and mechanically tough coating is required. In order to provide surface conducive to fly height measurements, an optically reflective, single layer material is required. Many materials, such as SiN, SiC, TiN, DLC, TiW etc. have been tried. Nevertheless, all such materials have failed either by the first or second criteria. For example, in the case of a silicon slider, the coating is not identical to the silicon slider body, which creates thermal mismatches and mechanical stresses. Thus, a stable slider dimension (crown, camber, pitch, etc.) can not be maintained with the temperature excursion encountered by the file. To overcome the head disk interface durability problem with metallic layers such as TiW, a thin and durable hydrogenated carbon overcoat has been applied as the final step in head fabrication. U.S. Pat. No. 5,159,508 to Grill, et al., and U.S. Pat. No. 5,175,658 to Chang et al., both of which are incorporated by reference herein, describe the use of a DC biased substrate in an RF plasma deposition apparatus to deposit an adhesion layer and a thin layer of carbon upon the air bearing surface of a slider. These references describe depositing an adhesion layer to a thickness of between 10 and 50 Angstroms (i.e., 1 to 5 nm), and a carbon layer to a thickness of 50-1000 Angstroms (i.e., 5 to 100 nm) upon the flat surface of a slider. An etching technique is then used to form a patterned area, which includes rails, on the air bearing surface. A solvent is then used to remove the photoresist layer which is used to control the etching. These methods suffer from several disadvantages. Primarily, the Grill and Chang references disclose a method by which the protective coating (plus a masking layer as described in the Chang reference), is placed to protect the slider. These layers are necessary to protect the slider during subsequent etching which is done to form the patterned air bearing surface, and for subsequent solvent removal of the photoresist layer after etching. Unfortunately, this method requires the placement of a substantial thickness of coating across the entire slider so that the sensor will not be damaged during the etching process. Further, this method does not allow control over the depth of the coating material across the air bearing surface of the slider. In particular, during the etching and solvent removal steps, which are done to form the patterned surface in the slider and to remove a photoresist material, the coating is removed in an uncontrolled fashion This causes the coating thickness to vary across the air bearing surface of the slider. A further problem with this method is that the magnetic spacing is increased by the thickness of this carbon overcoat. This increase in magnetic spacing is significant in the low flying height file because it can occupy as much as 50% of the total spacing and degrade the file performance. Thus it can be seen that there is a need for overcoat material, which has the better combination of durability and optical properties compared to TiW. It also can be seen that there is a need for an overcoat material that is compatible with different slider body materials such as silicon which imposes little concern about the thermal expansion and mechanical stress effects on the slider. It can also be seen then that there is a need for an overcoat material that does not create magnetic spacing loss.
The operation and control of the next generation electrical grids will depend on a complex network of computers, software, and communication technologies. Being compromised by a malicious adversary would cause significant damage, including extended power outages and destruction of electrical equipment. Moreover, the implementation of the smart grid will include the deployment of many new enabling technologies such as advanced sensors and metering, and the integration of distributed generation resources. Such technologies and various others will require the addition and utilization of multiple communication mechanisms and infrastructures that may suffer from serious cyber vulnerabilities. These need to be addressed in order to increase the security and thus the greatest adoption and success of the smart grid. In this article, we focus on the communication security aspect, which deals with the distribution component of the smart grid. Consequently, we target the network security of the advanced metering infrastructure coupled with the data communication toward the transmission infrastructure. We discuss the security and feasibility aspects of possible communication mechanisms that could be adopted on that subpart of the grid. By accomplishing this, the correlated vulnerabilities in these systems could be remediated, and associated risks may be mitigated for the purpose of enhancing the cyber security of the future electric grid.
Electric motors are used almost everywhere in society to produce different mechanical movements, for example, rotating pumps and fans. There are numerous different types of electric motors, of which the most common is the so-called squirrel-cage motor. The connection of a squirrel-cage motor to the network is known to cause a substantial switching current surge; the current taken from the network when starting can transiently be over 6 times the rated current. This kind of current surge often causes problems, such as the need to dimension the fuses and cables of the supply circuit to be larger than the load during actual operation would require, as well as the extra costs incurred by this kind of over-dimensioning. Generally the larger the power output of the motor is in question, the larger problem the switching current surge is. One prior-art solution for reducing the starting current is to use a so-called soft starter, which may include a circuit implemented with thyristors, with its control unit, and in which the control angle of the thyristors is controlled so that the voltage of the motor decreases to avoid the over large current of the starting phase. This type of solution is known, for example from publications DE4406794 and U.S. Pat. No. 5,859,514. A drawback of the solution is the cost of starting and the power loss during operation as the motor current runs continuously through it. In order to reduce continuous power loss, the prior art solution bypass the soft starter by connecting the motor directly to the network after the starting phase with a shunt contactor. The use of a frequency converter for starting the motor without a switching current surge is also a well-known solution. When the load requires a varying speed of rotation, the use of a frequency converter is otherwise a natural solution. If, however, the load of the motor allows continuous operation at a fixed frequency of the supply network, the prior art solutions use a shunt circuit implemented with contactors to minimize power losses, with which shunt circuit the motor is disconnected after the starting phase from the frequency converter and connected directly to the network. A shunt circuit may be used in the prior-art pump automatics according to FIG. 2a, in which one frequency converter and a number of motors of which each can be connected either to the frequency converter, or directly to the network. With the solution the total flow produced by the pumps can be steplessly adjusted from zero up to maximum delivery, in which case all the motors operate at their rated speed. Also a motor accelerated to its rated speed with a frequency converter can take a substantial connection current surge, even greater than the starting situation, when it is connected directly to the network. This occurs if the amplitude and phase angle of the so-called residual voltage evident in the connectors of the motor after disconnecting from the frequency converter differ from the amplitude and phase angle of the supply network at the time when the motor is connected directly to the network. Owing to the deceleration of a loaded motor and the switching delays of the contactors, which can be in the range 40 . . . 100 ms, a simple and reasonably priced prior-art method or arrangement to synchronize the residual voltage and the voltage of the supply network at the time of connection is not found.
Assessment of the adherence of community health workers to dosing and referral guidelines for the management of fever in children under 5 years: a study in Dangme West District, Ghana. Community health workers (CHW) manage simple childhood illnesses in many developing countries. Information on CHWs' referral practices is limited. As part of a large cluster-randomised trial, this study assessed CHWs' adherence to dosing and referral guidelines. Records of consultations of children aged 2-59 months with fever managed by CHWs were analysed. Appropriate use of drugs was defined as provision of the correct drug pack(s) for the child's age group. Symptoms requiring referral were categorised into danger signs, respiratory distress and symptoms indicating other illnesses. Multivariate logistic regression examined symptoms most likely to be noted as requiring referral and those associated with provision of a written referral. Most children (11 659/12 330; 94.6%) received the appropriate drug. Only 161 of 1758 (9.2%) children who, according to the guidelines required referral were provided with a written referral. Not drinking/breastfeeding, persistent vomiting, unconsciousness/lethargy, difficultly breathing, fast breathing, bloody stool, sunken eyes and pallor were symptoms significantly associated with being identified by CHWs as needing referral or receiving a written referral. CHWs' adherence to dosing guidelines was high. Adherence to referral guidelines was inadequate. More effort needs to be put into strengthening referral practices of CHWs within comparable community programmes.
On scaffolds and hopping in medicinal chemistry. The molecular scaffold is an oft-cited concept in medicinal chemistry suggesting that the definition of what makes a scaffold is rigorous and objective. However, this is far from the case with the definition of a scaffold being highly dependent on the particular viewpoint of a given scientist. It follows, therefore, that the definition of scaffold hopping and, more importantly, the detection of what constitutes a scaffold hop, is also ill-defined and highly subjective. Essentially, it is agreed that scaffolds should be substantially different from each other, although significantly similar to each other, to constitute a hop. In the latter, the scaffolds must permit a similar geometric arrangement of functional groups to permit the mode of action. However, this leaves the paradox of how to describe both scaffold similarity and dissimilarity simultaneously. In this paper, the current statuses of scaffolds and scaffold hopping are reviewed based on published examples of scaffold hopping from the literature. An investigation of the degree to which it is possible to formulate a more rigorous definition of scaffolds and hopping in the context of molecular topologies is considered. These techniques are adapted from chemoinformatics to be applied in the design of new medicinal compounds.
The application of a work platform forces to the pump jack “L” frame result in significant stresses in the material and fasteners located at the connection of the vertical and horizontal members. FIG. 2 shows that the “L” frame design currently employed by pump jack manufacturers utilizes outwardly opened, laterally opposing, “C” shaped channels for both the vertical 10 and horizontal 11 frame members. At the connection of the vertical and horizontal members, the flange of the vertical member 10 must be notched 12, or removed as shown in FIG. 3, to facilitate the connection of the horizontal member 11. The notching 12, or removal, of the flange in this area weakens the frameworks at its most structurally critical location in two ways: 1. The removal of flange material in the area local to the most significant stresses. 2. The notching process generates a point where stresses are concentrated. This point 13 is located at the corner of the notch 12. This point 13 of concentrated stress is commonly referred to as a stress riser. As a result, under test loads, the “L” frame vertical member 10 will fail in this structurally critical area.
Group O RBCs: where is universal donor blood being used. There have been recurrent shortages of group O blood due to insufficient inventory and use of group O blood in ABO non-identical recipients. We performed a 12-year retrospective study to determine utilization of group O Rh-positive and Rh-negative red blood cells (RBCs) by recipient ABO group. Reasons for transfusing group O blood to ABO non-identical recipients were also assessed. Utilization data from all group O Rh-positive and Rh-negative RBCs transfused at three academic hospitals between April 2002 and March 2014 were included. Data were extracted from Transfusion Registry for Utilization Surveillance and Tracking, a comprehensive database with inventory information on all blood products received at the hospitals. Extracted data included product type, ABO and Rh, final disposition (transfused, wasted, outdated), and demographic and clinical data on all patients admitted to hospital. Descriptive statistics were performed using sas 9.3. There were 314 968 RBC transfusions: 151 645 (48·1%) were group O, of which 138 136 (91·1%) RBC units were transfused to group O individuals. ABO non-identical recipients received 13 509 group O RBCs (8·9%). The percentage of group O RBCs transfused to ABO non-identical recipients by fiscal year varied from 7·8% to 11·1% with a steady increase from 2011 to 2013. Reasons for this included: trauma, outdating, outpatient usage and shortages. The practice of transfusing O RBCs to non-O individuals has been increasing. Specific hospital and blood supplier policies could be targeted to change practice, leading to a more sustainable group O red blood cell supply.
This application outlines a career development plan for the applicant who is a practicing neonatologist with an interest in developmental immunology and has the goal of becoming an independent investigator. Under the mentorship of established basic science researchers and a multidisciplinary Advisory Committee, the Principal Investigator will pursue a program of education (coursework, conferences, seminars) and a research project addressing the causation of BPD, a critical issue in neonatal medicine. BPD is a sequence of chronic lung injuries in ventilated premature infants that can be quite severe, resulting in significant morbidity and mortality. Current treatments, including bronchodilator and diuretic therapies, are only palliative. Prevention of BPD using corticosteroids has some benefit, but this has recently been associated with significant and long-term adverse effects. Therefore, it is important to establish methods to identify infants who are at particular risk of developing BPD and to improve preventive therapies. Inflammation and the accumulation of activated neutrophils in the lung play a large part in the pathogenesis of BPD. We hypothesize that reduced clearance of neutrophils from the neonatal lung by apoptosis accounts, in large part, for the severity of inflammatory injuries in BPD, and that this is due to specific alterations in signaling pathways mediating neutrophil activation and apoptosis. To test this hypothesis, blood and lung neutrophil apoptosis in normal and premature infants will be compared with that in adults. Mechanisms underlying reduced apoptosis in neonatal neutrophils will also be analyzed. Quantifying markers for reduced lung neutrophil apoptosis that correlate with the development of BPD may allow us to identify patients at high risk who are good candidates for preventive treatment. The identification of specific pathways mediating apoptosis that are altered in neonatal neutrophils may also suggest preventive therapeutic strategies.
The Intuitive Basis for Contextualism (for The Routledge Handbook of Epistemic Contextualism, edited by Jonathan Jenkins Ichikawa) Geoff Pynn FINAL VERSION: September 12, 2016 Francois follows climate science closely, and on this basis she believes, correctly, that the earth's mean temperature will continue to rise over the next century. Does she know this? Many would say that she does. Her belief is based on her accurate understanding of the scientific consensus, and we typically treat scientific expertise as a source of knowledge. On the other hand, you might deny that she knows that the temperature will continue to rise, even if you agree that this is likely. After all, climate scientists themselves readily acknowledge that their predictions are not entirely certain. So while Francois may be justified in her belief, she doesn't really know. Which answer is right, then? Does Francois know? Or not? Contextualists think that which answer is correct depends, in part, on the context in which the question is asked. Whether Francois can truly claim to know depends on her context's "epistemic standard," which determines how strong her epistemic position must be in order for her to count as knowing in that context --how much evidence she needs, which alternatives she needs to be able to rule out, how reliable her belief-forming mechanisms need to be, and so on. So according to the contextualist, Francois can truly claim to know that the temperature will continue to rise in a context where the epistemic standard is relatively relaxed, but not in a context where the epistemic standard is particularly demanding. This chapter outlines the intuitive argument for contextualism. To a substantial degree, my presentation follows that of Keith DeRose, who has done more than any other contextualist to develop the argument (see especially DeRose 1992, 2005, 2009 (ch.2)). The overall shape of the argument is an inference to the best explanation: contextualism, it is claimed, is part of the best explanation for the 2 variability in epistemic standards exhibited by our ordinary knowledge talk. The argument is "intuitive" in that it relies upon intuitive judgments about ordinary knowledge claims. The contents of these judgments furnish the data that contextualism explains. By calling the judgments "intuitive," I mean two things: first, they are more-or-less non-inferential and cognitively effortless; second, they are generated by intellectual reflection or imagination, rather than perception (Nagel 2007, Nado and Johnson 2014). When I say that something "intuitively seems" to be the case, I mean that we (I and, hopefully, the reader) are inclined to make an intuitive judgment that it is the case. When I say that an intuitive judgment is "accepted," or that we "defer to" an intuition or intuitive judgment, I mean that we accept that the judgment's content is true. Low-High Pairs and The Intuitions They Elicit The case for contextualism starts with the observation that we apply different epistemic standards in different contexts when making and evaluating knowledge claims. This observation will not be news to anyone who has been exposed to radical skeptical arguments. When well-constructed and successfully deployed, such arguments lead us temporarily to apply much higher epistemic standards than we ordinarily do, and hence to conclude that we don't know much. Still, as Hume pointed out, even skeptics regard themselves as knowers once the skeptical spell has been lifted: "[T]he first and most trivial event in life will put to flight all their doubts and scruples, and leave them the same, in every point of action and speculation, with the philosophers of every other sect, or with those who never concerned themselves in any philosophical researches" (Hume 1999, 207). One can see the debate over radical skepticism as a debate about which epistemic standard is correct: the very high standard introduced by the skeptic, or the more manageable one in place once our doubts and scruples have been put to flight. Contextualists claim to be able to resolve, or dissolve, this debate: different standards apply in different contexts, so neither one is "correct" tout court (see Chapter 10). But the contextualist resolution might appear ad hoc. 3 Couldn't nearly any philosophical dispute be "resolved" by stipulating that some term at the heart of the dispute has a meaning that varies with context? To avoid this charge, we need independent reason to accept that contextualism is true. Contextualists argue that shifts in epistemic standards like those triggered by a skeptic's intervention are ubiquitous in ordinary conversations. They present us with pairs of imaginary vignettes to illustrate this variability. In the "Low" vignette, a speaker in some mundane situation claims that a subject knows some proposition. In the "High" vignette, a speaker in a different situation claims that the same subject doesn't know that same proposition. When the vignettes are well constructed, both the positive knowledge claim in the Low case and the negative knowledge claim in the High case seem true. I'll call such cases Low-High pairs. Here is a well-known Low-High pair from Keith DeRose: Low Bank Case. My wife and I are driving home on a Friday afternoon. We plan to stop at the bank on the way home to deposit our paychecks. But as we drive past the bank, we notice that the lines inside are very long, as they often are on Friday afternoons. Although we generally like to deposit our paychecks as soon as possible, it is not especially important in this case that they be deposited right away, so I suggest that we drive straight home and deposit our paychecks on Saturday morning. My wife says, "Maybe the bank won't be open tomorrow. Lots of banks are closed on Saturdays." I reply, "No, I know it'll be open. I was just there two weeks ago on Saturday. It's open until noon." High Bank Case. My wife and I drive past the bank on a Friday afternoon, as in [Low Bank Case], and notice the long lines. I again suggest that we deposit our paychecks on Saturday morning, explaining that I was at the bank on Saturday morning only two weeks ago and discovered that it was open until noon. But in this case, we have just written a very large and very important check. If our paychecks are not deposited into our checking account before Monday morning, the important check we wrote will bounce, leaving us in a very bad situation. And, of 4 course, the bank is not open on Sunday. My wife reminds me of these facts. She then says, "Banks do change their hours. Do you know the bank will be open tomorrow?" Remaining as confident as I was before that the bank will be open then, still, I reply, "Well, no, I don't know. I'd better go in and check" (DeRose 1992, 913; DeRose 2009, 1-2). In Low, it doesn't matter very much whether Keith is right about the bank's hours, and no hypotheses about how he could be wrong has been raised. In High, it matters a lot whether he is right, and a particular hypothesis about how he might be wrong ("Banks do change their hours") has been raised. What leads Keith to deny that he knows in High is not an argument for philosophical skepticism, but his awareness of the ordinary ways he could go wrong, and the exigencies of everyday life. The intuitive argument for contextualism doesn't rest upon any particular Low-High pair such as the bank cases or Stuart Cohen's equally well-known airport cases (Cohen 1999). Such cases are rather meant to illustrate a pervasive variability in our ordinary knowledge talk, which contextualism (it is argued) best explains. Nonetheless, it simplifies matters to present the argument as if a particular pair of cases were essential to it. There should be no danger in this, provided we bear in mind that the contrast between the bank cases is meant to be representative of a ubiquitous phenomenon. So construed, the key claim in the case for contextualism is: Truth. Keith's claim to know in Low and his claim not to know in High are both true. Truth, in turn, is underwritten by two intuitive judgments. First, considered from the perspective of the context in which it was made, each claim seems true. As DeRose puts it, contextualists "appeal to how we, competent speakers, intuitively evaluate the truthvalues of particular claims that are made (or are imagined to have been made) in particular situations" (DeRose 2009, 49). Imagine yourself in each conversation, and ask whether the claim Keith makes in that conversation is true (assuming, of course, that the bank will in fact be open); the contextualist thinks that 5 you'll find yourself answering, "Yes." Second, each claim is intuitively appropriate. A claim can be (and seem) true without being (or seeming) appropriate. Asked by a friend who's run out of gas if there is a filling station nearby, I claim that there is one around the corner, without revealing that I know that it has been closed for months. My claim is true but misleading, and hence improper. However, the propriety of a claim is evidence for its truth, since it is generally improper to make a false claim. Not always: hyperbolic and other figurative claims can be proper though false ("It took me a million years to get through Husserl's Logical Investigations!"). Nonetheless, such cases are exceptional, and neither of Keith's claims seems at all figurative (pace Hazlett 2007 and Schaffer 2004). It's important to see that neither of these intuitions constitutes a judgment about what Keith knows or doesn't know. For a contextualist, the question of what a subject knows is different from the question of what knowledge claims are true of her. To say that Keith knows would be to claim, in effect, that he meets the epistemic standards in place in our present context. The case for contextualism does not rest on an intuitive judgment that Keith meets or doesn't meet the epistemic standards in place in the context of a philosophical discussion about knowledge or knowledge claims. Rather, it rests on the judgment that Keith's knowledge claims, as made in their imagined contexts, are true. Contextualists typically refrain from issuing or endorsing any first-order judgment about whether the characters in their vignettes know or don't know. DeRose, for example, says that his intuitions about the "object-level question" of whether the characters in his story know "would be far more wavering and uncertain than are my intuitions that the claims made in the cases are true" (DeRose 2009, 49). Similarly, when arguing for contextualism using his airport cases, Stewart Cohen is concerned with whether the speakers use the word 'know' correctly, and whether they speak truly, and not with whether the subject of their knowledge attributions knows (Cohen 1999, 58ff.). The intuitions are also not judgments about the sentences that Keith has uttered. Standard contextualism does treat both sentences as true with respect to their context of utterance. And contextualists are not always careful about distinguishing the truth of a sentence from the truth of a claim made by uttering the sentence (though see Stainton 2010 and Pynn 2015). This is partly because 6 contextualists typically presuppose that what Keith claims in each case just is the content encoded by the sentence he utters with respect to its context. If a claim's content and truth-value are identified with the content and truth-value of the sentence uttered in making the claim, then Truth implies that the sentences Keith utters in both cases are true. But the intuitive judgments at play in the argument concern the truth and propriety of Keith's claims, and not the sentences he utters in making them.1 By and large, contextualists and their opponents have agreed that Keith's claims are intuitively proper and true; controversy has concerned how to accommodate these intuitions, not what they are. Recently, however, work in "experimental philosophy" has been used to raise doubts about the intuitions themselves. Citing surveys designed to elicit judgments about Low-High pairs, Jonathan Schaffer and Joshua Knobe assert that "people simply do not have the intuitions they were purported to have," suggesting that "the whole contextualism debate was founded on a myth" (Schaffer and Knobe 2012, 675). Chapter 3 discusses this issue in more detail. Two brief responses are worth making. First, some of the data cited by Schaffer and Knobe is neutral with respect to the intuitive judgments just canvassed (see DeRose 2011 for discussion). Two of the surveys ask subjects about whether various characters in Low-High pairs know, rather than whether speakers who claim to know speak truly. A third study (Buckwalter 2010) asked subjects whether the speaker in a Low case who claims to know speaks truly, but then, in a departure from contextualist Low-High pairs, asked whether a speaker in a High-like case who also claims to know speaks truly. Only the fourth study (Feltz and Zarpentine 2010) involved a survey in which the bank cases were presented more-or-less as originally constructed. In Feltz and Zarpentine's study, the average level of agreement that the claims made in High and Low were true was around 4 on a 7-point Likert scale. While this result does not confirm the contextualist's claims about the intuitions, neither does it disconfirm them; it is neutral. 1 To see the difference, it may be helpful to focus on the actual sentence that features in the High bank case: "Well, no, I don't know." Speaking for myself, I have no intuition whatsoever about whether that sentence is true. I am inclined to say that it is neither true nor false, because it is semantically incomplete, since it has no element corresponding to what Keith is claiming not to know. 7 Second, more recent work than that cited by Schaffer and Knobe suggests that the intuition of truth in Low and High is, in fact, widely shared. Hansen and Chemla 2013 "confirmed DeRose's prediction that speakers would find both 'I know that p' in the Low context and 'I don't know that P' in the High context true" (Hansen and Chemla 2013, 203). And Buckwalter 2014 designed a new survey where speakers were asked about the truth of knowledge attributions and denials made in various Low and High cases, and found that subjects "generally judged everything true across the board" (Buckwalter 2014, 156).2 In light of this subsequent work, we have reason to doubt Schaffer and Knobe's assertion that contextualism is founded on an intuitive myth. Nonetheless, the empirical adequacy of the standard contextualist claim about our intuitive judgments is a subject of lively and ongoing debate; see Chapter 3 for a more detailed and sympathetic discussion of this line of criticism. Why The Intuitions Should Be Trusted Deferring to the intuitive judgments gives us strong reason to accept Truth. But why defer to the intuitions to begin with? Why think that the seeming truth and propriety of his claims indicates that they are proper and true? This question points towards the vast controversy over the role of intuitions in philosophy; see Pust 2016 for an introduction to this literature. It is a widely accepted philosophical practice to afford the contents of our intuitive judgments a default level of evidential significance. The practice is not to treat intuitive judgments as infallible or issuing from some faculty of rational intuition, but simply to treat acceptance of their contents as a 2 Consistent with his earlier study, Buckwalter's respondents also judged that speakers who claim not to know in Low cases and speakers who claim to know in High cases were speaking truly. This wrinkle leads Buckwalter to suggest that all of the responses were "largely driven by accommodation;" i.e., the conversational rule -schema David Lewis posited to the effect that speakers ought, so far as possible, to assign semantic values to utterances that permit them to be interpreted as true (Lewis 1979). Contextualist should welcome Buckwalter's suggestion. If the reason that subjects so readily interpret "know"-involving utterances as true is that they are tacitly adhering to a rule of accommodation for such utterances, then we have a further piece of "intuitive" evidence for contextualism: the more semantically invariant a term, the more resistant we should be to accommodating a variety of "surfacecontradictory" utterances involving the term. 8 desideratum when tallying the pros and cons of a philosophical view. When the balance of reasons tips in favor of a view, despite its conflict with some intuitive judgments, standard practice tells us to "bite the bullet" and dismiss the problematic intuitions. Yet even when biting the bullet, we are encouraged to provide an explanation for the wayward intuitions. Fairly powerful reasons are required to conclude that things are not how they intuitively seem, and we may remain dissatisfied with a bullet-biting view until we have been told why things intuitively but wrongly seemed as they did. Employing this standard practice in the present context, the intuitions that Keith's utterances are both proper and true ought to be taken at face value. And to take them at face value is to endorse Truth. If we are to reject them, we are owed an explanation as to why we had them to begin with. Of course, to describe this practice is not to justify it. Controversy surrounds all general defenses of reliance on intuition in philosophy. A more manageable strategy here may be to pursue a narrower defense. Jennifer Nagel argues that "epistemic evaluations of particular cases" of the sort frequently discussed by epistemologists (e.g., intuitive judgments about Gettier's cases, Carl Ginet's fake barn country, Lawrence Bonjour's Truetemp case) are exercises of our capacity to attribute mental states to other people (Nagel 2007, 2012). Though our "mindreading" ability is susceptible to error, it is nonetheless generally accurate. If Nagel is right about the source of our intuitive epistemic evaluations, then we can be confident in treating them as evidentially significant (if defeasible). But Nagel's defense of epistemic intuitions, even if successful, may not establish the significance of the contextualist intuitions about Low-High pairs, because the latter may not count as epistemic intuitions; they concern the truth and propriety of knowledge claims, and not whether the subjects of those claims know. Since the intuitions concern claims made by uttering sentences, we may wish to treat them as linguistic intuitions. Linguists treat the intuitive judgments of competent speakers about certain features of their language as an important source of evidence about those features of the language. The standard rationale for treating such intuitions as evidence is that linguistic competence relies on tacit knowledge of the rules governing the language (Chomsky 1986). On the assumption that a linguistic intuition is the product of a speaker's tacit knowledge of the rules governing their language, we have good reason to 9 accept it. While there is substantial controversy over the adequacy of this traditional rationale (see, e.g., Devitt 2006), it seems undeniable that competent speakers of a language possess at least some degree of epistemic authority concerning many features of their language. If the intuitive judgments of truth and propriety in Low-High pairs are linguistic intuitions, then they have a prima facie claim to deference, on pain of undermining a principle source of evidence in linguistics. However, just as it is not clear that the intuitions are epistemic, it's also not clear that they are best characterized as properly linguistic, either. They don't concern the properties of words or sentences, but the claims made by uttering sentences in particular contexts. The competence required to determine what claim is being made by a speaker who utters a particular sentence involves a substantial degree of extralinguistic knowledge, as does that required to form an accurate judgment about whether a claim is true or conversationally proper. Suppose that Mary utters, "Sharon is by the bank." Linguistic competence alone won't enable you to know whether she is claiming that Sharon is waiting by a financial institution, or that Sharon is down by the riverbank, much less whether Mary's claim is proper or true. Similarly, tacit knowledge of the syntactic and semantic features of the linguistic expressions he uses doesn't suffice for us to know what Keith claims by uttering, "Well, no, I don't know," much less to form a judgment as to whether his claim is true or proper. Intuitions of truth and propriety rest in part upon empirical knowledge of how speakers in various circumstances use particular English sentences, together with our capacity to imaginatively occupy the circumstances described in the case. But even if the intuitions do not rest entirely upon tacit linguistic knowledge, their being the product of our competence as users of English gives us good reason to treat them with respect. Fluent speakers possess practical expertise concerning how to use their language. They are in a position to know what sentences speakers tend to utter in various situations, what speakers typically mean to claim by uttering what they do, and which claims are appropriate to make under which circumstances. The intuitive judgments of competent speakers about the truth and propriety of claims made using their language thus deserve deference for the same reason that the judgments of anyone with practical expertise in any particular area do: expertise in a practice gives you reliable (though not infallible) intuitions about how 10 the practice works. When a chef who has been making mayonnaise for years tells you that you're adding the oil to your emulsion too quickly, you ought to listen. A seasoned jazz musician can tell you, without appeal to theory, whether a given note will sound awkward at a particular moment in an improvised sequence. Similarly, given sufficient background information, a fluent speaker of English can tell you whether a claim made using English in a particular circumstance would be proper, and whether it would be true.3 Contextualism and Its Invariantist Rivals The rest of the intuitive argument for contextualism is devoted to showing that contextualism is better able than its rivals to accommodate and explain Truth. Keith's claims are "surface-contradictory". Making what is implicit in the uttered sentences explicit, the two claims are: (L) I know [that the bank will] be open. (H) I don't know [that the bank will be open]. Going by their surface grammar, (L) and (H) are contradictories. So how could both claims be true? We assume that the bank will be open, and that Keith believes this in both cases. Keith has no evidence against the bank's being open in High that he lacks in Low. His epistemic position with respect to the 3 DeRose suggests that correct semantic theory of a term is correct partly in virtue of the fact that we have the semantic intuitions about the term that we do, together with other facts about our usage of the term (DeRose 2009, 66-67). He concludes that ordinary usage facts indicating that a term is context -sensitive are thus "some of the best possible type of evidence you could ask for" to conclude that the term is, in fact, context-sensitive. Against this, Cappelen and Lepore argue that intuitions of the sort we have been discussing --intuitions about truth and propriety generated by what they call "minimal pairs" --provide no evidence that a term is semantically context-sensitive (Cappelen and Lepore 2005, 17). Their target is specifically the view that the word "know" should be categorized as an indexical term. (Indeed, as speech-act pluralists, they agree with contextualists that the same sentence can be used to make claims with different truth-conditions in different contexts.) Though the claim that "know" is an indexical term has sometimes been thought to be constitutive of contextualism, contextualists are free reject inde xicalism about "know". See Stainton 2010, Pynn 2016, and chapter 37 for further discussion of these issues. 