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67h2hq | Did primitive human groups have 'leaders'? And if so how were the 'leaders' decided? | Edit: By primitive I mean pre-civilization, like Neanderthal time. | askscience | {
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"What we do know is that current hunter-gatherers who haven't been influenced much by outsiders tend to live in highly egalitarian societies, mostly regardless of geographic location and ancestry. Resources are shared, work is playful and collaborative, and any attempt to increase authority or status is immediately fought with ridicule. It seems reasonable to think this is close to what our ancestors' social groups would have looked like. \n\nBy contrast, chimpanzees, our closest primate relatives, have a strict \"alpha-male\" organization.\n\n_URL_0_",
"Primitive humans, or the genus *Homo*, first appear in the fossil record approximately 2-2.2 million years ago. Their brain size was still small, though, similar to relative apes. What distinguished these early humans is the evolution of the first metatarsal, the first metacarpal, the gluteus maximus muscle, oblique muscles, pectoralis major muscle, and the ball-and-socket joint in the shoulder. These adaptations allowed for elite throwing, subsequently making primitive humans power scavengers. Evidence of such throwing is drawn from the discovery of rock or manuport clusters made by *Homo naledi* circa 1-2 million years ago.\n\nIn accordance with the social coercion theory, primitive humans evolved elite throwing abilities first, which prompted successful cooperative group hunting of larger prey; consequently, communication and larger brain size were a result. Thusly, early humans banded together, and if one human was a liar (cheating or stealing) or did not contribute to the group, he/she/it would be outcast by the rest of the group. In turn, that human was significantly more likely to die, as well as fail to reproduce.\n\nTo answer your question, no, primitive human groups did not have leaders. These primitive human groups followed prey, and cooperative hunting was the primary goal of the group. Essentially, it was “monkey see, monkey do.” It wasn’t until the appearance of *Homo sapiens* with significantly increased cranial volume that social structure and hierarchy started to take shape, which didn’t occur until about 500,000-700,000 years ago when humans and Neanderthals diverged from the common ancestor *Homo heidelbergensis*.\n\nSpeculation and debate of Neanderthal behavior is inconclusive and not much is concrete or certain about their social behavior. From the fossil record, however, their bones do provide insight. Evolving separately from humans over a few hundred thousand years, Neanderthals developed marginally larger brains than humans but the shape of the brain divergently evolved. Archaeological evidence demonstrates that Neanderthals inhabited Eurasia, while modern humans (*Homo sapiens*) thrived throughout Africa. Compared to humans, Neanderthals lived in smaller groups, generally less than 10 individuals. Neanderthals were, however, capable of communication, evident in the similar evolution of the hyoid bone and the larynx, but it is predicted that Neanderthal speech was less developed human verbal communication.\n\nHuman groups did not have leaders until finally the development of coercive weapons such as the bow, atlatl, body armor, spears, and swords. As such, the leader of a group was typically the best or most fit warrior. Men became warriors in order to protect their women and their facility to reproduce. This caused a dichotomy in social structure, dividing men and women. Of the men, the best warrior usually lived longer and as a result had more life experience. Mosaics of Alexander the Great and marble statues of Caesar depict these two leaders as elite warriors brandishing coercive weapons in order to appeal to the self-interest of himself and his fellow warriors. Brutal, public force was used to keep the rest of the group in line. From the historical record, Ancient Rome had the coliseum and Ancient Meso-Americans like the Incas and Aztecs had graphic public beheadings and executions. \nI hope this helps!",
"The main source of data for the Neolithical time, which is the closest data we have on that as far as I know, is Murdock's (1967) Ethnographic Atlas. It offers lots of data about societies just before the first point of contact with Europeans, several of them still at Neolithical stage. You can see there that even the simplest societies had two hierarchical levels at least. This means that they did not only have one chief, but some kind of overchief above the chiefs. However, there were several societies without any hierarchy beyond the local community, meaning no states or similar.\nConcerning the question about the origin of political organization, in the field of economic history there has been recently a lot of discussion around an article using Murdock's Atlas and concluding that it was the geographical potential of growing crops what caused the emergence of more complex societies. Here you can read an understandable summary of the original paper:\n_URL_1_",
"Julian Jaynes offers an interesting theory in his book *The Origin of Consciousness and the Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind*\n\nBasically; over a graduation of hundreds of thousands of years, whatever the genealogically-primate predecessors and their \"communities\" that humans had were still operating under basic primate hierarchies. He proposes that the role of the \"Alpha Male\" took on a new meaning during this time of primitive civilization. The strongest/smartest/whatever primate, who was the leader of the pack, would give directions to the community as to where they should travel and what they should do as a social group. This could have ranged from things such as (perceived) threats near and afar, as well as when and how to cultivate crops and seeds. This alpha male would later become, as Jaynes proposes, the God-Kings that modern day humans observe of our ancient ancestry through artifacts, stories, statues, etc. \n\nI hope this very brief explanation helps with your question!"
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} | Did primitive human groups have 'leaders'? And if so how were the 'leaders' decided?
Edit: By primitive I mean pre-civilization, like Neanderthal time. | [
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|
7jecsu | Do we all see the same color when looking at the same thing? | We all know the grass is green, but could someone's "green" be someone else's red or blue? Do other people see things in various different colors but associate that color by the same name we've always known it as? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"dr5zjs9",
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],
"text": [
"There was an experiment done with monkey's that suggests your green might be my blue and vice-versa. _URL_0_\n\nEssentially, they injected a virus that inserted genes which turned some of their green cones into red cones, allowing them to perceive red and green light (previously they could only see yellow and blue). It worked, and the monkeys could reliably pick out green and red dots, which they couldn't do before. However, their brains are not wired to interpret light at those wavelengths, but it quickly adapted. So the question is, how do they actually perceive these colours?\n\nBecause their brains adapt to a new colour, it must perceive it a certain way, and the researchers suggest that there is no set way of perceiving the light, so each monkey will create a unique representation of the new wavelengths.\n\nHowever, I do not agree with this. There's still no reason why they wouldn't perceive the light exactly like the other monkeys, or rather why their brains would interpret the colours differently.\n\nIn my opinion, my red is your red and so on. Unless you are colour blind, we have the same apparatus for perceiving light, the same hardware for transmitting the information, and the same processor that reads the information. I think it's far more likely, and frankly the simplest explanation, that we do perceive the same colours.",
"Hi! I'm certainly no expert, but I read philosophy as a casual interest and this is actually the subject of a fair amount of debate. The \"experience\" of a color, or the perception of a color, is called qualia, and nobody is really sure to what extent we have the same qualia. How would we even test such a thing? For example, even if we could take brain scans, we have no way of translating that information into a mental experience. Even if you could, you'd still need to artificially map a certain color onto a certain wavelength in the same way NASA does when they show us images from outer space, we're not seeing \"true\" color, we're just seeing the agreed upon color.\n\nHere's an article that can unpack this better than I can: _URL_1_",
"I'm a vision researcher (PhD) and know a bit about rod and cone photoreceptors. You actually asked two different questions. \n\nFirst, would \"green\" to one person be \"red\" or \"blue\" to someone else. That might be possible, but only in extreme cases of colorblindness. There are multiple types of colorblindness and that can impact the \"perception\" of what a color, but I don't think that's what you're really asking about. In people normal vision and without any type of colorblindness, there is not a condition where \"green\" to you is \"red\" or \"blue\" to someone else. Green is still basically green. \n\nThe second question might be paraphrased as whether people see things in slightly different colors. That is absolutely true. Your ability to see \"red\" is a little different than my ability to see \"red\" and the maximum sensitivity to a red spectrum wavelength will differ. I don't have the references quickly available, but it's common knowledge in the vision research community that men and women have different color vision capacities. In general, woman can distinguish between very subtle differences between certain colors than men cannot. Whereas a woman might see very small differences between two shades of red lipstick, men cannot tell a difference (and that's not just a knock on red lipstick). Two men might even have slightly different views of how much \"green\" is in a color of blue.\n\nAll of this depends on the exact protein sequences for the color opsins and the relative ratio of red/green/blue opsins expressed within your fovea. While it's not a big difference between most people, there is enough variation to know that we all see a very slightly different form of \"green\" when looking at grass. We'll agree that it's green, but your molecular perception of green will likely differ from mine."
],
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://www.livescience.com/21275-color-red-blue-scientists.html",
"https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/qualia-inverted/"
]
} | Do we all see the same color when looking at the same thing?
We all know the grass is green, but could someone's "green" be someone else's red or blue? Do other people see things in various different colors but associate that color by the same name we've always known it as? | [
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|
3xp92g | AskScience AMA series: I'm Lee Feinberg, Optical Telescope Element Manager for NASA's James Webb Space Telescope; we're installing the primary mirror on the Space Telescope, AMA! | We're in the midst of assembling the massive primary mirror of the James Webb Space Telescope (which is comprised of 18 gold-coated segments) at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Maryland. JWST is an engineering challenge, and when complete, this cutting-edge space telescope will be a giant leap forward in our quest to understand the Universe and our origins. It will examine every phase of cosmic history: from the first luminous glows after the Big Bang; to the formation of galaxies, stars, and planets; to the evolution of our own solar system. As the Optical Telescope Element Manager, I would be happy to answer questions about the construction of this telescope. For more information, visit [our website](_URL_0_)
I will be back at 2 pm EST(11 am PST, 7 pm UTC) to answer your questions, ask me anything!
ETA: It's nearly 3:15 and Lee has to run - thank you all for your questions! | askscience | {
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"Hello! What would you say the top 3 things are that the Webb can do but the Hubble cannot?",
"Hi Lee, thanks for answering questions. My questions regard exoplanets and astrobiology, and our solar system. \n\nWill the spectrometers on JWST be sensitive enough to detect biosignatures (eg O*_2_*) in the atmospheres of nearby, confirmed exoplanets (if such a candidate planet is found)? If so, can you give any estimate on what conditions would be necessary for such a detection to be made by JWST?\n\nSecond: JWST is mainly being sold as as an instrument to study the distant universe. However, it will also help us understand our own solar system as well. What do you think JWST's biggest contribution to solar system and planetary science will be?\n\nThanks again!",
"Hi Lee,\n\nI'm curious about some of the mechanics involved in the JWST. The mirrors, as you said, are massive. How do you ensure not only that the mirrors don't potentially bump and scratch each other during ascent, but then that they are properly aligned and collimated once they are deployed?\n\nSince the JWST will be orbiting the L2 Lagrange point, there can be no service missions (manned, anyway). Everything has to go right the first time. What lessons were learned from Hubble (regarding optical testing or otherwise), and how has that affected work on the JWST?",
"First let me just say that I am PUMPED that you decided to do this AMA!\n\nIn terms of functionality, how many different physical filters will there be? What wavelength ranges do they cover? \n\nAfter detectors collect the light and have the information stored in the memory, is there any further filtering effects that can be applied through software to show certain phenomena?\n\nI know that physical filters aren't enough to see xrays/gamma rays so certain detectors are needed. What detectors will be on-board the JWSP? What will they be used for?\n\nHardware-wise, what communication protocol are you using to communicate among on-board devices? Is there a Master with multiple slaves or is the hierarchy more evenly distributed? To communicate with Earth are you using an OSI based protocol or is there one more customized? \n\nSoftware-wise, other than embedded C, is there any other language that is dominant?\n\nThanks! :)",
"Will it be possible to test the telescope before launch? We don't want another Hubble incident.",
"Hi Lee,\n\n1. What has been your biggest technical / engineering challenge in creation of this telescope ( read some reports about problems with cryocoolers )?\n\n2. Given that this telescope is a complex undertaking, what kind of project management tools / methodology do you think works best to keep the project humming along ?\n\nThanks for continuing to push the frontiers of human knowledge.",
"Hi Lee, thanks for the doing an AMA. My question isn't too technical. \n\nI imagine once the mirror is installed it is checked over thoroughly for any possible damage that might have been done to it during installation. My question is, if any is detected, would the mirror have to be completely removed to be repaired, considering the the specialized equipment that was needed to fabricate it, or is there some method to spot-fix it? \n\nI'm not tying to jinx you here, just curious.",
"First off, I am extremely excited about the launch. I feel like we're at a turning point in human history, and that this is one of the most exciting times to be alive.\n\nQuestion: Any idea how long after the launch before we actually start seeing observations? I assume there's going to be some testing and calibration after it reaches L2.",
"Thank you everyone for your questions! Lee has to run to a meeting, unfortunately, but we're grateful he was able to answer questions for a hour and 3/4! As thanks, here is one more brand-new image we're releasing for you all - a view of our mirror installation from above: _URL_0_\n\nEnjoy!\n-Maggie",
"Hello Mr Lee, I have a question on spectrography. Recently Wolf 1061c was deemed to be potentially habitable. Considering that it is positioned \"only\" 14 light years away, it is possible to take spectrograph of its atmosphere using the James Webb Telescope? Thank you for taking your time to do this!",
"Do the mirrors have a protective film on them until liftoff or is there a mechanism after it reaches its Lagrange point that then uncovers the mirrors or how are they kept clean until use?",
"Hi!\n\nWhat's your best-case scenario or wildest dream of something you could image with the JWT?",
"> from the first luminous glows after the Big Bang to the formation of galaxies, stars, and planets; to the evolution of our own solar system.\n\nHow does it do that? Won't light and IR so ancient have been absorbed or scattered by now to get anything coherent? I'm sure this is a very naive question haha",
"Hi! \n\nThe JWST will be the most complicated telescope launch in history with countless unpacking steps once it leaves Earth. I'm curious as to what might happen if it doesn't unpack properly. Can we send someone or something to fix it? Do we construct a new one?",
"My professor in Physics class once mentioned that there are limits on our images' resolution and how clear they can get because of diffraction. How is this true?",
"Why is gold the preferred mirror coating? Most other telescopes I know of use aluminum.",
"I am so glad that the JWST is going to make it to space. I was worried that they were going to pull the funding on it awhile back. I think that it is going to be worth every bit of money it costs, as I have no doubt there are a legion of scientists working diligently to see it through to completion. \n\nAnyways, my question is, how are micrometeor strikes being planned for? With so many mirrors exposed out into space, is there a certain amount of strikes it can tolerate per mirror?\n\nLastly, if you could comment on the two telescopes that were gifted to NASA by the guys in black suits. Do you think that NASA will be able to carve out some funds to utilize the hardware?",
"Hi Lee, Thanks for the AMA! I wrote a proposal earlier this year for segmented mirror development for balloon borne telescopes. Actuators for the actively controlled segments are obviously one of the key design elements for such a system. I tried to find some publications on the capabilities and specs of the JWST actuators but came up mostly empty handed. Do you have any good references on the subject?",
"Hi, Lee, thanks for being here! Sorry if this is off-topic, but I want to ask about an earth-based telescope.\n\nAs I'm sure you're aware, the State Supreme Court of Hawaii recently rescinded the building permit for the construction of the Thirty Meter Telescope on Mauna Kea. That was a small victory for a movement born out of the religious views of native Hawaiians who view Mauna Kea as a sacred site. As far as the pro-TMT opinions I have read are concerned, this is nothing more than a delay in the eventual construction of the TMT, but it is a costly delay nonetheless.\n\nWhat impact do you think this decision have on the construction of the next generations of telescopes?\n\nIs there anything that Reddit users can do to facilitate the construction or improve public perception of the next generation of telescopes?",
"What's the margin of error for mirror segment alignment and how do you align the segments within it?\n\nA lot's been made of the large primary mirror but is there anything notable about the other two mirrors and instruments?\n\nWhy a three mirror anastigmat?\n\nWhat compromises were made in the design and construction?\n\nThanks!\n\nEdit: Are there just three mirrors or are you modifying the light path? Either way, why?\n\nHow do I get your job?",
"Gee, I wish we could get some close-up views of how these delicate and intricate mirror segments are being handled by the robotic arm. I have only been able to see the top view, but not how they are supported from below much less all the hardware and electronics connections to the backplane. Any way we could get some? Thanks.",
"Hey there Lee! First of all thanks for taking time out of your schedule for this! \n\nWhat were some of the coolest design features of the JWST, (beyond the amazingly precise mirrors obviously)? \n\nWhat innovative engineering has the team had to completely up with to ensure a safe trip for the telescope?",
"What Keeps you up at night as this gets closer to launch? I'm sure you guys have thought of everything but what's that one thing you can do little about? A random gamma ray burst frying the electronics? A high speed particle impacting the mirror?",
"Can you give live updates with pictures of it being installed?\nFor questions, how much does the entire device cost?\nHow long has it taken to create from the moment it was approved?\nWhat part is the most dangerous/risky in terms of things going wrong?",
"Hello, Lee! Have any predictions for what the telescope might be able to see when compared to the current generation of telescopes? \n\nAs a student majoring in physics, I am very excited about the James Webb telescope, and I wish you good luck!",
"How long is it expected to stay operational and what's the most likely cause of its eventual failure, and what happens to it when it stops? For example limited station keeping fuel vs. mechanical failures vs. electronics/sensor failure, what will go first?",
"Since JWST doesn't have a shroud or tube assembly around the mirror, how are you dealing with stray light from the galactic core and other sources that could affect image quality?",
"Are the mirrors flat or slightly curved? How are you testing the surface flatness/curvature of the mirrors?",
"Hi there. For how long do you think the Webb will be the best we have?",
"I cant wait for the images ! don't delay !",
"Thanks for coming by Mr. Feinberg! It is no exaggeration to say that I find the project you are working on to be the single most exciting thing in the entire world right now. \n\nThe Hubble has given us a great wealth of iconic images of our universe. Which famous structures/systems that have been captured by the Hubble are you most interested to revisit through the lens of the JWST?\n\nWhat technical hurdle was the most challenging to overcome in the design and construction of the JWST to date?\n\nLastly, a bit off topic, but I see from your profile on NASA's site that you are also a pianist, so I would love to know which piece is your favorite to perform.",
"Back in late 80's, as a young boy I used to collect all of the newspaper articles about the Hubble space telescope and what it might be able to do.\n\nAlmost 30 years later, I recently saw the Imax video about Hubble with my son at the Kennedy space centre. I could never have dreamed of what it uncovered. It is just amazing to me what this instrument has been able to see. It's hard for a man to grasp what it means to see back 10 billion years.\n\nHow far back in time will the James Webb telescope be able to see?",
"1. How does the Hubble mirror correction come into play?\n\n2. Are you designing the shuttle to be modified or altered for unforeseen errors or technology advances to be added in the future?\n\nThank you for doing this AMA!",
"How big is your project team and how many project management meetings do you attend weekly? Also, how many PhD's does it take to build a telescope?"
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} | AskScience AMA series: I'm Lee Feinberg, Optical Telescope Element Manager for NASA's James Webb Space Telescope; we're installing the primary mirror on the Space Telescope, AMA!
We're in the midst of assembling the massive primary mirror of the James Webb Space Telescope (which is comprised of 18 gold-coated segments) at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Maryland. JWST is an engineering challenge, and when complete, this cutting-edge space telescope will be a giant leap forward in our quest to understand the Universe and our origins. It will examine every phase of cosmic history: from the first luminous glows after the Big Bang; to the formation of galaxies, stars, and planets; to the evolution of our own solar system. As the Optical Telescope Element Manager, I would be happy to answer questions about the construction of this telescope. For more information, visit [our website](_URL_0_) I will be back at 2 pm EST(11 am PST, 7 pm UTC) to answer your questions, ask me anything! ETA: It's nearly 3:15 and Lee has to run - thank you all for your questions! | [
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54j0f3 | Is there an empirical method to calculate the surface area of an irregular solid? | Archimedes (apocryphally, at least) provided us with an empirical method of calculating the volume of an irregular solid using water displacement.
Is there any analogue for surface area? It would be nice if there were a method that doesn't rely too much on technology (I kinda want something that could've been produced by the Greeks), but I'm interested in any solution that doesn't use any kind of calculus / convergence of approximations arguments.
If there is no analogue for surface area, is there some kind of proof or heuristic argument that there can be no such method? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
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"text": [
"You could take a can of paint would form layer of certain thickness, submerge the object in thispaint, take it out, and see how much paint is missing. Divide by thickness and there you have surface area.\n\nThis would rely on the paint consistently forming layer of specific thickness, and while it's roughly true for all paints, it's not ever gonna be exact.\n\nMathematically, even if you had ideal paint, you also run into the problem caused by the shoreline paradox. You cannot compute shoreline of any real object. Similarly, surface area would be subject to changes as the thickness of your paint varies, ultimately requiring infinite amout of paint for paint that has no thickness.\n\nMathematically, this is best explained as shoreline having dimension higher than 1 but lower than 2. Length applies to 1-dimensional things, area to 2d objects. Similar to shoreline, any real object would not have 2d surface, it would be slightly nudging towards 3d with small cracks and such, not enough for it to be volume, but enough to cause shoreline paradox to be relevant.",
"Apply a layer of spray adhesive to an object of known surface area, such as a cube of 1 cm on all sides. Put a known mass of fine sand in a tray. Roll that sticky cube in the sand until no more will stick. Measure the new mass of the tray of sand. That gives you a rate of that sand sticking per square centimeter.\n\nNow repeat that process with your irregular object. The \"rate of stick\" and the change in mass of the tray of sand will yield a pretty good but not perfect surface area. I bet it's +/-5% or something.",
"Chemical reactions that happen on the surface of the object (e.g.: corrosion), would release energy as a function of the surface area.\n\nHeat transfer by conduction is also a function of surface area, although creating an ideal scenario is difficult considering complex convection in the surrounding fluid. It may be a good enough approximation though, especially where the solid and the surrounding fluid have greatly different thermal properties.",
"Empirically for things like powders its often measured via [gas adsorption and BET theory](_URL_0_). Although any system as others have pointed out runs into issues of the coastline problem and how the surface area of a real object depends on how minor the details you take into account are. In the case of gas adsorption you measure at the molecular level and take into account things like micro pores which may not be applicable depending on what you need the measurement for.",
"Take some paper and wrap it around the object. Wherever it would overlap, cut off the overlapping part.\n\nNow take the paper and weigh it. Compare weight to that of a known standard such as a 1 m × 1 m page."
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/BET_theory"
]
} | Is there an empirical method to calculate the surface area of an irregular solid?
Archimedes (apocryphally, at least) provided us with an empirical method of calculating the volume of an irregular solid using water displacement. Is there any analogue for surface area? It would be nice if there were a method that doesn't rely too much on technology (I kinda want something that could've been produced by the Greeks), but I'm interested in any solution that doesn't use any kind of calculus / convergence of approximations arguments. If there is no analogue for surface area, is there some kind of proof or heuristic argument that there can be no such method? | [
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|
1vl4w8 | What is the best pattern to use in order to cut an object into the most number of pieces in the fewest number of cuts? | For example, say I wished to cut a circular pizza into as many pieces as possible in 10 seconds, given that I can make 1 cut each second. What would be the best way to do this?
Moreover, is there a formula that can be applied to any number of cuts in order to maximize the number of pieces?
Also, does this change when cutting in two dimensions (such as a pizza) versus cutting in three (such as a spherical watermelon)? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cethhvl",
"cetifgc",
"cetjgv4"
],
"text": [
"There is an expression for the maximum number of pieces you can cut a circular 2D pizza: n(n+1)/2 + 1 for n cuts\n\nSo there are at most 56 pieces you can get from your pizza with ten cuts. It does change if you allow yourself to cut in the 'third dimension' and it also changes depending on what sort of shape you're chopping up. A big square cake is going to have a different relationship between pieces and cuts as a thin pizza.\n\nIncidentally, for a big cube cake you have a maximum of (n^3 + 5n)/6 + 1 pieces for n cuts, so for 10 cuts you'd get 176 pieces.",
"If you aren't constraining the cut to be a straight line, then there's no upper bound on the pieces formed. For example you can start a spiral from the center going out and rejoin it to the center with a straight line after a while. Since it depends on how many revolutions your spiral made, you can have arbitrarily an large number of pieces.",
"An Archimedean spiral type first cut followed by cross cuts through the middle will give far more pieces than cross cuts in any direction with the fewest number of continuous cuts that need to be made. This can be proven mathematically but would require a heavy amount of writing and consideration of many possibilities that depend on the specific spiral cut you make (I.e. where it enters the circle or rectangle, and how it approaches the center of the circle). \n\nThis will always result in the largest number of pieces you can get in any amount of cuts. For pizza, if you make two straight cuts through any part that are perpendicular to the pizza and intersect within its boundaries, you can only get a maximum of 4 pieces, but if you make the first cut an Archimedean spiral that circles the center 3 times, and make the second cut through both of the the spiral endpoints, you will have 8 pieces. If you make a third cut perpendicular to the second cut through the middle of the pizza you get 15 pieces in 3 cuts. If your spiral only goes around twice, then two cuts, the first a spiral and the second exactly as done above, you still get 6 pieces. If the spiral cut only goes around once on the first cut, you will only get four. So, as long as the spiral goes around more than once, you will always get more pieces than straight cuts no matter how you make them.\n\nIf you get in to the semantic of the spiral, things can change slightly, but overall, you get the idea."
],
"score": [
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | What is the best pattern to use in order to cut an object into the most number of pieces in the fewest number of cuts?
For example, say I wished to cut a circular pizza into as many pieces as possible in 10 seconds, given that I can make 1 cut each second. What would be the best way to do this? Moreover, is there a formula that can be applied to any number of cuts in order to maximize the number of pieces? Also, does this change when cutting in two dimensions (such as a pizza) versus cutting in three (such as a spherical watermelon)? | [
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|
n9o0m | What is the 'catch' with wireless power, like 'witricity'? | _URL_0_
I saw this system, what is the catch that we aren't seeing to a system like this or should we start getting excited about wireless power? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c37d3a8",
"c37dsyy",
"c37dbek",
"c37danx"
],
"text": [
"It's a lot less effecient than connecting the device with a cable.\n[Electromagnetic Induction](_URL_0_)",
"Wireless power transmission such as the one you've linked to relies on magnetic coupling. It's the same concept as a regular transformer, such as ones found in \"wall-wart\" power supplies or large ones that convert the high voltage AC from power lines to the voltage you get out of your wall. These types of transformers use iron or other ferrous metals to guide the magnetic fields such that nearly all of the magnetic fields travel through the coils. Wireless power uses the same coupling, except it lacks the ferrous material to guide the magnetic fields. This results in magnetic field lines that do not couple and lends itself to poor efficiency. The farther away the coils are from each other, the fewer magnetic field lines that couple and thus the worse the efficiency.\n\nSo to answer your question, the main catch is that you will loose efficiency over wired power transmission. There's also other issues involving cost and safety.\n\nSource: [Wireless Power Consortium](_URL_1_), as well as many technical papers I've read over the past couple of years.",
"Would this system make electrical shadows?\n\nFor example would an object behind another one get power?",
"For a wired power supply you're running current straight down the wire to the device.\n\nFor a wireless power supply you're radiating that energy in all directions. This means you're wasting more power than what is actually getting to your device."
],
"score": [
5,
3,
3,
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.witricity.com/"
]
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_induction",
"http://www.wirelesspowerconsortium.com/technology/transfer-efficiency.html"
]
} | What is the 'catch' with wireless power, like 'witricity'?
_URL_0_ I saw this system, what is the catch that we aren't seeing to a system like this or should we start getting excited about wireless power? | [
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3hu84c | AskScience AMA Series: We’re a state epidemiologist and a state public health laboratory scientist – together we are a critical outbreak fighting team! Ask us anything! | We’re Dr. Sara Vetter and Dr. John Dunn – thanks for having us! We’re here to talk about how [public health laboratory](_URL_4_) scientists and [epidemiologists](_URL_1_) work closely to create your state’s critical outbreak-fighting team. While your health care provider will focus on treating your illness, public health focuses on preventing the illness from spreading. Scientists in public health laboratories conduct testing to detect and define outbreak clusters; state epidemiologists then work as disease detectives who investigate the cause of the outbreak and determine the scope of the risk to the public’s health. Working together, public health laboratory scientists and epidemiologists solve outbreaks involving food, drugs, and infections. While we may not wear capes, our colleagues are unsung heroes working to keep you healthy!
I’m Sara Vetter, PhD, and I am the manager of the Infectious Disease Laboratory at the [Minnesota Department of Health, Public Health Laboratory](_URL_13_). I'm also a member of the [Association of Public Health Laboratories (APHL)](_URL_2_). I was bitten by the public health bug during my undergraduate years when I was did an internship at the Minnesota Department of Health. I got to work on projects involving antibiotic resistant B. pertussis (whooping cough) and antibiotic resistant group B Streptococcus. I have since worked on Anthrax in graduate school, plague transmission at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in Ft. Collins, CO. I then ended up back at the Minnesota Department of Health as supervisor of the Virology Unit where I helped coordinate the lab response to [swine flu (H3N2v)](_URL_0_) in 2012 and [MERS-CoV](_URL_10_). In my current position, I get the chance to be involved in all the programs going on in our laboratory including oversight of testing, laboratory outreach, and outbreak response. There are new viruses to track, antibiotic resistance to combat like never before, and brand new technologies available to detect disease threats better than ever. The infectious disease world is in a state of rapid change, and it’s very exciting for me to be a part of it. Ask me anything about the laboratory side of outbreak detection, investigation, and response!
I’m John Dunn, PhD, DVM, a Nashville native and the deputy state epidemiologist at the [Tennessee Department of Health](_URL_6_). I'm also a member of the [Council of State and Territorial Epidemiologists (CSTE)](_URL_1_). Previously I was with the Epidemic Intelligence Service at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) where I worked on [foodborne](_URL_1_group/FoodSafety) and diarrheal disease surveillance. I investigated outbreaks related to foodborne bugs and botulism. In my current role at the Tennessee Department of health, I’ve overseen outbreak investigations related to *E. coli*, *Salmonella*, [tick and mosquito-borne diseases](_URL_1_members/group.aspx?id=144262), fungal meningitis, and even tuberculosis transmission from elephants to people. Some of my professional interests are pre-harvest (farm-environment) epidemiology of foodborne pathogens, preventing direct transmission of diseases from animals to people, and implementing an integrated approach to food safety to prevent disease throughout the farm-to-fork continuum. I’m currently the president of the National Association of State Public Health Veterinarians, the leading group of One Health practitioners and experts around the country. Ask me anything about the [critical role](_URL_1_?page=Activities) epidemiologists play in outbreak detection, investigation, and response!
[Sara’s proof 1](_URL_8_)
[Sara's proof 2](_URL_7_)
[John’s proof 1](_URL_9_)
[John's proof 2](_URL_3_)
EDIT: We have to take off, but thanks for having us! We'll try to answer more questions as we're able. | askscience | {
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"Thanks for doing this AMA! Your work sounds very interesting.\n\n1. As a student starting an MPH program in Epidemiology in a couple weeks, how difficult was it for you to both to get into this type of work? I am especially interested in studying zoonotic disease. Is there demand for that sort of work domestically? I would love to study zoonotic disease ecology and transmission for the benefit of both human health and wildlife conservation.\n\n2. Is a PhD necessary/recommended for those sorts of positions? I've considered vet school, but as of right now, I plan to complete the MPH as a terminal degree. Do you think that your involvement in research early on was key for your professional development? Was your DVM degree what allowed you to get involved with zoonotic disease work? \n\nThank you again! Can't wait to begin working in this awesome field.",
"I thought the CDC's [Zombie Preparedness Campaign](_URL_0_) was a very clever way to get people interested in and talking about emergency preparedness. Do you think similar \"viral\" social media campaigns (hehe) could be used to increase vaccination rates, and if so, what might that campaign look like?",
"Hey, thanks for doing this! I hope some more comments come rolling in. \n\n1) What is, in your opinion, the largest threat we face as an average consumer from buying and consuming groceries from your average supermarket? We hear about salmonella contaminated food making it market so often, but is salmonella what makes it to the \"front lines\" the most often?",
"What is your opinion of the way outbreaks are handled in the media? Is it necessary for individuals to be as well-informed as possible, or is it detrimental due to the fact that it is often presented in a scare-tactics manner?\n\nThanks for the AMA!",
"Thank you for this AMA, my questions is as followed.\n\nHow effective will quarantine measures actually be in some forms of epidemics as you see them? With world more connected then ever, is it safe to say most infections could travel to different countries before we realize they can possibly do alot of damage?",
"Another Nashville native here, thanks for doing this. \nHave you played the board game Pandemic? If so, how does it compare to your internal preparedness exercises? Also echoing the request to address the accuracy of \"Contagion\"",
"Dr Dunn. Please address the American approach to tick born illness. I feel like there is so much more regard placed on diseases like malaria and dengue even though the CDC reports around 2000 US case of each per year compared to more than 10X that number of Lyme disease case per year. \n\nAm I missing something? I know so many people who have suffered through tick born disease. I feel it's not being addressed. My Uncle was just treated for Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever...in New York.\n\nWhat are the latest developments for treating tick born illness? How are the epidemos of America treating it (research, prevention, public awareness, etc)? How do you see things progressing?",
"How do we usually find \"patient zero\" when researching an outbreak of a new strain? Can we really tell if a disease originated as a random mutation, or is man-made?",
"Fellow Nashville resident here, and thanks for doing this AMA.\n\nMy question: when there are outbreaks/epidemics of viruses without vaccines or antibiotic resistant bacteria, what are the roles of public health officials, laboratory scientists, and epidemiologists in the initial stages of identifying that an outbreak or epidemic is happening?\n\nI'm guessing there are hospital repprts of large volumes of incoming patients with highly similar symptoms, but I'm curious what actually goes on before someone breaks the news that \"we've got a problem.\"",
"This might be a silly question... I have read about how the [Corrupted Blood Plague incident](_URL_1_) in World of Warcraft has attracted attention from epidemiologists as it seems to have closely simulated a real world epidemic, and how it spread. My question, have you heard of this, or learned anything from it that can be applied in real life?",
"Hi, I'm a biology student studying epidemiology, so I just had to ask a question when I saw this.\nIn a cohort study, what are the sizes of the populations that you use to validate the experimental process?\n\nThanks for doing this AMA =)",
"In recent years, what is the closest the US has been to facing a serious outbreak?",
"As someone who recently graduated with a microbiology related bachelors degree, what would be the best way to get into your kind of work? Is a higher degree necessary or will work experience alone allow me to progress in that field?",
"Which bugs or insects are the most dangerous in the US for disease transmission?",
"What are the risks and outcomes from the possible coming epidemic of chikungunya fever, a viral infection spread by mosquitoes? What states are presently at risk and how much more of this are we likely to see, as we saw with West Nile fever?\n\nThanks",
"Which disease should we be most worried about at the moment?",
"What do you think the next \"black plague\" will be?",
"When I send in a sample for mers testing what does your office look like? Are you guys excited (not for someone to be Ill, but for a chance to work on something important)? Are your people as antsy for the results as we are? Also, cake or pie?",
"From a historic standpoint, why do you think illnesses still common today such as influenza get less attention in education than Black Plague or Polio?",
"Thanks for the AMA.\n\nThere are a lot of ways in which public policy dramatically affects public health: vaccine requirements, regulations on public water systems, the effects of climate change on the spread of infectious disease, the overuse of antibiotics and the potential for a super-bug, sexual education and STD rates, etc.\n\nWhich do you as public health professionals see as the most important to address, and how can we as voters in local, state, and federal elections best hold our politicians accountable to doing so?",
"Hello!\n\nWhat is the approach for containing novel, cross-species transfer of infectious diseases? How do epidemiologists stay on top of mutations that allow for one virus to jump between species and infect humans? Are there any known deadly, virulent diseases that only affect animals that could potentially mutate to infect humans?\n\nThanks for doing this AMA!",
"Thank you for doing this awesome AMA. \nI'm wondering if the movie \"contagion\" is at all accurate if an outbreak were to happen?",
"What, in your field, is considered a worst case scenario? What bugs keep you up at night?",
"Thank you for doing this AMA :).\n\nI have two questions:\n\n1. HIV has only really been known since the early 80s (or around that time), and yet has spread around the globe fairly quickly. Are there any viruses that have only been discovered recently but are poised to spread around the world in the coming years?\n2. I live in Canada, and there is a cream named Polysporin that is sold over-the-counter in many stores (there are also generic versions; I don't mean to \"pick on\" Polysporin specifically). As I understand it, there is an antibiotic in it. I mentioned to my pharmacist once that I thought Polysporin would be completely ineffective (due to bacteria developing resistance) within 10 years, and he told me that it would be closer to 5 (or less). What is your take on that? Do you think there will be a point where Polysporin is completely useless to the vast majority of people and it will no longer be sold? If so, how long might that take?",
"To Dr. Vetter: \n- As a manager of a public health laboratory, if you were to gauge your level of proficient funding from 1-10 (10 being your personal ideal level of funding, 1 being the furthest from that ideal) what would it be and why? \n- Have you ever felt that the price of the reagents your order and equipment for your lab has been a concern for the lab's performance? \n- Would there be something that a policy maker could provide to ease this process? \n\nTo Dr. Dunn: \n- How do you gauge the potential of an issue to be an outbreak? Or better yet, what is the threshold you measure with before you identify a series of cases as an outbreak? \n- Who or what agency informs you of cases? Do you have to constantly browse through clinical reports to sniff out cases of disease, or do you have a line of communication with county doctors?",
"My 6 year old nephew has been interested in all things microscopic for the last two years and for the last 6 months he's been telling people he wants to be a Virologist when he grows up. He has two questions for you: \n\n* What do you wear to keep safe from viruses and harmful microbes when working in the lab? \n* How did you become scientists - what did each of you study and how long did it take?",
"Hey guys! \n\nThanks for doing this!\n\nMy question is what is the most realistic or for lack of a better word likely disease that could have a large scale outbreak in the U.S. or other major 1st world nations and why?\n\nAlso, a secondary question:\n\nWhat disease would have the highest fatalities if it were to gain traction in a modern nation, like America?",
"Every so often, the media grabs a story on some scary sounding disease I've never heard of an runs with it, framing it as the next extinction level event. What indicators should we look for to determine whether or not we need to actually be afraid? What news sources can we rely on to give us health news without the hype?",
"Is there anything that you think the average person should be worried about the avian flu, or MERS/SARS? Also, is there anything that the average person should have in there house **just in case** something happened, or is that being too paranoid?\n\n\nThanks for doing this AMA.",
"Firstly thanks for doing this, great topic for an AMA! \n\n2 things: \n\n1) what is your favourite animal/s and why? \n2) I'm weirdly interested in tropical diseases, especially the really unusual ones. What is the strangest disease you've come across and how was it contained?",
"Thanks for the AMA! \n\nLiving in Nyc, there's currently a Legionnaires disease spreading around certain boroughs. \nWhat is the likelihood of the disease becoming widespread? \nAnd if that were to occur, what would the time frame be?",
"Are you consulted about public policy changes during outbreaks - transportation, quarantine, etc?\n\n(My father-in-law was a medical officer during the SARS outbreak in 2003)",
"How do you think antimicrobial resistance will affect the future of public health? Do you think a post antibiotic era is realistically approaching?",
"Wow, I love epidemiology so much, I'm a doctor, radiologist, Guatemalan, do you have any program to study in USA or internship?"
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"http://www.health.state.mn.us/divs/phl/orgchart.pdf",
"https://www.linkedin.com/pub/sara-vetter/2/357/467",
"http://foodsafety.utk.edu/directors.php",
"http://www.aphlblog.org/2014/05/testing-for-mers-cov-the-indiana-labs-story/",
"http://www.cste.org/members/group.aspx?id=144262",
"http://www.cste.org/group/FoodSafety",
"http://www.health.state.mn.us/topics/lab/index.html"
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} | AskScience AMA Series: We’re a state epidemiologist and a state public health laboratory scientist – together we are a critical outbreak fighting team! Ask us anything!
