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if an old person donates an organ that is successfully transplanted to another person, will the organ live longer than it would have if it had stayed in it's original owner's body? if so, how is the life of the organ extended? | unfortunate tendency, tendency to shorten, strand ====== the important concept to understand is that our chromosomes have the unfortunate tendency to shorten with each division. this occurs because dna synthesis can only occur in a 5' to 3' direction due to the need of the the main dna polymerase (iii) to read dna strands in a 3' to 5' manner. take a look at [this](_url_0_) picture. the splitting of the double-stranded dna molecule will expose one of the strands perfectly for the polymerase--3' to 5' access is made immediately accessible and replication can occur as fast as polymerase can function (which can also be limited by the unwinding). this is called the leading strand. the lagging strand, however, is what happens when polymerase has to synthesize new dna fragments at a time because 3' to 5' access isn't being made available quickly enough. these are called okazaki fragments, and require the extra step of ligation, as well as requiring rna primers to be laid down first (these are replaced later). what does that have to do with your question? well as it turns out these okazaki fragments have fairly conserved lengths within the same species. most times, however, the problem is the same: there will be an x amount of nucleotides at the end of the strand that doesn't make up the number of nucleotides within a normal okazaki fragment. that means that the polymerase approaching the end of the the template strand for the lagging strand has to make a decision: do i make a fragment out of the few remaining nucleotides or do i forget about them all together? as it turns out, if no other process occurs these extra nucleotides get dropped out of replication, thus leading to chromosome shortening. we have something that counteracts this: telomerase. it's an enzyme that uses its own inherent rna template to synthesize a y amount of nucleotides at the end of the dna strand so that a new okazaki fragment can be made that will include the original end. it's a brilliant protein, but one of the weird things about aging is that cells seem to stop expressing this protein (an incredibly important venue of research that i'll explain in a bit). without telomerase, chromosomes get shorter and as a result there are problems with producing the required proteins for cell survival. in your case of the organ transplant, the old organ will have this problem of being close to a point where its telomerase isn't being produced (or is inactive) anymore. though it's likely true that the younger tissue around it will be able to sustain it better than its previous host, there's only so much the new host will be able to do to compensate for an old organ. is that the end of the road? absolutely not. it's very possible that we could one day understand how to reprogram telomerase to remain active for as long as we'd like, but to be honest at that point it'll likely be just as easy to reprogram the problematic organ in the diseased person. | 7 | [] | [] | [
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do transplanted organs also replace themselves every 7 years? | edit: i am curious specifically about kidneys if there are different answers to different organs. also, kidneys have been known to work in the recipients body for over 20 years so don't tell me it isn't there long enough to replace itself. | stem cell reservoirs, worth noting, transplant patient ====== worth noting that the cells that replace those transplanted tissues are coming from stem cell reservoirs within those tissues, so they're still going to be "transplanted." it's not as if the tissue identity is going to slowly revert to the genotype of the transplant patient. | 310 | [] | [] | [] | [
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are supermassive stars less dense than the sun? | some of these stars were once small and expanded in their red giant phase. but they don't have extra mass right? | stars, correct, densest normal stars ====== you're correct. in general, the larger the radius of a star, the less dense it is. the densest normal stars are the m-dwarfs (the smallest possible stars). obviously not counting dead stars like white dwarfs/neutron stars/black holes that are all way denser. almost all stars with a radius larger than the sun are going to be less dense than the sun with very wispy atmospheres. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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could earth plants survive on mars? | it not, what conditions would need to be met for survival to be possible? | lot, soil, bacteria ====== not without a lot of help. what has been found so far with martian soil is that it's sterile and very salty. so you would need to introduce all the organic stuff that makes up soil here on earth (bacteria, rhizomes, fertilizers, water and so one) and flush out the excess salts. before you even think about growing anything. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if standing in the sun for too long causes us skin cancer by damaging our dna, why doesn’t the same thing happen to plants? | cancer, plant, cancer cells ====== plants can get cancer, but the cancer cells can't metastasize. basically in animal cells, once cancer develops the cancer cells can move around the body and spread. in plants the cells are held in place by the matrix of the cell wall, so they can't move. they instead develop into a burl, which is basically a localized swelling on the plant. usually, but not always, the burl won't kill the plant. if it forms on a limb then that limb may die but the plant can just grow a new one. they don't have vital organs like animals do. if an animal gets lung cancer they can't just grow a new lung as a replacement, but a plant can grow a new limb, or root or leaf. about the only thing that can kill the plant is a cancer in the main stem or trunk. also, it's the plant's leaves that will most likely to develop cancer from solar radiation. the leaves typically shade the rest of the plant. if a leaf dies it's easily replaced, it's a rare plant that keeps all of it's original leaves (yes, even evergreens drop their leaves and grow new ones, thus pine needles on the forest floor). plus many plants (except trees) only live for a year or two anyway. even ones that persist for many years sometimes die down to the root once a year then regrow. the root can't get cancer from solar radiation, it's underground. so the plant (except trees) doesn't have time to develop cancer in it's short, 1-year exposure to solar radiation. don't forget that a trees' outer bark typically isn't alive. it's only the inner bark (or cambium) that's alive. the cambium is protected from solar radiation by the outer bark. so once again it's the leaves that get the most exposure. for that reason, amongst the others listed here, plants rarely get cancer from solar radiation. cancer from viral, bacterial, fungal or other infections (such as gall wasps) is much more common, and that's typically what forms burls in trees. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
why are oranges pre-sliced by nature? | flower which produces, separate carpel, sugar-water filled cells ====== each "slice" of the orange is a separate carpel, the part of the flower which produces the ovule. each carpel contains many ovules (what becomes the seed) and many other sugar-water filled cells. | 631 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.botgard.ucla.edu/html/botanytextbooks/economicbotany/Citrus/index.html",
"http://www.botgard.ucla.edu/html/botanytextbooks/economicbotany/index.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orange_(fruit)#Navel_oranges"
] | [
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|
if we run out of helium, can we get more to replace it? | i know fusion reactors make a tiny bit of helium, and i'm pretty sure there's helium on the moon, but is there any chance either of these can be feasibly done on a useful scale? | radioactive decay, nuclear fusion, fusion or radioactive ====== helium can be "produced" through nuclear fusion or radioactive decay. here on earth it occurs when uranium or other heavy elements give off an alpha particle which then picks up an electron to become stable helium. from what i have read it doesn't sound as though "production" is an option. but some project to be a much higher helium reserve in the united states than what has actually been proven. yes, we may in fact be up shit creek. please see the occurrence production section _url_0_ | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helium"
] | [
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what is something that is planet-sized, but doesn't orbit a star? | in my astronomy class, the definition of a planet is an object that: a. orbits a star b. is large enough that its gravity makes it round c. has cleared most other objects from its orbital path something that fufills the first two but not the last (such as pluto) is known as a dwarf planet. are there such things that are large enough to have a significant gravity, but simply float about in space away from any stars? | yup, rogue planets, rogue ====== yup, they're referred to as "rogue planets." _url_0_ not much is known about them, they could be planets ejected from their parent stars or even objects that formed naturally without a parent star. | 8 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rogue_planet#Known_or_possible_rogue_planets"
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why do temperature fluctuations increase rate of tire pressure loss? | i understand that a hotter temperature translates to higher measured tire pressure, and cooler temperature lower tire pressure, but one thing i don't get is why given highly fluctuating temperatures, you end up with a net loss of tire pressure much greater than if the temperature stayed constant. | higher temperatures equal, temperatures equal higher, equal higher pressures ====== higher temperatures equal higher pressures but also greater gas permeability of the valves and seals. expanding and contracting also cause micro ruptures in the seals that facilitate gas leakage. in tubed tyres. rubber will have a greater permeability at higher temps and coupled with higher pressure more gas is forced out. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why do tires deflate with cold air despite the temperature outside of the tire dropping as well? | this is something that has always confused me. i understand that temperature is, in simpler terms, the rate at which molecules hit off of one another, which would mean that in turn at a lower temperature the molecules would be moving less which means that there would be less molecules colliding with the inside of the tire per unit of time. this means less pressure. however, the tire is not a isolated system. there is the atmospheric pressure that is what is pushing on the outside of the tire as well. if the temperature changes the same both inside and outside of the tire, shouldn't the decrease in the number of molecules inside and outside of the tire make the change in pressure the same on both sides equaling a net zero change in tire pressure? plz send help. | ideal gas law, ideal gas, ideal gas constant ====== this is due to the ideal gas law, pv=nrt, which establishes the relationship between pressure, volume, temperature, and number of moles in an ideal gas where p=pressure, v=volume, n is the number of moles, r is the ideal gas constant, and t=temperature. due to the relationship between t and p, assuming the other variables, v and r, remain constant (r is a constant by definition of about 8.3 j/(k*mol)) — as t decreases p will decrease and vice versa. so in your example, when it goes from warm to cold outside, the decrease in temperature will cause a decrease in pressure. an example using 1m^3 for v and 20 moles for n: at 25c, p will equal about 7.19 psi at 5c, p will equal about 6.71 psi. note: low temperatures do not imply a low pressure. when evaluating pressure, all variables must be taken into consideration. however, because we are assuming volume and number of moles will remain constant, we can ‘kind of’ ignore them. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is it possible for an atom to have more than 8 valence electrons? if cannot, what is the reason for this? | main group elements, time with transition, transition metals ====== yes, it happens all the time with transition metals and you even see hypervalency with some main group elements that have d-orbitals. d-orbitals hold an additional 10 electrons. the 8 valence electron rule is a useful teaching tool for high school students to get a hang of chemistry but isn't strictly true for all atoms. | 7 | [] | [] | [
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|
why does wet paper tear so much more easily than dry paper? | paper engineer, paper, engineer ====== paper engineer here. paper stays together due to hydrogen bonds between the fibers. coatings can add to the strength, but let's just talk simple, uncoated paper for this. adding water gives additional sites to bond to and leads to the dissociation of fibers from one another as bonds go from fiber-fiber to an unsteady equilibrium of fiber-fiber and fiber-water. edit: after thinking about it, i want to clarify that what /u/budpickens says about lubrication isn't right. the dissociation is aided by mass convection. this why an agitated tank can break down paper much quicker. it looks kind of like lubrication, but concentration gradients are a huge factor. | 159 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
if water is transparent, why are the clouds white? | water, bent, light ====== water may be transparent, but it is also quite refractive. meaning, when light enters the water, it gets bent in some direction, and when it exits again it gets bent again. you can clearly see this if you stick your finger in a glass of water and look at it from the side, the finger will look oddly bent out of shape. if you have a big body of water, like a lake or a glass of water, this just bends the water once (or twice) when the ligth first enters the water (and when it exits). but a cloud is not made of just one big continuus mass of water. instead, it's made out of countless tiny water droplets. so light comes in, hits one droplet, hits another, hits a third and so on. so the light gets scattered all over the place, with no real direction or plan. regardless of how the light looked when it first entered the cloud, when it comes out on the other side it has been bent and rebent so many times that it's just a big mess of all the different colors of light all mixed together. in other words, it comes out looking "white". | 48 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mie_scattering#Atmospheric_science"
