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Rachel Bolan. Rachel Bolan Rachel Bolan (born February 9, 1966), born James Richard Southworth, is the bass guitar player and main songwriter of the metal band Skid Row. His stage name 'Rachel' is a hybrid of his brother's name, Richard, and his grandfather's name, Manuel. 'Bolan' is a tribute to one of his childhood idols, T. Rex frontman, Marc Bolan. He is the youngest of four children. Section:Career. Bolan, who grew up in Toms River, New Jersey, founded Skid Row in 1986 with guitarist Dave "The Snake" Sabo. Bolan has appeared as a vocalist on two of Kiss guitarist Ace Frehley's solo | 157659 | 500 |
Rachel Bolan. albums and back-up vocals on Mötley Crüe's "Dr. Feelgood" album. He has produced numerous bands including Rockets to Ruin , the Luchagors in 2007 with former WWE wrestler Amy "Lita" Dumas and Atlantic Records stoner metal band Godspeed. He formed the band Prunella Scales with Solace guitarist Tommy Southard and L. Wood. Prunella Scales released "Dressing up the Idiot" on Mutiny Records in 1997. Jack Roberts (guitar) and Ray Kubian (drums), both from the New Jersey-based band Mars Needs Women, joined Prunella Scales for touring. Recently, he played the bass guitar for Stone Sour on the band's new records House | 157659 | 501 |
Rachel Bolan. of Gold & Bones - Part 1 and House of Gold & Bones – Part 2 as a replacement for the departed bassist Shawn Economaki. He also can be seen playing bass in TRUSTcompany music video for the single "Heart in My Hands". Bolan has another side project called The Quazimotors. He did this project with Skid Row drummer Rob Affuso, Jonathan Callicutt and Evil Jim Wright (guitarist for Spectremen, BigFoot, Road Hawgs). Section:Personal life. He married longtime girlfriend Donna "Roxxi" Feldman on June 10, 1994 but later divorced. He has no children. He drives racecars in his free time. | 157659 | 502 |
Rachel Bolan. He competes in high performance go-karts, Legends Cars, Thunder Roadster and Pro-Challenge series cars. | 157659 | 503 |
Specific replant disease. Specific replant disease Specific replant disease (also known as ‘Sick Soil Syndrome’) is a malady that manifests itself when susceptible plants such as apples, pears, plums, cherries and roses are placed into soil previously occupied by a related species. The exact causes are not known, but in the first year the new plants will grow poorly. Root systems are weak and may become blackened, and plants may fail to establish properly. One theory is that replant disease is due to a whole menagerie of tree pathogens - fungi, bacteria, nematodes, viruses and other organisms. These parasitise target the living tissues | 157658 | 504 |
Specific replant disease. of the mature tree, hastening senility and death, and survive in the soil and decaying roots after the tree has died. Putting a young traumatised tree with an immature root system into this 'broth' of pathogens can be too much for an infant tree to cope with. Any new root growth is rapidly and heavily colonised, so that shoot growth is virtually zero. This is especially true if it is on a dwarfing rootstock, which by its nature will be relatively inefficient. As a rule, replant disease persists for around fifteen years in the soil, although this varies with local | 157658 | 505 |
Specific replant disease. conditions. Pathogens survive in dead wood and organic matter until exposed to predation by their home rotting away, and will also depend on whether the original orchard was planted with dwarf or standard trees. Standards have more vigorous - therefore larger - roots, and are thus likely to take longer to degrade. It is good organic rotation practice not to follow ‘like with like’ and this rule applies to long lived trees as much as annual vegetables. In the case of temperate fruit trees, the 'Pomes and Stones' rule for rotation should be observed- don’t follow a ‘pome’ fruit (with | 157658 | 506 |
Specific replant disease. an apple-type core—apples, pears, medlar, quince) with a tree from the same group. A ‘stone’ fruit (i.e., with a plum-type stone, such as plum, cherry, peach, apricot, almond) should be all right, and vice versa. However, rotation is not always easy in a well planned old orchard when the site it occupies may well be the best available, and starting another orchard elsewhere may not be practical. In this case, and replanting is unavoidable, a large hole should be dug out, and the soil removed and replaced with ‘clean’ soil from a site where susceptible plants have not been grown. | 157658 | 507 |
Specific replant disease. Using trees on vigorous rootstocks which will have a better chance of competing with the pathogens, or plants grown in large containers with a large root ball may also have a better chance of resisting replant disease. The extra time to cropping may be offset if new trees are planted a few years in advance of old trees finally falling over, furthermore, if the old orchard was grubbed - i.e. trees were healthy when removed, it is unlikely that replant disease would be a problem as pathogen levels may never have been high. The malady is worse where trees have | 157658 | 508 |
Specific replant disease. died in situ—pathogens are likely to have contributed to the death and therefore be at a higher level in the soil. Soil fumigation is another common method employed to control replant disease in both apple and cherry trees. Throughout the 90's, fumigants like Methyl Bromide (Bromomethane) were commonly used in this way to control and treat the disease, through this was later phased out in the 2000s in favour of more modern alternatives such as Chloropicrin, which some studies have shown to be an effective method for resolving SARD in Apple Tree Monoculture in Europe. | 157658 | 509 |
Peter the Hermit. Peter the Hermit Peter the Hermit (also known as Cucupeter, Little Peter or Peter of Amiens; 1050 – 8 July 1115) was a priest of Amiens and a key figure during the First Crusade. Section:Family. His name in French is "Pierre l'Ermite". The structure of this name in French unlike in English has led some francophone scholars to treat l'Ermite as a surname rather than a title. According to some authors, he was born around 1050 and was the son of Renauld L'Ermite of Auvergne, and his wife Alide Montaigu, de Picardie. Others claim he was a member of the | 157646 | 510 |
Peter the Hermit. "L'Hermite" family of Auvergne in the Netherlands. These claims are disputed by other authors, who argue that nothing can confirm that "the Hermit" was an actual surname and that surnames had not developed until after his day. Section:Before 1096. According to Anna Comnena, Peter had attempted to go on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem before 1096, but was prevented by the Seljuk Turks from reaching his goal and was reportedly mistreated. He used this supposed mistreatment to preach inflammatory statements about the Turks toward upset Christians. However, doubts remain whether he ever made such a journey. Sources differ as to whether | 157646 | 511 |
Peter the Hermit. he was present at Pope Urban II's famous Council of Clermont in 1095. It is certain that he was one of the preachers of the crusade in France afterward, and his own experience may have helped to give fire to the Crusading cause. Tradition in Huy holds that he was there when the crusade was announced and he began his preaching at once. He soon leapt into fame as an emotional revivalist, and the vast majority of sources and historians agree that thousands of peasants eagerly took the cross at his bidding. Jonathan Riley-Smith has proposed that the People's Crusade | 157646 | 512 |
