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i've heard that galaxies across the universe are moving away from us at faster than the speed of light. how is this so? i thought nothing can move faster than light. | special relativity, move through spacetime, spacetime faster ====== it is true that, according to special relativity, nothing can move through spacetime faster than the speed of light. however, the large-scale structure of the universe is described by general relativity, not special relativity, and in general relativity there is no prohibition on the apparent velocities of distant objects being greater than the speed of light with respect to each other. crudely speaking, this is because cosmological expansion can be explained as the expansion of space itself, which does not have a "speed limit;" the speed limit only applies to things moving locally through that space. see [davis and lineweaver (2003)](_url_0_) for more details on this and other common cosmological misconceptions. | 143 | [] | [] | [
"http://arxiv.org/pdf/astro-ph/0310808.pdf"
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|
why does ethanol have a health hazard of 2, while isopropyl has only 1? | i am referring to the nfpa 704 health hazard rating which is a 2 for ethyl alcohol, but for isopropyl alcohol it is a 1 isopropyl is significantly more toxic than ethanol upon ingestion, so why is it considered a lower health hazard? does it have to do with some other exposure, besides ingestion? | nfpa diamond, diamond is generally, generally a quick ====== the nfpa diamond is generally a quick guide for firefighters to assess the hazards of a substance or area at a glance. it's not the be-all, end-all of toxicological standards. you're right, that the ld50 values of isopropanol make it more toxic than ethanol, even though they're really pretty close. 20-30% different really isn't much when you consider that cyanide, a 4 in health hazard, has an ld50 value is 1000 times lower. if i had to take a stab at why, the rationale might have something to do with the metabolites of isopropanol and ethanol. isopropanol is metabolized to acetone by liver alcohol dehydrogenase, which, itself, has a health rating of 1. ethanol, on the other hand, is metabolized to acetaldehyde, which has a rating of 2. it probably has more to do with what treatment is needed if someone is acutely exposed to ethanol or isopropanol, which i'm not familiar with. something does seem to be off with these values, because methanol is metabolized to formaldehyde, which is wildly toxic, and methanol has a health rating of 1, even though its ld50 is almost identical to that of isopropanol. | 22 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.transtutors.com/chemistry-homework-help/aldehydes/acetaldehyde-and-acetone.aspx"
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do animals have a sense of rhythm? | do animals perceive a beat or a rhythm the same way humans do? can they react to it or move to it perhaps? | url, check, article ====== some do! check out [this article](_url_0_). this mentions parrots and elephants specifically, but sea lions and bonobos have also been found to keep a beat. there may be other examples. | 4 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.npr.org/sections/krulwich/2014/04/01/297686709/the-list-of-animals-who-can-truly-really-dance-is-very-short-who-s-on-it"
] | [
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is glass a liquid or a solid? | me and my dad are having an argument, we both admit that glass flows but my science teacher had told me that glass is classed as a solid and my dad thinks it is classed as a liquid. so what does the scientist's of reddit think? | significantly heated recently, heated recently, significantly heated ====== it really doesn't. at least, not unless it's been significantly heated recently. [john baez](_url_0_) has a quite thorough article on the subject. depending on your background it may be *too* thorough, but the following abridgement of his conclusion should accessible (i've bolded what may be the most relevant statement): > there is no clear answer to the question "is glass solid or liquid?". in terms of molecular dynamics and thermodynamics it is possible to justify various different views that it is a highly viscous liquid, an amorphous solid, or simply that glass is another state of matter that is neither liquid nor solid. the difference is semantic. in terms of its material properties we can do little better. there is no clear definition of the distinction between solids and highly viscous liquids. all such phases or states of matter are idealisations of real material properties. **nevertheless, from a more common sense point of view, glass should be considered a solid since it is rigid according to everyday experience.** the use of the term "supercooled liquid" to describe glass still persists, but is considered by many to be an unfortunate misnomer that should be avoided. | 55 | [] | [] | [
"http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/physics/General/Glass/glass.html"
] | [
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interstellar speaking, does our planets night side appear significantly brighter due to our artificial light ouput? | open for interpretation, bit open, result of artificial ====== the word 'significantly' is a bit open for interpretation, but some regions of the world are certainly brighter as a result of artificial light. most of the planet is sparsely populated (oceans, deserts, polar regions) and so most of the light output is from a relatively small fraction of the land area. there are plenty of images on the internet of earth at night, one that nicely sums it up in my opinion: _url_0_ | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://farm9.staticflickr.com/8094/8594533915_94f0381c84_h.jpg"
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does the gut bacteria of an alcoholic differ from a non drinker? | url, patients, microbiota ====== yes, pretty markedly. alcohol use tends to be associated with increased levels of [endotoxin-producing enterobacteriaceae and a reduction in taxa that produce short-chain fatty acids \(scfas\)](_url_2_), amongst other changes. in fact, the degree of gut microbiota upset is linked to the extent of the drinking and the severity of the alcoholic disease. for instance, [in this study](_url_0_), patients with alcohol-related cirrhosis had worse dysbiosis than those without alcoholic-related disease, despite abstinence and similar cirrhosis severity. [in another study,](_url_4_) patients with cirrhosis who continue to drink have a more disrupted microbiota and increased levels of secondary bile acids compared with healthy individuals or abstinent patients with cirrhosis. alcoholic patients with alcoholic liver disease also have a much higher risk of fungal infections, and [alcohol promotes gut fungal overgrowth in animal models](_url_6_). there is also evidence that the gut microbiota can alter brain function, and thus influence risk of relapse, in animal models, and some association data in humans (eg, alcohol increases intestinal permeability, which enables gut bacteria to enter the bloodstream and correlates with cravings). hepatic encephalopathy, a very dangerous condition of neurological impairment that occurs in patients with end-stage liver failure, is worse in [patients with greater microbial perturbations, increased intestinal permeability and levels of bacterial toxins in the blood.](_url_5_) given the role of the microbiota in alcohol-related disease, both in terms of exacerbating liver damage and in potentially influencing cravings, it's no surprise that treatments related to the microbiota are being investigated. the antibiotic rifaxamin is already standard treatment for hepatic encephalopathy, but more exciting is the use of faecal microbiota transplantation (fmt). current trials are non-blinded and small, but fmt seems to improve survival markedly versus other standards of care: 75% 90-day-survival for fmt versus 38% in the steroid group, 29% in the nutrition group and 30% in the pentoxifylline group [in this small trial](_url_3_), and 87.5% overall survival with fmt versus 33.3% overall survival without fmt [in this pilot study.](_url_1_). there are a number of large, ongoing clinical trials being conducted by expert centers in the us and eu. some studies are also looking at the roles of probiotics, prebiotics or symbiotics - there's some good evidence in animal models but (as i understand it) the clinical evidence is less convincing. | 95 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=24374295",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=27816755",
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|
do wolves panic during thunderstorms the way domesticated dogs sometimes do? | dogs panicking, brain stops, n’t conditioned ====== dogs panicking during thunderstorms only primarily happens because they aren’t conditioned to the sound before formative development in the brain stops. dog trainers can suggest playing different sounds—cars honking, trains, thunderstorms, alarms, etc.—while puppies are young so they get used to the sounds and don’t panic when they hear an unfamiliar sound. since wolves are in the elements 100% of the time, i assume pups hear the sound of a thunderstorm before that brain development cuts off, and are normalized to it. not a zoologist or wolf expert—just have a puppy that i’ve done tons of research on so that he doesn’t panic during thunderstorms. | 10 | [] | [] | [
"https://watermark.silverchair.com/84-1-243.pdf?token=AQECAHi208BE49Ooan9kkhW_Ercy7Dm3ZL_9Cf3qfKAc485ysgAAAcQwggHABgkqhkiG9w0BBwagggGxMIIBrQIBADCCAaYGCSqGSIb3DQEHATAeBglghkgBZQMEAS4wEQQMRwH8V6yxoazOF12cAgEQgIIBd18Sa2tRpFN8okKsrtDztKt7CnibUmh7YFtCilYifQKS09s_viDxTkL8CAplaUnSKAGoQbaCHRuNa9R1hzgOGkQPGjYLF9Mrh5qmwL6B6sCLen2Jxo2nwCJy9BxoJT7fDkJ4Je2hNF_fzrQujaoQs4QLXJ_mPAsDjfnrKay5r6kesyz6Dcz7i8WcmpCU_GcYrGIOEJQ7la9fshHjn6cNJKBUDUXBBI2eXd-5aca44MPqMsfDVfM6cT0krXz66uHuGCtW8FQFgXY1ynPeqgk7iuyJSJGVoDj5A6xaB_XOKkU_es87s2ogCPAjEiDAfIQgisMt7xL_2UFSK5gjrXpVjjXHchabZ70oRTjjPEl7PFREFROVPBwQQJHcUzb3pAGDs1_IlcL64WR7IESn4gooMnW9vLU7FDt9YquF_1jeTPLd1CBjQWrG49R0_DWpsveoQl1Y59VxaWXdZOuwHqj5tpySXFG_eFML5xfwzmD-jJIY19H3Hpyr-g",
"https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Joern_Theuerkauf/publication/52006155_Howling_activity_of_free-ranging_wolves_Canis_lupus_in_the_Bialowieza_Primeval_Forest_and_the_Western_Beskidy_Mountains_Poland/links/54d061920cf29ca811012d64.pdf"
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|
are there any human infections caused by plants? | i know we can be infected by animals, fungi, bacteria, virus, and protozoa. are there any cases of infection or disease mediated by a plant growing in a human host? | define plants, question depends, plants ====== the answer to your question depends on how you define plants. if you are including green algae the answer is yes. [protothecosis](_url_0_) is caused by an algae that has cells which lack chlorophyll and have become parasitic. | 9 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protothecosis"
] | [
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what is the difference between being in a coma and a vegetative state? can you be in a vegetative state but not be considered to be in a coma? | responsiveness to stimulation, consciousness are missing, elements of consciousness ====== in a coma, two elements of consciousness are missing: wakefulness (responsiveness to stimulation) and awareness (of surroundings). a vegetative state is wakefulness in the absence of awareness. people in a vegetative state may open and close their eyes, but without any purposeful behavior or self-awareness. see, for example, [monti (2012)](_url_0_) ( < - pdf) which is a fairly accessible review. edit: fixed a wrong word | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://montilab.psych.ucla.edu/publications/Monti_12_CogInVS.pdf"
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|
how many trees does it take to cover co2 emissions of a car? | average american car, url, year ====== the average american car [emits around 6 tons of co2 per year](_url_1_). a tree can [absorb as much as 48 lb of co2 per year](_url_2_). so at a minimum the average american car's co2 emissions will need to be offset with 250 trees. there are about 250 million cars in the us, so that's 62.5 billion trees. there are actually about [247 billion trees in the us over 1 inch calipers](_url_3_), but i don't know how that figures into the other figure. i mean, 1 inch is a pretty small tree, and 48 lb per year is the maximum absorption of co2, probably for a big tree. trees accelerate in mass growth as they get older, because the mass they put on is proportional to the surface area of their leaves. _url_0_ > "in absolute terms, trees 100cm in trunk diameter typically add from 10-200 kg dry mass each year averaging 103kg per year. this is nearly three times the rate for trees of the same species at 50cm in diameter, and is the mass equivalent to adding an entirely new tree of 10-20cm in diameter to the forest each year," said the report. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2014/jan/15/trees-grow-more-older-carbon",
"https://www.google.com/webhp?sourceid=chrome-instant&ion=1&espv=2&ie=UTF-8#q=how%20much%20co2%20does%20a%20car%20emit%20in%20a%20year",
"https://www.google.com/webhp?sourceid=chrome-instant&ion=1&espv=2&ie=UTF-8#q=how%20much%20co2%20does%20a%20tree%20absorb",
"https://www.google.com/webhp?sourceid=chrome-instant&ion=1&espv=2&ie=UTF-8#q=how+many+trees+in+the+us"
] | [
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|
will planting trees offset my cars carbon emissions? | temporary solution, scale is problematic, carbon ====== theoretically yes, but (1) the scale is problematic and (2) it's only a temporary solution. there are lots of resources you can find online discussing this, here [is just one of them](_url_0_) which we can use as a reference. if you scroll down to page 7 of that pdf there's a chart estimating hectares of forest needed to offset one year of car co2 production. the details will of course depend on the efficiency of your car (this is an older article and cars have become more efficient so these numbers likley have reduced, but probably not enough to make it any more feasible), how much you drive it, and what kind of tree you're talking about (different species take up more co2 than others). with those nuances in mind, this would suggest that to sequester one year of co2 from a car would take somewhere in the ballpark of 0.40 hectares (or just shy of 1 acre), meaning that you would need to plant 1 acre of trees every year to offset your car driving. unless you happen to own multiple acres of currently barren land, this is probably not a viable option for you. the larger issue with the general idea of sequestering carbon with trees/plants is that it's basically a shell game. that article touches on this as well, but in simple terms, if you plant a tree and it removes x amount of co2 from the atmosphere over y years of its life, when that tree dies, through the decomposition process x*y (give or take a little) amount of co2 will be released back to the atmosphere. to truly sequester carbon, it needs to be basically taken out of the carbon cycle. this is effectively what happened to all the carbon stored as fossil fuels, over millions of years plants (that would eventually form coal) and plankton/algea (that would eventually form oil/gas) died and were buried before they could decompose, removing their carbon from the carbon cycle little by little. so, if you increase the total amount of forested land, you can theoretically draw down co2 but only as long as that forested land is constantly maintained as forested land (or if you begin some ill-defined process of sequestering dead trees to prevent them from decomposing, again, not practical), which gets into an issue in terms of needing land for other activities (agriculture, living space, etc). | 43 | [] | [] | [