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|
why do the worlds oceans have such varied color? | the indian ocean, for instance, looks greener to me as compared with, say, the north atlantic. | marine biologist, ocean, organic matter ====== marine biologist here! the colour of the ocean would be dependant on the extent different wavelengths of light absorbed by it, which in itself is determined by things like suspended particles (sediment, organic matter) and the different concentration/types of phytoplankton. phytoplankton would be the most important factor in creating a greenish ocean as the chlorophyll they use for photosynthesis absorb blue and red light and reflect back green light. the ocean is generally blue to our eyes as blue as it is the least absorbed colours by ocean waters, [this](_url_0_) a pretty good graph showing the different absorption of different colours (wavelengths). there are also a bunch of other substances which have the potential to absorb and alter ocean colour, notably cdom, or coloured/chromophoric dissolved organic matter (generally released from decay of detritus), which absorbs light in shorter wavelengths (blue and ultraviolet). if you have any further questions feel free to ask! | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.seafriends.org.nz/phgraph/phdwg34.gif"
] | [
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] |
how much plastic gets into plastic-bottle vodka? | my cheap-ass friends drink a lot of plastic-bottle vodka, but they don't study science. how much potentially health-harming pthalates and other plastics dissolve into a bottle of wolfschmidt (about 40% alcohol)? | polyethylene terephthalate, pete or polyester, alcohol and oil ====== polyethylene terephthalate: polyethylene terephthalate (pet, pete or polyester) is actually quite resistant to alcohol and oil. pthalates and diethyl phthalate (dep) are widely present illegally produced spirits/alcohol and there is some evidence of negative health risks, you would have to be drinking a lot. it's hard to type/research on my phone but here's the one i managed to go through briefly _url_0_ | 10 | [] | [] | [
"plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0008127"
] | [
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do we get more sensitive to low frequency sounds as we reach middle age? | [deleted] | people actually lose, lose the ability, ability to detect ====== i believe people actually lose the ability to detect sound at the edges of the frequency range we can normally hear because the little hairs inside the cochlea die off. i think it's more that we become less tolerant of "that noise" because as we age, we just stop giving a crap about being polite and are more likely to not "just ignore it" in order to get by | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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nanoseconds after the big bang, wouldn't time be near-infinitely slow due to the energy/mass of the entire universe in a very small area? | assuming time exists, why is it estimated that the universe expanded exponentially fast instead of astronomically slow? | gravitational time dilation, time dilation requires, gravitational time ====== no, gravitational time dilation requires a gradient in the potential, i.e. you have to compare two clocks where one clock is much further down in the gravitational potential than the other clock. after the big bang, the universe (and thus the potential) was extremely homogeneous. why it expanded exponentially is still up to debate. it would solve a lot of problems if it did, that's why we believe it did. but the mechanics are not entirely understood yet. it might involve some scalar field tunneling from a false to a true vacuum state. | 11 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
will in late times, with the hubble constant big enough, the expansion of the universe be fast enough to lower the frequency of orbiting planets? | hubble parameter, dark energy behaves, eventually stop decreasing ====== while the expansion of the universe is accelerating, the hubble parameter is actually decreasing with time. if dark energy behaves like a cosmological constant, h will eventually stop decreasing and stay constant in time (at a value lower than today). so in that case, no. if dark energy is some kind of [phantom energy](_url_0_) and its density increases with time, then the big rip scenario will occur in the far future. in that case, not only the planets orbits will be affected but everything will be ripped apart as the scale factor of the universe goes to infinite. this case is considered less likely than the first but isn't ruled out. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phantom_energy"
] | [
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|
is there any evidence of moons having their own moons anywhere in the galaxy? | solar system, evidence for planets, url ====== there is as yet no evidence for planets having moons anywhere outside the solar system, much less moons around moons. measurements are just now getting [sensitive enough](_url_0_) that the detection of moons outside our the solar system should be possible. as for the challenge of a moon having a moon, take a look at [this](_url_2_) or [this](_url_1_). bottom line, it's not logically impossible, but having a stable configuration would be unlikely. | 26 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.cfa.harvard.edu/HEK/HEKV.html",
"http://www.universetoday.com/109666/can-moons-have-moons/",
"http://www.popsci.com/scitech/article/2008-04/could-moon-have-moons",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hill_sphere",
"http://orbitsimulator.com/formulas/hillsphere.html",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/2meg1l/can_moons_have_moons/cm3imsx"
] | [
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|
why is it easier to balance a bike while moving ? | bike, turn, tire ====== we **do** know why it happens. gyroscopic forces do play a role but only to 12%. the main reason why it happens is explained below. the effect is a combination of several phenomenon. ill walk you step by step. lets say you are riding a bike, and there is a disturbance like a side wind that causes the bike to lean to one side. well the front tire experiences something called [camber thrust](_url_0_). the easiest way to explain this is to imagine a quarter of a doughnut made of rubber. if you try to bend it to straighten it, it produces a reaction force in the direction of the curvature. this is essentially what happens with the tire - if it was to roll straight, it would have to deform the rubber ahead of the contact patch due to the fact that the shorter rubber path on the inside of the turn has to travel the same distance as the longer rubber path on the outside of the turn. so in physical representation, this is expressed as a force pointing to the inside of the turn ahead of the current contact patch of the tire. this manifests as a centripetal force, and a yaw moment because there is no balancing force behind the contact patch. this causes the tire to turn into the turn. now you have the center of gravity of the bike, and the bottom of the bike is moving into the turn to counteract the lean. the bike returns to the upright position. when the bike is upright, the frame+the rear tire straighten to follow the front wheel. however the key component to this is this effect is **very** speed dependent. the camber thrust reaction speed is heavily dependent on the bike velocity. at higher speeds, the gyroscopic forces of the front wheel slow down the rate at which it rotates in response to camber thrust, so the bike just leans until it topples. at slower speeds, the reaction is so fast that the wheel turns more that it has to, causing the bike to turn hard, and since the cg wants to travel in a straight line, it causes the bike to lean the other way and possibly topple. then in between that range, there is a something called a head shake, which is very dependant on geometry, but its essentially the correction mechanism described above taking place very fast at significant lean angles, causing the handlebars to turn violently back and forth. this is hard to get into because it has to be a mismatch between the lean angle and the appropriate yaw angle of the wheel for the given turn. you see this happen on motorcycles after wheelies a lot, because inexperienced riders will turn the handlebars when coming down, yet the bike is traveling in a straight line. because of other dynamics, such as traction on the rear tire and speed changes, this can lead to a crash as well. when the bike is not moving, camber thrust is absent. thus its much harder to balance the bike. source: my control engineering background | 54 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camber_thrust",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_theory",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/k03fb/why_is_it_easier_to_balance_a_bike_while_moving/c2gioog",
"http://www.sciencemag.org/content/332/6027/339"
] | [
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|
my question is: how do fingerprints form? | i've heard they form because of random motions in the womb, although that makes little sense to me.. | epidermis, called the epidermis, basal layer ====== the skin contains 2 different sections that are called the epidermis and dermis. the epidermis is the outer section (closer to the surface) and the dermis sits below it. the layer of the epidermis which is in contact with the dermis is called the basal layer, this is the layer important to fingerprint formation. before the fingerprints form the cells in the basal layer all sit in a straight line. for reasons that aren’t exactly clear, around the 10th-16th week of pregnancy the cells of this layer begin to become undulated (take on a wavy arrangement instead of a straight line). as time progresses this will change the arrangement of the layers of the epidermis above it. eventually these undulations appear on the surface of the epidermis too where they are seen as fingerprints. this is also the reason that superficial skin injuries do not destroy your fingerprints. they are caused by something that is deep underneath the skin so damage to the surface doesn’t prevent them from re-forming when the skin heals. | 9 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why do foods taste different when they're cooked? | texture and colour, reaction, maillard reaction ====== there are a range of different reactions responsible for the change in food taste, texture and colour. one of the more interesting is the maillard reaction, which is responsible for browning reactions in meat, cheese, and on the crust of bread. the maillard reaction happens between an amino acid and a reducing sugar, with different sugars and amino acids having different reactivities. in the manufacturing of pizza, the cheese used can be altered to contain less sugar and thus avoid excessive browning, which is why the pizzeria cheese is different from the store-bought mozarella. this is also the reaction being promoted when coating pastry with egg to produce a nice brown crust, as eggs contain amino acids. as another example of a browning reaction can be mentioned the caramellization of sugar; this reaction is acid and heat-catalysed and leads to a polymerization of the products of the alteration of sugars by heat and/or acid. sources: belitz, grosch & schieberle, food chemistry, 4th ed. springer, 2009. _url_0_ | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.cheesemarketnews.com/guestcolumn/2010/21may10_02.html"
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|
why do i always sneeze twice? | whenever i sneeze, it's never once, always twice. why is that? | large discussion, potential to explode, friendly reminder ====== just a friendly reminder as this thread has a potential to explode into a large discussion. please follow the [askscience community guideline](_url_0_) as well as the reminder next to the submit button, avoid making top-level anecdotes, jokes, and layman speculations. thank you for your cooperation and let's keep askscience awesome. | 40 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/help/faqs/AskScience",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photic_sneeze_reflex"
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are all elements produced in stars? | i've learned that it takes a star to fuse elements together and make heavier ones. - at a hight temperature, hydrogen will fuse into helium. - at a higher temperature (which requires a bigger star), helium will fuse into carbon - even bigger stars (at least 8 times the sun) will fuse carbon into neon and so on. my question is: is this how all the elements are made? if that's the case, what kind of stars does it take to make gold, lead and uranium? | possibly detect, extremely short half-lives, short time ====== no. or at least there are some elements that we cannot possibly detect even if they were produced in stars. there are some elements which have extremely short half-lives. which means that they can be created in laboratories, and there's a very short time within which these can be detected before they decay into other elements. that means that even if they are made within stars or through chance chemical reactions, we wouldn't be able to detect them ( considering the distance and the very short time period they would exist) earlier all transuranic elements were thought to be like this, so that they could only be produced synthetically. but now we know that there are those that exist naturally as well (like plutonium). those with atomic numbers above 99 have only been created in laboratories and have not been generated in stars. i think also technetium (tc 43) is not present in nature, but not sure about that one. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/nucene/imgnuk/bcurv.gif"
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are trees monophyletic, or has "treeness" evolved independently in multiple plant lineages? | multiple times, url, multiple ====== multiple times. there are ferns that are [trees](_url_0_), grasses that are [trees](_url_1_), gymnosperms (conifers and ginkos), and many different lineages with trees within the flowering plants. | 19 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dicksonia_antarctica",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bamboo"
] | [
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|