Peter the Hermit. also included well-armed soldiers and nobles. This part of the crusade was also known as the crusade of the "paupers", a term which in the Middle Ages indicated a status as impoverished or mendicant wards of the Church. Peter organized and guided the paupers as a spiritually purified and holy group of pilgrims who would, supposedly, be protected by the Holy Ghost. A list of known participants in Peter's army can be found at Riley-Smith, et al. Section:Crusade to the Holy Land. Before Peter went on his crusade he got permission from the Patriarch of Jerusalem. This particular Patriarch was | 157646 | 513 |
Peter the Hermit. named Simeon. Peter was able to recruit from England, Lorraine, France, and Flanders. Peter the Hermit arrived in Cologne, Germany, on Holy Saturday, the 12th of April in 1096. In Germany in spring 1096 Peter was one of the prominent leaders of crusaders involved in the Rhineland massacres against the Jews. Leading the first of the five sections of the People's Crusade to the destination of their pilgrimage, the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, he started (with 40,000 men and women) from Cologne in April, 1096, and arrived (with 30,000 men and women) at Constantinople at the end of July. | 157646 | 514 |
Peter the Hermit. The Eastern Roman Emperor Alexios I Komnenos was less than pleased with their arrival, for along with the head of the Eastern Orthodox Church, Patriarch Nicholas III of Constantinople, he was now required to provide for the care and sustenance of the vast host of paupers for the remainder of their journey. Before reaching Constantinople though, Peter and his followers began to run into trouble. In Zemun, the Governor, who was descendant of a Ghuzz Turk, and a colleague, got frightened by the army's size and decided to tighten regulations on a frontier. This would have been fine if a | 157646 | 515 |
Peter the Hermit. dispute about the sale of a pair of shoes had not occurred. This led to a riot and against Peter's wishes the town was attacked and the citadel was stormed. This resulted in 4000 Hungarians being killed and lots of provisions stolen. Then on June 26, 1096 Peter's army was able to cross the Save river. Then the army marched into Belgrade and lit the town on fire and proceeded to pillage it. The army then made its way into and through Nish after an eight-day delay. After riding though Nish the Crusaders made their way towards Sofia when they | 157646 | 516 |
Peter the Hermit. were attacked on the road. The army took heavy losses. They lost 1/4 of their men but arrived in Sofia on July 12 nonetheless. The forces then arrived in Constantinople on August 1, 1096. After a while, they arrived at a castle called Xerigordon and captured it. They captured the castle by taking possession of the castle's spring and well. After setting off to Civetot they had set up camp near a village called Dracon. This is where the Turks ambushed Peter and his forces. This was the final battle of the People's Crusade that Peter led. Most of the | 157646 | 517 |
Peter the Hermit. paupers failed to make their way out of Catholic jurisdiction. The majority were incapable of being provided for by the various lordships and dioceses along the way and either starved, returned home or were put into servitude, while a substantial number were captured and sold into slavery by the various Slavic robber barons in the Balkans, kindling the view of the Balkan Slavs as unredeemed robbers and villains. Peter joined the only other section which had succeeded in reaching Constantinople, that of Walter Sans Avoir, into a single group and encamped the still numerous pilgrims around Constantinople while he negotiated | 157646 | 518 |
Peter the Hermit. the shipping of the People's Crusade to the Holy Land. The Emperor meanwhile had failed to provide for the pilgrims adequately and the camp made itself a growing nuisance, as the increasingly hungry paupers turned to pilfering the imperial stores. Alexios, worried at the growing disorder and fearful of his standing before the coming armed Crusader armies, quickly concluded negotiations and shipped them across the Bosporus to the Asiatic shore at the beginning of August, with promises of guards and passage through the Turkish lines. He warned the People's Crusade to await his orders, but in spite of his warnings, | 157646 | 519 |
Peter the Hermit. the paupers entered Turkish territory. The Turks began skirmishing with the largely unarmed host. Peter returned in desperation to Constantinople, seeking the Emperor's help. In Peter's absence, the pilgrims were ambushed and cut to pieces in detail by the Turks, who were more disciplined, at the Battle of Civetot. Despite Peter's pronunciations of divine protection, the vast majority of the pilgrims were slaughtered by the swords and arrows of the Turks or were enslaved. Left in Constantinople with the small number of surviving followers, during the winter of 1096–1097, with little hope of securing Byzantine support, the People's Crusade awaited | 157646 | 520 |
Peter the Hermit. the coming of the armed crusaders as their sole source of protection to complete the pilgrimage. When the princes arrived, Peter joined their ranks as a member of the council in May 1097, and with the little following which remained they marched together through Asia Minor to Jerusalem. While his "paupers" never regained the numbers previous to the Battle of Civetot, his ranks were increasingly replenished with disarmed, injured, or bankrupted crusaders. Nonetheless, aside from a few rousing speeches to motivate the Crusaders, he played a subordinate part in the remaining history of the First Crusade which at this point | 157646 | 521 |
Peter the Hermit. clearly settled on a military campaign as the means to secure the pilgrimage routes and holy sites in Palestine. Peter appears, at the beginning of 1098, as attempting to escape from the privations of the siege of Antioch—showing himself, as Guibert of Nogent says, a "fallen star." Guibert and other sources go on to write that Peter was responsible for the speech before the half-starved and dead Crusaders which motivated their sally from the gates of Antioch and their subsequent crushing defeat of the overwhelmingly superior Muslim army besieging the city. Thus, having recovered his stature, in the middle of | 157646 | 522 |
Peter the Hermit. the year he was sent by the princes to invite Kerbogha to settle all differences via a duel, which the Emir subsequently declined. In 1099 Peter appears as the treasurer of the alms at the siege of Arqa (March), and as leader of the supplicatory processions around the walls of Jerusalem before it fell, and later within Jerusalem which preceded the Crusaders' surprising victory at the Battle of Ascalon (August). At the end of 1099, Peter went to Latakia, and sailed thence for the West. From this time he disappears from the historical record. Albert of Aix records that he | 157646 | 523 |
Peter the Hermit. died in 1131, as prior of a church of the Holy Sepulchre which he had founded in France. Section:Role in Preaching First Crusade. Although later Catholic historians and many other scholars disagree, Roger of Wendover and Matthew Paris wrote that Peter the Hermit was the true author and originator of the First Crusade, a view also recounted in the anonymous Gesta Francorum – written c. 1100 – and by Albert of Aix in his "Historia Hierosolymitanae Expeditionis", and also supported by some modern scholars. Such historical sources recount that during an early visit to Jerusalem sometime before 1096, Jesus appeared | 157646 | 524 |
Peter the Hermit. to Peter the Hermit in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, and bade him preach the crusade. This story also appears in the pages of William of Tyre, which indicates that even a few generations after the crusade, the descendants of the crusaders already believed Peter was its originator. The origin of such a legend is a matter of some interest. Von Sybel, in his "Geschichte des ersten Kreuzzuges", published in 1841, suggested that in the camp of the paupers (which existed side by side with that of the knights, and grew increasingly large as the crusade took a more | 157646 | 525 |