"https://academic.oup.com/forestry/article/72/3/237/581042/Growing-trees-to-sequester-carbon-in-the-UK"
] | [
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|
what's going on during sleep paralysis? | losing feeling in the body makes sense to stop us acting out our dreams but there are often a number of very interesting sensations that go along with it if you're concious when it happens, for example there are vibrations, a feeling that your heart is pounding hard and fast (it's not), energy pulsing throughout your body, rushing wind and other noises increasing until you feel like your head is about to explode, sometimes even ending in an out of body experience. | stupid sleep paralysis, sleep paralysis, interesting read ====== the wiki is actually a very interesting read: _url_0_ myself, being aware of sleep paralysis, experienced no fear when i found myself unable to move at all and observed someone walk into my room and stare at me for a while, then sit on my chest so hard i was having difficulty breathing. the entire time i kept thinking "stupid sleep paralysis", and finally broke myself out of it. knowledge dispels fears. | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sleep_paralysis",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypnagogic",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/REM_atonia#Physiology",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypnagogic#Physiology"
] | [
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what causes bright lights to be physically painful? | i understand how transitioning from a dark environment to a bright one can be disorienting but what causes is to actually be physically painful? | offer speculation, pupil is controlled, speculation ====== i can only offer speculation, but the size of your pupil is controlled by muscles. my guess is that the pain is from these muscles being tightened after being relaxed for a while. no research i've found suggests you have pain receptors in your eye. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.absimsdds.com/media/Photophobia.pdf"
] | [
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is it likely there are planets with geostationary moons? would they have a perpetual eclipse in one area? | moon, planet, charon ====== yes, we should expect this to happen. tidal locking causes moons to reach a resonance where their rotation period is equal to their orbital period, so they've always got the same side facing the planet - our moon does this. but a moon's gravity can also effect the planet, and cause the planet's rotation to lock into the moon's orbit too. this happens particularly if you have a large moon and a small planet. in fact, pluto and charon do this. so from some point on the surface of pluto, you will see charon always in the same spot in the sky, and vice versa from charon. however, this doesn't give you a perpetual eclipse. the planet and the moon are locked to each other, but they're not locked to the sun. the sun would still move around the sky as the planet rotates (and the moon orbits), and you'd only get an eclipse when the sun moves behind the moon. the eclipse would be longer, because the planet would be rotating slower, but you wouldn't have permanent eclipses. | 9 | [] | [] | [
"https://corpblog.viasat.com/how-satellites-are-affected-by-the-spring-and-autumn-equinoxes/"
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|
how are "itch" and "pain" perceived differently? | it dawned on me after a furious bout of itching / scratching that something must be either wired across the same nerves or overlapping in similar centers of the brain. normally, scratching a bit of skin until it bled would be immediately painful, but when a severe itch strikes, it's possible to scratch away, receiving nothing but immediate pleasure sensations. why does this happen? | primary somatosensory cortex, distinct brain centers, basically identical centers ====== both pain and itch sensation use the same pathway and are processed in the same center(primary somatosensory cortex). the scratch response and withdrawal response are also processed by the same pre-motor and supplementary cortices.the differences between pain and itch processing do not result from activation of distinct brain centers, but occur due to a different activation pattern of basically identical centers. for example, itch processing may be characterized by weaker activation of primary and secondary somatosensory cortices but relatively stronger activation of ipsilateral motor areas and anterior cingulate compared with pain sensation. this article gives a basic idea about the differences: _url_0_ | 9 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1451220/"
] | [
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how do certain parts of my body know when to stop hair growing? | i got tattooed this week and i’ve got a big bald rectangle on my leg and wondered how my leg will grow the hair to a set length while my head hair will just... keep going!? | basically the hairs, hairs, explained ====== it's explained in the link below. basically the hairs on our head are "programmed" to keep growing. the hairs on our arms are programmed to grow for a couple months, have a rest period(stop), then fall out and repeat process. _url_0_ | 2 | [] | [] | [
"https://health.howstuffworks.com/skin-care/hair-care/scalp-treatments/question100.htm"
] | [
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why do people with mental illness never seem to have ''positive'' hallucinations? | like alot of people seem to have this dark stuff,but its never something bright and upbeat | easier time hiding, easier time, time hiding ====== those who have “positive” hallucinations may have an easier time hiding them, because their behavior may be seen as “eccentric” but on the normal side instead of “creepy,” dangerous, and weird. basically, they’re less likely to disrupt or worry others. | 11 | [] | [] | [
"https://www.theatlantic.com/amp/article/374863/"
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why do the planets in our solar system have such different composition? | i would assume that the planets would have, at least mostly, come from the same source or event. so why is it then that the planets (and moons of those planets) seem to have such different compositions? | theories of planet, planet formation, short answer ====== the short answer is that it's not well understood. there currently are no good theories of planet formation. part of the reason for this is that our theories of planet formation have been completely revolutionized by the discovery of thousands of planets outside our solar system in the past twenty years. prior to their discovery, all we had ot work on was a single system, which, owing to our presence in it, is not necessarily representative. check back in another twenty years and we might have some more definite answers. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why is there a difference in composition of solar system bodies? | the sun is almost entirely hydrogen and helium by mass, with oxygen, carbon and other elements in small quantities. compare that to the earth for instance, with 75% of its mass coming from oxygen and silicon. my question is, why is there such a difference between composition? as far as i'm aware, the current model for solar system formation involves a large cloud of dust which is rotating in some way. as a lot of time passes, due to several factors it flattens into a disk, with most of its matter congregating in the centre. this matter then eventually gets so dense that it forms a star. the planets are then formed by the rest of the disk accumulating into larger and larger bodies during impacts due to gravity. this doesn't really explain the composition difference. we think that the centre of the earth is mostly iron as that's one of the heaviest abundant elements on the planet. it sunk to the middle. shouldn't the same thing have happened when the sun was formed? why did the sun accumulate so much hydrogen (the lightest element) while the planets (at least the rocky ones) got so much of the heavier ones? i understand the sun is so massive it has much more oxygen than the earth in total, but shouldn't we see the composition ratios reversed with the sun having absorbed most of the heavy particles leaving the planets being lighter? | cloud, planets, things ====== let's start at the very beginning and work our way through! **i'm first going to describe the collapse of a cloud to make a star and a protoplanetary disk (you mention it, i think it's cool, maybe you'll like to know some specifics). if you care just about the planets (the real answer to your question) feel free to skip to the next bolded section.** our solar system was originally a big ball of gas and dust. about 98% of the mass of this cloud is hydrogen, helium, and a little bit of lithium. these are the elements that were formed right after the big bang. the other two percent are the heavier atoms (such as iron, silicon, carbon, and oxygen) that were formed by nucleosynthesis (two atoms colliding and sticking together to form a new element) in the centers of old stars. these stars eventually exploded and sent these heavier elements our way. this cloud has a bunch of regions of slightly increased densities, that eventually start to collapse. let's focus on one of these regions (which will soon be our solar system). this cloud has some amount of angular momentum, because all of the little dust and gas components will have some velocity, and (to extremely simplify it) there won't be the same amount of particles moving to the right as there are moving to the left. as the cloud collapses towards the center, in order to conserve this angular momentum the cloud will start to spin faster. the classic example here is the spinning figure ice skater, when she pulls her arms in she begins to spin faster. try it the next time you go skating. anyways, as the cloud spins faster, the centrifugal force on the particles gets larger. centrifugal force is the same thing that causes pizza dough to spread out as it is twirled in the air by the pizza makers, and despite the claims of overzealous science teachers, it does exist. eventually the cloud will spin so fast that the centrifugal force outwards will exactly counteract the gravity inwards, and the cloud won't collapse any more. this part is going to be hard to describe in text, but i'll do my best. at this point we have a sphere(ish) cloud that is spinning really fast. if we look at a particle in the top half of the sphere, it has a gravitational force (which points down and in to the center) and a centrifugal force (which points away from the center). the inward part of gravity is exactly balanced by the outward centrifugal force, so it doesn't move in or out at all, but gravity still has a down component. this idea will eventually change the sphere into a disc. eventually the temperature of the star at the center will get hot enough for fusion to occur and it becomes a main sequence star (the kind of star our sun is now). **now we have a star and a disc, so let's get to actually answering your question about the planets** the important part is the temperature at different distances from our sun, and what things can be solid at those temperatures. also we believe planets form when solid things stick together. so only the things that can exist in solid forms at a certain temperature (which also corresponds to a distance from the star) can form planets. close to the sun (at distances less than 4 times the earth-sun distance) only the things with higher melting points (such as metals (like iron), and more rocky materials (such as silicates, made of silicon and oxygen)) existed. these are the ones that formed the planets in the inner solar system, such as earth and venus. these materials are pretty rare in the cloud (they are only a small part of the 2% i described in the first section), so the terrestrial planets didn't have a chance to get very big. outside of the frost line (the region at about 4 au, where water begins to freeze), there are more things that can become solid. some examples are water and methane. there are a lot more of these compounds than the rare metals and silicates, so these planets can grow bigger than the planets in the inner solar system. they even get large enough that they can capture gases such as hydrogen and helium (the most abundant elements in the cloud) in the atmospheres, and they can get really big. these are the gas giants (such as jupiter) that make up most of the other planets. **the tl;dr version is that planets are made of solid particles sticking together. different solids exist at certain temperatures, which can be related to different distances from the sun, so things at different distances from the sun will be made of different things. terrestrial planets can't get big enough to hold on to hydrogen and helium, but the gas giants can.** that is the basis of it, but i skipped over some cool things (such as planetary migration, effects of solar wind, moons, and some other things). feel free to let me know if you have any other questions! 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astronomers, does the luminosity of stars change significantly over their life, specifically during their long phase as "normal" (whatever that means)? | for example, was our sun significantly dimmer, say, 200 million years ago? enough to have affected our climate? | main sequence lifetime, stars do brighten, brighten a bit ====== stars do brighten a bit over their main sequence lifetime. the sun, for instance, would have been about three-quarters its present brightness two billion years ago. this leads to a problem called the [faint young sun problem] (_url_0_), where the sun's energy output at that time would have been insufficient to produce liquid water on the surface, yet the geological record shows that liquid water existed at the time. there's a more in-depth review on [arxiv] (_url_1_). i think that the solution to the paradox involves a stronger greenhouse effect in the past, but i'm not sure. | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faint_young_Sun_paradox",
"http://arxiv.org/pdf/1204.4449v1.pdf",
"http://sci.esa.int/science-e-media/img/dc/Life-of-a-star-03.gif",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hertzsprung%E2%80%93Russell_diagram"
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how does the mass of the star varies during its lifetime? do stars get lighter the older they get? | i guess it also depends of the type of the star? but lets take our sun as example, what % of its mass will be lost by end of its life? thx | give you part, mass, answer ====== i can give you part of the answer. without anything entering the system (like meteorites) stars only ever loose mass. each star fuses smaller elements into larger ones (ours does hydrogen into helium i think). but in that fusion reaction, some mass is lost in the form of heat and light. so, the star looses mass over time. one thing to keep in mind, while the star is indeed loosing mass. it's volume and density change based on where in the stars lifecycle it is. note, i am an econ and math major. so take all that i say with a grain of salt. i could be wrong on a point or two. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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do certain animals or insects have a larger range of visible light? | i know some animals have more or less color receptors, but does this (or something else) allow them to see wavelengths of light we can't see as a color we can't perceive? | spectral sensitivity extending, mantis shrimp, visible spectrum ====== quite a few animals can see into the uv range, not visible to humans (_url_1_) amongst others, the mantis shrimp has a spectral sensitivity extending into the uv (even if the maximum sensitivity of each of his cones is in the visible spectrum) _url_0_ [p.s. the mantis shrimp is awesome](_url_2_) | 5 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v339/n6220/abs/339137a0.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_vision#Evolution",