why is the ozone layer thinnest around antarctica, why is ozone depletion not evenly spread around the world? | north and south, south poles, poles that accounts ====== from wikipedia: _url_0_ there is a temperature difference between the north and south poles that accounts for the difference in the depletion of each. | 12 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozone_depletion",
"http://eoimages.gsfc.nasa.gov/images/imagerecords/49000/49040/ozone_omi_201010.jpg"
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why does the ozone deplete over antarctica and not other places? has it depleted over other places? | ozone, create the famous, set of circumstances ====== ozone in the ozone layer has gone down globally, but a particular set of circumstances create the famous "ozone hole" over antarctica every spring. first, let me explain a little ozone chemistry. the major problem is cfcs, aka chlorofluorocarbons. these are extremely stable molecules, so they survive in the atmosphere a long time. long enough to be transported up to the stratosphere where uv light will knock of a cl atom. the cl atom then reacts with ozone like so: * cl + o3 -- * clo + o3 -- the net reaction destroys 2 ozone molecules and preserves the cl atom, so this cycle can repeat until the cl atom reacts to form a reservoir species that prevents it from destroying more ozone. two such reactions are: * cl + ch4 -- * clo + no2 -- now, all these reactions are happening all over the world. what is special about antarctica is how cold it gets. because it is at a pole, it gets cold. but because there is a continent over the pole, which prevents heat transport by ocean currents, antarctica gets even colder than the north pole. and when it gets so ridiculously cold, a unique phenomenon occurs: the formation of clouds in the stratosphere. these clouds are made up of frozen water, sulfuric acid, and nitric acid. but the important thing is that they provide surfaces. chemical reactions that normally take a really long time in the gas phase can occur much more quickly when they have surfaces to react on. this allows for this reaction to happen: * clono2 + hcl -- reactions like this happen all through the polar winter. when the sun eventually comes up in spring. the cl2 is released, uv light breaks it into 2 cl atoms, the concentration of cl skyrockets, and then the concentration of ozone plummets, leading to the ozone hole. | 10 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
why does everything in our solar system orbit the sun on the same plane? does the whole universe act this way? | disc, system, solar system ====== the solar system formed out of a single disc of matter, which meant that all the planets that formed out of the disc were rotating the same direction in the same plane. you need two ingredients to form a disc in an astrophysical scenario. you need angular momentum - some kind of initial spin - and you need a way to get rid of energy so that the system flattens into a disc rather than just being a bit of a stretched out blob. angular momentum is easy to come by, because any random motion will typically end up having some spin on some scale. but having a way to get rid of energy isn't universal. if you have a system of gas, then the gas particles will collide, transferring kinetic energy into internal energy, which then gets radiating away. but if you have a system of stars or dark matter, the stars or dark matter don't really interact with each other, and don't have an easy way to get rid of energy. so gas tends to collapse into a disc, but stars and dark matter tend to stay as big blobs. you only get stars in a disc because they formed from a gas disc. but if you stir the stars up (e.g. by colliding with another galaxy), it's difficult to settle the stars back down into a disc - you are more likely to end up with an elliptical galaxy. however, the solar system doesn't spin the same way the galaxy does. when a cloud of gas fragments and collapses into solar systems, the spin of each solar system is not caused by the large scale rotation of the galaxy's gas disc, but by small scale turbulent motions. so each little solar system disc has pretty much a random orientation compared to the galaxy as a whole. on a larger scale than galaxies, we don't really have much disc structure. galaxies can hang out together in groups and clusters, but they tend to be more blobby than disky. on a very large scale, these groups and clusters (plus lonely "field" galaxies) are arranged in a kind of spiderweb pattern, because the universe as a whole doesn't spin. | 11 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
do plants and animals share a common ancestor? | good summary, cellular level, share a lot ====== [here is a good summary](_url_0_) plants and animals share a lot of structure at the cellular level. cells have chromosomes, ribosomes, phospholipid bilayers for cell membranes, they all use dna to store genetic information, various forms of rna are common to both plants and animals, etc. | 13 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_descent#Evidence_of_universal_common_descent",
"http://www.timetree.org/"
] | [
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|
do plants and animals share a common ancestor? | we know that mammals, reptiles, invertebrates, birds, amphibians, and fish share a common ancestor. but where did plant life come from? were there two separate types of life that evolved, or did it originate with just one and split off into radically different paths? | short answer, long answer, answer ====== short answer: yes! long answer: actually plant life isn't that different from animal life when you look at it on a molecular basis. as plants are eukaryonts (their cells have a nucleus) they are even more closely related to us than for example bacteria. their dna resembles ours in many ways and even codes for some of the same proteins. this is most probably due to a common ancestry. concerning the origin of life... there is no evidence that life on earth started more than once, all living things most certainly share a common ancestor and lines split only after evolution kicked in (as evolution could only start after life had begun). | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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does a horizontally moving mirror reflect any differently than an equivalently stationary one? | scenario 1: you're in your bathroom looking at your mirror. scenario 2: you're standing perpendicular to some train tracks when a mirror strapped to a train passes by. given that the moving mirror is long enough so you can get a good look at yourself, are there any optical distortions? what if the train is moving relativistically? | mirror, infinitely thin vertical, thin vertical slices ====== divide the mirror up into infinitely thin vertical slices, each moving at velocity *v* on a train headed to your right. define *phi* as the angle at which you are looking at the train -- *phi*=0 is normal to the mirror; pi/2 looks at the front of the train in the distance. also, let's say the mirror is mounted above the train, like a fin on a sailfish, and that you are on a platform so as to be up at the level of the mirror seeing it whiz by -- i'll explain this addition later. each slice of mirror is moving away from you at *v'*=*v*\*arctan(*phi*). so naturally, there will be some lorentz boosting when you consider light leaving your reference frame and interacting with the mirror. but, there should be an equal and opposite lorentz boost on the way back, so no need to worry about rewriting the laws of specular reflection. but there is the pesky detail of the light blue- & red-shifting when boosted into the new reference frame. if your mirror is transparent to x-rays, radio, or any other kind of em radiation, then at some angles, the mirror will get a lorentz boost sufficient to turn the mirror transparent to visible light in your reference frame. from your perspective, any visible light should pass right through the mirror at that angle. this is where having the mirror mounted on top gets interesting. strange bands would appear at certain angles of *phi*. (noting the train's velocity and the location of these angles would be a kind of spectroscopy that would tell you about the material of your mirror.) at the center of these bands, the mirror should be transparent to visible light (or at least, as transparent as the mirror would be to x-rays, radiowaves, or whatever the light got boosted into). on the sides of each band would be a gradual transition between reflectivity and transparency, though. looking at the transitions from left to right, you would see, on the left side, the mirror stops reflecting violet first. instead, that color would be allowed *through* the mirror from behind, as you get closer to the center, the other colors would transition from reflection to transparency too. at the center of the band, it would be transparent. and at the right side of the band, the transition back to mirror would start with violet first, letting the red continue passing through until last. other commenters have pointed out that interaction time for light to bounce of a mirror is non-zero. this would make for an interesting distortion. you would see your reflection standing slightly to your right. you would not be looking eye to eye; your reflection would appear to be looking down the tracks a bit (just as you are). without turning your neck, you could see more of the left side of your head (and less of the right) than usual. for sufficient *v*, you could look into your left ear canal by looking right! thanks for this really great question! | 13 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what happens to helium-filled birthday balloons that are released into open air? | do they pop due to changes in pressure, do they go into orbit? honestly, i have no clue. | feet and pop, stretching limit, balloon expands ====== they go up a few thousand feet and pop as the gas in the balloon expands beyond the stretching limit for the rubber. no balloon will ever make it into orbit.. orbit requires thousands and thousands of miles an hour of lateral velocity | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what happens to a helium party balloon when it is released outside? | options vary on the internet from popping at high altitude in little bits to the knot coming undone and becoming a danger to wildlife. | professional weather balloons, stronger material, professional weather ====== professional weather balloons that are designed to expand (stronger material, underfilled to allow for expansion) generally rise until they fail at high altitude. in a still environment, this is what would likely happen to a standard party balloon. party balloons are often filled close to capacity, so they wouldn't have to go up so far to pop. factors that are harder to quantify are small leaks in the balloon or turbulence. at higher altitudes, small leaks would get worse, and potentially allow enough helium to leak out that it would fall back to earth. because the balloons are quite light, there's a chance that it would get caught in an air stream long enough for enough helium to leak out. regardless, the balloon will likely come back to earth and be litter somewhere. if you remember balloon boy from a few years ago, that balloon went up, drifted quite a ways in the wind, and finally leaked enough for it to land. edit: i should add that unless you're talking about the specifically lined mylar balloons, helium balloons are relatively permeable to helium. this is why they deflate after a day or so in normal conditions. the further up you go, the more accelerated this process would be, even if there are no actual leaks. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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when you lose weight by burning fat, how does it leave your body? | is it through cellular respiration or do the broken down molecules get into your liquid or solid waste streams? | tissues call lipids, biological tissues call, call lipids ====== your fat is full of biological tissues call lipids. long stringy compounds of hydrogen, carbon and oxygen that are great at storing energy in their chemical bonds. when the molecules are broken apart, they release their energy stored in their bonds, referred to the process of 'burning fat'. it's a common misconception that when you burn fat, all that mass is converted into energy and lost as heat. biologists at the university of south wales recently did an 'atom by atom' breakdown of the fat burning process. studies showed that you simply exhale your fat after it's burned into your body. for every 10 kg/22 pounds of fat you burn, you have to inhale 29 kg/63 pounds of oxygen to metabolise or break down the fat and release its energy. the process breaks down 28kg/61 pounds of carbon dioxide and 11 kg/24 pounds of water. so for every kg/2 pounds of fat you burn in your body, more than 80% of mass is lost as carbon dioxide as you breathe out. you also lose 20% as water through your urine, sweat and tears. to conclude your basically just emanating your fat through your breath and your skin, but in a good way! | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what would be the weight of the total amount of carbon pumped into the atmosphere since the beginning of the industrial revolution? | and how thick would it be if it were uniformly distributed over the planet? | enters the environmental, environmental cycles, url ====== it's hard to calculate the weight of *all* the carbon we've used because it enters the environmental cycles like everything else. it doesn't just stay in the atmosphere, but it gets dissolved in the ocean, used by plants and trees to grow, etc etc. what i can calculate is the increase in mass of atmospheric carbon. [this nice table](_url_2_) tells me that the concentration of co2 was 280 parts per million. present levels are 395 ppm, so the net difference is 115 ppm, but be aware that's a 2013 number so it's actually higher now. the mass of the atmosphere is also pretty well known, [and is about 5x10^18 kg.](_url_1_) knowing that it is 115/1000000 parts manmade co2, we find that we've increased the net mass of co2 in the atmosphere by 5.8x10^14 kg. for comparison, the great pyramid of giza is 6x10^9 kg. if we froze this co2 into blocks of dry ice, that's 10,000 great pyramids of solid carbon dioxide. if we spread it over the surface of the earth it would make a layer of dry ice [0.7 mm thick](_url_3_), or a layer of carbon dioxide [2 feet (61 cm) thick.](_url_0_) humans are such industrious creatures. and if anyone has more reliable numbers for this post i'd be happy to amend it. google searches for climate science data seems to be notoriously polluted with awful blogs and completely unreliable articles. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=5.8+*+10^14+kg+%2F+%28%28density+of+dry+ice%29+*+4*pi*%28radius+of+earth%29^2%29%3D",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Earth#Density_and_mass",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse_gas#Natural_and_anthropogenic_sources",