Peter the Hermit. and more heavy toll on the purses of the crusaders) some idolization of Peter the Hermit had already begun, parallel to the similar glorification of Godfrey by the Lorrainers. Section:Later life. There is very little concrete record for his life after returning to Europe and much of what we do know is speculation or legend. However, Albert of Aix records that he died in 1131, as prior of a church of the Holy Sepulchre which he had founded in France or Flanders. It is thought that during the Siege of Antioch during the days of famine and cold weather, Peter | 157646 | 526 |
Peter the Hermit. attempted to flee only to be captured by the Norman Tancred and placed back on the battlefield in 1112. Peter also held services of intercession for Latin and native recruits. Peter advised Greeks and Latins to form processions as well. It is generally quoted that he founded an Augustinian monastery in France named for the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. However, it was actually in Flanders at Neufmoustier near Huy, or Huy itself which may have been his home town. His tomb is in the Neufmoustier Abbey, so it is presumed that this was his Abbey but in another tradition | 157646 | 527 |
Peter the Hermit. the nearby Solières Abbey claims that it was his foundation. Peter's obituary is in the chronicle of Abbey Neufmoustier Huy. On its page entry of 8 July 1115 the chronicle says that this day saw "the death of Dom Pierre, of pious memory, venerable priest and hermit, who deserved to be appointed by the Lord to announce the first to the holy Cross" and the text continues with "after the conquest of the holy land, Pierre returned to his native country" and also that "he founded this church ... and chooses them a decent burial". This record further supports Neufmoustier's | 157646 | 528 |
Peter the Hermit. claim as his foundation. Section:Legend. Since his death various legends have sprung up around Peter. One legend has its roots in the writings of Jacques de Vitry, who found it convenient to convince people from the bishopric of Liège of the merits of participating in the Albigensian crusade by manipulating the story of Peter. Another legend is given in the 14th century by the French troubadour Jehan-de-Bouteiller, who sings the memory of "a dict Peter the Hermit deschendant a count of Clairmont by a Sieur d'Herrymont [who] married a Montagut". Peter the Hermit's parents would, therefore, be Renauld de Hérimont | 157646 | 529 |
Peter the Hermit. and Aleidis Montaigu (Aleidis is known in Huy as the "mother of Dom Pierre, with a home in Huy"). There is also a strong and old tradition that Peter the Hermit was the first to introduce the use of the Rosary. It follows that he began this tradition in about 1090. If this is the case and if he had also been on a previous pilgrimage to Jerusalem, it is possible that he derived this practice from similar Islamic practices. Section:Sources. | 157646 | 530 |
Blue Meanies (Illinois band). Blue Meanies (Illinois band) Blue Meanies were an American ska-core band founded in Carbondale, Illinois, at Southern Illinois University, in 1989. They debuted in 1991 with the release of their first single, "Grandma Shampoo" c/w "Dickory Dock". This single would be the start of a lengthy discography and revolving lineup including Jay Vance, a great bass player. Although their personnel was continually changing, The Meanies' sound would remain consistent as they released the albums "Peace Love Groove" (1991), "Pave The World" (1992), "Kiss Your Ass Goodbye" (1995), "Full Throttle" (1997), and the live "Sonic Documentation Of Exhibition And Banter" (1998). | 157666 | 531 |
Blue Meanies (Illinois band). By the time they signed with MCA Records, the lineup of John Paul Camp (III) (saxophone/ vocals), Sean Dolan (guitar), Jimmy Flame (trumpet/ vocals), Chaz Linde (keyboard/ vocal), Dave Lund (bass/ vocals), Billy Spunke (vocals/ megaphone), and Bob Trondson (drums) stuck together as a total of 22 musicians passed through the band since their formation. Their sixth full-length album, "The Post Wave", was released in late 2000. This album is musically the most different from the other five albums. This change in sound along with the title of the album probably resulted from the crash of the third wave ska | 157666 | 532 |
Blue Meanies (Illinois band). scene within the US. In late 2001 the band took the rights to "The Post Wave" back from MCA records and reissued it on Thick Records in August 2001. Soon afterwards the band ceased touring, though they never issued an official break up statement. Section:Post-breakup. In the summer of 2004 it was confirmed that the Meanies would temporarily revive the old tradition of the Winter Nationals. For years the Blue Meanies would have a show on December 23 in their hometown of Chicago. On December 22, 2004 the band played its first show in three years at Double Door with | 157666 | 533 |
Blue Meanies (Illinois band). The Tossers and Cougars supporting. The next day the band played an all ages show at The Metro with Mu330, The Methadones, and New Black supporting. The Metro show was filmed with multiple cameras but no plans for a release of the footage have been announced. Future plans for the band remain vague as well. On August 16, 2006 it was announced that the Blue Meanies would reunite for Riot Fest 2006, an annual punk rock festival held in Chicago. Other high-profile reunions for the fest include Naked Raygun and The Bollweevils. Since April 24, 2006, the band (primarily Sean | 157666 | 534 |
Blue Meanies (Illinois band). Dolan) has kept somewhat in contact with their fanbase with their MySpace profile. On it, they have provided previously unreleased tracks (any songs pulled from the site can be obtained via email), largely from the recording sessions of "The Post Wave." On May 13, 2014, the organizers of Riot Fest and Blue Meanies revealed that the band will reunite and perform at the Chicago version of the 2014 festival. Section:Discography. Albums Vinyl Compilations Other Section:References. | 157666 | 535 |
Armillaria. Armillaria Armillaria, is a genus of parasitic fungi that includes the "A. mellea" species known as honey fungi that live on trees and woody shrubs. It includes about 10 species formerly categorized summarily as "A. mellea". "Armillarias" are long-lived and form some of the largest living organisms in the world. The largest known organism (of the species "Armillaria solidipes") covers more than in Oregon's Malheur National Forest and is more than 2,400 years old. Some species of "Armillaria" display bioluminescence, resulting in foxfire. "Armillaria" can be a destructive forest pathogen. It causes "white rot" root disease (see Plant Pathology section) | 157657 | 536 |
Armillaria. of forests, which distinguishes it from "Tricholoma", a mycorrhizal (non-parasitic) genus. Because "Armillaria" is a facultative saprophyte, it also feeds on dead plant material, allowing it to kill its host, unlike parasites that must moderate their growth to avoid host death. In the Canadian Prairies (particularly Manitoba), "Armillaria" is referred to often as "openky" (), meaning “near the stump” in Ukrainian. Section:Description. The basidiocarp (reproductive structure) of the fungus is a mushroom that grows on wood, typically in small dense clumps or tufts. Their caps (mushroom tops) are typically yellow-brown, somewhat sticky to touch when moist, and, depending on age, | 157657 | 537 |
Armillaria. may range in shape from conical to convex to depressed in the center. The stipe (stalk) may or may not have a ring. All "Armillaria" species have a white spore print and none have a volva (cup at base) (compare "Amanita"). Similar species include "Pholiota" spp. which also grow in cespitose (mat-like) clusters on wood and fruit in the fall. "Pholiota" spp. are separated from Armillaria by its yellowish to greenish-yellow tone and a dark brown to grey-brown spore print. Mushroom hunters need to be wary of "Galerina " spp. which can grow side-by-side with "Armillaria" spp. on wood. "Galerina" | 157657 | 538 |