We’re Dr. Sara Vetter and Dr. John Dunn – thanks for having us! We’re here to talk about how [public health laboratory](_URL_4_) scientists and [epidemiologists](_URL_1_) work closely to create your state’s critical outbreak-fighting team. While your health care provider will focus on treating your illness, public health focuses on preventing the illness from spreading. Scientists in public health laboratories conduct testing to detect and define outbreak clusters; state epidemiologists then work as disease detectives who investigate the cause of the outbreak and determine the scope of the risk to the public’s health. Working together, public health laboratory scientists and epidemiologists solve outbreaks involving food, drugs, and infections. While we may not wear capes, our colleagues are unsung heroes working to keep you healthy! I’m Sara Vetter, PhD, and I am the manager of the Infectious Disease Laboratory at the [Minnesota Department of Health, Public Health Laboratory](_URL_13_). I'm also a member of the [Association of Public Health Laboratories (APHL)](_URL_2_). I was bitten by the public health bug during my undergraduate years when I was did an internship at the Minnesota Department of Health. I got to work on projects involving antibiotic resistant B. pertussis (whooping cough) and antibiotic resistant group B Streptococcus. I have since worked on Anthrax in graduate school, plague transmission at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in Ft. Collins, CO. I then ended up back at the Minnesota Department of Health as supervisor of the Virology Unit where I helped coordinate the lab response to [swine flu (H3N2v)](_URL_0_) in 2012 and [MERS-CoV](_URL_10_). In my current position, I get the chance to be involved in all the programs going on in our laboratory including oversight of testing, laboratory outreach, and outbreak response. There are new viruses to track, antibiotic resistance to combat like never before, and brand new technologies available to detect disease threats better than ever. The infectious disease world is in a state of rapid change, and it’s very exciting for me to be a part of it. Ask me anything about the laboratory side of outbreak detection, investigation, and response! I’m John Dunn, PhD, DVM, a Nashville native and the deputy state epidemiologist at the [Tennessee Department of Health](_URL_6_). I'm also a member of the [Council of State and Territorial Epidemiologists (CSTE)](_URL_1_). Previously I was with the Epidemic Intelligence Service at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) where I worked on [foodborne](_URL_1_group/FoodSafety) and diarrheal disease surveillance. I investigated outbreaks related to foodborne bugs and botulism. In my current role at the Tennessee Department of health, I’ve overseen outbreak investigations related to *E. coli*, *Salmonella*, [tick and mosquito-borne diseases](_URL_1_members/group.aspx?id=144262), fungal meningitis, and even tuberculosis transmission from elephants to people. Some of my professional interests are pre-harvest (farm-environment) epidemiology of foodborne pathogens, preventing direct transmission of diseases from animals to people, and implementing an integrated approach to food safety to prevent disease throughout the farm-to-fork continuum. I’m currently the president of the National Association of State Public Health Veterinarians, the leading group of One Health practitioners and experts around the country. Ask me anything about the [critical role](_URL_1_?page=Activities) epidemiologists play in outbreak detection, investigation, and response! [Sara’s proof 1](_URL_8_) [Sara's proof 2](_URL_7_) [John’s proof 1](_URL_9_) [John's proof 2](_URL_3_) EDIT: We have to take off, but thanks for having us! We'll try to answer more questions as we're able. | [
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|
4iuo06 | What does the Falcon 9 use to stabilize itself when landing? | What we see on camera [here](_URL_0_) seems physically impossible, as it looks like the rocket is only being propelled from the bottom, making it practically impossible to counteract net torque. When it comes down it's like trying to balance a pen its tip: any slight deviation will make it fall over.
Does it have some extra jets that I can not see, or does it control the lower propultion jet ridiculously accurately or what? I know there has to be something I am missing. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"d31skdb",
"d31rh7l",
"d31rkff",
"d31r9cq"
],
"text": [
"Falcon 9 uses a combination of grid fins, cold gas thrusters, and thrust vectoring of the main engines. The main engine thrust vectoring only works when the main engine is firing (during boostback/rentry and on final landing). The grid fins are most effective at higher speeds, but they do not consume any fuel. The cold gas thrusters are the little white puffs you can sometimes see near the top of the rocket (if you look closely you can see at least one firing in the video you posted).\n\nHere's a photo of the grid fins: _URL_2_\n\nHere's some more info on Falcon 9: _URL_0_\n\nA cool fact about the main engine thrust control: at minimum thrust, the thrust to weight ratio is still greater than 1. This means that it cannot hover. The engine must be tightly controlled so that the rocket reaches zero velocity at the instant it touches down. If the engine was not shut down immediately at touchdown, the Falcon would go back up again.\n\nEdit - Here's a higher quality version of the video: _URL_1_",
"Since no-one else has answered here yet I'll give it a shot (using some KSP logic). On the top end of the rocket there are four grate things (forget what they're called) which help steer the rocket without gimbaling the engine. When it lands it is very bottom heavy. The rocket it nearly empty and the 9 engines weigh a lot. From watching the video of the failed landing it looks like it can also use compressed gas to angle it too without creating horizontal velocity from engine gimbaling to be right side up. If I remember the engine can only lower its power to 64%? I don't know the source. Landing legs also unfold which end up being wider than the rocket. When the rocket is landing they don't do it but GPS because I'd assume OCIDLy may drift and whatnot. If I recall it lands in realtime doing the math and everything. If I remember correctly they are trying to incorporate this technology into the Dragon Capsule. I am in no way a rocket engineer but, I am a 14yr old who loves space a r/kerbalspaceprogram",
"What you appear to be missing is [gimbaled thrust](_URL_5_). The nozzle can be pointed at a slight angle to provide a torque on the rocket, making it rotate to counteract the torque that weight produces when it's not perfectly balanced.\n\nSpacecraft in orbit also use reaction wheels or [control-moment gyroscopes](_URL_3_) to rotate. In theory it could also help a landing rocket achieve more precise control, but I don't have any sources to confirm if Falcon 9 actually uses them.\n\n > it's like trying to balance a pen its tip: any slight deviation will make it fall over.\n\nPerhaps we can have an expert in control systems provide more detail, what I can tell you is that this is known as the [inverted pendulum](_URL_4_) problem and it's a classic one.",
"Vectored thrust is the most likely candidate. Many rockets use gimballed engines that can rotate a couple degrees in any direction, allowing the rocket to control its attitude.\n\nOther possibilities (since I don't know the full design of the Falcon) are fins, though these become less effective at low airspeeds, and reaction wheels, which are simply weighted wheels that spin to induce torque in the craft, but larger craft require larger reaction wheels. That's why I'm guessing thrust vectoring is the most likely solution."
],
"score": [
17,
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RPGUQySBikQ"
]
} | {
"url": [
"http://spaceflight101.com/spacerockets/falcon-9-v1-1-f9r/",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sYmQQn_ZSys",
"http://www.spacex.com/sites/spacex/files/fins_extended.jpg",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_moment_gyroscope",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inverted_pendulum",
"https://spaceflightsystems.grc.nasa.gov/education/rocket/gimbaled.html"
]
} | What does the Falcon 9 use to stabilize itself when landing?
What we see on camera [here](_URL_0_) seems physically impossible, as it looks like the rocket is only being propelled from the bottom, making it practically impossible to counteract net torque. When it comes down it's like trying to balance a pen its tip: any slight deviation will make it fall over. Does it have some extra jets that I can not see, or does it control the lower propultion jet ridiculously accurately or what? I know there has to be something I am missing. | [
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poes0 | Why does water seem to be such a unique substance? (Sorry, very vague). | How come water seems to have all the very unique properties (acts like acid/base, adhesive/lubricant, AFAIK every living thing needs it to survive). Thanks!
Edit: Sorry I didn't respond, I was asleep. Thanks for all the helpful responses!
Edit 2: Cool! Front page! Thanks guys! | askscience | {
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"Two reasons. First, water water everywhere. Stuff is all over the place on Earth. Second, water is a very small, very polar molecule.\n\nWater is made of two hydrogen atoms and an oxygen. Oxygen is just short of having a complete shell of electrons, and it really wants to complete it. This makes it extremely electronegative, a fancy science word for electron slut. As a result, the electrons from the hydrogens end up hanging around the oyxgen more, making it slightly negatively charged, and the hydrogens slightly positively charged, making what is known as a polar molecule.\n\nThis has a wide range of effects. First, water likes to bind itself - the partial positives in hydrogens like to bind the partial negatives in different molecules of oxygen. This makes water all meshed together, giving it a high surface tension and high boiling point. However, if you add someone else charged in there, like salt, water likes to bind it just as much. This means water will dissolve any other polar molecule very well, and stick to them if it can't dissolve them.\n\nAs far as acid/base chemistry goes, it's because the most basic definition of acid/base specifically mentions water. That is, Arrhenius acids add hydrogens to water. Bronsted-Lowry acids expands the defintion if you're not in water, and Lewis acids expand the definition if you're a chemistry major.\n\nLiving things use water because it's a great solvent. Living things are really just big bags of chemical reactions. Water is a great way of dissolving other molecules and getting them together with each other.\n\nLubricant is the only thing I think I missed here. Water is a liquid, and like all liquids it's largely incompressible. If you imagine two bricks pressed together with water in the middle, they're not going to smash the water out of the way, they're going to glide around on the surface.",
"Water is not unique with regard to these properties. **Ammonia**, for instance, also exhibits polarity, [amphoterism](_URL_0_), and the hydrogen bonding properties that make water so useful as the \"universal solvent\". However, water is a simpler molecule with stronger polar traits, as well as a rigid crystalline structure when frozen (accounting for why ice floats). Water just happens to have these properties because oxygen is extremely electronegative, and hydrogen bonding allows for high surface tension and other interactions (the adhesion you referred to).",
"The two biggest things that I learned through all my classes that seemed unique to water which really makes it just a different type of molecule is:\n\n1.) It gets less dense when it freezes (This is kind of bizarre, not unheard of, but this is rare...very rare)\n\n2.) Very high degree of freedom which results in a high specific heat.\n\nNumber (1.) was already mentioned, let me elaborate on (2.) The easiest way to think of \"degrees of freedom\" of a system is \"How many numbers do I need to describe the exact state of the system\". For example, say your position in your room. If you are presumed to be standing on the floor the number would be 2, basically an x and a y. If you are allowed to move up and down it becomes a total of 3 (x,y,z), and if you allow rotation you gain another 3 needed numbers (assuming u can rotate in any direction). Some gases, called 'monotonic' have just one atom, think Helium, unlike Hydrogen gas which is H_2. So Helium has a total of 3 degrees of freedom (like all monotonic gases), because to describe where a helium atom is in your room you need an x, y, and z position. There is no need for rotation here because Helium is a sphere, it looks the same any direction you look at it. H_2 on the other hand needs 5, again the typical x,y,z but then 2 for rotation (there could technically be a third rotation but it would need to be very hot).\n\nSo most gases and liquids and things have about the same number of degrees of freedom, 3, 5, sometimes 7 for very hot. Water on the other hand in liquid form has a total of about 18. That is seriously a lot of degrees of freedom.\n\nImagine the shape of water, it has that sort of broken stick look. So you have 3 for position, 3 for rotation, but then the hydrogens can move closer and further from the oxygen, that's another 2, they can \"scissor\" (i.e. move closer to each other), that's another 1, they can twist, that much add 2 or 3. It's hard to come up with all of them but when we figure it out mathematically it results in about 18 degrees of freedom.\n\nThe number of degrees of freedom changes how much energy an object can store. Since water has 18 degrees, when you add heat to it then it can just bounce around in many different ways and twist and rotate before it actually becomes \"hotter\". This results in one of the higher specific heats of nature (if not the highest?).\n\nThis is actually very good for us. It means that it requires a great deal of energy to heat up water, and it means water needs to give us a lot of energy to cool down. So, when we are made up of 70% water it is a built-in regulator that controls our body temperature. I think this is something that is very essential to life like ours. Even when it is very cold outside we can still survive because water has so much energy stored in side of it, and in blistering heat we are only uncomfortable because it takes so much energy to heat up the water.\n\nThis is the same reason that if you live near the coast or a big body of water the temperature is more consistent throughout the year. You are next to one huge object that absorbs tons of energy and regulates the entire area, as soon as you move inland temperature is much more variable.\n\nSo, circling back to your actual question; there are many things that make water so unique but one of the coolest is the degrees of freedom of the water. It can store tons of energy at once compared to other molecules and compounds, and this has always been the coolest property of water to me.\n\nI hope this has answered some of your questions and shed some light on the uniqueness of water and not just been a ramble about nothing.\n\ntl;dr: Water has many degrees of freedom, unlike most other substances.",
"1. It's a small, polar molecule, which means one end is slightly more positive and the other end is slightly more negative in charge, similar to a magnet. The oxygen atom in one end of the atom can attract a hydrogen atom in a neighboring atom, sort of like \"static cling.\" This tendency for water atoms to be attracted to one another gives water great properties like surface tension. (Think of how rubbing a balloon on your hair leads to an uneven distribution of electrons; polarity is similar, but is a property of a single molecule.)\n2. The bond angle in water is roughly 105 degrees, which causes the molecules to pack together in a special way. When water freezes, the extra space in the way the molecules pack together causes ice to be less dense than water, and so ice floats. If ice didn't float, lakes would freeze solid from the bottom up, and fish could not survive. This bond angle also leads to snowflakes having six sides.\n3. Water has its freezing point and boiling point at temperatures that are useful to humans. The boiling point is hot enough to cook most foods. The freezing point is low, but not too low, such that we can handle water ice with our bare hands.\n4. The properties in #1-3 make water useful for exchanging energy. This applies to cell respiration in living plants and animals, as well as to steam engines. The sun's energy converts water to gas (clouds), where this energy subsequently becomes kinetic energy when that water falls as rain and then flows as rivers and groundwater.",
"One thing I have never understood about water. Boiling point 100C. Liquid water turns to steam at temperatures lower than that, ie, my electric kettle, ~80C. \nI seem to remember my science teacher saying it was unusual for doing this, but cannot remember if she said why.\nWhy is this?",
"Some of you might find [this link](_URL_2_) interesting. It lists lots of ways water stands out, with lots of in-depth explanations! \n\nThe [whole site](_URL_2_) is rather fascinating, definitely a nice way to spend an afternoon. I didn't know just how peculiar water was until I found this.",
"This subject has always puzzled me. Why is water most dense at 4 C rather than in a frozen solid state? Why does water flow in the same manner as electricity?"
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"url": [
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} | Why does water seem to be such a unique substance? (Sorry, very vague).
How come water seems to have all the very unique properties (acts like acid/base, adhesive/lubricant, AFAIK every living thing needs it to survive). Thanks! Edit: Sorry I didn't respond, I was asleep. Thanks for all the helpful responses! Edit 2: Cool! Front page! Thanks guys! | [
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|
7nui3t | Can you track a radioactive golf ball with a Geiger counter? | What type and level of radiation would you need to locate a lost radioactive golf ball with a Geiger counter (range at least 10 meters)? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"ds4qw2u",
"ds4kcgg",
"ds4l1r0"
],
"text": [
"I went ahead and did the math on this. The upshot is that your golf ball will have to be so radioactive the government would not allow you to own it.\n\nAs /u/RobusEtCeleritas mentions, to be detected at a distance, you want to use a gamma ray source. To make a signal which is obvious above background radiation at a glance, the detector will have to pick up at least several particles per second. But since the detector is small, only a small fraction of the particles will hit it (at 10 m distance, roughly one in a million), and only about [1%](_URL_1_) of those will actually trigger the detector. The upshot is that your radioactive golf ball will have to be giving off about 100 million gamma ray photons per second.\n\nThe US Nuclear Regulatory Commission sets a maximum amount of radioactive material anyone can own without filing ridiculous amounts of paperwork and legal justification: this is the [\"exempt quantity limit\"](_URL_3_). For Cobalt-60 and Cesium-137, two of the most commonly-used gamma sources, the limits are [37,000](_URL_2_) and [370,000](_URL_0_) decays per second, respectively. Internationally, the limits are similar. So the golf ball is going to be thousands of times more radioactive than what you can own without a license. And nobody's going to give you a license just so you can find your damn golf ball!\n\nI won't comment on whether this radioactive golf ball would actually be harmful to your health -- that's a much more complicated question -- but it would definitely be illegal.",
"If it has a very active gamma ray source inside it, it’s possible. If you want the range to be 10 meters, you have to make the activity of the source high enough that after correcting for the 1/r^(2) spreading and detector efficiency, the count rate at 10 meters is still above background.",
"A far less dramatic (and palatable to the public) solution would probably to just put something like a passive RFID in the ball. I suppose, going that way, you could also be sure the ball you find is actually yours (no cheating!)"
],
"score": [
16,
6,
6
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.spectrumtechniques.com/products/sources/cesium-137/",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geiger_counter#Gamma_and_X-ray_detection",
"http://www.spectrumtechniques.com/products/sources/cobalt-60/",
"https://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/doc-collections/cfr/part030/part030-0018.html"
]
} | Can you track a radioactive golf ball with a Geiger counter?
What type and level of radiation would you need to locate a lost radioactive golf ball with a Geiger counter (range at least 10 meters)? | [
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|
ainu8v | For those with ASD, can people move along the spectrum as they age? Can people become higher- or lower-functioning as time goes on, and if so, which has been seen to be more common? | [deleted] | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"eep8jyu",
"eepba7x",
"eeq5p20",
"eepvssn",
"eepgydg"
],
"text": [
"You don't move through the spectrum, but how much it affects you can change over time, mainly due to the development (or lack of development) of coping mechanisms; the more experience you have the easier it is to cope. \nOn the reverse, if you do not learn how to, the added stress as you age and become more reliant on social interaction can make you less likely to cope, especially if you have ASD alongside some form of mental illness (depression, OCD etc.), and your reactions/symptoms (for lack of a better word) more pronounced. \n\nNational Autistic Society has some more info on it: _URL_0_\n\nTLDR; You don't move along the spectrum but you can cope better or worse depending on experiences and are likely to have more issues as you get older if you have co-existing conditions",
"[Firstly the spectrum isn't a line as such](_URL_1_)\n\nIt isn't a lineair progression.\n\nAs to the 'as time goes on' : \n\nOne problem in later life is that where in 'normal' people cognitive decline is just one problem, for people with ASD it is 2. Their coping skills rely on their cognitive function to some extent. Loss of cognitive function can cause loss in coping skills, causing you to show more signs of autism.\n\nJust something to look forward to I guess. Growing old sucks.\n\nedit: Um darn I didn't realise I answered on askscience. If I had realised I would've probably let experts answer, I am just parroting a few books I read and my inexpert understanding of the subject.",
"I'm on the spectrum, late diagnosis at 44, am a few weeks shy of 49 now - the late diagnosis means I've always had good intuitively-built coping mechanisms in place, but that at some point they broke down sufficiently to prompt seeking help. \n\nOver the years my coping mechanisms have gotten refined enough most people can't tell unless I freak out. I can't sustain eye contact for long but I will generally tell people about the spectrum and the eye contact as soon as I feel sufficiently comfortable, which is usually before the lack of eye contact becomes too obvious, at which point people will say \"huh, I'd never have noticed\" and will then stick with that even if they surely must later notice. I've learned to be very picky about what company socials to go to. I've declined a small-scale celebration of my company anniversary because I don't deal well with being the center of attention. I consider being deliberate about what social situations I put myself in to be part of my coping mechanisms, along with the usual stuff like internalized procedures to analyse and prototype responses in social settings. But over time, I've gotten lots better at integrating. Getting diagnosed helped here, even if it didn't change much about me. \n\nWhere my coping mechanisms break down: I tend to take spoken and written words as true and will be pretty upset if it later turns out to be hyperbole. If I'm very relaxed I can spot this happening in me and interrupt myself. If I'm not, I'm apt to get very combative about things that most neurotypicals would just shrug off. This has gotten worse for me as time passed. I tend to value getting a detailed analysis of any situation (especially conflict situations) over reconciliation, which is something about myself I wish would just disappear. I've had this as long as I can remember, but the stakes were a little different on the playground than they are in the office, or in adult relations. \n\nSo, in response to your question, in some aspects I have gotten more high-functioning through refinement of my mechanisms. In other ways I'm lower-functioning because I'm getting more and more set in my ways.",
"There is [some indication](_URL_2_) that they can improve--specifically in regard to a reduction in \"the point prevalence of behavioral and neuropsychiatric symptoms (BNPS)\" (I'm pretty srue that's a good thing).",
"First of all this is hard to say as the spectrum is a very loose term. Although I am on the spectrum there is no guarantee that I will exhibit the same symptoms, signs, or behaviors as someone else on the spectrum. \n\nFurther life and aging in general is also a very dynamic process/series of events, many people learn to function better over time and many don’t. I don’t know that it would be possible to pin point it on one root cause or another until it was very drastic. \n\nMany times as! I can confirm in my case things that worked for a long time no longer do. This can be challenging to find a replacement or something else to do its job so you can continue to function the way you once did."
],
"score": [
154,
40,
6,
3,
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://www.autism.org.uk/about/adult-life/ageing.aspx",
"https://the-art-of-autism.com/understanding-the-spectrum-a-comic-strip-explanation/",
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28303420"
]
} | For those with ASD, can people move along the spectrum as they age? Can people become higher- or lower-functioning as time goes on, and if so, which has been seen to be more common?
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av3p0r | how does red shift show that the big bang theory could be a possible theory, for the formation of the universe? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"ehchtfq",
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"ehcszq9",
"ehcuy70"
],
"text": [
"Red shift is the evidence of what happened. After the invention of the telescope, people found out that there were many more stars than we thought previously, because we couldn't see them before. We found more and more and more of them and catalogued them over a couple hundred years. \n\nThen we discovered that many of the what was previously though to be clouds of dust (nebula) were actually *other* galaxies, all very similar to ours, with billions of stars of their own. \n\nRed shift in galactic light is a manifestation of what is called the [Doppler effect](_URL_0_). It is what causes a siren or train horn to get more high pitched as it approaches you, and decrease in pitch as it moves away from you. Red and blue shift are the same phenomenon, but with light instead of sound. \n\nWhat Edwin Hubble discovered was that for the distant galaxies, the light is shifted in to the red, which means they are moving away from us. \n\nThe further away a galaxy was, the more redshifted its light was. Indicating that the further away it is, the faster it is moving away from us. \n\nThe logical conclusion is that if you rewind the clock back, since everything is moving away from us currently, in the past, those things were closer together than they are now. Rewind further, the closer things are to each other. \n\nThe Big Bang theory is what explains this observed phenomenon. \n\nAnd just to be clear, the Big Bang theory does not say anything about the origins of the universes, where the universe came from, what caused the universe, the purpose to the universe or any other philosophical question. It simply explains the observed phenomenon that distant galaxies are all moving away from us.",
"The short of it is that the big bang predicts that the universe must have been very hot and dense in the past. The cosmic microwave background (CMB) is evidence of this past. In other words hot things like your kitchen electric stove or the Sun glows. But as the universe has expanded, the light of the CMB has cooled via redshifting. The amount of redshift tells us how long ago the big bang happened.",
"All it shows is that distant galaxies are moving away from us and that they appear to actually be accelerating.\n\nThis is because of the stretching of light frequencies into the red part of the spectrum. It doesn’t really have anything to say about the nature of the universe or why this occurred. It’s just a backwards extrapolation from that observation to a singularity point.",
"The red shift is just the Doppler effect applied to light, and it indicates that galaxies far away are moving away (and moving away faster if they are farther away). this implies that the universe was close together in the past.\n\nso they just ran with that idea to its extreme and for shits and grins, they calculated what the universe would look like if it was all very very compressed a very very long time ago.\n\nthen in the 60's, some young scientists with a new telescope accidentally discovered exactly what those other scientists predicted for shits and grins."
],
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/waves/Lesson-3/The-Doppler-Effect"
]
} | how does red shift show that the big bang theory could be a possible theory, for the formation of the universe?
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k2749 | What's your favorite "unsolved mystery" in science? | askscience | {
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"text": [
"Why we need so much sleep in order to function. Seems it's the price we pay for being such clever apes.",
"The harmonisation of General Relativity with Quantum Mechanics.\n\n(And while we are at it: what mechanism caused the Big Bang to start, and how did the universe look at t=0 (not at t=10^–43 s)?)",
"What the hell the [Hoatzin](_URL_0_) is related to. No-one knows!",
"Are there any nonlinear response to climate change forcing? And related to that, are there any tipping points in the climate? This is obviously a question of great importance.\n\nAlso: what causes and/or drives the El Nino/Southern Oscillation? Knowing this may help us in the first question.",
"While an interesting question, this type of post has been deemed inappropriate in the AskScience Guidelines:\n\n > Questions that aren't answerable by a specific scientific statement (\"What is the most important thing in your field?\" e.g.) may also be subject to deletion.\n\nSorry! All the best.",
"Most of deep earth tectonics and processes. Even though we 'know' what is happening, the true causes and dynamics of our Earth are still fairly poorly understood.",
"Is there life elsewhere in the universe? What is it like?",
"How the brain processes information. Think about it. Just to recognize your mother, you're taking in auditory information (her voice), visual information (her appearance), tactile information (if she touches you), olfactory information (her smell), emotional information (the emotional response generated by your amygdala in response to her), and then comparing all that to your memory to identify that random person in front of you as your mother. And that relatively \"simple\" process by the brain's standards (which still requires many millions if not billions of neurons) happens faster than you can notice it. \n\nOf course, if you'd like, we can also talk about the brain's ability to be creative or learn language, or the ability of certain savants to calculate square roots to absurd accuracy in a matter of seconds.",
"What's the right math needed to rigorously formulate quantum field theory."
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f3/Hoatzins_in_Brazil.jpg"
]
} | What's your favorite "unsolved mystery" in science?
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554k2z | Are any of Einstein's predictions yet unproven, and if so, which would be the most groundbreaking if proven correct? | Over 100 years after they were predicted by General Relativity, gravitational waves were observed by LIGO last year. Are there any more of his predictions floating out there? | askscience | {
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"text": [
"Gravitational waves were only recently detected directly; we've had pretty good indirect evidence for many years.\n\nI would nominate hidden variable theory. Einstein never really accepted quantum mechanics as a fundamental theory of the world, and said that there must be something deeper going on, something which unlike QM actually makes sense. Bell's theorem shows that this cannot be the case, so as far as we know this is a mistaken prediction, not an unproven one, but you never know: we might have missed something, and Einstein might have been right after all.",
"Another interesting prediction from Einsteins equations are white holes. The same equations that say black holes can exist can also be reversed to show that white holes can exist. They work the opposite of black holes. Light and matter can escape from them but can't enter, they have a reverse event horizon. A white hole has never been discovered and there are some theories that a white hole forming could be a big bang event, but it's just a theory. _URL_0_",
"Einstein did not specifically predict gravitational waves out of the blue. He worked out a set of equations that would combine specific relativity and gravity, while he was sure that there must be a reason that gravity and movement under constant acceleration are the same.\n\nHe did not have a solution to the equation, only approximation which allowed him check for some discrepancy with Newton equations around the orbit of Mercury.\n\nThen other scientists joined and started working on the theory and tests because it looked promising.\n\nThe predictions arise when you apply these equations to different scenarios.\n\nWhat you're looking for is [this](_URL_1_), which lists methods how you can test if General Relativity is correct. Gravitational waves were the hardest prediction to test because of the very complex testing equipment required.",
"The cosmological constant. Einstein came up with it to solve a problem in GR that turned out to be unnecessary. Fast forward 60 years, and dark energy is discovered. Confirming a cosmological constant would be a huge change in our understanding of the universe."
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_hole",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tests_of_general_relativity"
]
} | Are any of Einstein's predictions yet unproven, and if so, which would be the most groundbreaking if proven correct?
Over 100 years after they were predicted by General Relativity, gravitational waves were observed by LIGO last year. Are there any more of his predictions floating out there? | [
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|
1eu126 | This article says that cold fusion has been cracked. I don't believe it. | For one, there's no sources in the article, no quotes from the scientists that have supposedly been convinced. Second, even without sources the article admits that nothing has been officially peer-reviewed.
But as far as the science goes, I don't know if it's completely far-fetched nonsense, or if it's actually a kinda-sorta good idea that may one day result in cold fusion. I am guessing it's nonsense, but I'm hoping you guys can tell me why/why not.
_URL_0_ | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"ca3uo2w",
"ca3tgc6",
"ca3zglr",
"ca3ukqk"
],
"text": [
"The linked article is based on [a paper posted to arxiv](_URL_0_). They perform calorimetric (heat) measurements on a device called the E-Cat HT. They claim to have measured excess heat in the device and the excess could not be accounted for by any chemical process.\n\nNote that cold fusion does not violate any laws of physics. Condensed matter states are not completely understood and it is feasible that some process like cold fusion could occur. \n\nHowever, if fusion is occurring, then neutrons should be present. Thus, the thing to look for in cold fusion experiments is measurements of neutrons. \n\nThis paper does not try to measure any neutrons, only heat. Heat is notoriously difficult to measure because the \"fusion\" always involves dumping a lot of electrical power into the \"fusion cell\", which naturally leads to an increase in temperature. Thus, the experimenter measures a large temperature increase and then must subtract off the large temperature increase due to the input power to ascertain the small temperature increase due to \"fusion\".\n\nTL;DR No neutrons, no fusion.",
"Cold fusion, like faster-than-light neutrinos, is a kind of extraordinary claim that needs extraordinary evidence. It contradicts the laws of physics as we understand them. Now, it is possible that our understanding of the laws of physics is wrong, and cold fusion is real; however, we need better proof than a \"research paper, which hasn’t yet undergone peer review\".",
"I've read about Rossi's setup before, and while I'm far from an expert on nuclear fusion, I've been very skeptical for a basic reason: he's using nickel. As I understand it, the binding energy for every element above iron-56 is positive. Meaning, you'd need to *add* energy to get fusion for those elements and it's impossible to have a net-energy positive reaction. \n\nSo either he's rewritten the rules of nuclear reactions or he's fudging the numbers. I'd lean towards the latter, especially given his lack of transparency with the data and money-seeking. At minimum it seems like he'd need to explain how this might be happening, but I don't believe he's done.\n\nLink to nuclear binding energy diagram:\n_URL_1_\n\n\nedit: it looks like NASA has done some studies on a similar system, also using nickle and I doubt they'd make such a fundamental error. But they're pretty open about admitting that they don't know how/if it's actually capable of producing energy, or by what mechanism.",
"You can read the \" verifiers' \" paper on arxiv. It's not your Mythbusters saying \"CONFIRMED.\" As far as I can tell, the team were mere observers to a demonstration put on by Rossi. It wasn't their instruments, their set-up, and they didn't even start observing until the E-Cad was already hot. There weren't a lot of instruments and they didn't observe from all angles.\n\nThere is amble room for fraud. Whether using laser/microwave beams to heat the E-Cad from afar (on the side that didn't have an infrared camera observing), or simply hacking the instruments themselves.\n\nGiven Rossi's history as a scammer (look at his wiki page), this is definitely BS. Which is a shame, because \"real\" cold fusion does have a lot of honest people asking for more investigation."
],
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.extremetech.com/extreme/156393-cold-fusion-reactor-independently-verified-has-10000-times-the-energy-density-of-gas?utm_source=feedburner&utm_medium=feed&utm_campaign=Feed%3A+ziffdavis%2Fextremetech+%28Extremetech%29"
]
} | {
"url": [
"http://arxiv.org/ftp/arxiv/papers/1305/1305.3913.pdf",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Binding_energy_curve_-_common_isotopes.svg"
]
} | This article says that cold fusion has been cracked. I don't believe it.
For one, there's no sources in the article, no quotes from the scientists that have supposedly been convinced. Second, even without sources the article admits that nothing has been officially peer-reviewed. But as far as the science goes, I don't know if it's completely far-fetched nonsense, or if it's actually a kinda-sorta good idea that may one day result in cold fusion. I am guessing it's nonsense, but I'm hoping you guys can tell me why/why not. _URL_0_ | [
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|
rrf31 | What is worse, using a notebook made out of trees to take notes, or using the energy of powering a laptop? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c481yyi",
"c482a2n",
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"c481qch",
"c482nbr"
],
"text": [
"The energy needed to produce a notebook and to import all single parts produced on different parts of the globe outweights the harvesting of a tree by severel orders of magnitude",
"When you take notes on a laptop you have to consider that you have to use energy just to read them again (if you print it the purpose would be defeated energy wise). On paper it can be read for free for several hundred years.\nSo a paper notebook is just a one time investement.",
"This is an impossible comparison - you're asking about comparing the upstream impact of one product vs. the usage impact of another. \n\nIf you compare upstream on both the notebook and the laptop, qualitatively, the notebook has less impact, simply because of global-sourced nature of laptops (components are assembled from around the world), and the particularly nasty chemicals and processes associated with semiconductor manufacturing. \n\nFor usage of the product, you have to consider whether you are in a lit room or not. If you are the only one taking notes in a dark room vs a lit room, the laptop wins! It uses the power of less than a single light bulb, vs the thousands of watts used to light up an average classroom.",
"It depends on where you get the paper for that notebook. Paper companies worldwide plant thousands of square miles of trees for the specific purpose of harvesting them for paper-based products.\n\nRecycling paper is very energy intensive and uses hundreds (if not more) of different chemicals; so, if your notebook is 100% post-consumer waste, then I'd definitely say some polluting was done to get it.\n\nAs far as weighing that against the CO2 emissions from generating your laptop's electricity. We'd have to assume some big things that would make a definitive answer unreasonable, most likely.",
"I don't think your question is specific enough to answer."
],
"score": [
9,
6,
3,
3,
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | What is worse, using a notebook made out of trees to take notes, or using the energy of powering a laptop?
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1axqrz | A question about pupil shape | If you ever look closely at most cattle, sheep, and goats, you notice that their eyes, or rather their pupils, are shaped like rounded, horizontal rectangles. Why is this? And why, of all the millions of other animals in the world, do octopuses share this trait? Does it allow for a different wavelength of light? Does it allow for more depth perception? And how does it differ from felines and snakes, who have thin, diamond shaped pupils? Is this directly related to predator/prey behaviors and adaptations? Sorry for all the questions, it just fascinates me | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c91qk17",
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"text": [
"This is an awesome question. [Here's a paper](_URL_0_) reviewing some characteristics of pupil design. It may not be exhaustive.\n\nTo start, note that the refractive index of a clear substance like the lens is dependent on the wavelength of light. Thus focusing one wavelength (color) of light perfectly leaves other wavelengths slightly out of focus. To counter this, some animals have lenses that are not uniformly refractive: certain parts of the lens focus some colors better than other parts of the eye. These color-focusing bands of lens are arranged like a target: rings of color-optimized regions of the lens. Thus, to get a fully-color-focused image, you need to keep all of the lens exposed along at least one axis (e.g., vertical axis) of the pupil.\n\nBut pupils need to constrict. When there's too much light, the pupil constricts to block enough light to allow vision without damaging the retina. But, if the pupil is round, constriction covers some of those color bands, causing blurry images of some colors while other colors are still sharp.\n\nThe solution is to make the pupil a slit. This allows a narrow opening to block the extra light, while still exposing the full diameter of the lens (and thus all of the color regions) of the pupil.\n\nAs you might expect, animals without this multifocal lens adaptation tend not to have slit pupils. \n\nI believe the orientation (vertical vs horizontal) of the pupils is more a function of predator/prey relationship. Animals needing a wide field of view while constricting have horizontal pupils. They can watch for predators better this way. Predators focus their view on their prey, so their pupils can be vertical slits to keep one object in front of them in sharp focus.",
"Never apologize for asking questions, youngling.\n\n[Here's](_URL_1_) an article on pupil shape evolution. It feels (to me) a little too sure of its conclusions - things in physiology almost never have a simple or a single reason - but it's not a bad ballpark explanation:\n\n1) predators that have good night vision (e.g., felines) or good low-light vision (e.g., snakes) have vertical-slit pupils. This because a slit-pupil can be shut tightly to protect their fancy-schmancy high-performance retina from bright light.\n\n2) prey that regularly duke it out with predators (cattle, sheep, goats, octopuses) have horizontal-slit pupils. This because they need reasonably good vision at all times. A horizontal-slit can adjust to widely-varying light conditions but, unlike a vertical slit, it occludes less peripheral vision and has less effect on depth-perception when constricted.\n\n3) prey that don't have good night vision (e.g., primates) have round pupils. Humans don't need good night vision because we seek shelter at night like a tree or a cave or the Holiday Inn.",
"[Some animals](_URL_2_) have something like inverse pupils, where the iris actually covers the middle of the eye instead of the outside! They don't see very well though."
],
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://ge.tt/5isbK3c/v/0",
"http://www.science20.com/variety_tap/evolution_rectangular_eye",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loricariidae#Omega_iris"
]
} | A question about pupil shape
If you ever look closely at most cattle, sheep, and goats, you notice that their eyes, or rather their pupils, are shaped like rounded, horizontal rectangles. Why is this? And why, of all the millions of other animals in the world, do octopuses share this trait? Does it allow for a different wavelength of light? Does it allow for more depth perception? And how does it differ from felines and snakes, who have thin, diamond shaped pupils? Is this directly related to predator/prey behaviors and adaptations? Sorry for all the questions, it just fascinates me | [
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|
130fru | [X-Post from /r/cringe] Man proposes million dollar idea, gets laughed at. Is what he's saying scientifically valid? | [Here's the link to the clip.](_URL_0_)
I don't have much of a degree in physics/chemistry, so I'm not sure if he's bullshitting or not. Can anyone explain to me if what he's saying is the truth? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c6zp6g9",
"c6zpm0j",
"c6zp393",
"c6zqbyk",
"c6zwk80"
],
"text": [
"It's nonsense. The coriolis effect is only practical at enormous scales, and even then the body of water has to already have a significant flow rate through it (which in turn requires a very large input of energy). The guy is claiming to have earnt billions, yet is looking for a million to invest. He then claims that will be enough to get a ocean-based floating production platform up and running. To put that in context, the average oil platform (which are well understood and have no new engineering challenges to overcome) is usually in the 100 - 200 million dollars range.\n\nThere's no mechanism for swirling water to deposit its precipitates. Even if there were, you'd have to put in enough energy to start moving millions of tonnes of water. that's a LOT of energy. It's certainly not going to generate power. \n\nHis numbers are also waaaay off. A cubic mile of water would contain about 52 kg of gold, not 1500 tonnes.\n\nIf his idea were true, you would see coriolis vortices in every sub-rounded body of water on the planet.\n\nThe guy is a fantasist.",
"\"The 'core-ee-o-lus' effect spins this into a hurricane -\" \n \nStopped watching right there. His entire pitch is predicated on the gambit that the people he's talking to (i.e. fleecing) don't know what the Coriolis effect it.",
"I think the questions they asked are very good, and he did not have any reasonable answers for any of them. His idea is basically a drawing with lots of words that makes no sense. He's really, really far away from any actual Science.",
"Haber tried extracting gold from water almost 100 years ago, with Germany backing him with more than the equivalent of 100 million dollars today. He wasn't successful \n\nOur technology might be better, but the water's still the same. Not nearly enough gold to make a profit.",
"I know this isn't a science related answer but just think about this OP. The waste from his generator would be 98 billion dollars in gold, yet he wants to sell it for 1 million? Red flags everywhere."
],
"score": [
14,
6,
5,
4,
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_detailpage&v=4tQZmooQc28#t=1079s"
]
} | {
"url": []
} | [X-Post from /r/cringe] Man proposes million dollar idea, gets laughed at. Is what he's saying scientifically valid?
[Here's the link to the clip.](_URL_0_) I don't have much of a degree in physics/chemistry, so I'm not sure if he's bullshitting or not. Can anyone explain to me if what he's saying is the truth? | [
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|
oilgp | How did people find out they were pregnant in medieval times? | ..Or were they even able to find out before the woman began to 'show'? I've wondered this for a long time..a lot of times when reading books about midwives and such, they mention having a midwife go in for a look to find out if a woman was pregnant. Before a woman begins to show, are there any other visible changes to a woman's body that can be detected? Surely these signs (if they exist..) wouldn't be surefire ways to know, or else we wouldn't need pregnancy tests and all that. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c3hk7b8",
"c3hkdx0",
"c3hl5be",
"c3hm9oh"
],
"text": [
"Women don't have periods once they conceive. Missing a period is also how most people realize they've become pregnant to this very day when they aren't pissing on sticks every 5 minutes in anticipation.\n\nPeriods can be missed for other reasons, but in a healthy, well-fed woman of childbearing age it's pretty near surefire. We have pregnancy tests mostly because people don't want to wait up to 3 weeks to find out.",
"First - the timing of when a women begins to show varies significantly, generally it depends on your weight and how many previous pregnancies you have had. Some women show earlier then 8 weeks, others not until their third trimester. Its not really the best/only way of telling if you are pregnant.\n\nBesides the obvious missed period other signs you may be pregnant include: sore breasts, bloating, spotting, heightened/changed senses (smell, taste...), cramping, fatigue, nausea, peeing more, headaches, constipation, mood swings, dizziness, metallic taste in mouth.... These vary in severity and timing between women (some get no symptoms, others a few, others all). Also you could see where some, or all of these might be mistaken for something else - poor diet, overworked, sickness, regular period symptoms...",
"A woman's cervix gets darker in color as well, turning almost blue. I don't think a midwife could really get a good look up there, but hey - maybe??",
"Not relevant to you time-frame but I couldn't let this pregnancy test related nugget pass by.\n\n\nIn the 1920's there was the [rabbit test](_URL_0_) to determine pregnancy."
],
"score": [
16,
3,
3,
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.snopes.com/pregnant/rabbit.asp"
]
} | How did people find out they were pregnant in medieval times?