"http://theoatmeal.com/comics/mantis_shrimp",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2855400/",
"http://bio1152.nicerweb.com/Locked/media/ch50/electromagneticA.html"
] | [
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bees can see further into the ultraviolet portion of the er spectrum than we can. which, if any animals can see infrared? which animals' vision spectra are furthest diverged from ours in either direction? | ton of animals, including dogs, cats ====== i did some digging around and it seems like a ton of animals can see some amount of the uv spectrum that we can't, including dogs, cats, and goldfish. many snakes can "see" into the infrared with special sense organs. there are some myths floating around that goldfish and/or mantis shrimp can see a wider spectrum including uv and ir, but this appears to be untrue; neither see very far into the red end of the spectrum. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
is space infinite because it's round/a sphere? | stars, universe, galaxy ====== well, yes, you've definitely got some misconceptions there. our [milky way galaxy](_url_0_) is most definitely not infinite. it is a bit over 100,000 light years across and has hundreds of billions of stars. these are large numbers, maybe incomprehensibly huge... but if you can put a number to it, then it might as well be zero when comparing it to infinity. a solar system is a collection of planets around a star, a galaxy is a huge collection of stars, and the observable universe is the sum total of all stars, galaxies, and planets that we could theoretically see. consider that in a tiny speck of the sky, [we can see literally thousands of galaxies](_url_1_). surely there are many we can't see for whatever reason. what is hypothesized to be infinite is the *unobservable universe*. because of expansion and the finite speed of light, the parts of the universe that we can see are limited. what is beyond that is still a mystery -- but scientists have figured out clever ways to make guesses. i recommend that you research on curvature of the universe. that might tell you what you want to know. the most important thing to take away from this is that a galaxy is a spinning disk of stars and gas and dust. the universe is the sum total of space, energy, and time. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milky_Way",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hubble_Deep_Field"
] | [
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|
does the air inside of a moving car tire rotate or stand still? | air, tire, boundary layer ====== yes. viscous fluids (which includes air) will generally satisfy a no slip condition at obstacle boundaries. this means that the air wants to stick to any surface it is touching. suppose the air is initially stationary and the tire begins to spin. the air in immediate contact with the inside of the tire will begin to spin as well to maintain contact. this is essentially a form of static friction. this creates a thin boundary layer around the inside the tire in which the air is spinning. just outside this boundary layer, the air is still stationary. over time, as long as the tire keeps spinning, the remaining air begins to spin, and this is due to the viscosity of the air, which causes air near the boundary layer to start spinning, and the air beyond that, and the air beyond that. all of the air will eventually reach the same rotation speed as the tire (let's assume the tire rotates at a constant rate). if the tire stops spinning, the bulk of the air will continue to rotate, but the air in direct contact with the tire will become stationary. then starts another cascade effect, and the air eventually becomes stationary as well. this is just as if you considered a very large vat of syrup which was then set to rotate. the syrup does not initially move, but instead a thin layer of syrup in contact with the walls rotates. eventually the entire volume of syrup rotates. | 32 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
why does my shower curtain billow inward? | [hot, outside](_url_1_) [hot, inside](_url_3_) [cold, outside](_url_2_) [cold, inside](_url_0_) i'm personally was hypothesizing something to do with the pressure as i recently had a new showerhead installed that is much more powerful than my first one. but upon thinking of posting here, i just quick tested hot versus cold, and there is a considerable difference in the billowing. now i'm not really sure why. now i'm just wondering if anyone could shed some light on why this is happening. kind of curious about water pressure versus water temperature versus room temperature, and how any of these correlate. thanks. | preferential one-way flap, shower curtain creating, temperature creating ====== it would mostly be temperature creating a convection current, the shower curtain creating a preferential one-way flap and the internal air being more humid, so it can carry more thermal energy. the typical scenario is that the inside of the shower will have rising steam, which escapes over the curtain rod, causing a pressure differential that creates an inward air current near the bottom. (edit): i realized one other force i forgot to mention for a cold shower. the water droplets will impart momentum to the air inside the shower, which will also create some air pressure. that's probably far more significant than a humidity difference for a cold shower. | 5 | [] | [
"http://imgur.com/wXwhSBO",
"http://imgur.com/HmpAsRS",
"http://imgur.com/71c3mNZ",
"http://imgur.com/GKU02TQ"
] | [] | [
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what is the purpose of vitamins in fruits and plants? how did they come to be? and why are they so good for us? | vitamin, ascorbic acid, plant ====== you first need to understand exactly what a vitamin *is*. a vitamin is a chemical compound that is necessary to the organism but cannot be produced by the organism, or at least not in sufficient quantities, and must be obtained through diet. so what a vitamin is to a plant can be different than what a vitamin is to a person. take vitamin c (ascorbic acid) for example. it is necessary for plant growth, but it's not a vitamin to the plant, because plants can create it through a 10-step glucose → ascorbic acid pathway. we just call it vitamin c because it's a vitamin to us. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
do i get the same nutritional value from a popcorn kernel unpopped as a popped popcorn kernel, if so, why? | i'm sorry if this has been answered already, i've looked through a couple posts after i looked up "popcorn", i'm very drunk right now and i'm eating popcorn and i must know. | 100-150 degrees celsius, increased boiling point, boiling point due ====== most likely - most/all of the biological compounds will not break down at the ~100-150 degrees celsius (increased boiling point due to pressure). it may be slightly more nutritious as the protein will be denatured (protein absorption is promoted by cooking). that said, you would have to break the kernel up to get the whole nutritional value from kernels. if you didn't you wouldn't get nutrition and would end up with machinegun anus syndrome. | 10 | [] | [] | [
"http://chemistry.about.com/od/foodcookingchemistry/f/how-popcorn-pops.htm"
] | [
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what's the underlying physiology behind hallucinations? | i'm currently revising general features of the sensory pathways for my exams this summer, and my lecturer put in their notes that a lack of variation in signal causes sensory systems to spontaneously "create signals". so am i right in thinking that hallucinations (especially in people with mental disorders like schizophrenia or people who take hallucinogens) are caused by receptors losing their ability to recognise changes in stimulation? | due, hallucination, charles bonnet syndrom ====== i can't think of any cases of hallucination that can be ascribed to receptors. hallucination is usually due to a more central, cortical, sort of dysfunction. charles bonnet syndrom is interesting, this is a case where hallucinations occur *due to* a lack of input from receptors, usually due to retinal degeneration. the idea of "release phenomenon" - that loss of input allows certain sensory stages to 'run wild' without the suppressive aspect to the input - is probably on the right track, but it's still theoretical and not based on any current neuroscience. a different sort of case is "geometric hallucination", the sort of thing produced by lsd or other drugs. these pretty clearly produce their effects by generating neural noise in sensory cortex, which then spontaneously assembles into geometric structure defined by cortical connectivity. [jack cowan] (_url_0_) at u chicago is the main person who's done research into this, mainly through mathematical modeling. hallucinations in migraine aura can be understood on similar terms. but aside from the geometric hallucinations, the 'cause' of hallucination in psychiatric disorder, charles bonnet syndrom, etc., is very poorly understood, and there is no accepted specific neural mechanism. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://scholar.google.com.au/scholar?hl=en&q=jack+cowan+hallucination&btnG=&as_sdt=1%2C5&as_sdtp="
] | [
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why do we hear a voice in our head when reading? | and do deaf people "hear" it too? | animals or people, speech or writing, clue about speech ====== another question on this topic, with which the answer might only be philosophical, i always wonderd, animals or people who would have no clue about speech or writing, how do they think? because i talk in myh ead but if you dont know the concept of langauge how do you think about stuff | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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if a star emits very high radiation, higher than visible light, would it literally be invisible to the naked eye? | shorter wave lengths, wave lengths, infrared to red ====== as an object heats up, the *peak* of its em radiation shifts to shorter wave lengths (infrared to red to blue to ultraviolet). but a hotter body will give off more radiation at **all** wavelengths than a cooler one. so the peak shifts, which is why there are yellow stars and white stars and blue stars, but no matter how hot you get, the star will always give off visible light. edit: damn, i guess there's no wikibot here. look at [this figure](_url_0_). as the temperature moves from 3000 k to 4000 k to 5000 k, the peak moves to the left into shorter wavelengths, and more radiation is given off at *all* wavelengths, even the longer ones. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/19/Black_body.svg"
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|
why do we often identify handwriting styles as appearing either masculine or feminine? | what makes the handwriting appear to be linked to a gender and what happens in our mind to make this link? | psych major, young males naturally, males naturally release ====== hi, psych major here :) our professor actually talked about this. if you were to pick up a pencil and write the word "delicious" right now, then do the same when you realized you woke up late for work, you would probably find the original handwriting to look "feminine." while the science behind it isn't exactly 100% conclusive, much of it is thought to be from societal constructs; e.g. young males naturally release more testosterone than females, leading to behavior that is generally more erratic. on the other hand, females are usually conditioned from a very young age to be meek, gentle people (the whole "fairer sex thing.) this naturally leads to boys trying to finish their tests before one another in school, while such competitiveness is almost nonexistent in females of the same age. this is also the age that most kids tend to recognize the distinct differences between such handwriting, leading to teasing among other things. hope that this helped, i'll try to e-mail my professor for the source, as i can't remember the exact book we were using that year. tl;dr: writing slower tends to make lines look curvier and letters more rounded. it follows naturally that writing with haste tends to emphasize lines and create a much more angled (masculine) look. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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when you shake up a carbonated drink, where does the pressure go once it’s ‘settled’? | carbonic acid, bicarbonate ion, carbon dioxide ====== the pressure forces the carbon dioxide to redissolve in the liquid of the drink, where it exists as carbonic acid (h2co3) and bicarbonate ion (hco3-). this is the dynamic equilibrium: h2co3(aq) < -- h+(aq) + hco3-(aq) < -- h2o(l) + co2(g) agitation (or heat) push this equilibrium toward gaseous co2, and positive pressure pushes it in the other direction, as it forces the co2 to redissolve. | 47 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
is it possible to create an electric jet engine? | jet planes make use of axial-flow compressors to compress air. they then mix the compressed air with fuel and burn both, resulting in gases escaping at large velocities through a nozzle. is it possible to do away with the burning fuel part, and just compress the air and let it flow out through a nozzle? i understand the velocity of the air escaping would be lesser. but would it be so less that a plane simply cannot take off? | jet engine, energy, compressor ====== a modern [jet engine](_url_0_) is actually a compressor and turbine in one machine. the turbine harvests some of the energy from the burning fuel and uses it to power the compressor. the rest of the energy provides thrust or is lost as heat. if there is no energy input (fuel) then the turbine won't be able to generate enough energy to both run the compressor and provide thrust. imagine the situation of 100% efficiency: all of the energy that gets put into the air by the compressor is regained by the turbine. in this case you have a do-nothing perpetual motion machine that will theoretically run forever but will provide no thrust. 100% efficiency is, of course, impossible. if you're thinking of simply using electricity to compress air and then release it through a nozzle, then yes. it would work, but you would be far better off just using a propeller. | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.salvatoreaiello.com/images/Main/AxialEngine.gif",
"http://www.amazon.com/Development-Jet-Turbine-Aero-Engines/dp/1852605863/ref=tmm_hrd_title_0",
"http://www.norcom2000.com/users/dcimper/assorted/inanities/general_wtf/jet/engine.html"
] | [