Armillaria. have a dark brown spore print and are deadly poisonous (alpha-amanitin) – see: mushroom poisoning. Section:Plant pathology. Honey fungus is a "white rot" fungus, which is a pathogenic organism that affects trees, shrubs, woody climbers and, rarely, woody herbaceous perennial plants. Honey fungus can grow on living, decaying, and dead plant material. Honey fungus spreads from living trees, dead and live roots and stumps by means of reddish-brown to black rhizomorphs (root-like structures) at the rate of approximately 1 m a year, but infection by root contact is possible. Infection by spores is rare. Rhizomorphs grow close to the soil | 157657 | 539 |
Armillaria. surface (in the top 20 cm) and invade new roots, or the root collar (where the roots meet the stem) of plants. An infected tree will die once the fungus has girdled it, or when significant root damage has occurred. This can happen rapidly, or may take several years. Infected plants will deteriorate, although may exhibit prolific flower or fruit production shortly before death. Initial symptoms of honey fungus infection include dieback or shortage of leaves in spring. Rhizomorphs appear under the bark and around the tree, and mushrooms grow in clusters from the infected plant in autumn and die | 157657 | 540 |
Armillaria. back after the first frost. However these symptoms and signs do not necessarily mean that the pathogenic strains of honey fungus are the cause, so other identification methods are advised before diagnosis. Thin sheets of cream colored mycelium, beneath the bark at the base of the trunk or stem indicated that honey fungus is likely the pathogen. It will give off a strong mushroom scent and the mushrooms sometimes extend upward. On conifers honey fungus often exudes a gum or resin from cracks in the bark. The linkage of morphological, genetic, and molecular characters of "Armillaria" over the past few | 157657 | 541 |
Armillaria. decades has led to the recognition of intersterile groups designated as “biological species”. Data from such studies, especially those using molecular diagnostic tools, have removed much uncertainty for mycologists and forest pathologists. New questions remain unanswered regarding the phylogeny of North American "Armillaria" species and their relationships to their European counterparts, particularly within the “"Armillaria mellea" complex”. Some data suggest that North American and European "A. gallica" isolates are not monophyletic. Although North American and European isolates of "A. gallica" may be interfertile, some North American isolates of "A. gallica" are more closely related to the North American taxon "A. | 157657 | 542 |
Armillaria. calvescens" than to European isolates of "A. gallica". The increase in genetic divergence has not necessarily barred inter-sterility between isolated populations of "A. gallica". Although the relationships among some groups in the genus seem clearer, the investigation of geographically diverse isolates has revealed that the relationship between some North American species is still unclear (Hughes et al. 2003). Intersterile species of "Armillaria" occurring in North America (North American Biological Species = NABS) were listed by Mallett (1992): and XI taxonomically undescribed NABS I, V, VII, IX, X, and XI have been found in British Columbia; I, III, V have been | 157657 | 543 |
Armillaria. found in the Prairie Provinces, with I and V occurring in both the boreal and subalpine regions; I, III, V, and VII have been found in Ontario; and I, II, III, V, and VI have been found in Quebec. "Armillaria ostoyae" is the species most commonly found in all Canadian provinces surveyed (Mallett 1990). "Armillaria" root rot occurs in the Northwest Territories, and was identified on white spruce at Pine Point on Great Slave Lake prior to NABS findings. Section:Edibility. Honey Fungus are regarded in Ukraine, Russia, Poland, Germany and other European countries as one of the best wild mushrooms. | 157657 | 544 |
Armillaria. They are commonly ranked above morels and chanterelles and only the cep / porcini is more highly prized. However, honey fungus must be thoroughly cooked as they are mildly poisonous raw. One of the four UK species can cause sickness when ingested with alcohol. For those unfamiliar with the species, it is advisable not to drink alcohol for 12 hours before and "24" hours after eating this mushroom to avoid any possible nausea and vomiting. However, if these rules are followed this variety of mushroom is a delicacy with a distinctive mushroomy and nutty flavor. Reference texts for identification are | 157657 | 545 |
Armillaria. "Collins Complete British Mushrooms and Toadstools" for the variety of field pictures in it, and Roger Philips' "Mushrooms" for the quality of his out of field pictures and descriptions. Norway used to consider Honey Fungus edible, but because the health department is moving away from parboiling, they are now considered poisonous. Section:Hosts. Potential hosts include conifers and various monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous trees, shrubs, and herbaceous species, ranging from asparagus and strawberry to large forest trees (Patton and Vasquez Bravo 1967). "Armillaria" root rot enters hosts through the roots. In Alberta, 75% of trap logs (Mallett and Hiratsuka 1985) inserted into | 157657 | 546 |
Armillaria. the soil between planted spruce became infected with the distinctive white mycelium of "Armillaria" within one year. Of the infestations, 12% were "A. ostoyae", and 88% were "A. sinapina" (Blenis et al. 1995). Reviews of the biology, diversity, pathology, and control of "Armillaria" in Fox (2000) are useful. Section:See also. | 157657 | 547 |
List of cities in Sierra Leone. List of cities in Sierra Leone This is a list of cities and towns in Sierre Leone". Section:Largest cities. The following table is the list of cities in Sierra Leone by population. Other notable cities Towns and villages Section:External links. | 157669 | 548 |
Anna Komnene. Anna Komnene Anna Komnene (, "Ánna Komnēnḗ"; 1 December 1083 – 1153), commonly latinized as Anna Comnena, was a Byzantine princess, scholar, physician, hospital administrator, and historian. She was the daughter of the Byzantine Emperor Alexios I Komnenos and his wife Irene Doukaina. She is best known for her attempt to usurp her brother, John II Komnenos, and for her work "The Alexiad", an account of her father's reign. At birth, Anna was betrothed to Constantine Doukas, and she grew up in his mother's household. She was well-educated in "Greek literature and history, philosophy, theology, mathematics, and medicine." Anna and | 157653 | 549 |
Anna Komnene. Constantine were next in the line to throne until Anna's younger brother, John II Komnenos, became the heir in 1092. Constantine died around 1094, and Anna married Nikephoros Bryennios in 1097. The two had several children before Nikephoros' death around 1136. Following her father’s death in 1118, Anna and her mother attempted to usurp John II Komnenos. Her husband refused to cooperate with them, and the usurpation failed. As a result, John exiled Anna to the Kecharitomene monastery, where she spent the rest of her life. In confinement there, she wrote the "Alexiad". She died sometime in the 1150s; the | 157653 | 550 |
Anna Komnene. exact date is unknown. Section:Family and early life. Anna was born on 1 December 1083 to Alexios I Komnenos and Irene Doukaina. Her father, Alexios I Komnenos, became emperor in 1081, after usurping the previous Byzantine Emperor, Nikephoros Botaneiates. Her mother, Irene Doukaina, was part of the imperial Doukai family. In the "Alexiad", Anna emphasizes her affection for her parents in stating her relationship to Alexios and Irene. She was the eldest of seven children; her younger siblings were (in order) Maria, John II, Andronikos, Isaac, Eudokia, and Theodora. Anna was born in the Porphyra Chamber of the imperial palace | 157653 | 551 |
