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Aristotle. as William Harvey in England and Galileo Galilei in Italy reacted against the theories of Aristotle and other classical era thinkers like Galen, establishing new theories based to some degree on observation and experiment. Harvey demonstrated the circulation of the blood, establishing that the heart functioned as a pump rather than being the seat of the soul and the controller of the body's heat, as Aristotle thought. Galileo used more doubtful arguments to displace Aristotle's physics, proposing that bodies all fall at the same speed whatever their weight. Section:Influence.:On 19th-century thinkers. The 19th-century German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche has been said | 308 | 700 |
Aristotle. to have taken nearly all of his political philosophy from Aristotle. Aristotle rigidly separated action from production, and argued for the deserved subservience of some people ("natural slaves"), and the natural superiority (virtue, "arete") of others. It was Martin Heidegger, not Nietzsche, who elaborated a new interpretation of Aristotle, intended to warrant his deconstruction of scholastic and philosophical tradition. The English mathematician George Boole fully accepted Aristotle's logic, but decided "to go under, over, and beyond" it with his system of algebraic logic in his 1854 book "The Laws of Thought". This gives logic a mathematical foundation with equations, enables | 308 | 701 |
Aristotle. it to solve equations as well as check validity, and allows it to handle a wider class of problems by expanding propositions of any number of terms, not just two. Section:Influence.:Modern rejection and rehabilitation. During the 20th century, Aristotle's work was widely criticised. The philosopher Bertrand Russell argued that "almost every serious intellectual advance has had to begin with an attack on some Aristotelian doctrine". Russell called Aristotle's ethics "repulsive", and labelled his logic "as definitely antiquated as Ptolemaic astronomy". Russell stated that these errors made it difficult to do historical justice to Aristotle, until one remembered what an advance | 308 | 702 |
Aristotle. he made upon all of his predecessors. The Dutch historian of science Eduard Jan Dijksterhuis wrote that Aristotle and his predecessors showed the difficulty of science by "proceed[ing] so readily to frame a theory of such a general character" on limited evidence from their senses. In 1985, the biologist Peter Medawar could still state in "pure seventeenth century" tones that Aristotle had assembled "a strange and generally speaking rather tiresome farrago of hearsay, imperfect observation, wishful thinking and credulity amounting to downright gullibility". By the start of the 21st century, however, Aristotle was taken more seriously: Kukkonen noted that "In | 308 | 703 |
Aristotle. the best 20th-century scholarship Aristotle comes alive as a thinker wrestling with the full weight of the Greek philosophical tradition." Ayn Rand accredited Aristotle as "the greatest philosopher in history" and cited him as a major influence on her thinking. More recently, Alasdair MacIntyre has attempted to reform what he calls the Aristotelian tradition in a way that is anti-elitist and capable of disputing the claims of both liberals and Nietzscheans. Kukkonen observed, too, that "that most enduring of romantic images, Aristotle tutoring the future conqueror Alexander" remained current, as in the 2004 film "Alexander", while the "firm rules" of | 308 | 704 |
Aristotle. Aristotle's theory of drama have ensured a role for the "Poetics" in Hollywood. Biologists continue to be interested in Aristotle's thinking. Armand Marie Leroi has reconstructed Aristotle's biology, while Niko Tinbergen's four questions, based on Aristotle's four causes, are used to analyse animal behaviour; they examine function, phylogeny, mechanism, and ontogeny. Section:Surviving works. Section:Surviving works.:Corpus Aristotelicum. The works of Aristotle that have survived from antiquity through medieval manuscript transmission are collected in the Corpus Aristotelicum. These texts, as opposed to Aristotle's lost works, are technical philosophical treatises from within Aristotle's school. Reference to them is made according to the organisation | 308 | 705 |
Aristotle. of Immanuel Bekker's Royal Prussian Academy edition ("Aristotelis Opera edidit Academia Regia Borussica", Berlin, 1831–1870), which in turn is based on ancient classifications of these works. Section:Surviving works.:Loss and preservation. Aristotle wrote his works on papyrus scrolls, the common writing medium of that era. His writings are divisible into two groups: the "exoteric", intended for the public, and the "esoteric", for use within the Lyceum school. Aristotle's "lost" works stray considerably in characterisation from the surviving Aristotelian corpus. Whereas the lost works appear to have been originally written with a view to subsequent publication, the surviving works mostly resemble lecture | 308 | 706 |
Aristotle. notes not intended for publication. Cicero's description of Aristotle's literary style as "a river of gold" must have applied to the published works, not the surviving notes. A major question in the history of Aristotle's works is how the exoteric writings were all lost, and how the ones we now possess came to us. The consensus is that Andronicus of Rhodes collected the esoteric works of Aristotle's school which existed in the form of smaller, separate works, distinguished them from those of Theophrastus and other Peripatetics, edited them, and finally compiled them into the more cohesive, larger works as they | 308 | 707 |
Aristotle. are known today. Section:Legacy. Section:Legacy.:Depictions. Aristotle has been depicted by major artists including Lucas Cranach the Elder, Justus van Gent, Raphael, Paolo Veronese, Jusepe de Ribera, Rembrandt, and Francesco Hayez over the centuries. Among the best-known is Raphael's fresco "The School of Athens", in the Vatican's Apostolic Palace, where the figures of Plato and Aristotle are central to the image, at the architectural vanishing point, reflecting their importance. Rembrandt's "Aristotle with a Bust of Homer", too, is a celebrated work, showing the knowing philosopher and the blind Homer from an earlier age: as the art critic Jonathan Jones writes, "this | 308 | 708 |
Aristotle. painting will remain one of the greatest and most mysterious in the world, ensnaring us in its musty, glowing, pitch-black, terrible knowledge of time." Section:Legacy.:Eponyms. The Aristotle Mountains in Antarctica are named after Aristotle. He was the first person known to conjecture, in his book "Meteorology", the existence of a landmass in the southern high-latitude region and called it "Antarctica". Aristoteles is a crater on the Moon bearing the classical form of Aristotle's name. Section:See also. Section:Further reading. The secondary literature on Aristotle is vast. The following is only a small selection. Section:External links. | 308 | 709 |
Battle of Malakoff. Battle of Malakoff The Battle of Malakoff was a French attack against Russian forces on the Malakoff redoubt and its subsequent capture on 8 September 1855 as a part of the Siege of Sevastopol during the Crimean War. The French army under General MacMahon successfully stormed the Malakoff redoubt, while a simultaneous British attack on the Redan to the south of the Malakoff was repulsed. In one of the war's defining moments, the French "zouave" Eugène Libaut raised the French flag on the top of the Russian redoubt. The Battle of Malakoff resulted in the fall of Sevastopol on 9 | 157665 | 710 |