"http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=5.8+*+10^14+kg+%2F+%28%281.6+g%2Fcc%29+*+4*pi*%28radius+of+earth%29^2%29%3D"
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why does the moon have so many craters and the earth so few? | just watched this video: _url_0_ pretty awesome stuff. my question may be kind of dumb, but i'm not well versed in this expertise, bear with me. in the video it depicts the moon being hit by constant asteroids/meteorites (i know there is a difference, but forgot what it is?) why doesn't the earth have so many craters like the moon? the moon seems like a much smaller and it appears to have many craters? my only logical conclusion is that the craters have been covered up by forests and ocean. also i tried searching this on reddit, but it kept crashing. so excuse me if this is a repost :( | partially, craters, smaller things ====== partially right. it's mainly erosion, and many smaller things are lost due to disintegration in the atmosphere. water, wind, ice, etc- they all work to reform the landscape, erasing evidence of impacts. but we still see plenty of craters in dry places or places with less erosional activity. meteor crater in arizona is a good example. also, impacts in the ocean are much less likely to leave a crater (unless it's really big), and since oceans cover over half the surface area of the earth, that many less craters! | 9 | [] | [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_embedded&v=UIKmSQqp8wY"
] | [] | [
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why is moon full of craters but not the earth? | do asteroids always hit only the moon? | earth, mysterious asteroid-magnet, asteroid-magnet that protects ====== the moon isn't a mysterious asteroid-magnet that protects the earth. more asteroids will hit the earth than the moon, simply because the earth is bigger. so why don't we have that many craters on earth? three reasons. 1) earth has an atmosphere. smaller asteroids burn up in the atmosphere, larger ones may break into smaller pieces that leave smaller craters. on the other hand, the moon has no atmosphere, so every asteroid heading toward it is going to leave its mark. 2) earth has plate tectonics. our crust is divided into multiple plates that move around slowly but steadily. earthquakes, volcanoes and the formation of mountain ranges, all are caused by the interaction of these tectonic plates. compared to the scale of these processes, a crater is just a small dimple that is easily erased. the moon doesn't have moving plates. 3) erosion. wind and rain cause even rock to slowly erode, smoothening out features. after a while, craters may simply be "erased" due to erosion. note that 2) and 3) involve processes that have an extremely long timescale. if an asteroid would strike today and leave a decently sized crater, it may take thousands of years or even longer before it has fully disappeared. the largest craters on earth are tens of millions of years old and are still there. | 50 | [] | [] | [
"http://meteorcrater.com/",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clearwater_Lakes",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicxulub_crater",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaali_crater",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunguska_event"
] | [
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is there scientific knowledge of a point in our early-mid 20s after which hangovers become much worse? | just from talking with my friends we have noticed that at some point in your early or mid 20s, you turn a point and your hangovers start to get a lot worse. i remember that i used to get so drunk that i would be kind of drunk and kind of hungover the day after, but if i tried that now the hangover aspect would undoubtedly overshadow the carryover drunkenness. i thought it was just a theory of ours but i have talked to other people that independently noticed the same thing, including people from other countries with younger drinking ages. is there any truth to this? thanks. | metabolic rate change, drinking habits, metabolic rate ====== i can think of a number of different reasons why this may be the case; metabolic rate change, drinking habits, alcohol tolerance just to name a few. but this is simply speculation. here are a couple of studies that you might find interesting: [age, alcohol metabolism and liver disease.](_url_1_) [variations in alcohol metabolism: influence of sex and age.](_url_0_) | 93 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1223907",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18090653"
] | [
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] |
when we dream, do our bodies and minds "remember" the dream experiences at a chemical level even though our waking mind has no memory? do dreams have a physiological effect on the human body? | cut apparat people, apparat people brains, n’t cut apparat ====== the short answer to anything dream related is no one knows, because there isn’t enough research and we can’t cut apparat people's brains to look at them with a microscope without them dying and thus not dreaming anymore | 8 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
do elder people who suffer memory loss start losing different "kinds" of memories in a particular order? | when my grandmother developed dementia, the first memories she started losing were memories about her homes first, then followed by memories about people she knew, then followed by memories about other things, etc... now it seems my grandfather is developing dementia as well, or alzheimer, he is still pretty much aware of his surroundings but he too is starting to suffer memory loss, and he too is starting from memories about his home, he doesn't recognize it anymore or he thinks his home is still the one from his youth. is it just casual that both my grandparents started losing different memories in what seems to be the same order, or is there an actual pattern for what memories you lose first when you suffer memory loss? | brain regions, brain, case of alzheimer ====== in the case of alzheimer's, yes. as another comment mentioned, 'dementia' is a broad category that can mean a lot of things, and there are also many different causes of memory loss. different brain regions have different roles in memory, and store different types/duration of memory. with the progression of [mci to severe alzheimer's](_url_0_) the affected portion of the brain expands to encompass more brain regions and by extension more cognitive functions, in a somewhat predictable pattern. there are other things going on too but this is the main reason you see an increasing number of *types* of cognitive impairments with time - more brain regions are being affected. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.preventad.com/img/progression_ad_symptoms.gif"
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is a brain transplant theoretically possible? if yes, what would the outcome entail? if no, why not? | head transplants, url, theory a brain ====== i find it a little unpleasant but since there have been 'successful' [head transplants](_url_1_) then yes, in theory a brain transplant could be done. challenges are mainly with scarring of nerve tissue such as the spinal cord. - _url_0_ | 13 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whole-body_transplant",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head_transplant",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=R2BxGOdYm8U",
"http://www.iu.edu/~pietsch/memory-optics.html"
] | [
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|
is it theoretically possible to perform a brain transplant whereby the recipient survives and is fully functional? | if so, what current limitations prevent it, can they conceivably be overcome, and in how long? | brain transplant, transplant, brain ====== since you (i.e. your personality, memories, etc.) "reside" entirely in your brain, a brain transplant may also be called a whole body transplant. you can imagine the ethical quandaries associated with it such as establishing identity, obtaining consent, and legal consequences that follow from something like this being attempted. i think, however, you are more interested in the technical limitations - as nothing like this has been attempted on a human, [an italian neurosurgeon has proposed an entire theoretical outline](_url_0_) on how this may happen based on current surgical techniques and previous experiments done with a rhesus monkey. his proposal is based on a head transplant, not a brain transplant, but practically speaking they amount to the same thing. he also briefly mentions some possible inclusion criteria (like young quadriplegics, victims of motorvehicle accidents, etc.) but skirts the ethics entirely. as for functional status recovery, the general expectations for complete spinal cord injury [are not good](_url_1_). the expectations for a controlled surgery are likely better, but we don't have any data to know how much better, or even if it is better at all! nerve regeneration is a tricky thing, especially when it involves the spinal column rather than a peripheral nerve. so, basically, no one's given too much thought about it, partially because it doesn't happen very often. how likely is it that someone becomes brain dead without major trauma to their body and yet was able to give proper consent to have their body transplanted, with a recipient ready? there are some technical limitations such as inherent poor spinal nerve regeneration after spinal injury, but we don't really have much information at all because it would not only seem very difficult to perform, but also because the ethics involved have not been addressed. | 91 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3821155/",
"http://www.uptodate.com/contents/image?imageKey=NEURO%2F73350&topicKey=NEURO%2F4819&rank=4~150&source=see_link"
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why will a bigger cup of coffee stay hotter longer than a smaller cup of coffee? | surface area grows, surface area, grows like length ====== it's because surface area grows like length squared whereas volume goes like length cubed. that is, a bigger cup has proportionately more coffee in it relative to its surface area. so you have a much larger amount of heat you need to transport out, but only slightly more surface area that you can transport it through. | 25 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
is there a particular shape coffee/tea cup that keeps the beverage hotter, longer? | i'm a pretty slow coffee drinker, so it tends to cool off quite a bit before i get to drink it all. so, usually, it's not palatable by the time i get around to wanting to finish it off. i got to thinking this morning, is there a shape of cup in which the surface area or distribution of the drink would allow it to stay at a higher temperature over time? i am fully aware that i can use a cup with a lid or a thermos, but i'm more so curious if anyone with a knowledge of thermodynamics (or whatever field this would apply to) would have an answer to the best shape coffee mug for retaining temp and why it would do so. thanks! | heat transfer, spherical, surface area ====== spherical. a sphere has the least amount of surface area per volume, and the surface is where the heat transfer happens. less surface area means less heat transfer is possible. since a sphere is not a practical shape for a mug, the cylinders we use now is probably the best comprimise. | 21 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.trekprops.de/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2009/10/raktajino_mug_replimat_6982.jpg",
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why is the suicide rate typically significantly higher for men than women? | i noticed this when i was linked to [the wikipedia page for suicide rates by country](_url_0_). it really made me wonder, from a psychological point of view, why is it that suicide is more common among men than women? | stiff upper lip, majority of male, upper lip ====== in england 'the stiff upper lip' is responsible for the majority of male suicides. men simply do not talk about their problems. women will more likely go to their social group or a family relative; usually female, and debate their issues, yet in comparison men do not want this. they do not want to seek help because they are supposed to lead and solve it themselves, hence the stiff upper lip. when they reach problem that is unsolvable one of the courses of action to combat that situation is suicide. in the north east of england where there is a lot of poverty an initiative known as calm has been introduced that presents suicide as a option that everyone considers, as a result of this programme the suicide rate in this area has dropped by 55%. perhaps this is the way forward? | 4 | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_suicide_rate"
] | [] | [
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how close are lab-grown diamonds to the real ones? at what point is a lab-grown diamond a real diamond? | i was recently reading an article about de beers fighting chinese lab-grown diamonds that are basically indistinguishable from real diamonds. are the two atomically identical? without getting too philosophical, is a structurally identical lab-grown diamond a real diamond? | diamonds, completely identical, properties ====== the atomic structure, chemical properties and physical properties are completely identical. a lab created diamond is a diamond. diamonds formed in nature start out as carbon trapped within xenoliths 100s of kilometers below the earth's surface. some of the xenoliths, after being exposed to extreme heat and temperature, escape to the earth's surface where the carbon cools and becomes the diamonds that are mined. there are other ways for diamonds to form (i.e., from asteroid impacts), but this is how the vast majority of mined diamonds are being formed. laboratories just artificially recreate this process, typically using a diamond "seed" (basically regularly repeating carbon atoms that form a lattice). these are then placed inside a heating unit that cooks the seed at a really high temperature which causes natural gas to become a sort of carbon plasma that cause the lattice to grow. but structurally you're making the exact same thing. there are a few differences, albeit mostly superficial. lab grown diamonds will have metallic inclusions that won't be found in natural diamonds. but this doesn't really effect much--natural diamonds also have inclusions. also, natural diamonds have a huge range of color and saturation levels which are a product of the chemical composition of whatever environment they were formed in (for example, the presence of nitrogen creates yellow diamonds). lab grown diamonds are usually all brown and then are chemically treated and recolored (or de-colored). but, again, it's the same actual physical structure and thing at the end of the day. also, i should note, this only applies to lab created diamonds. there are other lab-created gemstones (like moissanite and cubic zirconium) which look similar to diamonds, but are indeed different. | 80 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.gia.edu/identifying-lab-grown-diamonds#item-5",