Anna Komnene. in Constantinople, making her a "porphyrogenita," which underscored her imperial status. She noted this status in the "Alexiad," stating that that she was "born and bred in the purple." According to Anna's description in the Alexiad, her mother asked Anna to wait to be born until her father returned from war. Obediently, Anna waited until her father came home. At birth, Anna was betrothed to Constantine Doukas, the son of Emperor Michael VII and Maria of Alania. The two were the heirs to the empire until sometime between c.1088 and 1092, after the birth of Anna's brother, John II Komnenos. | 157653 | 552 |
Anna Komnene. Various scholars point out that the betrothal was probably a political match intended to establish the legitimacy of Anna's father, who had usurped the previous emperor. Starting around 1090, Constantine's mother – Maria of Alania – raised Anna in her home. It was common in Byzantium for mothers-in-law to raise daughters-in-law. In 1094, Maria of Alania was implicated in an attempt to overthrow Alexios I Komnenos. Some scholars argue that Anna's betrothal to Constantine Doukas may not have ended there, as he was not implicated in the plot against Alexios, but it certainly ended when he died around 1094. Some | 157653 | 553 |
Anna Komnene. scholars have also now started to look at Anna's relationships to Maria of Alania; Anna Dalassene, Anna's paternal grandmother; and Irene Doukaina as sources of inspiration and admiration for Anna. For example, Thalia Gouma-Peterson argues that Irene Doukaina's "maternal ability to deal with the speculative and the intellectual enables the daughter to become the highly accomplished scholar she proudly claims to be in the opening pages of the "Alexiad"." Section:Education. Anna wrote at the beginning of the "Alexiad" about her education, highlighting her experience with literature, Greek language, rhetoric, and sciences. Tutors trained her in subjects that included astronomy, medicine, | 157653 | 554 |
Anna Komnene. history, military affairs, geography, and mathematics. Anna was noted for her education by the medieval scholar, Niketas Choniates, who wrote that Anna "was ardently devoted to philosophy, the queen of all sciences, and was educated in every field." Anna’s conception of her education is shown in her testament, which credited her parents for allowing her to obtain an education. This testament is in contrast to a funeral oration about Anna given by her contemporary, Georgios Tornikes. In his oration he said that she had to read ancient poetry, such as the "Odyssey", in secret because her parents disapproved of its | 157653 | 555 |
Anna Komnene. dealing with polytheism and other "dangerous exploits," which were considered "dangerous" for men and "excessively insidious" for women. Tornikes went on to say that Anna "braced the weakness of her soul" and studied the poetry "taking care not to be detected by her parents." Anna proved to be capable not only on an intellectual level but also in practical matters. Her father placed her in charge of a large hospital and orphanage that he built for her to administer in Constantinople. The hospital was said to hold beds for 10,000 patients and orphans. Anna taught medicine at the hospital, as | 157653 | 556 |
Anna Komnene. well as at other hospitals and orphanages. She was considered an expert on gout. Anna treated her father during his final illness. Section:Marriage. In roughly 1097, Anna's parents married her to "Caesar" Nikephoros Bryennios. Nikephoros Bryennios a member of the Bryennios family that had held the throne before the accession of Anna's father, Alexios I. Nikephoros was a soldier and a historian. Most scholars agree that the marriage was a political one – it created legitimacy for Anna's paternal family through Bryennois' connections to past emperor's family. The two were an intellectual couple, and Nikephoros Bryennios tolerated and possibly encouraged | 157653 | 557 |
Anna Komnene. Anna's scholarly interests by allowing her to participate in various scholarly circles. The couple had six known children: Eirene, Maria, Alexios, John, Andronikos, and Constantine. Only Eirene, John, and Alexios survived to adulthood. Section:Claim to the throne. In 1087, Anna’s brother, John, was born. Several years after his birth, in 1092, John was designated emperor. According to Niketas Choniates, Emperor Alexios "favored" John and declared him emperor while the Empress Irene "threw her full influence on [Anna's] side" and "continually attempted" to persuade the emperor to designate Nikephoros Bryennios, Anna’s husband, in John's place. Around 1112, Alexios fell sick with | 157653 | 558 |
Anna Komnene. rheumatism and could not move. He therefore turned the civil government over to his wife, Irene; she in turn directed the administration to Bryennios. Choniates states that, as Emperor Alexios lay dying in his imperial bedchamber, John arrived and "secretly" took the emperor’s ring from his father during an embrace "as though in mourning." Anna also worked in her husband's favor during her father's illness. In 1118, Alexios I Komnenos died. A cleric acclaimed John emperor in Hagia Sophia. According to Smythe, Anna "felt cheated" because she "should have inherited." Indeed, according to Anna Komnene in the "Alexiad", at her | 157653 | 559 |
Anna Komnene. birth she was presented with "a crown and imperial diadem." Anna’s "main aim" in the depiction of events in the Alexiad, according to Stankovich, was to "stress her own right" to the throne and "precedence over her brother, John." In view of this belief, Jarratt et al. record that Anna was "almost certainly" involved in the murder plot against John at Alexios’s funeral. Indeed, Anna, according to Hill, attempted to create military forces to depose John. According to Choniates, Anna was "stimulated by ambition and revenge" to scheme for the murder of her brother. Smythe states the plots "came to | 157653 | 560 |
Anna Komnene. nothing." Jarratt et al., record that, a short time afterward, Anna and Bryennios "organized another conspiracy." However, according to Hill, Bryennios refused to overthrow John, making Anna unable to continue with her plans. With this refusal, Anna, according to Choniates, exclaimed "that nature had mistaken their sexes, for he ought to have been the woman." According to Jarratt et al., Anna shows "a repetition of sexualized anger." Indeed, Smythe asserts that Anna’s goals were "thwarted by the men in her life." Irene, however, according to Hill, had declined to participate in plans to revolt against an "established" emperor. Hill, however, | 157653 | 561 |
Anna Komnene. points out that Choniates, whom the above sources draw upon, wrote after 1204, and accordingly was "rather far removed" from "actual" events and that his "agenda" was to "look for the causes" of the toppling of Constantinople in 1204. In contrast, Leonora Neville argues that Anna probably not involved in the attempted usurpation. Anna plays a minor role in most of the available medieval sources – only Choniates portrays her as a rebel. Choniates' history is from around 1204, almost a hundred years after Alexios I's death. Instead, most of the sources question whether John II Komnenos' behavior at his | 157653 | 562 |
Anna Komnene. father's deathbed was appropriate. The plots were discovered and Anna forfeited her estates. After her husband's death, she entered the convent of Kecharitomene, which had been founded by her mother. She remained there until her death. Section:Historian and intellectual. In the seclusion of the monastery, Anna dedicated her time to studying philosophy and history. She held esteemed intellectual gatherings, including those dedicated to Aristotelian studies. Anna's intellectual genius and breadth of knowledge is evident in her few works. Among other things, she was conversant with philosophy, literature, grammar, theology, astronomy, and medicine. It can be assumed because of minor errors | 157653 | 563 |