11 proposition that the bank will be open is the same in both cases. How, then, can he truly claim (L) in Low, but truly claim (H) in High? Contextualism provides a simple answer: whether Keith can truly claim to know something varies with the epistemic standard in the context in which he makes the claim. Since the standard in Low is relatively low, while the standard in High is relatively high, his epistemic position is strong enough for him to count as knowing in Low, but not for him to count as knowing in High. Invariantists hold that the epistemic standards governing the truth of a knowledge claim are fixed across contexts, and so cannot agree that (L) and (H) are both true owing to a variation in the epistemic standards across the contexts of utterance. Traditionally, invariantists have attempted to block the intuitive inference to Truth by providing alternative explanations for the intuitions that support it. In more recent years, clever versions of invariantism have been developed that accept Truth, and propose ways to explain it, rather than biting the bullet. Traditional invariantists hold that one of Keith's claims is false. Skeptical invariantists hold that the standard is very demanding, and hence that Keith's claim to know in Low is false. Moderate invariantists hold that the standard is more relaxed, and hence that Keith's claim not to know in High is false. In either case, one intuition of truth must go. Invariantists have nonetheless been keen to accommodate both intuitions of propriety. This leads to two challenges. The first is to explain how the false claim is nonetheless proper. Let's call this the propriety challenge. The second is to explain the wayward intuition of truth. Let's call this the truth challenge. A common strategy for meeting the propriety challenge focuses on the pragmatic effects of knowledge claims (see Chapter 19). False claims can pragmatically convey truths, and in virtue of this may be conversationally proper, despite being false. Jessica Brown 2006 offers a pragmatic answer to the propriety challenge on behalf of moderate invariantism. If Keith were to claim that he knows in the High case, his assertion would, though true, be irrelevant, because the conversationally relevant issue is not whether he knows, but whether he is in an especially strong epistemic position. So he falsely claims that he doesn't know, conveying the conversationally relevant truth that he is not in an especially strong epistemic position (for other proposals in this vein see Rysiew 2001 and 2007, Black 2005, Hazlett 2007, 12 and Pritchard 2010). Skeptical invariantists have made parallel proposals. Jonathan Schaffer 2004 treats ordinary knowledge claims as hyperbole, arguing that such hyperbolic falsehoods convey that the speaker can eliminate the possibilities of error relevant in the context of utterance. Wayne Davis 2007 offers a different kind of pragmatic skeptical account of the propriety of Low knowledge claims, arguing that they are examples of "loose use," proper for the same reason that it can be proper to claim, falsely, that a jar with only a few coffee grounds left is empty (see chapter 17). Though promising as an answer to the propriety challenge, the pragmatic approach faces a significant hurdle in meeting the truth challenge. There are no uncontroversial examples of false claims that seem true in virtue of being proper. The central cases of false-but-proper claims --examples involving figurative speech --do not produce an intuition of truth. And though Davis is surely right that it is often proper to call a coffee jar with a couple of beans in it empty, some (the present author included) hold that this is in part because such claims are often true: the standards for emptiness fluctuate with context. If this is correct, Davis's proposal treating ordinary knowledge claims as instances of loose use may amount to a version of contextualism, rather than a competitor. It is common for invariantists who recognize the limitations of the pragmatic approach to the truth challenge to attempt to meet it with an error theory of some kind. Timothy Williamson, for example, suggests that repeated exposure to unusual skeptical possibilities can produce an "illusion of epistemic danger" (Williamson 2005; see also Vogel 1990). High context speakers, under the sway of such an illusion, may be led to underestimate the strength of their epistemic positions. More recently, Mikkel Gerken 2013 has developed a theory of what he calls "epistemic focal bias," which may produce inaccurate impressions of knowledge and nonknowledge. There is some tension between the error-theoretic approach to the truth challenge and pragmatic resolutions of the propriety challenge. A claim that results from an error may seem proper, but once the error is uncovered, we generally change our minds about its propriety. It is not clear that invariantists can endorse the intuition of propriety while rejecting the intuition of truth (though see Pynn 2014 for an attempt to do both). 13 Other invariantists accept Truth. One prominent strategy is to offer a psychological explanation for the falsehood of Keith's claim in High. Kent Bach argues that in a High context a speaker's "threshold for (confidently) believing" goes up, so that she "demands more evidence than knowledge requires" before she is willing to form a confident belief (Bach 2005, 77). Jennifer Nagel (2008, 2010a, 2010b) relies on an array of psychological studies to argue that subjects in high stakes situations require more information before forming settled beliefs, and so tend to refrain from forming settled beliefs on the basis of information that low stakes subjects treat as sufficient for settled belief. Since high stakes decrease a subject's "need for closure," Keith will be less inclined to form a settled belief about the bank's hours in High than he was in Low. The Bach-Nagel strategy is then to say that Keith doesn't have a settled belief that the bank will be open in High. Since knowledge requires belief, Keith doesn't know in High, and his claim in High is true (see chapter 7). Another invariantist strategy for accommodating Truth is to argue that the epistemic position required for knowing varies with the subject's practical situation. Proponents of interest-relative or sensitive invariantism say that whether a subject's epistemic position is strong enough to know that P depends upon the practical significance for her of the question of whether P is true (see chapter 20). On this picture, when the costs of being wrong about P are high, you need to be in a stronger epistemic position to know that P than you do when the costs of being wrong are low. Sensitive invariantism predicts that (L) and (H) are both true: since the practical stakes are higher for Keith in High than they are in Low, a stronger epistemic position is required for him to know in High than in Low. This approach rests on a claim known as anti-intellectualism or impurism; namely, that the epistemic requirements for knowing vary with the subject's practical situation. Anti-intellectualism is controversial, though it has able defenders, and its capacity to enable invariantists to accommodate our intuitions about Low-High pairs is a significant consideration in its favor (see Stanley 2005 and Fantl and McGrath 2009 for major defenses of interest-relative invariantism and impurism, respectively; see also Hawthorne 2004). Taking one of these approaches enables invariantists to avoid the propriety and truth challenges. But the challenges re-emerge when we make a slight alteration to the structure of a Low-High pair. The 14 bank cases involve first-person knowledge ascriptions made in different scenarios. This makes room for positing some variation in Keith's psychological state or practical situation between the Low and High scenarios, which explains how (L) and (H) can both be true, even though contextualism is false. But we can also construct Low-High pairs where the surface-contradictory claims concern a third party. Such "third-person" cases elicit the same intuitive judgments as the original Bank Cases, but there is no room to posit a difference in the third-party subject's mental states or situation to account for the truth of two surface-contradictory claims. DeRose's Thelma and Louise Cases are designed for just this purpose (DeRose 2009, 4-5; Cohen 1999's airport cases also have this structure). Thelma, Louise, and Lena are co-workers. All three saw their colleague John's hat in the hallway and overheard a conversation whose participants presupposed that he was in his office. All three believe that John was in, though they did not actually see him: Low Thelma. On her way home, Thelma stops at the local tavern to collect on a small bet concerning whether John would be in that day. After her tavern-mates pay up, they ask her whether Lena knows that John was in, since she also had a small bet going on the question. "Yes," Thelma answers, "Lena knows that John was in." High Louise. Louise is stopped by the police on her way home. They are investigating a serious crime, and need to verify whether John was at work today. They have no reason to doubt that he was, but need Louise's testimony to be sure. She demurs, pointing out that he may have left his hat on the hook the previous day, and that her co-workers who thought he was in may have been mistaken. After all, she points out, she didn't actually see him. So while she believes he was in, she says, she doesn't know. They follow up by asking whether Lena could testify to John's whereabouts. No, Louise answers, she didn't see him either: "Lena doesn't know that John was in." 15 Thelma and Louise's claims about Lena both seem proper and true when considered against the backdrop of their contexts of utterance. These intuitions, in turn, underwrite: Truth. Thelma's claim that Lena knows in Low and Louise's claim that Lena doesn't know in High are both true. Contextualism accommodates and explains Truth in precisely the same way it did Truth. But assuming that Thelma and Louise are speaking simultaneously, Lena's confidence level and practical circumstances must be the same in each case. So we cannot posit a psychological or practical difference to accommodate and explain Truth*. Bach and Nagel both appeal to error theories to handle such third-person cases, chalking the intuitive truth of claims like Lena's up to a kind of error (Bach 2005, 76-77; Nagel 2010b). Stanley takes a somewhat different tack, suggesting that in considering whether Lena knows, Louise is actually concerned with whether Lena would know if she were in Louise's situation. Since she wouldn't, Louise claims that Lena doesn't know; according to Stanley this is "a perfectly intuitive explanation of the intuitions" (Stanley 2005, 102). That may be, though to the extent that an explanation's simplicity and unity counts in its favor, contextualism is preferable to either of these approaches. Cross-Contextual Intuitions: Trouble for Contextualism? Insofar as a view's capacity to explain how the contents of our intuitive judgments are true contributes to its superiority over rivals, contextualism so far appears superior to invariantism. However, opponents of contextualism have argued that some of our intuitions are at odds with contextualism. These problematic intuitions primarily concern various forms of disagreement, and cross-contextual assessments (see chapter 20). For example, imagine the conversation in High Louise continuing: 16 High Louise, Con't. The police point out that Thelma was overheard in the tavern claiming that Lena knows that John was in, and ask her what she thinks of that. "No, Thelma's claim was false," Louise replies. "Lena doesn't know" (cf. McKenna 2014, 726). According to contextualism, Thelma's claim was true. Assuming that Louise's assessment of Thelma's claim is intuitively correct, we appear to have an intuition whose content contextualists must reject. A number of theorists have argued that such assessments furnish intuitive evidence against contextualism (e.g. Williamson 2005, 220, Stanley 2005, 52, MacFarlane 2005, 202-203, Brogaard 2008, 411). Note that if this case provides evidence against contextualism, it also provides evidence against moderate and sensitive invariantism, at least on the assumption that those views treat Thelma's claim in Low as true. Skeptical invariantists may regard the datum as a point in favor of their own view. However, skeptical invariantists already reject many ordinary intuitions of truth; on their view, ordinary positive knowledge claims are almost always false, despite our persistent everyday intuitions to the contrary. So even granting that the case is an intuitive cost for contextualism as compared to skeptical invariantism, it hardly tips the intuitive balance in skeptical invariantism's favor. We may question the degree to which such cases are intuitively problematic for contextualism. Prominent Low-High pairs are designed to capture what ordinary speakers would say in relevantly similar circumstances. By contrast, it is not clear that an ordinary speaker in circumstances like Louise's would say, "Thelma's claim was false." Provided she were aware of the casual nature of Thelma's tavern conversation, it would be at least as natural for her to say, "Thelma was only speaking loosely," or even, "She didn't really mean that Lena knows for sure." Neither of these assessments would conflict with contextualism; indeed, either of them would provide some indirect confirmation that different standards are operative in each context. Of course, Louise could say that Thelma's claim was false, and to the extent that such an assessment would be intuitively correct, this is a fair point against contextualism. But if it is 17 not what Thelma most naturally would say, the point is not especially threatening, especially given the intuitive costs already borne by invariantism.4 Such cross-contextual assessments play an important role in motivating a newer competitor to contextualism, known as relativism about knowledge attributions (see chapters 25 and 26). According to the relativist, the truth-conditions of a knowledge claim vary not with the context of utterance, but the context of assessment (see MacFarlane 2005, MacFarlane 2014 (ch. 8), and Rysiew 2011). Relativists can treat Thelma's claim as true relative to her own context of assessment, but false relative to Lena's. So relativism can accommodate both the intuitive truth of Thelma's knowledge attribution, and the intuitive truth of Lena's assessment of Thelma's knowledge attribution as false. There may be intuitive costs associated with relativism as well, however. According to the relativist, Thelma's claim was true as assessed in Thelma's context of utterance, but it seems doubtful that Lena would be prepared to grant this. Montminy 2009 argues that the relativist must impute to ordinary speakers a kind of semantic error in their cross-contextual judgments. 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Retention of Moisture-tolerant and Conventional Resin-based Sealant in Six- to Nine-year-old Children. The purpose of this study was to evaluate and compare the retention rates and development of caries in permanent molars in children sealed with moisture-tolerant, resin-based (Embrace WetBond), and conventional resin-based (Helioseal) sealant over a period of one year. This was a double blind, split-mouth, randomized controlled trial among six- to nine-year-olds. Sixty-eight permanent mandibular first molars in 34 children were randomly assigned to be sealed with Embrace WetBond or Helioseal sealant. The final sample was 32 children with 64 teeth. At 12 months, 23 of 32 (72 percent) sealants were completely retained in Embrace WetBond, whereas only 16 of 32 (50 percent) were retained in the Helioseal group. There was a statistically significant difference in retention rates of Embrace WetBond and Helioseal sealants at 12 months (P<.05). At 12 months follow-up, only two teeth developed caries in Embrace WetBond; in the Helioseal group, five teeth developed caries (two initial and three enamel caries). Embrace WetBond was superior to Helioseal sealant, as Embrace exhibited higher retention and lower caries scores. Embrace WetBond can be preferred over conventional resin-based sealants for community and outreach sealant programs where use of rubber dam for moisture control is difficult to practice.
Mental health inpatient experiences of adults with intellectual disability. This paper presents findings from a study exploring the mental health inpatient care of people with a dual disability of intellectual disability and mental health issues from the perspective of those people with the dual disability. A mixture of semi-structured interviews and focus group interviews were carried out with nine participants who had been admitted to an inpatient unit for mental health care exploring their experience of care. Interviews were transcribed and analyzed using open coding and Leximancer (an online data mining tool) analysis to identify dominant themes in the discourse. Analysis revealed themes around 'Therapeutic and Meaningful Activity', 'Emotion Focussed Care', and 'Feeling Safe?' Participants were able to identify the aspects of inpatient care that worked for them in terms of coping with time in hospital. This research suggests that there are several factors that should be considered in providing effective mental health inpatient care for people with dual disability. A number of strategies and recommendations for responding to their needs are identified and discussed.
Gypsum products such as a dental model, an industrial model, and a wall-plastering material are sometimes appropriately colored according to their application. For example, the dental model (teeth model) can be prepared by pouring gypsum that is mixed with water into a female impression of teeth formed from a plastic material or the like to cure the gypsum, and then removing the impression of teeth (see, for example, Patent Literature 1 and Patent Literature 2). In preparing the dental model, a pigment is added to a powder of gypsum as a raw material to color the dental model to be obtained into a desired color. In order to improve the colorability of a gypsum product to be obtained, such as a dental model, it usually becomes necessary to increase the amount of the pigment added to the gypsum. However, when the addition amount of the pigment is increased, it sometimes occurs that the cost required for coloration increases and the strength of the gypsum product to be obtained, which is a hardened body, is lowered. Moreover, in the case where, for example, a colored gypsum hardened body such as a dental model is produced, gypsum that is mixed with water, when poured into an impression of teeth, is given mechanical vibration using a vibrator or the like. Thereby, the fluidity of the gypsum is secured and bubbles inside are removed. However, there has been a problem that, when the mechanical vibration is given to the gypsum that is mixed with water, the pigments aggregate to make color unevenness liable to occur in the gypsum hardened body to be obtained.
This invention relates to a device for aid in inserting and removing a contact lens, and more particularly, to a device which maintains a light transmitting path therethrough along which path a user may sight during operation. Various devices have been designed in the past for aiding contact lens wearers to insert and remove contact lenses. Included in such prior devices are those which use a squeeze bulb type holder having a lens receiving cup at one end thereof, with resilient sides which may be manually squeezed together and released to provide a subatmospheric pressure within the bulb to hold the contact lens on the cup. For the most part, such prior devices have had no provision for providing a light transmitting path through the device along which the user may sight to maintain his eye in a desired orientation while operating the device. Those which may have had some provision for sighting have not been of such design so as to be able to maintain a light transmitting path through the device on pressing of opposed sides of the bulb together to evacuate the bulb. A general object of the present invention is to provide a simple and economically constructed device for aid in inserting and removing contact lenses which overcomes the above set-out objections of prior art devices in a simple and effective manner. More specifically, an object is to provide a novel device for inserting and removing contact lenses which includes an elongate, hollow tube having a lens holding portion at one of its ends and a light transmitting closure at the other end, with the interior of the device providing a light transmitting path from the lens holding portion to the closure. Opposite sides of an intermediate portion of the tube are flexible toward and away from each other to evacuate a portion of the interior of the tube to produce a subatmospheric pressure for holding a contact lens on the lens holding portion. An elongate, light transmitting shaft extends longitudinally through the intermediate flexible portion to prevent the opposite sides of the tube from being squeezed tightly together, and thus maintains a light transmitting path through the device along which the user may sight throughout operation.
"KARA:" "When I was a child, my planet Krypton was dying." "I was sent to Earth to protect my cousin." "But my pod got knocked off-course and by the time I got here, my cousin had already grown up and become Superman." "And so, I hid my powers, until recently when an accident forced me to reveal myself to the world." "To most people I'm an assistant at Catco Worldwide Media." "But in secret, I work with my adoptive sister for the DEO to protect my city from alien life and anyone else that means to cause it harm." "I am Supergirl." "KARA:" "Previously on Supergirl..." "I've seen this picture." "It won a Pulitzer." "He actually posed for that." "I guess he likes me." "You're Jimmy Olsen." " He knows." " He knows?" "What if people figure out who you are?" "It's not safe." "MAXWELL ON TV:" "Forget about Supergirl's lack of experience," "national City does not need problems." " Who cares what that guy says?" " You do." "Isn't maxwell Lord your hero?" "CAT:" "I want a sit down with Supergirl." "Or the Planet gets their beloved photojournalist back." "Ms. Grant, your interview with Supergirl's already started." "Let's talk." "It's you." "Oh, no." "I'm sorry." "I meant to say, who are you?" "According to you, I'm Supergirl." "Trademark pending." "You have questions." "I'm ready to answer them." "Huh." "Do you mind if I record this?" "I suppose not." "Okay." "Supergirl." "Let's start with the generals." "Where are you from?" "I traveled to Earth from my home planet of..." " Krypton?" " SUPERGIRL:" "Yes." "When it was destroyed." "My parents sent me here where they thought I'd be safe." "(SIGHS) I feel like I've heard this story before." "This is my story." "So, I can assume that all of your powers are the same as the Man of Steel's?" "The flying, the super strength, the freezy breath thing?" "I'm still working on that last one." "Oh, so you're not up to his level yet?" "I wouldn't say that." "So, why are we just hearing from you now?" "I'm not sure I understand the question." "(SIGHS) Well, if you've been on Earth for years, why wait this long to start giving back?" "Where were you during the earthquake two years ago?" "Or the wildfires last September that killed eight people?" "This is not a job I take lightly." "I had to be ready." "Any plans to start a family?" "Nobody ever asks my cousin these questions." " Superman is your cousin?" " This interview is over." "Well, what do you do all day when you're not flying around town?" "Do you have a day job'?" "Mmm." "Mmm." "Thank you." "How can you eat sticky buns for breakfast every day and still stay so thin?" " I'm an alien." "(CHUCKLES)" " Hi." " Hey." "Are you okay?" "I called you like a bunch of times last night." "Where were you?" "I think I fell asleep last night." "Yesterday was a pretty long day." " Morning!" "HEY" " Hey." "Uh, what are you doing here?" "Oh, this is the only place that makes this really hard to find drink I like, tea." "(LAUGHING)" " That's really funny." "That's funny." "(JAMES CHUCKLES)" "Um, Alex, you remember, um, James Olsen?" " My friend from work." " Yeah." "How's the covert alien hunting business?" "Not as covert as we would prefer." "I didn't tell him." "Look, it's okay." "I can be trusted with a big secret." "Well, I hope you'lI extend the same courtesy to my sister." "Always." " Meet up back at the office?" " Yes." " Great seeing you, Alex." " Hmm." " What?" " You like Jimmy Olsen." "Stop it." "Um, first of all, he prefers James." " ALEX:" "Oh." " Mmm-hmm." " Okay." " Second, we're just friends." "(ALEX CHUCKLES)" " Just friends." "Please, you were looking at him like he was one of your sticky buns." "And seriously, you have got to stop telling people who you really are." "The less people know about Supergirl, the better." " WOMAN ON TV:" "In a shocker..." " Right." "...of a news item today..." "Cat Grant, CEO of Catco Media, is reporting that SupergirI and Superman are in fact related." "Kara?" "REPORTER:" "No one has been able to identify who or rather what she is." "Ah." "Interesting choice mentioning that in an interview." "Isn't that a little dangerous?" "I didn't mean to." "I got confused and it just popped out." "She..." "She tricked me." "She's like a villain." "She's like a super interviewing villain." "That is literally the most boring power ever." "CAT:" "Ker-rah!" "(SIGHS)" " Good morning, Ms. Grant." "lt's a big day for journalism." "The Daily Planet can suck it." " I scooped them." " Yes, I..." "I heard." "You told everyone that Supergirl and Superman are cousins." "Do you think maybe she might've kind of wanted that on the down low?" "Bulletproof." "Uh." "Are you asking me if I'm bullet" "Bulletproof Coffee." "It's made from unsalted grass-fed butter with an extract of coconut oil that improves brain energy." "I will need a cup of it every hour." "Crappy coffee has toxins in it that will rob me of my creativity and my vigor." "I'm going to need both if I am going to write a kick-ass exposé on Supergirl." "You're writing it?" " Yourself?" "I'm a writer." "It's like riding a bike, or severe childhood trauma." "You never really lose it." "And I must be pretty decent at it because... (CHUCKLES)" "We will be publishing a special issue of our monthly magazine, the day after tomorrow." "It is going to make that Caitlyn Jenner Vanity Fair look like a Penny Saver pullout." "We need a big party to launch it." "Throw something together." "Uh, a thousand guests." " Rent out a museum or something." " Um..." "And move Dave out there to another desk." "I find his hair distracting." "Um, Dave, I need a favor." "The story is spreading like wildfire across social media." "(BREATHING HEAVILY)" " Cat Grant's latest exclusive on national City's mysterious new arrival, Supergirl." "Everyone has questions about the so-called girl of Steel, and this first and only interview is promising answers, including intimate details about who she is, where she's from and what she's doing here." "(SUIT POWERING UP)" "It also confirms her relationship to the Man of steel himself." "That they are, indeed, cousins." "Cousins." "Have you lost your mind?" "What were you thinking giving interviews?" "I wouldn't say it was an interview exactly." "It was more of a private conversation that's being published." "What's next?" "A book deal?" "A reality show?" "Keeping Up with the Kryptonians?" " So, he's mad?" "lt's hard to tell with him." "Why did you give that interview?" " At first, I did it for James." " Oh, that explains it." "But I also did it for me." "I'm still trying to figure out what SupergirI means." "Guess I just thought talking to Ms. Grant would give me some perspective." "(SIGHS)" "Everybody wonders who they are at some point in their lives." "You're gonna figure it out, Kara." "You always have." "(ALARM BEEPING)" "VASQUEZ:" "Sir, we have a Code Gray." "It's coming from the NCH." "Looks like a multiple car collision." "Highway patrol officers and medical personnel are en route." "No sign of alien activity." "We're clear." "Run a thermal scan to be sure." "And Miss Danvers, next time you're thinking of talking to the press..." "She's excited." "It's her first pile-up." "Supergirl, the driver's still inside, she can't get out." "WOMAN: (SCREAMS) Help!" "(SUPERGIRI GRUNTS)" " Somebody!" "(CROWD MURMURING)" "(GASPING)" "I'm stuck." "lt's okay, I've got you, I've got you." "Thank you." "(SUPERGIRI SHOUTS)" "(CROWD EXCLAIMS)" "(ALI CLAMORING)" "Who are you?" "I'm just a ghost." "What do you want?" "I want the Man of steel to suffer." "I want him to know what it feels like to lose everything." "Starting with you." "(GRUNTS)" "(GROANS)" "(BREATHING HEAVILY)" "HANK HENSHAW: "Reactron" "At least that's what the Daily Planet colorfully dubbed him when he showed up in Metropolis a few years back." "Reactron?" "That's kind of a stupid name." "Who named him that?" " Jimmy Olsen." " Oh." " So, who is this guy really?" " HANK HENSHAW:" "Unknown." "He remains at large after a string of very public fights with your cousin." "Neither of them ever came out on top." "And no one knows why he's so obsessed with killing Superman." "So, what's the plan?" "How do we stop him?" "We don't." "So what are you saying?" "We just sit back and do nothing?" "Reactron, whoever he is, is human." "Which means this case falls outside the DEO's jurisdiction." "This man flies and shoots nuclear fireballs." "How is that not extra-normal?" "He's using advanced biomedical tech." "Man-made tech." "HANK HENSHAW:" "I can't risk exposing this organization every time some human criminal shows up at national City." "And I just can't let this man run wild." "HANK HENSHAW:" "call your cousin." "Superman fights for truth, justice and the American way." "Last time I checked, national City was in America." "KARA:" "Ms. Grant?" "(CHUCKLES) I'm just..." "I'm putting the finishing touches on that party," "and I need your okay on..." " Shh, shh, shh." "Do you hear that?" "(SILENCE)" "Uh, no." "You don't you hear that loud, high pitched, incessant humming coming from the vents that is making it impossible for me to think straight, let alone string together one coherent sentence?" "I have pretty good ears, and I don't hear anything." "Well, get maintenance to look into it because it's driving me crazy." "Sure thing, I'lI get them right on it." "I just need you to approve the appetizers for tomorrow." "Ker-rah, I am very proud of the fact that in my many years of being a CEO" "I have never thrown a phone at an assistant." "I would very much like to keep that record intact." "I'lI take care of it." "JAMES:" "She's pretty tense working on that article, huh?" "Yeah." "You could say that." "She always get like this when she's writing?" "People have been known to schedule their vacations around it." "(CHUCKLES)" " WINN:" "Psst." "Psst." "Why are you doing that?" "We're standing right here." "Follow me and act natural." "(ELEVATOR BELI DINGS)" "(ELEVATOR BELI DINGS)" " Where are you taking us?" " To your new office." "I think Ms. Grant prefers me to be within yelling distance." "WINN:" "Oh, no." "Not for that job." "For our other job." "This used to be Ed Flaherty's office from Actuaries but after he died of a heart attack behind his desk, nobody wants it." "Which makes it perfect for our needs." "Now, we can't just crowd around your desk every time we want to talk SupergirI stuff." "So, I loaded this office up with some, uh, state-of-the-art, top-of-the-line tech." "Winn, I can't believe you did all this for me." "Um, believe it. (CHUCKLES)" "Okay, so for our first mission, supergirl vs. Reactron." "(KEYBOARD CLACKING) -(KARA GASPING)" "Okay, so his true identity remains a mystery." "Right?" "We know Superman has fought him multiple times over the years." " KARA:" "Right." " I know." "I was there." "How could I forget?" "Anyway, he shoots these highly concentrated" " Bursts of nuclear energy." " From his gauntlets." "Uh, his chest plate provides an increase in strength" "and flight." " Yeah." "Now, I've written an algorithm that will sweep the city for any variable changes in radiation." "And maybe, we can use this to find him." "(CHUCKLES)" "And then what?" "And then Kara goes all SupergirI on him." "Kara, you might consider calling your cousin on this one." "I've seen what Reactron can do." "James, if I call for help now, I'm done." "We're done." "Every villain out there will think of national City as an easy target." " He nearly killed Clark once." " Clark?" "(STAMMERING) Clark Kent is Superman?" "(CLEARS THROAT) I'm just trying to keep you safe." "And, yes, I appreciate that." "But of all the things the "S" stands for," "safety is not one of them." " Clark Kent is Superman." " Winn..." "Winn." " Sorry, I can't..." "I'm still trying to figure out what being SupergirI means." "Who I am." "And now I know." "I'm not Superman's cousin." "I'm Supergirl." "And if I'm going to be defined, it's going to be by my victories and my losses." "No one else's." "I guess stubbornness runs in the family." "When I was a kid, I had a train with blue streaks." "Coolest toy I ever had." "(ALI CHUCKLING)" "I know a train that magnetically levitates is inherently cool, but still, the color's kind of bumming me out." "Let's paint blue streaks." "And while we're at it, it needs to go 500 kilometers an hour." "We've been working for three years, you know, to push it to 450." "The test is in six days." "Then it probably occurred to you over the last 36 months that if you used Hafnium instead of a Tungsten alloy in the vacuum tubes, you could decrease the weight of each car by 30 kilos" "(INHALES SHARPLY) and get it to 500." "But carl over there will see the job to the finish." "You can go." "You're done." " Mr. Lord..." " I said you're done." "(SIGHS)" " Keep up the good work, everyone." "(MACHINE WHIRRING)" "This train is a gift for national City." "To get people out of their gas guzzlers and accepting of clean, affordable transportation, it has to be perfect." "(LOUD EXPLOSION)" "(WOMAN SCREAMS)" "(GUARDS GROANING)" "Hello." "I'm looking for someone with a background in nuclear fission." "No volunteers?" "How about you?" "Stop!" "It's okay." "Everyone keep calm." "It's gonna be all right." "You don't need to hurt anyone." "(COUGHING)" "I need this man." "From the looks of things, what you need is a mechanical genius." "Compared to me, that guy's a dope." "Don't