Battle of Malakoff. September, bringing the 11-month siege to an end. Section:Background. Until 1784 most of the fortifications around Sevastopol were dedicated to the protection of the harbour entrance, the city itself and its naval base and were positioned close to these features. The construction of fortifications in the surrounding hills had been planned as early as 1837, but at the time of the battle only basic facilities and roadways had been completed on the north side of the long, westward-facing bay. To the south the central anchor of the defence system was the Malakoff-Kurgan ridge. Situated about southeast of the city, it | 157665 | 711 |
Battle of Malakoff. consisted of a two-story stone tower of limestone on which the Russians had placed five heavy 18-pounder cannons at the beginning of the siege. There is some mystery surrounding this tower. Although it is known that the tower was built some time before the start of the war, the historical records do not show exactly when this occurred, and no mention of this is made in the contemporary descriptions of the siege itself. Additionally, there are different spellings and translations into or from Russian, including Малахова башня. What is known is that the tower was originally built or expanded by | 157665 | 712 |
Battle of Malakoff. Sevastopol merchants and then later taken over by the Russian Navy. The tower had a diameter of about and a height of . In its centre the battery known as "Lunette Kamchatka" was placed. This was a smaller fortification that was designed to protect several artillery pieces. At this time the Russian cartographers marked all landmarks in and around this ridge as "Fort Malakoff". This included several large grave mounds and the same ridge lying in front known as Mamelon ("vert Mamelon"). The name "Fortmortal Malakoff" (or French "Fort Malakoff", Russian "Mal'akhoff") was retained after the war in Western literature | 157665 | 713 |
Battle of Malakoff. covering the Crimean War. The harbour of Sevastopol, formed by the estuary of the Chernaya, was protected against attack by sea not only by the Russian war-vessels, afloat and sunken, but also by heavy granite forts on the south side and by the defensive works. For the town itself and the Karabelnaya suburb the plans for the works had been laid down for years. The Malakoff Tower covered the suburb, flanked on either side by the Redan and the Little Redan. The town was covered by a line of works marked by a flagstaff and central bastions, and separated from | 157665 | 714 |
Battle of Malakoff. the Redan by the inner harbour. Lieutenant Colonel Eduard Totleben, the Russian chief engineer, had begun work on these sites early in the war. Through daily efforts to rebuild, re-arm and improve the fortifications, he was able to finally connect them with a continuous defence system enceinte. Yet early in October 1854, Sevastopol was not the towering fortress it later became, and Totleben himself maintained that had the allies assaulted it immediately, they would have succeeded in taking the city. There were, however, many reasons against them doing so at the time, and it was not until 17 October that | 157665 | 715 |
Battle of Malakoff. the first attack took place. Section:Battle. Throughout 17 October, a tremendous artillery duel raged. The Russian artillery was initially successful, the French corps fell under siege and suffered heavy losses. The advancing fleet engaging the harbour batteries also suffered a loss of 500 men and several ships were heavily damaged. Still, British siege batteries managed to silence the Malakoff and its annexes, after having succeeded in hitting a munitions depot and, if failure had not occurred at the other points of attack, an assault might have succeeded. As it was, by daybreak, Totleben's engineers had repaired and improved the damaged | 157665 | 716 |
Battle of Malakoff. works. For months the siege of Sevastopol continued. During July the Russians lost on an average of 250 men a day, and finally the Russians decided to break the stalemate and gradual attrition of their army. Gorchakov and the field army were to make another attack at the Chernaya, the first since the Inkerman. On 16 August, both Pavel Liprandi and Read's corps furiously attacked the 37,000 French and Sardinian troops on the heights above Traktir Bridge. The assailants came on with the greatest determination, but they were ultimately unsuccessful. At the end of the day, the Russians drew off | 157665 | 717 |
Battle of Malakoff. leaving 260 officers and 8,000 men dead or dying on the field; the French and British only lost 1,700. With this defeat the last chance of saving Sevastopol vanished. The same day, a determined bombardment once more reduced the Malakoff and its dependencies to impotence, and it was with absolute confidence in the result that Marshal Pélissier planned the final assault. At noon on 8 September 1855, the whole of Bosquet's corps suddenly attacked all along the right sector. The fighting was of the most desperate kind: the French attack on the Malakoff was successful, but the other two French | 157665 | 718 |
Battle of Malakoff. attacks were repelled. The British attack on the Redan was initially successful, but a Russian counterattack drove the British out of the bastion after two hours after the French attacks on the Flagstaff Bastion (left of the Great Redan) were repelled. With the failure of the French attacks in the left sector but with the fall of the Malakoff in French hands further attacks were cancelled. The Russian positions around the city were no longer tenable. Throughout the day the bombardment mowed down the massed Russian soldiers along the whole line. The fall of the Malakoff was the end of | 157665 | 719 |
Battle of Malakoff. the siege of the city. That night the Russians fled over the bridges to the north side, and on 9 September the victors took possession of the empty and burning city. The losses in the last assault had been very heavy: for the Allies over 10,000 men, for the Russians 13,000. At least nineteen generals had fallen on the final day and with the capture of Sevastopol the war was decided. No serious operations were undertaken against Gorchakov who, with the field army and the remnants of the garrison, held the heights at Mackenzie's Farm. But Kinburn was attacked by | 157665 | 720 |
Battle of Malakoff. sea and, from the naval point of view, became the first instance of the employment of Ironclad warships. An armistice was agreed upon on 26 February and the Treaty of Paris was signed on 30 March 1856. Section:Order of Battle, 8th September 1855. Right to left French right sector (French 2nd Corps under GdD Bosquet) British sector (see Battle of the Great Redan) French left sector (French 1st Corps under GdD La Salles) Section:Aftermath. At first sight Russia would seem to be almost invulnerable to a sea power, and no first success, however crushing, could have humbled Nicholas I. Indeed, | 157665 | 721 |
Battle of Malakoff. the mere capture of Sevastopol would not have been strategically decisive. However, as the Tsar had decided to defend it at all costs and with unlimited resources, it became an unpleasant defeat, especially as the Allies had reached victory with limited resources. During the nearly one-year siege of Sevastopol in the Crimean War, the fortifications on the Malakhov were hotly contested as they overlooked the whole city and the inner harbour. After the success of the French troops under the command of Marshal Pelissier, later the Duke of Malakoff (French: Duc de Malakoff), and General Patrice de Mac-Mahon, the Russian | 157665 | 722 |
Battle of Malakoff. defenders evacuated the entire city on 8 September 1855, bringing a climax to the war. As the fortress enabled the control of the Black Sea port of Sevastopol, the Russian forces destroyed all of their equipment and withdrew, leaving Russia with no more military fortifications on the Black Sea. The long-awaited Russian domination of the inland sea to obtain free passage through the Bosporus to the Mediterranean (and beyond) was now not possible. In terms of logistics, the British and French had a significant advantage over the Russians as they were able to receive supplies from the sea, while the | 157665 | 723 |