Anna Komnene. that she may have quoted Homer and the Bible from memory when writing her most celebrated work, the "Alexiad". Her contemporaries, like the metropolitan Bishop of Ephesus, Georgios Tornikes, regarded Anna as a person who had reached "the highest summit of wisdom, both secular and divine." Section:Historian and intellectual.:The "Alexiad". Anna wrote the "Alexiad" in the mid-1140s or 1150s. Anna cited her husband's unfinished work as the reason why she began the "Alexiad". Before his death in 1137, her husband, Nikephoros Bryennios the Younger, was working on a history, which was supposed to record the events before and during the | 157653 | 564 |
Anna Komnene. reign of Alexios I. His death left the history unfinished after recording the events of the reign of Emperor Nikephoros Botaneiates. Ruth Macrides argues that while Bryennios' writing may have been a source of inspiration for the "Alexiad", it is incorrect to suggest that the "Alexiad" was Bryennios' work edited by Anna (as Howard-Johnston has argued on tenuous grounds). In what is considered to be a sort-of statement on how she gathered her sources for the "Alexiad", Anna wrote, “My material ... has been gathered from insignificant writings, absolutely devoid of literary pretensions, and from old soldiers who were serving | 157653 | 565 |
Anna Komnene. in the army at the time that my father seized the Roman sceptre ... I based the truth of my history on them by examining their narratives and comparing them with what I had written, and what they told me with what I had often heard, from my father in particular and from my uncles … From all these materials the whole fabric of my history – my true history – has been woven.” Beyond just eyewitness accounts from veterans or her male family members, scholars have also noted that Anna used the imperial archives, which allowed her access to | 157653 | 566 |
Anna Komnene. official documents. In the "Alexiad", Anna provided insight on political relations and wars between Alexios I and the West. She vividly described weaponry, tactics, and battles. It has been noted that she was writing about events that occurred when she was a child, so these are not eye-witness accounts. Her neutrality is compromised by the fact that she was writing to praise her father and denigrate his successors. Despite her unabashed partiality, her account of the First Crusade is of great value to history because it is the only Byzantine eyewitness account available. She had the opportunity to gather information | 157653 | 567 |
Anna Komnene. from key figures in the Byzantine elite; her husband, Nikephorus Bryennios, had fought in the clash with crusade leader Godfrey of Bouillon outside Constantinople on Maundy Thursday 1097; and her uncle, George Palaeologus, was present at Pelekanon in June 1097 when Alexios I discussed future strategy with the crusaders. Thus, the "Alexiad" allows the events of the First Crusade to be seen from the Byzantine elite's perspective. It conveys the alarm felt at the scale of the western European forces proceeding through the Empire, and the dangers they might have posed to the safety of Constantinople. Anna also identified for | 157653 | 568 |
Anna Komnene. the first time, the Vlachs from Balkans with Dacians, in Alexiad (Chapter XIV), describing their places around Haemus mountains: "...on either side of its slopes dwell many very wealthy tribes, the Dacians and the Thracians on the northern side, and on the southern, more Thracians and the Macedonians". Special suspicion was reserved for crusading leader Bohemond of Taranto, a southern Italian Norman who, under the leadership of his father Robert Guiscard, had invaded Byzantine territory in the Balkans in 1081. The "Alexiad" was written in Attic Greek, and the literary style is fashioned after Thucydides, Polybius, and Xenophon. Consequently, it | 157653 | 569 |
Anna Komnene. exhibits a struggle for an Atticism characteristic of the period, whereby the resulting language is highly artificial. Peter Frankopan argues that the lapses in some of the chronology of events can in part be attributed to errors in, or lack of, source material for those events. Anna herself also addressed these lapses, explaining them as a result of memory loss and old age. But regardless of errors in chronology, her history meets the standards of her time. Moreover, the "Alexiad" sheds light on Anna’s emotional turmoil, including her grief over the deaths of her father, mother, and husband, among other | 157653 | 570 |
Anna Komnene. things. At the end of the "Alexiad", Anna wrote "But living I died a thousand deaths … Yet I am more grief-stricken than [Niobe]: after my misfortunes, great and terrible as they are, I am still alive – to experience yet more … Let this be the end of my history, then, lest as I write of these sad events I become even more resentful." Section:Depictions in fiction and other media. Section:References. Section:References.:Primary sources. Section:References.:Secondary sources. Section:Further reading. Section:External links. | 157653 | 571 |
ASCII. ASCII ASCII ( ), abbreviated from American Standard Code for Information Interchange, is a character encoding standard for electronic communication. ASCII codes represent text in computers, telecommunications equipment, and other devices. Most modern character-encoding schemes are based on ASCII, although they support many additional characters. ASCII is the traditional name for the encoding system; the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) prefers the updated name US-ASCII, which clarifies that this system was developed in the US and based on the typographical symbols predominantly in use there. ASCII is one of the IEEE milestones. Section:Overview. ASCII was developed from telegraph code. Its | 586 | 572 |
ASCII. first commercial use was as a seven-bit teleprinter code promoted by Bell data services. Work on the ASCII standard began on October 6, 1960, with the first meeting of the American Standards Association's (ASA) (now the American National Standards Institute or ANSI) X3.2 subcommittee. The first edition of the standard was published in 1963, underwent a major revision during 1967, and experienced its most recent update during 1986. Compared to earlier telegraph codes, the proposed Bell code and ASCII were both ordered for more convenient sorting (i.e., alphabetization) of lists, and added features for devices other than teleprinters. Originally based | 586 | 573 |
ASCII. on the English alphabet, ASCII encodes 128 specified characters into seven-bit integers as shown by the ASCII chart above. Ninety-five of the encoded characters are printable: these include the digits "0" to "9", lowercase letters "a" to "z", uppercase letters "A" to "Z", and punctuation symbols. In addition, the original ASCII specification included 33 non-printing control codes which originated with Teletype machines; most of these are now obsolete, although a few are still commonly used, such as the carriage return, line feed and tab codes. For example, lowercase "i" would be represented in the ASCII encoding by binary 1101001 = | 586 | 574 |
ASCII. hexadecimal 69 ("i" is the ninth letter) = decimal 105. Section:History. The American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) was developed under the auspices of a committee of the American Standards Association (ASA), called the X3 committee, by its X3.2 (later X3L2) subcommittee, and later by that subcommittee's X3.2.4 working group (now INCITS). The ASA became the United States of America Standards Institute (USASI) and ultimately the American National Standards Institute (ANSI). With the other special characters and control codes filled in, ASCII was published as ASA X3.4-1963, leaving 28 code positions without any assigned meaning, reserved for future standardization, | 586 | 575 |