take him." "Take me." "Once again, Lord Technologies has been the target of an attack by the criminal known as Reactron." "is everyone all right?" "Mr. Lord." "He's been taken." "It's been 24 hours since tech billionaire, maxwell Lord, was abducted from his research facility by the Metropolis-based criminal known as Reactron." "Authorities still will not speculate whether Mr. Lord ls alive or dead." "KARA:" "Yes, yes, I'm still here." "Yes, Ms. Grant wants all of the hostesses dressed as Supergirl." "Right, red, blue, the" "Thank you." "This isn't on you, Kara." "I have to find this man." "How am I supposed to do that?" "With my help." "Do you have someplace private we can talk?" "Do we ever." "I used the DEO satellite to scan the highway where you fought Reactron." "And I was able to isolate the nuclear signature of his weapons system." "It's powered by Thorium 232" "which can only be found in one place." "(KEYBOARD CLACKING)" "(BEEPING)" " Bakerline Nuclear Power Station." " I remember this." "Terrorists tried to start a full-on meltdown like five years ago," "but then" " Superman stopped them." "Yeah, he prevented the core from going into overload." "Saved millions of people." "But two reactor engineers were killed when the facility was flooded with radiation." "Ben and Alyssa Krull." "They were married." "Ben KrulI is Reactron." "Yeah, he somehow survived the radiation exposure." "That's why he hates my cousin." "He blames him for the death of his wife." "But Superman still managed to prevent an American Chernobyl." "Chernobyl." "That gives me an idea on how we might find Krull." "(SPUTTERING)" "My housekeeper does a bang-up job on my penthouse." "Pretty sure she could get this place all shiny in a jiff." "(BREATHING HEAVILY) Do you see what's wrong?" "(SIGHS)" "The moderator's been damaged which is preventing neutron speed reduction." "It's clear you're sick." "Respiratory distress, the skin desquamation and ulcering." "How much radiation were you exposed to?" "More than enough to kill me." "How about we go back to my lab?" "Let my team analyze your case." "Find a way for you to regain a normal life." "I had a normal life." "(BREATHING HEAVILY)" "It didn't work out." "You're gonna repair my suit (GROANS) or they're gonna start building memorials to you." "Fine." "I'lI need Thorium, Cesium-137," "TributyI phosphate and a Dr. Pepper." "That last one's for me." "I'm thirsty." "Mmm." "I finished proofing the SupergirI article." "Please begin my compliments." "Well, uh, the writing is..." "The writing is beautiful." "Lyrical." "The kind of story they make you read in journalism school." "I distinctly heard a slight uplilt, which suggests a hesitation, a vacillation, and maybe an ambivalence?" "Isn't the tone kind of..." "A little nasty?" "(KARA GASPS)" "Uh, I mean, the headline." "Um, okay. "millennial Falcon."" ""Every Generation Gets the Superhero it Deserves."" "SupergirI didn't tell you how old she is." "How do you know she's a millennial?" "Well, if she's not, then I want the name of her surgeon." "What about this passage?" "Um..." ""SupergirI embodies the worst traits of her generation." ""The earnestness without purpose," ""the unshakable belief that she has a right to be heard," ""even when she has nothing to say."" "That is a magnificent point." "I transcribed your interview." "She's not like this." " You've taken her out of context." " I have given her context." "I hate to break it to you, but the world is tough." "What is she going to do when she has to face a real threat?" "Oh, I know, she'lI call her cousin." "Just like every other millennial who calls Mommy and Daddy the second things don't go their way." " She won't do that." " How do you know that?" "I think..." "I think maybe what she's trying to say is that when people are scared or hurt or in danger, they think of Superman." "But that it's okay to think of her too, and not just as some consolation prize." "She is every bit the hero he is." "She just needs the chance to prove it." "Well, I guess we'lI find out." "(DOOR OPENING)" " Sorry to interrupt." "Kara, it's the florist." "Uh, for the party." "Right." "I should probably handle that." " Winn found Krull." " What?" "How?" "There was a black mold that grew in the town of Chernobyl right after the meltdown." "Now, Winn found the same mold here in national City." "At a junkyard, 60 miles south." "tell Ms. Grant I'm putting the finishing touches on the party." "Kara." "Kara, just wait." "Wait." "Just get Lord out of there." "You don't have to take on Krull, too." "KrulI is not some crazed alien." "He's a human being." "Who's been hurt enough." "That's something my cousin never knew." "And that's why I'm gonna go talk to him, the way I would want someone to talk to me." "And if he doesn't want to talk?" "Then I'lI punch him real hard until he falls down." "That always seems to work." "(SOFTLY) Kara." "(AIR WHOOSHING)" "I'm not here to fight you." "I know who you are." "I know why you hate my cousin." "I know what you've lost, too." " You look taller on TV." " Where is he?" "He forced me to repair his suit." "I don't know where he is." "(SUPERGIRI GRUNTS)" "Get out of here." "Go!" "Ben, I don't think your wife would want you hurting anyone." "Ben KrulI is dead." "Superman saw to that." "Now he's gonna lose someone too." "(GRUNTS)" "(SHOUTING IN PAIN)" "(GRUNTING)" " And after you die..." "(GROANING) ...your city dies too." "(GROANS)" "(GROANS)" "(AIR WHOOSHING)" "(GASPS)" "Kara?" "Kara." "Hey." "Easy, easy, easy." "You're okay." "(SUPERGIRI BREATHING HEAVILY)" " SUPERGIRL:" "How long was I out?" " Just a few hours." "I was fighting Krull." " My cousin, where is he?" " He had to go." "Volcanic eruption in the South Pacific." "MAXWELL: (ON TV) Reactron is a great danger to everyone in this city." "Luckily, I wasn't harmed." "In fact, I'm lucky to be alive." "And I owe it all to the great hero who rescued me." "Superman." "I don't understand." "How did he know that I was fighting Krull?" " You called him." " Kara, he gave me this a long time ago." "If I ever got in trouble, I could contact him." "But you weren't in trouble." "When did you even call him?" "The second I left?" "Kara, I made a promise to your cousin." "If anything ever happened to you" "My cousin didn't have a "get out of a jam free" card when he first started." "Neither should I." "It feels like you don't believe in me." "Of course, I believe in you." "I wouldn't even be here if I didn't believe in you." "Maybe you shouldn't be here at all." "You know what, Kara?" "I'm sorry that you're mad at me." "But I'm not sorry you're still alive." "(DOOR OPENING)" "(DOOR CLOSES) -(SIGHS)" "(SNIFFLES)" " He was just protecting you." " I know, I know. lt's just..." "It wasn't supposed to be this way." "This is the reason my mother and father sent me to Earth." " They wanted you to live, Kara." " No, it's more than that." "I was supposed to be the one saving him, not the other way around." "How am I supposed to really become a hero if Superman has to keep saving me?" "Your story..." "Your story is just starting." "And someday, you're gonna be the one saving him." "(SIGHS) Oh, God!" "I..." "I have to be at Cat's party, like, now." "Like 10 minutes ago, now." "I don't have my dress." "Yes, I figured you would not have the time so, I borrowed one from the DEO closet." "Urn, not that you really need it, but..." "It is bulletproof." "(EXHALES)" "(MUSIC PLAYING)" "Oh, um..." "You don't fool me." "You're late." "I noticed because there was no one mumbling and shuffling three paces behind me." "I'm sorry." " Where are the magazines?" "(STAMMERING)" " The paper ones?" "The ones that can be framed?" "Right, the magazine." "Uh, the truth is," "Kara is probably just a little foggy because she was up all night autographing the magazines with the author's name." "Ah, it's as if I thought of it myself, Ker-rah." " Oh, my God, Winn, you just saved my life." "(WINN CHUCKLES)" "I owe you big time." "Well, you could, um, repay your debt right now." "Dance with me?" "(CHUCKLING) Sure." "(INDISTINCT CONVERSATION)" "(WOMAN LAUGHING)" "maxwell Lord." "Kidnapped one minute, rubbing elbows the next." " I'm surprised you came." " Cat Grant." "You're talking to the same guy who launched a top-selling tablet hours after surviving an avalanche on Everest." "Cocktails after a kidnapping?" "Tsk." "Breeze." "Are we dancing?" "CAT:" "Look at you." "all dressed up in your big boy suit." "Like James Bond making a living" "playing with toy trains." "(MAXWELI CHUCKLES)" "MAXWELL:" "So tell me." "How did you manage to get an exclusive with Supergirl?" "girl knows power when she sees it." "She flew right to me." "Are you going to tell me how you pulled it off?" "Or am I gonna have to get sneaky?" "You're very sexy, Max, but, as I recall, you're big on promises, but not much else." "Oh, look at the time." "Nothing says "powerful" more than leaving your own party early." "Alex." "(DOOR CLOSING)" " Director Henshaw." " Agent Danvers, what are you doing?" "I'm helping Kara to stop Reactron." "It's been increasingly difficult for you to follow orders since your sister flew onto the scene." "When you asked me to join the DEO, I didn't hesitate." "Because you told me that together we were going to save the world." "Except saving the world means everybody." "Aliens, humans, I can't separate them anymore." "Especially when my little sister's life is at stake." "Who else knows about this?" "No one." "Good." "Wouldn't want them getting any ideas." "So, how do we defeat this Reactron?" "(MUSIC PLAYING)" "KARA:" "No, wait." "Oh, my God!" "(LAUGHING)" "Yes, it's happening, girl!" "(KARA LAUGHING)" "KARA: (CHUCKLING) Okay." " It's..." " Do you mind if I cut in?" "It's fine, Winn." " Look, I don't like how we left things." " Yeah, neither do I." "Me pressing that button on my watch had nothing to do with you." "It was me." "I call him when things get tough." "I always have." "That's part of the reason I left Metropolis." "My safety net became my reflex." "I press that button when I get scared." "And I was scared that I was going to lose you." "(CHUCKLES)" "I really like that you care about me." "But you have to care enough to let me fly my own path, separate from his." "And trust that I'm going to save the day." "Kara, you are amazing." "You leap into the sky, headfirst into danger." "And you don't seem scared of falling." "Hmm, what's so bad about falling?" "(GLASS SHATTERING)" "(CROWD SCREAMING)" "Where is Supergirl?" "I'm going to slip into something more durable." " Do not do anything stupid." " No promises." "Don't suppose my fixing your nuke suit earns me a hall pass?" "(SUIT POWERING UP)" "(AIR WHOOSHING)" "(GRUNTS)" "Twice in two days." "I should put you on the payroll as a bodyguard." "Get somewhere safe." "Good idea." "I am sorry for what happened to you." "But you are going to jail." "I'm sure one day, I will." "(BREATHES HEAVILY)" "But you won't live to see it." "(GROANS)" "JAMES:" "Hey, Krull." "Krull." "Know who I am?" "Jimmy Olsen." "I'm the closest thing Superman has to a best friend." "You wanna see him hurt?" "Killing me would do that." "Come on." "Kara, we may have a way for you to stop Krull." "Krull's chest unit is powered by a Demon Core," "a subcritical mass of plutonium." " If you can remove it from his suit, it should shut down his weaponry." "But the core will melt down the very moment it's freed from its containment matrix." "There has to be some way to stop him without nuking the city." "You need to encase the core in lead before you rip it free." "Lead." "(GROANS)" "(INDISTINCT SCREAMING)" "(BOTH GRUNT)" "(SUPERGIRI GROANING)" "(GROANS)" "(BOTH GRUNTING)" "(STRAINING)" "(GASPING)" "(SUIT POWERING DOWN)" "You could have been killed." "No." "I knew you'd save the day." "(CHUCKLES)" "Thank you for your help." "Both of you." "Something tells me this isn't the last non-alien you'lI be taking on." "And since the threat of federal prison doesn't stop your sister disobeying my orders," "I guess in the future, we'lI just have to help SupergirI again." "Told you he'd come around on rne." "So, what does the girl of Steel do to celebrate after saving the day?" "Um..." "How about the Danvers sisters take in a movie tonight?" "Or, how about you go find a certain ex-photojournalist with a penchant for tight shirts who makes you smile more than anyone else I've ever seen do?" "Yeah, that." "(GIGGLING)" "Hey, James, do you have a minute?" "I wanted to ask..." "I'm sorry." "I didn't know you weren't..." "Kara, this is Lucy Lane." " Hey, it's nice to meet you, Kara." " Nice to meet you." "Lane." "Any relation?" "Yes." "Lois is my big sister." "Oh, I have one of those too." "(CHUCKLES)" "(INHALES SHARPLY)" "Uh, I'lI catch up with you later, Kara." "Sorry." "Bye." "I can't do this right now." "LUCY:" "Metropolis isn't around the corner, Jimmy." " I came a long way to see you." " And why did you?" "I didn't like the way we ended things." "Could we just get dinner?" "And talk?" "Yeah, sure." "Dinner." " Hey, you okay?" " Fine, yeah, fine." "Hey, you want to go down to our, uh," "(WHISPERING) our secret office, do some super sleuthing?" "Actually, I have a lot of work to do." "Maybe later?" "(LAPTOP BEEPING)" "(CHUCKLES)" "Thanks, Clark." "It means a lot to me." " No James Olsen tonight, huh?" " No, not tonight." "Pass me that last pot sticker." "Uh, no." "That one is mine." "You had four." "If that pot sticker is not in my mouth in two seconds, I will melt your face." " I hope you get fat." "(CHUCKLING) Not on this planet." "So, guess what I picked up on the way." "Did you actually read the article?" "Because she says horrible things about me." "Very well-crafted horrible things." "Deep beneath that seething disdain she respects you." " Really?" " Mmm-hmm." "Supergirl, I mean." "Her assistant, no, she couldn't give a rip about." " Oh, God." "(KARA LAUGHS)" "Right in the face." "(LAUGHING)" "Well, look, you should be proud of yourself." "I mean, you're doing things that Superman couldn't even do." "Well, I may not need Superman to be a hero, but," "I will always need you." "(SIREN BLARING)" "Isn't that your cue?" "(GRUNTS) Do not watch Homeland until I get back." "There's no promises." "English" " SDH"
The present invention relates generally to systems and methods for controlling an electric motor and, more particularly, to a controller and associated drive assembly for controlling a brushless direct current (BLDC) motor. Electrical machines are used throughout a great number of devices today, and typically consist of motors, which convert electrical energy into mechanical energy, and generators, which convert mechanical energy into electrical energy. Generally, electrical machines fall into one of three categories: polyphase synchronous machines, polyphase asynchronous (i.e., induction) machines and direct current (DC) machines. Typical machines consist of two main portions: a stationary, outside portion called a stator, and a rotating, inner portion called a rotor. The rotor of typical machines is mounted on a stiff rod, or shaft, that is supported in bearings so that the rotor is free to turn within the stator to produce mechanical energy. In one type of synchronous machine, a permanent magnet, brushless direct current (BLDC) machine, the stator is composed of windings that are connected to a controller, and the rotor is composed of two or more permanent magnets of opposed magnetic polarity. The controller includes a driver that generates poly-phase alternating input currents to the stator windings. One conventional driver includes a series of Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBT""s) electrically connected to the phase windings of a BLDC motor. For example, for a three-phase BLDC motor, a conventional driver includes six IGBT""s arranged in three half-bridges, where each half-bridge generates a drive for one phase of the motor. As the rotor rotates within the stator, and the magnets of one polarity approach cores of the stator about which the windings are wound, and that conduct the opposed polarity, sensors signal the angular position of the rotor to the controller which, in turn, controls the alternating currents to switch the polarity of the magnetic field produced by windings of the stator. For example, a three-phase BLDC motor can have two, four or more permanent magnets with alternating magnetic polarities mounted on its rotor. The required rotating magnetic field is produced by current through the stator windings. And the three phases of the current are switched in sequence, which is dictated by the angular position of the rotor. In many BLDC motor systems, the speed of the BLDC motor is controlled by the driver pulse modulating, such as pulse width modulating, the input voltage generated by the controller. By pulse-width-modulation (PWM) of the input voltage, the driver and, thus, the controller controls the average input currents to the windings by using xe2x80x9conxe2x80x9d and xe2x80x9coffxe2x80x9d states. During the time the input currents through the windings are increasing, the voltage supply provides constant voltage to the driver at a level at least as high as the motor voltage required for the desired speed of operation. Once the currents have reached the required levels for the desired speed of the motor, the duty cycle is changed to that required to maintain the currents at or near the required level of current. Conventional BLDC motor systems that include a driver comprising a series of IGBT""s are adequate in controlling the speed of BLDC motors at low frequencies. A standard driver including six IGBT""s can drive a three-phase motor (two IGBT""s per phase) with a switching frequency up to approximately 20 kHz if the maximum current is not required for more than a few minutes. In this regard, each IGBT can typically operate with a maximum switching frequency of approximately 20 kHz. Whereas such drivers can control the speed of BLDC motors at low frequencies, such drivers that drive higher power (e.g., greater than one horsepower) and higher voltage (e.g., greater than 200 volts) three-phase motors cannot typically switch at a frequency higher than 20 kHz when the driver comprises IGBT""s. The limit in switching frequency is due to the losses associated with switching the IGBT""s and the average current being switched. What makes the IGBT poor at higher frequencies is that the gate of the transistor is not directly connected to the gate drive circuit (hence insulated gate) and, thus, the electrical charge cannot be quickly removed. The rate at which the electrical charge can be applied or removed fixes the time the IGBT is transitioning between its xe2x80x9coffxe2x80x9d and saturated xe2x80x9conxe2x80x9d states. As the switching frequency increases, the percentage of time that the IGBT is in these transitional regions increases. Also, as current is flowing while the IGBT transitions between states, the power dissipated while the IGBT is in these transitional regions increases. And while other, more advanced products are available that can run at higher frequencies, such products are factors of 50 times more expensive than conventional IGBT""s and are not production items. In light of the foregoing, various embodiments of the present invention provide an improved controller and associated drive assembly for controlling a brushless direct current (BLDC) motor, where the motor includes a predetermined number of phase windings. Various embodiments of the controller and associated drive assembly of the present invention include a plurality of switching elements, such as IGBT""s, arranged such that the power dissipation of a conventional driver is spread among a plurality of drivers. As such, the motor can be driven at a frequency higher than the maximum frequency of any one switching element. Alternatively, the motor can be driven at an operational frequency while operating each switching element at a frequency less than the operational frequency. Thus, the efficiency of the switching elements is increased over conventional drivers. According to one embodiment, a controller for controlling a BLDC motor controller includes a drive assembly, and a processing element. The processing element is in electrical communication with the drive assembly and the BLDC motor, and the processing element is capable of controlling operation of the drive assembly. The drive assembly, on the other hand, is in electrical communication with a power supply and the BLDC motor. As such, the drive assembly is capable of receiving a voltage output of the power supply and is capable of providing a pulse-width-modulated input voltage to the BLDC motor. The drive assembly includes a plurality of half-bridge assemblies that each include two switching elements, such as insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBT""s), that are each capable of operating at no more than a redetermined frequency. In this regard, at least two half-bridge assemblies are electrically connected to each phase winding of the BLDC motor such that the half-ridge assemblies are capable of providing the pulse-width-modulated input voltage to the respective phase winding of the BLDC motor at a frequency higher than the predetermined frequency. By electrically connecting at least two half-bridge assemblies to each phase winding, the switching elements are each capable of operating at an operating frequency that is less than the predetermined frequency. As such, the half-bridge assemblies that are electrically connected to each phase winding of the BLDC motor are capable of providing the pulse-width-modulated input voltage to the respective phase winding of the BLDC motor at a frequency equal to the product of the number of half-bridge assemblies electrically connected to the respective phase winding and the operating frequency. According to another embodiment, the drive assembly comprises a plurality of drive elements that each include the predefined number of half-bridge assemblies. In this embodiment, each half-bridge assembly of each drive element is electrically connected to a respective phase winding of the BLDC motor. For example, the BLDC motor can include a first, a second and a third phase winding, where the drive assembly comprises a plurality of drive elements that each comprise a first half-bridge assembly, a second half-bridge assembly and a third half-bridge assembly. In this regard, the first half-bridge assemblies can be electrically connected to the first phase winding, the second half-bridge assemblies can be electrically connected to the second phase winding, and the third half-bridge assemblies can be electrically connected to the third phase winding. According to yet another embodiment where the drive assembly comprises a predefined number of drive elements that each comprise a plurality of half-bridge assemblies, each half-bridge assembly of the drive elements is electrically connected to a respective phase winding of the BLDC motor. For example, the BLDC motor can include the first, second and third phase winding. In this regard, the drive assembly can comprise a first, a second and a third drive element that each comprise a plurality of half-bridge assemblies. Thus, the half-bridge assemblies of the first drive element can be electrically connected to the first phase winding, the half-bridge assemblies of the second drive element can be electrically connected to the second phase winding, and the half-bridge assemblies of the third drive element can be electrically connected to the third phase winding.
1. Field of the Invention The invention pertains to a xe2x80x9cleads over chipxe2x80x9d (LOC) semiconductor die assembly, and more particularly to a method and apparatus for reducing the stress resulting from lodging of filler particles present in plastic encapsulants between the undersides of the lead frame leads and the active surface of the die and improved lead locking of the leads in position over a portion of the active surface of a semiconductor die assembly. 2. State of the Art The use of LOC semiconductor die assemblies has become relatively common in the industry in recent years. This style or configuration of semiconductor device replaces a xe2x80x9ctraditionalxe2x80x9d lead frame with a central, integral support (commonly called a die-attach tab, paddle, or island) to which the back surface of a semiconductor die is secured, with a lead frame arrangement wherein the dedicated die-attach support is eliminated and at least some of the leads extend over the active surface of the die. The die is then adhered to the lead extensions with an adhesive dielectric layer of some sort disposed between the undersides of the lead extensions and the die. Early examples of LOC assemblies are illustrated in U.S. Pat. No. 4,862,245 to Pashby et al. and U.S. Pat. No. 4,984,059 to Kubota et al. More recent examples of the implementation of LOC technology are disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,184,208; 5,252,853; 5,286,679; 5,304,842; and 5,461,255. In instances known to the inventors, LOC assemblies employ large quantities or horizontal cross-sectional areas of adhesive to enhance physical support of the die for handling. Traditional lead frame die assemblies using a die-attach tab place the inner ends of the lead frame leads in close lateral proximity to the periphery of the active die surface where the bond pads are located, wire bonds then being formed between the lead ends and the bond pads. LOC die assemblies, by their extension of inner lead ends over the die, permit physical support of the die from the leads themselves, permit more diverse (including centralized) placement of the bond pads on the active surface, and permit the use of the leads for heat transfer from the die. However, use of LOC die assemblies in combination with plastic packaging of the LOC die assembly has demonstrated some shortcomings of LOC technology as presently practiced in the art. One of the short comings of the prior art LOC semiconductor die assemblies is that the tape used to bond to the lead fingers of the lead frame does not adequately lock the lead fingers in position for the wire bonding process. At times, the adhesive on the tape is not strong enough to fix or lock the lead fingers in position for wire bonding as the lead fingers pull away from the tape before wire bonding. Alternately, the lead fingers will pull away from the tape after wire bonding of the semiconductor die but before encapsulation of the semiconductor die and frame either causing shorts between adjacent wire bonds or the wire bonds to pull loose from either the bond pads of the die or lead fingers of the frame. After wire bonding the semiconductor die to the lead fingers of the lead frame forming an assembly, the most common manner of forming a plastic package about a die assembly is molding, and, more specifically, transfer molding. In this process (and with specific reference to LOC die assemblies), a semiconductor die is suspended by its active surface from the underside of inner lead extensions of a lead frame (typically Cu or Alloy 42) by a tape, screen print or spin-on dielectric adhesive layer. The bond pads of the die and the inner lead ends of the frame are then electrically connected by wire bonds (typically Au, although Al and other metal alloy wires have also been employed) by means known in the art. The resulting LOC die assembly, which may comprise the framework of a dual-in-line package (DIP), zig-zag in-line package (ZIP), small outline j-lead package (SOJ), quad flat pack (QFP), plastic leaded chip carrier (PLCC), surface mount device (SMD) or other plastic package configuration known in the art, is placed in a mold cavity and encapsulated in a thermosetting polymer which, when heated, reacts irreversibly to form a highly cross-linked matrix no longer capable of being remelted. The thermosetting polymer generally is comprised of three major components: an epoxy resin, a hardener (including accelerators), and a filler material. Other additives such as flame retardants, mold release agents and colorants are also employed in relatively small amounts. While many variations of the three major components are known in the art, the focus of the present invention resides in the filler materials employed and its effects on the active die surface and improved lead locking of the lead fingers of the frame. Filler materials are usually a form of fused silica, although other materials such as calcium carbonates, calcium silicates, talc, mica and clays have been employed for less rigorous applications. Powdered fused quartz is currently the primary filler used in encapsulants. Fillers provide a number of advantages in comparison to unfilled encapsulants. For example, fillers reinforce the polymer and thus provide additional package strength, enhance thermal conductivity of the package, provide enhanced resistance to thermal shock, and greatly reduce the cost of the polymer in comparison to its unfilled state. Fillers also beneficially reduce the coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) of the composite material by about fifty percent in comparison to the unfilled polymer, resulting in a CTE much closer to that of the silicon or gallium arsenide die. Filler materials, however, also present some recognized disadvantages, including increasing the stiffness of the plastic package, as well as the moisture permeability of the package. Another previously unrecognized disadvantage discovered by the inventors herein is the damage to the active die surface resulting from encapsulant filler particles becoming lodged or wedged between the underside of the lead extensions and the active die surface during transfer molding of the plastic package about the die and the inner lead ends of the LOC die assembly. The filler particles, which may literally be jammed in position due to deleterious polymer flow patterns and flow imbalances in the mold cavity during encapsulation, place the active die surface under residual stress at the points of contact of the particles. The particles may then damage the die surface or conductive elements thereon or immediately thereunder when the package is further stressed (mechanically, thermally, electrically) during post-encapsulation handling and testing. While it is possible to employ a lower volume of filler in the encapsulating polymer to reduce potential for filler particle lodging or wedging, a drastic reduction in filler volume raises costs of the polymer to unacceptable levels. Currently available filler technology also imposes certain limitations as to practical beneficial reductions in particle size (currently in the 75 to 125 micron range, with the larger end of the range being easier to achieve with consistency) and in the shape of the filler particles. While it is desirable that particles be of generally spherical shape, it has thus far proven impossible to eliminate non-spherical flakes or chips which, in the wrong orientation, maximize stress on the die surface. Ongoing advances in design and manufacturing technology provide increasingly thinner conductive, semiconductive and dielectric layers in state-of-the-art die, and the width and pitch of conductors serving various purposes on the active surface of the die are likewise being continually reduced. The resulting die structures, while robust and reliable for their intended uses, must nonetheless become more stress-susceptible due to the minimal strength provided by the minute widths, depths and spacings of their constituent elements. The integrity of active surface die coats such as silicon dioxide, doped silicon dioxides such as phosphorous silicate glass (PSG) or borophosphorous silicate glass (BPSG), or silicon nitride, may thus be compromised by point stresses applied by filler particles, the result being unanticipated shortening of device life if not immediate, detectable damage or alteration of performance characteristics. The aforementioned U.S. Pat. No. 4,984,059 to Kubota et al. does incidentally disclose several exemplary LOC arrangements which appear to greatly space the leads over the chip or which do not appear to provide significant areas for filler particle lodging. However, such structures may create fabrication and lead spacing and positioning difficulties. In addition to solving the problems associated with filler particle lodging and damage, it is desirable to have improved lead locking of the lead fingers of the frame during operations involving the semiconductor die. If the lead fingers have increased flexibility, the adhesive used to bond the lead frame to the semiconductor die is more effective in locking the lead fingers in position. Previously, improving lead finger locking has been approached from the perspective of improved adhesives, rather than increasing the flexibility of the lead fingers. From the foregoing, the prior art has neither provided for improved locking of the lead fingers to the semiconductor die, nor recognized the stress phenomenon attendant to transfer molding and the use of filled encapsulants, nor provided a LOC structure which beneficially accommodates this phenomenon. The present invention provides a lead-supported die assembly for a LOC arrangement that substantially reduces the stress that may otherwise potentially form between the leads and the active die surface due to the presence of filler particles of the polymer encapsulant and improved lead locking of the leads in position over a portion of the active surface of a semiconductor die assembly. Accordingly, each lead of the lead frame between the bonding location of the die and the edge of the die is formed with a stress relief portion therein. The resulting enlarged volume of space between the leads and the active die surface will beneficially accommodate an increased amount of the underlying filler particle or particles of the polymer encapsulant. Accordingly, a stacking of filler particles in which the filler particles try to force the lead away from the die, thus causing stress in the connection between the lead and the die, is less likely to occur. Moreover, this stress relief portion allows flexibility in bending and torsion in the leads due to stress created during the transfer molding process as well as other processes. The resulting lead flexure in response to the filler material will produce an immediate reduction in the residual stress experienced by the active die surface. This lessened residual stress is carried forward in the encapsulated package after cure, permitting the package to better withstand the stresses of post-encapsulation handling and testing, including the elevated potentials and temperatures experienced during burn-in, without adverse effects. The resulting lead flexure also allows improved lead finger locking to the tape as less force is transferred to the tape from the flexure of the lead fingers, which force may cause the lead fingers to become dislodged therefrom prior to the wire bonding operations or, subsequently, during encapsulation of the assembly. The LOC apparatus of the present invention comprises a lead frame to which the active surface of a die is adhered by a LOC tape, permitting the lead frame to physically support the die during pre-encapsulation handling and processing such as wire bonding. The free ends of the leads have a recessed portion formed therein extending over a longitudinal length of the lead end proximate the active surface of the die. With such an arrangement, intrusion of filler particles between the inner lead ends and the active surface of the die during the encapsulation process is beneficially accommodated. Stated in more specific terms and on the scale of an individual lead and the underlying active surface of the die, proximate the dielectric adhesive (such as LOC tape, screen print or spin-on, as known in the art) disposed on the underside of a lead, the lead is minimized in cross-sectional area along the lead axis. The design permits an increased amount of filler particles to accumulate in this recessed area such that the filler is less likely to force the lead away from the die. Similarly, the lead may incorporate an arched or bowed portion proximate its bonding location to the die to accommodate an increased amount of filler particles between the lead and the active surface of the die. This design also permits the free end of the lead to flex in bending and torsion about this arched or bowed portion, so as to bend or twist as required while being retained in position by the tape or in the presence of a filler particle or particles lodged between that lead and the die. It is contemplated, that this flexibility or stress reduction portion or filler particle accommodation portion of the lead frame may be formed in several manners. For example, a certain amount of each lead finger where flexibility, stress reduction or filler particle accommodation is desired may have a portion of its thickness chemically etched away. Likewise, various erosion, electron beam, machining or other processes known in the art may be utilized to reduce the thickness of the lead finger at the desired location. The reduced thickness portion of the lead finger for flexibility, stress reduction and filler particle accommodation may also be created by deformation, coining, stamping or other such methods known in the art to thin material.