"https://www.gia.edu/identifying-lab-grown-diamonds"
] | [
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] |
what gases besides helium can cause a standard party balloon to float? | based on the average capacity and weight of a standard party balloon, what types of gases besides helium can cause the balloon to float? | suggest avoiding flammable, avoiding flammable gases, hindenberg disaster ====== [any gases lighter than air](_url_0_) edit: if you have the resources, and are actually going to try this, i would suggest avoiding flammable gases, such as hydrogen - think *hindenberg disaster* | 9 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lighter_than_air",
"http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/gas-density-d_158.html"
] | [
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does observing an eclipse contribute to astronomy? | i saw a video of how the berlin observatory watches the eclipse. i'm wondering whether this is just an entertainment for laypeople, or it actually contributes to science. do astronomers around the world watch today's eclipse? is there anything new scientists can learn by watching the eclipse? has any of the recent eclipses (say, last 30 years) led to any discoveries? | famous astronomical discovery, arthur eddington observation, predicted by einstein ====== perhaps the most famous astronomical discovery from an eclipse is arthur eddington's observation that the light of distant stars is bent by the gravity of the sun, as predicted by einstein. they're also useful for seeing the spectrum of the solar corona, which is normally hard to see over the sun. | 25 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why is it that we are losing helium into space, while hydrogen stays around? | i watched [this](_url_0_) video a few days back, and it explains why helium is so important and how it's use in party balloons is wasting a finite resource. the scientist explains that earth has too little gravity to keep helium from escaping. how is it that a lighter element, hydrogen, is able to stay on earth? or do we just have so much in the form of water that we just don't care? | noble gas, earths gravity, held under earths ====== helium, a noble gas, is too light to be held under earths gravity. hydrogen is lighter, and free hydrogen will also escape, however, it is also reactive, and unlike helium, is mostly bound up in compounds with other elements. free hydrogen will still escape. | 16 | [] | [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oZkMQkHGj1s"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Earth#/media/File:Atmosphere_gas_proportions.svg"
] | [
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are certain parts of the universe expanding faster than others? | if not, is it possible? | universe is linear, point, observer ====== so the expansion of the universe is linear in distance from the observer. v=ho*d so the further the object is from earth, the faster it is receding. so in that sense, yes, things are expanding away from us with different speeds. but remember, it is all a point of reference. d is the proper distance from the observer. if we say that earth is at point a in space, and we measure something 100 mpc away from us at point c, it would be receding with a velocity of roughly 7500 km/s. if you were at point b which were 200 mpc away from point c you would measure 15000 km/s. its just like an explosion. all the points are expanding out from each other. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why does skin damaged by the sun not get replaced with healthy new skin? | if you have all new cells after a certain amount of time, why do the new cells come in damaged? thanks edit: yes i do mean as walexj said, "freckles, wrinkles, leathery skin etc." also it was my impression that you are at a higher risk for skin cancer when you're 50 if you got sunburned when you were 20. | question a bit, clarify your question, bit ====== you're going to have to clarify your question a bit. when you get sunburned, the damaged skin goes away and is replaced by new/healthy skin. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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would soil on mars grow plants? | in the movie the martian the main character seems to grows plants from martian dirt. could martian dirt grow plants or would it need organics mixed into the dirt to make it grow plants? | nope, soil, mark watney ====== nope! not as it is naturally. in the book (which is fantastic, by the way), mark watney actually adds fertilizer (poop) and water to the soil, so it's not as simple as it seems in the trailer. that said, plants still wouldn't grow in martian soil in reality. i'm no botanist, but one major problem with the soil on mars is that it's covered in perchlorate, an extremely reactive (ie explosive) oxidizer, which is toxic. i'm sure there are other problems as well... | 30 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why don't wheels spin within their tires? | whether it's a car or a bike or what have you, it seems like the wheel to tire system is incredibly good at transmitting forces. what i'm wondering about is the sort of really high intensity situation, [like drag racing for instance](_url_0_). (that tire might be bolted on??) how is it that the tires will spin on the pavement "peeling out" but you never hear about the wheel itself spinning within the tire. the thing that confuses me about this is that the only friction holding the tire in place is provided by the thin strip of rubber along the rim of the wheel. is that really significantly more surface area than is provided by the wheel to ground? | tire bead seated, neglecting the high, air inside ====== you're neglecting the high pressure of air inside the tire that keeps the tire bead seated into the rim. all that pressure squeezes the rubber tire against the metal rim and greatly increases the friction between the two. | 6 | [] | [
"http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-WfxA2deXhFA/T5SKAVYZARI/AAAAAAAAEMY/pIiWr-uUKhc/s400/0810chp_02_z+mickey_thompson_drag_tires_tips+hard_vs_soft.jpg"
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why do i see faint flashes of light when i roll my eyes around with my eyelids closed? | slight pressure, intraocular fluid, leading to sensory ====== slight pressure against your retina from the intraocular fluid (leading to sensory input as light) caused by the muscles pulling the eye around. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphene"
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|
how do whales and dolphins sleep? | i was just watching a bbc planet earth documentary that featured marine life and it made me think how to marine mammals that are unable to go on land actually sleep? | section talks directly, episode of radiolab, section talks ====== _url_0_ that episode of radiolab is very interesting and the first section talks directly of how dolphins sleep. tl;dl - their brains are a bit more divided than ours (left/right) and they put one hemisphere to sleep at a time, while the other hemisphere functions enough to just keep them surfaced and breathing. they call it logging since they just kinda float there like logs. they then switch hemispheres. its been a while since i listened to the podcast and i'm sure someone else can come along and give a better/more specific answer, but seeing as its been 4 hours without any responses, i thought i'd take a crack at it. | 20 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.radiolab.org/story/91528-sleep/"
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how do blue whales sleep? | the wikipedia article didn't say and google results were inconclusive. thanks! | url, ability to sleep, time ====== * _url_1_ * _url_2_ * _url_3_ * _url_0_ tl;dr most whales have the ability to sleep with one half of their brain at a time. | 15 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.architalbiol.org/aib/article/viewFile/142557/386",
"https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-do-whales-and-dolphin/",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unihemispheric_slow-wave_sleep",
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18602158"
] | [
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do the gravitational forces that keep the sun spinning around galaxy center also impact the speed, spin and trajectory of earth? | every website i've looked at gives a different approximation of how fast the solar system is moving around galactic center, but it's probably around 84,000kph. given that the earth is moving with the sun at the same speed, are we being pulled by the sun alone or are we also being acted upon by the same gravitational forces that are pulling on the sun. | entire universe exert, force, gravitational force ====== all bodies/objects in the galaxy, and indeed the entire universe exert an attractive gravitational force on one another. this force will act regardless of the distance between two bodies, but of course, objects very apart exert a force so tiny in magnitude (size) that it's basically negligible and can be ignored. out of the 4 fundamental forces, gravity is the weakest, and it has a 1/r^2 relationship, which means the force drops off with the square of the distance between 2 objects. for example, you have a gravitational attraction between yourself and every object on your desk; but it's tiny in comparison to the force which the earth is exacting upon yourself and all those objects, so we can usually ignore it. in the case of the earth and the sun (thinking about this from a purely classical mechanics stand-point); both of them experience an attractive force to the 'galactic centre' (or all the bodies in the galactic centre), and indeed every other object in the galaxy. so yes, some part of the force causing to spin with the rest of the galaxy will come from there. however, the mass of the earth is roughly 1 millionth of that of the sun, and the earth is much closer to the sun than all the other objects in the galaxy, so it's entirely plausible that the part of the gravitational force which is "dragging us along with the sun" is probably much stronger in magnitude than the gravitational force from everything else in the galaxy. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how effective is bleach at killing micro organisms? | my understanding is little. i've read a lot about bacteria adapting to anti bacterial agents and becoming super strains of themselves. is that possible with bleach? is bleach effective against viruses? what's the best way to clean without encouraging bacterial adaptation? thanks in advance. | sodium hypochlorite, kills pretty, bleach ====== bleach (sodium hypochlorite) kills pretty much everything. i work in a biomed lab, and we use bleach as a standard disinfecting agent before we dispose of biological waste. bleach is not an antibiotic like many agents used. instead, it denatures the proteins that comprise microbes, usually irreversibly. also, the high basicity of bleach can cause damage to cells. bleach or ethanol (etoh) are industry standard means of disinfecting in the lab setting. bleach is used primarily for killing microbes in a sample or beaker (say i have a flask of bacteria that needs to be disposed of), etoh is used to disinfect surfaces and equipment (spray down the micro-pipettes, biosafety cabinet surface, your hands, etc). bacterial adaptations are usually the result of antibiotics. neither bleach nor etoh are antibiotics, so the chance of adaptations is very, very low. i've never heard of it happening. | 12 | [] | [] | [] | [
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[astronomy] where do the meteorites that fall on earth come from? | are all from the solar system, including the kuiper belt? or have an object outside our solar system fallen down on earth? if so, how rare is it? | solar system, possibly coming, detection of dust ====== according to [this paper] (_url_0_) there has been detection of dust from outside of the solar system, possibly coming from several parsecs away. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://astro.berkeley.edu/~kalas/disksite/library/murray04a.pdf"
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if within ice are very compact water molecules, do the molecules in my alcohol/juice/sports drink get more compact when i put them in the fridge? why don't we notice the difference in density between warm liquid and cool? | liquid water assuming, difficult to notice, frozen liquid ====== ice is actually less dense than water, so in ice the molecules would be more spread out than in liquid water assuming that the frozen liquid is homogeneous, which it probably isn't. and yes, there is a difference in density between cold and warm water, but it only varies from about 999.97 g/dm^3 at 4°c to 958.4 g/dm^3 at 100°c (998.21 at 22°c) so it might be difficult to notice the difference. as a rule of thumb, when you cool something down it shrinks (of course water below 4°c is an exception to this rule), so the molecules in your juice will be more tightly packed when cold than when warm. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
do plants and their roots create heat? | pretty good question., good question., pretty good ====== i thought this was actually a pretty good question.. thermoregulation, i.e. producing heat in response to external stimuli, is usually associated with birds and mammals. however, according to [this](_url_0_) article it sounds like there are some flowering plant species that are able to use an alternate pathway for respiration that allows for heat generation instead of atp synthesis. this is actually really really cool. maybe someone who knows more about this can chime in? | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2634508/",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Skunk_Cabbage#Ecology"
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|