..Or were they even able to find out before the woman began to 'show'? I've wondered this for a long time..a lot of times when reading books about midwives and such, they mention having a midwife go in for a look to find out if a woman was pregnant. Before a woman begins to show, are there any other visible changes to a woman's body that can be detected? Surely these signs (if they exist..) wouldn't be surefire ways to know, or else we wouldn't need pregnancy tests and all that. | [
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|
2l7m1l | Are there any bodily functions that are dependent on gravity? | Does my body work the same without gravity? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cls8nik",
"clsehn6",
"clsa5s3"
],
"text": [
"There was a post recently that said that your sensation of the need to urinate doesn't work the same in zero G. Normally you feel an urgent need to urinate when your bladder is one third full. In space, astronauts found they didn't get that sensation until their bladder was almost entirely full, making for some massive evacuations when they finally did go.",
"There's a few things I can think of caused by a lack of gravity. One is that your vascular system is designed to pump blood up against the force of gravity, so in zero-g it overcompensates and more blood goes to your head/less to your legs; your head swells up a bit and your legs get skinnier (other fluids are affected similarly, and having stuffed-up sinuses causes degradation of your senses of taste and smell). Another is burping to remove gas from your stomach; in a gravity field, the non-gas stomach contents are all sitting on the bottom of your stomach, but in zero-g it's all floating around and you get nasty acid reflux if you burp. Carbonated beverages are a bad idea in space, regardless of how much effort Coca-Cola put in to design a working space-grade Coke container. Your digestive system still works fine, however; [peristalsis](_URL_2_) works regardless of gravity's presence or absence. \n\nAnother is that our bones remodel themselves to maintain constant strain energy per bone mass, which means that the low forces they experience in space causes serious bone density loss ([\"spaceflight osteopenia\"](_URL_0_)); there's also muscle loss for similar reasons. The muscle and bone loss in particular are nasty if you're planning on returning to a gravity field at some point. A similar sort of acclimation occurs with the fluid imbalance; after enough time in microgravity your body stops shoving all the fluids in your body upwards, but then if you go back to Earth you can have trouble standing upright without fainting because your heart isn't pumping hard enough to make sure blood gets to your brain against the force of gravity. \n\nThe [Wikipedia article](_URL_1_) has a pretty decent summary of these.",
"Equilibrium is one of the few functions I can recall that is dependent on gravity. Let me tell you how it works with an analogy:\n\nImagine you have a hollow sphere partially filled with a liquid. With the gravity \"on\" the liquid would be sitting on the bottom. Now, lets give the sphere an orientation: pick a point and call it up, you can paint a dot on the sphere in your mind. Now, if you rotate and spin the sphere, you can see that it is possible to tell in which direction \"up\" is heading and that the liquid is always being pulled by gravity.\n\nEquilibrium in humans works similarly to this: inside a chamber partially filled with liquid, the walls of the chamber have sensors that are excited when the liquid presses against them, in this way your body knows where you are heading. [Here](_URL_3_) you can see an image that will help you understand this concept.\n\nAlthough this isn't the only thing helping your equilibrium -eyes and the perception of yourself in space play an important tole-, it contributes greatly to it.\n\nImagine the same sphere from above, but now gravity isn't pulling. The fluid could be heading anywhere or would be still at the center. The same goes for equilibrium.\n\n**TL,DR:** equilibrium occurs inside the ear, it involves sensitive cells and a fluid that presses them, the force of gravity is pulling the fluid, thus, without gravity a part of your sense of equilibrium would be lost."
],
"score": [
16,
13,
4
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spaceflight_osteopenia",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effect_of_spaceflight_on_the_human_body",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peristalsis",
"http://bio1152.nicerweb.com/Locked/media/ch50/50_11EarEquilibrium-L.jpg"
]
} | Are there any bodily functions that are dependent on gravity?
Does my body work the same without gravity? | [
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|
135gd4 | In 2008 NASA announced they had detected a breach in the Earth's magnetosphere through THEMIS. Has any more info or knowledge come about through learning this? | I'm a 4th year physics/astronomy undergrad interested in solar physics, particularly how the activity on the sun influences our magnetosphere.
In December of 2008 NASA posted [an article](_URL_0_) with the news but to this day I cannot find anything else out.
Has any progress been made in understanding this? Are any theories out there? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c7134zu",
"c717tu6",
"c7137mu"
],
"text": [
"This was kind of a cool result, though I wish they'd actually put something out in the peer-reviewed literature first. It took a couple of years for the paper to come out.\n\nThe basic result is that THEMIS seems to have identified surprisingly large areas of Earth's magnetic field that temporarily connected to field lines coming directly from the Sun. When that happens, solar wind (normally shunted around the Earth by the Earth's magnetic field) can stream directly in to impact Earth's outer atmosphere at > 300km/sec. That is actually how people used to think the aurora was formed - but now we know that most of the time the aurora is caused by particles within Earth's own magnetosphere being accelerated by magnetic reconnections.\n\nOccasional direct connections to the solar wind are not a big surprise by themselves - CMEs with entrained magnetic fields that oppose Earth's often connect terrestrial field lines to the solar wind. What was surprising about the THEMIS result was that the field seemed to be opening up to the surrounding wind even though the impacting magnetic field *agreed* with Earth's. That also should not be too very surprising - it's not necessary for field lines to be exactly (or even nearly) antiparallel to reconnect with each other. But it's a pretty cool result nonetheless.\n\n[Here's a link to what I think is the abstract of the then-promised JGR article, courtesy NASA/ADS](_URL_0_). If you're at a University you should be able to get the full paper from the link on that page. If not, don't pay AGU for it -- just write to W. Li (his e-mail address should be there too) and ask him for a copy.\n\nIf this talk of \"reconnection\" and such is confusing, you could do worse than to start with the [Wikipedia article on space weather](_URL_1_) and follow the links into the articles on magnetic reconnection, the magnetosphere, the solar wind, and MHD.\n\nEdit: corrected ADS link; pointed out what was surprising.",
"didnt they say that earth's magnetic poles are starting to reverse, thus causing huge gaps in the magnetic field?",
"If you read through some of the poorly collated press releases at the [THEMIS project site][1], you'll find a bunch of other information in relation to things like this. It would seem like the article, although published in 2008 was actually in relation to an event that occurred in June 2007, some of mission media releases after this date might help explain more of the phenomena. The best I can do is list the ones I found to be most interesting.\n\n[Spacequakes Rumble Near Earth][2]\n\n[Spring is Aurora Season][3]\n\n[NASA's THEMIS Satellite Sees a Great Electron Escape][4]\n\n[1]: _URL_4_\n[2]: _URL_4_\n[3]: _URL_5_\n[4]: _URL_5_"
],
"score": [
54,
5,
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2008/16dec_giantbreach/"
]
} | {
"url": [
"http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009JGRA..11400C15L",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_weather",
"http://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2010/27jul_spacequakes/",
"http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/themis/auroras/aurora_live.html",
"http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/themis/news/index.html",
"http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/themis/news/electron-escape.html"
]
} | In 2008 NASA announced they had detected a breach in the Earth's magnetosphere through THEMIS. Has any more info or knowledge come about through learning this?
I'm a 4th year physics/astronomy undergrad interested in solar physics, particularly how the activity on the sun influences our magnetosphere. In December of 2008 NASA posted [an article](_URL_0_) with the news but to this day I cannot find anything else out. Has any progress been made in understanding this? Are any theories out there? | [
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|
zsund | Before I began stretching I couldn't reach my toes. After 3 weeks of stretching exercises I can reach 6 inches past my toes. On cellular level what is happening? | Have new cells been added to my muscles ligaments and tendons adding to their length and thus reach? Or perhaps the exercise has helped align unorganized muscle fiber? What is my connective tissue doing when I tug on my muscles for extended periods of time.
I measured nearly a 10.5 inch increase in range of motion, it really boggles my brain the difference achieved in my range of motion. Where did all this distance come from? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c67hnqd",
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"c67iie4",
"c67pbsb"
],
"text": [
"Muscles are highly innervated with sensory receptors, one type being mechanoreceptors. Mechanoreceptors are specialized sensory receptors that convert physical stimulus into chemical, electrical, and electromagnetic energy. They convey proprioceptive information involving stretching, pressure and contraction to the spinal cord and brain. There are two types of these receptors, muscle spindles and GTOs (golgi tendon organs). \n\nMuscle spindles are located in a fluid-filled capsule embedded in each muscle. You have between 25000 and 30000, about 4000 in each are and 7000 in each leg. It's the spindles specifically that are responding to the stretching. \n\nSo you stretch, spindles are discharged to determine the new length of the muscle, and begin to reset the resting tone. The muscles won't stay that way forever though, if you stop maintaining the new length, the spindles will \"get lazy\", if you will, and the muscles will slowly regain the tension they initially had, leading to a shorter structure. This is why continued stretching on a regular basis is recommended for hypertension, cramping, etc. \n\nSource: Textbooks. I do bodywork and I push farther into the medical aspect than most.",
"This looks like it might have some good info:\n\n_URL_1_\n\n_URL_0_ (cites that source above I think)",
"[10 minute introduction to the muscle system with citations](_URL_2_)",
"Several studies (for example Weppler and Magnusson, Increasing Muscle Extensibility: a matter of increasing length or modifying sensation? Phys. Ter. 2010) has shown that stretching for around 10 mins a day for 8 weeks actually does not increase the muscle length. This was measured by extending the muscle to a certain length and measuring the force one had to apply to do that. A longer muscle would be able to extend longer without applying force, and therefore the force in the position would have been lower if indeed the muscle had become longer. Instead it seems that this kind of stretching leads to higher tolerance towards extension in the muscle, and an extension that earlier lead to pain will now be comfortable.",
"A related question, not to hijack this thread. My family is incredibly inflexible, and even after doing a month of daily stretching and weekly YogaX, I still couldn't get anywhere near my toes. Is flexibility in muscles genetic in any way?"
],
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.livestrong.com/article/509834-the-physiology-of-stretching-muscles/",
"http://web.mit.edu/tkd/stretch/stretching_2.html",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jqy0i1KXUO4&list=UUX6b17PVsYBQ0ip5gyeme-Q&index=5&feature=plcp"
]
} | Before I began stretching I couldn't reach my toes. After 3 weeks of stretching exercises I can reach 6 inches past my toes. On cellular level what is happening?
Have new cells been added to my muscles ligaments and tendons adding to their length and thus reach? Or perhaps the exercise has helped align unorganized muscle fiber? What is my connective tissue doing when I tug on my muscles for extended periods of time. I measured nearly a 10.5 inch increase in range of motion, it really boggles my brain the difference achieved in my range of motion. Where did all this distance come from? | [
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|
sqbjo | Why doesn't fast food spoil, and should I care? | Hi, I saw yet another "look, these hamburgers from McDonald's that I bought 2 years ago and left on the counter haven't spoiled or degraded!" post making the rounds on facebook. Basically, it's something like: _URL_0_
The obvious subtext is "if nothing else will eat it, neither should you."
Being a skeptical kind of guy, I am wondering if somebody can shed some light on this; if the unspoken statements (the food didn't spoil, things that don't spoil are bad for you, etc.) are true. Obviously I don't think fast food is *good for you*, but being high in fat and cholesterol etc. is different than being inedible.
1) Is it true that it didn't spoil or is it that those particular items spoiled in a way that doesn't look obvious? I am guessing the latter.
2) Is it exceptional for something edible to not spoil? e.g. a pile of salt doesn't get eaten by anything either. A dark, unsweetened chocolate bar will probably not get eaten by anything, and although the oils inside may go rancid, it (I think, anyway) probably will look exactly the same after a few years.
3) Would it have gotten eaten by stuff, but it's just that all the things that would eat it are de facto prevented from eating it because the insides of houses don't have meat-eating wasps, or rats, and the dog and cat were prevented from eating it, etc.?
4) If in fact these items did not "spoil", what is it about them that makes it so? I haven't done the experiment myself, but it is vaguely plausible that taking fresh ground beef, making a patty, and cooking my own burger super well done, would result in something that would not look obviously spoiled after a year as well as long as I kept dogs/cats/rats away from it for the first month. The bun, however - afaik bread molds fairly quickly. Why doesn't their bun mold?
5) Finally, if it is the case that something was super unnatural and added to the food to make it not spoil (the preservative to make the bun not mold), does that actually matter to my health if I eat it? What is the mechanism that makes mold and bacteria *not* grow on a starch/bread but is still safe for me to eat?
| askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c4g2z01",
"c4g3ytm",
"c4g7ws5"
],
"text": [
"The problem is the cited experiment is bad science.\n\nThe fast food in the example doesn't \"spoil\" because it dehydrates. If you do the same test but put the McDonalds in a warm, moist, dark place then it rots just as well as anything else.\n\n[Here's an at-home experiment that actually tries to control several variables.](_URL_0_)",
"Yeah, people who post this stuff clearly haven't thought a bit about it. When you consider that the fries and burgers are *deep fried* at a *very high temperature*, there will be no to almost none bacteria or other microorganisms. If put in a sealed environment, it will not decompose because there isn't anything to decompose it. If you supercook your patty and carefully manipulate it in order to avoid contamination and put it in a sealed jar, it won't decompose just like the McDonald's hamburgers.\n\nOf course, given a lot of time, it will start to look pretty bad because there is no such thing as \"completely clean\" and some decomposition reactions do not require microorganisms, like the oxidation of oils, that requires only oxygen (and the oil). You don't really need any advanced education, just high school chemistry and biology to critically analize stuff like this, but I guess that expecting this from facebook is just too much.\n\nTake honey, for example. It is regarded as a healthy product (when consumed in moderation). I haven't tested it, but I'm pretty sure it doesn't get spoiled, because it is just so high in sugar that nothing will ever live there! Any simple organisms will get their water removed by osmosis in a second. As a side note, it is common to apply sugar paste to horses that are wounded to heal the cuts, as it prevents infections.\n\nI won't enter in details about food preservatives, but I'm pretty sure that eating them isn't extremely harmful, as long as you don't ingest a lot (like anything, really!).\n\nIn fact, if you think about it, hamburgers not getting spoilt are a sign that they were made in a clean and hygienic environment. If you buy a hamburger from a suspicious place and it gets spoilt in just a few days, you can be pretty sure the chef had a cold and coughed on the patty.",
"My son did an experiment for school. Had burgers fries and buns from Wendy's, Mcdonald's and Burger King out for 21 days (no veggies or condiments on the burgers). \n\nI also made a home made burger, bun and fries. \n\nFrankly, they all looked pretty normal after 21 days. Just drier. Only the Burger King burger had any mold at all. \n\nFrankly, for the amount of work he put into it, the results were pretty disappointing. We so expected the home made, preservative free food to spoil quickly. \n\nOf course, even a negative result is a result and is was still good science (for a child at least) but still..."
],
"score": [
330,
42,
22
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://boingboing.net/2008/09/25/immortal-mchorror-bu.html"
]
} | {
"url": [
"http://aht.seriouseats.com/archives/2010/11/the-burger-lab-revisiting-the-myth-of-the-12-year-old-burger-testing-results.html"
]
} | Why doesn't fast food spoil, and should I care?
Hi, I saw yet another "look, these hamburgers from McDonald's that I bought 2 years ago and left on the counter haven't spoiled or degraded!" post making the rounds on facebook. Basically, it's something like: _URL_0_ The obvious subtext is "if nothing else will eat it, neither should you." Being a skeptical kind of guy, I am wondering if somebody can shed some light on this; if the unspoken statements (the food didn't spoil, things that don't spoil are bad for you, etc.) are true. Obviously I don't think fast food is *good for you*, but being high in fat and cholesterol etc. is different than being inedible. 1) Is it true that it didn't spoil or is it that those particular items spoiled in a way that doesn't look obvious? I am guessing the latter. 2) Is it exceptional for something edible to not spoil? e.g. a pile of salt doesn't get eaten by anything either. A dark, unsweetened chocolate bar will probably not get eaten by anything, and although the oils inside may go rancid, it (I think, anyway) probably will look exactly the same after a few years. 3) Would it have gotten eaten by stuff, but it's just that all the things that would eat it are de facto prevented from eating it because the insides of houses don't have meat-eating wasps, or rats, and the dog and cat were prevented from eating it, etc.? 4) If in fact these items did not "spoil", what is it about them that makes it so? I haven't done the experiment myself, but it is vaguely plausible that taking fresh ground beef, making a patty, and cooking my own burger super well done, would result in something that would not look obviously spoiled after a year as well as long as I kept dogs/cats/rats away from it for the first month. The bun, however - afaik bread molds fairly quickly. Why doesn't their bun mold? 5) Finally, if it is the case that something was super unnatural and added to the food to make it not spoil (the preservative to make the bun not mold), does that actually matter to my health if I eat it? What is the mechanism that makes mold and bacteria *not* grow on a starch/bread but is still safe for me to eat? | [
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aacr4u | National grid: When demand outstrips supply, why does the frequency drop rather than the voltage/current? | I’ve heard that in the UK when there are massive demands for power (or a generator goes offline) the mains frequency dips, why isn’t it the voltage or the current that decreases?
Thanks | askscience | {
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"Two things:\n\n1) frequency of mains current is set by the frequency of turbines spinning in generators connected to the grid.\n\n2) generator turbines receive a \"back emf\", a force resisting their motion proportional to the load in the circuit.\n\nWhen one generator goes offline the load on the others increases. This slows them down decreasing current frequency for a short period until demand can be met again.",
"At a macro level, generators supply voltage and loads draw current. Your current is based on the loads. Think of this like water to your house, the pumping stations do not determine how much water flows, it’s based on you turning the faucet on and off. \n\nVoltage is determined by generator excitation, capacitive loads, and reactive loads. In total, we call it “VARs” or “volt amp reactive”. Generators generally have a lot of margin to handle VAR changes, and you can have capacitor banks to handle the changes. \n\nFor big enough grid transients, voltage can and will drop, eventually causing a final voltage collapse that trips off units and leads to a blackout, but in general voltage loads are easily accommodated when a unit trips offline because you just have a rise in excitation of the other generators, which is rapidly compensated by changing the excitation field for the generator. \n\nAs for frequency, this is related to the real power on the grid. All the turbines spin at grid frequency, and all he loads run at grid frequency. Frequency is similar to speed in a car (assuming manual / standard transmission). If your engine output exactly meets the aerodynamic and frictional losses, your speed stays the same. But let’s say you maintain a constant engine power output and all the sudden you go uphill. Your car is going to slow down, because the energy supplied does not match the energy delivered. Or if you are driving on flat road then all the sudden you lower engine output a little bit, your car will slow down until the reduction in speed lowers your aerodynamic losses enough that your energy balance is back at steady state. \n\nThe grid is the same. Power out to the grid equals power drawn and your frequency remains constant. Small fluctuations occur but for the most part you have enough grid inertia that they are slow and that physical or automatic system responses keep it steady. \n\nWhen a unit trips offline, you have an imbalance. Grid frequency starts to drop, as the loads are still drawing the same current. The energy to supply that current has to come from somewhere, so some stored rotational energy in the turbines and rotating systems on the grid comes out and is converted to electrical energy, slowing the system down but maintaining it. As frequency lowers, two things happen: first, the reduction in frequency means loads are physically drawing less current and that your losses due to heat are reduced. This is the first level response and occurs within seconds to a minute or so. Second, lower frequency triggers automatic responses from generators to raise output, which helps to stabilize the grid and stop the frequency drop. This takes some time, minutes or longer, for the full response to happen. \n\nThe third level response is dispatching other units to come online and for your non-load following plants to raise output to restore the frequency to normal while also ensuring adequate reserve. This can take 15 minutes to an hour. \n\nThe fourth level response is readying other units to come up if necessary, possibly requesting some units in cold shutdown to transition to hot or rolling standby. \n\nHope this helps.",
"If there is an increase in electrical load, the TG’s governor will open the steam inlet to increase the steam power to the turbine to maintain the speed of the generator, which would otherwise slow in response to an increased load in the absence of the governor. At some point, if the steam inlet is at the max flow setting, further increases in electrical load will not be able to be offset by an increase in the steam power to the TG. When this happens, the TG will slow and, as a result, the AC frequency will also drop. Usually you would never see this since the governors will maintain the speed of the TG automatically in response to changes in load, but for hide increases in load (or loss of generating capacity), the steam power is insufficient for the load so something has to give. That something is the TG rotational speed/AC frequency."
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} | National grid: When demand outstrips supply, why does the frequency drop rather than the voltage/current?
I’ve heard that in the UK when there are massive demands for power (or a generator goes offline) the mains frequency dips, why isn’t it the voltage or the current that decreases? Thanks | [
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l0lwe | 10th Grade Chemistry teacher needs your help with some science questions. | I would like to offer my students an extra credit writing assignment that encourages them to look into peer-reviewed journals/papers on topics that might possibly interest them. The scope of the paper is to encourage students to critically evaluate a scientific explanation or hypothesis using scientific evidence and methodology. I am going to offer them the freedom to chose their own topic, should they have a question they would like to explore. However, I need a list for the students that aren't gung-ho for science. As I build the list, I was thinking...
*
Why is the Big Bang theory of the universe viewed as more plausible than the Steady State theory?
*
Is biodiesel a promising new energy source?
questions like these.... so r/askscience....Can you help me out and think of some questions students 15-16 years old might be excited to research?
| askscience | {
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"How about:\n\n* How do we know things are made of atoms?\n* Why do we think other galaxies are not just nebulae within the Milky Way?\n* Is the Earth thousand, millions, or billions of years old? What about the Sun?\n* Does smoking cause cancer?",
"I would avoid, or at least rephrase, the biodiesel question. There is a pretty big danger of the paper becoming a policy and economics discussion. Perhaps guide them toward something more like \"Discuss the environmental pros and cons of replacing ordinary petroleum with various biofuels on a large scale.\"\n\nAlso, I've always found that there is some percentage of students of high school age that can be reached by asking them about military applications of science. I had a group of freshman undergraduates who were pretty much unreachable but \"superconducting laser mounted in an AC-130 gunship\" got them interested quite quickly. I'd suggest not limiting them to pure research. Some will find it interesting but there are some that won't care unless it's a device/tool.",
"A couple cosmological ones:\n\n* Why is dark matter viewed as more plausible than some sort of modified Newtonian dynamics?\n\n* Why do we believe the universe's expansion is accelerating, and why is dark energy the most accepted mechanism?",
"+ How much sunlight a day is necessary for sufficient vitamin D synthesis in a teenage human.\n+ What causes a hangover? Best ways to prevent it.\n+ What causes aching muscles?",
"+ Is Aspartame bad for you?\n+ What's the effect of Tamiflu on the duration of a regular cold?\n+ What's the danger of overuse of antibiotics?",
"15-16 year old kids are very interested in science that is bordering science fiction, but still somewhat scientific. I know I was - I went into materials science because I thought nanotechnology = nanobots + molecular manufacturing. Turns out it's not, but it's just as cool, you just need to know a little more math to appreciate it.\nSome things that can be very interesting:\n\n- Why was the 19XX Nobel Prize in Phys/Chem/Med awarded? How did it transform its field?\n\n- What is an interesting technology that could happen in the next 20 years and what scientific/engineering developments are necessary to make it happen? (Star wars holograms, space elevator, AI, anthropomorphic robots)\n\nThen there are some interesting science 'paradoxes' you can try:\n\n- Why does hot water freeze faster than warm water?\n- How come scientists do not know why ice is slippery?\n- What is the length of the American eastern coastline (infinite)\n- Why are all rainbows double rainbows?\n\netc.\n\nThere are a lot of a questions that are very interesting and require a lot of understanding of very broad scientific topics to be able to appreciate, but I am biased with my choices. I would think about what you've heard that really excited YOU when you heard it, and devise questions around that to help students explore those topics.",
"What evidence is used by scientists to support the theory of climate change?\n\nHow does lightning form? (tough one since this is only partially known)",
"What branches of science are you limiting it to?"
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} | 10th Grade Chemistry teacher needs your help with some science questions.
I would like to offer my students an extra credit writing assignment that encourages them to look into peer-reviewed journals/papers on topics that might possibly interest them. The scope of the paper is to encourage students to critically evaluate a scientific explanation or hypothesis using scientific evidence and methodology. I am going to offer them the freedom to chose their own topic, should they have a question they would like to explore. However, I need a list for the students that aren't gung-ho for science. As I build the list, I was thinking... * Why is the Big Bang theory of the universe viewed as more plausible than the Steady State theory? * Is biodiesel a promising new energy source? questions like these.... so r/askscience....Can you help me out and think of some questions students 15-16 years old might be excited to research? | [
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b500dk | How do optometrists get prescription for babies? | Just saw the cutest post on r/wholesomegifs of a baby getting glasses and being able to see clearly for the first time. I see these posts often but I always wonder how they get the eyeglass prescription right for babies?
Normally eye doctors ask you the “is 1 or 2 better” question 15 times but babies can’t answer that answer that so how do optometrists get around that?
Is there a method they use that gets the correct prescription or is there a way to tell if the baby is near or far sighted and they just go from there? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
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"text": [
"Optometrist here. If its possible due to the baby's cooperation, then autorefraction. Its a machine that measures Rx and is often in the ballpark. Most doctors wouldn't stop there though and would also do retinoscopy, which is a technique using a hand held scope that shines a reflective light into the eye. We prescribe then based on the reflection. And most would use eyedrops to cycloplege and get a cycloplegic refraction, waiting til the drops take effect and then doing retinoscopy. Its also an art somewhat. For example, you see a 1 year old with +6.00 -4.00 x 180. You can't usually give the child that whole Rx from the getgo, you give then half or so and work up to it. Obviously seeing the patient regularly and adjusting the Rx. Plus they break the glasses constantly, so you're having to adjust and remake them often.",
"The way to find a prescription without relying on patient responses is called retinoscopy. Different lenses are placed front of the eyes and the doctor uses a light that reflects back in a certain motion. How that reflected light acts tells the doctor if the lens in front of the eye is too high or too low. This can be used for both babies and adults. Autorefractors are not used on babies due to inability to fixate during the testing.",
"Retinoscopy\n\nShine a steak of light with the focal point at infinity into their eye (dilated and cyclopleged with drops first). Then hold up different lenses until the reflection is neutralised. Take away your working difference and there's your refractive error. Depending on other clinical eye issues, take a little bit off the spherical refraction and that's your prescription.\n\nTim root does a great video on retinoscopy if you want to understand",
"Speaking of the \"is 1 or 2 better?\" questioning. When I was at the eye doctor recently she told me this mind blowing fun fact. Once you get really close to your script...those 1/2 frames dont change! They're just waiting for you to start saying there is no change so they can stop and get your script. Why I've never been told this is until well into my 30s is beyond me. The first few frames are obviously very different but once you start guessing you can tell them to stop bc they're at your script. The back and forth towards the end is literally them just going back and forth between two script numbers that are very similar.",
"You've already been told how the doctors get the script, the part I always questioned was how do they know to check the infant? This was answered for me when my daughter started seeing an eye doctor at 3 for eye crossing. My 9 month old son was with us for her appointment and the doctor stated that he needed an appointment as well. Sure enough, his eyes were worse than hers. \n\nAlso, to see that moment in person when an infant puts glasses on for the first time, is truly magical!"
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} | How do optometrists get prescription for babies?
Just saw the cutest post on r/wholesomegifs of a baby getting glasses and being able to see clearly for the first time. I see these posts often but I always wonder how they get the eyeglass prescription right for babies? Normally eye doctors ask you the “is 1 or 2 better” question 15 times but babies can’t answer that answer that so how do optometrists get around that? Is there a method they use that gets the correct prescription or is there a way to tell if the baby is near or far sighted and they just go from there? | [
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6wkcrn | [Computer Science] In neural networks, wouldn't a transfer function like tanh(x)+0.1x solve the problems associated with activator functions like tanh? | I am just starting to get into neural networks and surprised that much of it seems to be more art than science. ReLU are now standard because they work but I have not been shown an explanation why.
Sigmoid and tanh seem to no longer be in favor due to staturation killing the gradiant back propagation. Adding a small linear term should fix that issue. You lose the nice property of being bounded between -1 and 1 but ReLU already gives that up.
Tanh(x)+0.1x has a nice continuous derivative. 1-f(x)^2 +0.1 and no need to define things piecewise. It still has a nice activation threshold but just doesn't saturate.
Sorry if this is a dumb idea. I am just trying to understand and figure someone must have tried something like this.
EDIT
Thanks for the responses. It sounds like the answer is that some of my assumptions were wrong.
1. Looks like a continuous derivative is not that important. I wanted things to be differential everywhere and thought I had read that was desirable, but looks like that is not so important.
2. Speed of computing the transfer function seems to be far more important than I had thought. ReLU is certainly cheaper.
3. Things like SELU and PReLU are similar which approach it from the other angle. Making ReLU continuous rather than making something like tanh() fixing the saturation/vanishing grad issues . I am still not sure why that approach is favored but probably again for speed concerns.
I will probably end up having to just test tanh(x)+cx vs SELU, I will be surprised if the results are very different. If any of the ML experts out there want to collaborate/teach a physicist more about DNN send me a message. :)
Thanks all. | askscience | {
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"First of all, it is absolutely NOT a dumb idea. It's good that you're considering alternative activation functions. Most people just accept that there are certain activation functions that we use. I've actually had some success using custom activation functions for specialized problems.\n\ntanh(x) + 0.1x does, as you mentioned lose the nice property of being between -1 and 1. It does also prevent saturation, right? \nBut let's look at what happens when we pass it forward. The next layer is a linear combination of tanh(x0) + 0.1x0, tanh(x1) +0.1x1, etc...\nSo we wind up with a linear combination of x0,x1,... plus the same coefficients in a linear combination of tanh(x0),tanh(x1),...\nFor large values of x0,x1,... the tanh terms become negligible and we start to lose some of the nonlinearity property that we need to make a neural network anything more than linear regression. There are potential points of convergence there because there is a solution to the linear regression which the network can now approximate. Because the tanh terms are getting small in comparison and their contribution to the derivative is still going to zero (this is the key point!!), the network is likely to converge to this linear solution. That is, it is a relatively stable solution with a large basin of attraction.\n\nWe could change our constant 0.1 to a different value, but what is the appropriate value? We could actually set it as a parameter which is adjusted within the network. I'd probably even set a prior on it to keep it small (say a Gaussian with mean 0 and variance 0.1). This could lead to better results, but it's still not solving the underlying problem: the tanh part stops contributing to the derivative.\n\nI like the way you're thinking though. If I were your teacher, I'd be proud.\n\nTLDR: the problem isn't saturation of the activation function. The problem is that the derivative of the nonlinear part of the activation function goes to 0 and this doesn't change that.",
"\"no need to define things piecewise.\" Oh boy, are you in for a shock. Look at this implementation of tanh() from the gcc standard library:\n\n_URL_0_\n\nIn case you don't feel like wading through that, I'll bottom line it for you: the *whole thing* is a piecewise polynomial approximation. For 32/64-bit floats, these approximations are known to have less than one bit of numerical error on average across the whole range of floats and doubles. (This is the *fastest* way we know how to implement tanh(); for high precision operations, we can use continued fraction implementations.)\n\nThis takes *way* more FLOPS than simply checking if a number is positive or negative. (sgn(x) can always be implemented as a combination bitmask and shift, because because all signed integers and floating point numbers have a single bit which indicates if they are positive or negative.) We're talking at least one, and sometimes two orders of magnitude difference in speed, depending on the hardware. Also, just because this is a common misconception, I should point out that sgn() is implemented *without branching*, and therefore plays well with instruction pipelines, both in CPUs and GPUs. \n\nSo the **real** question to ask is, \"what is all that smoothness, those continuous first and second order derivatives, actually doing to help my machine learning model?\" If I'm paying more than a 10x constant factor of overhead, the answer had better be a \"a lot.\" When in practice, the answer seems to be \"nothing. In fact it hurts a little bit.\"",
"Just wanted to let you know I have no idea what any of this stuff is but you're doing a great job asking questions and trying to figure things out I don't think it's a dumb idea at all. Many great ideas come from a trial and error of trying even the dumb stuff. Keep on keeping on :)",
"AFAIK, no one has conclusively figured out why ReLU is good. I've heard some speculation about back-propagation not liking subtle gradients, but *shrug*\n\nBut there's two separate issues here: why is ReLU good, and why do we use it?\n\nWe use it because it's fast for computers. That it seems to be nearly as good as anything else, while something of a mystery, just cements that position.",
"This is interesting but... considering input is going to be zero centered & normalized between ~-1 and 1, is it really going to have much of an effect? What then happens if you get exploding gradients with a direct input? Is that effect really going to help? Try it out yourself on an a classifier! \n\nYou're right that a lot of it seems like art more than science but you'll get a feel for what the underlying principles are with trial and error.",
"Great question, OP.\n\nJust checking, but you know the two landmark 'linear regions' articles by Montufar/Pascanu, right? If not, I suggest to take a look at these.\n\nWhile their results might seem tangential at first to what you're asking (essentially, efficiency of found NN solutions wrt number of parameters), they do specifically show these results for piecewise linear activation functions -- and I suspect their results might clarify why these functions functions work as well as they do despite their seemingly simple nature at first glance.\n\n[On the number of linear regions of deep neural networks](_URL_2_)\n\n[On the number of response regions of deep feed forward networks with piece-wise linear activations](_URL_2_)",
"There is really no need for an activation function to be continuous! The only thing we require is differentiability. Finite discontinuities do not matter at all as they never occur in practice (their probability of occurrence goes to zero).\n\nWe can indeed design non-linearities with some other special properties like a more 'balanced' activation distribution, causing us to avoid using more advanced strategies like batch normalization. Examples of this include [ELU](_URL_3_) and [SELU](_URL_4_). Both of these sort of combine linear and exponential functions similar to your intuition.",
"As a quick side note - I remember hearing that Google has found that having the perfect learning algorithm isn't as important as having reams of data to train it on. That is, for most purposes you don't gain much with the incremental improvements of fine-tuning your math compared to having a decent algorithm and 100 million data points.\n\nBut of course in the search for the best solution, you can take the tweaking as far as you care to ;)"
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"https://scholar.google.nl/citations?view_op=view_citation&hl=en&citation_for_view=pDIuuVwAAAAJ:UebtZRa9Y70C",
"https://scholar.google.nl/citations?view_op=view_citation&hl=en&citation_for_view=pDIuuVwAAAAJ:hqOjcs7Dif8C",
"https://arxiv.org/abs/1511.07289",
"https://arxiv.org/abs/1706.02515"
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} | [Computer Science] In neural networks, wouldn't a transfer function like tanh(x)+0.1x solve the problems associated with activator functions like tanh?
I am just starting to get into neural networks and surprised that much of it seems to be more art than science. ReLU are now standard because they work but I have not been shown an explanation why. Sigmoid and tanh seem to no longer be in favor due to staturation killing the gradiant back propagation. Adding a small linear term should fix that issue. You lose the nice property of being bounded between -1 and 1 but ReLU already gives that up. Tanh(x)+0.1x has a nice continuous derivative. 1-f(x)^2 +0.1 and no need to define things piecewise. It still has a nice activation threshold but just doesn't saturate. Sorry if this is a dumb idea. I am just trying to understand and figure someone must have tried something like this. EDIT Thanks for the responses. It sounds like the answer is that some of my assumptions were wrong. 1. Looks like a continuous derivative is not that important. I wanted things to be differential everywhere and thought I had read that was desirable, but looks like that is not so important. 2. Speed of computing the transfer function seems to be far more important than I had thought. ReLU is certainly cheaper. 3. Things like SELU and PReLU are similar which approach it from the other angle. Making ReLU continuous rather than making something like tanh() fixing the saturation/vanishing grad issues . I am still not sure why that approach is favored but probably again for speed concerns. I will probably end up having to just test tanh(x)+cx vs SELU, I will be surprised if the results are very different. If any of the ML experts out there want to collaborate/teach a physicist more about DNN send me a message. :) Thanks all. | [
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7lvx69 | Could you have FTL but no time travel if your FTL could only take you to places that were in the future (or simultaneous) according to a fixed universal reference frame? | So there would be some sort of aether that, although irrelevant for any known physics, everything could be measured as moving "relative to". With the reference frame of this aether determining the "future" according to this FTL method.
To break it down, 1: Is this even coherent? 2: Is there somehow still a way to do time travel even with this restriction? Or for anyone feeling particularly generous, 3: What oddities might one observe using such an FTL method in a galaxy moving quite fast relative to this special frame? | askscience | {
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"There is no \"fixed, universal reference frame\"; it doesn't exist. But anyway, if your worldline only ever intersects events in the absolute future, you are by definition not moving FTL. Your worldline is timelike, which implies that your speed in any inertial frame is less than c. If your worldline is spacelike (impossible), then you can reach events outside of your absolute future, which means that you can move backwards in time.",
"We already sort of have this in our universe, it’s just not faster than light. There’s no arbitrary limit to how fast you can get somewhere from your reference frame. If you accelerated at 50G for 2.1 years then decelerated at 50G for 2.1 years your trip to Alpha Centauri takes about 76 days from your perspective, but 4.23 years pass for Earth and Alpha Centauri while you make your transit of 4.2 light years. Nothing travels faster than light in this case, it’s just the way speeding up works.",
"\"Could you have an FTL-\"\n\nPretty much at that point, you can throw all logic out the window. FTL travel is not scientific and therefore anything can happen. Unless you are within a sci-fi universe with fixed Laws, there is little point tackling the ethereal FTL. \n\n\"Universal reference frame.\"\n\nAgain, not possible. Einstien and many experiments prove that there is no privileged or special frame of reference. Everything is relative to another frame of reference. Your car is relative to the Earth. Earth it moving relative to the sun. The sun is moving relative to all the stars around and the galactic core. All of these are correct, but they will give wildly different results of how fast that bouncey ball you have in your car is going. \n\nWhose frame of reference is correct? According to Einstein, yes.\n\nSame could be said for an event, because the speed of light is a slight misnomer. It is the speed of information. So, if you head out from a star at FTL and the star exploded, just after you left, you would never have any inclinations that it happened. If you jump out 1 ly instantly, all your instrament will show the star is there, gravity still pulling on nieghbors. If you accelerate away from Earth at near-but-not-quite light speed, you can look back and see your kids, grandkids, and great grandkids grow up and die while you have dinner. \n\nWhose passage of time is real? According to Einstein, yes.",
"What is FTL? Sorry if that is a dumb question.",
"I will be speaking only about Special Relativity (SR). General Relativity has too many caveats to give straightforward answers. (Energy conditions, twisted spacetimes, ...)\n\n1. Yes, you can pick any arbitrary inertial frame in SR, declare that to be the one that any FTL drive respects time moving forward, and not run into any logical problems. Just the standard physical problems that we've seen nothing that works like this. But if you're doing SF worldbuilding, this is would be fine.\n2. Under SR, no, no time-travel backwards in this frame. You can have what appears to be time-travel backward relative to other frames, but you'll always have to travel far enough away that you'll never make it back to where you left, before you left.\n3. Depends a bit on how it works. Is it fast speed relative to this frame? Is it teleportation? The oddities would likely be a preferred direction where it's easier to FTL in one direction, rather than it's opposite. This could be shorter jumps, higher energy requirements, more chance of mishaps, apparently slower travel, etc. And of course, apparent time-travel as explained in point 2 would be common.",
"Yes. This would be correct. In particular, the whole reason you can send something backwards in time using a faster-than-light signal is because you can change reference frames - in particular, by relativity of simultaneity, two events separated by a space-like interval (that is, an interval which can only be traversed by an object moving with a speed faster than the speed of light) can be temporally reversed by boosting to another reference frame in suitable motion (namely it should be moving from the earlier event to the later one at suitably fast speed.). That is, two such reference frames will show two types of temporal ordering. If a faster-than-light signal is then invoked _between these two reference frames_, it is possible to arrange such signals to end up in the _own past_ (that is, the past light cone) of one of the respective observers that define the two frames, which is where the causality problems appeal (\"grandfather paradox\" and other such paradoxes.).\n\nIf it were thus the case that there were some \"preferred\" frame _and_ furthermore that any FTL signals had to go from past to future in this frame, then you are right, the scheme would be foiled, because while you could boost to a frame where the events' temporal ordering was inverted, the FTL signals you send will always travel with respect to the preferred frame, not your frame, and thus they will not see such inversion because that frame defines a fixed ordering. However it's also possible to imagine scenarios with a preferred frame where the \"coupling\" of signals to the frame nonetheless does allow for the situation to be maintained if, e.g. the frame-dependent physical property is something not connected with causality.\n\nSo yes it's coherent, and it would solve the problem. The difficulty is, of course, that we have seen no indication that any such preferred frames exist - all physical phenomena we have seen so far uphold _Lorentz invariance_, which basically says that they look the same in all reference frames, that is, Einstein's first postulate, which is the rule you have to violate to have the situation you're talking about happen because you want the FTL phenomena to look different in different reference frames (namely that they give a chronological ordering that may contradict that in a non-preferred frame.). There are some !speculative! theories about possible violations of Lorentz invariance in situations involving things like quantum gravity, but there has been zero empirical evidence any such thing exists, much less that there are also usable FTL processes implicated thereby. On the other hand, if such a preferred frame does exist, it may be that it would only show up when such FTL processes are involved so us not seeing any Lorentz violating processes does not rule it out, which then takes us back to the simple fact we have seen no FTL processes, which means that our universe _seems_ to, as far as we can tell, be built to take the \"easy\", albeit disappointing for some, way out of the causality conundrum: just not use the FTL sector at all. But that doesn't mean it couldn't have been built differently, it just doesn't seem to be that's the actual case for our universe. Nonetheless it's important to always speculate about these things and keep one's mind open as to what might break our existing theories because that's where new discoveries are made. That one prediction that our theories miss, could be the one that blows it all open. Even if it's not FTL, it could be something else just as profound.\n\nAnd even with that aside, it is important from a purely pedagogical point of view, to properly understand the precise relationship between FTL, relativity, and causality and _why_ it's \"pick two, but not three\". In particular this situation as outlined in the OP corresponds to the option \"keep FTL and causality but give up relativity\" (_at least under some circumstances_ - something that is often ignored and given as a reason to dismiss it: namely that somehow were this possible it would mean that _nothing_ would behave relativistically and thus it is _trivially_ untrue, which is not at all a logical conclusion to draw).\n\n(The other situations are keep relativity and causality and give up FTL - which is what our real universe looks to be - and then keep relativity and FTL, but give up causality. That last case here is the \"Dr. Who\" scenario, with both space and time travel allowed and essentially any FTL spaceship is also a TARDIS. The problems with this scenario are that it requires a mechanism to avoid falling into logical inconsistencies like the grandfather paradox and - more importantly - empirical evidence: we have seen no messages or time travelers from the future, at least outside of \"paranormal\" anecdotes and the like which are impossible to verify or otherwise test scientifically and thus have no evidentiary value.)",
"If I understand you correctly, that's effectively what happens when you travel close to the speed of light - *you* can travel 1000 light years in less than a week if you accelerate at a constant 1500G, but slightly more than 1000 years will have passed at both your origin and your destination."