Development of additional pituitary hormone deficiencies in pediatric patients originally diagnosed with idiopathic isolated GH deficiency. We assessed the characteristics of children initially diagnosed with idiopathic isolated GH deficiency (IGHD) who later developed additional (multiple) pituitary hormone deficiencies (MPHD). Data were analyzed for 5805 pediatric patients with idiopathic IGHD, who were GH-naïve at baseline and GH-treated in the multinational, observational Genetics and Neuroendocrinology of Short Stature International Study. Development of MPHD was assessed from investigator diagnoses, adverse events, and concomitant medications. Analyses were performed for all patients and for those who developed MPHD within 4.5 years or had ≥3.5 years, follow-up and continued to have IGHD (4-year cohort). MPHD developed in 118/5805 (2.0%) children overall, and in 96/1757 (5.5%) in the 4-year cohort. Patients who developed MPHD had more profound GHD, with decreased height SDS, IGF1 SDS and peak stimulated GH, and greater height decrement vs target, compared with children who continued to have IGHD (P<0.001 for each variable). Delivery complications, congenital anomalies, and perinatal/neonatal adverse events occurred more frequently in patients who developed MPHD. The most frequent additional deficiency was TSH (82 patients overall); four patients developed two pituitary hormone deficiencies and one developed three deficiencies. Multivariable logistic regression indicated that years of follow-up (odds ratio 1.55), baseline age (1.17), baseline height SDS (0.69), and peak stimulated GH (0.64) were associated with the development of MPHD. MPHD is more likely to develop in patients with more severe idiopathic IGHD. Older baseline age, lower baseline height SDS, and longer follow-up duration are associated with increased risk of development of MPHD.
Grappler systems for the picking up and transferring of loads are disclosed, for example, in Lanigan et al. U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,546,891; 4,667,834; 4,715,762; and 5,415,517, among others. These devices are particularly adapted to pick up and move containers such as large metal shipping or load containers and even truck trailers (which are included in the term "containers"). Also, the devices of the previous patents include grapplers which are capable of gripping and lifting more than one container in a stack, to transfer several containers at once. By this invention, systems for lifting and transferring load containers are improved, in that they can vary the dimensions of the distribution of the lifting latches carried by the system, so that containers of differing sizes may be lifted and moved. Also, a system is provided for facilitating alignment of the lifting latches with apertures on the load containers, so that the load containers may be reliably, easily, and safely gripped for lifting without the need for close-up visual adjustment. Rather, the operator in the cab of the system can quickly and effectively make such latching contact with various sizes of containers. Also, the system of this invention may be folded up for travel into a relatively compact unit, permitting easier shipping and the like.
When are two waters worse than one? Doubling the hydration number of a Gd-DTPA derivative decreases relaxivity. The synthesis of a novel ligand, based on N-methyl-diethylenetriaminetetraacetate and containing a diphenylcyclohexyl serum albumin binding group (L1) is described and the coordination chemistry and biophysical properties of its Gd(III) complex Gd-L1 are reported. The Gd(III) complex of the diethylenetriaminepentaacetate analogue of the ligand described here (L2) is the MRI contrast agent MS-325. The effect of converting an acetate to a methyl group on metal-ligand stability, hydration number, water-exchange rate, relaxivity, and binding to the protein human serum albumin (HSA) is explored. The complex Gd-L1 has two coordinated water molecules in solution, that is, [Gd(L1)(H2O)2]2- as shown by D-band proton ENDOR spectroscopy and implied by 1H and 17O NMR relaxation rate measurements. The Gd-H(water) distance of the coordinated waters was found to be identical to that found for Gd-L2, 3.08 A. Loss of the acetate group destabilizes the Gd(III) complex by 1.7 log units (log K(ML) = 20.34) relative to the complex with L2. The affinity of Gd-L1 for HSA is essentially the same as that of Gd-L2. The water-exchange rate of the two coordinated waters on Gd-L1 (k(ex) = 4.4x10(5) s(-1)) is slowed by an order of magnitude relative to Gd-L2. As a result of this slow water-exchange rate, the observed proton relaxivity of Gd-L1 is much lower in a solution of HSA under physiological conditions (r1(obs) = 22.0 mM(-1) s(-1) for 0.1 mM Gd-L1 in 0.67 mM HSA, HEPES buffer, pH 7.4, 35 degrees C at 20 MHz) than that of Gd-L2 (r1(obs) = 41.5 mM(-1) s(-1)) measured under the same conditions. Despite having two exchangeable water molecules, slow water exchange limits the potential efficacy of Gd-L1 as an MRI contrast agent.
Since the clinical use of nitrogen mustard as an anticancer agent in the 1940s for the first time in the world, numerous anticancer drugs have ever been developed. Actually, for example, antimetabolites such as 5-fluorouracil, antitumor antibiotics such as adriamycin, platinum complex such as cisplatin, and plant-derived carcinostatics such as vindesine have been subjected to clinical use. However, most of these carcinostatics have significant side effects such as digestive disorders, myelosuppression and alopecia since they are cytotoxic also to normal cells. Due to the side effects, their range of application is limited. In addition, the therapeutic effects themselves are partial and short, in most cases. Developments of new carcinostatics in place of these has been made; however, satisfactory results have not yet been obtained. Patent Documents 1, 2, 3 and 4 disclose that certain kinds of compounds have fibrosing inhibitory actions, antitumor actions and STAT3/5 activation inhibitory actions, respectively. However, it is not known whether the specific compounds of the present invention have an antitumor effect.
Being prepared for acculturation: on the importance of the first months after immigrants enter a new culture. We hypothesized that perceived communication effectiveness at arrival and initial friendships with members of the receiving society during the first months after arrival in a new country have a long-term effect on the development of acculturation orientations and that this effect is pronounced for individuals with a high need for cognitive closure (NCC). We examined the hypotheses in a study with Spanish-speaking immigrants in Switzerland (n = 146) and in Italy (n = 147). We asked participants to indicate their current attitude to contact with the receiving society and cultural maintenance and report retrospectively their perceived communication effectiveness at arrival and initial friendships. In line with the predictions, the perceptions of high communication effectiveness at arrival and friendships with members of the receiving society during the initial phase in the new culture were positively correlated with the current attitude to contact with the receiving society assessed 7 years after arrival on average. Also, initial friendships with members of the receiving society were negatively correlated with present cultural maintenance. Moreover, with an increase in NCC, these correlations increased.
Pre-operative analgesia after injury. Much has been written on postoperative analgesia in the surgical patient. However, no work has been published on pre-operative pain relief in acute injury. We have studied 100 consecutive admissions, reviewing the prescribing pattern and administration of analgesia following acute injury in the period prior to operation, or the first 24 h as an in-patient. We found an over-reliance on a narrow range of analgesics to the exclusion of others. The choice and variety of analgesic offered, their frequency and route of administration could all have been improved. Equally, little thought was given to adjuvant forms of analgesic therapy which are well suited to the injured patient. Analgesics were prescribed more often than they were given. No pharmacological analgesia was prescribed in 9 per cent of admissions, and a further 14 per cent were given no analgesia despite its being prescribed, i.e. 23 per cent of acutely injured patients received no analgesia during the pre-operative period, or first 24 h after admission. This audit revealed evidence of inadequate pre-operative analgesic prescribing and administration practices. We conclude that there is no place for complacency when managing the analgesic requirements of injured patients.
Oxidoreduction sites and relationships of spiroplasmas with insect cells in culture. We have previously shown that Spiroplasma citri oxidoreduction sites, as revealed by the reduction of potassium tellurite into electron-dense tellurium crystals detectable by electron microscopy, were located at the blunt end of the organisms. The time of incubation of S. citri in potassium tellurite had no influence on the labeling. We have investigated the presence and location of oxidoreduction sites for other spiroplasmas such as the corn stunt spiroplasma (CSS), 277F, B88, BNR1 and PPS1. For all of these strains (except CSS, which is similar to S. citri), the location of oxidoreduction sites was affected by the time of incubation in potassium tellurite, and could be observed in different locations of the helix. 277F showed first labeling at the blunt end and a second, strong labeling at the tapered end. The other strains showed labeling all along the helix, but labeling at the blunt end generally appeared first. When Drosophila (Dm-1) cell cultures were infected with S. citri or 277F, the organisms adsorbed to the cells. Observation of infected cells by electron microscopy revealed that S. citri attached to the cells by the blunt end, while 277F attached either by the blunt end or the tapered one. The infection of leafhopper cell cultures (AS-2) with S. citri has been followed by transmission electron microscopy after incorporation of tritiated thymidine in the organism, and an immunocytochemical method has been developed to locate the organisms inside the cells.
Typically, a navigation device (be that an in-vehicle navigation device (i.e. a device built into a vehicle that cannot be removed from that vehicle), a PND such as a TomTom® Go 720, or a mobile telephone, personal digital assistant (PDA) or computer executing navigation software) is configured to display an image consisting of a map view generated from a digital map. The map view may be superposed with route information depicting a navigation route, and whilst the route information may be pre-recorded, but it is typically the result of a route-planning algorithm executed by the navigation device using suitable software. The navigation device may also include a position determining system (such as Global Positioning System (GPS)) for determining the current real-time position of the navigation device, and for dynamically adjusting the map view in accordance with the determined current position. A popular type of map view is a two-dimensional-based map view that includes information in two-dimensions at ground level. For example, roads and buildings are represented by the shape of their footprints on the ground. Such two-dimensional information may be viewed as a plan (i.e. looking generally vertically downwardly on the map, in the same manner as a traditional paper map), or in artificial perspective as if viewing a traditional flat paper map from a perspective angle. However, in either case, the map view is generally “flat” in the sense that the information is only two-dimensional ground level information. References hereafter to a two-dimensional plan view should be construed to include both of these types of map view. A further type of map view is a three-dimensional elevated perspective view, similar to an artificial perspective view but including three-dimensional rendering according to height information of map objects. For example, a building is rendered in three-dimensions according to height information for the building. In the context of in-vehicle use, it is generally desirable to provide a highly intuitive navigation display that (i) provides the driver with current navigation information, and (ii) provides an indication of the future route, so that driver can drive and position the vehicle appropriately. It has also been previously proposed to provide other information to the driver that could potentially be of use. For example, it has previously been proposed to display points of interest (such as banks, petrol stations or public facilities) that are on or close to the route, street names for roads on or close to the route, and icons representing the location of speed limit enforcement cameras that are on the chosen route. Whilst the provision of these additional items of information can often be of use to the driver, it is important that the driver is not overburdened with information so that the route becomes difficult to follow, or the map difficult to read, or the driver distracted by the amount of information displayed. This applies to both two-dimensional and three-dimensional map views, but is especially apparent in a three-dimensional perspective elevation, in which the map view contains additional detail in the form of three-dimensional shapes of map objects such as buildings. Clearly there is a fine balance to be drawn between providing the driver with information that might be of use and not overburdening the display image with information to such an extent that the driver's attention is distracted from safely operating the vehicle in which the PND is provided, and the present invention has been devised with the aim of addressing these contradictory issues.
Is percutaneous adductor tenotomy as effective and safe as the open procedure? Percutaneous adductor longus tenotomy (PAT) is a frequently used procedure, yet no study has ever compared its effectiveness and safety with those of open adductor longus tenotomy (OAT). We conducted this prospective study to describe the effects of PAT and to compare them with those of OAT. This consisted of a cross-over randomized controlled trial including 50 consecutive hips from 27 patients with cerebral palsy scheduled for adductor tenotomy in the setting of multilevel tendon lengthening/release procedures or hip surgery (femoral or Dega osteotomy) in a university hospital. A pediatric orthopaedic surgeon conducted a PAT. Another surgeon extended the wound to explore what had been cut during the PAT, and completed the tenotomy if necessary. Hip abduction (HA) was assessed by a third surgeon immediately before PAT, after PAT, and then after OAT, using a goniometer, in a standardized reproducible manner. All 3 surgeons were blinded to the others' findings. Primary end-points included the percentage of tendon/muscle portion sectioned percutaneously, and the HA measure. Comparison between HA after PAT and OAT was done using a paired t-test with a 95% confidence interval. The influence of anatomic variants of adductor longus origin was also assessed. Mean HA (hips flexed) measured 40.36 degrees preoperatively and increased to 50.04 degrees after PAT (P<0.0001). After OAT, HA averaged 53.32 degrees with no statistical gain compared with that observed after PAT (P=0.2). The tendinous portion of adductor longus was cut to an average of 98% by PAT (completely in 46 cases and more than 75% in only 4 cases). The muscular portion of adductor longus origin was cut to an average of 83.7% (completely in only 15 cases, cut to more than 75% in 26 cases, and approximately 50% in 9 cases). The gain in HA positively correlated with the extent of the tendinous portion divided (P=0.03) but not with the extent of muscular portion divided. Results were independent of the anatomic variants of adductor longus origin. Partial section of adductor brevis after PAT was encountered in 6 cases. No major iatrogenic lesion was observed (obturator nerve, major vessels). This is the only prospective study concerning the effects of PAT. The anatomic factor associated with gain in HA seems to be the extent of the section of the tendinous portion of adductor longus origin, which was found to be cut to more than 90% in all cases after PAT. The extent of muscular portion section does not seem to influence the gain in HA. The researchers detail the technique of percutaneous adductor tenotomy and show that when done correctly, PAT is a fast and simple procedure, as reliable and effective as the open release and without any major risks. Level II therapeutic study-prospective comparative study.
The present invention relates to a device for measuring a discharge of liquid. In the past, it has been found desirable to obtain various data pertaining to a liquid discharge. In particular, it was discovered that many urological problems could be readily diagnosed by analyzing information obtained during the natural voiding of urine by patients. Presently, various types of devices are utilized to obtain data on the urine stream, such as total volume, average flow rate, force, velocity, and configuration of the stream. Most of these devices have suffered from less than total reliability because they have required the presence of one or more observers while the patient is voiding. It is obvious that administration of such devices in this manner creates sufficient psychological difficulties for many of the patients to effect voiding. Consequently, if the patients void at all, the potentially erroneous data obtained may result in a false diagnosis and a loss of confidence in the device by the physician. A further complication arises from the fact that many of these devices are rather bulky, and somewhat difficult to use.
"Walt Disney's Disneyland." "# When you wish upon a star #" "# Makes no difference who you are #" "Each week, as you enter this timeless land, one of these many worlds will open to you." "Frontierland." "Tall tales and true from the legendary past." "Tomorrowland." "Promise of things to come." "Adventureland." "The wonderworld of nature's own realm." "Fantasyland." "The happiest kingdom of them all." "Presenting this week..." "Here to introduce you to this new series is Walt Disney." "In our modern world, everywhere we look, we see the influence science has upon our daily lives." "Discoveries that were miracles a few short years ago are accepted as commonplace today." "Many the things that seem impossible now will become realities tomorrow." "One of man's oldest dreams has been the desire for space travel." "To travel to other worlds." "Until recently, this seemed to be an impossibility." "But new discoveries have brought us to the threshold of a new frontier." "The frontier of interplanetary space." "In this Tomorrowland series, we are combining the tools of our trade with the knowledge of the scientist to give a factual picture of the latest plans for man's newest adventure." "Here's director Ward Kimball to tell you about it." "In working with engineers and scientists, we have found that there are many different opinions as to how we will eventually cross the space frontier." "However, there's one point all of them seem to agree upon." "And that is whether we use chemical fuels or atomic energy, it will be a rocket-powered ship that will finally take man into space." "So, to set the stage for the part the rocket will play in the coming conquest of space, our artists have searched back through history and traced the rocket and various space-travel ideas from their earliest beginnings." "The first thing we found out was that the rocket is not such a modern invention after all." "In fact, its history began way back in the 13th century." "It was in China, to be exact, at the battle of Kai-fung-fu." "A little over 500 years later," "Sir Isaac Newton explained this phenomenon by saying..." "Sir Isaac's statement can best be illustrated by showing what happens to our pet dog when he sneezes." "For every action, there is an opposite but equal reaction." "This same principle applies when we light an ordinary skyrocket." "However, gunpowder is not the only propellant that demonstrates the action-reaction law." "There was a time when steam was seriously considered as a means of rocket propulsion." "Typifying this idea was Charles Golightly's aerial steam horse." "Early inventors soon realized that steam rockets would be too heavy to fly." "So they returned to designs utilizing gunpowder." "These ideas made many successful flights." "On paper." "In 1865, Jules Verne fired the imagination of the world with his first book on space travel." "It was called "From the Earth to the Moon."" "Mr. Verne used a very interesting device in getting his heroes to the moon." "He shot them through space inside an enormous artillery projectile." "It was Verne's story that inspired Georges Méliès to create the first space-travel motion picture in 1902." "The first man to associate space travel with the use of rocket power was Hermann Gonsfind." "His idea was to have the rocket pull the ship instead of push it." "This conception was quite unique but only an inventor's dream." "However, a few decades later, a real milestone in rocket history was passed when the American professor Robert H. Goddard introduced a liquid-fuel rocket, which used gasoline and liquid oxygen instead of gunpowder." "This small forerunner of our large, present-day rockets actually rose 60 feet into a wintry New England sky." "These experiments led to the founding of the American Rocket Society to advance the science of rocket propulsion." "At the same time, the German professor Hermann Oberth wrote," ""Theoretically, there is no limit to the size of a rocket which uses liquid fuel."" "In 1929, Oberth designed a giant rocket ship for the Fritz Lang movie "Frau im Mond."" ""The Girl in the Moon."" "During the late 1920s and early '30s, we saw an era of feverish activity among the rocket experimenters." "Almost every type of vehicle was adapted to rocket power." "Here is the first successful flight of a rocket-powered airplane." "Rocket-powered autos were fast but presented quite a smoke problem." "There were railroad rockets and nautical rockets." "Some fired and some backfired." "These early attempts met with varying degrees of success." "Meanwhile, in Germany, a group of serious-minded engineers founded a new society for space travel and succeeded in building rockets which finally reached an altitude of 1/2 mile." "Soon after this, the German Army established its own rocket program." "The development of the first rocket missiles followed." "This accelerated rocket program culminated in the creation of the forerunner of spaceships to come, the V-2." "Even though there were a few mishaps, the V-2 emerged at the end of the second World War as the most successful rocket yet devised by man." "75 of these captured V-2s were brought to our rocket proving ground at White Sands, New Mexico, in 1945." "Here, exhaustive studies and test firings were made to aid us in mapping our own newly created rocket program." "It wasn't long before the sands of New Mexico shook to the roaring blast of the Viking, the Corporal, the Aerobee, and other American rockets." "A rocket firing is an awesome demonstration of tremendous power." "I think we should find out how it works." "One of the best authorities on this subject is the rocket historian Willy Ley." "Here Mr. Ley explains the operation of a rocket motor to some of the artists working on the picture." "This is an actual propulsion unit from a V-2." "And this strange-looking device is both the heart and muscle of a rocket, its motor." "Now, all earthbound engines have to burn oxygen from the surrounding atmosphere." "But the high-altitude rocket motor has to work in outer space, where there is no oxygen." "To overcome this, we carry a tank of liquid oxygen here." "When burned with a fuel, in this case, alcohol, it produces an intensely hot, torchlike flame that would quickly melt the motor." "However, we cool the motor by first circulating the alcohol fuel around it until this fuel finally reaches the point where it is sprayed, along with the oxygen, into the combustion chamber." "When this steady flow of alcohol and oxygen is ignited, it produces a continuous explosion which blasts the rocket away in the opposite direction." "Here again we have action and reaction." "If this motor is placed in a streamlined hull with suitable controls, it can reach a high altitude in a very short time." "The V-2 rocket motor only operates 65 seconds to a height of 20 miles." "By then the V-2 has gathered so much speed that it will coast upward to an altitude of 114 miles before gravity begins to pull it back to Earth." "Notice that the rocket does not nose over in the thin upper air." "But it falls tailfirst until it re-enters the denser atmosphere, where the air, acting on the tail fins, turns the rocket nose down." "Early in 1949, space history was made when the payload in the nose of a V-2 was a small rocket called the WAC Corporal." "When the launched V-2 reached its maximum speed, the smaller rocket was ignited." "This additional boost in speed enabled the WAC Corporal to set a new high-altitude record of 250 miles." "This day marked the first time that a man-made object reached outer space." "This was accomplished by using a double rocket, then secretly known as Project Bumper." "However, we refer to it as a two-step, or two-stage, rocket." "Is it possible to build a three-stage rocket?" "Yes, as a matter of fact, that's the next logical step." "Here's a rocket I have designed that has three stages." "It would stand about 70 feet high, or a little taller than the old V-2." "Here you can see the three sections, each one having its own rocket motor." "If somebody would please make a sketch for me, perhaps I can explain how it will work." "Good." "Here we show our rocket in its launching position." "The first great blast starts to lift it." "And after gaining initial speed, the first section is cast off at 20 miles up." "At 45 miles, the second stage is released." "The third stage now fires until it reaches an altitude of 70 miles." "At this point, our rocket has now attained a tremendous speed, and the motor shuts off." "Its forward momentum would carry it straight out into space if it were not for the Earth's gravity." "This downward pull of gravity bends the upward course of the rocket into a curved path." "And if the rocket's speed going away from the Earth creates enough centrifugal force to balance this pull of gravity, our rocket will continue coasting in its curved path around the Earth indefinitely." "Mr. Ley, is there another way we can illustrate this?" "Yes, let's explain it this way." "If the rocket were to move at a slower speed, the pull of gravity would soon overcome the rocket's momentum." "And it would return to Earth here." "If we add a little more speed, the path of the rocket becomes longer." "And it goes farther before it returns to Earth here." "So, if we have our rocket go fast enough, it will eventually follow a curve which matches the curvature of the Earth and will not fall back." "We might say that the rocket falls around the Earth as long as it maintains sufficient speed." "But how does it maintain this speed with the motor shut off?" "Remember, our rocket is traveling above the atmosphere in space, where there is no air friction to slow it down." "How fast does it have to go to stay up there?" "Now, that depends on how high we want the rocket to be as it circles the Earth." "Let's use the altitude of 1,075 miles." "Because at this height, the rocket will have to go nearly 16,000 miles per hour and will make a complete trip around the world every two hours." "A few adjustments in its course will be necessary." "But this can be accomplished from the ground by remote control, after which the rocket will continue to coast freely in space forever." "In other words, the rocket will stay up there just like the moon." "It will circle the globe as a man-made satellite." "What is the purpose of having the satellite up there?" "Having this instrument-carrying rocket moving around the Earth will give us a lot of important information, which we'll need before we dare let a man make his first trip into space." "To run the scientific apparatus contained in the satellite, a mirror will focus the intense rays of the sun onto a silicon battery, converting solar energy into electricity." "There will be a television camera to give pictures of the Earth as it appears from 1,075 miles up." "We will collect very important data on the effects of the mysterious cosmic rays." "Even hits by meteorites the size of a grain of sand will be recorded." "Every two hours, when the rocket moves over the North Pole, its radio will transmit a stream of data to a receiving station below." "This will be the first outpost in man's conquest of space." "One of the big question marks of future space travel will be man himself." "How he will react, mentally and physically, to this unearthly experience is a concern of a new field of science called space medicine." "Helping us illustrate this interesting problem is a scientist most noted for his pioneering work in space medicine," "Dr. Heinz Haber." "When man steps into his rocket ship and leaves the Earth behind, he must be well-equipped to survive in the hostile realm of outer space." "To portray the complex problems of space medicine, we have designed a sort of common man." "A man just like you and me." "We will find out what will happen to him on a trip into space." "In a way, he's going to be our space guinea pig." "That makes him a brand-new biological species." "I think we should call him homo sapiens extraterrestrialis, or spaceman." "Since he was picked at random, we cannot tell whether he will be able to tolerate the tremendous stresses to be placed upon him when the rocket ship is fired into space." "He gets an inkling of these stresses when he rides in an automobile." "When he steps on the accelerator, the car moves forward and he is gently pressed against the back of the seat." "His body resists any change of motion." "When he comes to a stop, his body tends to move forward." "On a test-rocket sled, which is pushed forward at tremendous accelerations, the force of inertia is much stronger." "We are all familiar with centrifugal force." "We duplicate this force in the laboratory by using human centrifuges." "These machines artificially create on man the crushing pressure he will have to endure in a rocket takeoff from Earth." "His body weight increases until he blacks out and finally loses consciousness." "From tests like these, we have learned that man will have to assume a reclining position when his rocket takes off into space." "In this attitude, the stresses will be more evenly distributed along his body." "He will then be able to tolerate pressures of up to nine times his weight or more as it occurs in a rising rocket." "When the rocket engine finally stops, man will face his next big problem, weightlessness." "Without support, he will be floating freely, drifting, tumbling, and twisting helplessly." "In space, a man, a feather, a bubble, or a piece of iron will have the same weight." "Or, rather, no weight at all." "However, man is designed to live with gravity, the down-pulling force which Sir Isaac Newton first explained." "Any two bodies attract with a force which is proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them." "Or what goes up must come down." "Loud alarm signals sound throughout the nervous system whenever we are in danger of falling or stumbling." "But weightlessness is not such an unearthly experience." "We become weightless for a short while in a dive." "On a roller coaster." "Or in an elevator." "But if we remove the support by cutting the cable, we produce the exact feeling of weightlessness in space." "It will take iron nerves waiting for the impact that never comes." "We can only hope that man in space will eventually get used to this feeling of falling constantly." "Without weight, our notions of up and down no longer exist." "Man will probably have trouble orienting himself." "Confusion such as this is likely to produce nausea." "Some people may become victims of a serious form of space sickness." "Weightless man in space must learn to guide himself only with his eyes." "Beginners can combat dizziness by fixing their eyes upon one single object." "The spaceman must learn to move with utmost caution." "His muscles are adjusted to normal, earthbound gravity." "In space, any casual action will be violently magnified." "He must coordinate himself under an entirely new set of rules." "He can hardly avoid spinning constantly." "When he crouches into a compact mass, he will spin faster." "If he spreads his arms and legs, the spinning will slow down." "After considerable practice, man will be able to master the art of swimming through the air within the rocket ship." "For the beginner, a web of ropes might be provided." "He must learn that slow, relaxed, careful movements are essential." "After his first few encounters with the problems of weightlessness, he will no doubt try to normalize his life." "Even the air he breathes will be weightless." "Natural circulation of air does not exist." "And there is danger of suffocating in one's own exhalations." "Air must never be allowed to become stagnant in a spaceship." "Circulation must be maintained by constant ventilation." "Since all objects are also without weight in a coasting rocket ship, they must be safely secured by bolts and clamps." "For handling large, bulky objects, man will have to anchor himself in some fashion." "But as it takes force to overcome the object's inertia and set it in motion, it takes equally as much force to stop it once it is moving." "On Earth, we are not exposed to dangers from space, owing to the protective layer of our atmosphere." "But up there, even the hull of the ship would not shield man against the possible hazards of the mysterious cosmic rays." "These tiny bullets from the infinity of space will continually penetrate everything." "They may prove to be harmful to man." "The most energetic of these atomic rays might feel like stings as they shoot through the body." "However, there are other bullets in space that may be of still greater concern." "Meteorites." "These marauders of space travel at speeds up to 150,000 miles per hour." "But if one should puncture the walls of the ship, our air supply would rapidly escape through the opening into the vacuum of outer space." "Without protection, man could last not more than 15 seconds before losing consciousness." "Also, in the intense radiation of the sun, he would soon broil on the one side and freeze on the other." "In the void of space, he will have to wear a space suit." "This specially designed outfit must be a flexible, airtight unit carrying sufficient oxygen." "Featuring built-in, all-purpose equipment, it will afford protection and maneuverability outside the ship." "Propulsion will be by means of a small portable rocket unit." "With proper manipulation of this jet device, even the most subtle movements can be made." "Action." "Reaction." "Dining under conditions of weightlessness will present new and surprising problems." "Liquids will be particularly annoying." "They will not pour." "They must be transferred by titration tubes." "This tube will contain the liquid until it is forced into the desired location." "Unless liquids are kept in leak-proof containers, they will escape and float in ball shapes around the cabin, finally coating all surfaces with a wet film." "Plastic bottles will be used so that liquids can be squeezed out." "Food will be cooked in closed containers by radio frequency shortwave." "Space etiquette will call for the extensive use of sugar tongs." "Man can overindulge in space, but he will never be overweight." "To relieve the inevitable tensions of space travel, we must provide suitable recreation." "A game of three-dimensional pool could be particularly relaxing." "Sleeping will be a new and unique experience." "A space traveler will not need a pillow or mattress." "His bed will consist of a net enclosure to prevent drifting in his sleep." "How will man's subconscious mind react to his first experiences with space travel?" "Will he not suddenly be aware of his precarious situation, trapped in a tiny metal box, floating through the incomprehensible nothingness of space?" "We do not know." "We must plan intelligently if these pioneers of space are to survive and return to Earth safely." "The conquest of space will depend to a great degree on the research and findings of this important new field of science, space medicine." "To the engineer, space flight poses two problems." "The first is, of course, to build a rocket ship." "The second, and no less important, is to prepare and train the men who are to fly the future rocket ships and to provide suitable working conditions that will enable them to survive in space." "To help show you what is being done to solve these problems, we have called upon one of the foremost exponents of space travel," "Dr. Wernher von Braun, who is at present the chief of the guided missile division of the Army's rocket center at Redstone Arsenal." "He was also overall director of the development of the original V-2 rocket." "The training methods for future space flight and the special equipment needed for survival are much like those of present high-altitude flying." "And the experiments we are making today are helping us to solve the more complex problems to come." "Take the present-day pressurized flying suit, for example." "It has been designed for use at extremely high altitudes and is a forerunner of the suits we will wear when we make that trip to the moon." "To give you an idea of how engineers and medical men are working hand in hand, here are a few examples of the research that's being conducted at this time." "This pressure suit is being worn in the test chamber, where the air pressure can be dropped suddenly." "Notice that the water boils at this low pressure, even though it is only at normal body temperature." "Blood would do the same without the protection of the suit." "In other tests without the suit, where the drop in air pressure is less severe, we see that the body still reacts violently to a sudden decrease in pressure." "Lieutenant Colonel John P. Stapp of the United States Air Force has subjected himself to the tremendous forces of a rocket sled that reaches a speed of over 632 miles per hour." "The sled stops so quickly that Colonel Stapp's body becomes 35 times heavier than normal." "From these tests, we have learned that man can take much greater acceleration forces than crew members of a rocket ship will undergo on a takeoff." "Today's aircraft are so fast and so complicated that it has become routine to train the crews on the ground without risking lives or equipment." "This is done with a device called a flight simulator." "Here the crews experience all the sensations of an extended flight." "The crews of future rocket ships will train much the same way." "We will use a simulator on a centrifuge and employ an astrosphere to train the celestial navigators for our coming space flights." "Now, here's a model of my design for a four-stage orbital rocket ship." "Compared to the unmanned instrument rocket, it is quite large." "But the overall size and weight of the rocket is mainly determined by the 11-tons weight of this top section." "This weight dictates the amount of fuel and the numbers of motors needed to produce enough power to equalize the gravitational pull of the Earth." "The payload in the top section will consist of 10 crew members plus equipment." "Notice the wings, small rocket motor, and landing gears." "This is the section that must ultimately return the men to the Earth safely." "To produce the energy needed to haul this stage into the orbit, we need these three additional rocket-powered sections." "Here we have a cutaway drawing of our rocket, showing the location of the fuel and the motors of each section." "The first stage carries 1,060 tons of fuel." "And its 29 motors will lift the entire weight of the ship vertically off the ground." "The second stage has eight motors and carries 155 tons of fuel." "It will be dropped when its speed has reached 14,300 miles per hour." "The next is our third stage, with only one rocket motor and 13 tons of fuel." "The third stage gives the passenger section the final kick to attain the orbit." "It will not be separated from the passenger section until just before the return flight." "The third stage will be left in space." "And a very small motor in the winged fourth stage will return the ship to the atmosphere so it can glide back to the base." "If we were to start today on an organized and well-supported space program," "I believe a practical passenger rocket could be built and tested within 10 years." "Of course, it would be foolish to rush headlong into building a four-stage rocket, man it with a crew, and attempt to fire it into an orbit without first following a step-by-step research-and-development program." "Let's illustrate this with the help of a few pictures." "First, we would design and build the fourth stage and then tow it into the air to test it as a glider." "This would also allow the crews to practice." "Next, low-altitude flights would be made, firing the small rocket motor in the fourth stage." "This would also give the crew more and more training." "Following that, the third and second stages would be constructed and tested very thoroughly on the ground, after which they would be joined to the passenger section so that faster and longer flights could be made up to speeds of about 12,000 miles per hour." "The only thing remaining would be the building and ground testing of the huge first stage." "Then there would be no more test flights." "When all the sections are joined together, the ship and its crew will be ready for man's first flight in space." "Let's look ahead a few years and see how this might be accomplished." "There it is." "A small atoll of coral islands in the Pacific, where man is dedicated to just one cause." "The conquest of space." "Here below us, a small city has been created to house the scientists, engineers, and technicians on whose shoulders rest the tremendous responsibility for this great adventure." "This is the rocket-assembly building with tracks running to the launching site." "Only 48 hours remain until firing time." "Our spaceship moves ponderously toward the firing site." "After the ship is securely anchored over the blast tunnel, the elevator spar is raised into place for the final preflight check and fueling." "This is the blockhouse, the control center for Operation Space Flight." "Here the oscilloscopes, radarscopes, computers, and tracking devices are the brain and nervous system for the rocket." "Dancing patterns of light will record every detail of the blast-off and climb into space." "In the windowless blockhouse, observation is by periscope." "Through a system of worldwide radar stations, electronic eyes will always be focused on the rocket as it orbits around the globe every two hours." "The tracking radars report ready and are standing by." "The optical tracking stations are poised and ready to follow the rocket in its upward flight." "As zero hour approaches, the painstaking work of the checkout crew continues." "The ship and every piece of its equipment is being checked and rechecked." "Blockhouse, can you hear me?" "Will you give me that stage-2 separation signal again?" "Okay, now." "Over." "Now swivel order stage 3 to pitch right." "Okay, now give me the left." "Attention, all personnel." "It is now "X" minus two hours." "Fueling crew, take your stations." "Safety area will be cleared by all personnel." "In the pits, the quantity of fuel is preset." "The pumps will deliver 1,230 tons of hydrazine and red fuming nitric acid into the tanks of the waiting rocket." "It is now "X" minus 20 minutes." "Flight crew, report aboard rocket." "Flight crew, report aboard rocket." "After years of careful preparation, testing men and materials, this is the final payoff." "Now man will bet his life against the unknown dangers of space travel." "Human reactions are not precise enough." "Therefore, once the launching timer is started, the entire takeoff and flight into outer space will be controlled automatically." ""X" minus 5 minutes." "Clear the firing area." "Clear the firing area." ""X" minus 90 seconds." ""X" minus 30 seconds." ""X" minus 20 seconds." ""X" minus 15 seconds." ""X" minus 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4," "3, 2, 1." "The total firing time has been five minutes." "The ship will now coast for 51 minutes before the adaptation maneuver begins." "At over 60 miles above the Earth, the crew members experience the sensation of weightlessness for the first time." "Blockhouse to XR-1." "Your cutoff altitude is 63.9 miles." "Distance from launching pad is 705 miles." "Velocity, 18,467 miles per hour." "Angle of elevation, 4 minutes of arc." "Point of your ellipse of ascent incline, 66 degrees, 32 minutes, 2 seconds." "Out." "51 minutes later and halfway around the world, the rocket has coasted to its maximum altitude of 1, 075 miles." "Its speed has diminished to 14, 770 miles per hour." "The navigator must now take a bearing on two fixed stars." "He will line up the ship for the adaptation maneuver, which will drive it into a circular orbit around the Earth." "Electronic controls will fire the rocket motor at the exact second the ship reaches the proper position." "The ship and crew are now coasting freely and silently through space." "Here, man is no longer earthbound." "From his new vantage point of over 1, 000 miles high, he sees the Earth as a vast rolling sphere upon which the oceans and continents are reduced to simple patterns of light and dark." "Great cloud formations will appear as small patches of snow." "Evidence of man's existence is almost invisible." "Large cities can be seen only with the aid of powerful optical equipment." "Meteorologists will make studies for long-range weather forecasting." "The science of astrophysics will welcome the clear views of our moon and planets, unhampered by atmospheric disturbances." "Space medicine will benefit from tests conducted with new-type space suits." "Air Force base calling XR-1." "We have you in radar contact at 107 miles due south of station at 2-9." "Estimation at station Delta at 3-7." "Tests and observations by the crew will lay the groundwork for the future construction of a space station and will add to our knowledge of many sciences." "Instrument rocket approaching from 3:00 high." "At a pre-calculated time, the rocket's path will cross that of the instrument carrier, sent into space a few years before." "22 hours after takeoff, our spaceship has made 11 revolutions around the world." "It is now time to make the return trip." "The engineer releases the third stage." "It'll be left circling in space." "All tests are now concluded." "The navigator checks the ship's position for return firing." "One minute to go." "The automatic firing timer is set." "The ship is lined up so the blast of the motor will be against its forward motion." "This will slow the rocket's speed and cause it to begin its long glide back to Earth." "The ship is now moving 1,000 miles per hour slower." "After coasting halfway around the world, the rocket will leave the vacuum of space and sweep into the upper layers of the atmosphere, where air friction will gradually reduce the rocket's speed." "When the ship drops to an altitude of 50 miles, air pressure will build up on the control surfaces." "For the first time in the entire flight, the captain will be able to fly the rocket as a normal plane." "Air friction begins to send the skin temperature of the rocket climbing until the ship glows cherry red at 1,350 degrees." "The double hull and refrigeration keep the crew from perishing." "The returning rocket continues the long glide down into the lower atmosphere, its temperature gradually dropping to normal as airspeed diminishes." "Mission completed!" "Man has taken his first great stride forward in the conquest of space." "His next goal will be the exploration of the moon." "Then the planets and the infinite universe beyond."