Battle of Malakoff. Russians had to bring supplies over the underdeveloped and dangerous desert tracks of southern Russia. The Russians lost many men and horses in bringing supplies to Sevastopol. The hasty nature, too, of the fortifications, which were damaged every day during the siege by the fire of a thousand guns, and had to be rebuilt every night, required large, unprotected working parties and the losses amongst these were correspondingly heavy. These losses exhausted Russia's resources and when they were forced to employ large bodies of militia in the Battle of Traktir Bridge, it was obvious that the end was at hand. | 157665 | 724 |
Battle of Malakoff. The short stories of Leo Tolstoy, who was present at the siege, give a graphic picture of the war from the Russian point of view, portraying the miseries of the desert march, the still greater miseries of life in the casemates, and the almost daily ordeal of manning the lines, under shell-fire, against an assault which might or might not come. Among the seven surviving defenders of a stone tower on the Malakov Kurgan, which were found by French troops among the dead, was the seriously wounded Vasily Kolchak, the father of Aleksandr Vasiliyevich Kolchak. Kolchak would later become the | 157665 | 725 |
Battle of Malakoff. head of all the counter-revolutionary anti-communist White forces during the Russian Civil War. As a result of press coverage of the siege of the tower, Malakhov Kurgan became a household name in Europe and many large and expensive towers in Western Europe were named after it. Among these were a number of stone mining towers in the Ruhrgebiet, the so-called caponier Fort Malakoff in Mainz, and the yellow sandstone Malakoff Tower in the city of Luxembourg. In addition, the Malakoff cake was named after the Duke of Malakoff, as was a cheese dish in parts of Switzerland. In France, the | 157665 | 726 |
Battle of Malakoff. battle was officially commemorated in a rare way: apart from the Battle of Magenta (in the Italian Campaign), it was the only one of Emperor Napoleon III's exploits to result in the awarding of a victory title (both of ducal rank); this distinction was bestowed upon Marshal Pélissier. A suburb of Paris was also named after this battle, as well as the Avenue de Malakoff. Malakhov Kurgan, where it was fought, now contains the Eternal Fire, commemorating the Siege of Sevastopol during World War II. A branch of Franz Roubaud's great panorama representing the battle of 1855 is also located | 157665 | 727 |
Battle of Malakoff. there. | 157665 | 728 |
Physiological plant disorder. Physiological plant disorder Physiological plant disorders are caused by non-pathological conditions such as poor light, adverse weather, water-logging, phytotoxic compounds or a lack of nutrients, and affect the functioning of the plant system. Physiological disorders are distinguished from plant diseases caused by pathogens, such as a virus or fungus. While the symptoms of physiological disorders may appear disease-like, they can usually be prevented by altering environmental conditions. However, once a plant shows symptoms of a physiological disorder it is likely that, that season’s growth or yield will be reduced. Section:Diagnosis of disorders. Diagnosis of the cause of a physiological disorder | 157664 | 729 |
Physiological plant disorder. (or disease) can be difficult, but there are many web-based guides that may assist with this. Examples are: "Abiotic plant disorders: Symptoms, signs and solutions"; "Georgia Corn Diagnostic Guide"; "Diagnosing Plant Problems" (Kentucky); and "Diagnosing Plant Problems" (Virginia). Some general tips to diagnosing plant disorders: Section:Weather damage. Frost and cold are major causes of crop damage to tender plants, although hardy plants can also suffer if new growth is exposed to a hard frost following a period of warm weather. Symptoms will often appear overnight, affecting many types of plants. Leaves and stems may turn black, and buds and flowers | 157664 | 730 |
Physiological plant disorder. may be discoloured, and frosted blooms may not produce fruit. Many annual plants, or plants grown in frost free areas, can suffer from damage when the air temperature drops below 40 degrees Fahrenheit (4 degrees Celsius). Tropical plants may begin to experience cold damage when the temperature is 42 to 48 °F (5 to 9 °C), symptoms include wilting of the top of the stems and/or leaves, and blackening or softening of the plant tissue. Frost or cold damage can be avoided by ensuring that tender plants are properly hardened before planting, and that they are not planted too early | 157664 | 731 |
Physiological plant disorder. in the season, before the risk of frost has passed. Avoid planting susceptible plants in frost pockets, or where they will receive early morning sun. Protect young buds and bloom with horticultural fleece if frost is forecast. Cold, drying easterly winds can also severely inhibit spring growth even without an actual frost, thus adequate shelter or the use of windbreaks is important. Drought can cause plants to suffer from water stress and wilt. Adequate irrigation is required during prolonged hot, dry periods. Rather than shallow daily watering, during a drought water should be directed towards the roots, ensuring that the | 157664 | 732 |
Physiological plant disorder. soil is thoroughly soaked two or three times a week. Mulches also help preserve soil moisture and keep roots cool. Heavy rains, particularly after prolonged dry periods, can also cause roots to split, onion saddleback (splitting at the base), tomatoes split and potatoes to become deformed or hollow. Using mulches or adding organic matter such as leaf mold, compost or well rotted manure to the soil will help to act as a 'buffer' between sudden changes in conditions. Water-logging can occur on poorly drained soils, particularly following heavy rains. Plants can become yellow and stunted, and will tend to be | 157664 | 733 |
Physiological plant disorder. more prone to drought and diseases. Improving drainage will help to alleviate this problem. Hail can cause damage to soft skinned fruits, and may also allow brown rot or other fungi to penetrate the plant. Brown spot markings or lines on one side of a mature apple are indicative of a spring hailstorm. Plants affected by salt stress are able to take water from soil, due to an osmotic imbalance between soil and plant. Section:Nutrient deficiencies. Poor growth and a variety of disorders such as leaf discolouration (chlorosis) can be caused by a shortage of one or more plant nutrients. | 157664 | 734 |
Physiological plant disorder. Poor plant uptake of a nutrient from the soil (or other growing medium) may be due to an absolute shortage of that element in the growing medium, or because that element is present in a form that is not available to the plant. The latter can be caused by incorrect pH, shortage of water, poor root growth or an excess of another nutrient. Plant nutrient deficiencies can be avoided or corrected using a variety of approaches including the consultation of experts on-site, the use of soil and plant-tissue testing services, the application of prescription-blend fertilizers, the application of fresh or | 157664 | 735 |
Physiological plant disorder. well-decomposed organic matter, and the use of biological systems such as cover crops, intercropping, improved fallows, ley cropping, permaculture, or crop rotation. Nutrient (or mineral) deficiencies include: | 157664 | 736 |