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} | Could you have FTL but no time travel if your FTL could only take you to places that were in the future (or simultaneous) according to a fixed universal reference frame?
So there would be some sort of aether that, although irrelevant for any known physics, everything could be measured as moving "relative to". With the reference frame of this aether determining the "future" according to this FTL method. To break it down, 1: Is this even coherent? 2: Is there somehow still a way to do time travel even with this restriction? Or for anyone feeling particularly generous, 3: What oddities might one observe using such an FTL method in a galaxy moving quite fast relative to this special frame? | [
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|
r20ff | Dear Reddit, blacksmith needs advice on a sundial. | I am an apprentice blacksmith and i have been asked to make a Sundial as a 100h project. It is to be exhibited at the [Three Counties Show](_URL_0_) 15-17 June, hopefully I will sell it there as well.
I don't want to make this post too lengthy so here is the question:
What is the angle of the gnomon in relation to the ground?
I live outside Warwick (Warwickshire) in the UK, the latitude 52 degrees 16 minutes and 48 seconds north. Now i don't consider myself stupid, however, for some reason I cannot wrap my head around this.
I know the dial plate needs to be 90 degrees to the gnomon as this will align it with the equator. I have also heard that 55 degrees should work pretty well but I have no idea why.
Hopefully I asked the proper subreddit. I'm sorry for the bad English, it's not my native language.
Have a smashing day! | askscience | {
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"The angle of the gnomon with the horizon should be equal to the latitude. This way, on average, it will be about perpendicular to the Sun and will cast the strongest shadow. You can build the dial plate perpendicular to the gnomon (like [this](_URL_1_)), or parallel to the horizon (like [this](_URL_0_)). Depending on the orientation the locations of the lines on the dial plate will change, though.",
"The angle of the gnomon alone is not the only thing that's important for you. Its the relationship between the point of the gnomon and the marks indicated on some surface. That, plus orientation to north, is all that geometrically defines a sundial. Any arbitrary angle btw the ground and the gnomon, and btw the gnomon and the surface, could be used and would be irregular, but not incorrect. This is why sundials are [numerous in their taxonomies](_URL_2_).\n\nAs indicated by user Spatula, regular angles could be horizontal or inclined at latitute. (I would add that 'inclined at latitude' refers to the angle btw the ground and the projection surface. If the gnomon pointer is straight and normal to the projection surface, then the angle btw the ground and the gnomon is the compliment of latitude. Avoiding using the compliment, you can also say that the angle of the gnomon is latitude from vertical/observer zenith.)\n\nI would imagine the difficulty in constructing a sundial to be in annotating sun positions and paths on the projection surface. Documenting the position of the sun requires time, and 100 hours won't give you a complete picture of the sun's apparent excursions. 8760 hours will (if you consider yearly variations in sun positions to be negligable). Predicting the position of the sun is easier, but could require significant precision in manufacturing, depending on your particular use for the sundial. Without any suggestion to your skill, blacksmithing is not typically considered a high precision process. \n\nHere's the value for your creative side. Regular angles for the gnomon and projection surface are used for standarization and readability (when sundials were used for time keeping) but can be defined by each sundial object on its own terms, and can remain readable if properly annotated. You are not limited by the form of standard sundials, only by your means for documenting or prediciting the cast of the sun on your form. \n\nTry using the sun tool in google sketch up to plan this project. \n\nIn increasing orders of continued enthusiasm for this topic, I recommend looking up: apparent solar motion, NOAA's sun position calculators, Jantar Mantar, and the astrolabe.\n\n*edit- Splatula",
"Can you post a picture of your sundial after you finish it as an edit to this post?",
"Hey again, thank you for your answers. Of course i'll upload a picture of the finished piece! Probably to /r/blacksmith. Hey maybe it reaches the front page! (or not)\n\nNow as far as the sundial itself goes i should have told you guys that i am making an equatorial sundial based on [this](/_URL_3_) design/style, however not as big.\n\nSo, is it correct to say that I want my gnomon at a 52 degree angle to the ground, facing north with the dial plate parallel to the gnomon - that is 90 degrees to the gnomon and at the same 52 degree angle to the ground?\n\nThe dial plate needs to be the exact same distance from the gnomon on all sides, yes?\n\nIs it also correct that the hour marks needs to be 15 degrees apart on the dial plate to make the whole thing work?\n\nThe only real way of changing it from summer/winter time would be by turning the sundial itself around till it was accurate again?\n\n________\n\nI downloaded google sketch and I am currently in the state of complete and utter despair trying to learn it. I just prefer isometric paper I guess^^\n________\n\nAs far as how you become a blacksmith goes...\n\nThe easiest way I would say would be to apply to a college or similar with a blacksmithing course or to find a local smith that would be willing to take you on. Mind that you have to be prepared to travel if you cannot find anything in your area. Also be wary of trying to learn from people on youtube as most of them are pretty clueless ( which is a shame). \n\nBy Hammer and Hand All Arts Do Stand!\n\nAnd thank you again!",
"_URL_4_ this instructable could be useful for you, cheers :)",
"Your latitude is the angle of the gnomon, here's some good software: _URL_5_\n\nIf you're more into the manual side of things: _URL_6_",
"with a standard horizontal sundials you want the gnomon to be at the same angfle as the north star is to you. (will cxhange with latitude).. Also Sundials are only accurate about twice a year. and the rest of the year they may be off as much as 15 minutes due to or eliptical orbit and the tilt.",
"You're in the UK so the template and instructions provided [here](_URL_7_) should be enough. But use metal, because you're a blacksmith and not a papersmith.\nI probably violated some rules of askscience, but this is a practical answer."
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"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.threecounties.co.uk/threecounties"
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} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Garden_sundial_MN_2007.JPG",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Beijing_sundial.jpg",
"http://www.jgiesen.de/GeoAstro/sundials.html",
"http://www.wherry.com/photos/2001-04-29-chicago/DSCN1215-m.jpg",
"http://www.instructables.com/id/Pocket-Sundial-1/",
"http://www.helson.at/sun.htm",
"http://sundials.org/index.php/features/sundials-for-starters",
"http://www.bbc.co.uk/norfolk/kids/summer_activities/make_sundial.shtml"
]
} | Dear Reddit, blacksmith needs advice on a sundial.
I am an apprentice blacksmith and i have been asked to make a Sundial as a 100h project. It is to be exhibited at the [Three Counties Show](_URL_0_) 15-17 June, hopefully I will sell it there as well. I don't want to make this post too lengthy so here is the question: What is the angle of the gnomon in relation to the ground? I live outside Warwick (Warwickshire) in the UK, the latitude 52 degrees 16 minutes and 48 seconds north. Now i don't consider myself stupid, however, for some reason I cannot wrap my head around this. I know the dial plate needs to be 90 degrees to the gnomon as this will align it with the equator. I have also heard that 55 degrees should work pretty well but I have no idea why. Hopefully I asked the proper subreddit. I'm sorry for the bad English, it's not my native language. Have a smashing day! | [
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|
5kz519 | Discussion: Smarter Every Days newest YouTube video on Prince Rupert Drops VS Bullets! | So you may have seen the Smarter Every Day video about [Prince Rupert Drops](_URL_1_) but today Destin is doing something even neater.
Prince Rupert Drops are so tough that even a hammer hitting them cannot break the glass. Destin finds out in [this video](_URL_0_) if a bullet has enough force or if the drop will win.
Destin(/u/MrPennyWhistle) will be here throughout the day to help answer your questions.
_URL_0_ | askscience | {
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"text": [
"Hey guys, Destin here. Happy to answer questions about the setup if that's helpful.",
"The original video was fantastic! Thanks Destin! Your Prince Rupert's Drop video is one of my \"go to\" examples of coolness in YouTube science educational videos. Amazing all that glass stress converts into kinetic energy so instantly!",
"These things are so impressive. Do you have an idea of how much force is required to break one? I had to look and a .22lr is doing between 140-260 Joules of energy on impact. Do you have a plan to try this with larger caliber rounds?",
"I wonder if we could make one without the tail, like putting molten glass on a 0 g environment and quickly surrounding with water, someone should try that.",
"Really cool! \n\nI was wondering about the failure mechanism of most of the drops. It seems like the drop weathered the bullet strike, but the force that it absorbed resulted in the tip of it breaking off somehow. Was this due to the transfer of force along the drop, or was it from it being suspended by the tip on the line and the bullet jostled it enough to cause it to break?",
"Can you comment on the ability of these Prince Rupert Drops to resist sudden impact forces (like a bullet) versus more sustained force such as with a press? I know nothing about this sort of physics but I'm wondering if there would be any difference?",
"Hey Destin, absolutely love the videos.\n\nThere appears to be a flash of light inside the drop when the head of the drop fails first (the low quality drops in the video in the 2nd channel - [8:15](_URL_1_) and [8:23](_URL_2_)), any thoughts on what is causing that? Is it just refraction of the subject lighting? But if so, wouldn't we see a bit of a bright spot travel along the failure front? Would this be present at the tip when the tip fails first?\n\npics: [first one](_URL_0_), [second one](_URL_3_).",
"What sets/limits the speed of the shred wave propagating down the stem as it shatters? I assume the initial shockwave is just at the speed of sound in glass.",
"I just find it amazing to see the bullets shatter and then to see the drop shatters after the bullet.",
"From what I gathered on the video, the impact of the bullet caused some kind of harmonic wave through the tail of the drop that was of high enough amplitude to break near the tip, causing the drop to shatter. Kind of like playing \"crack the whip\" with a bunch of people.\n\nIs this also how you think it happened? If so, is there any way that the tail could be further protected against stress to make the drop stronger against bullets?",
"I've always wondered what would happen if you shot these! I rather hoped the drop would survive. I have a \"next step\" kind of question: If you could make a drop that had a naturally short and blunt tail, or a near-spherical one, do you think it would be significantly stronger against this kind of stress?",
"Destin, have you thought about trying to secure the PRD and dampen the impact so that it doesn't fail due to vibrations on the tail? I'd like to see just how much of an impact the main drop can take without shattering on its own.",
"Just watching the bullet-shot video and noticed something small that I found interesting and wanted to share. This is probably just light diffracting off the glass differently as it breaks, to be honest. [But between this point in the video at 4:33](_URL_4_) and the next second - it looks like there's a bright spark half-way up the glass. Again, probably just the fragments of glass catching light - but very neat-looking nonetheless!"
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} | {
"url": [
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} | {
"url": [
"http://i.imgur.com/2Dwb8xb.png",
"https://youtu.be/CaYq9sX4zLs?t=492",
"https://youtu.be/CaYq9sX4zLs?t=501",
"http://i.imgur.com/e6Nl5On.png",
"https://youtu.be/24q80ReMyq0?t=273"
]
} | Discussion: Smarter Every Days newest YouTube video on Prince Rupert Drops VS Bullets!
So you may have seen the Smarter Every Day video about [Prince Rupert Drops](_URL_1_) but today Destin is doing something even neater. Prince Rupert Drops are so tough that even a hammer hitting them cannot break the glass. Destin finds out in [this video](_URL_0_) if a bullet has enough force or if the drop will win. Destin(/u/MrPennyWhistle) will be here throughout the day to help answer your questions. _URL_0_ | [
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|
ihbiz | I have this "electric disc" that causes capacitive touch sensors to spaz out. Do you have any idea why this happens? Video inside. | _URL_0_
I honestly have no clue, and I couldn't find any information on this. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c23raj2",
"c23r3vr",
"c23rz45",
"c23tbtc"
],
"text": [
"That disc opperates the same way as the plasma balls - very high frequency electrical discharge from an electrode in the middle knock electrons up to a higher energy state in the surrounding gas, and they emit light as they drop back down.\n\nThe capacitance light senses how much electricity returns to the circuit when small pulses are sent out to the metal light post - (I think) - this is millivolts and picofarads! Absolutely tiny!\n\nThe 35,000 cycles, running at 2000 to 5000 volts produces a lot of radio waves from the disc... the lamp pole acts like a large antenna, and a voltage builds up - to be detected by the lamp in a similar way that a radio detects radio signals... the simple circuit confuses the additional voltage from the nearby radio transmitter with voltage/capacitance changes from touching the pole with your hand... and proceeds to detect a \"touch\".\n\nBe careful it doesn't get too near, and fries any small silicon chips in there...\n\n_URL_0_",
"Well, in a way capacitive sensing is about detecting changes in electric field. I would imagine the electric fields of that disc are rather large and rapidly changing.",
"combined with the 20 lbs of medals on your wall, it creates an EM field that the capacitive sensor senses.\n\nok, maybe the medals have nothing to do with it.",
"probably not a good idea to have that HDD lying there. where did you get the disc from ?"
],
"score": [
13,
6,
3,
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q3R2_VGgets"
]
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasma_globe"
]
} | I have this "electric disc" that causes capacitive touch sensors to spaz out. Do you have any idea why this happens? Video inside.
_URL_0_ I honestly have no clue, and I couldn't find any information on this. | [
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236m5g | Is this a dumb idea to fix roads in wintery places? | I live in WI. Our roads get decimated every winter largely because the frost penetrates deep in the ground causing frost heaves, cracks and holes. What if we spray foamed the first layer of road before adding the rebar, rock and pavement. Would that stop the frost penetration and lengthen the life of muh roads? | askscience | {
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"text": [
"It's not so much the water penetrating the pavement, but the water in the ground under the pavement freezing and causing the road to \"heave\" and bend more than intended, and crack. once a crack forms, water seeps in, freezes, makes it bigger, etc...\n\na more flexible road surface is the answer... old \"sand & tar\" roads are great at pothole resistance... they're just not terribly smooth.",
"Dow Chemical doesnt think its a dumb idea. They say:\n\n > STYROFOAM Brand Insulation is also used to help reduce the potential for frost damage in these areas:\n > \n > * Airport runways, taxiways and embankments\n > \n > - Highway embankments\n > \n > - Under rail track, at-grade crossings, switching yards and other railroad facilities\n\n_URL_0_",
"We actually do this in the Northwest Territories (waaay northern Canada). In particularly sensitive areas (bogs or swampy areas) that suffer greatly to permafrost heaving, we put down a layer of insulation before paving. I am not sure exactly what kind of insulation (spray foam or rigid), but seems to help delay heaves by a number of years.",
"Couldn't you just dig out a trench the width and length of the road with a depth below the frost line and fill it with rocks, like a train track bed and build the road on that? It would sort of \"float.\"",
"I live in AK, and most major road construction now has a large bed of foam laid down under the bed of the road. [Here](_URL_1_) is a sort of recent article entitled \"Field Test Comparing Frost Insulation Materials in Road Construction\" that you might be interested in. \n\nIf you don't have access, ask a Librarian to InterLibrary Loan it for you."
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://building.dow.com/na/en/applications/geotech/index.htm",
"http://ascelibrary.org/doi/abs/10.1061/40836\\(210\\)62"
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} | Is this a dumb idea to fix roads in wintery places?
I live in WI. Our roads get decimated every winter largely because the frost penetrates deep in the ground causing frost heaves, cracks and holes. What if we spray foamed the first layer of road before adding the rebar, rock and pavement. Would that stop the frost penetration and lengthen the life of muh roads? | [
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|
mods9 | Do Chimpanzees feel shame? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c32luru",
"c32kisd",
"c32k3t8",
"c32jz5i",
"c32jpan"
],
"text": [
"A (paywalled) study _URL_2_ affirms what others have said: animals, and not just chimpanzees, can and do feel emotions, including shame.\n\nThere is one anecdotal yet relevant story involving a female chimpanzee called [Washoe](_URL_1_). It is quite poignant, and is yet another proof that chimps do feel emotions. The context is that Washoe's caretaker had had a miscarriage earlier and returned to work with her chimps:\n\n > \"... Washoe greeted Kat [the caretaker] in just this way when she finally returned to work with the chimps. **Kat made her apologies to Washoe, then decided to tell her the truth, signing \"MY BABY DIED.\" Washoe stared at her, then looked down. She finally peered into Kat's eyes again and carefully signed \"CRY\", touching her cheek and drawing her finger down the path a tear would make on a human. (Chimpanzees don't shed tears.)** Kat later remarked that that one sign told her more about Washoe and her mental capabilities than all her longer, grammatically perfect sentences.\"\n\nEmphasis mine.\n\n[Source](_URL_0_)",
"Paul Gilbert, a psychologist in the UK, has written a lot about this. For ethologists, shame is defined as involuntary submissive behavior. Signals such as gaze avoidance, hiding, a lowered head, and subdued postures are considered representations of shame (these are all displayed in chimpanzees and other primates). Functionally, it serves to signal to others that you are being submissive and backing down in order to avoid a potentially harmful conflicting situation.",
"After my dad got his PhD in Psychology he worked a little while in the famous \"Teaching chimps sign language\" experiment, and spent quite a bit of time with them. I asked him this question and he said \"Oh absolutely, they have as much capacity for emotion as humans do.\"",
"People who have worked with them are pretty adamant that they have the full range of human emotion.",
"They have a sense of \"justice,\" based on experiment, so I imagine it is possible that if they did something they later considered \"unjust\" they would interpret the response as \"shame.\"\n\nI don't think there's any kind of empirical test you could perform to determine this."
],
"score": [
5,
4,
4,
4,
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://books.google.com/books?id=gb35_pWmcDwC&pg=PA190#v=onepage&q&f=false",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washoe_(chimpanzee)",
"http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/10.1641/0006-3568(2000)050%5B0861:AEEPN%5D2.0.CO;2"
]
} | Do Chimpanzees feel shame?
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2p9wky | How does a hypothetical Alcubierre drive solve any problems with relativity at all? | It seems to me that the "Alcubierre drive" doesn't actually solve any problems that it attempts to. It's supposed to allow faster than light travel because the spaceship using it isn't actually moving with respect to the space around it, but why does that matter? The space inside the bubble including the ship, would still be moving relativistically with respect to everything else in the universe, and would still be limited by c. Isn't that the only thing that matters?
The contraction of space that an Alcubierre drive creates is kinda like Lorentz contraction, in that it would allow something to traverse more space in less time. Which is how muons created in the upper atmosphere make it to Earth's surface before they decay. However, Lorentz contraction still has an upper limit at the speed of light, and it still requires exponentially more energy the more contraction you want.
I don't get why this was even a popular idea in the first place? | askscience | {
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"It can still be used to communicate back in time as part of a \"tachyonic anti-telephone.\" If two things outside each others' light cones can communicate (it doesn't matter how, or what tricks are used), then with the right choice of reference frames they can communicate back in time.\n\nIt also violates the energy conditions of the universe, requires negative-energy-density material, and a host of other issues.\n\nAlcubierre did not conceive of this because he thought it could be made. He did it because it was an amusing trick to do with the mathematics of general relativity. Most of his other work involves simulations of black holes colliding, which is also really cool.\n\nedit: One other thing: people, including Alcubierre, often cite the Casimir effect as evidence of negative energy density. It is not. It is a relativistic van der Waals attraction, which can be derived much more easily in a non-rigorous way using a toy model of negative energy and vacuum fluctuations.",
"The \"Alcubierre drive\" relies on a general relativistic effect. In general relativity, different regions of spacetime can have relative speeds greater than c. Only locally measured speeds must be ≤ *c*. The difference between SR and GR is that GR allows curved (ie, non-Minkowskian) geometry.\n\nNote: Superluminal motion of (distant regions of) spacetime is a feature the Hubble expansion.\n\nNote2: The \"Alcubierre drive\" requires the existence of negative energy, which has not been observed.",
"As someone who has just done a second year project on this, it is very difficult to understand. I'll try and explain it but I can't promise it'll make sense.\n\nOK, so if we start with the beginning of the universe. After 10^-36 seconds the universe entered inflation where it expanded by a factor of 10^22 in just 10^-34 seconds this is exceptionally faster than the speed of light. From this, which is a widely excepted theory, we can see that spacetime can theoretically travel faster than light.\nIf we move to now we can see that spacetime has slowed down but as we move further and further from earth it is seen that that expansion speeds up. We know that if we shine a perfect LASER at a distant point of space, knowing there was something there, then the photons would never reach this point because of how fast the spacetime between them is expanding.\n\nSo, back to the alcubeirre drive. What it attempts to do is recreate the expansion properties of the universe on a smaller scale by compressing spacetime in front and expanding it behind the craft while having an undisturbed area of spacetime in the middle. The undisturbed area undergoes no acceleration and no conventional velocity, because of this in the reference frame of the bubble relativity is still obeyed - light travels at c and so on.\n\nThe only way I can think of this is with a surfing analogy, its weird but it makes sense I think. If you think of someone trying to push there way through water they are coming to be met by the viscosity of the water and hit a Max speed, but if you were to apply a current to the water or make it wavy then the person can ride that current and even apply more force and go faster than the current which will be quicker than in still water.\n\nSorry if this doesn't make a lot of sense it is a very complex topics with no practically understood science, the maths is complex enough but at least we understand it.",
"The long and the short of it is that spacetime itself can move faster than the speed of light. Objects *within* spacetime can't move faster than their local speed of light, however (I say local because at some faraway place the spacetime might be moving in such a way that the speed of light is in fact different, even though local observers still measure it to be *c*).\n\nThe theory of the drive is actually fairly straightforward. He takes the equation for flat spacetime, and then says that the spacetime in the x-direction is moving with an arbitrary speed, *v*. Essentially, you look at what happens if you move spacetime around the ship, instead of moving the ship itself.",
"All speed measurements are taken relative to something else. We already know that when the expansion of space time is involved, two objects CAN achieve an effective speed greater than light relative to each other. The prerequisite for this to occur is a vast gap of space and to already be moving away from each other, and once this point is reached there will never be information transfer between them again. \n\nThe Alcubierre drive (aka 'Warp Drive'), if possible, would simply take advantage of an already observed natural event, and enable this style of effectively-FTL movement to occur on smaller scales and on objects that are moving towards each other. Of course, according to some of the more recent articles I've read on it, the math is currently showing an issue with a planet-sterilizing level of radiation being released in the direction of travel at the moment you turn off the drive.",
"It solves the problem with requiring infinite energy to reach the speed of light, letting you violate the \"speed limit\" locally. If it worked, it would get you from point a to point b very fast - faster than light.\n\nUnfortunately, it does nothing about the problem of retrocausality. Someone moving faster than light in their reference frame can carry messages in a direction that to some other observer is \"backwards in time.\" There is simply no getting around this no matter how you do it; it is the very act of getting from point a to point b faster than light that causes the problem.",
"SPACE has no \"speed\" the C limit is for things \"moving\" in space. not for \"space\" itself. right now there are portions of the universe expanding away from us so quickly that in order for anything in those regions to reach us they would have to exceed c. meaning they can never reach us.\n\nit is why the universe looks black and not \"white\"\n\nand there are no relativity problems with moving faster than C.",
"The simple answer is that space itself can move faster than light. Inflationary models of the universe predict this, as do descriptions of the space-time metric around rotating Kerr black holes. \n\nIt's only when you try to move mass through space that the speed of light limitation comes into play."
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} | How does a hypothetical Alcubierre drive solve any problems with relativity at all?
It seems to me that the "Alcubierre drive" doesn't actually solve any problems that it attempts to. It's supposed to allow faster than light travel because the spaceship using it isn't actually moving with respect to the space around it, but why does that matter? The space inside the bubble including the ship, would still be moving relativistically with respect to everything else in the universe, and would still be limited by c. Isn't that the only thing that matters? The contraction of space that an Alcubierre drive creates is kinda like Lorentz contraction, in that it would allow something to traverse more space in less time. Which is how muons created in the upper atmosphere make it to Earth's surface before they decay. However, Lorentz contraction still has an upper limit at the speed of light, and it still requires exponentially more energy the more contraction you want. I don't get why this was even a popular idea in the first place? | [
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|
3x26js | Do you really need to manually circulate the air in microgravity to not be enclosed in a bubble of carbon dioxide? | There was a [TIL](_URL_1_) today referring to an [ESA site on daily astronaut life](_URL_0_). There was some controversy whether this is actually a thing, and a lot of misinformed opinions on all sides.
So, does one actually need to have a constant external ventilation going to stir the air up enough to distribute the carbon dioxide away from its producers? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cy0z1eo",
"cy18nwn",
"cy19zqe"
],
"text": [
"Yes. You can do an experiment on earth to prove it.\nWe did this one in primary school...\n\nYou need:\nA small candle, a birthday candle works well. \nA large screw top jar. \nGood reflexes or a soft mat. \n\nStick the candle to the inside of the screw top lid with glue or it's own wax. \n\nLight the candle and screw the jar on.\nThe jar is upside down with the candle the right way up on lid like a sealed lantern. \nTime how long it takes the candle to use all the oxygen and die.\n\nOpen the jar ( careful as it may be hot ) air it out. \nRelight the candle but don't put the lid on.\nCarefully pick up the lid and jar and hold about head high. \nScrew the jar on again and immediately drop the jar. \nCatch the jar when the candle dies or let it drop onto something soft. \n\nThis time the candle should die much faster. \n\nWhy?\nAs it's in free fall it simulates zero gravity. \nA bubble of air quickly forms around the candle flame that has had all the oxygen used up. Without gravity there is no convection of air like in the first trial to draw fresh air up as the hot spent air rises. \n\nSadly this means there will be no candle light dinners in space.",
"I recall Russian astronauts docking to a Salyut station that had shut down while unoccupied (no fans, no heating, no lights, no nothing, they spit at the wall and timed how long it took for the spittle to freeze, to get an idea how cold it was... Those guys were hardcore!), they became dizzy when they were working in the same spot very quickly, which made their work even harder.\n\nEdit: Salyut 7, Ars has an excellent piece about it: _URL_0_",
"This idea ignores the fact that your expelled breath has momentum on it's own. There will be mixing from that momentum and also from the movements that the person makes. So if you breathe very slowly and don't move at all, then the situation would be worse, but you'd have to do some analysis to figure out how little forced convection you need for adequate mixing.\n\nIt doesn't matter for any real human space environments because they all circulate air to add oxygen and remove CO2."
],
"score": [
19,
11,
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.esa.int/Our_Activities/Human_Spaceflight/Astronauts/Daily_life",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/todayilearned/comments/3x1jie/til_astronauts_have_to_sleep_near_a_ventilator/"
]
} | {
"url": [
"http://arstechnica.com/science/2014/09/the-little-known-soviet-mission-to-rescue-a-dead-space-station/"
]
} | Do you really need to manually circulate the air in microgravity to not be enclosed in a bubble of carbon dioxide?
There was a [TIL](_URL_1_) today referring to an [ESA site on daily astronaut life](_URL_0_). There was some controversy whether this is actually a thing, and a lot of misinformed opinions on all sides. So, does one actually need to have a constant external ventilation going to stir the air up enough to distribute the carbon dioxide away from its producers? | [
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ovgnj | Help save my marriage, answer this question before my wife and I kill each other over it. | A man is standing in a infinitely tall sealed plane that is 30 meters long filled with regular air, he is at the midpoint of the 30 meters. The plane is being propelled by a constant force forward. The man jumps straight upward, and leaves contact with the plane. Assume that the man leaps up with enough initial velocity that he never falls back to the floor of the plane, and the plane is tall enough such that he will never touch the ceiling of the plane. Will the man at one point hit the back of the plane? (i.e., will the man, relative to the plane, remain stationary in the horizontal axis?)
Edit: there is some confusion as to the question. The plane is under constant force by the engine and by air resistance. Before the person jumps, the plane is traveling at constant velocity, i.e. the F-(engine) is equal to F-(air resistance). | askscience | {
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"Here's a thought experiment that answers the exact same question.\n\nImagine you're on a plane flying through the air at 500 miles per hour doing a crossword puzzle while sitting down. If you drop the pencil, does it rocket towards the back of the plane and impale the person sitting behind you?",
"If the plane is going a constant speed, he'll land where he started. \n\nIf the plane is accelerating, he'll land behind where he started.",
"I'm no physicist - but assuming the plane is traveling at a constant speed, he should not move in the horizontal axis.\n\nTo elaborate, the plane, and everything inside of it, are traveling at a constant horizontal speed. When he jumps up he is moving at the same speed horizontally as the plane. If the plane does not change speed then there is nothing to affect his speed in the horizontal plane, as everything inside of it is still traveling at a constant speed, and he will never hit the back of it.",
"There are a number of unsaid assumptions here. Let me try to simplify the problem - as it stands, you have it way to complicated.\n\nHere is problem version 1:\nA man is in some uniformly moving vessel that has no air in it. He jumps. Does he land at the same point from where he jumped?\n\nHere is problem version 2:\nA man is in some uniformly moving vessel that has air in it. He jumps. Does he land at the same point where he jumped?\n\nHere is problem version 3:\nA man is on an open flat moving surface moving through air. He jumps. Does he land at the same point where he jumped?\n\nHere is problem version 4:\nA man is standing on the ground. He jumps. Does he land at the same point where he jumped?\n\nHere is problem version 5:\nSame as 4, but he jumps really really really high.\n\n1) He lands where he began. The man is in an inertial frame of reference. He is not moving forward or backward relative to a container. Hence he lands where he began.\n\n2) Same as 1. The air is moving at the same speed as the container too. There is no wind resistance in the horizontal direction because the man doesn't move horizontally with respect to the air.\n\n3) Haha! Now wind comes into play. The air is presumably still with respect to the ground. So in the frame of reference of the surface, the air is blowing backwards. This causes a backwards force and the man lands further back from the point he started at.\n\n4) This is the same as the first situation. Moving plane, standing on the ground - all this doesn't matter.\n\n5) Now something interesting happens. Throughout this discussion, I ignored gravity and the fact that we really are *not* in an inertial frame but are in fact precessing the Earth. If you jump high enough, you'll notice that you left the earth at a certain tangential velocity and that this velocity allows for lower and lower angular velocity the higher you get. Think of it this way - say you were standing vertically on a turn-table with a yo-yo or slinky in your hand. You spin round and round and as you are spinning, you throw the yo-yo/slinky out and try to pull it back in. Does it come straight back? No, you expect it to return \"behind\" you as you turn. This same effect will cause the man jumping from the Earth to fall westward from his launch point. \n\nGood luck on the marriage.",
"I think you're making this too complicated. \"if he jumps up with enough initial velocity that he never falls back to the floor.\" Is he blasting off into space? But you don't need this. If he's in the plane which is moving forward, he is moving forward too. If he jumps up, he's still moving forward at the exact same speed as the plane. All the air inside the plane isn't whizzing past him all the time, it's also moving exactly as fast as the plane. It's like how right now on Earth which is flying through space, and spinning around, when I jump, I land right where I was.",
"So did you save your marriage or were you right?"
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} | Help save my marriage, answer this question before my wife and I kill each other over it.
A man is standing in a infinitely tall sealed plane that is 30 meters long filled with regular air, he is at the midpoint of the 30 meters. The plane is being propelled by a constant force forward. The man jumps straight upward, and leaves contact with the plane. Assume that the man leaps up with enough initial velocity that he never falls back to the floor of the plane, and the plane is tall enough such that he will never touch the ceiling of the plane. Will the man at one point hit the back of the plane? (i.e., will the man, relative to the plane, remain stationary in the horizontal axis?) Edit: there is some confusion as to the question. The plane is under constant force by the engine and by air resistance. Before the person jumps, the plane is traveling at constant velocity, i.e. the F-(engine) is equal to F-(air resistance). | [
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b568vz | If you have a hypothetical quad-copter that has a 24 hour battery life, is unaffected by the elements and had a clear path. Would it be possible for it to make a full rotation of the Earth while hovering in one place? | askscience | {
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"text": [
"Hypothetically, yes. But it would need to be travelling westwards at about the speed of sound.\n\nThe circumference of the Earth close to 40,000 km (almost by definition). The Earth rotations every 23 hours 56 minutes. So the speed at the equator is 464 m/s. The speed of sound at sea level is about 340 m/s.\n\nIt's a little better if you don't live at the equator. At a latitude of 45° (north or south doesn't matter), it's about 330 m/s, so just under the speed of sound. At 60°, it's about 230 m/s.\n\nSo, a hypothetical quad-copter that could fly as fast as jet-plane could fly due west could keep up with the Earth's rotation, and stay in the same place relative to the Sun.",
"What does \"hovering in one place\" mean? Normally, and the only thing quadcopters will be able to do reasonably, this means \"hovering stationary relative to the ground\". It will just rotate together with the ground in the same way you do.\n\nTo \"hover in one place\" in a non-rotating reference frame: At the equator it has to fly supersonic. A quadcopter won't manage that. There are aircraft that can do it. Relative to the ground they will fly once around the Earth in 24 hours, sure. Relative to the daylight they stay in one place - they can have sunrise for 24 hours, for example.\n\nIn both cases the rotation of Earth doesn't matter. It is sufficient to consider what happens from the ground as quadcopters and aircraft fly relative to the air, the air is (roughly - wind) stationary relative to the ground.",
"If you mean a helicopter lifting up, not exerting any energy moving sideways and just hovering there, and hoping for the earth to \"rotate underneath the heli\" then no, it won't happen.\n\nThe helicopter is still moving \"sideways\" alongside earths rotation at the same speed as the earth, because the helicopter has earths \"sideways\" momentum weather it's on the ground or not. The only way to get rid of this momentum is to apply an external force.\n\nIf you think about it, the only way for this to be possible is if the earth stopped moving completely while the heli is on the air. Because the heli will still have the momentum it will circle the earth while \"hovering\"."
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} | If you have a hypothetical quad-copter that has a 24 hour battery life, is unaffected by the elements and had a clear path. Would it be possible for it to make a full rotation of the Earth while hovering in one place?
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||
1wx737 | Is 98.6 just an Average body temperature? Do different parts of the body run at different temps or is it consistent throughout? | 98.6 Fahrenheit to clarify. And I'm wondering if for instance my arm is operating colder than my leg, or pancreas. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cf67c66",
"cf677p3",
"cf6fst5"
],
"text": [
"Most people's body temperatures actually fluctuate quite a bit during the course of each day. This is why when your temperature is elevated to, say, 99.6 or so, it's typically not a cause for concern. Following the normal circadian rhythm, body temperature is usually low in the morning and higher in the evening. Women often experience a slightly elevated body temperature when ovulating. Our bodies have an incredibly complex feedback system that keeps us thermally regulated, but fluctuations even to lows of 97 or highs of 100 are quite common.",
"To optimize Meiosis testicles are at a lower temperature than the rest of the body as spermatogensis is less efficient at body temperature. This is the supposed reason why testis are located outside the body cavity, and why the scrotum relaxes and constricts due to the temperature (relaxed at high temperature).",
"Skin (your largest organ) temperature is usually about 34C / 93F. Of course it varies greatly due to air temperature, your sweat rate, etc.\n\nSome infrared thermometers that read body temperature by the forehead temperature (sometimes used in schools or airports to find feverish people) just add on a couple degrees to estimate the \"real\" core body temperature. Not really accurate."
],
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} | Is 98.6 just an Average body temperature? Do different parts of the body run at different temps or is it consistent throughout?
98.6 Fahrenheit to clarify. And I'm wondering if for instance my arm is operating colder than my leg, or pancreas. | [
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4eqvmd | When you find the sin of a cosine of a tangent of an angle - for any number so long as it's in degrees and not radian - why does the answer always approach 0.0174? | It can be done with any number, so long as you don't find the sin of a sin, or the cos of a cos, or the tan of a tan
What I mean is, you can do sin(cos(tan(sin(cos(tan(x))))))) for any combination of sin, cos, tan and get 0.0174 so long as there are no sin/cos/tan adjacent to each other. Why does this happen? | askscience | {
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"That's a rather bizarre pattern to have found on your own. But there is a good reason why that happens. Define the function f(x) by\n\n > f(x) = sin(λcos(λtan(λx)))\n\nwhere λ = π/180. The factor of λ is needed so that we can enter *x* in degrees and get the correct value while still being able to get the correct derivative. The derivative of this function is\n\n > f'(x) = -λ^(3) cos(...)sin(...)sec^(2)(λx)\n\nThe stuff in the \"...\" doesn't matter. The cosine and sine of any real number is bounded by 1. The secant is *not* bounded, but let's say that the domain of our function is (-90, 90) since the tangent becomes infinite at those endpoints anyway. Now the secant is also infinite at those endpoints, which means our derivative is infinite there too. But the number λ^(3) is very small, approximately 5.3 x 10^(-6). So even though the secant becomes infinite at x = 90, that small factor in front means that the derivative is still small for values of *x* very close to 90.\n\nYou can get an estimate for when the derivative exceeds 1 by replacing the cosine and sine with 1 and simply solving the inequality\n\n > λ^(3)sec^(2)(λx) < 1\n\nYou should get\n\n > x < arccos(λ^(3/2))/λ ~ 89.87\n\nSo very close. In fact, we can say something a bit more precise. There exists a number C < 1 such that\n\n > |f'(x)| ≤ C if -89 ≤ x 89\n\nThen finally note that f(x) has values between -1 and 1. In other words, f(x) maps the interval [-89, 89] into the interval [-1, 1], which is contained in the original interval [-89, 89].\n\n---\n\nSo why are all of these properties of f(x) important and how did I know to look for them? The answer is in a very useful theorem called the [*Banach fixed point theorem*](_URL_0_), also called the *contraction mapping principle*. The theorem says the following:\n\n\nIF THE FOLLOWING HOLD:\n\n* Let *X* be a complete metric space with metric *d*.\n\n* Suppose *f* is a function that maps *X* into itself.\n\n* Suppose *f* is a contraction. That is, there exists a number *C* < 1 such that *d*(f(x), f(y)) ≤ C d(x,y) for all *x* and *y* in *X*.\n\nTHEN WE HAVE\n\n* There is a unique fixed point of *f*. That is, there is a unique point *q* in *X* such that f(q) = q.\n\n* The point *q* can be found by repeatedly iterating the function. That is, let x*_1_* be any point in *X*. Then define the sequence x*_n_* recursively by x*_n+1_* = f(x*_n_*). Then x*_n_* converges to *q*. So you start with any point in the space and you just keep applying *f*, over and over, and your sequence will converge to the unique fixed point.\n\nIntuitively this theorem says that if a function shrinks distances between points, then we can just keep applying the function over and over to keep shrinking the distance until it can no longer shrink. That happens when we get a point such that f(q) = q. \n\nSo how does this apply in your case? Well...\n\n* The closed interval X = [-89, 89] is a complete metric space with the usual Euclidean metric.\n\n* The function f(x) = sin(λcos(λtan(λx))) maps X into itself.\n\n* There is a constant C < 1 such that |f'(x)| ≤ C for all x in X. By the mean value theorem, this implies that |f(x)-f(y)| ≤ C|x-y| for all *x* and *y* in *X*.\n\n* Therefore, there is a unique point *q* in [-89, 89] such that f(q) = q.\n\n* Furthermore, we may find the value of *q* by starting with *any* number in [-89, 89] and just repeatedly applying *f* to it. The sequence we get converges to *q*.\n\nIn this case, the number *q* is approximately 0.0174, as you found by simply iterating *f*. And, again as you found, you can start with any number you want and eventually get to 0.0174.\n\n---\n\nSide comment: This theorem is *very* important in applied mathematics. It can be used as above to find fixed points of functions whose derivatives are bounded away from 1. It can also be used on metric spaces of continuous functions (with various metrics) to show that wide classes of ordinary differential equations have unique solutions. (The Picard theorem of ODEs is a classical applications of this theorem.) It is used often in the theory of compact integral operators on Hilbert spaces to show that the operators have eigenvalues. Those eigenvalues are often solutions to PDEs since the compact operator is often constructed as a pseudoinverse to a differential operator.\n\nThe applications of the theorem cannot be overstated. Knowing that an equation has a solution is nice enough, but then knowing it's unique is even better.",
"I have a more engineering approach than u/Midtek's. sin and cos are both bounded by 1. cos(1 deg) is close to 1.0, and sin(1 deg) is about 0.0174. So start out with any number you please, and a couple of iterations of sin and cos will turn it into your result. Your innermost tangent function could be replaced by any number, and the intermediate tangent function, given an input bounded by 1, gives a small number to the next step.",
"First thing I notice is that tan(1 degree) ~ sin(1 degree) ~ 0.01745. Note that sine and tangent are very similar for small degrees ([graph](_URL_3_)). That seems to be important, but let's get right into the functions.\n\nLet's take a look at the range of the function you mentioned specifically step by step: \n\n* x is between 0 and 360 degrees \n\n* tan(x) is between -infinity and +infinity degrees \n\n* cos(tan(x)) is between -1 and 1 degree \n\n* sin(cos(tan(x))) is between -0.01754 and 0.01754 degrees \n\n* tan(sin(cos(tan(x)))) is between -0.000306 and 0.000306 degrees \n\n* cos(tan(sin(cos(tan(x))))) is roughly equal to 1 degree \n\n* sin(cos(tan(sin(cos(tan(x)))))) is roughly equal to 0.01754 \n\nThis is just by looking at the ranges of our trigonometric functions. But it also seems for work \"for any combination.\" This is because although cos(tan(x)) is between -1 and 1, it will mostly hang around 1 ([graph](_URL_3_))), causing the next step sin(cos(tan(x))) to hang around 0.01754.\n\nAlso, that about note about \"no sin/cos/tan adjacent to each other\": remember when I said sin(x) ~ tan(x) for small degrees? Turns out that they are interchangeable with each other once you get an input range between -1 and 1 degree. Here's one with adjacent sines ([graph](_URL_3_)+degrees\\)+degrees\\)+degrees\\)+degrees\\))).\n\nThe upshot? All you need to do is wrap your function with sin(cos(sin(...))) to get to 0.01754. The inner cos(sin(...)) will hang around 1 degree so that sin(cos(sin(...))) will be roughly 0.01754. Either/both of those sines can be swapped with a tangent.\n\nObviously, there are big holes in this logic when the tangent function blows up, but I hope this helps get a feel for what's going on."