Isolation and characterization of a cDNA from a human histone H2B gene which is reciprocally expressed in relation to replication-dependent H2B histone genes during HL60 cell differentiation. A variant human histone H2B cDNA (HHC289) has been cloned and characterized and shown to have a complex pattern of regulation with respect to the HeLa S3 cell cycle and HL60 cell differentiation. The H2B protein coding region of HHC289 is flanked at the 3' end by a 1798-nt nontranslated trailer that contains a region of hyphenated dyad symmetry and a poly(A) addition sequence, followed by a poly(A) tail. Nuclear run-on transcription analysis revealed a 2-fold increase in transcription of the HHC289 gene during S phase, in comparison to replication-dependent human histone genes which exhibit a 2-3-fold increase in transcription during S phase. Northern blot analysis indicated that the levels of the 2300-nt HHC289 mRNA species did not vary significantly during the HeLa S3 cell cycle, in comparison to replication-dependent H2B mRNAs which are elevated 15-fold during S phase. Northern blot analysis also revealed a reciprocal relationship during the onset of HL60 differentiation between the expression of the HHC289 H2B gene and the replication-dependent H2B genes. The levels of the 2300-nt HHC289 H2B species increased approximately 10-fold during HL60 cell differentiation whereas the levels of cell cycle dependent H2B mRNAs decreased to less than 1% of those in proliferating cells. These results suggest that complex transcriptional and posttranscriptional regulatory mechanisms control cellular levels of mRNAs from various human H2B histone genes during progression through the cell cycle and at the onset of differentiation.
HIV and other viral infections are one leading cause of death. HIV is a disease in which a virus is replicated in the body which attacks the body's immune system. The HIV virus is not easily destroyed nor is there a good mechanism for keeping the host cells from replicating the virus. Herpes Simplex is another viral infection which is difficult, if not impossible, to cure. A method of treating these diseases and other viral infections is highly desirable. A material which targets the HIV virus and inhibit viral replication is highly desirable. Several drugs have been approved for treatment of this devastating disease, including azidovudine (AZT), didanosine (dideoxyinosine, ddI), d4T, zalcitabine (dideoxycytosine, ddC), nevirapine, lamivudine (epivir, 3TC), saquinavir (Invirase), ritonavir (Norvir), indinavir (Crixivan), and delavirdine (Rescriptor). See M. I. Johnston & D. F. Hoth, Science, 260(5112), 1286-1293 (1993) and D. D. Richman, Science, 272(5270), 1886-1888 (1996 An AIDS vaccine (Salk's vaccine) has been tested and several proteins which are chemokines from CD8 have been discovered to act as HIV suppressors. In addition to the above synthetic nucleoside analogs, proteins, and antibodies, several plants and substances derived from plants have been found to have in vitro anti-HIV activity. However, HIV virus is not easily destroyed nor is there a good mechanism for keeping the host cells from replicating the virus. Thus, medical professionals continue to search for drugs that can prevent HIV infections, treat HIV carriers to prevent them from progressing to full-blown deadly AIDS, and treat the AIDS patient. Herpes simplex virus (HSV) types 1 and 2 are persistent viruses that commonly infect humans; they cause a variety of troubling human diseases. HSV type 1 causes oral "fever blisters" (recurrent herpes labialis), and HSV type 2 causes genital herpes, which has become a major venereal disease in many parts of the world. No fully satisfactory treatment for genital herpes currently exists. In addition, although it is uncommon, HSV can also cause encephalitis, a life-threatening infection of the brain. (The Merck Manual, Holvey, Ed., 1972; Whitley, Herpes Simplex Viruses, In: Virology, 2nd Ed., Raven Press (1990)). A most serious HSV-caused disorder is dendritic keratitis, an eye infection that produces a branched lesion of the cornea, which can in turn lead to permanent scarring and loss of vision. Ocular infections with HSV are a major cause of blindness. HSV is also a virus which is difficult, if not impossible to cure. Hepatitis is a disease of the human liver. It is manifested with inflammation of the liver and is usually caused by viral infections and sometimes from toxic agents. Hepatitis may progress to liver cirrhosis, liver cancer, and eventually death. Several viruses such as hepatitis A, B, C, D, E and G are known to cause various types of viral hepatitis. Among them, HBV and HCV are the most serious. HBV is a DNA virus with avirion size of 42 nm. HCV is a RNA virus with a virion size of 30-60 nm. See D. S. Chen, J. Formos. Med. Assoc., 95(1), 6-12 (1996). Hepatitis C infects 4 to 5 times the number of people infected with HIV. Hepatitis C is difficult to treat and it is estimated that there are 500 million people infected with it worldwide (about 15 time those infected with HIV). No effective immunization is currently available, and hepatitis C can only be controlled by other preventive measures such as improvement in hygiene and sanitary conditions and interrupting the route of transmission. At present, the only acceptable treatment for chronic hepatitis C is interferon which requires at least six (6) months of treatment and or ribavarin which can inhibit viral replication in infected cells and also improve liver function in some people. Treatment with interferon with or without Ribavarin however has limited long term efficacy with a response rate about 25%. Hepatitis B virus infection lead to a wide spectrum of liver injury. Moreover, chronic hepatitis B infection has been linked to the subsequent development of hepatocellular carcinoma, a major cause of death. Current prevention of HBV infection is a hepatitis B vaccination which is therapeutically effective. However, vaccination is not effective in treating those already infected (i.e., carriers and patients). Many drugs have been used in treating chronic hepatitis B and none have been proven to be effective, except interferon. Treatment of HCV and HBV with interferon has limited success and has frequently been associated with adverse side effects such as fatigue, fever, chills, headache, myalgias, arthralgias, mild alopecia, psychiatric effects and associated disorders, autoimmune phenomena and associated disorders and thyroid dysfunction. Because the interferon therapy has limited efficacy and frequent adverse effects, a ore effective regimen is needed.
Trim Size: 170mm x 244mm Cautin ecp0388.tex V1 05/27/2014 12:55 A.M. Page 1 Confirmation versus Falsificationism Ray Scott Percival Philosopher, Author and Founder of the Karl Popper Web, U.K. Confirmation and falsification are different strategies for testing theories and characterizing the outcomes of those tests. Roughly speaking, confirmation is the act of using evidence or reason to verify or certify that a statement is true, definite, or approximately true, whereas falsification is the act of classifying a statement as false in the light of observation reports. In clinical practice, the issue of confirmation versus falsification was highlighted by Karl Popper (1902–94), in his critique of Freud's and Adler's depth psychologies. Wishing to demarcate science from nonscientific pursuits, Popper contrasted Einstein's falsifiable theory with the "confirmable" but unfalsifiable theories of Freud and Adler. On the one hand, almost any behavior could be interpreted as "confirming" Freud's or Adler's theory, because the behavioral evidence is itself interpreted in the light of the theories. This makes confirmations worthless. Moreover, Freud failed to stipulate conditions under which the theory would be falsified. For example, what observation would show that the id does not exist? In contrast, Einstein boldly stipulated decisive experimental observations that, if satisfied, would refute his theory. For example, if the path of light from a distant star had not been observed (by Eddington in 1919) to bend by a certain degree when passing close to the sun, Einstein would have abandoned his theory. Popper's proposed method is falsificationism. Instead of proposing hypotheses and then seeing if they can be confirmed by evidence, Popper said that science ought to involve making conjectures that can potentially be refuted. The Encyclopedia of Clinical Psychology, First Edition. Edited by Robin L. Cautin and Scott O. Lilienfeld. © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2015 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Stimulated by a problem, the scientist advances unfounded theories, which are then subjected to relentless attempts to falsify them by observation; confirmation is seen as infeasible and pointless, irrelevant. This barrage of criticism then leads to further, deeper problems, which in turn stimulate further theories, potentially nearer to the truth. Because conjectures are freely made and retained until falsified, no justifications or inductive confirmation rules are needed. This is not a description of science, but a proposal about what scientists ought to do to advance science. The problem of confirmation versus falsification is an intense focus of debate within a wider context of fundamentally competing epistemologies: justificationism and critical rationalism. Justificationism is the idea that one should accept all and only those positions that one can justify by logic or experience. The heyday of justificationism was the Vienna Circle of the 1920s and 1930s, when its members, such as Rudolph Carnap, Otto Neurath, Moritz Schlick, and Friedrich Waismann, held that there are only two types of knowledge: analytic knowledge, which is justified by formal proof, and scientific knowledge, which is justified by empirical verification. Only those statements that are in principle justifiable by one or other of these methods are, they maintained, amenable to rational discussion. Most contemporary philosophers, though spurning the Vienna Circle's views on verification, are still justificationists as they hold on to the traditional conception of knowledge as justified true belief. However, under the impact of skepticism, many have jettisoned the pursuit of truth as unattainable, settling for simply justified positions. Popper's answer to justificationism is critical rationalism. Critical rationalism shuns justification as both impossible and unnecessary, substituting the pursuit of truth as the fallible but sometimes attainable aim. Critical Trim Size: 170mm x 244mm Cautin ecp0388.tex V1 05/27/2014 12:55 A.M. Page 2 2 CONFIRMATION VERSUS FALSIFICATIONISM rationalism regards knowledge, at least scientific knowledge, as unjustified, largely untrue, unbelief. Untrue because merely close to the truth; unbelief because it is largely embodied not in belief but in books and computers. The scientific method of falsificationism is the father of critical rationalism. It is the generalization to all knowledge, whether empirical or not, of falsificationism, the empirical scientific method. Unlike the Vienna Circle, for example, critical rationalism regards all positions as amenable to rational discussion. Critical rationalism flows from a fallibilist but optimistic attitude. Each of us is infinitely ignorant, we are always prone to error, and we only know little bits of knowledge. I may be wrong and you may be right, and through the cooperative competition of debate, we may get nearer to the truth. We may attain the truth, but not "know" it in the traditional sense, just as one may reach the summit of a mountain (the goal of one's journey) but not know it because one is in fog. For the critical rationalist, getting to the summit is still worth the effort, even with uncertainty. The issue of confirmation in science goes back to Aristotle, one of the earliest justificationists. Aristotle wished to provide a method for establishing knowledge of nature, demonstrable knowledge, episteme, as distinguished from mere opinion, doxa. In this Aristotle broke from a long line of philosophers (the pre-Socratics and even Socrates himself) who thought that knowledge was something only the gods could possess. The method was induction, by which Aristotle meant a way of getting to an outlook from which one could see or "intuit" the essence of the thing in question. This essence would then be embodied in a definition that could be used as a premise in arguments purportedly demonstrating a conclusion about some matter. Aristotle was driven to this route because he was aware that his syllogisms, although valid, did not establish or prove the truth of their conclusion, but only asserted that if the premises were true then the conclusion would also be true. For example, all ravens are black; Edgar is a raven; therefore, Edgar is black. However, if the truth of the premises is not demonstrated, then we require another argument to demonstrate those, and this argument in turn would require its premises to be established, and so on ad infinitum. Aristotle's essential definitions were supposed to provide proven starting points that would avoid such a vicious infinite regress. In this case, if one takes being black as part of the essential definition of a raven, then one may stop at that premises and avoid the infinite regress. Aristotle's view held sway for 2000 years. Francis Bacon rejected Aristotle's approach to proof. In contrast, In his Novum Organum Bacon (1620) argued that one must start, not from intuition, but from observation to discover the laws of hidden forms and natures of matter that explain phenomena. Bacon also called his method "induction." On the standard account, Bacon said that provided we are careful to divest the mind of "idols" or prejudices, a proposed law of nature could be confirmed by the collection of many and varied observations. For example, observing many black ravens and only black ravens leads to the inference that all ravens are black. Every new black raven is then said to confirm the general statement. One could then infer from this observational starting point laws of higher and higher generality and depth, ultimately revealing the hidden nature of things. Bacon argued that confirming instances and falsifying instances were both feasible and important, but emphasized falsifying instances to safeguard against premature generalizations. Regularities per se may be misleading. We may put this clearer than Bacon did. For example, it is possible that every time you observe a clock, the pendulum is on the right side. The inference that the pendulum is always on the right side would be incorrect. The example may be extended infinitely with the same result. That is, even if you start with an infinite number of correct statements of the pendulum being on the right side, it still does not license the inference that the pendulum is always on the right. This point of logic is independent of whether Trim Size: 170mm x 244mm Cautin ecp0388.tex V1 05/27/2014 12:55 A.M. Page 3 CONFIRMATION VERSUS FALSIFICATIONISM 3 the pendulum is being observed or not. The regularities of nature may also be misleading, but not in so obvious a way. One can also see in this example why confirming instances may be less valuable than one might at first grant. There is some dispute (see Urbach, 1987) whether it was Bacon who promulgated the induction by numerous, varied observations, but it is nevertheless an important early rudimentary development of the theory of confirmation that deserves comment. David Hume (1711–76) (1976/1739, book 1, part 3, section 6) raised the problem of induction. He raised a fundamental problem for the inductive confirmation of universal theories of science and the prediction of new phenomena from earlier phenomena. Hume does not keep these two aspects sufficiently apart, but they both make it difficult to uphold induction. Hume starts with a puzzle. There is only one source of new knowledge: experience. However, our claims to knowledge seem to go far beyond what we can infer from experience. Hume does not use the word "induction," but discusses what has become known as the principle of induction: "that instances of which we have had no experience must resemble those of which we have had experience, and that the course of nature continues always uniformly the same." Hume argued that this goes far beyond our experience. For example, all ravens of which we have had experience have been black. We therefore expect the next one also to be black. However, Hume insists, this is deductively invalid. Hume pointed out that laws of nature are universal. They speak about the whole of space and time. Thus the statement "All ravens are black" covers everything in the universe that is an raven, all past, present and future ravens, and all non-ravens too if it is understood as the universal conditional: for anything y, if y is a raven, then y is black. A deductively valid argument is one in which if the premises were true then the conclusion must be true. For example, all owls are nocturnal; this bird in my garden is an owl; therefore, this bird in my garden is nocturnal. If we accept the truth of the premises, we are committed, on pain of contradiction, to the truth of the conclusion. However, in the case of an induction, this is not correct, since no matter how many nocturnal owls one has observed, the very next one could be mostly active during the day and sleep at night. Hume's devastating attack on induction did not stop there. A champion of induction might retreat to the claim that at least an inductive argument makes the conclusion probably true, and that the more positive observations we collect, the more probable our result. However, Hume pointed out that this would only delay the impact of his point, since how are we supposed to confirm this rule of induction? If we say that it is confirmed by its having worked in the past, then we cannot do this without falling into circular reasoning. To rely on induction to justify induction is to argue in a vicious circle. Further, simply postulating a general principle of the uniformity of nature to somehow endorse particular inductions is to abandon the empirical point of view that it is experience alone that ought to be the judge of our theories. However, it is unclear how such a vague postulate can add anything specific to our choice between particular causal hypotheses. Some thinkers have suggested that there is such a principle, but it remains an unanswered question how we are to falsify (or confirm) these principles themselves. For if we do not have any such potential falsifications (or confirmations) how are we to choose between alternative candidates for the job? Hume's argument is reinforced by the observation that there have been many regularities we have observed without exception for hundreds or even thousands of years that have been rudely interrupted by an eventual exception. Consider the following examples. Newton's theory held its position with many confirmations for about 250 years. However, Einstein's new theory refuted it. For thousands of years it was thought that all life needs light to survive. However, in the last couple of decades we have discovered Trim Size: 170mm x 244mm Cautin ecp0388.tex V1 05/27/2014 12:55 A.M. Page 4 4 CONFIRMATION VERSUS FALSIFICATIONISM bacteria-so-called extremophiles-living far below the earth's surface, which live on purely chemical energy. Bertrand Russell (1985/1918, p. 101) reinforced Hume's argument by pointing out that induction cannot even work in a finite universe. Because even if one had, by hypothesis, observed every relevant particular case in a universe, it is not only an extra step to say that there are no more cases, it is to assert a universal statement, again going beyond all possible finite collections of facts. Contemporary conceptions of laws of nature make Hume's argument even stronger. Hume conceived of laws of nature as simply unbroken series of contiguous conjunctions of phenomena. For example, consider, under suitable conditions, the scratching of a dry match is always conjoined with the succeeding event of flames. However, recent philosophical conceptions of laws sees them as implying subjunctive conditionals, expressed in the form: if p were to happen, then q would happen. In this case, one such subjunctive conditional would be: "if any dry match were scratched, then there would be a flame." It is clear that this goes beyond all possible observation, because it covers all the actual and possible matches that could have been scratched in the past, but were not, and all possible and actual matches that could, but will not, be scratched now or in the future. The attraction of Bacon's induction was that it held out the possibility that provided one had divested the mind of what Bacon called "idols" (prejudices, preconceptions, hypotheses) one could see the manifest regularities of natural phenomena. However, the nineteenth-century polymath William Whewell (1794–1866) pointed out that nature does not come ready labeled. We have to classify in advance the types of events or aspects that are relevant to our investigation. Without any such prior conceptual division of the world, we are without a properly defined aim. It would be like telling someone to observe without also telling what to observe and with what aim. For example, if we are trying to understand how planetary objects behave under the influence of gravity, do we observe their shape, mass, density, bulk, or weight? It is clear that even these conceptual classifications are highly theoretical. In contrast to justificationism, falsificationism escapes Hume's problem of induction. Because conjectures are freely made and then retained until falsified, no induction-like rules are needed. In addition, falsificationism escapes Whewell's strictures because it fully accepts that we start with theories, not with data. The Paradoxes of Confirmation and Falsification In comparing confirmation and falsificationism it is helpful to see how each strategy copes with some paradoxes. The Raven Paradox Carl Hempel first reminded us of Nicod's seemingly harmless principle of confirmation that the universal (x)(Ax→Cx) is confirmed by objects that are A and C. "(x)(Ax→Cx)" means: for any object x, if it is A, then it is C. Second, Hempel pointed out that the universal theory "All ravens are black" is logically equivalent to "All non-black things are non-ravens." When one is true, the other is true; when one is false the other is false. Hempel then invoked what to the inductivist is the plausible principle that whatever confirms a statement also confirms any logically equivalent statement. However, that would mean that observing a white shoe (a non-black non-raven) would confirm the theory that all ravens are black. This upsets the confirmationist's intuition. Hempel argued that we rule out such paradoxes by invoking our background knowledge, which has already ruled out shoes as a relevant thing to observe. However, this maneuver only shifts the problem of inductive confirmation back to these background conjectures because it leaves unanswered the question how we are supposed to confirm that background knowledge without falling into a vicious regress? In contrast, as Popper (1977/1934) pointed out, falsification does not have a similar vicious Trim Size: 170mm x 244mm Cautin ecp0388.tex V1 05/27/2014 12:55 A.M. Page 5 CONFIRMATION VERSUS FALSIFICATIONISM 5 regress. Even a falsifying statement may be tested in its turn. But whereas falsificationism requires that all scientific statements have to be testable, that does not require that they are all tested. One can and has to stop somewhere. There is no initial paradox afflicting falsificationism because there is nothing odd about saying that when one refutes the theory "All ravens are black" one is also refuting the statement "All non-black things are non-ravens." More importantly, there is no falsificationist counterpart to Nicod's principle. When one refutes a theory, there is no requirement that one also refute every single one of its implications. The Grue Paradox Goodman (1955/1979) raised an interesting paradox concerning confirmation with the concept of grue. Grue means "is first examined before 2020 and is green or is examined after 2020 and is blue." Given that definition, it becomes a puzzle why we are prepared to countenance the inference from the fact that all observed emeralds have been green to "All emeralds are green" but not to "All emeralds are grue," since every observed green emerald up to 2020 confirms both universal gem theories. What vexes inductive philosophers is that inferences about grue seem just as valid as inferences about green by a supposed inductive logic. Goodman argued that the reason we choose green over grue is that the former concept is more projectible, meaning that it is more entrenched in our linguistic habits. One falsificationist answer to this conundrum is to say that scientific method requires the comparison of different hypotheses that we can subject to a decisive experiment. Grue-like hypotheses do not have this characteristic and so should not be admitted to the body of scientific theories under test. Some inductivists (e.g. Worrall, 1989) say that this approach makes the choice of green over grue "arbitrary," even an "historical accident." However, as Quine (1977) explains, the evolution of our conjectures about gems, minerals, and chemistry over thousands of years is far from arbitrary. Another falsificationist response is to say that the grue hypothesis does not solve any problem that our familiar green emerald theory cannot solve just as well (see Bartley, 1968). The Asymmetry of Falsification and Confirmation Popper (1977/1934, section 6, 1983, section 22) argued that there is a fundamental logical asymmetry between falsification and verification which follows from the logical form of scientific theories, which are universal statements. The statement "The raven in my room now is white" is fully decidable in principle because we can either verify it or falsify it. This is typical of our test statements. But our theories are only partially decidable, because even though we can falsify them, we cannot verify them. Given a universal statement and initial conditions, predicted specific observations can be validly inferred. If these observations fail to occur, it follows that the theory is false. This valid inference is called modus tollens. An example of the valid modus tollens is: If someone has a cold, then they'll sneeze; John is not sneezing; therefore, John does not have a cold. However, if the predicted observations do occur, inferring that the theory must therefore be true would involve the fallacy of affirming the consequent, but that is what confirmation seems to require. An example of the invalid affirming the consequent is: If someone has a cold, then they'll sneeze; John is sneezing; therefore, John has a cold. (People sneeze for other reasons too.) The asymmetry is that falsifying observations allow us to draw valid conclusions about the theory under test, but the confirming observations do not. One objection to this holds that the asymmetry is an illusion, because whenever we refute a universal statement we thereby verify its negation. A universal statement "All x are y" is equivalent to "There is no non-y x." Therefore, when we refute "All apples are green" we automatically verify "There is a non-green apple." We can, therefore, equally speak about Trim Size: 170mm x 244mm Cautin ecp0388.tex V1 05/27/2014 12:55 A.M. Page 6 6 CONFIRMATION VERSUS FALSIFICATIONISM verification instead of falsification and so the two are perfectly symmetrical. Popper (1977/1934) had already covered the logical equivalence of nonexistence statements and universal laws, and replied that this misses the point, rather as if someone had said because positive and negative numbers have many symmetrical properties, therefore they are perfectly symmetrical. Duhem/Quine Problem Duhem (1991/1914) and Quine (1961/1951) each raised a problem with how one assigns the fault of a falsification. They argued that in a scientific test of a theory, one must first work out a testable implication of this theory, an observable event that ought to present itself if the theory is true. One uses a valid argument to tease out the expected observation statement from the theory. However, to work this implication out one typically needs a host of other auxiliary assumptions regarding equipment, initial conditions, and background theories. So the question is, when the expected event fails to appear, which of the premises is at fault-the main theory by itself, and/or one (or more) of the other assumptions used in the deduction? The fact that our argument is valid only tells us that at least one of the premises is at fault. For example, if an electric door opener is installed, when you walk up to the door it will open. If the door does not open, that may mean that a door opener is not installed. But we are assuming that the power is on, that the door opener is hooked up properly, that the door is not locked, that we are not dreaming, etc. Duhem and Quine said that, without appeal to other principles such as simplicity, this is undecidable. Duhem and Quine's positions are different in some respects. Whereas Duhem confines the group of problematic auxiliary assumptions to physics, Quine extends the group to the whole of human knowledge and also sees it as applying to both verification and falsification. For Quine, in the face of recalcitrant observations, one may even consider abandoning logical or mathematical assumptions such as the law of the excluded middle (that a statement is either true or false, with no third option). Some interpreters of quantum theory suggest that this law does not apply at the quantum level. The falsificationist's answer is that fallibility prevails even in the interpretation of test results. We may be wrong in assigning the fault of a refutation. However, this does not mean that we cannot successfully classify statements as true, as opposed to certifying them. One ought to choose auxiliary assumptions that are unproblematic, and it is only a rampant undiscriminating skepticism that could rank everything as problematic. Falsificationists assume that scientists-though fallible-can at least sometimes classify trivial observation reports as true, for example, correctly reading an on/off light. If someone conjectures that some subset of the auxiliary assumptions is problematic, then they are free to set up an experiment to test that set using what they regard as unproblematic assumptions. Probability and Inductive Confirmation Having surrendered to Hume's attack, most justificationists have sought solace in the hope that induction might at least provide some theories that are more probable and reliable than others. The most popular contenders for some time for the title of probabilistic induction are the Bayesian interpretations of probability. To evaluate the probability of a hypothesis, the Bayesian specifies some prior probability for a given hypothesis, which is then updated by new information. These are subjective degrees of probability ranging from 0 (no belief) to 1 (certainty). The Bayesian interpretation provides a standard set of procedures and formulas to perform this calculation. One of its strong points is that it conforms to the dominant axiom system for probability, which was developed by Kolmogorov. The formula used to calculate the probability of a hypothesis on the evidence is read: the Trim Size: 170mm x 244mm Cautin ecp0388.tex V1 05/27/2014 12:55 A.M. Page 7 CONFIRMATION VERSUS FALSIFICATIONISM 7 probability of the hypothesis H given the evidence E equals the probability of the evidence given the hypothesis multiplied by the probability of the hypothesis taken alone divided by the probability of the evidence taken alone. P(H∕E) = P(E∕H)P(H) P(E) The first point to note here is that prior probabilities have to be entered into the formula before any evidence is available. However, it is generally accepted that there is no non-arbitrary way to choose these prior probabilities. More fundamental is one of Popper's criticisms. If we search for the most probable theories, then we shall abandon the most informative theories of science because there is an inverse relationship between probability and information content. Glymour (1980) pointed out that it is unclear how to connect Bayesianism with the history of science. Neither Copernicus, Newton, nor Kepler-to name but a few of the greats-gave probabilistic arguments for their theories. Another criticism, based on an evolutionary theory of belief, is that at any given moment, we cannot decide what we believe. We can research an issue more or less thoroughly, but we cannot voluntarily adopt, reject, or change the degree to which we adhere to our beliefs (Percival, 2012). Evidence and argument have their impact on belief, and the soundness of an argument enhances its persuasiveness. However, when a telling argument has its effect, it is as if the mind had been infected by it, rather like a catchy tune. Belief is not something that we do. We cannot therefore obey the prescriptions that issue from the Bayesian evaluations of data. In contrast, falsificationism instructs one to perform the fallible but feasible task of classifying basic observation statements as true or false. This is something we can do. Imagine putting true and false statements into separate boxes. Belief is also a capricious individual state of mind, spontaneously varying from moment to moment and with changing risks and outcomes. On the other hand, since statements, as opposed to beliefs, are permanent records independent of our psychology, falsificationism is not troubled by the vagaries of a scientist's momentary state of mind. Therefore falsificationism is a far more stable and publicly testable method than assigning degrees of probability to subjective belief. It also harmonizes better with Popper's point that the overwhelming amount of scientific knowledge is and must be embodied in libraries and computers, not in scientists' minds. SEE ALSO: Bayesian Analysis; Duhem–Quine Thesis; Evidence-Based Assessment; HypotheticoDeductive Model; Laws of Nature; Natural Kinds; Popper, Karl (1902–94); Positivism and Logical Positivism References Bacon, F. (1620). Novum organum. London: Billium. Bartley, W. W. (1968). Goodman's paradox: A simple minded solution. Philosophical Studies, December, 85–88. Duhem, P. (1991/1914). The aim and structure of physical theory. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Glymour, C. (1980). Theory and evidence. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Goodman, N. (1955/1979). Fact, fiction and forecast (3rd ed.). Brighton, U.K.: Harvester Press. Hume, D. (1976/1739). A treatise of human nature. Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press. Percival, R. S. (2012). Myth of the closed mind: Explaining why and how people are rational. Chicago, IL: Open Court. Popper, K. (1977/1934). The logic of scientific discovery. London: Hutchinson. Popper, K. (1983). Realism and the aim of science. W. W. Bartley, III (Ed.). London: Hutchinson. Russell, B. (1985/1918). The philosophy of logical atomism. David Pears (Ed.). Chicago, IL: Open Court. Quine, W. Van O. (1961/1951). Two dogmas of empiricism. In From a logical point of view. New York: Harper Torchbooks. Quine, W. Van O. (1977). Natural kinds. In Naming, necessity and natural kinds (chapter 6). Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. Urbach, P. (1987). Francis Bacon's philosophy of science. Chicago, IL: Open Court. Trim Size: 170mm x 244mm Cautin ecp0388.tex V1 05/27/2014 12:55 A.M. Page 8 8 CONFIRMATION VERSUS FALSIFICATIONISM Worrall, J. (1989). Why both Popper and Watkins fail to solve the problem of induction. In F. D'Agostino & I. C. Jarvie (Eds.), Freedom and rationality: Essays in honor of John Watkins. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer. Further Reading Bartley, W. W. (1984). The retreat to commitment. Chicago, IL: Open Court. Fetzer, J. (2002). Propensities and frequencies: Inference to the best explanation. Syntheses, 132, 27–61. Reprinted in Eells, E., & Fetzer, J. (Eds.). (2010). The place of probability in science (pp. 323–351). New York: Springer. Harman, G. (1965). The inference to the best explanation. The Philosophical Review, 74, 88–95. Howson, C., & Urbach, P. (1989). Scientific reasoning: The Bayesian approach. Chicago, IL: Open Court. Karl Popper Forums and Dublin City University. The Karl Popper web. www.tkpw.net Miller, D. (1994). Critical rationalism: A restatement and defence. Chicago, IL: Open Court. Miller, D. (2006). Out of error (illustrated ed.). London: Ashgate Publishing. Notturno, M. (2003). On Popper (especially chapters 1, 2, and 3). Melbourne, Australia: Thomas Wadsworth. Popper, K., & Miller, D. (1983). A proof of the impossibility of inductive probability. Nature, 302, 687–688. Trim Size: 170mm x 244mm Cautin ecp0388.tex V1 05/27/2014 12:55 A.M. Page 9 Please note that the abstract and keywords will not be included in the printed book, but are required for the online presentation of this book which will be published on Wiley's own online publishing platform. If the abstract and keywords are not present below, please take this opportunity to add them now. The abstract should be a short paragraph upto 200 words in length and keywords between 5 to 10 words. ABSTRACT Confirmation and falsification are different strategies for testing theories and characterizing the outcomes of those tests. Roughly speaking, confirmation is the act of using evidence or reason to verify or certify that a statement is true, definite, or approximately true, whereas falsification is the act of classifying a statement as false in the light of observation reports. This simple picture hides profound problems in the methodology of science and epistemology. In reaction to the skeptic's attack on the possibility of certain or certified truth, many writers have opted for what they regard as the next best feasible substitute: probable, reliable, or consistent theories. Within the philosophy of science there is a long-running debate about the meaning, relative importance, and feasibility of confirmation and falsification and their role in the advancement of science. Although not confined to the issue of induction in science, the debate centers on this issue. KEYWORDS Aristotle; critical rationalism; falsificationism; Francis Bacon; empiricism; evolution; induction; positivism