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is a completely electric jet engine possible? | given that a jet engine works by the compression of air, adding fuel which is then ignited to rapidly expand the air out the back, could an engine be built (if a way to provide the necessary electrical energy was available) using an electrical arc to expand the air. if so, how much electrical energy would be needed? | completely electric jet, electric jet engine, jet engines ====== a "completely electric jet engine" is just a powerful electric fan. modern commercial jet engines are no longer really jet engines, which is why they're now called "high-bypass turbofans". in a commercial aircraft, the point of burning the fuel is no longer to produce a high-velocity stream of air out of the back of the engine. instead, the point of burning the fuel is to provide power to the big-ass fan at the front of the engine, which accelerates a large mass of air to a (relatively, compared to true jet engines) low speed. while the exhaust from the engine still moves fast enough to provide *some* thrust, the majority of the thrust is provided by the fan. so to answer your question: there's no real reason to go through the intermediate step of heating air in order to operate an electrical "jet engine". all you need is a sufficiently large supply of electricity and you can skip the heating/expanding stage altogether and just go with a big, powerful fan. this is widely done in model aircraft, and there are a lot of aircraft that could conceivably run from electricity alone already (helicopters). but, of course, you *could* heat air with an arc if, for some reason, you wanted to. in that case, you could pretty much drop your arc generator in a current engine's combustion chamber as long as you had sufficient electrical power to replace the energy of combustion. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is it possible that there is another planet orbiting the sun at the same speed as the earth, making it impossible for us to observe? | if there were another planet orbiting the sun at exactly the same speed and distance from the sun as our earth; and it were precisely one half of our orbit ahead of us, would it not always be on the opposite side of the sun from us. if this were the case, wouldn't it be impossible to observe? what clues besides seeing a planet do we have to suggest its existence? | constant speed, gravitational influence, main reasons ====== there are two main reasons why not: since our orbit is elliptical and not of constant speed, there would be times when we could see it. the probes we have sent to mars and venus and elsewhere would not have reached their targets if that hypothetical planet had a gravitational influence. | 17 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lagrangian_point#L3",
"http://i.imgur.com/QUX00.png",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counter-Earth",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/lrrk2/what_if_there_was_a_twin_planet_that_existed_180/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/kp0wy/if_there_was_a_planet_that_lied_in_the_exact_same/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/hd78s/can_two_planets_of_equal_mass_orbit_around_a/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/icz6s/if_there_really_was_another_planet_orbiting_the/"
] | [
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why do so many drugs cause "feelings of suicide" or "suicidal thoughts"? even anti-depression medication | seems like almost everything has some chance of making a person suicidal? why? why is it so common amongst pharmaceuticals to cause thoughts of suicide? even anti-depression medication, which seems like it should combat suicidal feelings, might actually cause them. | commit suicide, suicide, asked ====== from what i can remember from other times this has been asked, it's pretty much because some people are *so depressed*, they don't even want to commit suicide. an anti-depressant would give you the energy and commitment required to follow through with suicide. | 14 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what causes the "just woke up" voice? | opera singer, opera, singer ====== opera singer here. the laryngeal folds are indeed a muscle, and therefore require that blood be flowing through them to function at full capacity. the issue is not that the muscle has tightened. your voice is lower in the morning for effectively the same reason a professional dancer wouldn't hop out of bed and do the splits immediately-the muscles have not warmed and loosened to ideal capacity for speech. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
can animals in the wild get ptsd? | ptsd, model, animal model ====== yes. wild animals can get posttraumatic stress disorder, or at least an animal model of ptsd. in fact, that is one of the most common ways to test pharmaceuticals for effectiveness on ptsd, as well as examine brain function and structural changes. for more information, check out these studies: 1. berardi, a., trezza, v., palmery, m., trabace, l., cuomo, v., & campolongo, p. (2014). an updated animal model capturing both the cognitive and emotional features of post-traumatic stress disorder (ptsd). frontiers in behavioral neuroscience, 8 2. zoladz, p. r., park, c. r., fleshner, m., & diamond, d. m. (2015). psychosocial predator-based animal model of ptsd produces physiological and behavioral sequelae and a traumatic memory four months following stress onset. physiology & behavior, 147183-192. doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2015.04.032 3. jia, m., smerin, s. e., zhang, l., xing, g., li, x., benedek, d., & ... li, h. (2015). corticosterone mitigates the stress response in an animal model of ptsd. journal of psychiatric research, 6029-39. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2014.09.020 4. burhans, l. b., smith-bell, c. a., & schreurs, b. g. (2015). effects of extinction treatments on the reduction of conditioned responding and conditioned hyperarousal in a rabbit model of posttraumatic stress disorder (ptsd). behavioral neuroscience, 129(5), 611-620. doi:10.1037/bne0000092 5. reznikov, r., diwan, m., nobrega, j. n., & hamani, c. (2015). towards a better preclinical model of ptsd: characterizing animals with weak extinction, maladaptive stress responses and low plasma corticosterone. journal of psychiatric research, 61158-165. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2014.12.017 | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
if i were to send a tree to mars with sufficient nutritients and water(everything it would need to grow on earth), would it be able to grow and produce oxygen? | low atmospheric pressure, exploration in mind, groups with space ====== nasa, among other groups with space exploration in mind, are asking that question themselves: _url_0_ it seems the biggest problem to overcome is the low atmospheric pressure, which sucks the already rare water out of plants. nutrients don't seem to be a problem. | 1,747 | [] | [] | [
"http://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2004/25feb_greenhouses/",
"http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006IJAsB...5..171S",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biosphere_2#Challenges",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bottle_garden",
"http://www.nss.org/adastra/volume13/v13n5/contents/v13n5f1.pdf",
"http://www.ces.uoguelph.ca/index.shtml"
] | [
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|
why, when you cry, is your nose stimulated to run? | tear duct, nasolacrimal duct, upper corner ====== tears are released from the lacrimal gland at the upper corner of your eye, and drained from the eye by the nasolacrimal duct (tear duct) in the bottom corner of the eye. it drains into your nose. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
is glass a liquid? | my friend the other day, told me that glass was actually a liquid and that morgan freeman said so on a show. can anyone confirm this? | amorphous solid, change form, solid ====== glass is an [amorphous solid](_url_0_). that means that it's structure is most definitely solid, but not crystalline, and is able to change form (like glass-blowing, or tempered [shatter-proof] windows). smarter people will be able to explain it better, but this is a simple answer to a simple question. | 12 | [] | [] | [
"http://dwb.unl.edu/teacher/nsf/c01/c01links/www.ualberta.ca/~bderksen/florin.html",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/pueps/glass_window_kind_supercooled_liquid_or_just/"
] | [
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is glass really a liquid? | i have heard people say that it is but it doesn't really make sense to me. | liquid-like disorder, crystalline order, molecules arrange ====== no, glass is an amorphous solid which is characterized by the molecules arrange in a liquid-like disorder, as opposed to a crystalline order. it's still rigid and has the mechanical properties of a solid though. generally, a glass is an amorphous material which exhibits a [glass-liquid transition](_url_0_), a reversible process from a solid brittle state to a molten rubber like state. | 16 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_transition"
] | [
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] |
why do stars and planets rotate around a single axis? why don't any "tumble", rotating around 2 axes? | also, are there any objects that do "tumble", like asteroids? what about exo-planets, which are out in space by themselves? ed: to clear up what i mean by "tumbling", i'm referring to a dual-axis spin; for example, earth rotating as it does, around a n-s axis, while that axis in turn rotates around another. | rotation, axes, conamara ====== nothing rotates around 2 axes. all three dimensional rotations, however "complex", [can be simplified to rotation around a single axis (euler's rotation theorem](_url_0_). the composition of two (or more) rotations is a (single) rotation. edited: still learning something new every day. although euler's theorem is of course true, it seems that "tumbling" is recognized by planetary scientists as referring to non-principal-axis rotation. though the stated assumption in op's question (that things can rotate about 2 axes) was incorrect, if you look at it as a question about non-principal-axis rotation then it makes sense. thanks /u/conamara_chaos and /u/possiblywrong ! next edit: op has now clarified what he meant, rendering this answer less than useful. y'all can stop upvoting me and upvote /u/jimbelk, /u/conamara_chaos, and /u/possiblywrong instead. | 10 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euler%27s_rotation_theorem",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angular_momentum"
] | [
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if we all came out of africa, does that mean the first europeans were black? if so, why are there no longer any (native) black europeans? | it's a pretty superficial question, i know. but i am curious as to how things became as they are. | exposure to sunlight, developmental disorders, evolutionary pressure ====== there's an evolutionary pressure for lighter skin at higher latitudes because exposure to sunlight is necessary for the production of vitamin d. vitamin d deficiency can cause developmental disorders like [rickets](_url_1_). given enough generations, there is sufficient pressure for populations at northern latitudes to develop lighter skin colors. that said, you are correct in pointing out that skin color is subject to a high degree of variation on the phenotypic (and epigenetic?) level. because of this, most anthropologists [do not consider skin color to be a reliable indicator of genetic ancestry](_url_0_). | 25 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.nature.com/ng/journal/v36/n11s/full/ng1440.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rickets"
] | [
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] |
how do we have images of the milky way galaxy? | milky, pictures, galaxies ====== we don't. we have pictures of other galaxies. we know that the milky way is a spiral galaxy. so pictures of spiral galaxies stand in for the milky way. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
is there anywhere other than earth in the solar system where you could see a total solar eclipse and/or total lunar eclipse equivalent? | by lunar eclipse equivalent, i mean when a planet or moon is directly between the sun and another moon. | outer solar system, solar system, outer solar ====== such events are quite common in the outer solar system where the sun appears to be smaller. it is possible when amalthea, io, europa, ganymede and callisto occults the sun on jupiter (_url_1_), janus, mimas, enceladus, tethys, rhea, dione and titan for saturn (_url_0_) and for many other moons on the outer planets. | 14 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipses_on_Saturn",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipses_on_Jupiter"
] | [
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why aren't meteors torn apart when they enter a planet's roche limit? | roche limit, limit is dependent, parent body ====== the roche limit is dependent on the mass of the parent body, the distance between the two bodies, and important in this case, the diameter of the affected body. most *meteorites* (meteors are the flame trail created when passing through the atmosphere) are not large enough for the tidal forces involved to overcome the chemical (and gravitational) bonds the hold the meteorite together. there is at least one known case of a body breaking up before impacting a planet: the comet [shoemaker-levy 9](_url_0_). i don't know exactly why it broke up, but it was made almost entirely made of ice and dust and it has for a long time been losing mass due to the sun. both factors would weaken the comet and decrease the tidal forces needed for it to be destroyed. ~~edit: i'm on mobile. how do i create links again?~~ edit 2: thanks. so it's brackets-title, then parentheses-link. | 11 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet_Shoemaker%E2%80%93Levy_9"
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|
how do trees still perform photosynthesis in the winter when their leaves fall off? | leaves, deciduous trees, perform photosynthesis ====== deciduous trees do not perform photosynthesis after their leaves have fallen off. the outer layers of bark are not living tissue. deciduous trees have evolved to lose their leaves in winter, for a number of reasons. one, sunlight is much less intense, and the cost of keeping the leaves alive wouldn't make up for the lower light intensity, two, the leaves would freeze, making photosynthetic activity nearly impossible anyway. photosynthesis and respiration require the movement of water up from the roots to the leaves, which is impossible when the ground is frozen. furthermore, a tree that retains a large number of large leaves is at risk of damage from winter weather, from the weight of ice and snow buildup, and from wind damage, each leaf is a sail, and in high wind, a tree with all of its leaves is more likely to break or be uprooted. the living tissue in the tree is dormant, surviving on stored sugars, during the months when the leaves are not present. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
how do trees perform photosynthesis in the winter (without their leaves)? | [deleted] | summer months, green areas, thick bark ====== if there are any green areas without too thick bark then perhaps they could do some there, but i think the majority just hunker down and live off the starch stores they built up over the spring/summer months. it’s probably better to jettison their leaves when the daylight hours become very short as they would probably lose more glucose in cellular respiration than they would gain in photosynthesis, so by removing the leaves they lose a lot of respiring tissues and can survive. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is there any evidence for harm done by holding in sneezes? | big breath held, make people stroke, big breath ====== no. this brings to mind some specious claims that performing the valsalva maneuver (big breath held and pushed against a closed glottis) will make people stroke out or have an aneurysm. since this maneuver is performed (at higher pressures than your sneeze) by fighter pilots, weight lifters, and basically anyone that pushes against something heavy, you can be confident that you'll be fine. the noise you hear fighter pilots making when you turn hard in bf3 is them performing this maneuver, as it helps to keep blood in the brain. the amount of pressure in the body is immense, however it is not going to hurt you. the pressure is transmitted up the vascular column to the head, but it is also applied to the cerebrospinal fluid in the spinal canal, "which transmits pressure up through the subdural space in the skull and throughout the cranium, balancing cardiovascular pressure across the blood/brain interface." -starting strength 2nd ed pp52 i can tell you that when i've had some almost-failed squat sets with somewhere close to 400lbs on my back, the pressure i feel in my head while performing the valsalva feels like every vein is about to burst and my skin is going to explode off my face. never had any issues, and i've never heard anyone having any issues relating to this sort of internal pressure. | 6 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