ASCII. and one unassigned control code. There was some debate at the time whether there should be more control characters rather than the lowercase alphabet. The indecision did not last long: during May 1963 the CCITT Working Party on the New Telegraph Alphabet proposed to assign lowercase characters to "sticks" 6 and 7, and International Organization for Standardization TC 97 SC 2 voted during October to incorporate the change into its draft standard. The X3.2.4 task group voted its approval for the change to ASCII at its May 1963 meeting. Locating the lowercase letters in "sticks" 6 and 7 caused the | 586 | 576 |
ASCII. characters to differ in bit pattern from the upper case by a single bit, which simplified case-insensitive character matching and the construction of keyboards and printers. The X3 committee made other changes, including other new characters (the brace and vertical bar characters), renaming some control characters (SOM became start of header (SOH)) and moving or removing others (RU was removed). ASCII was subsequently updated as USAS X3.4-1967, then USAS X3.4-1968, ANSI X3.4-1977, and finally, ANSI X3.4-1986. Revisions of the ASCII standard: In the X3.15 standard, the X3 committee also addressed how ASCII should be transmitted (least significant bit first), and | 586 | 577 |
ASCII. how it should be recorded on perforated tape. They proposed a 9-track standard for magnetic tape, and attempted to deal with some punched card formats. Section:Design considerations. Section:Design considerations.:Bit width. The X3.2 subcommittee designed ASCII based on the earlier teleprinter encoding systems. Like other character encodings, ASCII specifies a correspondence between digital bit patterns and character symbols (i.e. graphemes and control characters). This allows digital devices to communicate with each other and to process, store, and communicate character-oriented information such as written language. Before ASCII was developed, the encodings in use included 26 alphabetic characters, 10 numerical digits, and from | 586 | 578 |
ASCII. 11 to 25 special graphic symbols. To include all these, and control characters compatible with the Comité Consultatif International Téléphonique et Télégraphique (CCITT) International Telegraph Alphabet No. 2 (ITA2) standard of 1924, FIELDATA (1956), and early EBCDIC (1963), more than 64 codes were required for ASCII. ITA2 were in turn based on the 5-bit telegraph code Émile Baudot invented in 1870 and patented in 1874. The committee debated the possibility of a shift function (like in ITA2), which would allow more than 64 codes to be represented by a six-bit code. In a shifted code, some character codes determine choices | 586 | 579 |
ASCII. between options for the following character codes. It allows compact encoding, but is less reliable for data transmission, as an error in transmitting the shift code typically makes a long part of the transmission unreadable. The standards committee decided against shifting, and so ASCII required at least a seven-bit code. The committee considered an eight-bit code, since eight bits (octets) would allow two four-bit patterns to efficiently encode two digits with binary-coded decimal. However, it would require all data transmission to send eight bits when seven could suffice. The committee voted to use a seven-bit code to minimize costs associated | 586 | 580 |
ASCII. with data transmission. Since perforated tape at the time could record eight bits in one position, it also allowed for a parity bit for error checking if desired. Eight-bit machines (with octets as the native data type) that did not use parity checking typically set the eighth bit to 0. In some printers, the high bit was used to enable Italics printing. Section:Design considerations.:Internal organization. The code itself was patterned so that most control codes were together and all graphic codes were together, for ease of identification. The first two so-called "ASCII sticks" (32 positions) were reserved for control characters. | 586 | 581 |
ASCII. The "space" character had to come before graphics to make sorting easier, so it became position 20; for the same reason, many special signs commonly used as separators were placed before digits. The committee decided it was important to support uppercase 64-character alphabets, and chose to pattern ASCII so it could be reduced easily to a usable 64-character set of graphic codes, as was done in the DEC SIXBIT code (1963). Lowercase letters were therefore not interleaved with uppercase. To keep options available for lowercase letters and other graphics, the special and numeric codes were arranged before the letters, and | 586 | 582 |
ASCII. the letter "A" was placed in position 41 to match the draft of the corresponding British standard. The digits 0–9 are prefixed with 011, but the remaining 4 bits correspond to their respective values in binary, making conversion with binary-coded decimal straightforward. Many of the non-alphanumeric characters were positioned to correspond to their shifted position on typewriters; an important subtlety is that these were based on "mechanical" typewriters, not "electric" typewriters. Mechanical typewriters followed the standard set by the Remington No. 2 (1878), the first typewriter with a shift key, and the shifted values of codice_1 were codice_2 early typewriters | 586 | 583 |
ASCII. omitted "0" and "1", using "O" (capital letter "o") and "l" (lowercase letter "L") instead, but codice_3 and codice_4 pairs became standard once 0 and 1 became common. Thus, in ASCII codice_5 were placed in the second stick, positions 1–5, corresponding to the digits 1–5 in the adjacent stick. The parentheses could not correspond to "9" and "0", however, because the place corresponding to "0" was taken by the space character. This was accommodated by removing codice_6 (underscore) from "6" and shifting the remaining characters, which corresponded to many European typewriters that placed the parentheses with "8" and "9". This | 586 | 584 |
ASCII. discrepancy from typewriters led to bit-paired keyboards, notably the Teletype Model 33, which used the left-shifted layout corresponding to ASCII, not to traditional mechanical typewriters. Electric typewriters, notably the IBM Selectric (1961), used a somewhat different layout that has become standard on computers following the IBM PC (1981), especially Model M (1984) and thus shift values for symbols on modern keyboards do not correspond as closely to the ASCII table as earlier keyboards did. The codice_7 pair also dates to the No. 2, and the codice_8 pairs were used on some keyboards (others, including the No. 2, did not shift | 586 | 585 |
ASCII. codice_9 (comma) or codice_10 (full stop) so they could be used in uppercase without unshifting). However, ASCII split the codice_11 pair (dating to No. 2), and rearranged mathematical symbols (varied conventions, commonly codice_12) to codice_13. Some common characters were not included, notably codice_14, while codice_15 were included as diacritics for international use, and codice_16 for mathematical use, together with the simple line characters codice_17 (in addition to common codice_18). The "@" symbol was not used in continental Europe and the committee expected it would be replaced by an accented "À" in the French variation, so the "@" was placed in | 586 | 586 |
ASCII. position 40, right before the letter A. The control codes felt essential for data transmission were the start of message (SOM), end of address (EOA), end of message (EOM), end of transmission (EOT), "who are you?" (WRU), "are you?" (RU), a reserved device control (DC0), synchronous idle (SYNC), and acknowledge (ACK). These were positioned to maximize the Hamming distance between their bit patterns. Section:Design considerations.:Character order. ASCII-code order is also called "ASCIIbetical" order. Collation of data is sometimes done in this order rather than "standard" alphabetical order (collating sequence). The main deviations in ASCII order are: An intermediate order converts | 586 | 587 |