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"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banach_fixed-point_theorem",
"https://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=cos(tan(x+degrees\\)+degrees\\",
"https://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=sin(cos(sin(sin(cos(tan(x+degrees\\)+degrees\\",
"https://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=sin(x+degrees\\),+tan(x+degrees\\)"
]
} | When you find the sin of a cosine of a tangent of an angle - for any number so long as it's in degrees and not radian - why does the answer always approach 0.0174?
It can be done with any number, so long as you don't find the sin of a sin, or the cos of a cos, or the tan of a tan What I mean is, you can do sin(cos(tan(sin(cos(tan(x))))))) for any combination of sin, cos, tan and get 0.0174 so long as there are no sin/cos/tan adjacent to each other. Why does this happen? | [
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|
md6l2 | If a 10^22 eV (~the energy of a well hit baseball) cosmic ray hit your body would it hurt? | This came up in my high energy physics class this morning and we couldn't reach a consensus since none of us knew anything about biology. Would it have to hit a neuron for you to feel it? Or would the induced particle shower just fly out of your body without you feeling it? Would it just dislodge a nucleus? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c2zyrwr",
"c2zzllr",
"c3016ds",
"c3013qr"
],
"text": [
"A particle that energetic is only going to deposit a fraction of its energy in your body. For example, CERN uses a ~~concrete wall over 3 meters thick as a beam stop for its protons.~~ see reply by nxpnsv\n\nThe specific result of that interaction would depend on what particle the cosmic ray is. However I can't really say for sure what interactions would dominate at those energies... I'm not sure we even have measured data for that. In general though, radiation deposits energy by ionizing electrons along its path. If there was enough interactions within a small enough area, it *may* be possible to generate enough charged particles to create an action potential in a nerve. I would consider this highly unlikely though, since this takes on the order of 50 mV. I don't think the density of ionizations would be high enough to liberate ~10^17 charge carriers in that small of a space.",
"The initial interaction will liberate a single proton or neutron from your body which should not cause much damage. The secondary particles will deposit energy into your body. A relativistic proton will deposit about 2 Mev/cm into water but the amount of secondaries created varies from primary interaction to primary interaction so it will be higly random. But lets say it creates 100 secondary protons that travel about 50 cm through you body (hitting you at an angle) that's only 10 GeV of energy in your entire body. So that most likely won't adversely effect you.",
"Just as a note, while this probably won't damage your body much, it can wreak havoc on integrated circuits & processors. See [alpha strike](_URL_0_).",
"Talking about the Oh My God particle were we?"
],
"score": [
19,
6,
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]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha_strike_%28engineering%29"
]
} | If a 10^22 eV (~the energy of a well hit baseball) cosmic ray hit your body would it hurt?
This came up in my high energy physics class this morning and we couldn't reach a consensus since none of us knew anything about biology. Would it have to hit a neuron for you to feel it? Or would the induced particle shower just fly out of your body without you feeling it? Would it just dislodge a nucleus? | [
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|
25lgn9 | If everything is made out of particles, wouldn't words written on a piece of paper eventually shift? | Wouldn't the particles move around causing the ink/lead to shift? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"chie9yh",
"chiecc0",
"chidobk",
"chidbim",
"chiefbe"
],
"text": [
"There are materials in which the particles are free to shift around arbitrarily; they're called fluids, and we don't generally write things in them that we need to last. What makes a material solid is that the particles *aren't* free to drift however they please, but constrained by the particles around them, offering a much better environment for lasting writing.",
"The time scales for which this is relevant at ambient conditions are astronomical.",
"There is thermal motion, but the average velocity is zero, and the deviation (the amount the particles \"smear out\" while moving away from their average value) is too small to see.",
"The particles that make up the ink are moving but we can't see at the atomic scale. If you're asking why the letters themselves don't appear to move the answer is also one of scales and probability. The odds of all the particles suddenly moving in the same direction enough that a human eye could detect are billions and billions to one.",
"Yes, except it will take so much time that you won't be able to detect much change at all within your lifetime. Eventually, everything in the universe will decay into its lowest-energy state. This is called the heat death of the universe. Of course by that time, the Earth will have been consumed by the sun's conversion into a red giant and your ink/paper would no longer exist as a collection of molecules, anyways. Billions of years we're talking."
],
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} | {
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} | {
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} | {
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} | If everything is made out of particles, wouldn't words written on a piece of paper eventually shift?
Wouldn't the particles move around causing the ink/lead to shift? | [
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|
k47j6 | How long could you survive off only drinking Mt. Dew and not eating anything? | Xposted from askreddit seems this may be a better place for this question. Mt. Dew has a caloric value from sugar so your body would be getting some nutrition but how long could you survive without any other real food or water? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c2he2sb",
"c2hdtaw",
"c2hds9q"
],
"text": [
"You are precisely describing [kwashiorkor](_URL_0_) which is protein deficiency with adequate caloric intake, normally in the form of carbohydrates (sugar in the case of Mountain Dew).\n\nHow long you survive would be dependent almost entirely on your starting health, and may even be fairly long, but it would not be a very enjoyable life. Vitamin deficiencies would take much longer to kill you than the simple fact that your body would start cannibalizing its own tissue to get the protein essential for life.",
"I think scurvy would get you before anything else. 1 to 3 months before the first symptoms appear, and then after that you'd have a couple more months tops.",
"I asked this earlier, but specified multi-vitamins and redbull..turns out we need protein."
],
"score": [
59,
25,
6
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kwashiorkor"
]
} | How long could you survive off only drinking Mt. Dew and not eating anything?
Xposted from askreddit seems this may be a better place for this question. Mt. Dew has a caloric value from sugar so your body would be getting some nutrition but how long could you survive without any other real food or water? | [
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|
1z1ucm | Do insects/arachnids/ other arthropods respond to Pavlovian conditioning? Can they be trained in some other way? | What the title says. Just curious. No, I'm not asking this because I recently learned you can buy Mantis egg cases and want to train a mantis attack army. That's rediculous... Stop looking ^at ^me ^^like ^^that... | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cfpvzmh",
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],
"text": [
"Yes and yes.\n\n[Pavlov's Cockroach: Classical Conditioning of Salivation in an Insect](_URL_0_), and here's a paper talking about training fruit flies using operant conditioning: [Reward learning in normal and mutant Drosophila](_URL_1_).",
"Learning abilities vary a lot among different groups of arthropods. Some of them can barely learn anything, others have very sophisticated ways of associative learning. Take for example many parasitoid wasps, who are possibly going to be used [to detect drugs](_URL_2_). These wasps need to find live insect hosts for their eggs, and many lay eggs in multiple hosts during their life. While they have an innate attraction to for example host plants where they could possibly find the host, they can optimize their searching by learning other cues as well when they actually find a host. So they learn to associate their host with other cues, both visual and chemical, so that is how you can train them to find drugs for example. You offer them a host while the drug scent is also present and when the wasp later smells the drugs again, they will fly for that scent. Their memories can be retained pretty long, which is very interesting and quite some people are studying the neurological mechanisms behind it. \n\nIf you are talking about Mantids though, I have mantids and the only thing they will learn is the location where you put in the prey; they will generally sit on that side of the terrarium. Perhaps in nature they can also learn to associate for example flowers with prey (because a lot of flying insects visit flowers) but I doubt you can teach them much else as they are rather inactive insects (sit-and-wait predators). Anyway, if you try you should use prey as reward.",
"The short answer is yes, there have been experiments conducted most famously with fleas, causing them to jump on command with some of they're legs tied up. Other experiments have been conducted with shrimp or lobsters all using Pavlovian conditioning techniques, but it will take time and more then likely you can only teach them to do one or two things. \nBest of luck~ \n\nSources: entomology research, for my biology degree.",
"I know there have been experiments with web spiders showing learning. For example, the researchers would put a drop of sugar water into the web and vibrate the web near that point with a tuning fork of frequency \"A\". Then they would repeat but with a bitter tasting liquid (iirc, chinin) and use frequency \"B\". When they later did a control with glass beads, the spider would only react to the \"sweet\" frequency. \nWill try to dig up a link...\n(source: Did a small research project on spiders, but it's been quite a while ago)"
],
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0000529",
"http://www.pnas.org/content/80/5/1482.short",
"http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2005/10/051021120542.htm"
]
} | Do insects/arachnids/ other arthropods respond to Pavlovian conditioning? Can they be trained in some other way?
What the title says. Just curious. No, I'm not asking this because I recently learned you can buy Mantis egg cases and want to train a mantis attack army. That's rediculous... Stop looking ^at ^me ^^like ^^that... | [
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|
rp45r | If there was no water on Earth would it feel any different at the bottom of the Mariana Trench than it does on top of the Empire State Building? | I know air has a weight but would you be able to feel a difference between 7.017 miles (depth of the Trench and the height of the building)?
Edit...
Here's an example without the water. One of the base camps on Everest is at 18,192 ft. The Dead Sea is 1,371 ft below sea level. The difference is 3.7 miles. So can you tell the difference (aside from the oxygen difference and temp)? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c47ipn5",
"c47iur5",
"c47jhsu",
"c47mein"
],
"text": [
"The air pressure at -7 miles would be about 3.3 times the air pressure at sea level or the pressure 23 meters under the surface of the sea.",
"Once all the water is gone the atmosphere will, of course, come to rest at a lower elevation. \n \nThe difficult question is at what level, relative to, say, [EGM96](_URL_0_) would the level of the new 1 atmosphere pressure. \nThis depends on the topographic volume of the space the atmosphere will flow into once the ocean is removed. \n\n \nOnce that is known we can calculate the atmospheric pressure at the bottom of the trench and compare it to the pressure at the top of the Empire State Building.",
"[Air pressure / density in mines](_URL_5_)\n < --partially funded by NASA :)\n\n[US standard Atmosphere](_URL_5_)\n\n[US atmosphere calculator](_URL_5_)\n\nMost extreme to least:\n\nTemperature:\nWhile the atmospheric models are designed to calculate temperatures and pressure above ground some of the calculators work for negative altitudes. 360K is from the above calculator. or ~6K/km The mine paper finds crust gradients of 10-50+K/km.\n\n\nAir Pressure: The calculator yields 325kPa or about 3.2 atm or 3.2atm/km This is similar to the results from the mine paper.\n\nAir Density: again from the above calculator 3.14637 kg/m^3 or roughly 2.57times as dense at air at sea level. (lower voice)\n\nGravity:\nvery small change as depth is [0.998 of earth's radius](_URL_5_) and [Wikipedia Gravity vs Depth](_URL_5_)",
"In addition to the air pressure, it would also be quite a bit hotter due to adiabatic compression of the atmosphere. As air descended, it would be compressed and thus heat up.\n\nIt's speculated that something similar happened when the Mediterranean dried up a few million years back.\n\nSee _URL_6_"
],
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoid",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravity_of_Earth#Depth",
"http://goo.gl/ncTQB",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US_Standard_Atmosphere",
"http://nopr.niscair.res.in/bitstream/123456789/2506/1/IJRSP%2037\\(1\\)%2064-67.pdf",
"http://aero.stanford.edu/stdatm.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messinian_salinity_crisis#Relationship_to_climate"
]
} | If there was no water on Earth would it feel any different at the bottom of the Mariana Trench than it does on top of the Empire State Building?
I know air has a weight but would you be able to feel a difference between 7.017 miles (depth of the Trench and the height of the building)? Edit... Here's an example without the water. One of the base camps on Everest is at 18,192 ft. The Dead Sea is 1,371 ft below sea level. The difference is 3.7 miles. So can you tell the difference (aside from the oxygen difference and temp)? | [
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|
nrk66 | Have other animals ever been observed using currency or bartering with other members of the same species in the same way humans do? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
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],
"text": [
"I'm not in the field, but a few years ago a study made it into the popular press where economists were studying currency use in tamarins. They basically trained the monkeys to use tokens as currency by teaching them that the tokens can be exchanged for treats. The economists introduced price changes for different snacks and observed how the monkeys reacted. They also introduced gambling and found monkey prostitution, seriously. [Here is a good NY Times article about the series of studies.](_URL_0_)\n\nI know you probably would like to know if currency/bartering behavior has been observed in the wild, but since I'm not familiar with the field, I can't really help there. But I hope you think the article is interesting.",
"I think that this might not be exactly what you were looking for, but [chimps trade sex for food in the wild](_URL_1_).",
"I remember hearing from my Animal Behavior professor about at least one video he watched with bonobos. A male bonobo had two melons - a female saw this and came on over and \"presented\" herself for sex - flirting with him, basically. They proceeded to have sex, and afterward, he gave her one of his melons. \n\nProstitution is indeed the oldest career.",
"The answer is that in the wild, no, no species uses currency, where currency is defined as an abstract marker of wealth owed which has no value in and of itself. \n\nHowever, as others have mentioned, trade between individuals has been observed, often sex for food, and some animals have been trained in captivity to use currency-based systems, to various degrees of success.",
"dont penguins trade pebbles for sex or something like that?\n\n_URL_2_"
],
"score": [
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.nytimes.com/2005/06/05/magazine/05FREAK.html?pagewanted=all",
"http://www.livescience.com/3462-chimps-barter-sex.html",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kXR_ycRctdM"
]
} | Have other animals ever been observed using currency or bartering with other members of the same species in the same way humans do?
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||
yo3nz | Is it possible to not "see" a tangible object? | Hallucinations are defined as "an experience involving the perception of something not present", so I was wondering if it were possible for a human to not "register" something that is physically present? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c5xb3jp",
"c5xetvd",
"c5xb4vv"
],
"text": [
"It is absolutely possible. Attention gates our consciousness of visual phenomena - if our attention is directed elsewhere, our conscious mind often misses things. For demonstrations, check out this [selective attention experiment](_URL_1_) and this [change blindness experiment](_URL_0_).",
"Absolutely. A form of this happens fairly commonly to stroke patients. They can have a condition called [unilateral neglect](_URL_2_), which means they are unable to perceive one side of their visual field.\n\nThe obvious effect is that they stop seeing things on one side of their vision. If they have left-sided neglect, they might not see an object held out to the left of their face.\n\nThe more spooky effect is that even when they can see an object, they may neglect one side of it. I once met a patient with left-sided neglect who had problems eating meals, because she could only see the food on the right side of her plate! During her recovery, she learned to always rotate her plate 180º when she thought she was finished-- but she never quit being astonished when she saw more food magically appear in front of her.",
"There's a type of blindness, though I don't remember what it's called, where you can't see certain areas within your field of vision.\n\nWhat's scarier is that *you don't know it's happening*, the brains natural adjustment for temporary blind spots takes over and [fills in](_URL_3_) the \"expected\" background. This leads to things popping into your field of view, which can be quite dangerous. \n\nIf anyone knows what it's called, or can link to it, please do... I'm losing my mind here trying to remember the name."
],
"score": [
8,
4,
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=38XO7ac9eSs",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vJG698U2Mvo",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unilateral_neglect",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filling-in"
]
} | Is it possible to not "see" a tangible object?
Hallucinations are defined as "an experience involving the perception of something not present", so I was wondering if it were possible for a human to not "register" something that is physically present? | [
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7km8ss | Why is it so common for groups of animals to become unable to breed after being seperated for a few hundred thousand or million years? What kind of changes make breeding impossible across species? | askscience | {
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"text": [
"You're looking at this from a “wrong“ perspective IMO.\n\nThe default in nature is death- most random changes in your genome would lead to your death (or more precisely- would NOT lead to any stable life in the first place). The organisms you can observe are the exception to the rule because they found a possible combination of genes that does not lead to death.\n“Randomly“ combining mutated genomes from different evolutionary branches has an expected result similair to most random gene combinations-- > death.\nUsually so early that you'll never even be able to observe any organism evolving from it (not even a fetus).\n\nAssuming only different amounts of chromosomes (but same genes on them)-- > unable to split them evenly amonst cells- > something similair to a trisomy/monosomy-- > death \n\n(There is a reason you only ever really hear about trisomy 21...most other irregularities in chromosome numbers are not just rare because they're unlikely to happen but rare because any organism with these irregularities would die off right after conception)\n\nDifferent genes? Some proteins/RNAs might not be recognized by certain other receptors or not be able to perform their specific function because they lack another interaction partner.-- > (Edit:potentially...)death\n\nSo the short answer is: You will almost always (frequency) have an unstable organism by randomly mixing stuff because almost all (amount/percentage) possible combinations of genes will produce an unstable organism. Thus any “random pick“ is more likely to hit an unstable combination than a stable one because of that.",
"An evolutionary perspective:\n\nThere are many things that can go wrong. \n\n* The two animals won't breed, they just choose not to\n* The animals are behaviorally incapable of breeding (like the female tries to buck the male and the maled doesn't know to hold on tight)\n* The animals are anatomically incapable of breeding (the parts don't fit in the right places)\n* The sperm doesn't interact chemically with the egg\n* The gamete is inviable, it doesn't result in a fetus\n* The female fails to bring the fetus to term\n* The creature doesn't survive childhood\n* The creature is born and survives, but it never has children of its own either because it's not well adapted to survival or because it's not well adapted to mating with either existing population.\n\nIt varies very much which level this goes wrong at. For example, a dog and a bird would never even have sex, but a horse and a donkey just have infertile but otherwise healthy offspring. There are in between cases where babies are stillborn, etc. \n\nImagine you're a butterfly, and you are considering having sex with a member of another species. First you're gonna have sex, which is very dangerous and you might be killed while mating. Then you're gonna give up some eggs, which take calories to make, then you're gonna be pregnant which takes a huge toll on the body, then you're gonna have to hide the eggs and maybe protect them and then they're gonna compete with you for food. If these babies don't have babies of their own, then the whole thing is a waste. In fact, the sooner these babies die (like during the pregnancy) the sooner you can stop wasting calories on them. The absolute worst case scenario is that your baby fails for a reason near the bottom of the list. \n\nThis is why rapid speciation happens. It's in the interest of a species to develop some complex mating behavior to avoid even mating in the first place with a species that won't create viable offspring. So basically, if a problem arises at any level, then the species will evolve traits that purposefully make problems arise at ever earlier points until the species stop even mating in the first place.",
"So for two groups to sexually reproduce they have to overcome pre and post zygotic barriers.\n\nPrezygotic barriers include things like:\n\n- Habitat isolation (they dont live near eachother)\n\n- behavioral isolation (They don't know the right mating call or dance or what have you)\n\n- temporal isolation (they don't have an overlapping breeding season)\n\n- mechanical isolation (the anatomy doesn't line up or fit together properly)\n\n- gametic isolation (the egg or the sperm doesnt recognize or like the other gamete)\n\nIf all that checks out the egg and sperm fuse and create a zygote. But that still doesn't mean you're gonna get a baby out of it. There are still postzygotic barriers like:\n\n- hybrid inviability (this can be the fetus being miscarried cause its not stable, or dying before sexual maturity because its weak or sickly)\n\n- hybrid sterility (this is the case with mules. If hybrids can't breed then the two populations can't mix)\n\n- hybrid break (the first generation of hybrids can reproduce but their kids or grandkids become sterile)\n\nSo if one of these things change the whole house of cards comes tumbling down, and speciation occurs.",
"Why don't humans produce vitamin C? We have the genes to do it in our DNA, they're just broken? Producing vitamin C is advantageous, so why did those genes become broken? Going by the \"survival of the fittest\" form of understanding evolution it doesn't seem to make sense. Producing vitamin C is metabolically fairly trivial, you would think there wouldn't be an advantage to not doing it.\n\nBut that's not how evolution works. Imagine a time in the past when the ancestors of humans were apes living in forests and eating fruits and greens as their common diet. In that environment dietary vitamin C deficiency is extraordinarily uncommon. And so there's no *disadvantage* to not having functioning vitamin C producing machinery. So if by chance those genes became broken in individuals then there would be no evolutionary consequence of it, individuals and their offspring with those broken genes would reproduce just as effectively as anyone else. And because of the 2nd law of thermodynamics you would naturally expect more and more random mutations breaking those unimportant genes to pile up in the population, becoming increasingly common up to the point of becoming ubiquitous or universal. Evolution has no way to know that millions of years down the road those apes will have relatives who don't subsist on fresh fruit constantly and could really use those vitamin C genes.\n\nNow, imagine a population of a particular species. They'll naturally evolve and change over time, due to environmental pressures, of course. But do they have any environmental pressure to maintain breeding compatibility with a different population that they no longer have contact with? Of course not. How can there be? There's no contact with that other group.\n\nIn the absence of a selection pressure, there is a high likelihood that random change will result in breaking of compatibility. Between each population and the \"last common ancestor population\" there will be drift over time, between both populations there will be twice as much drift.\n\nIn short: breeding compatibility with a formerly connected population is like a vestigial tail, with no reason to keep it the likelihood of it going away is high. Traits in organisms are not just evolved but also *maintained* through environmental pressure, without that pressure they have a tendency to deteriorate."
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} | Why is it so common for groups of animals to become unable to breed after being seperated for a few hundred thousand or million years? What kind of changes make breeding impossible across species?
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7bsv2d | AskScience AMA Series: We are climate scientists here to talk about the important individual choices you can make to help mitigate climate change. Ask us anything! | Hi! We are Seth Wynes and Kimberly Nicholas, authors of a recent scientific study that found the four most important choices individuals in industrialized countries can make for the climate are not being talked about by governments and science textbooks. We are joined by Kate Baggaley, a science journalist who wrote about in [this story](_URL_1_)
Individual decisions have a huge influence on the amount of greenhouse gas released into the atmosphere, and thus the pace of climate change. Our research of global sustainability in Canada and Sweden, compares how effective 31 lifestyle choices are at reducing emission of carbon dioxide, methane, and other greenhouse gases. The decisions include everything from recycling and dry-hanging clothes, to changing to a plant-based diet and having one fewer child.
The findings show that many of the most commonly adopted strategies are far less effective than the ones we don't ordinarily hear about. Namely, having one fewer child, which would result in an average of 58.6 metric tons of CO2-equivalent (tCO2e) emission reductions for developed countries per year. The next most effective items on the list are living car-free (2.4 tCO2e per year), avoiding air travel (1.6 tCO2e per year) and eating a plant-based diet (0.8 tCO2e per year). Commonly mentioned actions like recycling are much less effective (0.2 tCO2e per year). Given these findings, we say that education should focus on high-impact changes that have a greater potential to reduce emissions, rather than low-impact actions that are the current focus of high school science textbooks and government recommendations.
The research is meant to guide those who want to curb their contribution to the amount of greenhouse gas in the atmosphere, rather than to instruct individuals on the personal decisions they make.
Here are the published findings: [_URL_0_](_URL_0_)
And here is a write-up on the research, including comments from researcher Seth
Wynes: [NBC News MACH](_URL_1_)
-----
Guests:
Seth Wynes, Graduate Student of Geography at the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, currently pursuing a Doctor of Philosophy Degree. He can take questions on the study motivation, design and findings as well as climate change education.
Kim Nicholas, Associate Professor of Sustainability Science at the Lund University Centre for Sustainability Studies (LUCSUS) in Lund, Sweden. She can take questions on the study's sustainability and social or ethical implications.
Kate Baggaley, Master's Degree in Science, Health, and Environmental Reporting from New York University and a Bachelor's Degree in Biology from Vassar College. She can take questions on media and public response to climate and environmental research.
We'll be answering questions starting at 11 AM ET (16 UT). Ask us anything!
-- Edit --
Thank you all for the questions! | askscience | {
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"how accurate is it that individual choices, while great and all, are a drop in the bucket compared to what industry is doing? shouldn't \"voting\" and \"boycotting/informed spending\" be high on this list?",
"I have a question about the paper vs plastic debate. I am a chemical engineer, and I have done research on some of these type of debates when I was in college. Most studies found that paper actually takes more energy to make, and recycling wood pulp actually creates a higher CO2 output on the environment, while most plastic items are relatively simple and easy to make, without the massive expulsion of CO2 on the environment. While this is true, it is also true that plastics,when littered in the environment do have a strong impact on wildlife. My question is, how can paper recycling create more CO2 output but still be considered a safe replacement for plastic?",
"I've heard that of the meat we eat, cows are by far the biggest contributor to climate change. In response to that, I've tried to cut out beef and replace it with other meats like pork or chicken. \n\nFirst, is this true, and is it worthwhile to cut out beef alone?\n\nIf so, what then is the added benefit from moving from a beefless diet to a vegetarian diet?\n\nLastly, is there then a greater benefit moving from a vegetarian diet to a vegan diet?\n\nThank you!\n\nEdit: I think to make this question simpler, above, you state the value of going vegan. Is most of this value from cutting out beef?",
"How does an extra person release 58t of CO2 per year if the other emissions are so low?\n\nSo if driving, flying and bad eating habbits only can account for 5t per year, what causes the rest +90% of the carbon foot print?\n\nAlso how is the living car free is calculated? Is it based on walking instead of driving? Riding bike instead? Using bus instead? Using train instead? Moving next to work place and walking instead? Also some people drive car 1km per day, others 200km per day.",
"Can we do enough to save ourselves, or is it too little too late? I’ve made a number of changes as an individual: I recycle, vegan diet, reduced transport footprint, power sourced from solar panels, but feel like it doesn’t probably amount to anything when I consider the bigger picture. Do you honestly believe there’s enough time, and will, to make significant change?",
"Do you believe it is more difficult to find a practical solution to climate change through technological advances, or to have a significant-enough amount of the population change their daily habits?",
"Thanks for doing an ama on the topic. I am a climate specialist and I work internationally as a contractor for the US government. I am curious how you see your research applying in developing countries. The majority of the world's population, as you know, is 1) growing extremely rapidly (far out pacing western and developed countries) and 2) everyone is pursuing a western lifestyle. How does your research apply to the majority of populations? Westerners have already burned the carbon they need to get the the level of lifestyle they have, so reducing waste isn't difficult as we've got access to robust systems. The rest of the world is full steam ahead towards single family homes, asphalt roads, protein and carb diets, air conditioning, refrigerators, cars, gadgets, banking systems etc.",
"I'm a climate scientist that unfortunately flies to conferences once a year to share my research. I don't think we're at a point yet where early career scientists can forego these opportunities without significantly hurting their careers. Thoughts on carbon offsets or other approaches to reducing carbon footprint of a climate scientist?",
"I just bought a home in Michigan with 6 acres of mostly forest. Besides taking care of the trees, what can I do with all this extra space that will positively affect the environment?",
"One child less sounds great for so many reasons. Plant based or at least minimal meat diet totally makes sense. What are some solutions to americans especially, where 2/3 of the population do NOT live in compact urban areas, and even some of those that do, don't have realistic access to public transportation to live car free?\n\nAlso, in the grand scheme of things, do you have any numbers on how much impact large companies, say fortune500 companies, can make on co2 emissions compared to average working class individuals? \n\nIt's never sat right with me that these huge companies that cut corners to save pennies and have unethical practices that harm people, the planet, etc, try to tell ME to please limit to 1 paper towel when washing my hands in the bathroom.",
"I remember seeing something about how switching to an electric vehicle may not be as environmental friendly as some may think because the electricity used to charge the vehicle is most likely still being produced by non-environmental friendly sources. Would you recommend switching to an electric car or even a hybrid? And how would that compare to going car-free?",
"it is really refreshing to finally see climate change and plant-based diets in the same conversation. anecdotally, most climate change conversations completely gloss over the damage of factory farming on the planet. so thank you for that. \n\ndoes your calculation of CO2 emission of an omnivorous diet include the upstream consequences of factory farming, including deforestation and water consumption? or is it only based in direct emissions from factories themselves?",
"Thank you so much for doing this AskScience AMA. In your estimation, was 400 ppm of CO2 a genuine tipping point or was it just symbolic? I can understand the reluctance (for various reasons) to proclaim that anthropogenic climate change is irreversible; nevertheless, the truth is the truth. I'd appreciate your (collective and apolitical) viewpoints on this. \n\nNote: Regardless of your answer, I'll still pursue a minimal CO2 footprint lifestyle.",
"> The findings show that many of the most commonly adopted strategies are far less effective than the ones we don't ordinarily hear about. **Namely, having one fewer child**, which would result in an average of 58.6 metric tons of CO2-equivalent (tCO2e) emission reductions for developed countries per year. The next most effective items on the list are living car-free (2.4 tCO2e per year), avoiding air travel (1.6 tCO2e per year) and eating a plant-based diet (0.8 tCO2e per year\n\nYou consider climate change as an individual objective. I would like to point out that climate preservation is not the only objective. We also have quality of life, social security etc. as objectives we would like to achieve. For example, we know that some countries in Europe and Japan face an impending catastrophic demographic problem. So, the 1 less child might help the environment but it pretty much turns over human beings which is one of the main reasons why we talk about climate change.",
"1) Twin Oaks, an intentional community near Charlottesville, VA has been around for 50 years and take extremely detailed records, which are being researched by a university. (Can't remember which one tho...maybe Alabama)\n\nThey have about 100 adults and 15 kids, they share buildings and resources and grow much of their food. Their diet, depending on the current residents, tends to lean towards mostly plant based. Their carbon footprint is 80% less than if they were living separately, their happy index is far higher, and they only need to earn about $6,000 per person per year to make it financially viable. The kicker? By most measures, they live extremely comfortable, upper middle class lifestyles and have far more leisure time than the average u.s. citizen. \n\nHas any of your research considered intentional communities?\n\n2) I live in a tiny house on wheels and as a result, my daily electrical consumption is about 2kWh. Also, a nice side effect of living tiny is there is limited space to store junk, so a minimalist consumer lifestyle becomes necessary (and is extremely liberating!)\n\nHave you done any research on the amount of reduction arising from families switching to tiny houses?\n\n(Side note: I grow a sizable chunk of my own food. I eat a plant based diet. I compost my waste. I live in a mini village setting (not Twin Oaks) and share some resources. And I only work about 10-15 hours a week now because my cost of living was decreased by 65ish%. I highly recommend the tiny house route!)\n\nEdit: a word",
"I've noticed there's a disparity between how much energy something consumes (and therefore, all else being equal, how much greenhouse gas it emits) and how much it *feels* like it consumes. E.g. There are campaigns advocating turning off standby LEDs, which consume hundreds to tenths of a watt. By contrast, just about anything that creates heat takes several kilowatts, literally tens to hundreds of thousands of times as much energy. Conversely, novel green energy methods (like tiles that generate energy waking on them) receive uncritical news coverage with no comparison to conventional methods. How do you think the dialogue and behaviour can be shifted towards pragmatic measures rather feel-good ones? \n\nSecondly, what role do you think *non-personal*, e.g. government and corporate decisions have to play? Businesses seem to like to shift environmental responsibility to the consumer.",
"How screwed are we? On a scale of 1-10 were 1 is 'Not screwed at all' and 10 is 'No point having kids'?",
"One topic I find surprisingly absent is the time of day used for energy consumption.\nEnergy storage on a large scale is very expensive and inefficient, so companies will adjust their power output at peak times of day by burning coal, for example, a very high-emission fuel, while at low usage times, power is left unused.\nWas this ever considered for this study? What options to change this would you suggest?",
"I own a tree service. Most of the companies in my area burn wood to dispose of it. How much carbon is released from my industry's waste?",
"What's upcoming renewable/sustainable energy solutions are you most excited about?",
"I hear that I need to not eat meat, stop driving etc... all the time. Then I hear that a fleet of 16 cargo ships pollute more than every single car on the road. Due to poor fuel selection and inefficiencies of shipping. \n\nWhy are we spending so much time and energy on small individual choice when the real change should be much easier to accomplish given low hanging fruit like 16 ships?",
"What do you think needs to happen for these individual strategies to happen at scale? Do you think it's possible to develop legislation that would encourage new behaviors without treading into the \"controlling your personal life\" space? Thank you!",
"I'm sorry if this sounds sarcarstic but: \n\n\n\"Namely, having one fewer child, which would result in an average of 58.6 metric tons of CO2-equivalent (tCO2e) emission reductions for developed countries per year. The next most effective items on the list are living car-free (2.4 tCO2e per year), avoiding air travel (1.6 tCO2e per year) and eating a plant-based diet (0.8 tCO2e per year).\"\n\n\nSo I should have one less child, stop eating meat, take trains(?) for my business trip and of course take a bike or a bus to work everyday (here in winter it gets as cold as -15~20C) while all the car dealerships, mall, some office buildings all over the country keep their lights on every night? (without talking about cruise ship and other big polluter)\n\n\nI know every little counts, but I doubt the savings through my action or of the thousands of people (by restricting ourselves) would even dent the impact the big guys have on climate change.",
"How effective are those machines that pull co2 out of the atmosphere and how much of a change would it make if we switched our energy infrastructure to rely on nuclear energy?",
"I have two questions:\n\n(1) Buying a more efficient car is a common recommendation for people who do not want to live car free. However, isn't there a lot of pollution that comes from making a car? So if I switch from Prius to Tesla, or my 55 mpg truck to Prius, am I helping or hurting the environment?\n\n(2) I work in a law firm where many of our attorneys fly different places multiple times in one week. In addition, we use piles and piles and PILES of paper. Do you have any suggestions for a greener firm?",
"I have a mitochondrial disease that requires I eat red meat plus take supplements found in red meat. I also have PCOS which makes me very susceptible to anaemia. I aim to eat about 100gms of red meat 5 times a week, or 0.5 a kilogram per week. I believe this is lower than average for US meat eaters. How much Carbon am I putting into the air each year from this. Is it actually lower than average?",
"What technology do you think has the biggest chance of making an impact in the future? \n\n\n\nI've heard that it is very important for countries that are now developing to do so in a way that is more renewable - how true do you think this is? \n\n\n\nAlso, do you think it is fair to make developing countries, many of which are just starting to develop their energy grids, etc, develop with renewable energy rather than non renewable energy, like developed countries have?",
"No questions from me, I just wanted to say thank you for including citations in all of your answers! It's good to have papers to actually look at to help verify the claims that are being made.",
"Hey guys, thanks for doing this AMA :) \n\n\nWhat would you say are the top 5 of things every household could manageably do to help contribute to reducing climate change?",
"Do you think it's reasonable at all that the Paris agreement puts the onus on emissions reductions solely with the consumers, and not with the producers?",
"I never see the inevitable switch to eating plants discussed in the mainstream media. When you take into account the clearing of rainforests for arable land on which to grow feed for livestock, the unparalleled CO2 emissions of animal agriculture, the toxic runoff from farms, the inordinate consumption of water, and the massive use of pesticides, growth hormones, antibiotics, etc. that are vital to the production of so much meat and other animal products, why is it that eliminating meat from people's diets isn't higher on the agenda for climate scientists worldwide?",
"What are some outdoor practices that could help, which are often overlooked? I know alone I can't make a difference, but that's not a sufficient reason to not do something right, because billions doing it can make a difference.",
"Is there still a hole in the ozone layer?",
"Hi, thanks so much for doing this. \n\nI have a question regarding flying vs. driving. My husband and I live in Toronto; the rest of my family lives near Boston. We fly down to see them three times a year on average, always flying coach with only hand luggage. Unfortunately there is no viable train option between the two cities (the only possibility involves 21 hours of travel and a possible overnight stay in New York). \n\nWe don't currently own a car, and we like it that way as we can easily rely on public transit in Toronto. However, we have sometimes talked about getting one and driving, rather than flying, when we travel to Boston. It's about a 9-10 hour drive. If we did buy a car, we would at the very least buy an electric hybrid (my husband likes the Chevy Volt). Financially, the cost of the three flights more or less works out to our estimated annual car expenses, so it's more a question of environmental impact. We always say that we would continue to take mainly transit here in the city; however, I'm sure that if we had the car, it would be tempting to use it more than we plan right now out of convenience. \n\nThe question is, what's worse: living car-free but having to take at least three flights a year, or getting a car but using it very rarely for longer trips? If flying is the least worst option, is there anything more we can do to mitigate the impact, such as purchasing offsets? If we did get a car, do you have a recommendation about the best budget model for a two-person family? We don't have kids so we don't need a big vehicle to haul stuff. Thanks very much for your thoughts on this!",
"I eat a plant based diet, due to environmental reasons mostly but also nice for the animals, however if I eat pre packaged meat substitutes like say Gardein products how bad is the environmental impact from eating a meat substitute that is mass produced? I'm thinking they need ingredients shipped to them to produce the product and then it's commercially packaged in plastic freezer bags and shipped to me. Is it just as bad as if I ate meat?",
"Hi,\nI am an undergrad in my sophomore year taking a class on \"Climate Change and Risk Communication,\" with a focus on \"Serious Games\" being used to convey climate change information. My question is, have any of you researched Climate Change Games, and if so, what is your opinion on their effectiveness?",
"I know, it can't really be classified as a lifestyle choice, but... considering the impact of having one child less is on top of that list, is it possible to estimate an impact of suicide? Would it be more or less than having one child less?",
"Shouldn't you focus on more granular changes than large ones?\n\n\"Going car free\" might be a lot better, but theresany reasons why that isn't always possible, but \"using your car less\" is definitely possible and is even self serving, less personal car use will encourage governments to actually create and manage effective public transport and keep cities and towns navigable without cars.\n\nAs an example, one of the cities near me is so bad that even driving a car in it is a bad option, but except for a small minority of the city's the public transport is terrible too. (Somehow that part of the city with decent PT is also the part with the best traffic, so kinda sellf defeating) but the universities there decided to work together to set up better transport systems for their students, which they did by working with the PT companies, which led to far better PT and now the whole section of the city is evolving into a much better area where people actually can live without cars.",
"My question is regarding the \"plant-based diet.\" Is this better for the environment because of the way your body processes it, or because of the way meat is produced?\n\nTo put it another way, if I went hunting and got my meat that way, would that reduce my footprint at a comparable level?",
"I am very conscious of my carbon footprint, but find that many of my friends do not seem to care. I have tried explaining to them the importance of \"going green\" but it goes nowhere. What would you recommend to encourage people to be more conscious of their individual habits and choices?",
"Hi I'm from India. The pollution in some of our cities(Delhi, Mumbai etc.) are going way beyond extreme levels. What's the optimal solution to this dangerous problem. (Keep in mind that in a big and diverse country like ours, policies can change after every elections) \nThanks.",
"During what period has the earth not had climate change, and why is it believed by humans that change should not happen?\n\nI'm quite sure this will be downvoted into oblivion, but thanks anyhow.",