why does wet hair behave so differently? ie. clumping, floppiness, etc | i'm an asian with fairly straight hair, and i'm wondering why my hair behaves so differently when it gets wet? why does it clump? why does it get all floppy? | intermolecular forces, hair, allowing hydrogen bonding ====== due to different intermolecular forces. when the hair is wet, it is coated with water, allowing hydrogen bonding and polar interactions to occur between different strands of hair. when dry, the hair (and oil coating the hair) does not have the attractive interactions. you can think of it like a bunch of towels. when the towels are dry, they interact differently than when they are wet. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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what causes your hair (let's say curly, for instance) to become soft and malleable when it gets wet? | i have curly hair and wish to (scientifically) know why it suddenly becomes softer and straight. does it absorb water? is it my scalp? | water penetrates hair, disrupts fiber structure, penetrates hair fibers ====== water penetrates hair fibers and breaks some of the disulfide bonds between the fibers; this disrupts fiber structure, and they sag under gravity. disulfide bonds reform over time and hair regains its curl — but there are chemicals that can disrupt disulfide bonds more permanently, and they are what's used in perms. [see here for diagrams](_url_0_) | 11 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.elmhurst.edu/~chm/vchembook/568hairwave.html"
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why is bird poop white, where as almost all other poop is brown? | fact brown, bird poop, uric acid ====== most of bird poop is in fact brown(or green). the white portion you see is the urine in the form of uric acid, as birds do not urinate like mammals do. if you care to know, uric acid is used as a waste product because it is less toxic compared to ammonia(the urinary waste of fish) and urea(mammals and amphibians) and can be excreted with less water than the other two. so while it is more energetically costly to produce, the animal saves some water that would be lost in other types of organisms. reptiles and insects also utilize uric acid as a waste. | 12 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
did trees get taller than redwoods in earths history? how big were the largest trees ever? | do we even really know how large trees have gotten in our planets history? | largest trees, carboniferous period grew, trees ====== don't know about the largest trees *ever*. but lepidodendron or scale trees from the carboniferous period grew to up to 30 meters. trees were able to grew taller once they evolved stronger hardwood tissue, but even if lepidodendron were not the tallest, they were the most prolific in earth's natural history and among the most consequential to humans as most of our vast coal reserves comes from their remains. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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how can the observable universe be ~ 100 billion light years in length if the universe is only ~ 14 billion years old | if the universe expanded at the speed of light wouldnt it be only 14 lights years wide | billion light years, billion light, light years ====== observable universe is ~ 100 billion light years across. universe is much bigger that that. it's likely that universe is infinitely large (if it is indeed flat in large scales like it seems to be). in any case, the [metric expansion of space](_url_0_) means that universe expands in every point without stuff moving around. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metric_expansion_of_space",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observable_universe"
] | [
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what causes lactose intolerance? can someone lactose intolerant become tolerant over time? | someone told me that the reason more asians are lactose intolerant is due to the food culture. babies are born with tolerance due to the bacteria in their gut, but once they are weaned off breastmilk or formula, they no longer consume dairy products, since most asians do not drink cow's milk or eat cheese. this will lead to the lactose dependent bacteria in the gut to die off, rendering the person unable to digest lactose properly. is this true? is there a way to reverse the process? maybe ingest cultures of lactose-eating bacteria? | protein called lactase, protein called, lactose ====== the ability to metabolize lactose is dependent on a protein called lactase. those who have decreased levels of lactase or non-functional versions would be unable to digest lactose, so lactose would instead be "digested" by bacteria in the gut, which would then produce gas in the form of methane. this explains the symptoms of lactose intolerance - bloating, loose stools and flatulence. the activity and presence of lactase varies significantly throughout your life. most infants have the ability to digest lactose, but this activity decreases as you age. the great majority of the world adult population is unable to digest lactose in great quantities - such as that found in milk - with the exception of populations from northern european origin, where presumably high levels of lactase activity evolved to allow milk drinking late into adulthood. it is unlikely that one can regain tolerance as it has to do with decreased presence of a cellular enzyme. people with lactose intolerance can take lactaid, which provides exogenous lactase, to allow digestion and avoidance of symptoms. | 32 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2005/06/050602012109.htm"
] | [
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when a water filter (e.g. brita filter) is past its expiration date, is it just not filtering very well anymore, or is it actively making the water worse? | ion exchange resin, capturing organic compounds, capturing metals ====== assuming you have the same water source and it's consistent (tap water, for example), then the adsorption capacity of the filter will eventually get used up. most filters like a brita have adsorbents an ion exchange resin (white particles) for capturing metals (lead and copper) and activated carbon (charcoal) for capturing organic compounds and some metals as well. once the adsorbents have reached their capacity, then the metals and organics that enter the filter will leave the filter unchanged. there are some compounds which actually react with the adsorbents. residual disinfectants (chlorine, chloramine) are [destroyed by activated carbon](_url_0_), so they will not pass through the filter. residual disinfectants are added to the water so that organisms do not grow in the time between the water leaving the treatment plant and it coming out of your tap (through the distribution system). an old brita filter will still destroy residual disinfectants. that can improve the taste/odor of your water if you don't like chlorine. the last thing to consider is that if there are no residual disinfectants, then bacteria can grow within your brita filter. it's unlikely that it would harbor pathogenic bacteria, but bacteria can easily grow on activated carbon if there's no chlorine present. if you leave it long enough, bacteria will grow. for that reason, i'd eventually get rid of an old filter instead of keeping it in place indefinitely. | 4,986 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.wcponline.com/2009/06/13/chlorine-chloramine-removal-activated-carbon/"
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|
how long do water filters in our fridge actually last and what are the negatives of using one for an extended period of time? | [deleted] | filter, water, step ====== so, let's take it step by step. first, how do your filters work? usually they have there basic components/functions. first, a coarse filter to stop large particulates - sometimes this one is left out of it's a filter that will only be used with drinking water, but usually there's one of some sort. there's also almost always an activated charcoal filter, with a fairly fine porosity - topically 1 or 5 microns, depending. this will physically stop some larger bacteria, and things bigger than that; more importantly, activated charcoal is good at adsorbing many molecules through non-specific interactions, helping remove a decent amount of many organic molecules and other contaminants - not all, and it depends exactly which ones, but it's a good "universal" filter. the last component is especially useful if you live in a region with hard water (lots of calcium or other ions in the water). ion exchangers, often polymers with many charged groups, will adsorb those ions, simply by electrostatic attraction (negative charges attract positive and the other way around). reducing water hardness provides water that many people find tastier, and also reduces/prevents buildup. now, the complicated part. how long do they last, and what makes them "run out"? well, there are a few ways a filter can fail. any of the stages can be "full" and no longer able to remove material from the water; one or more parts can become physically blocked, preventing flow; the filter may start improperly releasing adsorbed material (usually if it's full); it can physically deteriorate, and start breaking down. there are other ways, but those are the main ones. what happens if you keep using the same filter? well, hopefully, nothing too serious. but potentially, it may be like using no filter at all - which could mean the device slowly being damaged by calcium buildup, or failure to remove other pollutants - although filters for a fridge, coffee maker, etc are basically only about softening water, they assume you connect them to safe drinking water. the most severe risk would be, that the filter can act as a breeding ground for bacteria that are trapped, and if they grow and multiply, they may start making it through the filter and into your water. this risk grows with time, and is of course affected by the water source you have. for what it's worth, the filter lifetime from a manufacturer is definitely conservative, and they usually assume heaviest usage, but it's rarely a complete lie to get you to pay more. i can't make a specific recommendation, as my usage and circumstances, and the risks i'm willing to take, may not be the same as yours, and the device and filter themselves make a big difference of course. | 40 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
how does the air inside of a rolling tire move? | does in rotate in the direction of the rolling tire? does in stay in place as the tire rotates around it? | dense surfaces, gasses and liquids, liquids tend ====== fluids such as gasses and liquids tend to stick to more dense surfaces. at a close approximation, we can even say that at the boundry, the fluid does not move relative to the boundry, this is known as a no-slip condition. it's more applicable to non-compressible fluids like water, but most likely applies in the case of a tire where the gas is already pretty much as compressed as its going to be. so what the means is that the air is rotating at the same speed as the tire or disk where they are touching. as you move away from the boundary with the tire towards the center, the air is moved by the rotating air by something known as shear forces. basically the air that's not touching the tire is being dragged by the air that is. at equilibrium, this sets up a velocity profile where the air is moving the fastest (maximum at the speed of the tire) where its next to the tire and slowest, but still some, at the center. the actual velocity profile is governed by fluid mechanics equations that are fairly straightforward and are often solved in introductory fluid mechanics courses, with more info available on the [wikipedia page](_url_0_). | 6 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navier%E2%80%93Stokes_equations"
] | [
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when mosquitoes suck blood, why does your skin leave a bump and not an indent? | naked eye, local allergic reaction, eye ====== the indent is there, just too small to see with the naked eye (usually). the bump is actually your body reacting to the mosquito saliva that she leave in you, and as a foreign entity your body fight: like a local allergic reaction. | 10 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what are the evolutionary benefits of monogamous relationships in the wild? in other words, why do some animals pair up for life and others don't? | main benefit, offspring requires, care ====== the main benefit is if care of offspring requires more than one parent. it's unusual but not unheard of to see monogamous pairing in species which don't provide parental care. the need for two parents to successfully raise kids can explain temporary monogamy, but what about monogamy that lasts after the offspring have left the nest? in some cases it's just a better bet to stick with your partner (if your partner is decent). you _know_ they are capable of providing reliable care (assuming they actually are capable of that). you don't have to spend the risk or energy trying to find a new mate. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
why is jupiter so much larger than mars, earth, mercury and venus? | core accretion model, core accretion, gas ====== tl;dr: if a planetesimal gets to ~12x the mass of the earth, it has runaway gas accretion, making the final planet very large and very massive. there are two basic theories of planet formation: core accretion and disk instability. i will focus on the core accretion model since it seems much more likely to me to be closer to what actually happens. in the core accretion model, tiny dust-sized particles in a protoplanetary disk stick to each other via electromagnetic forces (think van der waals forces like in chemistry). eventually, these become big enough that they don't really care about the gas in the disk and move independently. these larger particles find each other and become a bigger clump. the bigger clumps eventually become large enough to gravitationally attract the dust around it. thus, a planetesimal forms. so far, this process is identical for rocky and gaseous planets. rocky planets like mercury, venus, earth, and mars are large enough that they hold onto some gas gravitationally, but not much. gaseous planets, on the other hand, collect enough rock and dust to start accreting a lot of gas (this starts to happen significantly when the planetesimal is around 12x the mass of the earth). once you start accreting gas, it is a runaway process. the gas adds a bunch of mass to the planetesimal, and thus it can collect more gas. in a short amount of time (~7 myr), the planet mass goes from 12 m_earth to hundreds of times the mass of the earth. this process of runaway accretion is mostly stopped by the fact that the central star starts to actually act like a star (burning hydrogen and all). when that happens, the star produces winds which blows away the protoplanetary disk, thus necessarily preventing the planet from accreting more gas. because gas is less dense than rock, it also means the resulting planet is both massive and large. [this graph](_url_0_) is a classic plot showing what i talked about. the biggest difference between rocky and gaseous planets kind of boils down to how quickly the initial rocky core was able to grow. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://slideplayer.com/slide/9201892/27/images/4/Core-Accretion+Scenario.jpg"