ASCII. uppercase letters to lowercase before comparing ASCII values. Section:Character groups. Section:Character groups.:Control characters. ASCII reserves the first 32 codes (numbers 0–31 decimal) for control characters: codes originally intended not to represent printable information, but rather to control devices (such as printers) that make use of ASCII, or to provide meta-information about data streams such as those stored on magnetic tape. For example, character 10 represents the "line feed" function (which causes a printer to advance its paper), and character 8 represents "backspace". refers to control characters that do not include carriage return, line feed or white space as non-whitespace control | 586 | 588 |
ASCII. characters. Except for the control characters that prescribe elementary line-oriented formatting, ASCII does not define any mechanism for describing the structure or appearance of text within a document. Other schemes, such as markup languages, address page and document layout and formatting. The original ASCII standard used only short descriptive phrases for each control character. The ambiguity this caused was sometimes intentional, for example where a character would be used slightly differently on a terminal link than on a data stream, and sometimes accidental, for example with the meaning of "delete". Probably the most influential single device on the interpretation of | 586 | 589 |
ASCII. these characters was the Teletype Model 33 ASR, which was a printing terminal with an available paper tape reader/punch option. Paper tape was a very popular medium for long-term program storage until the 1980s, less costly and in some ways less fragile than magnetic tape. In particular, the Teletype Model 33 machine assignments for codes 17 (Control-Q, DC1, also known as XON), 19 (Control-S, DC3, also known as XOFF), and 127 (Delete) became de facto standards. The Model 33 was also notable for taking the description of Control-G (code 7, BEL, meaning audibly alert the operator) literally, as the unit | 586 | 590 |
ASCII. contained an actual bell which it rang when it received a BEL character. Because the keytop for the O key also showed a left-arrow symbol (from ASCII-1963, which had this character instead of underscore), a noncompliant use of code 15 (Control-O, Shift In) interpreted as "delete previous character" was also adopted by many early timesharing systems but eventually became neglected. When a Teletype 33 ASR equipped with the automatic paper tape reader received a Control-S (XOFF, an abbreviation for transmit off), it caused the tape reader to stop; receiving Control-Q (XON, "transmit on") caused the tape reader to resume. This | 586 | 591 |
ASCII. technique became adopted by several early computer operating systems as a "handshaking" signal warning a sender to stop transmission because of impending overflow; it persists to this day in many systems as a manual output control technique. On some systems Control-S retains its meaning but Control-Q is replaced by a second Control-S to resume output. The 33 ASR also could be configured to employ Control-R (DC2) and Control-T (DC4) to start and stop the tape punch; on some units equipped with this function, the corresponding control character lettering on the keycap above the letter was TAPE and TAPE respectively. The | 586 | 592 |
ASCII. Teletype could not move the head backwards, so it did not put a key on the keyboard to send a BS (backspace). Instead there was a key marked that sent code 127 (DEL). The purpose of this key was to erase mistakes in a hand-typed paper tape: the operator had to push a button on the tape punch to back it up, then type the rubout, which punched all holes and replaced the mistake with a character that was intended to be ignored. Teletypes were commonly used for the less-expensive computers from Digital Equipment Corporation, so these systems had to | 586 | 593 |
ASCII. use the available key and thus the DEL code to erase the previous character. Because of this, DEC video terminals (by default) sent the DEL code for the key marked "Backspace" while the key marked "Delete" sent an escape sequence, while many other terminals sent BS for the Backspace key. The Unix terminal driver could only use one code to back up, this could be set to BS "or" DEL, but not both, resulting in a very long period of annoyance where you had to correct it depending on what terminal you were using (shells that allow line editing, such | 586 | 594 |
ASCII. as ksh, bash, and zsh, understand both). The assumption that no key sent a BS caused Control+H to be used for other purposes, such as the "help" prefix command in GNU Emacs. Many more of the control codes have been given meanings quite different from their original ones. The "escape" character (ESC, code 27), for example, was intended originally to allow sending other control characters as literals instead of invoking their meaning. This is the same meaning of "escape" encountered in URL encodings, C language strings, and other systems where certain characters have a reserved meaning. Over time this meaning | 586 | 595 |
ASCII. has been co-opted and has eventually been changed. In modern use, an ESC sent to the terminal usually indicates the start of a command sequence usually in the form of a so-called "ANSI escape code" (or, more properly, a "Control Sequence Introducer") from ECMA-48 (1972) and its successors, beginning with ESC followed by a "[" (left-bracket) character. An ESC sent from the terminal is most often used as an out-of-band character used to terminate an operation, as in the TECO and vi text editors. In graphical user interface (GUI) and windowing systems, ESC generally causes an application to abort its | 586 | 596 |
ASCII. current operation or to exit (terminate) altogether. The inherent ambiguity of many control characters, combined with their historical usage, created problems when transferring "plain text" files between systems. The best example of this is the newline problem on various operating systems. Teletype machines required that a line of text be terminated with both "Carriage Return" (which moves the printhead to the beginning of the line) and "Line Feed" (which advances the paper one line without moving the printhead). The name "Carriage Return" comes from the fact that on a manual typewriter the carriage holding the paper moved while the position | 586 | 597 |
ASCII. where the typebars struck the ribbon remained stationary. The entire carriage had to be pushed (returned) to the right in order to position the left margin of the paper for the next line. DEC operating systems (OS/8, RT-11, RSX-11, RSTS, TOPS-10, etc.) used both characters to mark the end of a line so that the console device (originally Teletype machines) would work. By the time so-called "glass TTYs" (later called CRTs or terminals) came along, the convention was so well established that backward compatibility necessitated continuing the convention. When Gary Kildall created CP/M he was inspired by some command line | 586 | 598 |
ASCII. interface conventions used in DEC's RT-11. Until the introduction of PC DOS in 1981, IBM had no hand in this because their 1970s operating systems used EBCDIC instead of ASCII and they were oriented toward punch-card input and line printer output on which the concept of carriage return was meaningless. IBM's PC DOS (also marketed as MS-DOS by Microsoft) inherited the convention by virtue of being loosely based on CP/M, and Windows inherited it from MS-DOS. Unfortunately, requiring two characters to mark the end of a line introduces unnecessary complexity and questions as to how to interpret each character when | 586 | 599 |