NEW DELHI: Brent crude oil prices have more than doubled from its low of $27.88 a barrel recorded in January to hover near $55 a barrel and may pose a risk to the broader market, in general, and select sectors, in particular, if the trend continues in 2017.Crude oil prices have shot up 15 per cent in last two weeks and Indian consumers may soon have to cough up more, though the fuel price hike may happen in instalments, media reports said.Analysts said public sector oil marketing companies might need to raise petrol and diesel prices by up to Rs 6 a litre when they review fuel prices on December 15.Crude oil prices rose to an 18-month high on Monday, though they slipped a bit later in the day. US crude futures settled 2.6 per cent higher at $52.83 a barrel, while Brent crude futures rose by $1.36 to $55.69 a barrel.Brent prices have been firming up this month after the Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries (Opec) and other exporters led by Russia over the weekend reached their first deal since 2001 to cut output by almost 1.8 million barrels a day to reduce oversupply.Rising crude prices are making market participants worried about the possible impact of rising crude oil prices on the Indian equity market, the broader economy as well as various sectors that use crude oil as a raw material. The year 2017 looks bullish for oil prices as the oil-surplus market is likely to turn into deficit, experts said.Even though crude oil prices are trading at comfortable levels, but a steady rise in prices could well hurt India’s current account deficit. Crude oil accounts for almost 80 per cent of India’s import bill.Analyst estimates suggest every dollar increase in crude oil price will cause India’s import bill to rise by nearly half a billion dollars ($500 million).But it is not all that bad right now for the domestic economy despite a steady rise in crude oil prices, experts said. For the past couple of years, India has managed to take care of crude requirements with Russia. India has also signed long-term crude supply agreements with some of the African nations.“After December 2017, our bilateral trade with Iran opened up as the oil exporter signed a key nuclear deal with the P5+1 group of world powers - the US, UK, France, China and Russia plus Germany,” Gaurang Shah, Head-Investment Strategist, Geojit BNP Paribas, told ETMarkets.com.“India’s energy requirement today is at a comfortable level than earlier years. It remains to be seen if crude oil can sustain at $55-60 a barrel level. The reason being at prices above $55 a barrel, crude oil from America could become viable in terms of exports and supply to global crude market. As of now, there is no reason for worry,” he said.The price of international crude oil price of the Indian basket, as computed and published by the Petroleum Planning and Analysis Cell (PPAC) under the Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas , stood at $54.42, or Rs 3,677.60 a barrel on Monday.It has remained above $51 a barrel on most days this fortnight, compared with the November average of $44.46 a barrel.From a market standpoint, there are plenty of reasons to worry as higher crude oil prices will hurt the margins for various companies, leading to higher inflation and capping any meaningful upside in the domestic stock market."Rising crude prices are making market participants worried, especially when the year 2017 looks to be bullish for oil prices. In the current economic scenario, India is witnessing a weak demand scenario which is evident after second quarter GDP growth turned out to be weaker than projected,” D K Aggarwal, Chairman and MD, SMC Investments and Advisors, told ETMarkets.com.“It becomes somewhat worrisome for the markets that firming up of crude prices can jack up input costs and drag profitability of the manufacturing industry, which has limited ability to pass on the higher cost given the weak demand conditions,” he said.Aggarwal said higher crude prices would also push up the consumer price inflation which would be a threat to the desired level of 5 percent by the Q4 2016 -2017 of the Reserve Bank of India and may act as a hindrance to cut the interest rate.Earnings growth was hard to come by even when crude oil prices were trading at record lows in 2016. Now with higher prices, margins could well take a hit, analysts said. Crude oil prices are directly or indirectly correlated with the performance of most sectors.Sectors and stocks that have limited ability to pass on the higher input costs may see erosion in margins and would consequently lead to a fall in valuations, analysts said.“Refiners and the lubricants industry would take the direct hit, while paints, adhesives and plastics sectors will take an indirect hit because some of the byproducts of crude refining are key raw materials for them,” Tushar Pendharkar, Head of Research, Right Horizons Investment Advisory Services, told ETMarkets.com."Refiners will take the maximum hit on expectation of lower refining margins, while paint ( Asian Paints , Berger, Kansai Nerolac and Akzo Nobel), adhesives (Pidilite Industries) and plastics ( Nilkamal , Supreme Industries) sectors could underperform in anticipation of an increase in input cost,” he said.Shah of Geojit BNP Paribas said tyre, paint industry, aviation sectors, oil-marketing companies (OMCs) apart from two-wheeler and four-wheeler firms are the major sectors whose fortunes are closely linked to crude oil prices.
The use of dialectical behavior therapy skills training as stand-alone treatment: a systematic review of the treatment outcome literature. Dialectical behavior therapy (DBT) skills training is currently being administered as stand-alone treatment across a variety of clinical settings, serving diverse client populations. However, there is little empirical support for this use. In this systematic review, we identified 17 trials employing a treatment that included DBT skills training in the absence of the other DBT modalities. While the literature reviewed provides preliminary evidence of the utility of DBT skills training to address a range of mental health and behavioral problems, methodological limitations of published studies preclude us from drawing strong conclusions about the efficacy of skills training as a stand-alone treatment. We present an overview of the implementation of DBT skills training across clinical settings and populations. We found preliminary evidence supporting the use of DBT skills training as a method of addressing a range of behaviors. We provide recommendations for future research.
Remote controls may be used for a variety of the purposes. For example, remote controls may be used to control televisions (e.g., high-definition televisions), monitors, MP3 players, audio receivers, radios, communication devices, personal computers, media players, digital video recorders (DVRs), game playing devices, set top boxes (STBs), security systems, household appliances, etc. Conventional remote controls may be configured to transmit data by sending transmissions (e.g., Radio Frequency (RF) transmissions, Infrared (IR) transmissions, etc.) which control the respective devices. Further, devices which are to be controlled by the transmissions from the remote control, may include, be electronically connected to or otherwise in communication with, receivers that receive the data transmissions from the remote control. Some conventional remote controls are designed such that upon a button of the remote control being pressed and held, a single transmission is transmitted. Other conventional remote controls are designed such that upon a button of the remote control being pressed and held, repeated transmissions are transmitted (e.g., transmissions may be repeated indefinitely or transmissions may be repeated for a limited amount of time to avoid draining the battery if, for example, someone is sitting on the remote control). Such a repeated transmission may be useful for commands such as volume control and channel changing. While these remote control features are beneficial, there remains an ever-present need for even more beneficial and even more convenient remote control functionality.
The present invention relates to apparatus and methods for substantial planarization of solder bumps for use in, for example, testing and fabrication of chip scale packages, bumped die, and other similar devices. The demand for smaller packaging of electronic components continues to drive the development of smaller chip scale packages (CSP""s), bumped die, and other similar devices having solder bumps, ball grid arrays (BGA""s), or the like. As a result, spacing (or xe2x80x9cpitchxe2x80x9d) between adjacent solder balls on bumped devices has steadily decreased. Typical requirements for ball pitch have decreased from 1.27 mm to 0.5 mm or less, and the trend continues. FIG. 1 is a side elevational view of a typical bumped device 10 (CSP, bumped die, etc.) mounted on, for example, a printed circuit board 20. The bumped device 10 includes a plurality of solder balls 12 attached to a plurality of ball pads (not shown) which are formed on a die 14. Each solder ball 12 has an outer edge 16 that aligns with a corresponding contact pad 18 on the printed circuit board 20. A conductive lead 22 is attached to each contact pad 18. Ideally, the outer edge 16 of each solder ball 12 contacts the corresponding contact pad 18 during assembly of the bumped device 10 with the printed circuit board 20, completing the electrical circuit between the conductive leads 22 and the die 14. The height and width of the solder bumps 12 on the bumped device 10 are not precisely uniform. Variation of the solder bump height and width depends on several factors, including variation in size of the original unattached solder balls, variation in the sizes of the ball pads, and differences in the attachment process. As the demand for smaller packaging continues, however, CSP reliability concerns arise. For example, using typical manufacturing methods and solders, the nominal variation between the tallest and shortest balls (shown as the distance d on FIG. 1) is presently about 60 microns (xcexcm). Therefore, when the device 10 is placed on a flat surface resting on the solder balls, the three tallest balls or bumps define the seating plane of the device, and the smaller balls do not touch the corresponding contact pads of the printed circuit board or test interposer. During assembly, and in some cases during testing, a moderate compression force may be applied to the bumped device 10 to drive the outer surfaces 16 of the solder balls 12 into contact with the contact pads 18 of the printed circuit board or test interposer 20. Typically, the compression force needed to bring the solder bumps into contact with the contact pads varies between 30 grams and 2000 grams depending upon the manufacturing or test process involved. The applied compression force should be kept to a minimum, however, because larger forces may damage the circuitry of the die 14, the CSP solder balls, or the test interposer. One approach to the problem is to mount the contact pads 18 of the test interposer 20 on micro-springs. As the tallest solder bumps engage the micro-spring mounted contact pads, the micro-springs are compressed, allowing the shorter solder balls to engage the corresponding contact pads. Numerous micro-spring contact pad models are available as shown and described in Robert Crowley""s article in Chip Scale Review published May 1998, p. 37, incorporated herein by reference. Although desirable results may be achieved with such devices, micro-spring mounted contact pads 18 are very expensive, relatively difficult to maintain, and may excessively damage the solder ball itself. During assembly of the bumped device 10 with the printed circuit board 20, some of the shorter solder balls may not solder to their associated contact pads during the reflow process. In the past, to increase the numbers of solder balls making contact with the contact pads during reflow, the volume of the solder balls was increased. As packaging sizes and pitch requirements continue to decrease, however, the volume of the solder balls must be reduced accordingly, and thus, the percentage of balls that will not attach to the contact pads during reflow increases. Again, if considerable force is applied during assembly, the CSP or the printed circuit board 20 may be damaged. The present invention is directed toward apparatus and methods for substantial planarization of solder bumps for use in, for example, testing and fabrication of chip scale packages, bumped die, and other similar devices. In one embodiment, an apparatus in accordance with the invention includes a planarization member engageable with at least some of the plurality of outer surfaces, and a securing element engageable with the bumped device to securely position the bumped device during engagement with the planarization member. During engagement with the at least some outer surfaces, the planarization member applies a planarization action on one or more of the outer surfaces to substantially planarize the plurality of outer surfaces. In one embodiment, the planarization member includes a cutting tool and the planarization action comprises a milling action. In another embodiment, the planarization member includes a heated platen and the planarization action comprises a thermo-mechanical deformation action. In yet another embodiment, the planarization member includes an abrasive surface and the planarization action comprising a grinding action. Alternately, the planarization member includes a chemical solution and the planarization action comprises a chemical reaction. In yet another embodiment, the planarization member includes a solder deposition device and the planarization action comprises a solder deposition. Alternately, an apparatus may include a planarization gauge that measures a planarization condition of the outer surfaces. The planarization gauge may measure the planarization condition before or after the planarization member is engaged with the outer surfaces. In a further embodiment, an apparatus includes a load device engageable with at least one of the bumped device or the planarization member to urge the at least some outer surfaces of the bumped device into engagement with the planarization member. The planarization member applies a planarization action on one or more of the plurality of outer surfaces to substantially planarize the plurality of outer surfaces. In one embodiment, the planarization member includes a substantially flat surface and the load device includes a mass having a weight that urges the at least some outer surfaces into engagement with the flat surface to mechanically flatten the surfaces. In another embodiment, the load device includes a fixed surface and a pressurizable vessel, a pressure in the pressurizable vessel urging the bumped device away from the fixed surface and into engagement with the planarization member. In yet another embodiment, the load device includes a press engageable with the bumped device. In still another embodiment, the load device includes a centrifuge engageable with the planarization member.
Power line communications (PLC) technology is aimed at transmitting digital data by utilizing the existing infrastructure of the electrical grid. It allows, in particular, remote reading of electric meters, exchanges between electric vehicles and the recharging terminals and also management and control of energy networks (smart grid). PLC technology incorporates, in particular, narrow band power line communication (N-PLC) which is generally defined as a communication over an electrical line operating at transmission frequencies of up to 500 KHz. N-PLC communication thus generally uses the frequency bands defined in particular by the European committee for electrotechnical standardization (CENELEC) or by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC). Thus, if the CENELEC A frequency band (3-95 kHz) is considered, the transmission frequencies are situated between 35.9375 and 90.625 KHz for the PLC-G3 standard. The overall performance of a receiver depends on the quality of its channel estimation, i.e. on the estimation of the transfer function of this channel. It is known that a transmission channel can vary in time, in frequency, in phase and in amplitude. Moreover, the signals conveyed by power line communications and received by the receiver result from a combination of several signals having followed within the transmission channel (i.e. the electrical line) several propagation routes or paths, each having its own time delay and its own attenuation (i.e. the transmission channel is a multi-path transmission channel). This may then result in strong attenuation of certain frequencies. Moreover, the properties and characteristics of the electrical networks are not known and may vary over time. Thus, the impedances of certain objects plugged in by the user vary with the voltage. Such is the case, for example, with halogen lamps or objects comprising voltage rectifiers. When a user plugs in such objects, it results in a periodic variation of the transfer function of the transmission channel. The channel is then considered to be linear and cyclostationary or “linear and varying temporally in a periodic manner”, this corresponding to the acronym LPTV (“Linear Periodically Time Varying”). Contemporary receivers, compatible with the PLC-G3 standard, are not suitable for performing channel estimations when the channel is time varying. Indeed, the PLC-G3 standard provides for the use of only two orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM) symbols as pilot symbols to fully estimate the transfer function of the channel. Hence, when the channel varies, and in particular, when a cyclostationary channel is present, channel estimation may be erroneous, or perhaps impossible, and consequently potentially leads to errors in decoding the symbols.
This study tested the hypotheses that perceived risk of victimization had a stronger effect than actual exposure to victimization risk on handgun ownership and that this relationship was stronger for women than men. Perceived and actual risks of victimization have been discussed with respect to handgun ownership, but a general consensus in the literature was lacking and recent empirical research was scarce. Crime rates and respondents’ social characteristics were used as proxy measures for victimization risk, while fear of crime measured perceived risk of victimization. Three sets of models were estimated, the first with a pooled sample of men and women, the second and third on samples separated by gender. Binary logistic regression was utilized to compare the predictive power of these two major correlates of handgun ownership and observe how their effects varied by gender. Data were drawn from the National Opinion for Research Center’s (NORC) Cumulative General Social Surveys (GSS) for the years 1986 through 2008. Predictors of victimization risk, especially gender and regional crime rate, had strong effects on handgun possession, while perceived risk had no effect on handgun possession. Results also demonstrated that while women were more likely to fear crime, they were not necessarily more or less likely than men to obtain handguns in response to that fear.
This invention relates to Reed-Solomon error-correction codes (RS ECC) and, more particularly, to systems and methods for implementing the RS ECC receive-side operations. Electronic information is increasingly being relied upon as a preferred medium for conducting business and/or personal transactions. As a result, demands for even better information storage and/or communication technologies are also increasing. The advances in this area of technology are apparent in telecommunication and information storage devices, where developments in throughput and storage density are allowing users to process information at much greater rates and quantities than before. To guarantee some degree of information integrity, many communications and storage devices include error-correction technologies. Such technologies generally involve configuring information in a way that allows the information to be recoverable even when parts of the information are altered or missing. In error-correction, this process of configuring information is referred to as “encoding,” and the counterpart process of recovering information is referred to as “decoding.” Therefore, unless otherwise specified, the term “coding” will be used herein to refer to a particular way of encoding and decoding information. In the field of error-correction codes (ECC), of particular note is the Reed-Solomon (RS) error-correction code. Since its discovery, the Reed-Solomon ECC has had a profound impact on the information industry in terms of shaping consumer expectations. In modern day applications, the Reed-Solomon ECC can be found in everyday devices such as the compact disk players, where RS ECC technology has helped to provide high quality audio playback even from scratched CD surfaces. Despite its effectiveness, the suitability of the Reed-Solomon ECC in certain applications may be limited by practical considerations. RS ECC encoding and decoding techniques are relatively complex, and practical issues generally concern whether RS ECC operations can be completed in the time and using the resources allotted by an application. Interestingly, when the RS ECC was first developed, processing technology had not yet developed to the point where applying the RS ECC in consumer devices was practical. Although technology for implementing RS ECC has improved greatly since then, technological improvements in applications that benefit from RS ECC have also kept pace. Accordingly, allowances of time, power, and/or hardware resources for RS ECC in modern applications continue to become more stringent. Developments in coding theory continue to improve the capabilities of the RS ECC. In conjunction with these efforts, device and architectural improvements in implementation continue to aid its application to conventional and emerging electronic devices. Accordingly, there is continued interest in improving the Reed-Solomon error-correction code on both a theoretical and a practical level.
Hello Gundam Guys and Gundam Gals~ Its been raining cats and dogs lately. and winter brought some frost during the day. But, I managed to catch a few sunny moment to do some paint job on this baby.So here it is,As you can see, I've Gun-metal -ed the structural inner frames.I can't help it... Its a beauty to look at those Gold reveal parts of the inner frame. some how,works well withand! perhaps I need to make another Astray... inNow, the chest! finally.. another sunny day for this inner frame.The waist support part is hollow! I've had a problem on the previous, where it broke when I was playing around posing it. had to order this little part to replace it. andit.So, I don't want it to happen again,will have the same treatment.While I was waiting for some parts to dry, I went on to "test" fit it. well, I can't wait to see whatwill look like.ok back to construction, the parts that were waiting to be dried.......But, you won't see them that often.. sadly.But the waist part pistons will always be visible!Just look at theI think, the beam saber holder should be somewhat Gun-metal. Just to make some difference between body and attachment.Back pack up!All theare shinning and revealing themselves. I personally think this is whatshould look like. (not all maroon colour)Love this picture the most!One thing I dislike aboutis that.. the Beam saber holders seem to be under-developed. They are.... empty. Feels like a rain water collection tank..Another look of the revealing parts.So, next up! the head! one of the coolest Gundam Head! over-sized chin, V-fin, Etc. everything oversize.This is it, my latest update on, Catch ya'll later.
The major focus of the Geriatric Psychiatry Branch (GPB) is the study of individuals with memory disorders as a result of age or neurodegeneration. In particular, memory is the most important earliest clinical symptom of Alzheimer?s disease (AD). There is evidence that the cholinergic system has an important role in normal memory, at least in part through its influence on hippocampal function, in age-related memory loss, and in AD. Medications designed to enhance the cholinergic system through increasing concentrations of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine in the synapse are the only approved drugs for the treatment of AD. The Neuroimaging Section of GPB has been using positron emission tomography (PET) to study the cholinergic system. Because, the precise effects of normal aging on the cholinergic system are unknown as both in vitro and PET studies have shown conflicting results, our first specific objectives were to determine whether we could accurately and reliably measure attributes of the cholinergic system in regions of the brain of awake humans with PET, and whether we could establish if there were any changes in these attributes as individuals age. Previous in vitro and in vivo work with the F-18 labeled muscarinic agonist, 3-(3-(3-[18F]Flouropropyl)thio)-1,2,5-thiadiazol-4-yl)-1,2,5,6-tetrahydro-1-methylpyridine (18F P-TZTP) suggested the use of 18FP-TZTP to selectively quantify M2 receptors in humans. In this study, we used 18FP-TZTP, to infer M2 receptor avidity in the brains of 15 healthy younger subjects (mean age = 28.3 ? 5.5 y) and 20 healthy older subjects (mean age = 62.1? 7.7 y). Corrections for subject motion during the 120 min acquisition and partial voluming (PVC) were performed. A one-tissue compartment model was used to estimate the volumes of distribution (VT) of 18FP-TZTP. Within both groups of subjects, volumes of distribution (K1/k2) in cortical, subcortical, and cerebellar areas were consistent with M2 receptor topography. Compared to younger subjects older subjects had significantly higher means and standard deviations for the volumes of distribution of 18FP-TZTP throughout much of the cerebellum, cortex and subcortex (Global Gray VT = 742 ? 163 in older subjects and 645 ? 74 in younger subjects, p < 0.03). Across all subjects 18FP-TZTP, regional and Global Gray distribution volumes were significantly correlated to age (Global Gray VT, r = 0.41, p < .01). A lower concentration of acetylcholine in the synapse of some older subjects is one possible explanation of the data. The increased variance in the 18FP-TZTP distribution volumes of older subjects suggested the possibility that there might be a subset of the older subjects that had the higher distribution volumes. The apolipoprotein E-e4 allele (APOE-e4) confers an increased susceptibility to age-related memory problems and Alzheimer?s disease. To determine the effect of the APOE-e4 allele on the muscarinic component of the cholinergic system of aging subjects, the distribution volumes (VT) of [18F]FP-TZTP of 10 healthy subjects with APOE-e4 alleles (APOE-e4+) and 10 without (APOE-e4-), ranging in age from 52 to 75 years, were compared. Regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF) measurements with H215O were also determined in the same subjects and compared. Global Gray VT (840 ? 155 ml plasma/ml tissue) was greater in APOE-e4+ subjects than APOE-e4- subjects (660 ? 113 ml plasma/ml tissue, p = 0.01), and previously studied younger subjects. There were no significant differences between the groups with respect to rCBF, but within the APOE-e4+ group there was a trend for subjects with the higher Global Gray VTs to have lower Global Gray CBFs (r = -.65, p < .06. Thus, our working hypothesis is that the higher [18F]FP-TZTP distribution volumes result from a direct adverse interaction between the APOE-e4 allele and the aging process on the muscarinic system, and may relate directly to the release of acetylcholine into the synapse.
Subcutaneous fat distribution of the abdomen and buttocks in Japanese women aged 20 to 58 years. Subcutaneous fat is an essential element in shaping the body of human beings. In this research, skinfold thickness was measured specifically in 33 regions of the human body, including the abdomen and buttocks. Based on our measurements, the subcutaneous fat distribution was assessed for several age groups. The subjects were healthy Japanese women aged 20 to 58 years. Skinfold thickness was measured using the B-mode ultrasound methods, together with anthropometric measurement. A comparison was made between the following five age groups: early 20's, late 20's, 30's, 40's and 50's. The measured values for the early 20's group were used as the standard and the relationship between increase ratio of subcutaneous fat and age was studied. Through our research, we obtained data on the subcutaneous fat distribution in each age group. The largest change was observed between the ages of the early 20's and late 20's. The skinfold thickness measurements of the abdomen and buttocks was consistently around 10 mm for the early 20's, and increased up to 23.8 mm on the rear side section for the late 20's. This result indicates that the increase ratio varied depending on the part of body. Furthermore, the changes in skinfold thickness were different in specific parts of the abdomen and buttocks among different age groups. The difference in skinfold thickness between upper and lower sections of the abdomen also becomes more pronounced with age. Skinfold thickness increased significantly between the early 20's and late 20's. Among the body regions, measurements at the rear side showed the largest change with age; averaging 11.3 mm for the early 20's compared to 33.6 mm for the 50's. The subcutaneous fat distribution on the buttock also showed the differences with age, indicating changes in body shape. Using careful measurements of the abdomen and buttocks, subcutaneous fat distribution among each age group was determined as well as the variation in changes with the aging process.