Prunella Scales. Prunella Scales Prunella Margaret Scales ("née" Illingworth; born 22 June 1932) is an English actress best known for her role as Basil Fawlty's wife Sybil in the BBC comedy "Fawlty Towers" and her BAFTA award-nominated role as Queen Elizabeth II in "A Question of Attribution" ("Screen One", BBC 1991) by Alan Bennett. Section:Early life. Scales was born in Sutton Abinger, Surrey, the daughter of Catherine ("née" Scales), an actress, and John Richardson Illingworth, a cotton salesman. She attended Moira House Girls School, Eastbourne. She had a younger brother, Timothy ("Timmo") Illingworth (1934–2017). Scales' parents moved their family to Bucks Mill | 157655 | 737 |
Prunella Scales. near Bideford in Devon in 1939 at the start of the Second World War. Scales herself (and her brother) were evacuated to Near Sawrey (then in Lancashire, now in Cumbria). Section:Career. Scales started her career in 1951 as an assistant stage manager at the Bristol Old Vic. Throughout her career she has often been cast in comic roles. Her early work included the second UK adaptation of "Pride and Prejudice" (1952), "Hobson's Choice" (1954), "Room at the Top" (1959) and "Waltz of the Toreadors" (1962). Her career break came with the early 1960s sitcom "Marriage Lines" starring opposite Richard Briers. | 157655 | 738 |
Prunella Scales. In addition to "Fawlty Towers", she has had roles in BBC Radio 4 sitcoms, and comedy series including "After Henry", "Smelling of Roses" and "Ladies of Letters"; on television she starred in the London Weekend Television/Channel 4 series "Mapp & Lucia" based on the novels by E. F. Benson. She played Queen Elizabeth II in Alan Bennett's "A Question of Attribution". In 1973, Scales was cast with Ronnie Barker in "One Man's Meat" which formed part of Barker's "Seven of One" series, also for the BBC. Her later film appearances include "Escape from the Dark" (1976), "The Hound of the | 157655 | 739 |
Prunella Scales. Baskervilles" (1978), "The Boys From Brazil" (1978), "The Wicked Lady" (1983), "The Lonely Passion of Judith Hearne" (1987), "Stiff Upper Lips" (1997), "Howards End" (1992) and "Wolf" (1994). For the BBC Television Shakespeare production of "The Merry Wives of Windsor" (1982) she played Mistress Page and the "Theatre Night" series (BBC) she appeared with her husband Timothy West in the Joe Orton farce "What the Butler Saw" (1987) playing Mrs Prentice. For ten years, Prunella appeared with Jane Horrocks in advertisements for UK supermarket chain Tesco. In 1996, Scales starred in the television film, "Lord of Misrule", alongside Richard Wilson, | 157655 | 740 |
Prunella Scales. Emily Mortimer and Stephen Moyer. The film was directed by Guy Jenkins and filming took place in Fowey in Cornwall. Also in 1996, she appeared as Miss Bates in Jane Austen’s Emma. In 1997, Scales starred in Chris Barfoot's science-fiction film short "Phoenix" which was first aired in 1999 by NBC Universal's Sci Fi Channel. Scales played 'The Client', an evil government minister funding inter-genetic time travel experiments. The same year she played Dr. Minny Stinkler in the comedy film "Mad Cows", directed by Sara Sugarman. In 1993 Scales voiced Mrs Tiggy-Winkle in The World of Peter Rabbit and Friends. | 157655 | 741 |
Prunella Scales. In 2000 she appeared in the film "The Ghost of Greville Lodge" as Sarah. The same year she appeared as Eleanor Dunsall in Midsomer Murders Beyond the Grave. In 2001 she appeared in 2 episodes of Silent Witness, “Faith” as Mrs Parker. In 2003, she appeared as Hilda, "she who must be obeyed", wife of Horace Rumpole in four BBC Radio 4 plays, with Timothy West playing her fictional husband. Scales and West toured Australia at the same time in different productions. Scales appeared in a one-woman show called ""An Evening with Queen Victoria"", which also featured the tenor Ian | 157655 | 742 |
Prunella Scales. Partridge singing songs written by Prince Albert. Also in 2003, she voiced the speaking ("cawing") role of Magpie, the eponymous thief in a recording of Gioachino Rossini's opera "La gazza ladra" (The Thieving Magpie). In 2006, she appeared alongside Academy Award winners Vanessa Redgrave and Maximilian Schell in the mini-series "The Shell Seekers". On 16 November 2007, Scales appeared in "Children in Need", reprising her role as Sybil Fawlty, the new manager who wants to take over Hotel Babylon. She appeared in the audio play "The Youth of Old Age", produced in 2008 by the Wireless Theatre Company, and available | 157655 | 743 |
Prunella Scales. to download free of charge on their website. She appeared in a production of "Carrie's War", the Nina Bawden novel, at the Apollo Theatre in 2009. In 2008, she appeared in Agatha Christie's, "A Pocket Full of Rye", as Mrs. Mackenzie. John Cleese said in an interview on 8 May 2009 that the role of Sybil Fawlty was originally offered to Bridget Turner, who turned down the part, claiming "it wasn't right for her". She starred in the 2011 British live-action 3D family comedy film "" as the titular character's Great Aunt Greta. Scales appeared in a short audio story, | 157655 | 744 |
Prunella Scales. "Dandruff Hits the Turtleneck", written by John Mayfield, and available for download. She starred in a Virgin Short "Stranger Danger" alongside Roderick Cowie in 2012. In 2013 she made a guest appearance in the popular BBC radio comedy "Cabin Pressure" as Wendy Crieff, the mother of Captain Martin Crieff. Alongside husband Timothy West she has appeared in "Great Canal Journeys" for Channel 4 every year since 2014. Stuart Heritage, writing for "The Guardian" in November 2016, commented that it "is ultimately a work about a devoted couple facing something huge together. It’s a beautiful, meditative programme". "An emotional but unrooted | 157655 | 745 |
Prunella Scales. glimpse of life with dementia" was Christopher Howse's characterization in October 2018, writing for "The Telegraph". Section:Personal life. Scales is married to the actor Timothy West, with whom she has two sons; the elder is actor and director Samuel West. Their younger son Joseph participated in two episodes of "Great Canal Journeys" filmed in France. Scales also has a step-daughter, Juliet, by West's first marriage. Her biography, "Prunella", written by Teresa Ransom, was published by UK publishing imprint John Murray in 2005. She was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire in the 1992 Birthday Honours List. | 157655 | 746 |
Prunella Scales. Her husband received the same honour in the 1984 Birthday Honours List. Section:Personal life.:Other activities. Scales is an ambassador of SOS Children's Villages charity. an international orphan charity providing homes and mothers for orphaned and abandoned children. She supports the charity's annual World Orphan Week campaign, which takes place each February. Scales is a patron of the Lace Market Theatre in Nottingham. In 2005, she named the P&O cruise ship, "Artemis". Section:Personal life.:Later life. In March 2014, her husband told "The Guardian" that Scales was living with Alzheimer's disease. The couple discussed practical measures in a radio programme about age | 157655 | 747 |
Prunella Scales. and dementia on BBC Radio 4 in December 2014. In June 2018, her husband characterized her short-term memory as "no good at all", and admitted her condition "slowed them down", but "not so it closes up opportunities." | 157655 | 748 |
The Unseen (band). The Unseen (band) The Unseen is an American punk rock band that was formed in 1993 in Hingham, Massachusetts. One of the more prominent bands to revive street punk, The Unseen were originally called The Extinct. Section:History. The Unseen formed in Hingham, Massachusetts in 1993. They then moved to Boston, Massachusetts. Along with other street punk bands, they set out to revive the English street punk sound of the 1980s. The quintet also released a best-of compilation for the European market in June 2000 titled "", which contained two previously unreleased tracks. The group's solid early line-up consisted of Tripp | 157678 | 749 |