do plants release heat? | hello! we had science class a couple of days ago and i asked if plants release heat since our teacher asked the class what happens to the energy that the plant doesn't use to make glucose. one person in my class said that they release heat and i asked my teacher if this is correct and he said he had actually never thought about that. so do plants release heat like we humans do? thanks in advance! | heat, plants, produces excessive amounts ====== yes! there are plants that produces excessive amounts of heat, referred to as thermogenic plants. they do this by uncoupling the electron transport chain to produce heat instead of atp. i cannot think of specific species right now but i know that many of these plants use this heat to better disperse compounds that attract pollinators and i think there is also a plant that uses thermogenesis to melt snow around its flower. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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are galaxies continually getting flatter? | just like accretion disks, are galaxies destined to get flatter and flatter over time? ignoring any kind of galactic mergers etc. | main reason disks, lose vertical speed, collisions between particles ====== generally no. the main reason disks get flatter is that they are dense enough for collisions between particles, which causes them to lose vertical speed and hence drop towards a flat disk. in a galaxy, the odds of even a single star colliding is very small, so the vertical velocity spread doesn't significantly change without a perturbing force. | 12 | [] | [] | [
"https://arxiv.org/pdf/1310.0403.pdf",
"http://astronomy.swin.edu.au/cosmos/S/Secular+Evolution",
"https://www.nature.com/articles/s41550-018-0436-x",
"http://hubblesite.org/reference_desk/faq/answer.php.id=39&cat=galaxies",
"http://www.astro.caltech.edu/~george/ay21/readings/Kormendy-Canary.pdf",
"http://www.astro.caltech.edu/\\~george/ay21/readings/Kormendy-Canary.pdf"
] | [
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how big can a synthetic diamond be? | while i am sure that the "theoretical limit" might be practically infinite, but what is the practical limit? | vapor deposition processes, make semicondutor-sized wafers, vapor deposition ====== i haven't kept up on the field, but there was a.ckmpany trying to grow them via vapor deposition processes to try and make semicondutor-sized wafers. last i had heard they were making wafers on the inch or so scale, but i think they got derailed for the jewelry industry. same deal with gemesis (if i remember the name right). they do it with pressure chambers. i saw a talk by one of the founders and he had crazy baller jewelry. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why is our natural inclination to scream when we get scared? | alarm calls, hold, alarm ====== it's a hold over from doing alarm calls. not calling out actually takes active inhibition. non human primates have a difficult time doing this. even if they want to not call out, like if they find a lovely food source, they have to clamp their hands over their mouths. calling out attracts the attention of others so they can either flee or come to your aid. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
if the hubble telescope can see extremely far in to deep space, why dont we use it to look at planets/galaxies closer to find life etc. | instead of finding galaxies that are millions of light years away, why can we point it at the nearest galaxy to use and examine each planet with detail? | galaxies are big, planet, galaxies ====== galaxies are big, planets are small. do some simple math, a galaxy is maybe 100,000 light-years across, or more, at a billion light years away that's a ratio of 1:10,000. now consider a planet, even a huge planet like jupiter is only about 0.5 light-seconds in diameter. so even at 4 light-years distance, the closest any other star is to us, that's a ratio of about 1:240,000,000. planets are very, very tiny, there's just no way with current telescopes of resolving them into anything other than a single point. worse, because planets are near stars the enormous brightness difference means that the light of the planet gets lost in the glare of the star. with advanced techniques it may become possible to cancel out the glare of the star and resolve the planet but such technology is still being developed today and may be years or decades away. | 8 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.spacetelescope.org/about/faq/"
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how come you can push your tongue out since a muscle can only contract? | and all extrinsic muscles of the tongue attach to places that will only pull the tongue (sup. genial tubercle, styloid proc. palate and so on). is it contraction of the internal muscles (as in making the tongue narrower?) because i can push it out while still being wide (kind of). | answer your question, depressing its center, genioglossus muscle ====== this here should answer your question _url_0_ the genioglossus muscle is responsible for "protrud(ing) the tongue as well as depressing its center" | 30 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muscles_of_tongue",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genioglossus",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/mvyvb/if_muscles_can_only_contract_how_can_we_extend/"
] | [
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does swimming during a storm put you at greater risk of death from lightning? | it's a common belief that you should stop swimming if there's a chance of lightning, but does being in a lake or pool actually increase your chances of death from lightning at all? if anything i would imagine it may provide some protection since a lightning strike more than a few feet away would find an easier path to ground than going through you. if you were to suffer a direct hit, wouldn't having your entire body as surface area for the lightning to escape to the water be better than the lightning having to travel all the way through you before escaping? | current, ground, current flows ====== just because electricity has a 'better' path to ground doesn't mean no current flows through other paths. think of it like parallel resistors -- most of the current in such a setup flows through the 'smaller' resistor, but an amount of current proportional to the ratio of resistances flows through the 'bigger' one as well. and when we're talking about lightning, the amount of current is huge (so even a small fraction of it going through you could be bad news). that's why even a nearby lightning strike can be dangerous -- a tiny fraction of a huge shock is still a shock. the other thing to consider is that if you're in the water, your body is surrounded by a good conductor, so there's ample surface area for any current to "get in". on the ground, it would either have to arc through the air or go through your shoes, and even then it would be going from ground back to ground (unless you were standing by a tree that was struck or something). i'd wager the lightning current also behaves very differently when it hits water and ground, viz. how it spreads out. so it may be that in addition to the points above, the distance from a lightning strike where the current is still strong enough to be dangerous is larger in water (i.e. if it dissipates more along the surface while it tends to go deeper into the ground). in any case, the ground is denser than water, and would thus likely be able to absorb more energy per volume of affected stuff, and pass less along. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.lightningsafety.com/nlsi_pls/swimming_pools.html",
"http://scuba-doc.com/lightdive.htm"
] | [
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are you actually in danger if you swim during a lightning storm? | i was thinking about it, and if you were, then wouldn't fish be? why are fish still a thing if they all supposedly get killed every storm? | perfect conductivity, conductivity, water ====== water does not have perfect conductivity. there is resistance. yes, an animal on the surface of the water that is struck directly as well as animals in a small range around the strike may be injured or killed. the blast spreads and weakens though; one strike wouldn't be capable of sending current through an entire body of water. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how much oxygen does the new honda fuel cell vehicle consume in comparison to an internal combustion engine? | [removed] | case you interested, answer in case, actual answer ====== and we can actually do the math as well, to show how to get to an actual answer in case you're interested. in a fuel cell, the total reaction (i.e. the reaction as seen from input and output, not actually going into the actual detail of the different sub-reactions) is 2 h2 + o2 == the honda clarity has a projected fuel economy of approx. 60 miles per kg h2, i.e. 16.7 grams of h2 per mile, i.e. 16.7x16=267g of oxygen per mile. say we take the average us car with a fuel consumption of 25.4mpg. gasoline's combustion goes as c8h18 + 12.5 o2 == using this same technique you can find out how much co2 both methods yield (assuming all h2 is generated from natural gas), etc. etc. | 379 | [] | [] | [] | [
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do other elements naturally occur in multiple configurations in their pure form, the way carbon does? | do other elements naturally occur in multiple configurations, the way carbon does? not just phases. pure, solid arbon naturally occurs as and graphite, for example. i realise it bonds more generously than most elements, but do are any others diverse like this? | url, graphite, allotropes ====== do you mean like allotropes? carbon can have several allotropes including buckyballs, graphite, and diamond, and more. _url_0_ other elements can exhibit allotropy _url_1_ | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allotropes_of_carbon",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allotropy"
] | [
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why do fruits have very distinct flavors? they are all just made of sugars, where does the "uniqueness" come from? | addition to sugar, sugar, molecules ====== fruits have lots of other molecules in addition to sugar. one type of molecule that is responsible for the aroma/taste of fruit is [esters](_url_0_). esters are small, volatile organic molecules that, depending on the specific ester in question, have the characteristic smell of a particular fruit. | 15 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ester"
] | [
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|
do solar system forming clouds/nebulae have to be spinning (since solar systems seem to form in disks)? if so, why are they spinning? | i'm not sure i accurately communicated my question in the post title, but here's the context of what i'm asking: i was listening to a lecture about the formation of solar systems in which the professor was explaining that the rotating of a large cloud of gas and rock (that condenses to form a protostar and ultimately a solar system) is what results in the disk shape of solar systems, showing how the interaction between the inertia of particles and gravity form the disk perpendicular to the axis of rotation. i asked if this formation of the solar system would require the initial cloud to be spinning (which seemed logical to me), he responded that it did, but that it wasn't known why these star forming nebulae would be spinning to begin with. so my question, then, is "why are star forming nebula spinning?" | net angular moment, net angular, basically ====== basically it's much, much, much more likely for a nebula to have some net angular moment than not. to have no rotation the motion of all the particles that make it up would have to be so carefully balanced and there could be no perturbations from other systems. basically it just never happens. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why do plants turn brown as they die? | i understand that they're usually green because of chlorophyll, but what happens to the chlorophyll that changes the plant's color? | chlorophyll, change its colour, wide ====== nothing happens to the chlorophyll to change its colour. chlorophyll degrades/decays in to colorless tetrapyrrole chemicals. plants produce a very wide range of pigmented chemicals with a wide variety of colours; carotenoids (yellows and browns), anthocyanins (reds and purples), xanthophylls (yellows) and the cell wall itself (brown shades). ok, maybe not all that wide ranging! usually all these alternative pigments are masked by the very large amount of chlorophyll in the leaves or stems. if a plant dies off or as you enter autumn the chlorophyll is not be replaced or recycled. this diminishing amount of chlorophyll will expose those other pigments in the leaves. if the reduction in chlorophyll is part of the normal autumnal process the when enough chlorophyll is degraded the plant will begin producing anthocyanins and these red pigments are what give autumn leaves their rich colouring. if instead the plant is dying then alternate pigmanets will not be produced either and eventually and the unpigmented cell wall colouring (brown) will be exposed. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why do plants turn yellow when they are dehydrated? | it’s hotter than normal in the uk right now and grass everywhere is changing from green to yellow due to the lack of water. does the chlorophyll break down? i would have thought that if you increase the concentration of it the plants would become greener when dehydrated | lose its pigment, chlorophyll breaks, spend energy making ====== yes, the chlorophyll breaks down over the course of a day or two, causing it to lose its pigment. the grass will not spend energy making new chlorophyll until it has a means of transportating it and other nutrients to throughout the leaves, which requires a certain amount of water. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.compoundchem.com/2014/09/11/autumnleaves/",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aminolevulinic_acid_synthase",
"https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2FBF00387980",
"https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1626/pps.13.269",
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC542400/"
] | [