"How many plastic bottles does one have to recycle to reach a carbon footprint reduction equivalent to a vasectomy?",
"Do you think politicians politicizing climate change has helped or hurt the cause?",
"Are there legitimate businesses that sell carbon offsets?",
"> Given these findings, we say that education should focus on high-impact changes that have a greater potential to reduce emissions, rather than low-impact actions that are the current focus of high school science textbooks and government recommendations.\n\n\nRecycling is an easily translatable public good to someone without a formal education. If I take my recyclable household items from, say, a black bin to a blue bin, then I am lessening the impact that human waste has upon the environment (however marginally). There is also an extremely low engagement threshold with this action for the individual, as for the most part it is simply a case of sorting household items correctly. One could argue this is a moderate shift in behavioral attitudes if sustained long-term, but it is hardly a life changing experience, and therefore shares little of the burdens that such changes bring.\n\nNow, juxtapose this against one of your desired high-impact action-items, namely the reducing of the size of one's family. Right out of the gate we are combatting, and struggling against the biological drivers of motherhood (a tall order indeed), but we are also demanding an incredibly **high toll** from the individual. This is not the case of simply placing household items in a blue bin, or being conscious about waste, but is instead a *radical* altering of one's life.\n\nI think the reason that we focus on \"low-impact\" adjustments in education is because we can convince more people to alter their behavior and attitudes towards the environment **modestly**, than we can convince people, who invariably represent a tiny fraction of the previous group, to alter their behavior **radically**. Which is why recycling will always be an easier sell, and possibly more beneficial, than reducing the size of one's household (more adherents vs. significantly less adherents etc.)",
"I am a bioinformatician using machine learning and statistics to study microorganisms in the environment and in people. I want to help out with the efforts of climate change on my spare time. Are there any competitions like kaggle or the dream competition that are specific for climate change related topics? How can I help with my skill set besides donating and being conscious about my impact on the environment? Is there a place where people post the datasets and a specific research question for the public to build predictive models or classifiers?",
"UN Environnement Program has just vetoed the sponsorship and participation of the world nuclear association to the sustainability innovation forum for COP 23. \n\nWhat is your take on nuclear energy? Should climate scientists make their voice clearer on the issue, one way or another?",
"Hello! For the American Public Health Association, 2017 is the year of climate change and health. \n\nCould you please speak about how we can both advocate for individual small change while at the same time prioritizing the effect of climate change on health?",
"Recently saw a documentary regarding choices we as consumers make that help the planet, and avoid or mitigate climate change. Are there any businesses you folks recommend that people support or check out because of their climate consciousness?",
"What kind of pets have an ok impact on climate change? I’ve heard a dog is the equivalent of owning a big 4wd car due to the energy involved in production of dog food.",
"I meet a lot of people who don't care about climate change. What do you think could get some of them to start caring that hasn't worked yet?",
"Why is so much attention devoted to convincing individuals to becoming more climate conscious when major cooperations have the greatest direct impact on climate change.",
"I didn't see the carbon savings from not getting divorced. Setting up 2 households vs 1 surely must be a large increase in CO2.",
"What is science working on to mitigate the effect of climate change while allowing people to live without needing to alter their lifestyle?",
"Would reproductive health and birth control initiatives in Africa be an effective means of combating climate change?",
"What are the best ways to reduce my carbon footprint that I probably didn't know about yet.",
"In a third world country, what are the top 3 things i need to change?",
"The most common sense critique of what you propose is right in [the article you linked](_URL_2_):\n\n\"“People want to reduce environmental emissions, but they will start where it hurts least,” he says, adding that the biggest impact will come from many people taking small steps rather than a few people making drastic lifestyle changes.\"\n\nYour research shows the CO2 impact reduction IF families start having less children. However, what's the practical reality of this? When trying to find ways to live more sustainably, is there even a more dehumanizing choice than choosing to have fewer humans? Does your research make any attempt to quantify the reality of people following your suggestions?\n\nAren't you far more likely to convince someone in a coal powered region to install solar panels, rather than not to have that 2nd child?\n\nOn an individual level you may convince a small number of people to drastically alter their family plans. But won't those efficiency gains be a drop in the bucket when compared to massive adoption of more realistic lifestyle changes? Like recycling, electric cars, and solar panels. \n\nEDIT: \n\nNobody will ever see this as it's been buried, but I need to ask where your value of 58.6 t CO2 / yr comes from.\n\nThe only instance of it in [your paper](_URL_0_) is in the abstract. The reference paper, [Reproduction and the carbon legacies of individuals](_URL_1_), makes no reference to this number of 58.6 t CO2 / year.\n\nAFAICT you've simply used the constant factor approach from the Murtaugh, Schlax paper without making any mention of the pessimistic, optimistic, and constant rate calculations that your primary source used. Unfortunately, it looks like you've simply cherrypicked a convenient number to tell a better story\n\nAFAICT 58.6, when multiplied out by 80 (the length of life used in the reference paper) gives 4688 t of lifetime CO2 emissions. A value somewhere between the \"constant\" and \"optimistic\" levels given in table 3 from the Murtaugh, Schlax paper. In fact your paper never mentions how future CO2 levels are discounted, not does it mention the methods by which you arrived at 58.6. Or did I miss it?\n\nAlso Murtaugh, Schlax make it very apparent in their paper that the estimates are heavily skewed for US households:\n\n\"The range of values is enormous: under the\r\nconstant-emission scenario, the legacy of a United States female\r\n(18,500 t) is two orders of magnitude greater that of a female from\r\nBangladesh (136 t).\"\n\nYour paper makes only a brief notion towards this with a small table in figure 1 showing 120 t/yr savings for the US. Which is close to the 9441 tCO2 / 80 years in the Murtaugh, Schlax paper for the constant scenario calculation.\n\nAt best your approach and estimates appear flawed. At worst, it appears to be politics masquerading as science. \n\nAm I mistaken in any of my assumptions?\n\n* Murtaugh, Schlax - _URL_1_",
"Hello everyone! Many thanks for doing this. I have a few questions for you related to how we can enact what we have learned in academia and apply it to the real world. \n\nI have an MSc in Geography from University College London and I am currently back in my home country. \n\nIt has been one year already and I am still struggling to find a job related to my area of expertise - which is about human social behaviour and sustainability; in other words, I study the reasons behind people's habits and how they relate to sustainability. \n\nIt just feels like not many people and companies are concerned about this topic in my country: climate change is not a big political issue and most citizens don't even know the dangers behind it and what needs to be changed in order to mitigate it.\n\nThis is one of the reasons why I actually decided to come back and not pursue a PhD at UCL. I wanted to help my country with what I have learned during my studies. \n\nHowever, I can't find a job related to this issue and I just feel very frustrated because I feel I'm doing nothing! This has led me to reconsider and think about other options for my career. I might go back to studying a PhD or just emigrate to another country altogether. \n\nBut I don't wanna give up just yet. I really want to help. People with my education are desperately needed in my country. Scientists and people with academic backgrounds are the ones that need to be taking decisions regarding environmental politics and policy. \n\nSo, these are my questions:\n\nWhat are some strategies scientists use to communicate knowledge to the public?\n\nWhat are some strategies scientists use to foster climate change mitigation in THEIR communities?\n\nCan an academic become a politician or a decision maker? If this is so, do you have any examples of climate and environmental scientists that have been able to impact their government's agenda (I'd like to follow their examples)?\n\nDo you have any other advice you could give to this fellow :)? \n\nThank you! \n\nEdit: spelling.",
"Sweet I've never planned on having children anyway.\n\nBut seriously as far as a plant based diet, I assume your referring to methane gas released by the waste/poo of livestock? If so, why aren't we using that methane to power generators like the systems that they have at Cornell University? I guess it's called an anaerobic methane digester. \n\nAlso, would buying some undeveloped land to set up a wild game preserve to hunt (or to hire someone to hunt for you) be a realistic option as far as providing meat for a family for the average person? Like each family setting up an environment so that game animals could thrive as a sort of social movement for sustainable or even environmentally positive (not sure of the right term for this) meat production. Plus we could all eat elk. Have you ever eaten elk? It's like the pizza of meats, Soo damn delicious",
"Thank you for the opportunity! In recent years I've become interested in sustainable (and ethical) choices in fashion, I know mainstream media has attempted to answer this but can't seem to do so without sensationalism,\n\nI know you are focusing more on the specifics your have listed above but in comparison what is the impact of the fashion world on the environment? \n\nIs there a significant difference between companies providing options and retaining some of their fast fashion practices vs those not providing sustainable options? \n\nAre there concrete ways to identify when marketing makes exaggerated claims to products that are barely an improvement? Are there companies to actively avoid or is that a moot point?\n\nAre there ways to keep up with ongoing developments in sustainability in durable goods and consumables?",
"I consider myself as someone who tries to live consciously, though I do have my faults. With that being said, I believe that big industry and lack of proper legislation contributes to our carbon footprint more than the average individual. Short of active boycotting/legislation reform/etc., how much of an impact would an individual choosing to shop local, small businesses have on carbon emissions? E.g. Shopping at numerous local mom & pop's vs. going to Walmart.\n\nThank you for doing this AMA!",
"I hear that animal agriculture is one of the largest contributors to greenhouse gas production, but it is my understanding that animal agriculture is carbon neutral, no? Cows eat grass. Grass uses carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Cows produce carbon dioxide (and methane which gets broken down into carbon dioxide). So if for every cow you kill you grow a new cow, you haven't actually \"added\" carbon dioxide to the atmosphere. What am I missing?",
"Hi! Dont know if you're still answering questions but, for some time now I have been trying to advocate and experiment more in bug foods. \n\nI was curious if you've ever looked into the impact bug farming would make on the world? Based on your earlier reply it would most definitely better than beef, but would this be a better alternative to even say fish and other small game?",
"I am late to the party but I have a tangential question; I'm an ICU-nurse and I feel like I'm wrecking the environment locally and globally with all the different drugs/chemicals and single-use items plus packaging I use every single day.\n\nIs there any data on the contribution to climate change from the health care sector and how do I reduce it without compromising patient safety?",
"How much is climate change going to affect the migration of people into more urban settings and centralized big city locations and what problems could arise from such a transition.\n\nI would imagine with a higher population concentration in major cities there would be more poverty, crime, disease.\n\nAlso, are cities infrastructural systems prepared for this influx of people if such a movement does occur.",
"I've read a recent article revealing the presence of a supervolanco approximately the size of Yellowstone under the icecaps of Antarctica which causes melting of icecaps. What do you think about it and it's consequences on climate research? \n\n_URL_3_\n\nI know it's not the official article but I can't seem to find it, hope somebody can reply with the actual one!",
"Where might one get started as far as doing independent research through the literature on climate change? I understand the greenhouse effect and such but could I find reliably sourced information that models/predicts the effects this will have on climate and by extension ecosystems, in a way that's accessible to someone who isn't a professional climate scientist?",
"I constantly hear from deniers, \"Where is the sea level rise? Back in the 80's the scientists said the ocean would have risen by now\" \n\nHave the efforts we have made to reduce emissions over the last 40 years been the reason we have not seen more dramatic\n sea level rise?",
"I've heard of scientists trying to grow meat in labs rather than harvesting live animals. I assume, if this were to go into consumer production, this would also have a huge impact of the reduction of CO2. Would it be equivalent to switching to a plant-based diet?",
"The majority of the discussion about CO2 discussion seems to be centered around meat consumption/production and comparing that to vegetable production/consumption. I am curious how does fish and seafood compare to this, purely from a CO2 perspective, disregarding other environmental issues mass-fishing causes.",
"When considering dietary choices, is there any measurable benefit of eating locally sourced animal products? For example, am I reducing my emissions by eating beef from a cow my neighbor slaughtered on his small organic farm rather than buying beef in the store?",
"Not only are we having one less child, we are having zero children. Because we wouldn't want any children of ours living through the inevitable hell that over population is creating.",
"Personal choices is great and stuff but what about the meat industry? Don't cows release more green house gases than cars? Aren't we clearing entire forests to grow food for cows?",
"What kind of affect does living in a dense urban area vs in less dense (suburb) or even rural areas? Is it significant? Thanks.",
"Do you think the government should enforce a one child only policy, ban fossil fuels, and ban meat to save humans from extinction?",
"Does your suggestion of swapping to a plant based diet take into account that we use petroleum byproducts as fertilizer?",
"Does not buying stuff from China help or is regional production not worth the difference in efficiency of production?",
"Is eliminating red meat from my diet, especially industrialized, enough to create change while still consuming other meats?",
"Which types of plants or trees are best at removing CO2 from the atmosphere?",
"Is it possible to slow climate change down by planting massive amounts of trees?",
"Why the world isn't moving to hemp paper and plastics?",
"Why does ozone depletion cause the stratosphere to get colder?"
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} | {
"url": [
"http://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/aa7541/meta",
"http://nbcnews.to/2AjqKSL"
]
} | {
"url": [
"http://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/aa7541/meta#erlaa7541r39",
"https://www.biologicaldiversity.org/programs/population_and_sustainability/pdfs/OSUCarbonStudy.pdf",
"http://nbcnews.to/2AjqKSL",
"http://www.newsweek.com/antarctica-melting-below-mantle-plume-almost-hot-yellowstone-supervolcano-705086"
]
} | AskScience AMA Series: We are climate scientists here to talk about the important individual choices you can make to help mitigate climate change. Ask us anything!
Hi! We are Seth Wynes and Kimberly Nicholas, authors of a recent scientific study that found the four most important choices individuals in industrialized countries can make for the climate are not being talked about by governments and science textbooks. We are joined by Kate Baggaley, a science journalist who wrote about in [this story](_URL_1_) Individual decisions have a huge influence on the amount of greenhouse gas released into the atmosphere, and thus the pace of climate change. Our research of global sustainability in Canada and Sweden, compares how effective 31 lifestyle choices are at reducing emission of carbon dioxide, methane, and other greenhouse gases. The decisions include everything from recycling and dry-hanging clothes, to changing to a plant-based diet and having one fewer child. The findings show that many of the most commonly adopted strategies are far less effective than the ones we don't ordinarily hear about. Namely, having one fewer child, which would result in an average of 58.6 metric tons of CO2-equivalent (tCO2e) emission reductions for developed countries per year. The next most effective items on the list are living car-free (2.4 tCO2e per year), avoiding air travel (1.6 tCO2e per year) and eating a plant-based diet (0.8 tCO2e per year). Commonly mentioned actions like recycling are much less effective (0.2 tCO2e per year). Given these findings, we say that education should focus on high-impact changes that have a greater potential to reduce emissions, rather than low-impact actions that are the current focus of high school science textbooks and government recommendations. The research is meant to guide those who want to curb their contribution to the amount of greenhouse gas in the atmosphere, rather than to instruct individuals on the personal decisions they make. Here are the published findings: [_URL_0_](_URL_0_) And here is a write-up on the research, including comments from researcher Seth Wynes: [NBC News MACH](_URL_1_) ----- Guests: Seth Wynes, Graduate Student of Geography at the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, currently pursuing a Doctor of Philosophy Degree. He can take questions on the study motivation, design and findings as well as climate change education. Kim Nicholas, Associate Professor of Sustainability Science at the Lund University Centre for Sustainability Studies (LUCSUS) in Lund, Sweden. She can take questions on the study's sustainability and social or ethical implications. Kate Baggaley, Master's Degree in Science, Health, and Environmental Reporting from New York University and a Bachelor's Degree in Biology from Vassar College. She can take questions on media and public response to climate and environmental research. We'll be answering questions starting at 11 AM ET (16 UT). Ask us anything! -- Edit -- Thank you all for the questions! | [
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ahacri | Why can there be no proper subfields of Z/pZ? | I'd like to start off by saying I've tried googling but have not found a satisfactory proof yet. This is probably because I'm misunderstanding something about fields.
& #x200B;
My theory book says:
& #x200B;
> Let K be a field. A subfield of K is a subset of K containing 0 and 1, which is closed under addition, subtraction, multiplication and taking inverses of nonzero elements
& #x200B;
So suppose we take Z/7Z and Z/3Z. Now obviously 3 and 7 are both prime so these are both fields so all of the above except the subset property already holds. Also obviously it holds that the set of elements (residue classes) of Z/3Z are all contained in Z/7Z so this set of elements is a subset of the other. Now according to the above quote this would mean Z/3Z is a subfield of Z/7Z right? I'm pretty sure something about my understanding of fields is wrong so if someone could point out what I would be eternally grateful.
& #x200B;
Thanks in advance! | askscience | {
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"Those fields don't have the same operations. Addition, multiplication, etc. in the field Z/3Z are all done modulo 3. This is what makes it closed under those operations. The operations in Z/7Z are modulo 7. \n\nSo for example, in Z/3Z the value of 1+2 is (congruent to) 0. In Z/7Z the value of 1+2 is 3, which in that field is distinct from 7.",
"Even if you consider the elements of Z/3Z={0,1,2} as a subset of Z/7Z={0,1,2,3,4,5,6}, you don't have operational closure in the subfield. 1+1+1 in Z/3Z should give you zero since the characteristic of this field is 3. However, 1+1+1=3 is nonzero in Z/7Z. A subfield needs to respect the operation of the larger field and it doesn't in this case. In fact, a field of characteristic k can have no subfields with a different characteristic.\n\nNow, to your title question, a field with prime order can have no proper subfields. This is due to the group structure under addition (and the same reason above why Z/3Z is not a subfield or subgroup of Z/Z7). Groups of prime order are generated by each of its nonidentity elements: that is, for say Z/Z7, if a is a non-identity (in the addition sense), then a, a+a, a+a+a, ... , 7a=0 gives you the whole group. So any proper subgroup of Z/7Z, which must have at least one nonidentity element, would generate the whole group Z/Z7, and so it cannot be a proper subgroup. So Z/7Z, and indeed Z/pZ for any prime p, can have no proper subfields.",
"Others have already given an answer, but I'd like to make a more general comment that often gets lost on students when they first start learning about algebraic structures like fields, groups, rings, and vector spaces: these structures are *not* just the objects within them. Their operations (addition, multiplication, or whatever) are just as much a part of them. If you change those operations then you change the structure, and it does not make sense to talk about one structure being \"contained\" within the other if they have different operations (as in your Z/3Z and Z/7Z example).",
"As in most branches of mathematics, the class of interest is not just a set of elements but also a set of relations or a set of subsets. For instance, a topological space is not simply a set X of points, but also a subset of the power set P(X) (i.e., the declaration of which sets are open) with certain properties that classify it as a topology. A measure space is not simply a set X of points, but also a sigma-algebra F of subsets of X and a measure on F.\n\nA group (or a ring or a field) is not just a set G of elements. A field, for instance, is a really a triple (F, A, M), which consists of the elements of the field (F), the addition operation A (which is really a subset of F x F x F), and the multiplication operation M (which, again, is really a subset of F x F x F).\n\nSo we can't say that the field Z*_3_* is a subfield of Z*_7_* simply because the elements of Z*_3_* (represented by {0, 1, 2}) are all also elements of Z*_7_* (represented by {0, 1, 2, ..., 7}). In fact, Z*_3_* is not a subfield of Z*_7_*. The definition you have quoted is *not* the definition of a subfield. The *subset* you claim is a subfield has to be a field *under the same operations* as the parent field. In other words, E is a subfield of F if not only E is a subset of F, but also that the field operations of E are simply the field operations of F restricted to E. In this case, 1+2 = 0 in Z*_3_*, but 1+2 = 3 in Z*_7_* (and 3 is not even an element of Z*_3_*).\n\n------\n\nHaving said that, the proof that Z*_p_* has no proper subfield if p is prime is really rather trivial. Recall Lagrange's theorem: the only (additive) subgroups of Z*_p_* must have an order that divides *p*. That leaves {0} and Z*_p_* as the only possible (additive) subgroups of Z*_p_*. But {0} is not a subfield, and that leaves Z*_p_* as the only possible subfield.",
"Z/3Z is not a subset of Z/7Z. The elements of Z/3Z are the cosets of the form n+3Z, and the elements of Z/7Z are the cosets of the form m+7Z. These are not the same cosets. They are not the same elements and so you cannot include Z/3Z into Z/7Z.\n\nBut it goes more than just cosets. You would need the additive group of Z/3Z to be a subgroup of the additive group Z/7Z. This can't happen, because the order of a subgroup must divide the order of the group itself. Since 3 does not divide 7, it can't be a subgroup."
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} | Why can there be no proper subfields of Z/pZ?
I'd like to start off by saying I've tried googling but have not found a satisfactory proof yet. This is probably because I'm misunderstanding something about fields. & #x200B; My theory book says: & #x200B; > Let K be a field. A subfield of K is a subset of K containing 0 and 1, which is closed under addition, subtraction, multiplication and taking inverses of nonzero elements & #x200B; So suppose we take Z/7Z and Z/3Z. Now obviously 3 and 7 are both prime so these are both fields so all of the above except the subset property already holds. Also obviously it holds that the set of elements (residue classes) of Z/3Z are all contained in Z/7Z so this set of elements is a subset of the other. Now according to the above quote this would mean Z/3Z is a subfield of Z/7Z right? I'm pretty sure something about my understanding of fields is wrong so if someone could point out what I would be eternally grateful. & #x200B; Thanks in advance! | [
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|
am210f | AskScience AMA Series: We are vertebrate paleontologists who study crocodiles and their extinct relatives. We recently published a study looking at habitat shifts across the group, with some surprising results. Ask Us Anything! | Hello AskScience! We are paleontologists who study crocodylians and their extinct relatives. While people often talk about crocodylians as living fossils, their evolutionary history is quite complex. Their morphology has varied substantially over time, in ways you may not expect.
We recently published a [paper looking at habitat shifts across Crocodylomorpha](_URL_0_), the larger group that includes crocodylians and their extinct relatives. We found that shifts in habitat, such as from land to freshwater, happened multiple times in the evolution of the group. They shifted from land to freshwater three times, and between freshwater and marine habitats at least nine times. There have even been two shifts from aquatic habitats to land! Our study paints a complex picture of the evolution of a diverse group.
Answering questions today are:
- [**Eric Wilberg, Ph.D.**](_URL_1_) (/u/DrCroctagon): Dr. Wilberg is an assistant professor in the Department of Anatomical Sciences at Stony Brook University.
- [**Alan Turner, Ph.D.**](_URL_2_) (/u/TurnerLab): Dr. Turner is an associate professor in the Department of Anatomical Sciences at Stony Brook University.
- [**Christopher Brochu, Ph.D.**](_URL_3_) (/u/cabrochu1): Dr. Brochu is a professor in the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences at the University of Iowa.
**We will be online to answer your questions at 1pm Eastern Time. Ask us anything!**
-----
**Thanks for the great discussion, we have to go for now!** | askscience | {
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"text": [
"Thanks for doing this!\n\nIf you have time to answer, I have three questions:\n\n1. You mention that, contrary to common wisdom, crocodylian morphology has varied substantially over time in unexpected ways. What are the most interesting (to each of you) ways this has happened, and where can we read more about it?\n2. If you could correct one common myth about your field you see repeated in public discussions (other than the \"crocodylians are living fossils\" thing), what would it be?\n3. What is it about vertebrate paleontology that brought you to the field in the first place?",
"Hi and thanks for joining us!\n\nI recently learned that alligators can handle short bouts of freezing temperatures as long as they can breathe. \n\n_URL_0_\n\nHow were they able to survive prolonged periods of freezing temperatures (ice ages)?",
"Because of the recent polar vortex there have been super interesting reports of crocs hibernating, frozen in ice, with their snouts sticking out to breath.\n\nI assume this is an evolutionary behavior to deal with the cold but...why didn't crocs just migrate to warmer climates? Where were these crocs living that it got cold so often that they had to develop this trait? Is this something that crocs do because of ancestral behavior or is it something they developed?",
"Sorry if this is covered in your paper. I see that there was no transition from marine to terrestrial (directly). Why do you think that is?",
"What, if anything, is the relationship between the crocodylians and cetaceans? It would seem that marine crocodylians would be in direct competition with evolving cetaceans, along with other marine carnivores.\n\nFreshwater crocodylians may have had less direct competition.\n\nEdit: Not implying a genetic relationship. More a comparison of the history of them when they are competing in the same niche.",
"Wow! I had no idea that they had changed their environments so drastically and so \"frequently\"!\n\nWhat could we expect from these guys (in the short term) with rising seas and ? We have a healthy population of Alligators in eastern North Carolina, and I can imagine their territory greatly expanded...especially further up our lazy waterways.",
"In school and on the internet I've been told that crocodiles actually haven't evolved or changed much from their prehistoric state, is that wrong? or have I misunderstood something about this thread?",
"I've always wondered with extremely niche research topics such as this, who pays you to do this? Do you work for a company? Is your research paid through some type of grant? Does someone buy your results from you, etc? Either way, very cool and well done.",
"Had to read the title twice before I realised they weren't describing themselves as vertebrates who are paleontologists.\n\nWhat was it that lead you Into focusing on studying these animals in paticular?",
"My understanding is that modern crocodylians are thought to be descended from endothermic ancestors, but secondarily become ectothermic to better suit their ambush predator lifestyle. Assuming this is correct thinking, and your research doesn't contradict this model, do you think this transition happened once, or do you think that the transition from endothermic to ectothermic also occurred multiple times?",
"What is the common ancestor of humans and crocodiles ?",
"Is there a way that the genetics of birds and reptiles can be compared to make an educated reconstruction of dinosaur genetics?",
"I read that Crocs gender is based on the temperature of the eggs and climate change could cause lots of all male or female (I forget which) to be born. There must be some variability in nest building though. Wouldn't the population adjust to ones that have a more mixed gender nest in whatever temps?\n\nThey have a big range and I have to think the temperature change between Louisiana and Florida would cause either to be all one so this is not a real concern?\n\nAnd maybe I'm thinking of another lizard and totally wrong if so apologize in advance.",
"For someone that has massive amounts of interest in biology and the life that existed on this planet in the past. What would you recommend for at path to make this a living? Is it a field that is required to have a PhD in or are there avenues for individuals with 'lesser' degrees? Thank you very much if you get to my question. Either way, good luck with your work, it's truly fascinating.",
"Now this is an awesome AMA!\n\nWere the land crocodylomorphs like Sebecus or Quinkana warm blooded? Because their anatomy suggests this, at least to my amateur eyes, but that would mean they would have to evolve endothermy from ectothermy AFTER loosing endothermy in the first place.\n\nAlso were Thalattosuchians oviparous like sea turtles? Or is it unknown?",
"What sort of path did you guys take to become paleontologists? I've always wanted to try paleontologists, but was never sure how (I went with archaeology instead).",
"You know how people raise dogs and cats together? Do you think they can get the same bond if you raised a crocodile and its natural prey together from birth?",
"Is there any chance of getting ancient DNA from recently extinct crocs like Voay, the Murua gharial or Mekosuchus?",
"Hello everyone.\n\nIf the habitat changes occurred throughout history. Would there be a chance that our current crocodile and alligator species today transform somehow in the future and evolve further?\n\nConsidering that climate change is an ongoing issue, what would be the effects of increased temperatures to their habitats? Since they're cold blooded animals, won't they be unaffected with the changes in temperature?",
"How does someone sex a crocodile? And how do crocodiles know the others sex for mating purposes?",
"Is it true crocodiles hibernate in freezing water during winter months, with their snots out?",
"I saw on Archer that crocodiles are the ultimate killing machines and they haven't evolved much as they are perfect predator, what evolution changes did the modern crocodile go through to get here?",
"If you (each of you) observe any Crocodylomorpha (living or extinct) in the wild, which species would you choose, and why?",
"Hi guys. Do you reckon that it's possible that crocodiles or alligators could come to live in England one day.",
"What made you go from geology to paleontology to vertebrate paleontology to crocs?\n\nThis from a mine geologist.",
"What's your favorite little known fact about crocodiles?",
"Hey, I'm currently a college student pursuing my bachelors in geology with the hope of eventually getting into vertebrate paleontology.\n\nI'm really hoping to eventually specialize in pseudosuchia (I haven't narrowed it down any further yet). I was wondering if any of you had any recommendations in regards to career related content? Such as reading material, classes you would recommend, or societies to join? Thank for you any reply.\n\nEDIT: Thank you aswell for the amazing paper.",
"Why are there about ten thousand species of birds while there are only 24 species of crocodiles today. They both evolved at aroind the same time. I learned that part of it is due to the generation time but is that all there is to it or are birds more susceptible to evolutoon or something. Thanks for doing this ama. Will check out the paper if I have the time!",
"There's a lot of good questions already! I have two questions I am hoping you could answer! \n\nYou mention large changes in habitat over time, but I was wondering if you could share any large changes in diet that may have happened.\n\nWhat would you say is the least crocodile looking crocodile in history? That is the species that looked the least like its relatives.\n\nThanks for doing this!",
"How did you actually get into the field, and how would you recommend somebody get into it as well? I studied geology in college, and I can't seem to find any kind of entryway into the field of paleontology. The jobs all require years of experience.",
"Is Spinosaurus Aegypticus among your field of study? If so, what do you know about their environment?",
"What sort of things are you finding out about the divergence of Crocodylomorpha and Dinosauria?",
"Here in South Africa St Lucia bay is the only place known on earth where freshwater crocodiles (nile crocs) live in salt water. The same bay is also the only current location where hippos live in salt water.\n\nIs this indicative that even freshwater crocs have evolved the capacity to live in sea water but just don't elsewhere? A case of evolution in action ? Or is it something particular to that specific lagoon that allows this ? (The fact that hippos also live there seems to suggest the latter ?)",
"Hello! And thank you! As a volunteer for herpetological studies and a huge herp enthusiast, this is a very interesting AMA for me. \n\nMy first question is when were crocodylians really in their ‘prime’? When was speciation at the highest? \n\nAnother question I have is what is the cause for the smaller size in all extant crocodylians? There are no longer any extremely large crocodylians (relatively speaking a Nile crocodile is by no means small) such as Deinosuchus.",
"Three questions: \n\nCrocodilians are pretty large, compared to others in the reptile family. The smallest, Cuvier's Dwarf Caiman is still 4' to 5' in length. Were any of the extinct ancestors much smaller?\n\nI'm fascinated by the variation in teeth of all the different crocs, lizards, and snakes. Any commentary on teeth?\n\nAlso, please talk about the difference between crocodiles, alligators and caiman. Do we know where their earliest ancestors evolved?",
"Crocodiles belong to a group called Archosaurs, where dinosaurs are also grouped in. That would mean, birds are archosaurs too. In my Biology textbook, birds are classified as reptiles.\n\nWhat do you think about that? Are they really a new class of vertebrates, or they are still reptiles? Why or not?",
"Hey! I would love to go into this direction with my future. I'm an undergraduate senior studying ecology and evolution and I love crocodilians. Any tips for someone about to graduate? Thank you guys for the AMA as well!!",
"1. What do you think of pubpeer? \n\n2. There are certain speices of birds that crocs' allow to clean their teeth. How did this relationship start? And did some early ones get eaten?",
"Given that the sex of a croc is determined by the incubation temperature of the egg, how likely is it that all crocodiles and alligators will go extinct due to global warming?",
"What sort of implications for anatomy do these substantial changes in environment have on crocodylians? I imagine changing from land to freshwater and back again would have weird effects on anatomical structure.",
"What environmental or evolutionary pressures drove the differences in aggressision we see today between members of the croc branch (generally more aggressive hunters) v gator branch (generally passive/opportunistic hunters)",
"Why crocodiles are that advance when compared to their fellow reptiles (4 chamber heart, diaphragm etc mammalian char) ?",
"Hello! What was the most interesting behaviour you got to see in a fossil? (Or deduct from a fossil?)",
"This is amazing, i’m saving the thread to read through it later, thank you so much for this!",
"Whats the deal behind the use of \"crocodile tears\". Do crocodiles cry for show?",
"Dr. Brochu,\nI watched your speech on the African crocs that ate our ancestors almost every month. I actually just went to Olduvai gorge last summer and found some really large croc teeth (maybe C. anthropophagus).\n\nMy question is what advancements in untangling modern croc phylogeny have been made since that video (2012?)",
"Not sure if I’m able to ask this correctly but I’ll give it a try.\n\nWhat is the largest gap in time between 2 specimens with identical similarities and what is believe lacked for there to be little evolution changes?",
"I'm signing off for now. This is the first time I've Reddited (assuming \"to Reddit\" is a legitimate verb), and I had a good time. I might check again later, though I don't know how long this discussion lasts. -chris",
"I have to sign off. Thanks to everyone for the really thoughtful questions! Hope we were able to tell you something new and show why crocs make for a pretty awesome system for studying evolutionary processes.",
"You study these groups in depth for a long time. With that in mind, what’s it like when you get results like you did? Were the patterns that emerged in your analysis surprising?",
"I own a specimen of dyrosaurus, and was curious if you have specific information for that genus of crocodylomorph. Any interesting information available that you found regarding its habitat, behavior, etc?",
"With the freezing with their snouts out of water. Was there any damage to the tissues that were in direct contact with the ice? Any tissue damage?",
"If you had to fight a specimen of every single crocodile that has ever existed except for one, which one would you not fight and why?",
"This could sound really weird but I've always wondered (been considering going into research myself once uni is over) what's the pay/job stability like?",
"How do we know that the ancestors of modern crocodylians were were terrestrial as opposed to freshwater dwellers like their descendants?",
"How do you spot the difference between an alligator and a crocodile?\n\nOne sees you later, the other in a while.",
"Is it true that there once existed a Savannah-dwelling crocodylomorph that used a rush down strategy to hunt prey?",
"What were the biggest species of crocodiles and what neat things did they do?",
"I will be signing off now too. Thanks everyone for the great questions!",
"How are they able to climb fences? It’s wild."
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-018-36795-1",
"https://renaissance.stonybrookmedicine.edu/anatomy/people/faculty/wilberg",
"https://renaissance.stonybrookmedicine.edu/anatomy/people/facultypage/turner",
"https://clas.uiowa.edu/ees/people/christopher-brochu"
]
} | {
"url": [
"https://www.cbsnews.com/news/alligators-frozen-north-carolina-swamp-with-noses-above-ice/"
]
} | AskScience AMA Series: We are vertebrate paleontologists who study crocodiles and their extinct relatives. We recently published a study looking at habitat shifts across the group, with some surprising results. Ask Us Anything!
Hello AskScience! We are paleontologists who study crocodylians and their extinct relatives. While people often talk about crocodylians as living fossils, their evolutionary history is quite complex. Their morphology has varied substantially over time, in ways you may not expect. We recently published a [paper looking at habitat shifts across Crocodylomorpha](_URL_0_), the larger group that includes crocodylians and their extinct relatives. We found that shifts in habitat, such as from land to freshwater, happened multiple times in the evolution of the group. They shifted from land to freshwater three times, and between freshwater and marine habitats at least nine times. There have even been two shifts from aquatic habitats to land! Our study paints a complex picture of the evolution of a diverse group. Answering questions today are: - [**Eric Wilberg, Ph.D.**](_URL_1_) (/u/DrCroctagon): Dr. Wilberg is an assistant professor in the Department of Anatomical Sciences at Stony Brook University. - [**Alan Turner, Ph.D.**](_URL_2_) (/u/TurnerLab): Dr. Turner is an associate professor in the Department of Anatomical Sciences at Stony Brook University. - [**Christopher Brochu, Ph.D.**](_URL_3_) (/u/cabrochu1): Dr. Brochu is a professor in the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences at the University of Iowa. **We will be online to answer your questions at 1pm Eastern Time. Ask us anything!** ----- **Thanks for the great discussion, we have to go for now!** | [
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1jvjr9 | How fast am I going? | I am sitting perfectly still. But the planet is rotating and revolving. The solar system is doing the same thing in the galaxy. The galaxy is hurtling through space. How fast am I going?
Bonus questions: All motions described above stop. We all get thrown out into space. How fast do we travel? Will we escape the atmosphere (assuming it hangs around)? What about those of us indoors, specifically in concrete structures (parking garage), when it happens?
Thanks in advance. | askscience | {
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"cbiqm61",
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"text": [
"~~It's a shame this was downvoted~~ because it's a great question (perhaps it gets asked regularly); the answer is pretty mindblowing, to me :D \n \nThe question is in fact meaningless, because it assumes the existence of something called _absolute motion_. It is in fact not possible to take an object and measure its velocity in such a way that every observer, at every point in the universe, can agree on how fast it is going. The only way we can measure motion is by observing objects in a relative reference frame. \n \nAnd there is no universally motionless object which we can all use as our reference frame, so in fact, there is no such thing as motion unless it is relative to another object. Scientists once believed that one such possible \"universally-motionless\" thing that everyone could measure themselves against _did_ exist, and they called it the [aether](_URL_1_). In one of the most remarkable results in scientific history, the [Michelson-Morley experiement](_URL_2_ \"Another astonishing conclusion of this work is that the speed of light is constant in all reference frames - that is, if you run towards someone at 99% the speed of light, and you're holding a torch, they will still only measure the light as coming towards them at c. Physics is so crazy.\"), the aether was found not to exist, which gave some weight to the idea of absolute motion (and absolute space) not existing. \n \nThis realisation, which all started with a question exactly like yours, was one of the big motivations that brought along the Theory of Relativity, now of course one of the most important theories in physics! \n \nIf we apply this train of thought to your second question, we can see that there is no actual way to define the term \"all motions\". We can say \"What if the Earth stops moving relative to the Sun\", and \"What if the Sun stops moving relative to the galaxy\", and so on, but we will never actually get far enough in this series of questions to ask what happens when _all_ motions stop, because there is no reference frame in which all objects are moving. Weird huh! \n \nSee Osymandius' [reply](_URL_0_), however, for an estimation of our movements relative to the galaxy, Sun, and Earth.",
"/u/natty_dread has the important question!\n\nHere are a couple of possible answers\n\n0m/s relative to the earth \n460m/s if you're at the equator (the earth spinning) \nAbout 30,000m/s (earth going round the sun) \nAbout 200,000m/s (solar system rotating around the centre of the galaxy) \nAbout 600,000m/s (Milky Way moving through space - tricky to estimate!)",
"There is no absolute frame of reference, so you must determine the frame of reference you want to compare movement against. \n\nWhile there is no absolute reference frames, some reference frames are better than others for the question you are asking. Earth surface is rotating rotating 0.465 km/second and moves 390 kilometers per second against cosmic microwave background radiation (CBR).",
"The most fundamental intellectual leap required to understand the theory of relativity is that there's no such thing as absolute motion.\n\nThis is a very non-intuitive result so take some time to let the idea, let alone acceptance of it, sink in. There is no such thing as absolute motion. There is no universal definition of \"stationary\". All motion is relative.\n\nThat's why \"relativity\" is named that way. Because it's a construction of the underlying elements of all of the laws of physics (space and time) which is consistent regardless of relative velocity.\n\nMeaning that however you define your \"reference frame\" all of the laws of physics still hold together. So if you decide to define a high-energy proton traveling at 0.9999999999c relative to Earth as being stationary and the Earth as moving that fast instead, everything still works. Similarly, if you hop in a space ship and travel at such a high speed relative to the Earth locally everything will always seem just fine, and the laws of physics will still be the same as in any other reference frame.\n\nThis is a weird result in contrast to the experiences we've grown up with, but it's the way the Universe works.\n\nSo, to get back to your question, it doesn't matter. It's all about how fast we're going *relative* to something else. The closest we can get to defining some sort of absolute frame of reference for our Universe is the cosmic microwave background radiation. As far as we can tell we're traveling at around 371 km/s relative to the CMB. If, by some mechanism, our galaxy and everything in it were suddenly halted relative to the CMB but human beings were not then we would all be nearly instantly vaporized as we traveled through the atmosphere."
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/1jvjr9/how_fast_am_i_going/cbiq4eo",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luminiferous_aether",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michelson%E2%80%93Morley_experiment"
]
} | How fast am I going?