] | [
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|
what causes things to taste freezer burnt? | combination of factors, cell fluids results, meat ====== a combination of factors... when the cell membranes in meat are ruptured by freezing, the loss of muscle proteins and other cell fluids results in a dryer and tougher meat when thawed. in addition, the fluids released by the cells and fluids from intercellular spaces can cause reactions that result in a poorer taste. freezing the fat in meat can cause oxidation and may result in the meat becoming rancid, especially in the case of fish, chicken, and pork, which contain unsaturated fats that are more prone to that sort of thing. beef, however, contains mostly saturated fats, so it can be kept frozen longer without going bad. although your freezer may be filled with ice (especially if you never defrost it), the air in it is extremely dry. as a result, if unwrapped or poorly wrapped food is left there for some time, it'll undergo freezer burn. during freezer burn, the ice crystals in the food evaporate without first melting (a.k.a. sublimation), altering the taste of the dried-out parts when they're thawed and eaten, and in extreme cases, making them inedible. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what exactly composes the taste of freezer burn? is it a chemical in the food that tastes like freezer burn? | not asking how freezer burn happens, but rather once it happens, what are the constituents of the taste? | freezer burn taste, freezer burn, burn taste ====== so, you can taste the freezer burn taste in the fost that builds up in the freezer if you put a little on your tongue. this suggests the freezer burn taste is some kind volatile/aromatic in the food that tends to vaporize and recondense with the water that sublimates from food. likely is those aromatic compounds, but oxidized from exposure to the air before they recondense. | 25 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why are no two snowflakes alike? | snowflakes, alike, snowflakes are alike ====== why do you think that no two snowflakes are alike? because of the saying? there is no reason to believe that no two snowflakes are alike. it is unlikely that two snowflakes are identical because of differing environments of their freezing (just like ice cubes), but there is no reason that it would be impossible for two snowflakes to be alike. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
if every cell in the body replaces every 7-8 years or so, then why do things like tattoos and scars never go away? | skin cell grows, essentially replicating, skin cell ====== the way i understand it, when a skin cell grows old it splits itself in two, essentially replicating itself before it dies. so if the old skin cell is scar tissue or has ink embedded in it, the new one will as well. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
do any of the visible stars in the sky have planets? eg does orion's belt have planets? | stars, orion constellation, orbiting ====== most probably. there are confirmed exosolar pants orbiting other stars, though i can't recall if any of them are orbiting stars in the orion constellation. however, our methods of detection create a bias towards very high mass and very high volume satellites. that is to say, gas giants. however, it's almost certain that all stars have some forms of satellites, be they extrastellar captures, or leftover material from the protostellar disk. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_exoplanetary_host_stars"
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|
if water is odorless, how can i smell the steam and fog? | fog, impurities, smelling those impurities ====== - it's possible there are impurities in the water and you are smelling those impurities when the water is vaporized to steam/fog. dust, rust particles, dirt, organics, etc. - it's possible that steam itself does interact weakly with smell receptors in our nose. although pure water vapor doesn't seem to have an odor to me. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
are there examples of pathogens that are typically killed by alcohol ever developing resistance to alcohol as a result of modern medicine? | answered recently, amenable to resistance, mechanism of antibiotics ====== this was answered recently _url_0_ the mechanism of antibiotics is completely different to that of alcohol which functions by denaturing proteins and thereby not amenable to resistance. | 2 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/ik2fp/why_do_bacteria_adapt_so_quickly_to_antibiotics/"
] | [
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|
if pi stops having any practical use after it reaches a finite number of digits, how can mathematicians discover the digits that come after this limit? | sources like this ( _url_0_ ) claim that the "the circumference of the observable universe" can be measured "to within the width of a single hydrogen atom" with only about 39 digits of pi. so how can any more specific calculations of pi be accurately measured? | compute, digits, url ====== there isn't some circle somewhere with mathematicians around it with a ruler trying to find it's length. we don't measure pi, we compute it. there are [many formulas for pi](_url_0_) and we just compute them to high enough accuracy to get more and more digits. * archimedes found that, in today's language, the limit of n\*tan(pi/n) at n=infinity is equal to pi. what this means is that if you plug in larger and larger n, then the value of n\*tan(pi/n) will be very close to pi. since it is easy to compute tan(pi/n) for large n, archimedes was able to get 22/7, a nice approximation for pi. if we do n=10000, we can get pi up to 6 decimal places. but we are guaranteed that if you want to get pi up to any number of digits, then there is some n that you can plug into n\*tan(pi/n) that will output an approximation to pi that has that is correct up to that many digits. it's just that to get even 12 digits we need n=10,000,000, so while it will definitely be able to give us an approximation as accurate as we want, it becomes impractical if we want something like a hundred trillion digits. * [viete found a nice formula](_url_2_) that involves more and more square roots of two. we can't compute it exactly, because you need infinitely nested square roots, but we can get as close to pi as we want, as long as we have the time to compute it. using this formula, they were able to get pi to 35 digits. * [leibniz found a particularly simple formula for pi](_url_1_). pi is exactly equal to 4\*(1-1/3+1/5-1/7+1/9-1/11+1/13-1/15+...) as long as you have the patience, if you add up enough of these you can get as close to pi as you want. * these are all relatively slow, but the genius mathematician ramanujan found a [particularly great formula to find pi](_url_3_) using very sophisticated techniques. it, like leibniz's, is an infinite sum, so the more terms you plug in the more accurate an approximation you'll get, but you get it much faster. there are others that are used to do really fast computations. but all of these are computations no measurement. math is not confined to this universe. | 55 | [] | [
"http://gizmodo.com/5985858/how-many-digits-of-pi-do-you-really-need"
] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_formulae_involving_%CF%80#Formulae_yielding_.CF.80",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leibniz_formula_for_%CF%80",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vi%C3%A8te%27s_formula",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramanujan%E2%80%93Sato_series"
] | [
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would it be possible for us to find chemical elements that are not on the periodic table? | if we journeyed to another planet could we uncover an element that is not on the periodic table of elements? [is this a stupid question?] | identity is determined, atomic nucleus, element identity ====== an element's identity is determined only by the number of protons it has in each atomic nucleus. element 50 here is the same as element 50 on zorblax. elements with a large number of protons (above 100) are so unstable that they are not found anywhere in nature, because they have decayed too quickly. so you are unlikely to find one that is higher in atomic number than anything we have created (118). | 9 | [] | [] | [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Island_of_stability"
] | [
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] |
how much heat do the stars we see from earth, besides the sun, contribute to the overall temperature of the earth? | i'm not sure if it has ever been calculated before or if it's so negligible that it's not worth calculating, but it is a rather intriguing thought to me. | brightest star visible, square meter, visible from earth ====== sun: 3.846 x 10^26 watts at 149597871000 m, 3.846 x 10^26 / (4\*pi\*149597871000^(2)) = 1368 watts per square meter the brightest star visible from earth is sirius. it's actually a binary pair, which in total emits 9.779 x 10^27 watts, at a distance of 81360544300000000 m, which means we receive 0.0000001176 watts per square meter. the total is more difficult, but we can approximate it using the table here: _url_0_ this is a slightly different concept but it should be close. sirius is magnitude -1.47, so magnitude 0 is approximately 0.0000001176 / 2.512^1.47 = 0.00000003037 w/m^2. the weighted sum of that table (2.5 * 1 + 1.0 * 3 + 0.4 * 11 + ...) comes out to 113.3, so the total power received by all non-sun stars of magnitude 10 or brighter is 0.000003441 w/m^(2). | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apparent_magnitude#History"
] | [
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] |
why do greenhouse gases work? as far as i understand, earth's temperature emission into space is supposed to only depend on its temperature. why is reflecting heat back to earth relevant? shouldn't the gases themselves heat up and start radiating? | thermal emission, quick note, surface ====== just a quick note, black-body/thermal emission only depends solely on temperature for a perfect black-body. for anything that is not a black-body the standard "planck's law" distribution is weight by an emissivity function. emissivity is: saying something is a "perfect" blackbody amounts to saying that it is made of a material whose emissivity is 1 for all wavelengths. as for the greenhouse effect, unfortunately, to understand it you have to consider basically, at minimum, a "two-layer" (or more) coupled system. in the simplest possible model you have an "atmosphere" layer with a wavelength dependent absorption and emissivity and a "surface" layer with its own absorption and emissivity and the two are coupled and trade energy with one another. the simple model i'm describing is called a 0d energy balance model (i.e. it doesn't depend on altitude (which would make it a 1d model), or longitude and latitude (a 3d model)). conceptually you can sort of get the idea with a diagram like this: _url_1_ also see this one: _url_0_ obviously the more layers and dimensions you add the more you get a realistic model, but to just get hard fast understanding it's important to understand that you do need these two systems to understand the greenhouse effect. you have 100% coming in from the sun, and in total 29% reflects (either from the atmosphere or the surface) and 71% emits from thermal radiation. the key physics relies on basically the "back radiation" arrow in the above diagrams, which you'll notice that because of this back radiation, which is due to the atmosphere having gases that absorb and re-emit infrared, the surface of the earth's thermal emission must be greater than 100% relative to the light coming in. what this means is that our surface is hotter than it would be if the earth had no atmosphere and it was just surface absorption = surface reflection + surface emission. however, if the amount of back radiation increases then, in the short term, thermal emission will fall below the 71% and energy in vs. energy out won't balance and the earth will start to capture energy. in the long term, equilibrium will return, however, it will be accomplished by increasing the temperature of the earth's such that its thermal emission is higher. basically in that second diagram, if back radiation increases so too must the "emitted by surface" increase above 398.2 w/m^2 in order to still have a total ir thermal emission of 239.9 | 9 | [] | [] | [
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bb/The-NASA-Earth%27s-Energy-Budget-Poster-Radiant-Energy-System-satellite-infrared-radiation-fluxes.jpg",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e5/Diagram_showing_the_Earth%27s_energy_budget%2C_which_includes_the_greenhouse_effect_%28NASA%29.png"
] | [
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|
do moons have moons? any in our solar system? have you detected any moons of moons in other star systems? | find documented, co-orbital satellites, url ====== the closest example i can find documented are [the two co-orbital satellites of saturn](_url_0_). they orbit each other with a longer period than they both orbit saturn. having said that i am sure there is some rubble orbiting many moons in the solar system. it would never be in a stable orbit and would need to be constantly refreshed from nearby ring systems, as around saturn. | 9 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moons_of_Saturn#Co-orbitals",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hill_sphere"
] | [
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|
could bacteria ever become immune to soap | we use soap a lot on just about everything killing the bacteria. so couldn't bacteria evolve to become immune to soap like penicillin? it would be a massive advantage to be immune to soap, or is the way cell membranes designed just make it too hard to evolve into a new form? if they do evolve to become immune to soap, would we have to design a new way to kill bacteria, or could we, like antibiotics, just develop new stronger forms of soaps to kill bacteria? | kill microbial life, leading in part, flourishing of mrsa ====== if you are talking about antibacterial soap which uses substances like triclosan to kill microbial life, then this is already happening (leading in part to the flourishing of mrsa) and there is a backlash against the overuse of antibacterial soaps. soap, in general, though mainly cleans object by physically removing the majority of physical material from the surface of what is being washed. since this is a physical process, not a biochemical one, no resistance could really be selected for, so it will still work no matter how bacteria evolve and adapt. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why can't we put nuclear waste back in the mines where it came from? | it would seem safer to stick it back in the mountain where it came out of and pour a few tons of concrete down with it than transporting it to some site where it could affect water supplies etc. | natural uranium, radioactive elements, uranium ore ====== nuclear waste contains different, much more radioactive elements than the uranium ore that comes out of mines. the two main radioactive isotopes in nuclear fuel are u238 and u235, which have half-lives of about 4.5 billion years and 0.7 billion years respectively - long enough that the total level of radioactivity is pretty low. this is the reason natural uranium exists at all - it's actually rather stable, and a small amount of it in the ground does little harm. what harm natural uranium does cause is mainly the result of a short-lived decay product, [radon](_url_1_), which is a common cause of lung cancer [source: [epa](_url_2_)]. this should give you a clue as to the problems posed by nuclear waste: the stuff that lasts for billions of years (eg. u238) is pretty safe (and potentially useful), and the stuff that decays to stable isotopes quickly can be dealt with at the plant. it's the nuclear [waste](_url_0_) with a half life of tens to millions of years that's most dangerous, and these isotopes would not naturally occur at high concentrations. much more radioactive than natural uranium, the chemical and biological properties of these isotopes are also different - they are often more likely to leach into water, and cause much more harm if people com into contact with them. | 10 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-level_waste",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radon",