Technological innovations in speech processing applications have led to widespread development of speech-based automated systems and applications using automated speech recognition (ASR) and/or natural language understanding techniques. For example, speech recognition systems are being implemented to support hands-free command and control of various functions within a car environment. Moreover, speech recognition systems may be implemented for dictation/transcription applications to record and recognized spoken input from one or more persons and automatically generate a textual transcription that is stored and subsequently used for various applications (archiving, indexing, etc.). There are various factors that can negatively affect the decoding accuracy of spoken input by ASR systems. For instance, in ASR applications, speech decoding accuracy can vary depending on the type of microphone system that is used to capture spoken input, the manner in which a person uses the microphone system and/or the varying environmental conditions that may exists at different times during capture and recordation of audio input by the microphone system. For instance, when a person uses a microphone having a manual talk switch (to manually turn on/off the microphone), the manual operation of the talk switch may lead to poor synchronisation between the time at which the talk switch button is pressed and the user begins speaking. For example, it a user simultaneously presses the talk switch button and begins to speak, the first spoken utterance may be chopped-off, or if the user begins speaking too late, environmental noise may be added to the audio input, leading to decreased decoding accuracy. In other circumstances, the decoding accuracy of an ASR system can be adversely affected when the distance between the speaker's mouth and the microphone is varied during a speech session. For instance, for lip microphone devices, the distance between the lip microphone and the persons' mouth can change during a session resulting in possible degradation in decoding accuracy. Similar problems exists when using fixed microphones (e.g., in a car) which are sensitive to how a person is positioned near the microphone and the direction that the person faces when speaking. Other causes of decreased decoding accuracy in ASR systems due to microphones that the ASR applications typically require the microphone parameters to be adapted and adjusted to the ASR system, as well as adapted and adjusted based on the speaker. For example, some conventional speech applications require the microphones to be set and re-adapted to the speech recognition system each time a new person begins a new dictation session. If certain adjustments and adaptations are not made for each new person using the speech recognition system, the error rate of the speech recognition can significantly increase. For example, an ASR system may require various steps for adjusting the microphone system so as to optimize the speech recognition decoding accuracy. First, the ASR system determines an average level of static environmental noise in a given environment (no speech). Next, the system, may request spoken input by a person in the given environment, which allows the system to determine the volume of the speaker's voice relative to the static environmental noise, which is then used to adjust the sensitivity and volume of the microphone input. Typically, after the system adjusts the volume input level, other additional parameters in the ASR system may be adapted to an individual speaker when reading a particular prepared passage. In particular, each new user may be required to read a prepared passage after the volume has been, adjusted so as to adjust an array of parameters to fine tune adjust the microphone and better adapt the ASR system to the current user. These microphone adjustment procedures of the ASR system may be problematic and impractical in certain applications. For example, when an ASR system is used for transcription of conferences, these microphone adjustment procedures may be too burdensome and thus not followed. In particular, at conferences and meetings, a microphone and ASR system is typically located on the podium or in the middle of a meeting table. In some instance, the microphone is head-mountable and located at the speaker's lips for accurate input. When speaking at a conference, each speaker may have time to activate his/her user-specific (pre-trained) speech model that was previously trained and stored in the ASR system, but there is typically no time for each speaker to perform a microphone adjustment process (as described above), which may foe needed to adjust the parameters of the ASR system to the speaker's personal speech patterns to obtain an optimal transcription. The decoding accuracy of an ASR system can also foe affected depending on the type of microphone that was used when training the ASR system or when using the ASR system. For example, decoding accuracy can be decreased when the type of microphone used by a person to train the ASR system is different from the type of microphone used by that person when giving a lecture during a transcription or dictation session. By way of specific example, a person will typically train an ASR system by providing speech training data using a wired microphone connected to the ASR system, while the same speaker may actually use a wireless microphone when using the ASR system during a lecture, meeting, conference, which can lead to decreased decoding accuracy.
1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a solid fuel burner and furnace construction. 2. Description of the Prior Art In the prior art, various furnace constructions having been advanced for burning solid fuel, including coal. Many have also used stepped burner grates, but the problems with complex drives, complex mounting, and inadequate movement of the grates have continued to limit their success. For example, in the prior art, a typical stoker-actuated coal burning apparatus is shown in U.S. Pat. No. 4,007,697 which utilizes a furnace cabinet having a burner with a rotating disk thereon. This shows a heat exchanger that provides for a curved path for the heated products of combustion and a separate burner blower. U.S. Pat. No. 945,469 issued to Mapel on Jan. 4, 1910 shows a stepped grate in an automatic stoker apparatus wherein the grate assembly is mounted on wheels that can be moved in and out of the furnace, and includes a crank mechanism which has a double-acting lever arrangement to reciprocate the adjacent stepped grates in opposite direction when the crank rotates. However, the drive requires a complex lever system and the grate plates themselves are supported only on the lever arrangement, thus increasing wear on the actuating members, and tending to cause jamming and excessive loads in the heated, ash-filled environment in which the grates must work. U.S. Pat. No. 1,644,953 issued to Seyboth on Oct. 11, 1927 is typical of a number of patents in the prior art which show a stepped grate where every other grate plate is fixed, and then the intermediate plates or bars forming the steps are driven to reciprocate. Very complex gear drives are utilized, and the grates are separated into sections for movement, resulting in the need for a large number of links, bell cranks, and levers. U.S. Pat. No. 505,748 issued to Campbell on Sept. 26, 1983 shows a grate assembly that has a plurality of bars that are mounted on side plates and which interfit between stationary bars and reciprocate as a unit. The unit is mounted on roller-type bearings, and all of the movable grate bars thus reciprocate as a unit relative to the interfitting stationary bars. U.S. Pat. No. 2,137,158 to Douglass issued Nov. 15, 1938 shows a "clinker cooling" arrangement using stepped grates and having reciprocating step members with a cooling fluid going through the plates. Every other grate bar is fixed. The unit is used primarily for cooling Portland cement clinkers. U.S. Pat. No. 795,388 issued to Googins on July 25, 1905 shows a reciprocating terraced furnace grate, and in particular in FIGS. 9 and 11, the end edges of the grates are shown to be tapered. However, the grate bars also appear to be supported on lower rollers of car-type structures so that the grate bars on one of the cars interfit or interleaf with the grate bars of the other car, and then they are oscillated in opposite directions as they are used. The grate bar surfaces incline slightly downwardly. U.S. Pat. No. 4,103,627 to Mainka issued Aug. 1, 1978 shows a grate construction which has reciprocal grate members made up into individual sections that are pivotally mounted to their supporting members. Some of the grate bars reciprocate relative to other grate bars. The use of holes or openings through burner grates is also shown in the prior art, for example, U.S. Pat. No. 2,137,158 mentioned above, illustrates holes in the grates, but tapered in opposite direction from those disclosed in the present application. U.S. Pat. No. 1,403,609 issued to Leonard et al on Jan. 17, 1922 also shows reciprocating grates with tapered holes, but which are mounted in a substantially different manner than the present device. The grates in U.S. Pat. No. 1,403,609 do not reciprocate although pusher members are provided between the vertically spaced grates. U.S. Pat. No. 703,068 issued to King on June 24, 1902 illustrates a mechanism for driving sliding grate members from a type of feed auger, as does U.S. Pat. No. 2,119,937 issued to Banfield on June 7, 1938. In the Banfield Patent a rotating grate is driven from the stoker auger. U.S. Pat. No. 527,453 issued to Richards on Oct. 16, 1894 shows a traveling floor furnace where there are elongated grate members which move, and which are inclined rather than stepped. U.S. Pat. No. 804,457 issued to Cox on Nov. 14, 1905 shows an ash conveyor for furnaces which uses reciprocating stepped members, and U.S. Pat. No. 1,186,971 issued to Davis on June 13, 1916 shows a grate member that has plates that tilt under mechanical action to move materials. U.S. Pat. No. 2,294,269 issued to Bennett on Aug. 25, 1942 shows a stepped, movable, water-cooled stoker having plates that slide relative to support shelves, but designed to include the water cooling for absorbing heat quickly. U.S. Pat. No. 4,172,425 issued to Sheridan on Oct. 30, 1979 shows an incinerator that has movable members for transferring waste through the incinerator, but not a stepped grate construction such as the present invention, and U.S. Pat. No. 3,413,938 issued to Dvirka on Dec. 3, 1968 shows another form of a stepped grate member where the material is primarily moved by pushing grates against the material to cause it to move downwardly as it is burned. The prior art, while showing a wide variety of stepped grates and furnace constructions, fails to teach or suggest a unit arranged with the stepped grate construction of the present invention in a furnace cabinet that provides for a high efficiency of air flow and heat exchange.
Hodgkin's disease: complications of therapy and excess mortality. The long-term survival of patients treated for Hodgkin's disease permits careful evaluation of long-term complications and excess mortality. Between 1960 and 1995, 2498 patients who were treated for Hodgkin's disease at Stanford University were evaluated. Survival, freedom from relapse, and important complications of therapy (cardiac disease and secondary cancers) were analyzed, and risk of mortality from all causes was calculated utilizing absolute excess risk calculations. The risk of death from Hodgkin's disease is 17% at 15 years of follow-up and increases only slightly thereafter. The risk of death from other causes is also 17% at 15 years, but increases sharply thereafter. The major causes of mortality (other than Hodgkin's disease) are secondary cancers and cardiac disease. Second cancers with significant increase in risk include leukemia (acute nonlymphocytic), non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, lung/pleural cancer, breast cancer, melanoma, soft tissue and bone sarcomas, stomach cancer, salivary gland tumors, thyroid cancer, and pancreatic cancer. The absolute excess risk of death from causes other than Hodgkin's disease increases during each five-year follow-up interval for at least 25 years. However, the absolute excess risk of death during similar follow-up periods is less for patients treated in more recent years (1980-1995) than in the prior treatment era (1962-1980). Mortality for causes other than Hodgkin's disease is important in the long-term follow-up of patients. Causes of death are often treatment related. Changes in treatment programs can reduce the long-term excess risk of death from complications of therapy.
A glossary of acronyms and abbreviations associated with emergency services calls is contained in NENA Master Glossary of 9-1-1 Terminology, NENA 00-001, Version 16, dated Aug. 22, 2011 and is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. PSAP call takers dispatch emergency assistance such as police, fire, and medical personnel in response to phone calls made to an emergency telephone number which, in the case of the United States, is 9-1-1. For 9-1-1 calls from a traditional wireline phone, the dispatch address is pre-configured and stored in an ALI database. For 9-1-1 calls from a mobile phone, there is no fixed address associated with the mobile phone. To enable PSAP call takers to dispatch emergency assistance to the mobile phone caller, wireless carriers have implemented a variety of location-determining technologies to provide the caller's latitude and longitude (hereafter referred to as “X,Y”). Having accurate caller X,Y is critical for ensuring that first responders arrive at the correct location. The FCC recognized the importance of accurate X,Y in 1996 by adopting rules that required wireless carriers to implement E911 location-determining services. The FCC divided its wireless E911 rules into two stages. The initial stage was called Phase I and required wireless carriers to deliver by April 1998 E911 service that included the caller's telephone number and the location of the cell site or base station that handled the call. The second phase was called Phase II and required delivery, under a phased-in schedule, now extending until January 2019, E911 service that includes X,Y of the mobile phone caller within specific accuracy and reliability parameters, depending on the location technology, as follows: (a) Using network-based technologies: within 100 meters for 67 percent of calls, and 300 meters for 90 percent of calls; (b) Using handset-based technologies: within 50 meters for 67 percent of calls, and 150 meters for 90 percent of calls. Despite the FCC rules requiring improvements in location accuracy, there are multiple reasons why an X,Y provided to the PSAP does not result in a useful address for dispatching emergency assistance (hereafter referred to as a “dispatch address”). For some mobile phone calls, only Phase I X,Y is made available to the PSAP. Since Phase I location only identifies the caller's cell site and can have a range as large as 22 miles for GSM technology, the Phase I X,Y provided to the PSAP is not sufficient to determine a dispatch address. For mobile phone calls that are routed to a PSAP with Phase II location, the accuracy of that location is often outside the 100 meter range (or 50 meters for carriers using handset-based technologies). This is a common problem for mobile phones that rely on a handset-based technology such as GPS, since indoor GPS coverage is typically poor due to 1.5 GHz RF propagation properties. An additional cause for dispatch address errors occurs when an X,Y is converted at the PSAP into a dispatch address by using mapping or GIS tools to identify the closest street address to the X,Y. Depending on the precision and accuracy of the X,Y, the area described by the X,Y may cover many street addresses and the center of the area described by the X,Y and its precision may not be the nearest street address to the actual emergency. The problem of identifying a dispatch address is further exacerbated when an emergency occurs at a building with many rooms or multiple floors, each with many rooms. In these situations, a street address, even if correct, is inadequate. The net result is that first responders arriving at the location to which they are dispatched often face the difficult task of searching for and locating the party who called 9-1-1 before assistance can be rendered. Prior to this invention, a common approach used by first responders for locating the person who called 9-1-1 was to call the 9-1-1 caller's phone number to get further verbal instructions. However, there are cases when this approach will not work. The party who called 9-1-1 for assistance might have had a medical emergency preventing him or her from answering a follow-up phone call. Or the party who called 9-1-1 might be hiding silently from an intruder or be occupied fighting a fire. Even if the PSAP provided a precise building, floor and room number where the 9-1-1 caller should be located, it is possible that the 9-1-1 caller may have moved to another floor or room in the building to escape an encroaching file or to hide from an intruder. In situations like these, first responders may waste precious time searching for the 9-1-1 caller. In addition to locating the party requiring assistance, first responders arriving to a dispatch address face a new challenge, known in the industry as 9-1-1 “SWATing”. This dangerous practice results in a PSAP call taker being tricked into dispatching an armed SWAT response to an innocent address. To address this new challenge, when armed first responders arrive on scene, they need to ensure they are at the correct location. There is a need for a system and method to help first responders efficiently search for and locate a 9-1-1 caller.
Secondary DNA transfer by working gloves. With the development of highly sensitive STR profiling methods, combined with sound statistical tools, DNA analysis on the (sub-)source level is hardly ever seriously questioned in court. More often, the exact mode of DNA transfer to the crime scene is questioned. In burglary cases, in particular when gloves are worn, secondary DNA transfer is often discussed as explanation for finding a DNA profile matching the accused because it is well known that gloves can act as a potential vector for indirect DNA transfer. In this study we investigated the shedder status as a possible factor influencing the extent of secondary DNA transfer to a crime scene, with the person committing the crime wearing working gloves. Firstly, the shedder status for 40 participants (20 male, 20 female) was determined, following a previously published procedure. Good shedders (n = 12) were found to deposit a higher amount and quality of DNA onto objects, compared to bad shedders (n = 25). Secondly, participants were paired into four groups (good with good; good with bad; bad with good; bad with bad), each group consisting of five pairs. The first participant (P1) of each pair used working gloves to pack and carry a box to simulate a house move. Two days later, the second participant (P2) of the pair wore the same pair of gloves to simulate a burglary, using a screwdriver as a break-in tool. After taking swabs of the outside and inside of a glove (primary DNA transfer) and the handle of the screwdriver (secondary DNA transfer), full DNA analysis was performed. Our experiments show that good shedders, overall, deposit more DNA than bad shedders, both onto the outside and the inside of the glove, regardless of being P1 or P2. When conducting the experiments with two participants sharing the same shedder status, no significant differences occurred in the number of deposited alleles. In six out of 19 cases a DNA profile matching P1 was found (binary LR>106) on the screwdriver and in all six cases P1 was a good shedder. Our results indicate that the shedder status of an individual affects the extent of DNA transfer. They further confirm the possibility of an innocent person's DNA profile being found on an object they never handled.
Oxidants such as hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) are implicated in mediating a wide array of human diseases including atherosclerosis, cancer, and neurodegenerative diseases. Oxidants contribute to disease processes by causing damage to biomolecules and altering cellular metabolism. Key among the targets for oxidative damage are structural proteins and enzymes. In order to understand how oxidative stress can cause disease, it is important to discover which proteins become affected by oxidative stress, to what degree they are modified, and the functional consequences of the modifications. Previous studies on protein oxidation involved exposing purified proteins to a source of oxidants (e.g., iron/ascorbate) and measuring the extent and consequences of the damage. More recently, we have directed our efforts towards studying induction of protein oxidation in tumor cells exposed to chemotherapy drugs. Reports in the literature suggest that induction of apoptosis by chemotherapeutic agents is mediated by oxidants generated within the cells. We set out to determine whether proteins become oxidized in this process and, if so, whether oxidative modification of specific proteins contributes to the apoptotic process. Over the past year, experiments were carried out to identify specific proteins which might undergo oxidation during chemotherapy-induced apoptosis and H2O2-induced necrosis. Emphasis was placed on identifying mitochondrial proteins that might become modified since mitochondrial function is so central to the apoptotic process. Apoptosis was induced with the drug VP-16 and protein oxidation was assessed by measuring protein carbonyls (Western blot assay) and total methionine sulfoxide (in collaboration with investigators at the NHLBI, NIH). To date, we have found no evidence of increased protein oxidation during VP-16-induced apoptosis. There was also no induction of lipid peroxidation, and antioxidant compounds were ineffective at inhibiting VP-16-induced cell death. Our results provide evidence that apoptosis does not necessarily involve oxidative stress and does not require protein oxidation. This finding is significant because it challenges the current dogma which suggests that formation of intracellular oxidants is an integral part of the apoptotic process. The work is currently being prepared for publication in a peer-reviewed journal.
In those 5 years, the Pioneers went 64-73, 65-72, an abysmal 54-86... (and that was good compared to 1948’s) 49-91. Finally in their final season, they finished with a winning record at 58-52. It was an awful 5 year run and you could see it immediately from the roster. The teams from 1939-1945 usually featured between 10-20 future and former Major Leaguers. The 1945 Elmira Pioneers, featured 1... Ned Garver who went 3-1, 2.18 on his way to an All-Star career with the St. Louis Browns and Detroit Tigers. Two other players however would shine on that 1945 team. On the mound, Andrew Daly (12-7, 1.84) put up a stellar performance while Donald Fitzpatrick (31 2B, 3 3B, .320) did his best to wield a solid bat. Amazingly enough, the best hitting performance perhaps out of the Browns’ entire history here would come from one of its worst teams… the 1947 86 loss team, which produced Ken Wood… a future St. Louis Browns outfielder. Up until now, Bill McWilliams had held the HR record of the Elmira Pioneers with 11 in 1939. Nobody had even come close to breaking that mark, but in 1947, Ken Wood would double it, slamming 22 HRs and 32 2Bs while batting .264, to easily become Dunn Field II’s biggest "power king" ever. Keep in mind that only 2 years earlier, the entire team had hit only 4 HRs total, so 22... that kind of amazed this crowd. In fact, it was a stat that would (believe it or not)... stand the test of time. In 1948, another superstar would come to Elmira but if you blinked, you would have missed it. Roy Sievers had tore it up in Springfield, batting .309 with 14 2B and 19 HR. He was promoted at the very end of the season to Elmira where he hit just a paltry .179 with 3 2B and 2 HR. Barely anyone noticed him in his Pioneers uniform, but by the following season... he was a full time player in St. Louis wearing a Browns uniform, and he put up a terrific .306 batting average with 28 2B and 16 HR in his first year. It was a strong enough effort to win the "Rookie of the Year Award"... the first ever to come out of Dunn Field II. By 1957, Sievers had become the Washington Senators’ #1 slugger and he had an amazing year slamming 42 HRs with 114 RBIs. Sievers would spend 17 years in the Majors making the All-Star team 4 times and amassed 318 HRs in his excellent career. In the final season of the St. Louis Browns reign in Elmira, they offered up perhaps the best hitting team that the city had ever seen. Future Browns’ Owen Friend (23 2B, 20 HR, .264), future Browns/Cubs’ Joe Lutz (.15 2B, 17 HR, .300) and Edward Fowler (26 2B, 17 HR, .267) slugged their way out of the basement and finally above .500 for the first time 5 years. Now that they finally had a decent team on the field, they pulled out of Elmira. We don’t think the fans missed them much.
Molecular and cellular events during the yeast to mycelium transition in Sporothrix schenckii. Unbudded singlets from exponentially growing yeast cells of Sporothrix schenckii were harvested, selected by filtration and allowed to form germ tubes in a basal medium with glucose at pH 4.0 and 25 degrees C. These conditions supported only the development of the mycelial form of S. schenckii in a reproducible manner which allowed further analysis of the early cellular events occurring during the yeast-to-mycelium transition. The relationship between macromolecular synthesis (DNA and RNA synthesis) and nuclear division, hyphal growth and septum formation were investigated during germ tube formation. RNA synthesis started 0 to 3 h after the induction of germ tube formation, followed by DNA synthesis and the first nuclear division, which took place between 3 and 6 h. Germ tube formation followed nuclear division and was first evidenced 6 h after the induction of germ tube formation, but was not completed until 12 h after inoculation. Septation was first observed in these germ tubes at the mother cell-germ tube junction 6 h after induction. Addition of hydroxyurea, an inhibitor of DNA synthesis, to the medium, also inhibited nuclear division and germ tube growth, suggesting that these processes in S. schenckii are dependent upon DNA synthesis.
The trend is to make homes more energy efficient in order to conserve energy as well as saving money for the owner. While this is generally desirable, it does increase the problem of indoor air pollution. Some studies have indicated that indoor air is 50 times more polluted than outdoor air. Among some of the indoor pollutants detected include cleaning product residues, smoke particles, formaldehyde, pollens, dander, molds and mildews, fungi, dust mites, etc. While these pollutants are present in the outdoor environment, they are greatly reduced by the combined action of an abundant oxygen supply due to trees, shrubs and other oxygen producing vegetation, radiation from soil and rocks, friction between the layers of wind, ultraviolet radiation form the sun, rain and the splitting of water droplets by the action of waterfalls and lightening all of which combine to produce negative ions and ozone. Dangerous ions cling to the ozone and fall out of the atmosphere greatly decreasing the pollutant concentration. This is evident in the “clean air” feeling that people experience after a thunderstorm and around a waterfall. Ionizing air cleaners are known in the art. The most effective units employ some sort of air moving component such as a fan to ensure that the created ozone is able to attract and neutralize the pollutants present in the room. This tends to make the units noisy and cost more to operate. Additionally, they tend to create a “clean zone” or “clean air island” around the unit that diminishes in effectiveness as a person moves away. There are units that do not utilize a fan, but these units are even more prone to creating clean zones concentrated around the unit. There is a need for an ionizing cleaner that effectively cleans an entire space that is easy to operate, does not consume an inordinate amount of power, is quiet and does not take up room space.
This invention generally relates to noise cancellation arrangements in vehicle air intake systems. More particularly, this invention relates to a heat dissipation arrangement for a noise cancellation system. Internal combustion engines include air induction systems for conducting air to the engine. Engine noise typically is propagated through the air induction system, which is undesirable. Noise attenuation mechanisms have been installed within the air induction systems to reduce such noises. Typical noise attenuation mechanisms include a speaker, a sound detector such as a microphone and a signal generator. Various other components are often used to reduce noise generated at the air induction system. The noise attenuation system signal generator is often part of a printed circuit board that is used to control operation of the noise attenuation system components. One problem associated with such arrangements is a tendency for heat build-up at the circuit components. There is a need for an effective way to dissipate heat in the noise attenuation system. This invention addresses that need in an efficient manner, which takes advantage of the characteristics of the air induction system. In general terms, this invention is a noise attenuation assembly for use in a vehicle air intake arrangement. An assembly designed according to this invention includes a housing that at least partially defines an air passageway. An electronics module is supported by the housing. A metal cooling member is supported by the housing at least partially in the air passageway and coupled with the electronics module such that heat in the electronics module is dissipated by the cooling member. In one example, the cooling member is made of brass. In one example, the cooling member includes a body portion having an opening through the body portion and a plurality of ribs that extend radially outwardly from the body portion. A method of this invention for controlling the temperature of an electronics module in a noise attenuation device that is used in a vehicle air intake system includes several steps. A cooling member is supported on a portion of a housing that at least partially defines an air passageway such that the cooling member is at least partially within the air passageway. The cooling member is then coupled with the electronics module of the noise attenuation device to thereby allow heat in the electronics module to be dissipated by the cooling member. In one example, the cooling member is supported on the housing by hot pressing at least a portion of the cooling member into a portion of the housing. The various features and advantages of this invention will become apparent to those skilled in the art from the following detailed description of the currently preferred embodiment. The drawings that accompany the detailed description can be briefly described as follows.
[Management of sickle cell disease by health professional in Bamako]. The sickle cell disease is a genotypic affection, suited to the black race, characterized by the presence of an abnormal haemoglobin S (HbS). The purpose of this survey was to assess the knowledge, the attitudes and the practices of the health professionals on management of children with sickle cells diseases. We carried out a cross-sectional survey in the health centres and involved 140 health professional of Community Health Centres (CSCOM) and 6 health districts in Bamako. The study found that 72% of health professionals had between 24 and 39 year old; 39% were physician; 77% didn't know the name of the drugs used in case of non complicate sickle cells diseas. Among the health professionals, 81% knew that the sickle cells disease was a blood illness. Our findings suggest that management of children with sickle cells diseases was not performed better due to the knowledge insufficiency of health professionals. We recommend training the health staff.
Rehabilitation of an extraoral and intraoral defect complicated with microstomia. A study case. A 72-year-old man was referred from the surgery department for rehabilitation following surgical resection of Basaloid carcinoma. The first surgical intervention involved the anterior palatal region and was restored with a simple obturator. Two years later further surgery was undertaken to excise a recurrent tumor in the nose and part of the cheek. This resulted in an exposed nasal cavity and maxillary sinus. In addition, there was a small oral aperture composed of thin tissue that stretched to its maximum due to scar formation. The defect was restored with a full thickness skin flap but it subsequently broke down leaving the midface exposed with limited mouth opening due to tissue contraction and scar formation after the flap operation. The defect was rehabilitated with Co-Cr obturator intraorally and a silicone nose retained to the naso-palatal extension of the obturator by a magnet extraorally. This resulted in practically good retention, placement, and adaptation of the two parts of the prosthesis.
Growth and survival of pacific coho salmon smolts exposed as juveniles to pesticides within urban streams in western Washington, USA. Pesticides are frequently detected in urban streams, with concentrations often exceeding those reported in surface waters within agricultural areas. The authors studied growth, survival, and return rates of coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) smolts exposed to a pesticide mixture ("cocktail") representative of the pesticides most frequently reported within urban streams in western Washington State, USA, in fall through early spring. Exposure concentrations were selected to represent a reasonable worst-case scenario based on field monitoring data. Smolts were continuously exposed to pulses of the cocktail either from fertilization through swim-up (2007-2008) or from fertilization through smoltification (2007-2008 and 2008-2009), coded wire tagged, and released in 2008 and 2009. Pre-release endpoints (growth, survival, sex ratio, brain acetylcholinesterase activity, and gonado- and hepatosomatic indices) were not affected. However, the number of returning adults exposed to the cocktail to swim-up (0.90%, n = 42) was more than double that of unexposed controls (0.38%, n = 26) in 2008, whereas in 2009, fish exposed through smoltification returned in lower numbers (0.15%, n = 18) than controls (0.37%, n = 30). Variability in return rates among treatments between years was comparable to that observed in previous whole life cycle studies with Pacific salmon and other contaminants. Results suggest that exposure to pesticides in urban streams does not directly impair early life stages of coho salmon, and that additional studies incorporating releases of larger numbers of smolts across several years are necessary to adequately quantify effects on return rates.