The Unseen (band). on bass and vocals, Scott on lead guitar, Civitarese on drums and vocals and Paul Russo on second guitar and vocals as well as drums and bass during live shows when the band switched instruments for certain songs. Most shows would begin with Russo and Tripp singing lead, and then the show would end with Paul playing drums and Civitarese singing lead. Russo went on to play in The Pinkerton Thugs as well as a solo project called The Strings. He is currently playing in a punk band called Broken Stereo. Mark Unseen (real name: Mark Civitarese), who played drums | 157678 | 750 |
The Unseen (band). on the band's first few albums, became the lead singer after Paul Russo's departure. He also formed and currently runs ADD Records. He briefly joined the Boston punk group A Global Threat as a second singer, and recorded the full-length "What The Fuck Will Change?" and "Until We Die" before deciding to concentrate on his duties with The Unseen. However shortly after his departure he and Unseen guitarist Scott along with Mike Graves and Peter Curtis (then both members of A Global Threat) formed Self Destruct. They released only one 7-inch EP entitled "Violent Affair" and played fewer than 10 | 157678 | 751 |
The Unseen (band). shows but the musical style and lyrical content displayed on their one record would have great influence on all Unseen music to follow, helping to shape their future sound with Civitarese as lead singer. In 2010 Civitarese started a punk rock band called Ashers in and released a 7" vinyl and full-length album "Kill Your Master". More recently Civitarese joined up with various member of Boston's hardcore scene to form the hardcore/metal band "Tenebrae.". There has been some controversy concerning the band, including allegations that in recent years they have "sold out". Also that the band should have called it | 157678 | 752 |
The Unseen (band). quits after losing Paul Russo and therefore their strong political message (Paul Russo wrote and sang most of 'Lower Class Crucifixion', 'So This Is Freedom?', and 'The Anger and The Truth'). Most widely cited is the fact that The Unseen have produced music videos to air on commercial music video channels such as GMTV2, an avenue looked-down upon in the underground street punk scene which also goes against the political message of the first few albums. Darkbuster, a band from The Unseen's area of origin, even released a joke song called "I Hate The Unseen". Members of Darkbuster and The | 157678 | 753 |
The Unseen (band). Unseen are friends. They have toured Europe, North America, Australia, Japan, and Mexico with many punk bands from The Bouncing Souls and Rancid to decidedly more hardcore outfits like Hatebreed and Sick of It All. Since the departure of Russo, the band has used many replacements on tour such as members from The Virus, Strike Anywhere, and F-Minus, however, recently, on their MySpace page, The Unseen have included a fifth band member, Jonny, an ex-guitarist of A Global Threat who was in the band at the same time as Civitarese. 2006 also saw the release of Tripp's book "So This | 157678 | 754 |
The Unseen (band). Is Readin'?", which details the life and hardships of being in an underground band with dry comedy. It started as a lengthy band history on the band's website, but after a few amusing "chapters" he was contacted by a publishing company to release it in book form. In May 2006, The Unseen announced on their official website that they would begin writing their sixth studio full-length album during the summer of that year. The album, titled "Internal Salvation", was released on July 10, 2007. The first song released from that album is a track titled "Right Before Your Eyes" which | 157678 | 755 |
The Unseen (band). was followed up by the track "Break Away", for which the band shot a music video. In support of the new album, the band joined the thirteenth Warped Tour in 2007 and launched a US–Canada tour in March 2008. The Unseen remained inactive, until May 25, 2013, when they played at Punk Rock Bowling at the Fremont Country Club in Las Vegas. They have continued performing live sporadically since then. Section:Members. Section:Members.:Past members. Section:Studio albums. Section:Collections. Section:7" Vinyl. Section:Music videos. Section:In popular culture. Section:External links. | 157678 | 756 |
Battle of Malplaquet. Battle of Malplaquet The Battle of Malplaquet, one of the bloodiest of modern times, was fought near the border of France on 11 September 1709, by the forces of Louis XIV of France commanded by Marshal Villars against a Dutch-British army led by Duke of Marlborough. After a string of defeats, failure of the harvest, and the prospect of invasion, Louis XIV had appealed to French patriotism, recruited fresh soldiers, and instructed Marshal Villars to use the country's last army to give battle against Marlborough's formidable force. After a series of manoeuvres, Villars settled on a position in which both | 157668 | 757 |
Battle of Malplaquet. his flanks were anchored in woods. Even though the French were outnumbered, Marlborough's by-now-familiar tactics of flank attacks to draw off troops from the centre incurred serious attrition by massed French musketry and skilful use of artillery. By the time Marlborough's assault on the denuded enemy centre came, his Allied army was badly weakened, and there was no attempt at pursuit by the Allies when the French retreated in good order. The Allies lost 20,000 men, twice as many as the French, and what was regarded by contemporaries as a shockingly large number of casualties caused Britain to question the | 157668 | 758 |
Battle of Malplaquet. sacrifices that might be required for Marlborough's campaign to continue. The Battle of Malplaquet is often regarded as a Pyrrhic victory because its main effect was to prevent the nominal winners from invading France. Section:Prelude. After a late start to the campaigning season owing to the unusually harsh winter preceding it, the allied campaign of 1709 began in mid-June. Unable to bring the French army under Marshal Villars to battle owing to strong French defensive lines and the Marshal's orders from Versailles not to risk battle, the Duke of Marlborough concentrated instead on taking the fortresses of Tournai and Ypres. | 157668 | 759 |
Battle of Malplaquet. Tournai fell after an unusually long siege of almost 70 days, by which time it was early September, and rather than run the risk of disease spreading in his army in the poorly draining land around Ypres, Marlborough instead moved eastwards towards the lesser fortress of Mons, hoping by taking it to outflank the French defensive lines in the west. Villars moved after him, under new orders from Louis XIV to prevent the fall of Mons at all costs—effectively an order for the aggressive Marshal to give battle. After several complicated manoeuvres, the two armies faced each other across the | 157668 | 760 |
Battle of Malplaquet. gap of Malplaquet, south-west of Mons. Section:Battle. The Allied army, mainly consisting of Dutch and Austrian troops, but also with considerable British and Prussian contingents, was led by the Duke of Marlborough and Prince Eugene of Savoy, while the French were commanded by Villars and Marshal Boufflers. Boufflers was officially Villars' superior but voluntarily serving under him. The allies had about 86,000 troops and 100 guns and the French had about 75,000 and 80 guns, and they were encamped within cannon range of each other near what is now the France/Belgium border. At 9:00 am on 11 September, the Austrians | 157668 | 761 |