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why do atoms prefer to have 8 valence electrons? | so i understand that the p and s suborbitals can only hold a total of 8 electrons. my question is: why 8, and not 7? or 10, or any other number. is there math that explains this? edit: wow that is a lot of answers. note that while i am a high (schooler? scholar?) school student, i have a bit of a mundane physics background so don't dumb anything down too much. | orbitals, explanation, electrons ====== my attempt at a high-school-level explanation. it has to do with how the orbitals are actually shaped, which is explained/predicted by calculus-based wavefunctions. essentially, it's similar to how a standing wave in a tube will have different "nodes," positions where the wave is high or low. except, this is an electron in a 3-d space, and that gives it some weird shapes. going into the nitty-gritty with accuracy takes quite a bit of college-level physical chemistry. each suborbital is made of different "lobes" or "shapes." each lobe can hold two electrons. the s orbital is a spherical shape, and constitutes one "lobe." the p orbital has three "lobes," each one forming a bow-tie shape. they are at 90 degrees to one another. so between them the p orbitals can hold up to six electrons. together, that's 8. the d and f orbitals don't fill for a given shell until after the s orbitals of the next shell have already filled, so they aren't valence. just works out that way because of energy levels. so yeah, there is math to explain it but it's super grungy and nasty. looking at pictures of s and p orbitals might make it clearer. (oh and if you're confused about the quantum number weirdness, think of it as a coordinate system. like, instead of identifying a point on a graph as (x,y), we need to talk about electrons in this 3-d lobe-style arrangement. hence, to describe the position and character of a specific electron, we need to use the (n, l, ml, ms) coordinates instead.) | 283 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spherical_harmonics",
"http://users.physik.fu-berlin.de/~pascual/Vorlesung/SS06/Slides/AMOL-L1d.pdf",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schr%C3%B6dinger_equation"
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could there be a galaxy closer in distance than andromeda to the milky way that is similar in size and shape to both but we can't see because the core of the milky way is blocking our view? | nope, milky, orbiting the milky ====== nope! we can see through the milky way well enough in various wavelengths to see what else is out there. far infrared radiation, for example, can pass through obscuring dust in our galaxy to help us see outwards. there are [a bunch of dwarf galaxies orbiting the milky way that you may be interested in](_url_0_), though. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Milky_Way's_satellite_galaxies#Clickable_map"
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|
why is ram so much more volatile than ssd memory? | you often hear that you should avoid programs that could wear out your ssd, i.e defragmentation. but if ssd's and ram are both flash memory, why is ram so much more volatile, capable of hundreds of writes per second continually and still last many years? is it an engineering/flawed by design problem? component quality issue? what are the limitations of current ssd's that makes this so, and will we perhaps eventually see ssd's as durable as ram? | flash memory technology, flash memory, standard consumer ram ====== standard consumer ram (dram) isn't based on flash memory technology. they operate on two totally different principles and are designed very differently. flash memory uses something called a floating-gate transistor. basically there's a small bit of conductor completely surrounded by insulating material ("floating") and you can tunnel electrons into or out of it to make it "high" or "low". this is shelf-stable so the logic value can be maintained without power but reading and writing takes a considerable amount of time. dram holds logic values on a capacitor. this allows incredibly fast read/write speeds but requires extra circuitry to continuously refresh the capacitor charge as it decays over time, on the order of milliseconds unless extreme measures are taken to preserve it. sram (static ram) is an alternative that holds logic values on a cell made of 4-6 transistors. not something you typically see in consumer systems because it tends to be more expensive and doesn't really carry any benefit to consumers. fast read/write but still volatile as lose of power will cause the cell to lose the memory held. **** e: should be understood that there are inherent technical challenges to using flash-based memory as a replacement for ram. how flash memory is arranged and accessed does not mesh well with how system ram is typically accessed and used so quite a lot of abstraction would have to take place to make it work. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why are ssds considered as storage and not as non volatile memory ? | i learnt today about in-memory databases and how now non-versatile memory makes them able to hold information even when powered down. it got me thinking : that's just what ssds do ! so the question is, why are ssds considered as storage, and wouldn't a ssd database be a good compromise between price and rapidity ? | non-volatile memory, non-volatile, memory ====== non-volatile, yes. so the question is, why are ssds considered as storage, and wouldn't a ssd database be a good compromise between price and rapidity ? ssd's *are* a form of non-volatile memory. yes, they are frequently used in database applications. the distinction between "storage" and "non-volatile memory" is contextual and superficial. | 10 | [] | [] | [] | [
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will 128-bit architecture computers exist in the future, or is x64 a limit? | i assume that 64-bit is not a limit, but rather i see no need for 128-bit computing. is there more to bitsize than just size of numbers? | address space, address, space ====== theoretically there's no reason why they shouldn't. you'll need a 128-bit address space as soon as 16 eib (the maximum for a 64-bit address space) isn't enough. i have no idea when that point will be reached, but it's unlikely to happen in the next decade or two. however, you can have 128-bit and 256-bit registers in a cpu (sse and avx respectively) which can hold one huge number or more typically a vector of multiple 32-bit or 64-bit words. the upcoming avx-512 will supports 512-bit registers. additionally, gpus tend to have wider memory buses that can reach up to 512 bits wide. this lets them read multiple adjacent words in one go to improve memory bandwidth without cranking up the memory clock speed. the downside is more wires between the gpu and memory and the larger area requirements. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if i was at the midpoint between the sun and the next closest star, how big and bright would the two stars be? | proxima centauri, sun, proxima ====== the next closest star is proxima centauri, 4.24 light-years away from the sun. in spite of how close it is to us, proxima centauri is a very dim red dwarf - at magnitude +11 it's not visible to us on earth without a decent telescope. halfway to proxima centauri would put you 2.12 light years from the sun. proxima would be magnitude 9.5, still too dim to see without a telescope or at least a very good pair of binoculars. the sun, meanwhile, would be almost 135,000 further than we usually see it, meaning it would be 135,000^2 times dimmer. that would place its brightness at magnitude -1.1, almost as bright as sirius as viewed from earth, the brightest star in the nighttime sky. | 17 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why do some of the hottest peppers, like the carolina reaper or trinidad scorpion, have much more wrinkly and pimpled skin than other less hot peppers, like jalapeños or habaneros? | worked solanaceaous plants, fruit wall, hey i worked ====== hey i worked solanaceaous plants so i can provide some of the answer for this. there are really only a couple of main species of chilli from which nearly all our cultivars are derived. * capsicum annuum; which are (mostly) shaped like the classic chilli and range from mild to moderately hot and the fruit wall is thick and "plump" * capsicum frutescens; these tend to be a bit narrower and hotter, the fruit wall is often thinner than the annum strains. these are closer in appearance to wild strains * capsicum chinense; these are your habaneros, bhut jolokia's and trinidad scorpions these are often squat or rounded in shape, wrinkly and with thin and sometimes "paper-y" fruit wall. so in a very broad simplistic sense the hottest chillies are wrinkly because they are all strains of the same species so they have all inherited these characterisitics. what is known is that hotter chilli plants produce weaker cells walls and have an extracellular matrix which contains less "scaffolding" material. i would assume this almost certainly accounts for the different textures of the fruits and likely contributes minorly to the plumpness/thickness of the fruit flesh. the reason for this is the the biosynthetic pathways for the cell wall components or the capsaicinoids chemicals rely on the same starting materials/chemicals. the plant can use that material for one use or the other which means that a given strain can't be both very hot and also have very robust cell walls (or vice versa). less stable cell walls are not especially important in cultivated chillies as we look after them and protect them from predation and disease. so we can breed out strains which are exceptionally hot. i'm not sure to what extent water content plays a role here, very little i'd assume as if you pick chillies fresh off the plant the cells are turgid and the fruits are "crisp" and not soft/limp in all three species. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
why does the ocean look vibrant blue/green in the tropics, but look grey up in the north atlantic? | just something i've noticed. is it the temperature of the water? it looks much clearer the further south you go, too. | dioxide or oxygen, northern water, carbon dioxide ====== northern water looks murkier because there's more plankton in it. southern water can't dissolve as much carbon dioxide or oxygen, since it's warmer, so not as much lives in it. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why are oceans (underwater) full of colour, but fresh water lakes are compellingly gray? why are there no colourful fish in fresh water? | completely* | called oligotrophic lakes, water, lot ====== there are some blue lakes, these tend to be called oligotrophic lakes; meaning they don't have much algae in them. you can imagine if you look at a lot of green algae that there's a lot of productivity and therefore green water. heck some other algaes are brown and golden. but oceans may be blue because of the lack of algae as well, since there's may not be as many nutrients in open ocean waters as they may be in local coastal waters. the blue color can come from light being reflected off the sky and also from the constituents of the water that aren't clouded out by the particles in the water. but gray colored waters can result if there's a lot of turbidity (suspended particles) in the water. lakes that have rivers with high sediment content flowing into them will result in darker waters due to the suspension of those particles. also, lake water itself cycles as temperature fluctuations may cause cold water to rise up and warm water to fall, thus cycling the water further. some waters that are very alkaline may turn white at times too. so different color waters are possible. as for fish, there's no significant advantage to having a lot of colors in murky freshwater because bright colors are easier for predators to detect than dark colors. but, i would disagree in to say there are no colorful freshwater fish. look up the following fish: lipstick darter, lolipop darter, orangespotted sunfish, many cyprinid minnows, some fundulid guppies. these are freshwater and have color. edit: dropped some more facts. | 15 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.aquapaws.ie/images/MBUNA.jpg",
"http://www.practicalfishkeeping.co.uk/content.php?sid=4710",
"http://fl.biology.usgs.gov/Southeastern_Aquatic_Fauna/Freshwater_Fishes/Fish_Biographies_1/fish4.jpg"
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if i were to point my telescope at a nebula, would it show up in colour? | do the images from hst have false colouring? | false-color, specific emission line, alpha ====== usually false-color. images of nebulae typically include narrow-band filters which pick up only a specific emission line, such as h alpha or oiii. these filters are usually colored corresponding to where they are on the em spectrum, so h alpha is usually colored pinkish or red because it's at 656 nm. [this site explains it very well and thoroughly](_url_0_). | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.mcwetboy.com/mcwetlog/2010/04/falsecolour_astrophotography_explained.php"
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is it possible for two planets to be inside the habitable zone around a star and for their gravity not to affect each other's orbit? | planets' gravity affects, planets' gravity, gravity affects ====== all planets' gravity affects all other planets. but it's possible for multiple planets to be in stable orbits within a single star's habitable zone, yes. | 14 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how do some fruits and vegetables, like avocado and olives, produce fat? | do they produce fat? how? do they have a latent fat content? | fatty acids, fatty, acids ====== there's a terminology difference here that is probably confusing you. all organisms produce what are called [fatty acids](_url_0_), some of which are essential fatty acids, ones that humans require to be healthy, but that we cannot make (enough of) ourselves. fat is what animals make, and oils are what plants make, the main difference being their consistency, where fats are generally solid, and oils are more liquid. both animal fats and plant oils are fatty acids. so to answer your questions: yes fruits and vegetables make fatty acids, but they don't make fats. they make their fatty acids the same way we do, by using complex enzyme pathways to convert other similar compounds (triglycerides and phospholipids) into fatty acids. yes, each fruit or vegetable as a (mostly) constant composition and amount of fatty acids. | 15 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatty_acid"