"http://www.epa.gov/radon/pubs/citguide.html",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep_geological_repository"
] | [
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why can we not replace nuclear "waste" aka the dirt around the uranium back into the hole that was dug? | as far as i can tell when the uranium is dug out they spend a lot of effort sifting it to get every last bit out of it. so wouldn't the dirt but much less radioactive than it was before by a huge margin? why then does it have to be treated as waste and not simply used to refill the hole? thanks edit i guess i am asking about uranium tailings not nuclear waste. sorry for any confusion. _url_0_ | uranium tailings, radioactive byproduct, url ====== for the posters who are confused, i believe the op is asking about [uranium tailings](_url_0_), a radioactive byproduct of uranium mining. it is a significant environmental issue. i don't know the answer myself, i hope an expert comes by to enlighten us. | 14 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranium_tailings"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranium_tailings",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heap_leaching#Uranium_Ores"
] | [
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what can the james webb telescope see that the hubble can’t? | detailed pictures, pictures, finer measurements ====== finer and more detailed pictures. if i'm not mistaken, hubble can only see about 10 billion light-years (ly) away, but those pictures are kinda fuzzy, we can still collect a lot of data, but jwst is going to take much finer measurements, observations, and pictures. **answer to your question starts here:** hubble specializes in taking visible light observations, or pictures if you will, although it has tools to measure in other wavelengths, whereas jwst is going to specialize in longer wavelengths like infrared due to the expansion of the universe redshifting wavelengths from so far away. this will allow us to see what the universe might've been like when it was just a wee baby and starting to create galaxies | 11 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what can the james webb telescope see that hubble can't? | uh | jwst, long-wavelength visible light, observe ====== jwst will be able to see different wavelengths of light. the hubble observes in the near ultraviolet, visible, and near infrared (0.1 to 1 μm) spectra, the jwst will observe in a lower frequency range from long-wavelength visible light through mid-infrared (0.6 to 27 μm). this will allow the jwst to observe high redshift objects that are too old and too distant for the hubble and other earlier instruments to observe. in addition, and most exciting to me is that the jwst will be able to measure the atmospheres of exoplanets. so if we see a planet that has a very similar atmosphere as ours, then that's strong evidence that it may harbor life. | 45 | [] | [] | [
"https://jwst.nasa.gov/faq_scientists.html#advantagesoverhubble"
] | [
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] |
why are the mars rovers so slow both physically and in processing speed? | i mean it's great that the rovers surpassed expectations by immense amounts. apparently nasa had planned for spirit to drive for only 600 m. why? why does the rover technology seem so lame? i would've expected more robust and faster rovers. also, [on this page](_url_0_), the computer systems of the rovers is shown. curiosity was launched this year. it has 256 mb ram and 200 ghz processor. i am going to make a guess that they didn't need more than that. if that's the reason, then it seems reasonable. i still don't get why they have to be slow. would faster rovers damage themselves too much? i am pretty sure my mountain bike takes more abuse than the rover (in terms of terrain encountered - the radiation might be a whole different issue). as you can see, i don't really get it. can someone give an overview of why these specific design decision were made and why the rover wasn't designed to do more than it can right now? --- also, why did they predict such low expectations for the previous rovers? it's seemed kinda obvious to me that unless their solar panels got covered by dust or something, the rovers would continue to run pretty well. edit: just occurred to me, but does the speed have more to do with the limited solar power rather than technological limits placed on the rover? | bike on mars, riding your bike, upcoming rocks ====== if you were riding your bike on mars, you could look around and see the upcoming rocks, and figure out how best to navigate around them pretty easily. it's a little bit harder for the rover, though. every time that the rover moves, it has to look around via some mechanism/s - radar, lidar, etc., and see what's nearby. after receiving the data, the data has to be processed - and image recognition can be pretty tricky. is that a rock directly in front of me? is it small enough to ignore, or do i have to go around it? if i have to go around it, which way is shorter? is there another rock on that side? ...and then keep repeating this.... manual commands from earth take about 20 minutes round-trip, assuming that the operators can react instantly. if the rover is moving fast and is approaching something that it can't handle, well, you might have a rather expensive problem. if the processor was more powerful, then the rover would be able to move faster (within certain bounds). however, the processor is a very specialized unit (200 mhz, not ghz) in that it's able to withstand the bombardment of solar radiation for a long period of time. check out 'alpha strike' in regards to processors and ram. limited power is also a big problem. batteries are heavy! solar panels (and sensors) get dusty *very* quickly. a lot of effort has gone into developing 'self-cleaning' panels, with mixed success. windshield-wiper type solutions aren't always desirable because they can easily scratch the panels with adhered dust particles. | 198 | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_embedded_computer_systems_on_board_the_Mars_rovers"
] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle#Flight_systems",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic-core_memory"
] | [
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why do the mars rovers move so slow? | minute time delay, completely unconditioned off-road, unconditioned off-road surface. ====== i want you to imagine you have a car, which you can only control via remote, and there's a 7 minute time delay between you sending it an instruction and it performing what you want it to do. also, you've only got a few cameras strapped to it for you to survey the area. and the area it's in is a completely unconditioned off-road surface. and in the back of the car you've got $2,500,000,000 worth of breakable glass. and you really really want the thing to still be working in 10 years time. so hopefully that explains the caution aspect. also, you're trying to move about one ton of material with a 110 watt power supply. | 65 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
what would a universe be like if it had two dimensions of time? | let's assume it has three dimensions of space, like our universe (excluding m-theory), but instead of one dimension of time it has two. explanations that i could come up with: it could theoretically have an infinite number of timelines to follow, and as the point in time moved around the "plane", it would jump from timeline to timeline. time could cease to act as a point and act as a line, meaning entire timelines could exist simultaneously. be sure to comment! i want to see what reddit can come up with. | surprisingly readable, canonical reference, higher time dimensions ====== [this is the canonical reference on the topic](_url_0_) which is surprisingly readable. it has a section on higher time dimensions. nonetheless appear quite different. for instance, a rederivation of relativistic mechanics for this more general case shows that energy now becomes an m-dimensional vector rather than a constant, whose direction determines in which of the many time-directions the world-line will continue, and in the non-relativistic limit, this direction is a constant of motion. in other words, if two nonrelativistic observers that are moving in different time directions happen to meet at a point in spacetime, they will inevitably drift apart in separate time-directions again, unable to stay together. ... when m even though the mathematical results on which it is based are well-known. if an observer is to be able to make any use of its self-awareness and information-processing abilities, the laws of physics must be such that it can make at least some predictions. specifically, within the framework of a field theory, it should by measuring various nearby field values be able to compute field values at some more distant space-time points (ones lying along its future world-line being particularly useful) with noninfinite error bars. if this type of well-posed causality were absent, then not only would there be no reason for observers to be self-aware, but it would appear highly unlikely that information processing systems (such as computers and brains) could exist at all | 17 | [] | [] | [
"http://arxiv.org/pdf/gr-qc/9702052.pdf",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space-time#Privileged_character_of_3.2B1_spacetime",
"http://space.mit.edu/home/tegmark/dimensions.pdf"
] | [
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] |
is it possible for a universe to have more than one dimension of time? | it is generally accepted that we live in a universe containing 4 dimensions (3 spatial, 1 time). would it be possible for a universe to have two spatial dimensions and two dimensions of time? what about three spatial, two time? | closed timelike curves, multiple time dimensions, time dimensions lead ====== multiple time dimensions lead to ctcs (closed timelike curves) which allow for violation of causality (timetravel). assuming you're familiar with special relativity: take a universe like ours but with an additional time dimension (2+3). so `[; x^\mu = (x^0, x^1, x^2, x^3, x^4) ;]` with `[; x^0, x^1;]` both time dimensions. the spacetime interval is: `[; ds^2 = (dx^0)^2 + (dx^1)^2 - (dx^2)^2 - (dx^3)^2 - (dx^4) ;]` now, as in normal relativity, the sign of `[;ds^2;]` being +, 0, - tells you if that little segment can be followed by a massive object, massless object, or not possible to follow at all (timelike, lightlike, spacelike). any infinitesimal movement purely in the `[; (x^0,x^1) ;]` plane is obviously timelike, since `[; ds^2 = (dx^0)^2 + (dx^1)^2 so you've built a timelike loop, a time machine. an object following the loop would return to its past, without needing to travel faster than light (and in fact, without having any velocity at all, since it does not move in the space dimensions). | 20 | [] | [] | [
"http://arxiv.org/abs/gr-qc/9702052v2"
] | [
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why can't we move our eyes independently? | eyes, sense, people ====== in a certain sense, we can. have you ever gone cross-eyed? some people can even move one eye in while keeping the other eye straight. i'm sure others can do even more. but the brain prefers to use both eyes for the same image. the reason most people can cross their eyes is because the muscle on the inside of each eye (closest to the nose) is much stronger than the other ones. these inner muscles are capable of overpowering the others so that we can converge our gaze and focus up really close on images. we simply have no need to separate our eyes outward (whatever the opposite of cross-eyed is), so we never really developed this ability. whatever image we're trying to see in that way would be better observed with both eyes anyway. hope this helps. | 5 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
why are we unable to move our eyes independently of each other? | binocular vision, depth perception, vision ====== we have binocular vision. this literally means we have two eyed vision. the advantage of this is that when we focus on an object, each eye sees it from a slightly different angle. these slight differences can be interpreted by our brains (basically by working out the angles) to judge the distance that the object is from us. this called depth perception. in order to have depth perception, you need two eyes and they both need to focus on the object. depth perception is especially useful for predators, so that they can judge how far prey is when they are about to strike. this is why humans, wolves, eagles, bears, snakes, etc have eyes that face forward in the same direction. prey animals have eyes on the sides of their head that face different directions. they have limited depth perception, but a much wider field of vision (closer to 360 degrees) which helps to look out for predators. think about deer, mice, lizards, small birds (non-raptors). anyway, to answer your question, there was no evolutionary advantage to our eyes focusing on two different things at once, so therefore no need to move them independently. | 7 | [] | [] | [] | [
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|
are the apparent shapes of galaxies noticably distorted by the speed of light? | galaxies are big objects, and unless we're looking at one 'top down', light reaching us from each part of the galaxy will be slightly out of sync in time. can we see a warping effect in galaxies attributable to this? | difference in distance, past relative, andromeda galaxy ====== according to my [calculation](_url_0_), the difference in distance between the center and one edge of the andromeda galaxy (one of the closest) means that we see the edges of its spirals about 2,900 years in the past relative to its center. this time scale seems almost irrelevant on a galactic level. so i would assume there is little warping from the width of the galaxy | 3 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=%28sqrt%28120%2C000%5E2%2B%282.5*10%5E6%29%5E2+%29+light+years%29%2F%28speed+of+light%29+-+%282.5*10%5E6+light+years%29%2F%28speed+of+light%29"