I am sitting perfectly still. But the planet is rotating and revolving. The solar system is doing the same thing in the galaxy. The galaxy is hurtling through space. How fast am I going? Bonus questions: All motions described above stop. We all get thrown out into space. How fast do we travel? Will we escape the atmosphere (assuming it hangs around)? What about those of us indoors, specifically in concrete structures (parking garage), when it happens? Thanks in advance. | [
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6stbrs | How come otorhinolaryngology is a single discipline if it concerns three different body parts? Are these connected in some way? Are there other examples of specialties that include multiple minor subspecialties? | askscience | {
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"They are connected, literally, through the Eustachian tube (part of the middle ear)\nBecause of this connection, illnesses or infections to one of these body parts often affect the other.\n\nAlso explains why swallowing/chewing can ease the painful feeling in your ear when taking off in an airplane.",
"I was an otorhinolaryngologist for nearly 30 years. In the 60's, ENTs were also trained in eye surgery so lots of older patients recall the EENT specialist. That grouping eventually involved too much knowledge to manage. . The 8\" cube that holds so much of our sensory function is really fascinating because I got to deal with foreign objects in all 3 areas, cancers, congenital deformities, infection, reconstructing trauma, allergies, plastic reconstruction and renovation. Incidentally, most 3rd graders in Spanish speaking countries learned the word early on because it is the longest one in the Spanish language: otorhinolaryngologia",
"Otorhinolaryngology, or more commonly ENT (ear nose and throat), is a surgical specialty. All surgical specialties operate on more than one body part. For example, General surgeons often work on all the organs of the abdomen, the breasts, and the esophagus. Orthopaedic surgeons work on all the bones and joints. Plastic surgeons work on the hands, the face, sometimes the skin in general, as well as doing cosmetic implants, etc. Some sub-specialties get very specific, and each specialty encompasses multiple more-specific sub-specialties. Specialties and sub-specialties often overlap and different surgeons may have procedures they concentrate on, and different hospitals may divide work differently.",
"They are all very much connected. If you look at the embriological developement (how parts of the human body are formed from a single dividing cell) all those organs basicly form from pharyngeal pouches, arches and grooves. Consequently all those organs are functionaly connected.",
"Thoracic surgeons treat the heart, lungs, and esophoegus. Usually they group into general thoracic (e.g. lung cancer) cardiac (open-heart surgery) and congenital cardiac (kids) subspecialties. Also, a cardiologist is not the same as a cardiothoracic surgeon.",
"Other people already answered your first two questions, but for this:\n\n > Are there other examples of specialties that include multiple minor subspecialties?\n\nJust about every medical specialty I can think of has \"areas of interest\" within their specialty that effectively creates sub-specialties (a concentrated area of expertise within their specialty).",
"Ents handle several different things that affect the ear, nose and throat. \nI saw an ENT for a tonsillectomy and adenoidectomy at 23. Same doctor treats people with sinus issues, ear issues and esophageal issues. \nI've seen so many specialists its really inter how specific you can get in subspecialties. \nI've seen a pediatric cardiothoracic surgeon, a thoracic surgeon that specializes in hepatologic medicine who mainly does pediatric liver transplants and surgeries. He wrote an article about me and my surgery that he performed. Check out the spring edition of pediatric surgery 2007. Im 16 year old female with giant hepatocellular adenoma secondary to oxycarbazepine therapy. Published by Drs Superina and Feingold iirc. \n\nI've seen a pediatric/adolescent psychiatrist. Was so sad when I aged out because they're not very common and in demand so he couldn't keep seeing anyone once they turned 18. He's now head of peds psychiatry at that hospital. \nI saw a pediatric rheumatologist and several infectious disease specialists. (got my pic in a medical book for that, it was cool) \n\nAs a transplant recipient I see a hepatologist (liver doctor) a dermatologist (skin) a neurologist/epileptologist (brain/epilepsy) and gynecologist (reproductive) now, as well as a GP. In pretty good health 8 years post transplant.",
"Urology concerns the male and female urinary tracts, AND specifically the male reproductive glands, which are a different tissue type. Pulmonologists frequently treat sinus and allergy symptoms, though not as broadly as an allergist. Pain specialists fall under Anesthesiology, but they frequently work in \"Spine and Pain\" clinics and have strong neurology backgrounds.\n\nAs a counter-example of sorts, there are numerous body parts that fall under several disciplines. Obstetrics (child-birthing) and gynecology (female reproductive organ care) are co-specialized so often it's virtually pronounced \"oh-bee-gee-why-en\".",
"Good answers down here. \nI'm studying ENT now, so I'll throw in my two cents. \n\nApart from Ear, Nose, and Throat, ENT specialists also deal with head and neck surgery. \n\nAnd yes, these three are connected, not just anatomically (via the Eustachian tube) but embryologically, i.e in the way these structures developed. Head and neck structures are derived from the same embryological tissues as ENT. \n\nA classic example is the 9th Cranial nerve (Glossopharyngeus), which supplies one muscle in the throat and a sensory area near the ear as well.\n\nThe 7th cranial nerve supplies muscles of facial expression and is responsible for taste from the anterior part of the tongue. \n\nNot just nerves, arteries and veins as well. \n\nThe Internal Carotid Artery (major blood supplier to the brain) has branches which meet with the External Carotid Artery ( supplies other Head and Neck structures) in an area in the nose. \n\nThere are a lot of such connections, which is why ENT doctors tend to have an extensive knowledge of all the 12 cranial nerve pairs as well as head and neck structures.",
"Every medical specialty has minor subspecialties within it, usually requiring additional training (fellowship) after completing residency. For instance, in emergency medicine, people can subspecialize in a bunch of stuff: toxicology, EMS medicine, wilderness medicine, ultrasound, sports medicine, and others. Even \"general surgery\" has a gazillion subspecialites including hepatobiliary, transplant, vascular surgery, minimally invasive surgery, colorectal surgery, and others. \n\nMedicine is a HUGE area with way more niche disciplines than people think!",
"Before antibiotics, infections involving the Ear/Nose/Throat often required surgical drainage. In those early days of the specialty, the main role of the Otolaryngologist was to Find the Abscess and Drain the Abscess. \nOver time the specialty has evolved, and become more subspecialized, especially, since the surgical techniques used for each of the different organ systems are radically different from each other. One day it will likely split into multiple different specialties. However, for now, one of the most satisfying aspects of ENT is that it offers tremendous diversity. For instance, today I performed an extensive endoscopic operation for a patient with sinus infections, as well as a cochlear implantation to restore hearing for a person who had become deaf.\n\n_URL_0_",
"Otolaryngology has several sub specialties that require additional fellowship training: neuro-otology - ear and skull base surgery, laryngology - treatment of voice problems, facial plastic surgery, head and neck surgery - cancer, pediatric ENT - kids with emphasis of airway problems, rhinology - sinus problems. Most well trained ENTs will do the uncomplicated cases, but the difficult cases will get sent to the specialists.",
"A good example of those specialities you mention would be gastroenterology, which concerns both the stomach and the intestines. Those are very different organs, roughly the stomach digests the food and the intestines absorb the nutrients, but they are connected in a way that any gastric pathology is likely to affect your intestine as well.",
"In a bit late here, but there are always subspecialties in every specialty I feel. I'm a younger orthopedist, but in my field I work specifically on total joints (knees, hips, shoulders.) A few of my partners at the practice I work at have their own designated specialty one woman does just shoulder repairs, another does only sports related injuries, and the remainders are trauma focused. These typically require what are called \"fellowship training\". Even otorhinolaryngology has interesting fellowships such as head and neck oncology, or neurotology. Damn... So much schooling...",
"Civil Engineering has several areas of specialty, so much so that the licensing exam has options to take a different portion depending on your expertise.\n\nGeotechnical, Transportation, Structural, Construction, Water Resources and Environmental all fall under the umbrella of the Civil Engineering discipline.",
"Speech Language Pathologists:\n- Feeding and swallowing (dysphagia)\n- Social skills\n- Play skills\n- Articulation\n- Autism\n- Apraxia\n- Cleft lip/palate\n- Expressive language\n- Receptive language\n- Reading and writing\n- Auditory comprehension\n- Hearing impairments\n- Alternative and Augmentative Communication (AAC)\n- Voice and vocal pathologies\n- Speech fluency (stuttering, cluttering)\n- Accent addition/modification\n- Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI)\n- Aphasia\n- Executive functioning (attention, memory, problem solving)\n- Dysarthria",
"There are tons that deal with systems comprised of multiple body parts. Think of things like endocrinology for example that deals with all hormone secreting glands in the body. The ear nose and throat are all part of a connected system as well like /u/EvilOverlord1989 already pointed out. \n\nSo it's just a manner of grouping connected systems and seldom going to be wholly disjointed ones.",
"Periodontists specialize in teeth, the bone which supports them and the oral soft tissues surrounding them. They all have their own embryological origins, physiologies, anatomy and blood and nerve supply. The study encompasses many aspects of medicine and pathology as well.",
"Alphabetically...\n\n-Cardiology includes Cardiac Electrophysiology and Interventional Cardiology\n\n-Cardiothoracic Surgery includes Cardiac and Thoracic subs\n\n-Emergency Med includes Medical Toxicology\n\n-General Surgery includes Vascular Surgery\n\n-OBGYN has several subs including Maternal-Fetal Medicine, Oncology, Reproductive medicine, etc\n\n-Oncology includes Medical Oncologists, Radiation Oncs, Hem/Oncs (who treat blood cancers), etc.... \n\n-Orthopedics includes Surgery of the Hand and Sports medicine\n\n-Pediatrics includes a multitude of sub-specializations... one for every other specialty\n\n-Radiology includes Interventional and Nuclear\n\n...And depending on how you choose to slide it, there are a ton more. For every major ailment or minor body part there is someone who probably specializes in it. Senior Surgeons are notorious for picking their best three procedures and booking three days at the hospital to do 10 of each.",
"Almost all fields of medicine have subspecialties within their perspective field. There is so much knowledge and expertise required to master various organ systems that subspecialization is needed in order to optimize outcomes. This is particularly true within the surgical fields. A jack of all trades is a master of none and when it comes to surgery, most patients want their surgeon to be someone that has become an expert with lots of experience at that individual surgery.",
"I work in a very large hospital/clinic in the endocrinology division. \n\nsubspecialties include obesity/bariatric surgery, bone disorders (think osteoporosis) thyroid, diabetes, hypoglycemia, transgender, and PGA (pituitary, gonad, and adrenal). Might not be the best example since hormones run everything in your body, but yes other specialties include subspecialties.\n\nIn a personal regard, at the same clinic, my ophthalmologist specializes in strabismus, and the surgeon who corrected it for me only does strabismus surgery.",
"All the things that I talked about above regarding popping of the ears can be true of lightheadedness. Your ENT may have tested you for Eustachian dysfunction. Ask them! \n\nIf it is not coming from the ear balance center, the next stop is usually a neurologist. Lightheaded or dizzy troubles are almost as frustrating for us caregivers to figure out as they are for you as a patient to experience. Of the neurologist discovers no problem, even cardiologists and ophthalmologists may be able to help. Sorry, very difficult problem. Usually not life threatening, but it can sure affect your quality of life.",
"You know how when you're sick and can't hear well, you hold your nose and do the valsava maneuver? That's how the ear and nose are connected. You know how when you drink something and laugh and milk comes out your nose.? That's how theyre connected. You know how every cell in your body started from a single cell? Well that's how everything is connected.",
"I learned a new word today! Thanks kind stranger."
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||
3qjssx | AskScience AMA Series: Graduate and Professional School AMA | Hi everyone!
We have a lot of panelists here to help answer your questions about any and all post-undergraduate schools. We have a wide range of disciplines, career trajectories, and countries covered. As some may be thinking about pursuing advanced degrees right about now, we thought this AMA would give you the chance to ask a lot of experienced people about the applications, the work required, the lifestyle, and the choices we made. Below are some of our panelists, and others will join in throughout the day, so ask all of us anything!
-----
/u/adamsolomon - Hi there. K, so I was an undergrad at Yale (astronomy and physics), did my masters and PhD at Cambridge (theoretical physics) and am now a postdoc at Penn.
/u/Andromeda321 - I am a PhD student in astronomy, currently studying in the Netherlands and hoping to finish my doctorate within the year. I am, however, an American- I came to Europe after a BSc and MSc in Physics at CWRU in Ohio. My current specialization for my PhD is radio astronomy, but my physics background was in cosmic ray physics.
I'm happy to answer any questions about grad school in astronomy, physics, or what it's like to switch from the American system to the European one or vice versa (as they are rather different!). I wrote an (astro specific) article on applying to Europe [here](_URL_8_) that may be of interest to people.
/u/AsAChemicalEngineer - I'm a current graduate student at my university's department of physics. I'm interested in high energy research especially in beyond the standard model. I joined in a sort of unorthodox manner and during the academic year and the most important thing I learned from the application process is that almost every problem can be solved by more paperwork and someone's signature.
/u/dazosan - I am currently a 5th year PhD student studying protein biochemistry at SUNY Buffalo. I am planning on moving on to a postdoc by Febuary. I was a poor student in college and thought I didn't like research, so I thought I could make something of myself as a high school teacher, which is how I ended up in Buffalo. Turns out I just needed a second chance at lab research! Ask me anything about grad school, turning a bum GPA around, or what newly minted STEM PhDs are experiencing!
/u/EagleFalconn - My name is Shakeel Dalal. I hold a dual bachelors in Chemistry and Applied Physics from Purdue University, where I graduated in 2009. That same year, I started at the University of Wisconsin - Madison, where I received a PhD in Physical Chemistry working on thin films of organic glasses in 2014. You can read a little more about my graduate school research in [this thread from /r/science](_URL_10_). I'm currently a research scientist at a company in suburban Chicago, working on things only tangentially related to what I did in graduate school. I don't regret going to grad school, but the fact that I couldn't get a job using my already developed expertise is disheartening. I'm happy with what I'm doing now, but I lament opportunities I didn't get, and I will probably be the debbie downer of this thread. AMA.
/u/electric_ionland - I have done most of my higher education in France where I went to an aerospace engineering school to get the French equivalent of a Master of Science in Engineering. I got the opportunity to do a double degree with an American university. After 2 years in the US I graduated with both the French and American MS with a specialisation in experimental fluid dynamics. I am now doing a PhD on ion thrusters in a public research institution in France.
/u/elitemeatt - I am a graduate student at GSU pursuing a MS in Biology. My research focuses on investigating the genetic basis for developing neurons. I am in the process of applying to PhD programs.
/u/Jobediah - I am an [assistant professor of biology at Arcadia University](_URL_3_). My [academic history](_URL_11_) includes undergraduate research on [turtle breathing and locomotion](_URL_9_), a Masters degree on the [development of escape swimming in salamanders](_URL_4_), a PhD on the [evolution of developmental plasticity](_URL_7_). My two post docs were in far-flung places studying [red-eyed treefrogs](_URL_5_) in Panama and frogs and [salamanders](_URL_0_) Western Kentucky. I did an [interview about AskScience](_URL_2_) last year and [I like turtles](_URL_1_).
/u/liedra - I did my BSc (Honours I) with majors in Computer Science and History & Philosophy of Science at the University of Sydney, Australia, then my PhD in Computer Ethics at Charles Sturt University, Australia. During my undergraduate years and for a year after I worked part time as first line helpdesk support for a couple of companies, then as a Linux systems administrator, PHP/Cold Fusion web programmer, Python programmer, and editor for _URL_6_, which used to be a pretty cool open source software site back in the dotcom heyday of the internet. Throughout that time I decided that no, I didn't want to become a sysadmin or programmer so I went back to uni and did my Honours year and then I won a scholarship for my PhD. Then a couple of postdocs and now I'm a Senior Lecturer in technology ethics in the UK, where I'm 50/50 research teaching in a permanent position in a post-92 university (which I enjoy a lot).
/u/noschoolspirit - Hello!
I obtained my undergraduate degree in Geology and Mathematics at the University of South Florida (USF). There, I took an interest in hydrological processes and applied for a Masters at the University of Florida. My masters thesis modeled fluid flow in carbonate aquifers during high discharge events; specifically looking at aquifer storage during floods. This got me interested in the mechanics of flow and subsurface storage, and what effect this had on flood magnitude on a broader scale. I applied to Michigan Tech for a degree in Civil Engineering focusing on water resources to try and tackle this problem. I also developed an interest and helped on modeling projects involving glacier hydrology. I am due to graduate with a Ph.D. in Spring 2016. My research considers:
1. The role of watershed process on flood frequency and magnitude. This involves analyzing the impacts of specific process on stream response.
2. Climate change and the evolution in flood series statistics used to predict floods
3. Karst (carbonate) terrain evolution and geomorphology (including its impact on regionalization in flood frequency analysis)
4. Glacier hydrology and motion
So basically anything related to surface and subsurface hydrology and their interactions.
/u/OrbitalPete - I'm a volcanologist at a UK university. After an undergrad in Earth Science I went off, taught 11-18 Chemistry for a few years, then came back to do a PhD at London. Followed that with a postdoc at the same place, followed by a postdoc fellowship in France. Most of my experience is in experimental flow modelling, but I've also worked in computation modelling on projects collaborating with oil industry partners dealing with submarine currents. In between I've spent a couple of years on casual work while the economic downturn blew volcanology funding out of the water and I resisted returning to the classroom full time.
/u/pengdrew - Here are a few notes about me:
* B.A. in Biology from a small Liberal Arts College.
* PhD in Biology from Top R1 University.
* Dissertation was on Telomere dynamics & Aging in a long lived species. In addition to field and laboratory research, I TAd extensively and also was lead Instructor for an intro course during my PhD.
* Currently a PostDoc at my PhD Institution, currently interviewing in industry and academia.
/u/p1percub - I studied math and biochemistry at Carleton College and the worked in industry (molecular diagnostics) a bit before deciding to get a PhD. I ended up at the University of Chicago in the Dept of Human Genetics for my doctorate and then did a short post doc at the University of Washington in Genome Sciences before accepting a tenure track position at the University of Texas Health Science Center School of Public Health. I have an appointment in the Graduate School of Biomedical Science (a program shared with MD Anderson), and I formally collaborate with Baylor College of Medicine Human Genome Sequencing Center. I'm happy to answer any and all questions about training, my time in industry, and all levels of academic training!
/u/quant_liz_lemon is a 3rd year Quantitative Psychology graduate student with an invisible disability. She studies the influence of personality and intelligence on important lifetime outcomes, using quasi-experimental designs. She is supported by a National Science Foundation Graduate Research Fellowship. She intends to go into academia, which is why she is pursuing a Quantitative Psychology PhD instead of a Personality PhD -- the job market is much better for quant, in both industry and academia.
/u/Silpion - I studied physics in college and in grad school, where my research was in experimental nuclear astrophysics. After getting my PhD I decided to leave basic physics and not pursue a postdoc. I am currently in a medical physics residency, training for a career as a clinical medical physicist in radiation oncology.
/u/silverphoinix - I went to school, did my undergrad and am completeing my PhD in UK. My BSc was in Chemistry with Forensic Science, and now I am working in a Materials Engineering department studying Magnetism. I am aiming to continue in academia and have already been in contact with potential post-doctoral supervisors. During my UG I spent my summers working in a research lab for Inorganic and Solid State Chemistry. Basically I have had quite the change in fields! So feel free to ask me questions about higher / further education in the UK, fears of changing research / subject areas, or just what is different about being a PhD compared to undergraduate.
/u/superhelical - Hey! I did mu undergrad in biochemistry at a mid-sized university outside of Toronto, and am currently completing my PhD at McGill University in Montreal. I'm currently in the search of a post-doc position in molecular modelling and single-molecule studies.
/u/taciturnbob - I've had a rather circuitous route, considering engineering, medicine, and finance as an undergraduate. I dropped out of a biomedical engineering PhD program to pursue Public Health. I worked as a state HIV epidemiologist while getting my MPH from GWU, and am now a PhD candidate at Johns Hopkins. I am based in Liberia working on a project to strengthen health information systems.
/u/ratwhowouldbeking - I did a BSc in Psychology at Wilfrid Laurier University in Waterloo, Ontario, and my MSc and PhD in Psychology at University of Western Ontario in London, Ontario. I'm now a postdoctoral fellow in the Department of Psychology at the University of Alberta in Edmonton, Alberta.
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"/u/theratwhowouldbeking \n\nI'm an undergrad interested in going to a PhD program in psychology. \n\nQ1. How much did you know about grad school prior to going to grad school , and which things do you wish you had known? \nI ask this question because I know it's recommended to know things like course curriculum, living expenses of the area, what kind of research the professors are doing, what the lab is like, the personality/\"style\" of professors, and how successful alumni are post graduation, but its... just so effing much. Do people really research all of this prior to application?\n\nQ2. How is the job market these days? \n\nEdit : clarification of question.",
"Unsolicited advice: Thinking about grad school in **evolutionary and ecological** biology? Get a Master's degree. \n\nYou will have more information about what graduate school is, more opportunities, and be better qualified for getting a PhD. You'll know who the players are and maybe you'll rule out a field or topic. You might publish or you may find out that you hate academics. All of this is useful. I think you have the most options with a Master's (more than undergrad and PhD). When you go down the road of a PhD, you start limiting yourself becoming overqualified. Also the [job market for PhDs sucks](_URL_0_). \n\nThat said, the ones going into a PhD against sage advice are the ones who may have what it takes. I landed the golden unicorn of a job against all odds but I also wouldn't have really cared if I didn't because I got to play with turtles and salamanders for like 20 years. \n\n*edit: added words in bold to distinguish that diversity of biological fields have different takes on this*",
"What are the pros/cons of getting a master's degree before going on to a PhD program. I was considering going straight to a doctoral program after my bachelors but due the lack of funds/time/availability in regards to undergraduate research I feel like a master's program is much more achievable with my CV.",
"A number of folks have asked about the admissions process and while it is field specific, many are approaching a PhD application like undergrad or med school. In my experience it is very different. You are applying to a person (the PI) and not the school, it is more of a job interview than a school application. I had some notes about where to start that I posted in another response, but thought it would benefit all to post as a top comment:\n\nConsider seriously your research questions, what excites you? What specific things interest you? What things don't? Do you have a project or mechanism you'd like to investigate during your PhD? Do you have species, diseases, or mechanisms you want to specialize in?\n\nNow, take the answers to these questions and consider the following:\n\n - Remember you are applying to a lab, or will ultimately enter a lab. This lab is run by a person. In my experience, you are applying to a person and not a program. Sure you must 'get in' but in academia, if a PI connects with you and wants you in the lab, they will fight for your admission.\n\n - Research the literature and find people who are doing the things or interested in the types of questions you want to explore and reach out to them. It can be intimidating yes, but you are building a personal connection with the PI to whom you would like to work with for the next 5-7yrs.\n\n - Caveat: Say you don't have a specific interest, categorize the kinds of things you'd like to study, and look at departments that have a number of PIs working on the types of things that interest you.\n\n - Reach out to your current advisors, not just for reference letters, but ask them if they know of labs that are (1) doing the kinds of things that interest you, (2) ones that you would fit well within and (3) are taking grad students. Ask if they would feel comfortable introducing you. Here you can begin to build this personal relationship.\n\n - Apply for Grad School Grants BEFORE YOU APPLY TO GRAD SCHOOL! Apply for the NSF Graduate Research Fellowship Program, EPA Starr Grant (if your research qualifies), and the NIH Pre-doc Fellowship (I don't recall the name offhand). These funds go with you and are not linked to the school. Coming with funding already secured is a HUGE advantage in admission to a program (now the PI does not have to find funds to pay you).\n\nThese were some things I think are really helpful and would be happy to answer any other questions! Remember, a PhD is not entirely about how smart you are, it is about your excitement about research, your tenacity to pursue a project, your willingness to fight, fail and keep going. You ability to DO science, not just know it. These are a major component to your grad school successes, so demonstrate to your potential PIs that you have what it takes. Good luck!",
"I'm happy to answer questions too. I did my undergrad at Maryland in Microbiology. I worked various jobs before returning to school for my PhD. Those 7 years included being a technician in an ovarian cancer research lab at the NIH, teaching high school science for 4 years, and doing pathogenesis research on *Streptococcus pyogenes*. I did my PhD at Wisconsin, also in microbiology, where I focused on bacterial communities in tropical ants. I did a postdoc before leaving Wisconsin, looking at (surprise) bacterial communities in human and pig vocal folds.\n\nI knew early that I didn't want to be a professor, and now it seems I've found my niche. I am a lab and research safely specialist at Penn State covering all things lab safety. I'm about 5 months into this position, and it's a great fit. I need to know a lot of things about a lot of things. It's a fun and interesting challenge so far.",
"Hi,\n\nI am a PhD student and currently changing to a Post-Doc possition.\n\nHow long, do you think, should one be a Post-Doc? \n\nBackground: I heard from a friend that she spent 5 years as a postdoc and now has problems to find a job. She couldn't move on to tenure track and is now way to specialized for an industry job. \n\nSo when should you change the institute or just move on to industry?",
"Hello /u/liedra, 2nd year college student here on the road to a CS-SE degree. I'm currently tackling learning each programming language one by one at the moment but is there a specific one I should be focusing on?\n\nAlso, what about being a programmer did you not enjoy? Did you gradually begin to dislike it or was it something you didn't really enjoy from the start? What is your advice for someone headed down the path to CS and what do you wish you knew early on?",
"I'm not a panelist but I can answer questions with regards to non-traditional students. I'm currently a first year Ph.D student in physics with an undergrad degree in a field completely outside of science, so I'm somewhat of an unusual case. I recall being filled with questions when I finally realized that I wanted to head to study physics but without the necessary background so if anyone has questions along those lines, feel free to ask away.",
"Hello! I'm not sure which of you in the biology field are (or feel) the most qualified to answer this question so just feel free to give me your opinion if you like. It's greatly appreciated.\n\nI'm in a strange position where I know exactly what I want to do, but don't know how to get there. I want to work in biotech, preferably at a managerial position, leading the research in developing new therapies/equipment/pharmaceuticals. I don't really mean as a CEO, more like CSO of a startup (or something of equivalent responsibility) and being involved in the creational process and directing of the research. I really enjoy research, and creating something that can directly improve the quality of life for many people at a time seems amazing. Plus being on the forefront of biological discovery is kickass, you are literally figuring out things never before known in human history. \n\nAt the same time, I don't want to be the guy stuck in the lab running PCR and ELIZAs for the rest of my life. I really like research, but the actual process of doing it is incredibly tedious. It's analyzing the data and being creative with the results that gets me off.\n\nFor forever I've wanted to be a doctor as well, mostly because I see myself working to help others and I think the practice of it is awesome. The more I worked in the clinical environment though, the more I realized that I'd prefer working in biotech. There I can fuse all my passions of biology, business, and helping cure disease.\n\nMy problem is now I don't know which form of education I need! After I decided not to be a doctor, I thought PhD was the only real path. Now a lot of people are telling me that a MD would be equally useful, if not more! The reasons are this:\n\n1. PhD is very specific in the subject you are knowledgeable of. Sure, you get some broad knowledge of biology too, but really your focus is on the thesis. It would be more useful to have an in depth knowledge of the human body and how the systems interact via the MD degree for doing what I want. If I had a PhD, it would be difficult for me to move away from the subjects I've already been doing research on.\n\n2. It's easier for me to get a job. I think practicing medicine is still awesome so I can do that until I have the opportunity/idea/finances to pursue a career in research. With a doctorate I'd be more desperate for a job and probably more willing to sacrifice my dream career for a stable income, even if it's just pipetting samples all day.\n\nI'm obviously leaning towards an MD, but you gotta also think that you don't see that many doctors working in research, and that these degrees cost a lot and require years of residency. There's a lot to consider and I don't want to make the wrong decision before committing myself down such a long path, one way or another.",
"Thank you all for doing this. I am an American student currently in the PhD application process and have one question for /u/elitemeatt, /u/pengdrew, /u/piper, or anyone else who knows about PhD biology admissions:\n\nHow important is the subject GRE in biology/biochemistry for graduate programs that \"strongly recommend\" it? I took the biochemistry GRE because I'd like to go into a cell/molecular/genetics program, and I have a feeling I scored in the 50th-60th percentile (haven't gotten the score yet). I'm applying to top ten programs and am contemplating leaving this score out of my application if it is too low. Thoughts?",
"When is the best time to start looking/thinking of grad school? I guess I'm looking for a deadline that I need to meet. I'm currently a junior in chemistry and I would really enjoy working on a harder degree, but I have absolutely no idea where or when to begin. Any advice is welcome!",
"I apologize if this is a little broad, but with such an array of brainpower I have to ask; what do you think will be the most beneficial discovery in your fields over the next five years and what will it allow for the future of each one of your studies?",
"I did my undergrad in economics, and then got my MBA. I would like to someday get a PhD in computer science, specifically machine learning. I'm already in my 30s and making enough money where taking 5 years to go back to school wouldn't make financial sense. \n\nIs there any way of getting my degree quicker? Would completing Georgia Tech's OMSCS be beneficial? \n\nWhat would getting my PhD entail? Are there classes, or mostly just research and publishing? If I'm getting papers published on my own could that count some way into the degree?",
"I thought I volunteered for this? I guess not, probably because I'm a lazy bastard. Oh well.",
"How did you pick your research topics? Did you know what you wanted to do and aimed for advisors in those fields? Did you show up on campus and pick a project based on availability and funding? Were you shuttled. Along in your career path on the basis of earlier undergrad research?\n\nI'm in between programs right now because I don't know what I want to do. I did my BS in physics and chemical engineering, just finished my MS in geochem, and now I'm stumped. I'm interested in a thousand different things. I've worked in labs from drug delivery to nano chemistry to marine sampler development, and I'm happy doing just about any scientific work as long as I have a functional advisor and department.\n\n I want to continue into a phd program because I like academia and I want to continue in scientific research, but I'm having serious problems deciding on an institution and field of study. I have an excellent academic background and I'm not worried about getting in to certain programs. I'm just very easy going and I'll always find something worthwhile in what I'm working on, so I don't know what to choose. I just like science and problem solving and doing something useful with my day, I don't particularly care if it's in chemistry or geology or physics or what have you.\n\nI'm taking a gap year right now to try to figure out what's next, but I haven't cleared anything up yet. I don't know if this is a commitment problem or what, but do any of you relate? Do I keep looking into phd programs or do I go get a job for a few years? I'm worried if I don't continue with grad school now, I'll never find the time to go back...",
"1)What is the one thing you wished you knew/did in your undergraduate years?\n2)What university has the top molecular biology program in the world? Also, UK vs US programs?\n3)What are books you would recommend to someone (to learn the basics and to get a general gist) who is planning on doing research/a PhD in the life sciences? (about everything from grants to research methods)\n4)Bs > Ms > PhD or Bs > PhD?\n5)How do you take advantage of the time you have in your 4 year undergraduate degree program?\n6)How long is too long when it comes to getting a PhD? What is the ideal? 4 years? 7?\n7)How do you cope with the stress that an academic life necessarily entails? How many hours of sleep do you get on busy days?\n8)What should I know about academic fraud?\n9)Is post-doc mandatory? Would I be much worst off without doing post-doc?\n10)Too many PhDs, too few jobs. agree/disagree?\n11)Double major vs Bs-Ms program?\n12)In your opinion, which education system prepares students best for research? (UK/US; undergraduate/graduate)",
"Hi panelists, \n \nI'm currently in my sixth year of a post-bachelor's Ph.D. program. In that time, the department I entered grad school to study with has been dissolved and re-purposed into another department, and 2 of my 3 faculty advisors have left for greener pastures. I've worked on drafts for several papers, all but one of them never made it to publication for various reasons. I've been working for almost 2 years to put together a publication of the work I've been doing, but it still seems to be going nowhere and my advisor doesn't seem committed to getting it out the door. I lose my RA funding next semester when our grant expires. \n \nIs it worth sticking it out to try and graduate at this point? **Will I be \"employable\" as a PhD with almost nothing to show for my time besides my dissertation?** Is \"mastering out\" a good option?",
"I have a question for /u/AsAChemicalEngineer. \n\nI assume you did one of your undergrad degrees in ChemE. What made you switch to high-energy physics? Also, I'm curious as to how you ended up at your current university and what it entailed to join in such a non-traditional way (in the middle of the term and probably out of the normal admission cycle). I am not planning on doing this, but I'd like to know, if you have a moment.",
"This one goes to /u/ratwhowouldbeking and i suppose also i /u/quant_liz_lemon (that username tho!)...\n\nI have a BS in psych under my belt and now am looking to study human sexuality in some way, probably related to psychology (sex therapist?). either way, should i be trying to find schools with programs that focus on sexuality or can i find a general psych program and focus on sexuality myself. i know this field is pretty small so this is proving difficult for me to navigate. thanks in advance for any tips. im completely open to any suggestions or advice.",
"/u/dazosan What do you mean turn a bum GPA around? Are credentials (GPA, Gre, etc)as important as some intangibles like experience or motivation? Did you get denied from any schools if so what was that like and what did they want to see from you to attain acceptance?",
"NSF GRF applications are due this week - does anyone have any experience applying or advice?",
"Hi everyone, thanks for doing this AMA.\n\nI'm currently at a stage in my life where I finished a Masters programme in the UK in Biomedical Sciences 2 years ago, and I'm desperately trying to break in to Cancer Research, probably in the area of cellular or molecular biology. I've worked on a few short (3 month) research projects mainly involving the role that genes play in disease states, but beyond that I've never been employed in a research capacity (I am 25). \n\nI am really eager to get in to research, but every job that I apply for, and every funded PhD programme that I apply to, I seem to have no luck. It has been this way for 2 years and I'm concerned that perhaps my lack of experience is letting me down. I've been considering moving back home in London and trying to gain some voluntary experience in a cancer research laboratory to gain some relevant experience (currently I am in a clinical laboratory). \n\nDo you have any advice for someone wanting to break in to the field of molecular/cellular biology, whether it's writing for applications (i.e. what the emphasis should be on), gaining experience, or anything else that might help. I know that this is where I want to go with my life, and I want to help myself out in any way that I can.\n\nThanks again for any advice.",
"I graduated with a BS in neuroscience and am looking to get into a PhD in the same discipline. I worked as a research assistant for a chem professor for 6 months and did an independent project for my neuroanatomy professor during my last semester. Currently, I'm working as a lab tech/supervisor where I actually manage the entire lab and started up a small R & D initiative. Presumably i will be there up until grad school. I also tutor on the side and have tutored before for over 2 years (mainly chemistry). 3.5gpa and I am taking the GRE in Nov.\n\n- assuming avg GRE scores, would I be a competitive candidate for most PhD programs? I feel under prepared and worried I might biff the test.\n\n- what is the best way to check out programs taking place around the country and what kind of research is happening? Would it be appropriate to reach out to professors there and ask to discuss their research and my candidacy over Skype?\n\n- is it uncommon to join in spring? Most deadlines for fall enrollment are approaching fast. I feel wholly unprepared to be sending out applications but I also don't like the idea of waiting an entire year for the next cycle--plus the additional ~8months before classes even begin.\n\n- any other words of advice from someone on the other side of the fence.",
"Thanks for doing this AMA!\n\nI've noticed a trend of graduate schools looking for strong research experience in this thread. I am applying to MSc Genetic Counseling programs this semester. I realized my STEM calling later in life, so my first bachelors is completely unrelated to what I'm doing now. I am now in my last year of a BA in Biology, but because I'm a little bit older, I've had other obligations (full-time job which is also unrelated to science, managing finances, housekeeping, etc.) and I haven't been able to do any research. I have a lot of previous experience in the counseling part, but almost none in the biology part, except the fact that I'm going to school for it now. Do you think this will be a major detriment in my application? Also, how do would you recommend that I spin my unique breadth of experience in a way that will make me more attractive to graduate programs?",
"Hi! Thanks for the AMA. I am a post-Bach student with a business degree who found my STEM calling a little late. I am taking a few undergrad math and science classes now in preparation to pursue a grad degree in aeronautical engineering (or another engineering program, depending what is offered at the school I choose) and/ or astrophysics with a goal to work in the space industry (a major industry in my area.) I am looking at programs now and realized I have no idea how to evaluate a grad program with a STEM focus. What should I look for? I recently found out that there is a separate accreditation schools in the U.S. should have for undergrad engineering programs (ABET), is that also true for grad programs? Are there other accreditations (other than a school's regional accreditation) I should check for as well, or is a school's reputation more important? What other factors should I take into consideration?",
"/u/adamsolomon\n\nI am in my final year of undergraduate education at a liberal arts college hoping to follow the same route, i.e. obtain a theoretical physics PhD. I'm majoring in physics and mathematics. I love physics and know that it would be an enjoyable career path to become a professor. But I have some reservations about starting a PhD right now. That is, I don't know if I currently have the excitement or motivation to complete a PhD. Perhaps I do, but am worried to find that the answer is \"No\". What sort of outlook or attitude should one have before going down this path?\n\nAnother standard question, what do you wish you had known before beginning a PhD?",
"/u/theratwhowouldbeking ,\n/u/quant_liz_lemon \nor really anyone who could pitch in: \n\nI'm currently an undergrad student (psychology major, third year) and i'm having a really tough time defining which area of study i want to go into after i get out, i'm getting close to the point where i feel need to define what my time investments should go into, and i know some of the questions here have been a little more complex than this but.. \n\nWhen exactly did you figure out the direction you wanted to go after graduation? Did you just have to pick an area and go with it, or did a specific area always stand out for you?",
"Hey all, quick question. I applied to grad school 2 years ago for a chemistry PhD and got let down by every school. I had great letters, a 3.5 gpa, 3 years of research experience, and a publication. It must have been a competitive year. But I got a job instead, and by the time I apply again I will have had 2 years of experience as a scientist at a large chemical company. Will this help me at all? Being out of school for experience and such? I'm still pretty let down by the whole thing.",
"Hi there! Thanks for doing this AMA! \n\nI'm just about to turn in my application for the California State system (CSU), and one of the steps includes statement of purpose. I know why I want to pursue my graduate degree, so I'll have no problem writing about that, but they gave NO indication of how long this statement should be. My Master's program did, but the CSU system did not. Any recommendations on how long of a statement that should be? \nThanks!!!",
"Wow! This is great. Thanks to everyone who put this together or is participating. My questions are for everyone/anyone.\n \nWhat do you wish you did in undergrad to better prepare for going to grad school?\n \nWhat is the difference between your undergrad and graduate social life? \n \nWhat can I (as an undergrad RA) do to make my grad student's life easier? (we're in a psych lab but I'd be happy to hear anyone's answer!)",
"I was an MS bio student for a year but I ended up leaving b/c my advisor was abusive and basically pulled a massive bait and switch. Now I'm looking for a new program and talking to a few professors. How do I tell them about why I'm looking for a new program without making myself sound like a flight risk?",
"I know I'm not on the panel... but i'm a 5th year PhD student in Electrical Engineering studying physical human robot interaction (we are working on making robots better and safer!) focusing on powered prosthetic devices. \n\nI wouldn't mind helping where I can. (Mods, do I need to verify anything?) \n\nAlso, do the folks at /r/GradSchool know?",
"I'm currently in Junior Year high school and have always dreamt of a career in radio astronomy.I've got 3 questions:\n\n* What are some subjects that I should be acquainted with during undergrad?\n* What degree(s) should I persue for a considerable job in Radio Astronomy?\n* How is the work atmosphere?",
"Wow thanks to all of you for taking the time to do this! \n\nSo bit of a long post but I have a short setup and a few questions: \n\n\nIn short I went to a undergrad at a top 5 school, studied neurobiology and chemistry and was lucky enough to make it out with a 4.0. I got into med school but then deferred and in that year off I went to Europe to work in a biophysics research lab studying vision and then came back to the US and started working at NASA studying radiation biophysics. Currently I'm a med student but I'm thinking of dropping out before getting further into debt and investing more time. I'm interested in switching fields into physics/astronomy but making that leap is personally a bit challenging as the medical school I'm in is well known and its an opportunity many people would relish. \n\nSo my questions are the following: For the physics/astro people in this AMA, like /u/adamsolomon and /u/Andromeda321, what is the worst part of your career and conversely, the best? Also what is the job market like, is it feasible to stay in academia for most PhDs or do they end up scattered in other fields? In this vein, how much does the name recognition of an institution weigh on one's future prospects for getting a postdoc, tenure, etc.? Next, I recognize I will need additional math and physics courses to get up to speed. I've done several MIT OCW classes and other MOOCs online but I'd imagine a more formal coursework would be required. I'm wondering then if anyone is familiar with post-bacc options, physics \"bridge\" programs, or other avenues for preparing for a PhD and can speak on their merits. Finally, about age: by the time I have caught up and am ready to apply, I will most likely be 26-27 years old and I'm wondering if admissions committees will look negatively on this fact and/or my rather non-conventional path to that point.\n\nAnyway thanks for doing this again, there's been some great info here! Best of luck and /u/adamsolomon, if you don't already know him, Josh Klein he's an awesome dude at Penn! \n\nEdit- If any of the physics/astro people want to take a crack at this, though it might be a long answer: If I'm trying to get to where you are now, ie a PhD position, based on the short bio I gave above what would you make sure to do (questions to ask yourself, things to consider, classes to take, whatever) in order to get there?",