Battle of Malplaquet. attacked with the support of Prussian and Danish troops under the command of Count Albrecht Konrad Finck von Finckenstein, pushing the French left wing back into the forest behind them. Prince Eugene was wounded twice in the fighting. The Dutch under command of John William Friso, Prince of Orange, on the Allied left wing, attacked the French right flank half an hour later, and succeeded with heavy casualties in distracting Boufflers enough so that he could not come to Villars' aid. Villars was able to regroup his forces, but Marlborough and Savoy attacked again, assisted by the advance of a | 157668 | 762 |
Battle of Malplaquet. detachment under General Henry Withers advancing on the French left flank, forcing Villars to divert forces from his centre to confront them. At around 1:00 pm Villars was badly wounded by a musket ball which smashed his knee, and command passed to Boufflers. The decisive final attack was made on the now weakened French centre by British infantry under the command of the Earl of Orkney, which managed to occupy the French line of redans. This enabled the Allied cavalry to advance through this line and confront the French cavalry behind it. A fierce cavalry battle now ensued, in which | 157668 | 763 |
Battle of Malplaquet. Boufflers personally led the elite troops of the Maison du Roi. He managed six times to drive the Allied cavalry back upon the redans, but every time the French cavalry in its turn was driven back by British infantry fire. Finally, by 3:00 pm Boufflers, realising that the battle could not be won, ordered a retreat, which was made in good order. The Allies had suffered so many casualties in their attack that they could not pursue him. By this time they had lost over 24,000 men, including 6,500 killed, almost twice as many as the French. Villars himself remarked | 157668 | 764 |
Battle of Malplaquet. on the enemy's Pyrrhic victory via the flip-side of King Pyrrhus's famous quote: "If it please God to give your majesty's enemies another such victory, they are ruined." Section:First-hand account. A first-hand account of the Battle of Malplaquet is given in the book "Amiable Renegade: The Memoirs of Peter Drake (1671–1753)" on pages 163 to 170. Captain Drake, an Irishman who served as a mercenary in various European armies, served the French cause in the battle and was wounded several times. Drake wrote his memoirs at an advanced age (another Irish émigré, Féilim Ó Néill, died in the battle). Section:Aftermath. | 157668 | 765 |
Battle of Malplaquet. By the norms of warfare of the era, the battle was an allied victory, because the French withdrew at the end of the day's fighting, and left Marlborough's army in possession of the battlefield, but with double the casualties. In contrast with the Duke's previous victories, however, the French army was able to withdraw in good order and relatively intact, and remained a potent threat to further allied operations. As Winston Churchill noted in "": "The enemy had been beaten... But they had not been routed; they had not been destroyed. They retreated, but they cheered. They were beaten, but | 157668 | 766 |
Battle of Malplaquet. they boasted." Indeed, Villars wrote to Louis XIV that another such French defeat would destroy the allied armies, and historian John A. Lynn in "The Wars of Louis XIV 1667–1714" terms the battle a Pyrrhic victory. However, the attempt to save Mons failed and the fortress fell on 20 October. News of Malplaquet, the bloodiest battle of the eighteenth century, stunned Europe; a rumour abounded that even Marlborough had died, possibly inspiring the popular French folk song, ""Marlbrough s'en va-t-en guerre"". For the last of his four great battlefield victories, the Duke of Marlborough received no personal letter of thanks | 157668 | 767 |
Battle of Malplaquet. from Queen Anne. Richard Blackmore's "Instructions to Vander Beck" was virtually alone among English poems in attempting to celebrate the "victory" of Marlborough at Malplaquet, while it moved the English Tory party to begin agitating for a withdrawal from the alliance as soon as they formed a government the next year. | 157668 | 768 |
Die for the Government. Die for the Government Die for the Government is the debut album by the U.S. punk rock band Anti-Flag, released in 1996. After this album, bassist Andy Flag played with Anti-Flag on their EP "North America Sucks", but left soon after as they couldn't get along as a band. The CD booklet bids farewell to Andy Flag. The front cover gives the title "Die for the Government", but side of the CD reads "Die for Your Government". Also the "title track" is actually named You've Got to Die for the Government. Section:Personnel. | 157688 | 769 |
Bremen (state). Bremen (state) Bremen (), officially the Free Hanseatic City of Bremen (), is the smallest and least populous of Germany's 16 states. It is informally called "Land Bremen" ("State of Bremen"), although this is sometimes used in official contexts. The state consists of the city of Bremen as well as the small exclave of Bremerhaven in Northern Germany, surrounded by the larger state of Lower Saxony. Section:Geography. The state of Bremen consists of two separated enclaves. These enclaves contain Bremen, officially the 'City' ("Stadtgemeinde Bremen") which is the state capital and located in both enclaves, and the city of Bremerhaven | 157672 | 770 |
Bremen (state). ("Stadt Bremerhaven"). Both are located on the River Weser; Bremerhaven is further downstream than the main parts of Bremen and serves as a North Sea harbour (the name "Bremerhaven" means "Bremen's harbour"). Both enclaves are completely surrounded by the neighbouring State of Lower Saxony ("Niedersachsen"). The two cities are the only administrative subdivisions the state has. The highest point in the state is in Friedehorst Park (32.5m). Section:History. At the unwinding of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806 the Free Imperial City of Bremen (as of 1646, after earlier privileges of autonomy of 1186) was not mediatised but became a | 157672 | 771 |
Bremen (state). sovereign state officially titled "Free Hanseatic City of Bremen". Its currency was the Bremen thaler (until 1873). In 1811 the First French Empire annexed the city-state. Upon the first, albeit only preliminary, defeat of Napoléon Bonaparte, Bremen resumed its pre-1811 status as city-state in 1813. The Vienna Congress of 1815 confirmed Bremen's—as well as Frankfurt's, Hamburg's, and Lübeck's—independence after pressuring by Bremen's emissary, and later burgomaster, Johann Smidt. Bremen became one of 39 sovereign states of the German Confederation. In 1827 the state of Bremen bought the tract of land from the Kingdom of Hanover, where future Bremerhaven would be | 157672 | 772 |
Bremen (state). established. Bremen became part of the North German Confederation in 1867 and became an autonomous component state of the new-founded German Empire in 1871 and stayed with Germany in its following forms of government. Bremen, which in 1935 had become a regular city at the de facto abolition of statehood of all component German states within the Third Reich, was reestablished as a state in 1947. Being—at that time—actually located in the British Zone of Occupation the Control Commission for Germany - British Element and the Office of Military Government for Germany, U.S. (OMGUS) agreed in 1947 to constitute the | 157672 | 773 |
Bremen (state). cities of "Bremen" and then Wesermünde—in their borders altered in 1939—as a German state named again "Free Hanseatic City of Bremen", becoming at that occasion an exclave of the American Zone of Occupation within the "British zone". In 1949 the city-state joined the then West German Federal Republic of Germany. Section:Politics. Section:Politics.:Political system. The legislature of the state of Bremen is the 83-member Bürgerschaft (citizens' assembly), elected by the citizens in the two cities of Bremen and Bremerhaven. The executive is constituted by the Senate of Bremen, elected by the Bürgerschaft. The Senate is chaired by the President of the | 157672 | 774 |