"We can do it here" "Come on, let's start digging" "This way, there will be only one clock left in the village" "And you'll be the only guy who owns a clock" "FAREWELL TO THE ARK after One Hundred Years of Solitude by Gabriel Garcia Marquez" "Daisaku TOKITO" "Starring:" "Mayumi OGAWA" "Yoshio HARADA" "Keiko NIITAKA" "Yoko TAKAHASHI" "Renji ISHIBASHI Hitomi TAKAHASHI" "Takeshi WAKAMATSU Yoko RAN" "Tsutomu YAMAZAKI" "Cinematography by Tatsuo SUZUKI" "Directed by Shuji TERAYAMA" "And what would you say if dog-headed kids are born?" " What do you mean?" " He's just kidding..." " Not at all..." " Yeah, it's dangerous for cousins" "Then, what about Su-e and Sutekichi?" "It's an old story" "Yeah, right" "If they get intimate, they're in for a big trouble" "When close relatives breed their children will be like dogs" "Body covered with dog's hair, and a human head on top of that." "All their children will look like dogs" "And they'll move like this" "Our Daisaku knows it all too well" "I think he may be interested in Su-e" "Are you saying..." "Father... would let them go on with what they are after?" "Stupid!" "The way they're living with each other... it's something that shouldn't have happened in the first place" "What is it?" "I am sorry" "Who did it?" "My dad" "Can you take it off?" "No, it only leaves enough room for me to relieve myself" "Sutekichi, stop." "I don't want to have a baby" "Don't worry about that" "I don't want a baby" "Please forgive me." "Please forgive me" "He is no use" "You mean Sutekichi?" "Already 35 and still doesn't know what a woman tastes like" "Right." "Got some problem" " Impotence..." " Impotence..." "It must be it" "Wait." "Wait for me" "Shameless woman..." "No shame..." "Shameless" "What are you doing?" "Looks like it's about the time" "What time is it?" "What time is it, you know?" "Do you want me to go have a look?" "No, it doesn't matter that much" "It's really inconvenient!" "The guy who stole all the clocks in the village" "It's because of him we don't know what time it is" "Can I help you?" "It isn't anything important" "Really?" "I've come..." "Can you crack something open?" "This is for you" "Thanks" "Take it" "It's too hard" "How is it?" "Not yet" "Darling!" "Goddamn it!" "Can you open it for me?" "I am not impotent" "Daddy!" "I hate you!" "Scrap collection" "Got any iron stuff?" "Scrap collection" "Got any iron stuff?" "Good morning" "Is she that woman?" "Yes, it's her." "The one who lives with her cousin" "All the filth has to get out of her" "It may feel really hard for her now" " Is it really all that terrible?" " Of course, it is" "All the filth is quickly gettin' out" "You shouldn't annoy the others any more" "All the filth should get out" "Get out of this body" "Where did she go?" "Grandma" "It's me, Su-e" "We're almost done!" "Su-e..." "I know very well why you've come here" "Grandma" "I wouldn't do anything stupid" "Can you take this off for me?" "It was your dad who locked you up" "With this, I can't get close with guys" "You should practice abstinence" "Come on, it's time for you to cleanse" "Tell me, please, can you help me open it?" "Su-e!" "Su-e?" "What?" "Take it with you" "There's enough food for two people" "All right, come here" "All right" "Come on, eat this" "Eat more" "Darling" "Oh, come on!" "It's so late" "Where did she go?" "Su-e?" "Su-e..." "Su-e..." "You're such a slut!" "Can you quench my hunger?" "You want it!" "Do it nicely" "Put all your soul in it" "Open up here" "You also like doing it, don't you?" "If you become desperate about that chastity belt, you should scatter yellow petals next to your pillow" "Then, you may see naked Chigusa in your dream" "That girlchild has been blessed by gods and she's got divine powers" "If you see her naked in your dream, your luck will change" "What is it?" "I am making electricity" "Look..." "Look here" "Oh, looks like it really keeps you amused" "It's very convinient." "That's what it's made for" "Is it that convenient?" "But... when are you gonna get down to it?" "Is Su-e doing all right?" "You still haven't managed to do it?" "Second round" "Come on" "You too" "Hey, you there, you sing, too!" "What's there?" "It's a song, a fast song" "Is it?" "It's getting on my nerves" "It's a special event today" "Come here, these people are my dear guest" "Come here and have fun with us" "It's nothing, don't take it seriously" "So, this is your hospitality!" "That's how you respect people!" "Don't get worked up, cool down a bit" "This guy is not interested in girls" "He is no use at all" "Wanna have a fight?" "Hey, you fucking wimp, got no balls?" "What a disgrace to this village!" "Shut up" "Stop it..." "Stop it" "Gang of idiots" "Is it all right now?" "It's said that, if you see this girl naked, you'll definitely die a wicked death" "You want to die?" "We don't want her to see us" "We should approach quietly" "Is it a celebration?" "Hmm... slut!" "Darling" "It's stolen" "Darling..." "Yonetaro has stolen the money and run away" "Darling" "So much damn noise!" "Get out of the way!" "He won" "He won seven times." "Seven times!" "A real warrior!" "He won again!" "Anyone else is ready to fight our magnificent winner?" "No one?" "I will" "Come on, make bets." "Who are you betting on?" "Who do you think is the greatest?" "Look!" "Look right now." "Which one?" "OK, let's start." "Start" "Come on!" ".." "Come on there!" ".." "Stronger!" ".." "Like this!" ".." "Right, very good, very good..." "He won" "Really good cockfighting" "Look!" "Mine is so tired!" "Not bad, Sutekichi!" "Excellent fighting skills" "But it looks like your wife went somewhere else..." "Isn't it OK to do it, just sometimes?" "No interest for women?" "Can't get up to it?" "Why the hell does she wear that useless thing?" "If it's OK, I can come and help you..." "If it's OK by you... you can do it with me." "No problem about it" "Oh, you're really insisting..." "But I think he must be impotent" "He can't do it" "Su-e!" "What happened?" "We must leave this village immediately" "What?" "I've killed Daisaku" "I simply couldn't stand how they laughed at me" "Hurry up" "Don't leave anything important here" "Hurry up" "Don't forget to take anything we may need" "Did you hear me?" "Say something!" "This dress is a bit dirty" "It's still OK to wear" "No point leaving it here" "We have to put out the fire" "You want to put it out?" "Use water!" "Leave it alone" "We should leave as soon as possible." "Where would we go?" "Darling?" "Let's go" "A village?" "Seems like it's a village" "There is nothing there." "Only forest" "Let's go faster" "Are we very far off already?" "We've been walking for three days" "Have we?" "Let's have some rest in that village" "If we're in another village, people won't know we're married relatives" "Then we won't have to be ashamed of it, darling" "It may be dangerous" "There is still some fire in the fireplace" "I feel some danger here." "I don't know what will happen" "I'll look around" "Do we want to rest here today?" "We've been walking for so long anyway" "It doesn't make a difference where we rest" "It made you tired..." "At least we've left that village" "Grandma was saying like this:" "When close relatives marry, their babies will always look like freaks" "Perhaps" "Actually..." "Su-e!" "Su-e!" "Get up!" "Su-e!" "Get up, please" "We've come back!" "Let's try to figure out later how it happened" "I think I know quite a bit about this sort of thing" "Really?" "Daisaku?" "Su-e!" "Su-e!" "Su-e!" "Daisaku's..." "What's going on?" "But it's really Daisaku" "I am sorry" "Never mind" "Impossible" "You can't stop bleeding, Daisaku?" "If I can go out at night, it's enough to keep me amused" "Darling?" "Why are you talking to yourself?" "There's Daisaku there" "You still can't see him?" "Don't mind me" "His whole life is like a single blissful day" "Who wrote it?" "A guest of the Tokitos" "Did he really come from that far?" "Those are letters from the world" " From the world?" " Yes" "To give to the dead who like letters" "If the guy who delivers mail takes these letters away now" "How long will it take to deliver them?" "In the world..." "What... what?" "If there is a day without rain in this world it will make me die" "NETHERWORLD POST" "Excuse me" "Can you please return these pants to Daisaku?" "Please" "These pants" "No, it's impossible." "It's only allowed to send letters" "Then just this, is it OK?" "Please give them back to Daisaku" "It's his pants ...covered with blood." "What should I do?" "I beg you" "Wait, please" "Really?" "Really." "It's said she is really beautiful" "Is it OK to come here?" "Nobody knows." "I think it's here" "It must be really wrong we're coming like this" "What are you talking about?" "What is it?" "This time we'll snatch her for sure" "So beautiful!" "She's here!" "Come on, keep playing!" "She's already here." "Come on!" "Don't be afraid, don't be afraid..." "You cute little girl" "We've gotta finish what we started yesterday" "Cute little girl" "Don't be afraid" "Cute little girl" "It didn't work yesterday..." "So cute!" "Sleep... sleep..." "Now you should sleep..." "Relax your whole body" "Sleep..." "like this..." "Sleep..." "Wow, she is asleep!" "Unbelievable!" "Tired?" "A really cute little girl!" "What?" "Leave me alone..." "It will be really awkward if you bump into her" "I like Su-e very much" " Here is what's told" " What?" "If you see this girl naked you'll die a wicked death" "Su-e" "What is it?" "What do you mean?" "Wait, I'll wash you" "Come here, come here, I'll wash you" "Right here, come" "A pot" "A wall" "A pot" "What is it?" "Is it not just chopsticks?" "Chopsticks" "Chopsticks" "STOVE" "PILLAR" "NET" "ME" "Get up!" "Get up!" "Time to start work" "What time is it?" "When I sit here I can see the clock" " It's 2?" " What did you say?" "It's 2" "It's the same as yesterday" "Nothing changed" "Not worried any more?" "MY HOUSE" "PILLAR" "WATER TANK" "ME" "What's your business here?" "Business?" "Hey, Sutekichi" "Do you know what this is?" "A shoe." "Give it to me." "It's a shoe." "Certainly" "You've written a label for the shoes, but you forgot what they are for" "You should wear shoes on your feet" "Not use them for cooking, you know" "That's right, I should write down how to use them" "These shoes are..." "These shoes..." "They are used for... wearing them on your feet..." "Right" "Not for cooking food" "Not used... for cooking food" "This is shoes" "That's what you wear on your feet" "They are not for cooking" "Yeah, that's right" "That's right, Daisaku" "I've even forgotten how to use shoes" "You shouldn't forget that you've died already" "What would you say to this?" "Darling?" "Did you forget who I am?" "Don't say nonsense." "Of course, I didn't forget" "Well, because you forget everything..." "How about writing it down?" "SU-E, 30 YEARS OLD" "Is this all?" "Is this all I am?" "MY WIFE" "It's grown so big" "Hey, Sutekichi" "Sooner or later, you'll forget how to read and write" "Forget how to read and write?" " Su-e?" " Shut up!" "Su-e is my wife!" "Go to Temari, if you want" "Oh, come on, cool down." "I wouldn't steal her from you" "There is nobody here" "Ever since you died," "Temari has been mourning for you" "Daisaku?" "What name would you choose for the baby?" "All right" "One... two... three... four... five... six... seven... eight..." "Nine... ten... eleven... twelve... thirteen..." "Forty one... forty two..." "forty three... forty four..." "If we add one more today, it will be 45, Daisaku" "I'll never forget you ...SU-E, MY WIFE." "SU-E, MY WIFE." "SU-E, MY WIFE." "SU-E, MY WIFE..." "Incredible" "Even if you forget all this, it's just too much" "Do you want me to join you?" "No." "All those who approach me die" "Why are you laughing?" "I am already dead" "He died already" "You've been hiding!" "CHICKEN MEAT" "Darling?" "Darling" "I let them run away again" "That won't do" "It's not chicken meat" "You're crazy!" "Crazy!" "Daisaku?" "Where are you?" "Daisaku?" "Anyone home?" "What is it?" "Where do you come from?" "Let's greet this gentleman" "She is saying she's come to bury her father's ashes" "I've never heard about such a person" "How can he be buried in our family ancestral grave?" "That's what I told them, too" "But look at this..." "What is it?" "It's his last will" "Last will?" "Yes, you're holding it." "And here are his ashes" "Ashes or not, I've never heard about him" "How can he be buried in our house?" "We must be clear about it" "Who would tell us what we should do?" "It's a difficult situation, we can't just allow it" "Anyway, you can stay here for now" "Forget about the ashes for a moment" "You must eat something first" "That day, right after midnight, the landlord gave permission to chant some blessings" "After that Tokitos' clock seemed to strike 4" "You still want to go look at that hole?" "It's said that, in the evening, he can come up" "Come up?" "I've forgotten about something Give it to me" "Sure" "Hurry up" "What do you want?" "Hurry up, under the straw mat" "My straw shoes!" "Hurry up!" "The ones I wear often" "Straw shoes" "Here... here..." "Straw shoes..." "Sutekichi..." "Sutekichi..." "Look here..." "Look!" "Not like this!" "It's here... here..." "Sutekichi, don't do this!" "No... here" "What's wrong?" "Su-e, what's wrong?" "Don't cry!" "What is it?" "I've come to sell a clock" "A clock?" "We had one at home, a long time ago" "It's really inconvenient to have just one clock for the whole village" "If there is a clock, everybody can make the sun go up and down" "Look!" "The sun is setting behind the mountains" "It's really going down!" "What are you doing, Tsubana?" "It's so late!" "I am burying my father's ashes" "I am doing as he asked me" ""Take out my ashes..." ""and mix them with the ground." ""There can be a garden there."" "This is Tokitos' family grave" "Besides Daisaku's ashes nothing else should be put in there" "Father, I'll bury you here" "You can rest in peace" "Dai..." "Dai..." "Dai..." "Are you alright?" "Are you alright?" "It's alright" "Incredible!" "The little boy has grown up, mommy!" "No, not like this" "I am sorry" " It's really hot" " Nothing special" "It can warm your whole body" "Like the feeling of sunrise" "Tell me" "Like sunrise?" "All right, I can show you what hot means" "Tonight, open the door and go to sleep" "Daddy" "My son has done something extraordinary!" "You're here!" "How miserable!" "It must be really hard to live without a man's tenderness?" "Well then, I'll do something to please you" "What is it?" "When we're done, I can put it back for you" "So much trouble with this" "It is from Daisaku" "Don't do it!" "No point resisting" "My love is Daisaku's!" "My body is Daisaku's!" "It's a clock over there!" "Impossible!" "How could it be?" "If it's really a clock, it can be one of those which disappeared earlier" "If it is, we must tell everyone right now" "Can it really be a clock?" "It really is" "No mistake about it" "It can be used to tell time" "Oh..." "Reverend" "Can I ask you?" "How many clocks do you think there must be in a village?" "I am not sure" "I am not an astronomer, you know" "But if there are two evenings in one day, it may become very annoying" "It's not necessarily bad" "For me... for me, it's very annoying" "Let's all go to the place where you saw the clock" " Everybody come with me" " I'll go too" "Wait" "Reverend, I haven't finished your haircut yet" "Hurry up, Sutekichi!" "Sutekichi!" "It's hard to make a move" "Even if it is dead, I'll still have the rest" "If it is to disappear, I won't be able to help it" "Like this?" "Right here?" "Hey!" "We've come for your clock?" "Why?" "It's really confusing to have two clocks in the village" "That's just how it is" "This clock breaks the rules" "We can't tell the real time because of it" " Let go..." "Let go..." " No!" "We need this clock for our household planning" " Let go" " Don't snatch me" "Come on over here" "Let go" "Run away now" "Hurry up" "Oh my God" "Su-e" "Daisaku" "Daisaku" "HUSBAND" "Darling?" "Did you hear me, darling?" "Did you hear me, Daisaku?" "What about the kid?" "What about marriage?" "Oh, there is also this one..." "Take it" "Say it... your last will" "Last will" "When you're dying, write down what's on your mind" "After you die, new family members are born life will always bloom in the village" "Say it!" "Last will" "Say your last will" "No way" "It is..." "It is..." "Darling" "I've taken it off" "Is it all right?" "You've brought so many clocks?" "What's the problem with it?" "Yes, put this one here on the wall" "Right" "This way, I can know the time all day long" "Thank you, gods!" "It must have been gods' will" "Since you've been through all this, gods should be taking care of you" "Grandma" "I need to make up my hair nicely" "So that I can be with Sutekichi" "Make a nice knot" "What are you doing?" "I've gathered the hair that was cut off" "It's all done now" "What should I do?" "Ah?" "Daisaku?" "What are you doing here in the middle of the night?" "Don't do this" "I am Sutekichi's wife" "He's dead already" "No" "You can't do it" "I don't want..." "Don't!" "So damn noisy!" "You must be starved for a man" "No!" "What is it?" "Look at it" "Seems like there is a voice" "Wow, how strange" "We can tell the others" "It's a phone" "A phone?" "Where did you get it from?" "From the town" "Is no one coming at all?" "Looks like everybody has been hiding" "One photo is shot, one soul is lost" "Well, please do not move in that chair" "We're almost done" "Please stand nicely for a moment" "We'll be looking at it later" "Don't slouch like this" "Get ready" "1... 2... 3" "In our village only one photograph has been taken" "Time has passed." "Now there are portable cameras those with automatic shutters" "I am not lying to you!" "Hey, listen" "In the town" "Let's go together and look" "It's said they've got just everything..." "Who told you this?" "If we leave this house the kid inside me will really love you" "He's gotta be a smart kid!" "What a shame." "Talking like this..." "It's just a lie" "What's there to see in the town?" "!" "What a beautiful music!" "Who is there?" "Do you really want to leave?" "Everyone has been in trouble for so long" "It's time to change our way of living" "Sorry for the trouble and thank you" "Darling?" "Have you forgotten what has been between us?" "Are you done?" "Yes, it's ready" "Zone 1 speaking." "Zone 1 speaking" "We're ready, please start" "Something's wrong." "The clock stopped" "Which one?" "All of them stopped" "Don't make so much fuss about it" "If it moves, it can also stop" "Really?" "Mrs. Tsubana!" "Mrs. Tsubana!" "Eh?" "Here they have also all..." "Oh, stopped... stopped... stopped... all stopped." " I am so happy!" " What?" "Go back quickly" "You just wanted to have a look at the town" " Why?" " Why should I go back?" "Aren't we husband and wife?" "It's all so strange" "Darling?" "This thing..." "Do you want me to put it on again?" "Stop the car" "This one runs really fast" "Yonetaro is back" "Impossible" "Yonetaro of the Tokito clan died two years ago" "Good day everybody" "Did Tokito family leave this village?" "What are you saying?" "Did Tokito family leave this village?" "Yes, probably" "Hmm, thank you" "There is still enough time" "He can tell time from that little thing" "Now our time will start running again" "Sound the horn" "Who on earth is that, I can't see" "It's Tsubana" "Is she new here?" "Perhaps she is dead" "Time doesn't flow here" "Really?" "Is it true?" "Did it stop half-way through?" "Do you really want to take it out?" "The circumstances are favorable" "These days, there're fewer and fewer people in the village" "Everybody has moved to the town" "Who is it?" "I am very sorry to disturb your sleep" "Why on earth are you here all of a sudden" "What?" "Are you a man or a ghost?" "If you're a man, speak!" "Is there a clock here?" "It's told that all the clocks that had been buried... have now been dug out by the people again" "Do you want to bury them?" "Why did they have to be dug out?" "You want to know?" "Hmm... you know it?" "I want to know" "I want to know it all" "Don't push me away" "Oh, you're Tokito?" "Tokito?" "I am really not in the mood" "Doesn't matter" " Not in the mood" " Doesn't matter" "The clock, the clock is moving" "I've gotta go do some work" "It doesn't matter, you don't have to" "It's there!" "It's getting out..." "getting out..." "Something happened..." "Something incredible happened..." "It's my father's bones, my bones" "Something happened..." "Something happened..." "Yonetaro found it!" "Something happened..." "Totally... totally incredible" "Totally..." "Did they all leave for the town?" "I..." "I want to go, too..." "I'll go, too" "Darling" "Am I beautiful?" "I think this dress is really beautiful" "Darling" "Can't you see me?" "They all want to leave" "It's really miserable to stay here" "Tell me how to do best" "People are born half-dead" "It takes them a whole life to die completely" "Right?" "Oh, yellow petals..." "Darling!" "Can you hear me?" "Where are they coming from?" "Can you write every name once again?" "Can you?" "The hands of the clock keep turning" "These days, it's really different from how it used to be in the past" "Seems like I am going to be with you again" "Come and hug me" "Idiots!" "Leaving for the town!" ".." "It doesn't exist, this town!" "It's all a lie!" "You close your eyes and don't see anything!" "There is nothing there!" "You will only understand it in a hundred years" "Come back in a hundred years" "In a hundred years" "So this is the only photograph that turned out well..." "Have you seen this kind of photographs before?" "Yes... two people photographed together" "This person isn't my dad, is he?" "No, he can't be" "The place where this photo was taken doesn't exist anymore" "But how can it be?" "They were mailed out so long ago, but the replies didn't get here until now" "Also, all tied up in one pack" "Written by a person called..." "All right, let's have a look!" "Wow, terrible handwriting" "What is it?" "Did I write it?" "Dear Temari, how have you been?" "I've been doing great after my death." "No need to worry" "There are many great women here" "There isn't anything that would bother me" "How boring!" "Have you forgotten Daisaku Tokito?" "I am still wearing the pants you've thrown down for me" "To Tsubana from her deceased father:" "Family records are of very little use here" "So things have been very easy for me after I died" "You shouldn't be worried about death either" "Boyservant Ada to forest fairy Chigusa:" "After coming over here, I've been often playing the pipe tune you like" "I hope you'll hear it, and will be kind enough to die a little sooner" "Also there is this one..." "To Su-e from Sutekichi:" "I didn't say good bye." "I'm sorry." "I've been looking for your father since I came here" "I wanted to ask him how to open your chastity belt" "But I haven't found him yet" "Yesterday, we pounded a lot of rice" "So I am a bit tired" "I will write you again later" "Come, let's take a picture" "Come all together, let's take a picture" "Hey, it looks like they're taking pictures" "Everybody please go to the rear hill to take pictures" "The photographer is over there" "It can be left as a memory" "Come to make pictures" "Come to make pictures" "Come to make pictures" "Come to make pictures" "Don't run, don't let him run!" "Where are you going?" "Where did they go?" "That thief ran away!" "So old!" "Can it make pictures?" "The image is upside-down" "Has everybody come yet?" "What we're gonna show you..." "Come to make pictures" "Go to the rear hill to make pictures" "Everybody come together to make pictures" "The photographer is here" "Photographer?" "Come here, turn around, move..." "Come to make pictures..." "The photographer is at the rear hill" "Good you've come!" "Long time no see" "How cute!" "Oh, how cute!" "Come... come here" "Attention everyone" "Mommy, please come here" "Please come to the front" "Get ready, everyone!" "THE END"
Liporetro-D-peptides - a novel class of highly selective thrombin inhibitors. Plasma serine protease thrombin plays a key role in coagulation, haemostasis and thromboembolic diseases. Direct thrombin inhibitors could be beneficial for future anticoagulant therapy. We have synthesized and studied liporetro-D-peptides - efficient thrombin inhibitors resistant to enzymatic degradation. Compounds X-D-Arg-D-Phe-OMe, where X=residue of lauric or myristic acid or 9-fluorenylmethoxycarbonyl, have been synthesized by conventional peptide synthesis in solution and their comparative inhibitory analysis in relation to thrombin, factor X, plasmin and trypsin has been conducted. Modification of the synthetic liporetro-D-peptides with the myristic acid residue was the most successful one. This modification has dramatically increased the inhibition efficacy (Ki=0,17 μM) and selectivity toward the chosen target enzyme, thrombin, in comparison to factor X, plasmin and trypsin (more than 600, 900, and 5000-fold, respectively). Our findings establish an important role of the fatty moiety in the structure of peptide inhibitors with regards to their potency and selectivity toward thrombin.
Activation of recombinant trp by thapsigargin in Sf9 insect cells. The mammalian protein responsible for Ca2+ release-activated current (Icrac) may be homologous to the Drosophila protein designated trp. Thus the activity of trp, and another Drosophila protein designated trp-like or trpl, may be linked to depletion of the internal Ca2+ store via the so-called capacitative Ca2+ entry mechanism. To test this hypothesis, the effect of thapsigargin, a selective inhibitor of the endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ pump, on trp- and trpl-induced whole cell membrane current was determined using the baculovirus Sf9 insect cell expression system. The results demonstrate that trp and trpl form Ca(2+)-permeable cation channels. The trpl encodes a nonselective cation channel that is constitutively active under basal nonstimulated conditions and is unaffected by thapsigargin, whereas trp is more selective for Ca2+ than Na+ and is activated by depletion of the internal Ca2+ store. Although evaluation of cation selectivity suggests that trp is not identical to the channel responsible for Icrac, these channels must share some structural feature(s) since both are activated by thapsigargin. A unique proline-rich region in the COOH-terminal tail of trp, which is absent in trpl, may be necessary for capacitative Ca2+ entry.
Apparatuses of this kind are manufactured for the preparation of specimens, in particular for the production of microtome sections. For this, tissue specimens to be examined are, for example, embedded in synthetic resin and these specimens are processed by means of milling cutters into the shape of truncated pyramids. These trimmed specimens are then sectioned in a microtome, thereby yielding tissue sections having a thickness in the micrometer or nanometer range that can then be examined. The assignee of the present application has developed a unit that is suitable for such tasks and is already on the market. This unit additionally comprises an observation device with which the specimen can also be observed during processing. These units are not suitable, however, for specimens made of harder material. For example, semiconductor materials such as silicon, gallium arsenide, and the like cannot be milled; other tools, in particular saws, are necessary for them. An automatic sawing apparatus is disclosed, for example, in U.S. Pat. No. 5,456,147, the specimen to be processed being mounted on a movable arm and being brought via a positive guidance system into contact with the saw wheel, which rotates about its axis but is otherwise mounted rigidly in the housing of the apparatus. A disadvantage of such systems is that the specimen is moved during processing, and observation of the specimen during processing is therefore not possible. The positive guidance system can moreover, for example, impose too great an advance which causes undesirable tensile forces; this can negatively affect the quality of the cut and, in the worst case, result in destruction of the specimen. Complex monitoring devices that measure the pressure loads on the saw and specimen arm are therefore necessary in order to protect the specimen and/or the saw wheel.
Pulmonary nocardiosis associated with cerebral abscess successfully treated by co-trimoxazole: a case report. Nocardiosis is an acute or chronic infectious disease caused by the soil-borne filamentous bacteria belonging to the genus Nocardia. The organisms opportunistically infect both immunocompromised and immunocompetent individuals. The lungs are the primary site of infection and brain abscess is, by far, the most common complication following nocardial metastasis from pulmonary lesions. Although surgical intervention must always be considered in the treatment of nocardial brain abscess, it can obviously be cured by antibiotic therapy alone. This report describes a case infected by Nocardia cyriacigeorgica. Identification of the infectious agent was achieved by conventional and semi-nested PCR techniques. A 55-year-old woman with fever was referred to the infect disclinic of Imam Khomeini hospital in Tehran and was hospitalized after clinical assessment. She was a kidney transplant recipient for 4 years and was taking immunosuppressive treatment including azathioprine and methylprednisolone. Follow-up of the patient by CT scan revealed pulmonary infection and cerebral lesions. Specimens of the brain lesions contained filamentous bacteria. The patient received a combination of co-trimoxazole and ceftriaxone and brain abscesses as well as lung inflammation disappeared gradually during the course of antibiotic therapy within 3 months. The patient was discharged from the hospital after 2 months of therapy.
U.S. Pat. No. 4,834,731 (Nowak et al.) discloses an ostomy appliance having a relatively rigid convex pressure ring for causing stomal protrusion for patients with flush or recessed stomas, thereby aiding in the discharge of effluent directly into a collection pouch and helping to prolong the effectiveness of the adhesive seal between a faceplate and peristomal skin surfaces. It has also been known to provide such a faceplate with a rigid convex pressure ring having an inside diameter substantially larger than a patient""s stoma and with an adhesive skin barrier pad or wafer that covers the convex surface and extends inwardly over the opening of the pressure ring, with the adhesive pad having a small starter opening so that, with the use of scissors, a patient or caregiver may easy enlarge and shape the opening in the pad to match the outline of the patient""s stoma. Such a faceplate is commonly referred to as a xe2x80x9ccut-to-fitxe2x80x9d faceplate, meaning that the opening in the adhesive area layer may be sized and shaped at the time of application to meet a patient""s needs. A downside is that such a faceplate construction requires the rigid convex pressure ring to have an opening substantially larger then a patient""s stoma in order to allow enlargement and shaping of the starter opening in the adhesive pad, thereby reducing the effectiveness of the convex ring in producing stomal protrusion. Rigid convex pressure rings in the form of adapters for the purpose of converting planar faceplates into convexly-curved faceplates are also known. Reference may be had to U.S. Pat. No. 5,429,625 (Holmberg), U.S. Pat. No. 4,219,023 (Galindo), U.S. Pat. No. 5,163,930 (Blum), U.S. Pat. No. 5,004,464 (Leise), and U.S. Pat. No. 6,210,384 (B1) (Cline). International Publication WO 93/04646 (Olsen) also discloses such an adapter. This invention is concerned with a convex faceplate, particularly one of the cut-to-fit type, and a snap-in insert for such a faceplate. The insert supports and thereby braces the portion of the adhesive barrier pad that extends over or across the opening of the convex pressure ring. If desired, the insert may itself provide a convexly-curved support wall for substantially increasing the convexity of the faceplate to which the insert is attached. The support wall of the insert is provided with an opening which may be pre-sized and shaped during manufacture to approximate any of various sizes and shapes of patient""s stomas. Such a pre-formed opening may, by way of example, be circular or oval in shape, it being recognized that a substantial portion of patients have stomas generally oval-shaped in outline. Alternatively, the opening in the support wall of the insert may constitute a starter opening that may then be enlarged and shaped with scissors by a user or caregiver to match the outline of a patient""s stoma. In either case, the insert, after being snapped into place within the opening of a faceplate""s convex pressure ring, may be rotated within that opening to ensure proper orientation of the insert in relation to that patient""s stoma. Briefly, the insert is formed from a stiff but nevertheless flexible and shaped-recoverable polymeric material and has a cylindrical rim and an apertured bodyside support wall. The rim has a pair of axially-spaced outwardly-projecting annular retention ribs sized and positioned to engage the bodyside and pouchside surfaces of the rigid pressure ring of a convex faceplate. The ribs therefore lock the insert against axial movement relative to the convex pressure ring while at the same time allowing relative rotation of the parts. The support wall of the insert is apertured with the aperture serving either as a starter opening, which may then be enlarged and shaped with scissors, or as a pre-formed opening that is cut during manufacture to approximate any of a number of stoma sizes and shapes. In one embodiment of the invention, the thin, flexible support wall is convexly curved to supplement or increase the convexity already provided by the rigid pressure ring of the faceplate, whereas in another embodiment the support wall of the insert is generally planar. Other features, advantages, and objects of the invention will become apparent from the specification and drawings.
Cost of discarded medication in Indiana long-term care facilities. The cost of discarded medication was studied in 17 Indiana intermediate-care and skilled-nursing facilities with varying bed capacities and drug-distribution systems. During visits to each facility, one or two pharmacists collected data on patients' drug regimens and the quantities of medication dispensed and discarded over periods of one to seven months. A total of $ 5,620 worth of medication ($ 4,472 excluding topical medications) was destroyed in the facilities during the study period. The projected annual cost of discarded medication was approximately $ 15,800 ($ 12,460 excluding topical medications). In the 13 facilities using some type of unit dose drug distribution system, the mean projected annual cost of discarded medication per patient ($ 4.07) was significantly less than for the four facilities using traditional drug-distribution systems ($ 23.54). There was an inverse relationship between bed capacity and mean projected annual cost of discarded medication per patient. The use of unit dose drug distribution systems in all long-term care facilities would be expected to result in substantial savings in the costs of discarded medications.
Entropy and kinetics of point defects in two-dimensional dipolar crystals. We study in experiment and with computer simulation the free energy and the kinetics of vacancy and interstitial defects in two-dimensional dipolar crystals. The defects appear in different local topologies, which we characterize by their point group symmetry; Cn is the n-fold cyclic group and Dn is the dihedral group, including reflections. The frequency of different local topologies is not determined by their almost degenerate energies but is dominated by entropy for symmetric configurations. The kinetics of the defects is fully reproduced by a master equation in a multistate Markov model. In this model, the system is described by the state of the defect and the time evolution is given by transitions occurring with particular rates. These transition rate constants are extracted from experiments and simulations using an optimization procedure. The good agreement between experiment, simulation, and master equation thus provides evidence for the accuracy of the model.