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are trees from different families examples of convergent evolution? or do many families of plants come from a tree-like ancestor? | i mean... there are trees in the fabaceae family and trees in the rosaceae family. is "tree-ness", meaning large size and woody bark, something that can arise from any family of plant, or is it something more specific? | george mcghee book, convergent evolution, mcghee book ====== so i've heard of arboresence (or tree-ness) considered a convergent phenotype in george mcghee's book "convergent evolution: limited forms most beautifu"l. in fact, he argues that arboresence has evolved independently in 9 plant lineages. one example is ferns which evolved tree-ness in 3 groups throughout history (only one is group is still extant), each with different types of trunks! the main reason touted for the convergence of this trait is functional constraint. it just turns out that 'growing upward' is rather important so many lineages will leverage their genetic or morphological resources to achieve that goal. this variety of mechanical mechanisms to realize the trait suggest that the tree form was likely independently selected upon numerous times. to answer your question more specifically, it depends on the taxanomic level we're talking about. i think that trees in the fabacea and rosaceae might not really be convergence because they share a common tree form. however the tree form of cycad palms compared to angiosperm trees would be an instance of convergence since they are truly independent and distinct. edit: upon re-reading, i realize some of my language is very teleological. i don't want to ascribe any teleology to these evolutionary processes, i'm just speaking in rhetorical short hand. please don't crucify me | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is water really tasteless or are we just so used to the taste of water we don't give any thought to it? | affects the flavor, water affects, mineral content ====== there is evidence that mineral content in water affects the flavor we perceive. bottled water manufacturers add in the desired minerals rather than selling distilled water, which some say tastes "flat." here's a study about the chemometric analysis of bottled and tap waters that had been through blind taste tests. it was determined that many testers disliked the flavors of high concentrations of certain minerals and liked others. _url_0_ | 8 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23200507"
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|
does the use of microwave ovens distort chemical structures in foods resulting in toxic or otherwise unhealthy chemicals? | ovens distort chemical, distort chemical structures, microwave ovens distort ====== yes, microwave ovens distort chemical structures in foods. the heat from the microwave energy causes proteins to uncoil and change their shape, causing their texture and flavor to change. this phenomenon is known as "cooking", and is the same whether you microwave, boil, bake, or fry food. | 11,385 | [] | [] | [
"http://docdro.id/5RPiQ9c",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kp33ZprO0Ck"
] | [
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|
why silicon cannot form long chains like carbon does, despite being in the same group and having the ability to make the same number of bonds? | form silicon oxides, explode spontaneously, spontaneously in air ====== they can actually, but they are unstable and oxidize/burn/explode spontaneously in air to form silicon oxides (sand/glass/quartz, etc). the reason for this instability was already given by /u/brainmold: the si-h bond is much longer than the c-h bond due to the larger radius of the silicon atom, making the bond much weaker. compounds consisting only of tetrahedral silicon and hydrogen are called [silanes](_url_0_) in analogy to the alkanes (tetrahedral carbon and hydrogen). silanes can form straight chains, branched chains, and rings just like alkanes, but there are much fewer silanes known because the larger silanes become increasingly unstable. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_silicon-hydrogen_compounds",
"https://physics.stackexchange.com/questions/127890/why-are-silicon-silicon-bonds-weak"
] | [
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|
what exactly is the noise coming through my speakers when my phone receives signals next to it? why does this happen? could this phenomenon be used practically? | the sound which comes through speakers when a phone is sat next to it ringing. why couldn't this be used by the government for some sort of warning system, or potentially be used maliciously by certain parties? | phone call, call, phone ====== that's your phone call. your speaker chords are made of metal and they're acting as a radio antenna and picking up your call. but since your call is digital, and encrypted, and transmitted at a frequency outside your hearing range, the ringing just sounds like noise on the speaker. we use this phenomenon all the time. it's how radios work. ;p | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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according to the book "a short history about nearly everything", the universe grew to be a million billion miles across in under a minute after the big bang. this would be much faster than the speed of light, how is this possible? | observable universe, universe, observable ====== *the universe* did not grow to be a million billion miles across. this is a very common point of confusion, so it's worth taking a moment to get it sorted. we are, right now, at the centre of a volume we call the observable universe. we call it that because nothing that lies *outside* that volume is observable, either directly or indirectly. that volume is … well, i don't want to get into how big it is, because that'll just confuse us more. but suffice to say that it's of *finite size.* it's a perfect sphere, with a finite radius. if we define a coordinate system in which where you're sitting right now is *zero* and the edge of the observable universe is *one,* we can examine the relationship between that interval from zero to one in our chosen coordinates and units of length like meters or miles. what we find, then, is that that volume, the unit sphere we just constructed, is larger now than it was in the past. the *distance,* in units like meters or whatever, from the zero point where you are to the one surface out at the edge of the observable universe, has increased over time. which makes sense, because *all* distances increase over time. that's what metric expansion is. so yes, the volume that now, at present, in our chosen system of coordinates, corresponds to the observable universe was in fact smaller in the past. specifically, it was a thousand times smaller about thirteen and a half billion years ago, at the end of the big bang. but the universe itself has no size, so it's not sensible to talk about it being "bigger" or "smaller" than itself. the distinction between *the universe* and *the observable universe* here is quite an important one, and key to understanding the whole thing. now, with that preamble, i'm sure you can see that, given the universe is infinite in extent, for *any* positive rate of metric expansion you can identify two points such that the distance between them is increasing faster than it would be if those points were receding from each other at the speed of light. for a very large rate of expansion, two such points are relatively close together. for a very small rate of expansion, they're very far apart. earlier i talked about the observable universe without really rigorously defining it. i just said nothing that lies outside that volume can be observed by us. i'm still not going to *rigorously* define it, but i will say that one useful informal definition is that the surface of that spherical volume is the locus of all points that appear to be receding from us *exactly at* the speed of light. | 42 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_inflation",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflationary_epoch"
] | [
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] |
|
how could the universe be a few light-years across one second after the big bang, if the speed of light is the highest possible speed? | shouldn't the universe be one light-second across after one second? in death by black hole, tyson writes "by now, one second of time has passed. the universe has grown to a few light-years across..." p. 343. | rate of expansion, speed limit, speed ====== there is no speed limit on the rate of expansion of the fabric of the universe (space-time). during the first few moments after the big bang, if the theory of inflation is correct, the volume of the universe expanded by a factor of 10^78 in a time span from ~10^-38 to ~10^-32 seconds. edit - to add to this. the speed of light is the speed limit for which information can propagate (which therefore means anything with mass/energy). there is nothing, as far as we know, limiting the rate of expansion of the universe itself. objects very far from us are actually travelling away from us at a speed greater than the speed of light since the rate of expansion between two points increases as you increase the distance between said objects. the consequence of this is that light from these objects will never reach us. | 1,047 | [] | [] | [
"http://m.youtube.com/#/watch?v=VNv0Yzk00qg&desktop_uri=%2Fwatch%3Fv%3DVNv0Yzk00qg",
"http://map.gsfc.nasa.gov/universe/uni_shape.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shape_of_the_Universe",
"http://watchdocumentary.org/watch/how-the-universe-works-episode-01-big-bang-video_8f7059c91.html"
] | [
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is it possible for a planet to have a sun orbiting it, rather than the other way around? | can a planet scale up, or a star scale down, to the degree that the relationship we experience on our planet, is reversed? | fraction of hydrogen, big planets, large fraction ====== all big planets we have found so far consist of a large fraction of hydrogen. this means that if you would grow to the size of a star it would simply ignite and become a star. | 10 | [] | [] | [] | [
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butter is a dairy product. why, then, can butter be unrefrigerated but milk or cream goes rancid so quickly? | my friend ate 2-day-old risotto on the stove. why isn't he dying? | degrade the butter, butter is controlled, water ====== water content has a lot to do with it. the ability of bacteria to degrade the butter is controlled by the amount of water present. it has to do with the activity (in the chemistry sense) of the water. the available water is bound to other molecules and not available to bacteria that need it the water to survive. water can also hydrolyze fats and proteins creating rancid flavors. also, a lot of the compounds that taste good are easily oxidized and the oxidized forms can taste bad. like that old ass jar of olive oil in your cupboard...it tastes like crap because it has gone rancid. it smells bad, but not because of bacteria. often food will smell bad, but the bad smells are not the result of pathogenic bacteria and will not necessarily make you sick. i am a geologist, so this may be a little simple. | 24 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butyric_acid"
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if galaxies are all accelerating away from each other, how long in the future will we not be able to observe the andromeda galaxy? | as i understand it, due to dark energy, our universe is expanding and accelerating (not slowing down but expanding at a faster and faster rate). as a result, galaxies are moving further away from each other at faster rates. eventually, the andromeda galaxy will be outside our observable universe. when will this happen? 100 billion years, 1000 billion years? | hubble expansion, galactic superclusters, expansion only dominates ====== hubble expansion only dominates gravity on the scale of galactic superclusters. andromeda and the milky way will collide along with everything else within our local group eventually. | 12 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why cant we tickle ourselves? | question in title. | predict the movements, feeling and reactions, basically our brain ====== we can't tickle ourselves because our brain can predict the movements, feeling and reactions when we try to do so, however not if someone else is trying to tickle us. basically our brain can't surprise itself. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is it possible for an object in space to be so far away from a star (or similar light source) that it doesn't get illuminated at all? | we'll imagine two scenarios: an object roughly the size of a space shuttle (both in it's original white colour scheme and a second painted matte black) and/or another object roughly the size of earth (maybe a slightly less reflective version without surface water). could either one be so far away from any direct light source that if you weren't told it was floating close by, you would otherwise be unaware of it's existence? not close enough to touch, but maybe the size we perceive our moon to be in the sky. i'm far from knowledgeable in this field, and i'm a little tired right now so hopefully someone can make sense of what i'm trying to explain. thanks! | deep space, space is dark., interstellar space ====== deep space is dark.. every movie you have ever seen with a lit up spaceship out in the void of interstellar space is hollywood bs. so to answer your question, yes.. pretty much everywhere in interstellar space wouldn't have the light to illuminate anything at a level the human eye could see. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what is different biologically between lactose intolerant people and those who aren't? | i imagine it has to do with how bacteria deals with the lactose. i've been told people have symptoms from just bloated and gas, to full out body paralysis. what causes this? is it true that most lactose tolerant people have ancestry that deals with farming (cattle in specific) and they have built up an immunity? | galactose and glucose, molecule made, sugars galactose ====== lactose is a disaccharide- that is a molecule made up of two sugars galactose and glucose. lactose is broken down into those sugars by the enzyme lactase which is found in the duodenum (part of your small intestine). people who are lactose intolerant have lost the ability to make the enzyme lactase ~~either by inheriting a faulty gene from their parents or by suffering some environmental damage.~~ not being able to break down lactose in the duodenum means that bacteria which can break it down do so much more than usual - since they have more available. the bacterial breakdown of lactose creates the excess gas you mentioned. also the presence of more disaccharides in the gut means that the osmotic pressure in the gut is changed. this means that there is a greater concentration of disaccharides versus water and so water wants to come back in and reduce the concentration. this causes the diarrhoea associated with lactose intolerance. i'm not sure about more severe symptoms, but i imagine that it is to do with the amount of lactose ingested and there may be other factors at play. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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