Bremen (state). senate ("Senatspräsident"), who is also one of the mayors of the city of Bremen ("Bürgermeister") and is elected directly by the Bürgerschaft. The Senate selects of its members as a second mayor who serves as deputy of the president. In contrast to the Federal Chancellor of Germany or other German states, the President of the Senate has no authority to override senators on policy, which is decided upon by the senate collectively. Since 1945, the Senate has continuously been dominated by the Social Democratic Party. On a municipal level, the two cities in the state are administered separately: Section:Politics.:2003 state | 157672 | 775 |
Bremen (state). reelections. Henning Scherf (SPD) remained Mayor and Senate President, in an SPD-CDU grand coalition. As promised he resigned after half of the legislative period. The Mayor and Senate President from 8 November 2005, until 17 July 2015, was Jens Böhrnsen. Section:Politics.:2007 state elections. The 2007 elections were held on 13 May. Section:Politics.:Coat of arms. The coat of arms and flag of Bremen state include: Section:Economy. The unemployment rate stood at 9.5% in October 2018 and was the highest of all 16 German states. Section:Education. The University of Bremen is the largest university in Bremen. Furthermore, Bremen has a University of | 157672 | 776 |
Bremen (state). the Arts Bremen, a University of Applied Sciences in Bremen and another one in Bremerhaven, and more recently the Jacobs University Bremen. Section:See also. Section:External links. | 157672 | 777 |
Ayn Rand. Ayn Rand Ayn Rand (; born Alisa Zinovyevna Rosenbaum; – March 6, 1982) was a Russian-American writer and philosopher. She is known for her two best-selling novels, "The Fountainhead" and "Atlas Shrugged", and for developing a philosophical system she named Objectivism. Educated in Russia, she moved to the United States in 1926. She had a play produced on Broadway in 1935 and 1936. After two early novels that were initially unsuccessful, she achieved fame with her 1943 novel, "The Fountainhead". In 1957, Rand published her best-known work, the novel "Atlas Shrugged". Afterward, she turned to non-fiction to promote her philosophy, | 339 | 778 |
Ayn Rand. publishing her own periodicals and releasing several collections of essays until her death in 1982. Rand advocated reason as the only means of acquiring knowledge and rejected faith and religion. She supported rational and ethical egoism and rejected altruism. In politics, she condemned the initiation of force as immoral and opposed collectivism and statism as well as anarchism, instead supporting "laissez-faire" capitalism, which she defined as the system based on recognizing individual rights, including property rights. In art, Rand promoted romantic realism. She was sharply critical of most philosophers and philosophical traditions known to her, except for Aristotle, Thomas Aquinas | 339 | 779 |
Ayn Rand. and classical liberals. Literary critics received Rand's fiction with mixed reviews and academia generally ignored or rejected her philosophy, though academic interest has increased in recent decades. The Objectivist movement attempts to spread her ideas, both to the public and in academic settings. She has been a significant influence among libertarians and American conservatives. Section:Life. Section:Life.:Early life. Rand was born Alisa Zinovyevna Rosenbaum () on February 2, 1905, to a Russian-Jewish bourgeois family living in Saint Petersburg. She was the eldest of three daughters of Zinovy Zakharovich Rosenbaum and his wife, Anna Borisovna (née Kaplan). Her father was upwardly mobile | 339 | 780 |
Ayn Rand. and a pharmacist and her mother was socially ambitious and religiously observant. Rand later said she found school unchallenging and began writing screenplays at the age of eight and novels at the age of ten. At the prestigious , her closest friend was Vladimir Nabokov's younger sister, Olga. The two girls shared an intense interest in politics and would engage in debates at the Nabokov mansion: while Olga defended constitutional monarchy, Alisa supported republican ideals. She was twelve at the time of the February Revolution of 1917, during which she favored Alexander Kerensky over Tsar Nicholas II. The subsequent October | 339 | 781 |
Ayn Rand. Revolution and the rule of the Bolsheviks under Vladimir Lenin disrupted the life the family had previously enjoyed. Her father's business was confiscated, and the family fled to the Crimean Peninsula, which was initially under control of the White Army during the Russian Civil War. While in high school, she realized that she was an atheist and valued reason above any other human virtue. After graduating from high school in the Crimea in June 1921, she returned with her family to Petrograd (as Saint Petersburg was renamed at that time), where they faced desperate conditions, on occasion nearly starving. After | 339 | 782 |
Ayn Rand. the Russian Revolution, universities were opened to women, allowing her to be in the first group of women to enroll at Petrograd State University. At the age of 16, she began her studies in the department of social pedagogy, majoring in history. At the university she was introduced to the writings of Aristotle and Plato, who would be her greatest influence and counter-influence, respectively. She also studied the philosophical works of Friedrich Nietzsche. Able to read French, German and Russian, she also discovered the writers Fyodor Dostoevsky, Victor Hugo, Edmond Rostand, and Friedrich Schiller, who became her perennial favorites. Along | 339 | 783 |
Ayn Rand. with many other bourgeois students, she was purged from the university shortly before graduating. After complaints from a group of visiting foreign scientists, however, many of the purged students were allowed to complete their work and graduate, which she did in October 1924. She then studied for a year at the State Technicum for Screen Arts in Leningrad. For an assignment she wrote an essay about the Polish actress Pola Negri, which became her first published work. By this time she had decided her professional surname for writing would be "Rand", possibly because it is graphically similar to a vowelless | 339 | 784 |
Ayn Rand. excerpt of her birth surname in Cyrillic handwriting, and she adopted the first name "Ayn", either from a Finnish name "Aino" or from the Hebrew word ("ayin", meaning "eye"). Section:Life.:Arrival in the United States. In late 1925, Rand was granted a visa to visit relatives in Chicago. She departed on January 17, 1926. When she arrived in New York City on February 19, 1926, she was so impressed with the skyline of Manhattan that she cried what she later called "tears of splendor". Intent on staying in the United States to become a screenwriter, she lived for a few months | 339 | 785 |
Ayn Rand. with her relatives, one of whom owned a movie theater and allowed her to watch dozens of films free of charge. She then left for Hollywood, California. In Hollywood, a chance meeting with famed director Cecil B. DeMille led to work as an extra in his film "The King of Kings" and a subsequent job as a junior screenwriter. While working on "The King of Kings", she met an aspiring young actor, Frank O'Connor; the two were married on April 15, 1929. She became a permanent American resident in July 1929 and an American citizen on March 3, 1931. Taking | 339 | 786 |
Ayn Rand. various jobs during the 1930s to support her writing, she worked for a time as the head of the costume department at RKO Studios. She made several attempts to bring her parents and sisters to the United States, but they were unable to acquire permission to emigrate. Section:Life.:Early fiction. Rand's first literary success came with the sale of her screenplay "Red Pawn" to Universal Studios in 1932, although it was never produced. This was followed by the courtroom drama "Night of January 16th", first produced by E. E. Clive in Hollywood in 1934 and then successfully reopened on Broadway in | 339 | 787 |