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when i make my instant coffee too weak, it tastes sweet, not bitter. why? | its maxwell house original blend. i buy it because its the easiest way to get a caffeine kick without making a whole pot. when i say bitter i don't mean in a good way, i mean in a bareable way (its instant coffee... not 80% chocolate). i still don't understand how reducing the concentration could change the taste from bitter to sweet though. just to clarify, not a pleasant sweet, probably even worse than the not pleasant bitter taste. i should just buy an aeropress, i know. | coffee, instant coffee, answer this question ====== hello, i created a new account just to answer this question! there are many factors in why a coffee tastes bitter or not, but the largest contributing factors are dose, grind, and water temperature. since you are using instant coffee, and i'm assuming you are using approximately the same water temperature, the only factor here is dosage. why is the taste of the coffee changing with the dose? first, let's define what coffee can taste like. the two ends of the spectrum are acidity and bitterness, with sweetness in the middle. increasing dose _can_ increase the bitterness of an extraction. too little of a dose, and the coffee will have a light mouth-feel with an acidic tint to it. i can explain the science of this with traditional extraction methods, so take this with a grain of salt when thinking of instant coffee. extraction is the process of removing mass from coffee grounds with water. mass extracted from the grounds are either soluble or insoluble. solubles include solids, which provide taste and determines the coffee's concentration, and gases, which produce aroma. insolubles are solids and oils held in suspension. these are mostly comprised of large protein molecules and fragments of fiber. the insoluble solids combine with oil to form what is called "brew colloids". this contributes heavily to the coffee's body, taste, and aroma. it also alters flavor by trapping and later releasing soluble solids and gases and by buffering acidity. espresso is a little different with the way it handles insolubles. the insolubles in espresso or either held in suspension or an _emulsion_. suspended solids make up the espresso's body, but not flavor. the emulsion is a dispersion of tiny oil droplets surrounded by liquid. these oils contribute to body, taste, aroma, and decrease the perceived bitterness of an espresso by coating the tongue. ok, so what? what does that have to do with bitterness? well, both solubles and insolubles contribute to a coffee's concentration. since you are making instant, you are only dealing with solubles. the amount of solubles you extract is directly proportionate with the way the coffee will taste. since you are "extracting" all the solubles of the instant coffee, you can directly control this with dosage alone. this will not change if you buy an aeropress and start brewing real coffee. also instant coffee is made with the lesser of the two coffee species (_coffea canephora_) and generally does not have the taste complexities of _coffea arabica_. source - 5 years barista experience in seattle and my trusty copy of _the professional baristas handbook_ by scott rao. | 17 | [] | [] | [] | [
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can liquid planets exist like there are gas giants or terrestrial planets? | im thinking in the sense of a gas giant with rotating liquid rather than gas. | viscous molten silicate, moon-forming impact, earth was primarily ====== certainly. for example, perhaps during accretion and almost certainly after the moon-forming impact, earth was primarily a very viscous molten silicate, called the magma ocean. it is unlikely that a planet-sized body could exist entirely of low viscosity liquids like water, as these solidify at relatively low pressures at planetary scales. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is the sun capable of running on any kind of material or is it specific to hydrogen? | i've been thinking for my entire life that the sun can only be made out of hydrogen, however, there are a few science articles on the internet stating that the sun can be made out of any material with little to no difference compared to the sun now. this is one of the article btw: _url_0_ | original solar nebula, solar nebula, trace amounts ====== the sun is fusing hydrogen to helium right now and has trace amounts of other elements from the original solar nebula. in about 5 billion years so much hydrogen would have been converted to helium that hydrogen fusion will stop and the sun's helium core will collapse under gravity increasing temperature and pressure until helium can fuse to carbon. the higher temperature causes the outer layers to expand into a red giant. the sun is not massive enough to fuse carbon. so, a star the size of our sun can't run on carbon or heavier elements. more massive stars will fuse carbon and with sufficient mass all the way to iron. at which point the core collapses to a neutron star or black hole, typically with a super nova. since, iron has the lowest energy per nucleon element no energy can be produced by fission or fusion, so clearly the sun cannot run on any material because it clearly cannot run on iron. | 150 | [] | [
"http://daleswanson.blogspot.com/2011/03/sun-made-out-of-bananas.html"
] | [] | [
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what is the fluid build-up inside a blister? | stratum lucidum, layers of skin, caused by shear ====== a blister is caused by shear stress that leads to the lower layers of skin, especially the [stratum lucidum](_url_0_) and this makes a leak, which allows plasma to leak into the pocket that has now formed. this is blood plasma, but shouldn't contain blood cells. if it becomes infected it can fill with pus, or with blood (then it becomes a blood blister.) the body will form new cells under the damaged area, and the swelling will subside, and the plasma is reabsorbed in time. generally treatment of a blister is to cover and leave it alone, should it not resolve on it's own we may consider an incision and drainage, but this should be done with sterile technique, as you can easily cause an infection here that can rapidly lead to sepsis given the right conditions. | 7 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratum_lucidum"
] | [
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|
when our body burns fat and we lose weight where does the mass go? | when our body burns fat supplies to create energy where does the energy come from and where does the mass we lose go? i have been thinking about it and physically the energy can either come from chemical bonds or mass (ie a result of e=mc^2). if the energy comes from chemical bonds then would the actual mass of fat only be lost through sweating and defication? if the mass its converted directly into energy then how is this possible in enzyme reactions? initially i didnt even consider this option because it seems unlikely this sort of reaction would happen in the body but then i remembered something i saw on braniac (not the most scientific show i know) where somebody was weighed before and after eating a burger and their weight difference was less than that of the burger. the difference was attributed to some of the burger being directly converted to energy to fuel the body. i have been pondering this for weeks so thanks in advance! | chemical bonds, breaking the chemical, gain energy ====== you gain energy from breaking the chemical bonds. the [citric acid cycle](_url_0_) is the major energy producing pathway in your body. the end result is co2 and reduced molecules that donate protons to the [electron transport chain](_url_1_) in your mitochondria. the mitochondria use the protons to create energy in the form of atp, which is basically the energetic form of currency your body uses. this regenerates the molecules in their oxidized state, so they can be re-used to donate protons again. as for where the mass goes? well, the h+ given to the electron transport chain comes from the long carbon chains consisting of a bunch of ch2 molecules strung together. we lose the h's, so what are we left with? carbon. when we breathe in o2, we make co2 using the carbon we're left with, and breathe out the carbon molecules into the air as co2. that's why you breathe in o2 and breathe out co2. | 35 | [] | [] | [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krebs_cycle",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron_transport_chain",
"http://pmj.bmj.com/content/49/569/203.abstract"
] | [
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the solar system is one of many in the milky way, which is one of 54 galaxies in our local group. that local group is part of an even bigger structure. is there a limit to how large these structures can be, or will we keep discovering larger and larger ones? | upper limit, structure, scale ====== there is an upper limit! you are right that there is structure within structure within structure, and that this continues up to very large scales - on the biggest scale, the universe has a filamentary spider-web structure, where there are lots of galaxy clusters in the filaments but very few in between. but as you get to very very large scales, these structures start to get weaker and weaker - the contrast between "here is where stuff is" and "here is where stuff is" gets smaller and smaller. eventually, on the very largest scales, the universe is smooth and homogenous. this isn't just theory, but has been confirmed with observations. we are *just* able to measure the turnover, the scale beyond which structure starts to get weaker. [at the top of the page here](_url_0_) is a random graph i've found to illustrate this. the vertical axis is the strength of structure, and the horizontal axis is the scale of structure. the left side is the largest scale, while the right side is the smallest scale. so you can see that structure gets stronger and stronger with scale until it reaches a peak, and then starts to drop down again. | 22 | [] | [] | [
"http://inspirehep.net/record/1311592/plots"
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|
can plants get cancer from the sun like humans can get skin cancer? | [removed] | skin cancer, base pairs, light creates cross-links ====== skin cancer is cause by damage to to our dna by uv light, usually the uv light creates cross-links between the base pairs. plants have a really cool enzyme called photolyase, which is light powered enzyme that breaks these cross-links and repairs the dna. | 11 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why can rocket boosters have more than 100% thrust? | i was reading the [challenger shuttle timeline](_url_0_) and at t+4.339, it says > the three liquid-fueled main engines throttle up from 90 percent thrust to 104 percent thrust as planned. can someone explain please? thanks! | specification for maximum, maximum output, original specification ====== 100% thrust was the original specification for maximum output from the rocket. it was later determined it could handle more (up to 104% based on the original 100% definition). | 8 | [] | [
"http://spaceflightnow.com/challenger/timeline/#"
] | [] | [
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why can solid rocket boosters produce so much more thrust than liquid fueled engines? | i was just reading an article on the rs-25 which produces 512,000-600,000 lbf thrust, and the sv first stage motor (the f-1) produced 1.6 million lbf thrust and that's the strongest liquid motor ever made. for comparison the new sls solid boosters produce 3.6 million lbt. the space shuttle srbs produced 2.6 million lbf thrust each. why is this? is it just due to the energy stored in the fuel? do you get a more optimum burn ratio due to grain geometry in solid motors? or maybe because it doesn't have as much weight in fuel? (i can't find isp data on the solids, not sure if they even use that measurement due to solid fuel). | hard to design, theoretical limitations, huge turbopumps ====== i'm not aware of any theoretical limitations on the thrust of a liquid fuel engine, but very high thrust ones are hard to design: you need huge turbopumps to keep the fuel flowing and at the same time keep a pressure of several mpa in the combustion chamber. in solid fuel rockets this problem is much easier to solve because it doesn't have to be pumped - just burn and the combustion gases will raise the pressure as needed. when it gets too high it will cause the burning rate to decrease, so it becomes a stable, self-regulating equilibrium with no moving parts. and yes, solid fuel engines use isp as well, but it's lower because of the low temperature and high molecular mass of the exhaust. it's in the range of 200-260 seconds for solid fuels. storable liquid bipropellants typically reach 320 s and cryogenic can be as high as 450 s. | 2 | [] | [] | [] | [
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is it possible for a propeller-driven plane to exceed the speed of sound? | i've seen a few accounts of pilots claiming to have broken the sound barrier during dives in prop planes, but have seen no evidence of a plane designed to get much past mach .85 or so. is there a reason for this, or is it simply that jet technology came along as we were approaching this milestone? | similar question, days ago, url ====== a [similar question](_url_1_) was asked a few days ago. [naca research](_url_0_) in the 1940s suggested that this was feasible, but as you suggested, it was discarded in favor of jet propulsion, which is a much simpler approach to the problem. the problem is that the profile of the blade required to sucessfully operate above mach .9 is significantly different from the designs used to operate below that speed. beyond mach .9, the propeller blades must become significantly shorter and thinner and the blade angle must be decreased compared to blades used on slower aircraft. | 21 | [] | [] | [
"http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-445/contents.htm",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/1l6cot/why_dont_we_have_any_supersonic_propeller_driven/",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K7rAUu8djZ4",
"http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-445/ch4-8.htm",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l1rqlfhLdvc"
] | [
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could a plane powered only by propellers (without injecting fuel into an air chamber) theoretically exceed the speed of sound? | assuming the propellers are infinitely powerful. as i understand it, a craft using propellers alone would be limited to the speed of sound, since this is the maximum speed that oncoming air could fill the vacuum created by the propellers. however, is there any way to manipulate the air they put out to increase the thrust it gives? i know jet engines compress air, but is that just to ignite the fuel? does the act of compression increase subsequent thrust, or just make it harder for the engines to push air through? thanks for your time. | air reaches, reaches the propellers, plane starts moving ====== the air reaches the propellers from the front, not the back. the propellers are moving into the air, not away from it. even if the speed of sound was zero, once the plane starts moving it would be able to accelerate just fine by running into the air. | 4 | [] | [] | [] | [
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why do we chatter out teeth when we are cold? | [deleted] | core temperature, maintain its core, temperature ====== your body is constantly trying to maintain its core temperature. your muscles can generate a lot of heat so when you are cold, your muscles will tense and rapidly contract and release. this used a lot of atp (your body’s energy molecule). one of the byproducts is heat. | 3 | [] | [] | [] | [
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] |
is our solar system truly hurtling through space at an incredible speed? if so, how come we still see many stars in the same places daily if they are also hurtling through space at an incredible speed? | live in specifically, profound sentence, observable universe ====== let me share with you the most profound sentence anyone has ever said to me about the wonders of our observable universe and the galaxy we live in specifically:"space is like...... really big..." if you can grasp the context of that and what comes with it, the perception of objects in space and their relativity to each other in regards to velocity and distance becomes easy to grasp. | 12 | [] | [] | [] | [
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