Ayn Rand. 1935. Each night a jury was selected from members of the audience; based on the jury's vote, one of two different endings would be performed. In 1941, Paramount Pictures produced a movie loosely based on the play. Rand did not participate in the production and was highly critical of the result. "Ideal" is a novel and play written in 1934 which were first published in 2015 by her estate. The heroine is an actress who embodies Randian ideals. Rand's first published novel, the semi-autobiographical "We the Living", was published in 1936. Set in Soviet Russia, it focused on the struggle | 339 | 788 |
Ayn Rand. between the individual and the state. In a 1959 foreword to the novel, Rand stated that "We the Living" "is as near to an autobiography as I will ever write. It is not an autobiography in the literal, but only in the intellectual sense. The plot is invented, the background is not ..." Initial sales were slow and the American publisher let it go out of print, although European editions continued to sell. After the success of her later novels, Rand was able to release a revised version in 1959 that has since sold over three million copies. In 1942, | 339 | 789 |
Ayn Rand. without Rand's knowledge or permission, the novel was made into a pair of Italian films, "Noi vivi" and "Addio, Kira". Rediscovered in the 1960s, these films were re-edited into a new version which was approved by Rand and re-released as "We the Living" in 1986. Her novella "Anthem" was written during a break from the writing of her next major novel, "The Fountainhead". It presents a vision of a dystopian future world in which totalitarian collectivism has triumphed to such an extent that even the word 'I' has been forgotten and replaced with 'we'. It was published in England in | 339 | 790 |
Ayn Rand. 1938, but Rand initially could not find an American publisher. As with "We the Living", Rand's later success allowed her to get a revised version published in 1946, which has sold more than 3.5 million copies. Section:Life.:"The Fountainhead" and political activism. During the 1940s, Rand became politically active. She and her husband worked as full-time volunteers for the 1940 presidential campaign of Republican Wendell Willkie. This work led to Rand's first public speaking experiences; she enjoyed fielding sometimes hostile questions from New York City audiences who had viewed pro-Willkie newsreels. This activity brought her into contact with other intellectuals sympathetic | 339 | 791 |
Ayn Rand. to free-market capitalism. She became friends with journalist Henry Hazlitt and his wife, and Hazlitt introduced her to the Austrian School economist Ludwig von Mises. Despite her philosophical differences with them, Rand strongly endorsed the writings of both men throughout her career, and both of them expressed admiration for her. Mises once referred to Rand as "the most courageous man in America", a compliment that particularly pleased her because he said "man" instead of "woman". Rand also became friends with libertarian writer Isabel Paterson. Rand questioned Paterson about American history and politics long into the night during their many meetings | 339 | 792 |
Ayn Rand. and gave Paterson ideas for her only non-fiction book, "The God of the Machine". Rand's first major success as a writer came in 1943 with "The Fountainhead", a romantic and philosophical novel that she wrote over a period of seven years. The novel centers on an uncompromising young architect named Howard Roark and his struggle against what Rand described as "second-handers"—those who attempt to live through others, placing others above themselves. It was rejected by twelve publishers before finally being accepted by the Bobbs-Merrill Company on the insistence of editor Archibald Ogden, who threatened to quit if his employer did | 339 | 793 |
Ayn Rand. not publish it. While completing the novel, Rand was prescribed the amphetamine Benzedrine to fight fatigue. The drug helped her to work long hours to meet her deadline for delivering the novel, but afterwards she was so exhausted that her doctor ordered two weeks' rest. Her use of the drug for approximately three decades may have contributed to what some of her later associates described as volatile mood swings. "The Fountainhead" became a worldwide success, bringing Rand fame and financial security. In 1943, Rand sold the rights for a film version to Warner Bros. and she returned to Hollywood to | 339 | 794 |
Ayn Rand. write the screenplay. Finishing her work on that screenplay, she was hired by producer Hal B. Wallis as a screenwriter and script-doctor. Her work for Wallis included the screenplays for the Oscar-nominated "Love Letters" and "You Came Along". Rand also worked on other projects, including a planned nonfiction treatment of her philosophy to be called "The Moral Basis of Individualism". Although the planned book was never completed, a condensed version was published as an essay titled "The Only Path to Tomorrow" in the January 1944 edition of "Reader's Digest" magazine. Rand extended her involvement with free-market and anti-communist activism while | 339 | 795 |
Ayn Rand. working in Hollywood. She became involved with the Motion Picture Alliance for the Preservation of American Ideals, a Hollywood anti-Communist group, and wrote articles on the group's behalf. She also joined the anti-Communist American Writers Association. A visit by Isabel Paterson to meet with Rand's California associates led to a final falling out between the two when Paterson made comments, which Rand considered rude, to valued political allies. In 1947, during the Second Red Scare, Rand testified as a "friendly witness" before the United States House Un-American Activities Committee. Her testimony described the disparity between her personal experiences in the | 339 | 796 |
Ayn Rand. Soviet Union and the portrayal of it in the 1944 film "Song of Russia". Rand argued that the film grossly misrepresented conditions in the Soviet Union, portraying life there as much better and happier than it actually was. She wanted to also criticize the lauded 1946 film "The Best Years of Our Lives" for what she interpreted as its negative presentation of the business world, but she was not allowed to testify about it. When asked after the hearings about her feelings on the effectiveness of the investigations, Rand described the process as "futile". After several delays, the film version | 339 | 797 |
Ayn Rand. of "The Fountainhead" was released in 1949. Although it used Rand's screenplay with minimal alterations, she "disliked the movie from beginning to end", and complained about its editing, acting, and other elements. Section:Life.:"Atlas Shrugged" and Objectivism. In the years following the publication of "The Fountainhead", Rand received numerous letters from readers, some of whom the book profoundly influenced. In 1951, Rand moved from Los Angeles to New York City, where she gathered a group of these admirers around her. This group (jokingly designated "The Collective") included future Federal Reserve Chairman Alan Greenspan, a young psychology student named Nathan Blumenthal (later | 339 | 798 |
Ayn Rand. Nathaniel Branden) and his wife Barbara and Barbara's cousin Leonard Peikoff. Initially the group was an informal gathering of friends who met with Rand on weekends at her apartment to discuss philosophy. She later began allowing them to read the drafts of her new novel, "Atlas Shrugged", as the manuscript pages were written. In 1954 Rand's close relationship with the younger Nathaniel Branden turned into a romantic affair, with the consent of their spouses. "Atlas Shrugged", published in 1957, was considered Rand's "magnum opus". Rand described the theme of the novel as "the role of the mind in man's existence—and, | 339 | 799 |