"Hello! This post is perfect timing as I'm applying to schools this year. I graduated just over a year ago with a BS in biochemistry and have been working in industry since graduation. The programs I'm applying to are genetics and developmental biology related, particularly pertaining to stem cells. Most programs are R1 top tier schools because they have the most interesting (to me) research in the field. I have many questions but here's some to start:\n\n1. I feel I have the credentials and could do well at these high level schools but I'm nervous that I am not conveying what I need to in my personal statement. I've tried to focus on my passion, interests, and how my experiences have supported that, but I feel like my time in industry is two years where I didn't really do anything related to genetics. How can I work this in effectively, and how can I spruce up my personal statement (it feels kind of boring right now)? Also, how much does the personal statement impact an admissions offer?\n\n2. How do you maintain a work life balance in grad school? I'm getting married in the spring and don't want to totally abandon him while I spend 5 years entrenched in research.\n\n3. Speaking of which, how often do grad students start a family while in school? Is it feasible? When would be the best time, if any?\n\n4. How do the classes in the first couple years prepare you for the rest of your career?\n\n5. How did you pick a research advisor? \n\n6. How did you pick a project? Was it passed/assigned to you or did you pick it on your own? If the latter, how did you find your topic?\n\n7. How do you find a professor who will not treat you like a pair of hands, but will adequately train you to become a good scientist? I've heard stories about big name professors who just want results and assign you what to do. How do you avoid that?\n\n8. How did you pick your school?\n\n9. What happens during interviews? The schools I'm applying to have an interview to get in, and I don't know what to wholly expect. \n\nThank you so much for doing this AMA! \n\nAlso I apologize for any typos or weird autocorrect. I'm on my phone and it constantly changes what I've typed.",
"Hello, how are you? I would like to know your advice on something which I cannot decide no matter how hard I think about it. Im 19 years old and Im in my first university year in Physics. I live in Argentina, where there is no division between college and school. You choose a career and you get the m.s after 6 years in the same place you started. I still cant decide even if Im on my first year as they are almost the same classes between the two the first years. I want to choose something that might have an impact on the world. Help the world become better and more advanced.\n\n\nI like Physics because I am the kind of person which questions everything, not only about Physics but about everything about life. If it were for me I would study physics, engineering, biology and computer science. Also, I would like to, in the future, being useful to humanities technological and scientifical development. And physics seems like a good choice as it basically covers every aspect of the Universe. But, I am also really concerned on the practical aspect of it. I want to help our world become a better place. Help Develop to become a better civilization. Physics might not be the best choice as it is soo abstract I don't think its applications, modern physics, would help much. I was planning on maybe do applied physics as a Phd or engineering as a second career (Really choosing a life path so early is hard!)\n\n\nEngineering was always my second choice, but right now I am leaning towards it. As I find It will give me better tools and more freedom to accomplish my goals. Also it would be less theorethical with more applications. I was thinking Mechanical Engineering maybe. working in aerospace is one of my dreams. What would an engineering degree allow me to do there? And what would a Physics degree differentiate in?Is doing both careers viable?\n\nThanks a lot!",
"Thank you all for doing this AMA.\n\nI will soon graduate with a BS in Biology from a small private liberal arts university in Texas. GPA is a 2.8 and major GPA is 2.5. Anybody with experience in post-grad Biology is more than welcome to respond.\n\nUnsolicited attention: /u/elitemeatt /u/pengdrew /u/superhelical \n\n**Where do I even begin after graduation? How do I get a job with a lab so they can help me pay for graduate school?**\n\n/u/dazosan: So with my crummy GPA, how difficult is the application process for post-grad schools? I really want a career in Biology. I still unsure about which precise field but would love to do labwork. How was your experience in the lab?\n\n/u/Jobediah: Looking at your research in herpetology, how does the field look? Is it competitive or rare? I raise two axolotls and have seen some research working with axolotls I find interesting. Maybe one day herpetology research would be my specialty.\n\n/u/p1percub: Tell me about your experience with training in academia and working for industry. I am unsure about choosing between industry and academia. I'm not confident in my ability to teach biology, and am intimidated by how people describe industry as meaningless, repetitive, and boring. But above all, I would love to work in a lab, ideally in Texas.\n\n/u/taciturnbob: I can relate with your indecision. I cannot choose a specific field of biology from anywhere between microbiology to forensics. What helped you most in making your decision to pursue Public Health?\n\n**If I only have one question answered, I would love to know any good resources for finding labs where I can intern/work in where they can help me pay for graduate school. And how to go about applying for those jobs.**",
"Hello! I'm currently in year 2 of a MS/PhD, and strongly considering leaving this semester after I finish my course requirement for the MS. I guess my question can be boiled down to: did any of y'all consider leaving partway through? What made you decide to stay? Are you happy with the decision or would you do it differently?\n\nA little background/more specific questions. I'm in EE (specifically optics) at a top 15 for the field. Coming out of undergrad I was planning on taking a year or two to work and think if I really wanted a PhD. The chair of my department approached me to stay for a PhD and pitched it as I could leave after my masters if it wasn't a great fit. I since applied for NDSEG funding and received it. My adviser is very connected in the field. I feel like I'm in a great situation and am stupid for considering leaving. \n\nI think the main reasons I'm considering it are that I don't feel inspired and actually somewhat apathetic towards the research, and I don't think I'm happy in my location. I'm pretty sure I don't want to go into academia, but a PhD (or MS+3 years work) is sort of a requirement for a lot of optics jobs--but I'm not positive I want to go into that field. I feel like I could always go back for a phd after working for a year or two if I have a change of heart. \n\nDoes anyone have advice or experience with considering leaving/returning to a phd?",
"Little bit of an odd question. I started graduate school in 2010, in Biosystems and Agricultural Engineering pursuing an MS degree. The project was very poorly thought out, very hard to test, and hard to research. To add to this my adviser was incompetent (in my eyes at least). After 2 years I finished all my coursework and my grant was almost up. My adviser said he wanted to extended testing another year. Okay. Then after that he wanted to rework other parts of it delayed my thesis more and more. After almost 4 years total I had to find a job to support myself. Once I had a job work was even more difficult between me and him.\n\n\nAfter a couple weeks without hearing from him I emailed him only to find his email address had been deactivated -- I got one of those \"return to sender\" automated messages. Come to find out he did not get tenure and either got fired or quit. This frustrated and discouraged me so much I just shut it out of my life the past year, which was probably a bad idea in hindsight.\n\n\nWhat can I possibly do from here? Do I have any chance of finishing this degree or was all this for naught?",
"Hi all! Thanks for doing this AMA. I'm thinking of doing a PhD in Psychology or Cognitive Neuroscience. \n\nI'm thinking about what kind of project I should look to work on. My heart is with synaesthesia and paradoxical facilitation, but I'm concerned that if I pursue a project on that, the limited applicability of it to a health research setting will be limiting my opportunities for employment. Should I be aiming to make my PhD applicable to a real world setting, or is it permissible to stick to what I love and I'm good at, provided I learn practical research skills?\n\n/u/quant_liz_lemon, one that you might be best to answer here: I'm also a little concerned about limitations imposed on me by my health. I have PCOS, which in me manifests in mental fog, fatigue, and occasionally pain. On paper I'm fine, but my verbal communications can sometimes take a hit if I'm having a flare up. Is academia understanding of these kind of limits in a PhD student? If so, how soon is appropriate to voice that this is a thing I have to deal with, so as not to be passed over for a healthier student?\n\nThanks again!",
"/u/noschoolspirit\n\n\nHey there! I'm a sophomore at Eckerd College gunning for two degrees – computer science and marine science (I promise it has nothing to do with dolphins, whales, or anything at SeaWorld) – and I've been sitting on this question for a while; maybe you could help me out?\n\n\nI'm from New England, and with a lot hard work, good grades, and solid recommendations and interviews I got into a high school that's very closely associated with an Ivy League university. The science there was *epic* – it just flew in my face nonstop for four years. The exposure alone was worth all the tuition.\n\n\nNow I'm following my dream at Eckerd and I couldn't be happier with the choice I made, except for one small thing: I feel like after Eckerd, I need to get out of Florida ASAP. I don't know how to put it, but it feels like there isn't as much upward mobility in the sciences here as there is back home. Since you spent time at both USF and UF, I would love to hear your thoughts on this.\n\nThank you!",
"Hello and thanks for doing this AMA! This is a question for Dr. Landberg and any of the panelists in involved in biology (or related fields).\n\n**How did you approach gaining new contacts and experience in your field when starting out after your undergraduate?**\n\nMy SO has an undergrad in evolutionary biology as well as a degree in education and is really wanting to get into a graduate biology program (like conservation medicine at Tufts University or a similar program). Due to the current situation with college tuition in this country (US) she had very little chance to get experience working in biology, instead having to work at least 2 jobs a semester to afford school. As a result she has had little luck getting in to schools and is looking for a place to start (be it field work, lab work, or something) in order to build contacts and gain experience so that she has a better shot at graduate school. \n\nI apologize for this being a bit long, thanks for any advice you can offer!",
"Hello, I am a BTech undergrad studying Electronics and Communication Engineering(a four-year course) from India; currently in my sophomore year. I am actually very interested in pure theoretical and fundamental physics, and I am seriously considering completely switching my field. I want to do my Ph.D. in physics from a good university in the US or in Europe, and I think I am fairly motivated for that. \nHow difficult will it be switching my fields in the education systems of either of the US or Europe?\nCould someone please weigh the pros and cons of not doing a Masters before pursuing a Ph.D., considering two points: \n(1) My undergrad background is not in physics. I am hoping to do a minor in Physics, but unfortunately, my institute allows that only from the third year.\n (2) Also getting funding for Masters is hard and doing a Masters without funding will be very difficult for me.\n/u/adamsolomon /u/Andromeda321 /u/AsAChemicalEngineer /u/Silpion If any of you, or anyone else for that matter could help me, I would be much obliged.",
"For those of you who have significantly shifted focus between degrees; how difficult was it for you to switch gears so many times, was it a challenge to 'catch' up in your new fields, how often do you draw on your varied backgrounds for an interdisciplinary approach, and how do others within your field/program perceive your mixed background?\n\nBonus question; would it be frowned upon to pursue a PhD at the same institution you get your MSc but in a somewhat related yet different field in a different program i.e., would it look bad? \n\nI am currently studying watershed soil biogeochemistry for my MSc and am considering taking things into a more social-ecological direction for PhD work. Would this progression \"look bad\"? Throughout this program, I'm learning that for something to really matter to me, I need to see how it directly influences other lives. Doing hard science doesn't make me feel like what I'm doing matters, even if it's related to climate change.",
"/u/taciturnbob\n\nA couple of questions... I'm actually doing my MPH at GW right now (first year)! So I would love to know how you transitioned into a PhD at Johns Hopkins. What are your thoughts on the rigorousness of the GW program and how that translates into the career field? I don't have a math/science background (I did my bachelors in , so I'm concerned about how my skills will translate into the field. My end goal I think is to do my PhD and transition into more field-work (but primarily in the US). \n\n/u/piper \n\nHow did you get into Human Genome Sequencing and genetics? I'm really interested but, as I said before, don't really have the background right now. Is this something you can learn on the job in addition to general training? Likely the answer is no but I'm still wondering. :)\n\nThanks to you both!!!",
"/u/Silpion \n\nHi! I'm curious: how did you make the transition from astrophysics research to medical physics and were there any difficulties? Additionally, what does the medical physics residency entail other than the residency in radiation oncology? Is it any different than a medical residency one fresh out of medical school might pursue, and did you have to do any particular training before beginning it, coming from a PhD program instead of an MD program/ what are the differences between the two? (sorry if ignorant question, I'm not too up to date on residencies yet) Do you do anything on the clinical side? \n\nSorry for the barrage of questions; I was a physics major undergrad who transitioned to graduating with a degree in biophysics, and then jumped straight into medical school (current MSII). Really interested in radiology and medical physics. Thanks!",
"Hi there! This is a bit specific...\n\nI'm in the process of applying to a masters program right now. Three years ago, I was diagnosed with severe depression after a suicide attempt. I'm glad to say that I am recovered now. I graduated with my undergrad in 2014 and have spent the last few years doing everything I can to change my career because of my experience with mental illness. How do I let graduate schools know about this part of my life without seeming unstable or incompetent? Should I even tell them? I am not looking for pity and I am not upset about what happened. I think it is important information to disclose though, because it was the reason why I made such a dramatic career change, and why I'm applying to graduate school at all.",
"I'll be popping into the thread throughout the day. \n\nI did my BA in philosophy at a top school in the US. I started as premed and worked in a pediatric genetics lab initially, and then switched over to psych research. I worked in a lab every year and summer I was an undergrad. I ended up working in two different psych labs doing different kinds of research over the course of my undergrad (not at the same time). I applied to around 10 grad programs straight out of undergrad and interviewed and was accepted to 5. \n\nI did my PhD in experimental psych. I mostly did behavioral and computational work on shape perception and perceptual organization. Now I'm a postdoc doing neuroimaging on the same topic.",
"Wow, this thread couldn't have come at a better time. /u/liedra, I suppose this question is mostly for you, but anyone who feels they're qualified is welcome to.\n\nI'm an Information Systems/CS (Software Dev track) double major, and I'm really interested in doing software development, hopefully on websites, when I get out of school. I guess what I'm wondering is, should I bother with grad school? I know a PhD wouldn't really make sense unless I plan to teach or do research (neither of which I'm interested in), but would a masters be worth it--like would I get any professional benefit out of it? Or should I just try to get a job straight out of school?",
"/u/taciturnbob\n\nWhat kind of PhD are you pursuing? I have an undergraduate degree in biological engineering and have been looking into getting a Masters or PhD in biomedical engineering. However, I have a real passion for Public Health, so I have also thought about a MPH. Your \"circuitous route,\" as you called it, is very interesting to me. What kind of work are you planning on getting into after you finish your PhD? Is there any advice that you can give to someone who want to apply to public health programs in the future? What kinds of things can I do now that will make me a more competitive applicant?\n\nThanks for the AMA!",
"I graduated in May with my bs in biology. I'm not sure what I want to do for my next step. Is it frowned upon to take a year or two off before returning to grad school, as in, will that hurt when I do go to apply? I'm considering either environmental science or plant/wetland ecology work, but I didn't feel strongly enough to jump right in after my undergrad.\n\nThe concept of grad school/masters seems very overwhelming. Any general advice would be helpful. I feel like I don't enough about to be able to make an informed decision.",
"To anyone:\n\nI have a BS in Electrical Engineering and have been working in a normal engineering job in the years since. \n\nI would love to go back and get a grad degree at some point, but how realistic is it to be able to do this? How much does your undergrad record factor into admissions if you have work experience? How would I go about getting academic references for an application? I went to a relatively well-regarded state school with a 2.91 GPA...do I even have a chance?",
"Hey guys, thanks so much for doing this.\nI'm currently working on a BS in Chemistry with minors in physics and mathematics. My school doesn't offer engineering, but I think it's something I might be interested in pursuing in graduate school. My lab experiences have made me especially interested in nuclear engineering. What might the path be for me if I wanted to switch from the traditional chemistry program into an engineering program (or even a physics program?). Is it usually for somebody to pursue such a switch?",
"/u/adamsolomon , /u/Andromeda321 and /u/AsAChemicalEngineer\n\nI graduated with my B.S. in physics 4 years ago and still have the desire to return to a PhD program in astrophysics. My question is: will it be possible to get accepted somewhere so far removed from graduating and what could I do to help my chances? \n\n(If it matters, I was a 4.0 gpa student and received a lot of honors. Didn't have any opportunity for research as my school was too small. Been tutoring for the past few years)",
"I'm sure I'm too late to the party, but I graduated in 2012 and work for a DNA production company. I'd like to get back into academics so I could get my Masters in Anatomy. \n\nThe hardest part for me, I think, is that I never really had long standing/long lasting relationships with any of my professors, and I don't know how to go about getting good referrals for my grad school application.\n\nAny tips or pieces of advice that might be helpful?",
"Hello\nI'm pursuing my 3rd year of Undergrad in Computer Science and Engineering and I will graduate in 2017. I want to apply for Post-Grad Universities for Fall 2017 Semester in Computer Science Field.\nCan you please help me choose a specialization as there are so many options and I seem to be interested in many. Can you please tell me which stream is popular and demanding in the market currently which will be stable in the future as well?",
"Hello guys, thanks for spending some time her to answer some questions!\n\nI'm an engineer working in the aerospace industry, but I'm trying to switch out and go to graduate school for renewable energy research. I'm considering materials science heavily, in order to work on photovoltaics. \n\nMy undergrad was very project-focused instead of research, and my professional experience is the same. How can I leverage that to make my applications strong, even without formal research on my resume?",
"I've been considering getting my master's/PhD for a while, however I always feel like I don't have a narrow enough focus/interest to go to grad school with. If any of you have felt this way before what did you do to help realize that whatever subject you got your advanced degrees in was the one for you? My bachelor's degree will be in environmental science with a concentration in ecology if that helps.",
"Does anyone have any experience outside the repeated US/UK university route. Anyone with experience coming from other parts of the world, or who did academic work in universities or institutes in other parts of the world? Would love to hear a summary of your path and some of the main problems you faced in getting to where you are.",
"Sorry everyone but I need to bow out for now - need to prepare my classes for tomorrow! If anyone wants any further info from me, please PM me and I'll be happy to help (but don't expect a response til tomorrow! :)\n\nThanks very much for the great questions & hope I was helpful.",
"I have been accepted to UT Austin to study undergraduate physics and astronomy. I hope to eventually go on for a PhD in astrophysics (hopefully at Caltech). What are the three things I should focus on or do during my time as an undergrad to make my dream of being an astrophysicist come true?",
"I don't know if anyone has experience with nuclear engineering grad school programs; I'm an undergrad in electrical engineering and my school doesn't offer a nuclear engineering major, should I transfer schools and get my bachelors in nuclear engineering or will grad programs accept me even if my bachelors is in EE?",
"/u/andromeda321, are you happy going to school in Europe, or would you prefer to be in school in the US? Do you plan to come back when you're done? What's the pay like for grad students there?\n\nWhy did you want to do radio astronomy?",
"General Question: Where do I even BEGIN to look for programs and Professors looking to take on graduate students? (BS Marine Biology looking for an MS program)",
"/u/Andromeda321\n\nHow would you compare the academic & work environment of the Netherlands vs the US?"
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"http://phys.org/news/2015-10-smaller-offspring-competitive-environments.html",
"http://www.trbimg.com/img-51ed9343/turbine/hc-ct-snapping-turtles-0723-20130722-001/600/600x490",
"http://beacon-center.org/blog/2014/02/10/answering-peoples-pressing-science-questions-on-reddit-interview-with-tobias-landberg/",
"https://www.arcadia.edu/profile/tobias-landberg",
"https://www.researchgate.net/publication/227510421_Ontogeny_of_escape_swimming_performance_in_the_spotted_salamander",
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"https://www.researchgate.net/publication/279538531_Evolution_of_maternal_egg_size_effects_in_sister_salamander_species",
"http://astrobites.org/2014/06/13/how-to-apply-for-grad-school-in-europe/",
"https://www.researchgate.net/publication/10597965_Lung_ventilation_during_treadmill_locomotion_in_a_terrestrial_turtle_Terrapene_carolina._J._Exp._Biol._206_3391-3404",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/science/comments/3hpi70/molecular_scientists_unexpectedly_produce_new/",
"https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Tobias_Landberg/info"
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} | AskScience AMA Series: Graduate and Professional School AMA
Hi everyone! We have a lot of panelists here to help answer your questions about any and all post-undergraduate schools. We have a wide range of disciplines, career trajectories, and countries covered. As some may be thinking about pursuing advanced degrees right about now, we thought this AMA would give you the chance to ask a lot of experienced people about the applications, the work required, the lifestyle, and the choices we made. Below are some of our panelists, and others will join in throughout the day, so ask all of us anything! ----- /u/adamsolomon - Hi there. K, so I was an undergrad at Yale (astronomy and physics), did my masters and PhD at Cambridge (theoretical physics) and am now a postdoc at Penn. /u/Andromeda321 - I am a PhD student in astronomy, currently studying in the Netherlands and hoping to finish my doctorate within the year. I am, however, an American- I came to Europe after a BSc and MSc in Physics at CWRU in Ohio. My current specialization for my PhD is radio astronomy, but my physics background was in cosmic ray physics. I'm happy to answer any questions about grad school in astronomy, physics, or what it's like to switch from the American system to the European one or vice versa (as they are rather different!). I wrote an (astro specific) article on applying to Europe [here](_URL_8_) that may be of interest to people. /u/AsAChemicalEngineer - I'm a current graduate student at my university's department of physics. I'm interested in high energy research especially in beyond the standard model. I joined in a sort of unorthodox manner and during the academic year and the most important thing I learned from the application process is that almost every problem can be solved by more paperwork and someone's signature. /u/dazosan - I am currently a 5th year PhD student studying protein biochemistry at SUNY Buffalo. I am planning on moving on to a postdoc by Febuary. I was a poor student in college and thought I didn't like research, so I thought I could make something of myself as a high school teacher, which is how I ended up in Buffalo. Turns out I just needed a second chance at lab research! Ask me anything about grad school, turning a bum GPA around, or what newly minted STEM PhDs are experiencing! /u/EagleFalconn - My name is Shakeel Dalal. I hold a dual bachelors in Chemistry and Applied Physics from Purdue University, where I graduated in 2009. That same year, I started at the University of Wisconsin - Madison, where I received a PhD in Physical Chemistry working on thin films of organic glasses in 2014. You can read a little more about my graduate school research in [this thread from /r/science](_URL_10_). I'm currently a research scientist at a company in suburban Chicago, working on things only tangentially related to what I did in graduate school. I don't regret going to grad school, but the fact that I couldn't get a job using my already developed expertise is disheartening. I'm happy with what I'm doing now, but I lament opportunities I didn't get, and I will probably be the debbie downer of this thread. AMA. /u/electric_ionland - I have done most of my higher education in France where I went to an aerospace engineering school to get the French equivalent of a Master of Science in Engineering. I got the opportunity to do a double degree with an American university. After 2 years in the US I graduated with both the French and American MS with a specialisation in experimental fluid dynamics. I am now doing a PhD on ion thrusters in a public research institution in France. /u/elitemeatt - I am a graduate student at GSU pursuing a MS in Biology. My research focuses on investigating the genetic basis for developing neurons. I am in the process of applying to PhD programs. /u/Jobediah - I am an [assistant professor of biology at Arcadia University](_URL_3_). My [academic history](_URL_11_) includes undergraduate research on [turtle breathing and locomotion](_URL_9_), a Masters degree on the [development of escape swimming in salamanders](_URL_4_), a PhD on the [evolution of developmental plasticity](_URL_7_). My two post docs were in far-flung places studying [red-eyed treefrogs](_URL_5_) in Panama and frogs and [salamanders](_URL_0_) Western Kentucky. I did an [interview about AskScience](_URL_2_) last year and [I like turtles](_URL_1_). /u/liedra - I did my BSc (Honours I) with majors in Computer Science and History & Philosophy of Science at the University of Sydney, Australia, then my PhD in Computer Ethics at Charles Sturt University, Australia. During my undergraduate years and for a year after I worked part time as first line helpdesk support for a couple of companies, then as a Linux systems administrator, PHP/Cold Fusion web programmer, Python programmer, and editor for _URL_6_, which used to be a pretty cool open source software site back in the dotcom heyday of the internet. Throughout that time I decided that no, I didn't want to become a sysadmin or programmer so I went back to uni and did my Honours year and then I won a scholarship for my PhD. Then a couple of postdocs and now I'm a Senior Lecturer in technology ethics in the UK, where I'm 50/50 research teaching in a permanent position in a post-92 university (which I enjoy a lot). /u/noschoolspirit - Hello! I obtained my undergraduate degree in Geology and Mathematics at the University of South Florida (USF). There, I took an interest in hydrological processes and applied for a Masters at the University of Florida. My masters thesis modeled fluid flow in carbonate aquifers during high discharge events; specifically looking at aquifer storage during floods. This got me interested in the mechanics of flow and subsurface storage, and what effect this had on flood magnitude on a broader scale. I applied to Michigan Tech for a degree in Civil Engineering focusing on water resources to try and tackle this problem. I also developed an interest and helped on modeling projects involving glacier hydrology. I am due to graduate with a Ph.D. in Spring 2016. My research considers: 1. The role of watershed process on flood frequency and magnitude. This involves analyzing the impacts of specific process on stream response. 2. Climate change and the evolution in flood series statistics used to predict floods 3. Karst (carbonate) terrain evolution and geomorphology (including its impact on regionalization in flood frequency analysis) 4. Glacier hydrology and motion So basically anything related to surface and subsurface hydrology and their interactions. /u/OrbitalPete - I'm a volcanologist at a UK university. After an undergrad in Earth Science I went off, taught 11-18 Chemistry for a few years, then came back to do a PhD at London. Followed that with a postdoc at the same place, followed by a postdoc fellowship in France. Most of my experience is in experimental flow modelling, but I've also worked in computation modelling on projects collaborating with oil industry partners dealing with submarine currents. In between I've spent a couple of years on casual work while the economic downturn blew volcanology funding out of the water and I resisted returning to the classroom full time. /u/pengdrew - Here are a few notes about me: * B.A. in Biology from a small Liberal Arts College. * PhD in Biology from Top R1 University. * Dissertation was on Telomere dynamics & Aging in a long lived species. In addition to field and laboratory research, I TAd extensively and also was lead Instructor for an intro course during my PhD. * Currently a PostDoc at my PhD Institution, currently interviewing in industry and academia. /u/p1percub - I studied math and biochemistry at Carleton College and the worked in industry (molecular diagnostics) a bit before deciding to get a PhD. I ended up at the University of Chicago in the Dept of Human Genetics for my doctorate and then did a short post doc at the University of Washington in Genome Sciences before accepting a tenure track position at the University of Texas Health Science Center School of Public Health. I have an appointment in the Graduate School of Biomedical Science (a program shared with MD Anderson), and I formally collaborate with Baylor College of Medicine Human Genome Sequencing Center. I'm happy to answer any and all questions about training, my time in industry, and all levels of academic training! /u/quant_liz_lemon is a 3rd year Quantitative Psychology graduate student with an invisible disability. She studies the influence of personality and intelligence on important lifetime outcomes, using quasi-experimental designs. She is supported by a National Science Foundation Graduate Research Fellowship. She intends to go into academia, which is why she is pursuing a Quantitative Psychology PhD instead of a Personality PhD -- the job market is much better for quant, in both industry and academia. /u/Silpion - I studied physics in college and in grad school, where my research was in experimental nuclear astrophysics. After getting my PhD I decided to leave basic physics and not pursue a postdoc. I am currently in a medical physics residency, training for a career as a clinical medical physicist in radiation oncology. /u/silverphoinix - I went to school, did my undergrad and am completeing my PhD in UK. My BSc was in Chemistry with Forensic Science, and now I am working in a Materials Engineering department studying Magnetism. I am aiming to continue in academia and have already been in contact with potential post-doctoral supervisors. During my UG I spent my summers working in a research lab for Inorganic and Solid State Chemistry. Basically I have had quite the change in fields! So feel free to ask me questions about higher / further education in the UK, fears of changing research / subject areas, or just what is different about being a PhD compared to undergraduate. /u/superhelical - Hey! I did mu undergrad in biochemistry at a mid-sized university outside of Toronto, and am currently completing my PhD at McGill University in Montreal. I'm currently in the search of a post-doc position in molecular modelling and single-molecule studies. /u/taciturnbob - I've had a rather circuitous route, considering engineering, medicine, and finance as an undergraduate. I dropped out of a biomedical engineering PhD program to pursue Public Health. I worked as a state HIV epidemiologist while getting my MPH from GWU, and am now a PhD candidate at Johns Hopkins. I am based in Liberia working on a project to strengthen health information systems. /u/ratwhowouldbeking - I did a BSc in Psychology at Wilfrid Laurier University in Waterloo, Ontario, and my MSc and PhD in Psychology at University of Western Ontario in London, Ontario. I'm now a postdoctoral fellow in the Department of Psychology at the University of Alberta in Edmonton, Alberta. | [
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|
tu6p8 | Cloud 9... Is it possible? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c4ps3r0",
"c4ptd1l",
"c4pt243",
"c4ptbme",
"c4pt3e4",
"c4pt8by",
"c4ptf2x"
],
"text": [
"some guy did some calculations somewhere else before the thread died to shit on another forum:\n\n\n\n1/2 mile hemisphere has a volume of 8.73e12 liters\nAt STP (22.4 l/mol) that’s 3.897e11 moles of gas\n\nRaising the temp by a degree, at constant pressure:\np2v2/p1v1 = t2/t1\nv1/v2 = T1/T2 = T1/(T1+1) = 273/274 = 0.9963504\nIgnoring all the fidgety units, this is the fractional change in density. \n3.897e11 moles X 0.9963504 = 3.883e11 moles under the dome at the new temperature. \n\nUsing 29 for the average molecular weight of air:\nThe atmosphere in the cold dome would weigh 1.13013e10kg\nWhile in the warmer dome it would be 1.12607e10kg\nA difference of 4.06e7kg or 44,713 tons of lift.\n\nHow much did Mr. Fuller say that a half mile dome would weigh ?\n\nafter that and doing some calculations myself i determined that if the ratio was 1:1000 that the aluminum structure would weigh 1.13e7kg, about 4 times as much as the lift here. \n\na new question arises: would higher temps and lighter materials make this more feasible? i looked at the density of carbon fiber to aluminum... it was about half (80 something to 160 something, units forgotten). so if the temp was 2 degrese higher, and the structure was made from carbon fiber, it should break even? WHERE ARE ALL THE SCIENTISTS AT HELP\n\n\nedit: i realized this is for a half mile hemisphere. the full sphere, as well as increasing it to a full mile should alter everything enough right? im too tired to continue calculations, someone pick up the torch!",
"There is a man by the name of Paul O. Wieland who wrote extensively about Cloud 9 in his book, [Crossing the Threshold, Advancing into space to benefit the earth](_URL_0_). He's considered many of the engineering challenges and believes that it is possible. I shall write him an email asking him to come speak on the subject.",
"Wouldn't weather really fuck a place like this up badly?",
"It would be cool if the escaping hot air could power wind turbines, kind of like [electron transport](_URL_1_) in mitochondria.",
"How much energy would it take to keep the internal atmosphere at a higher temperature?\n\nThe sun would be a blessing and a curse: you could use it for the greenhouse effect (which would probably be better than solar panels), but you'd have to really stay on top of the heat ratio or your city may bump up and down.",
"Does anyone have these diagrams that are referenced? I'm a nut for steampunky technical diagrams.",
"I think Cloud 9s would be more feasible in Venus' thick atmosphere. I believe any huge structure filled with air (O/N) would float. The cloud tops have a much cooler temperature than the very hostile surface and the habitat would just have to use very little energy to keep up with the sun as the winds would steer it. The only problem would be getting a large structure there...\n\n_URL_2_"
],
"score": [
60,
10,
9,
6,
3,
3,
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.amazon.com/Crossing-Threshold-Advancing-Space-Benefit/dp/0982512716",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron_transport#Coupling_with_oxidative_phosphorylation",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonization_of_venus#Aerostat_habitats_and_floating_cities"
]
} | Cloud 9... Is it possible?
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19btq3 | Quick Multiverse Theory Question | Whenever someone discusses a multiverse, they will usually phrase the possibilites of outcomes by saying something along the lines of an 'either or scenario': In this universe Tom Brady throws a touchdown, but in an alternate universe he throws an interception. But aren't there an infinite number of ways he could do either, as well as an infinite number of other outcomes that aren't a touchdown or an interception (like he decides to top playing and grab a hotdog in one universe)?
Is this really what people are saying when they discuss the multiverse, or is it really supposed to be as simple as "in this universe you made a left turn, but in another you'd make a right"? | askscience | {
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"Yes, the either/or scenario is vastly simplified, using a macroscopic analogy to relate what would happen at subatomic scales.",
"Here's what boggles my mind about the multiverse theory:\n\nPeople usually think of what they think of minute changes in our reality (ie what if Tom Brady threw an interception) and think of the infinite ways that situation could have gone. What about really minute differences, like on the subatomic level? To think there could be an infinite number of universes based on the position of an electron in a carbon atom that is contained in my left femur, and that there would be no real way to tell the difference between these universes... like I said, mind-boggling.",
"> aren't there an infinite number of ways he could do either, as well as an infinite number of other outcomes that aren't a touchdown or an interception\n\nWell you're right that there would be an astronomical number of possible outcomes, but I don't think that number is infinite.\n\nI think this is where the \"Champagne Glass\" metaphor for the multiverse theory is useful. So presumably, the moment after the Big Bang happened and space-time started to expand, there were a finite (although probably still very large) number of potential outcomes to the scenario. And even though there were a huge number of potential outcomes immediately following the big bang, that was a lower number of potential alternate routes than there are now that space-time has expanded.\n\nSo the number of possible alternative outcomes continues to grow as the universe evolves, and if, in fact, there are as many universes as there are possible outcomes, the number of universes also continues to grow.\n\nIn A Brief History of Time, Stephen Hawking makes a statement along these lines, which I found to be helpful in thinking about randomness and possible alternative outcomes:\n\nConsider a particle which travels from Point A to Point B. Now consider every possible route that particle can take from Point A to Point B. Quantum Theory states that the probability that the particle will take any possible route from Point A to Point B is never 0.\n\nSo like fuseboy said, I think most people use the either/or scenario to make the things that happen on a subatomic scale more accessible for the lay person. There really is an astronomical number of alternative outcomes for an given scenario.",
"EDIT: I realize my post was not terribly useful, so I'm rewording, in an attempt to make it more accurate. \n\nThe idea of a multiverse came from a psychologist and philosopher (William James). It was presented in a philosophical statement, without being linked to information theory or quantum mechanics.\n\nHugh Everett proposed [MWI](_URL_0_), which is a modern theory that can be classified as a multiverse-type of theory. \n\nIt's hard to really give an answer to this question without more clarification of what is referred to as \"Multiverse theory\". Are you referring to MWI? I'd like to get an answer from esquilax (the original submitter).",
"I was thinking about the multiverse theory a little while ago and thought of something; There may be an unlimited amout of universes, but not evey event possible occurs. Such as in one universe the people there built a machine that could travel through alternet universes and they landed in my living room right now. Of course that didn't happen so that universe must not exist. What I'm trying to say is: There may be an infinite amout of possibilites but not all of them happen. If you get the idea.\n\nSorry for any spelling errors, typed this on my phone.",
"If you think of the Tom Brady situation as the sum of wave functions prior to that moment, there is an overwhelming probability that in that situation he will NOT stop playing and get a hotdog. However, the hotdog scenario still exists, it's just infinitesimally small in likelihood, based on all the events in that particular time stream that have occurred before. There are an infinite number of differing possibilities; he throws a TD, throws a pick, fumbles, short completion, long completion, stops playing and gets a hotdog, etc. however, there are also an infinite number of non possibilities, e.g. He turns into a giant robot dinosaur and destroys Foxboro. The difference that people eschew sometimes, I think, is between a vanishingly small possibility (way way out on the edge of that probability wave function) and a non possibility, or node, I.e. suddenly all of Gilette stadium turns into silver.",
"there's also the possibility of infinite copies of Tom Brady(s) in infinite universes, all throwing a touchdown at the exact same moment. since each universe can be a mutually exclusive subsystem (no two universes interfere with each other in *any* way), and that the initial condition for each universe can be assumed to be the same (big bang?), there's no reason that the infinite universes cannot be copies of each other. Please correct me if i'm wrong."
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Whenever someone discusses a multiverse, they will usually phrase the possibilites of outcomes by saying something along the lines of an 'either or scenario': In this universe Tom Brady throws a touchdown, but in an alternate universe he throws an interception. But aren't there an infinite number of ways he could do either, as well as an infinite number of other outcomes that aren't a touchdown or an interception (like he decides to top playing and grab a hotdog in one universe)? Is this really what people are saying when they discuss the multiverse, or is it really supposed to be as simple as "in this universe you made a left turn, but in another you'd make a right"? | [
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|
7uj7vy | Why is it possible to ground an electrical device by connecting it to the Éarth? | Where does the electrical energy and charge go? Is it possible for the Earth to become saturated at some point in the future? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"dtkx71r",
"dtlpt7k",
"dtl832o"
],
"text": [
"An object with charge has an excess (or lack) of electrons. These electrons repel each other and so will flow as far away from each other as possible. \n\nBy connecting a charged object to the ground, you give a path for these electrons to flow so they are even further from each other. The earth is really big and neutral, so the electrons will spread out freely until they no longer feel the repulsion. \n\nYou can saturate the ground in small spots, but really all you’re doing is pumping in charge more quickly than the electrons “spread” so to speak. Remember that net charge is always conserved so to charge the earth you would have to either remove a lot of its electrons and shoot them off into space, or get a whole bunch from space and shoot them into the ground.",
"Total charge is conserved. If an object gets an excess charge, this charge came from the Earth before - it just returns when the object is grounded. Earth is huge, it doesn't care about the temporary motion of a little bit of charge on its surface. It is only relevant for electronic devices if they build up too much charge.",
"No. It's not possible to saturate the earth, because earth is used as a conductor in a circuit.\n\nCommonly a transformers midpoint is connected to ground. Thus any of the phases will have a path back to the transformer.\n\nThe point of grounding is mainly to ensure that fault currents does not pass trough humans, but trough a safe conductor, thus reducing risk of harm. If all (conductive) surfaces are at the same potential, it's safe to come in contact with them - even if they're directly connected to a live phase. This part of grounding is called **bonding** - ensuring that all surfaces are bonded together.\n\nIn addition grounding assures that this potential has a path back to the source."
],
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | Why is it possible to ground an electrical device by connecting it to the Éarth?
Where does the electrical energy and charge go? Is it possible for the Earth to become saturated at some point in the future? | [
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|
n0nji | Time Delay as Something Moves Further and Further Away from you. | Imagine a rocket leaves Earth travelling at half the speed of light on a journey to Proxima Centauri, which is 4.2 light years away. If you are watching it constantly, when it leaves everything appears to be moving in real time, however as it gets further and further away, light takes longer to reach you. My question is: Do the people inside the rocket appear to move slower and slower the further they are away from you? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c35chv9",
"c35ciof",
"c35cdxo"
],
"text": [
"Actually, their passage of time should always look slower to your observations. It should not increase with distance only with their velocity. So if the rocket is always going half the speed of light, the apparent passage of time will be slower than normal but constant. This is an effect of special relativity known as [time dilation](_URL_0_)",
"There are two relevant effects here. One is that light from the rocket will take longer to reach you over time, so any regular signals will appear to occur less often. This is related to the Doppler effect, and will reverse if the rocket turns around and heads back toward you (that is, if the rocket sends out regular signals, you will get them more often). However, this does not depend on the object's distance, only the magnitude of its velocity towards or away from you.\n\nThe other effect is relativistic time dilation. Basically, any object moving at close to the speed of light will appear to experience time more slowly. This effect depends only on how fast the object is going relative to you, and not the object's distance from you or the direction of its movement.\n\nNeither of these effects depends on how far away the rocket is, only its velocity. So although people on the rocket will seem slowed down initially, they will not seem any slower as they get farther away.",
"The apparent passage of time may be slower than yours, but should only change while they are accelerating."
],
"score": [
4,
3,
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]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_dilation"
]
} | Time Delay as Something Moves Further and Further Away from you.
Imagine a rocket leaves Earth travelling at half the speed of light on a journey to Proxima Centauri, which is 4.2 light years away. If you are watching it constantly, when it leaves everything appears to be moving in real time, however as it gets further and further away, light takes longer to reach you. My question is: Do the people inside the rocket appear to move slower and slower the further they are away from you? | [
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|
3nuudd | Why hasn't the air speed record been beat since 1976? | [removed] | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cvrfjuy",
"cvrfzyh",
"cvrfwzo"
],
"text": [
"It is incredibly expensive to build an aircraft that will go around breaking records; so much so that nobody has tried to do it just for the sake of breaking records.\n\nThe air speed records set by the SR-71 Blackbird are still intact because there's been no need to develop a manned air-breathing jet to fill the same role since the Blackbird was retired (at least since its most recent retirement). Satellites can do the same job as the Blackbird, but better, and other wartime roles are better served by other approaches. For example, the similarly fast XB-70 Valkyrie was rendered obsolete by ICBMs and the B1-A project was scrapped only to be reopened for the B1-B project as a penetration bomber that flies low and follows terrain instead of a high velocity bomber. \n\nMissile technology has advanced to a point where just flying high and fast isn't sufficient to avoid enemy fire, so other approaches are used, notably stealth.\n\nThere have been faster human flights since then, such as Joe H. Engle's piloting of the Space Shuttle Columbia on November 14, 1981, but this falls into a different class, as does William Knight's piloting of the X-15 on October 3, 1967. With no tactical reason to push for higher speed manned jet aircraft it is likely that the Blackbird record will stand for some time to come, even though other kinds of vehicles can push humans to higher speeds.",
"The Blackbird was built as a reconnaissance craft that could fly over the Soviet Union, make observations then get out of range before the USSR could react. That's why it needed to be as fast as it was, and why the tremendous R & D cost was warranted. It wasn't a particularly sensible design otherwise; in order to accommodate the thermal expansion it experienced at > Mach 3, there was so much leeway built into the plane that it leaked fuel when sitting on the runway. Now that satellite technology has sufficiently improved and we aren't in a cold war, it's not worth it to invest in that kind of technology anymore. \n\n_URL_0_",
"There are conceptual aircraft that have been designed for higher speeds, and there is speculation that there are classified production designs that go faster than that.\n\nThe fact is, the actual max speed of the SR-71 was classified for a long time, so there's no reason to believe the record \"set\" in 1976 is the actual record.\n\nThere's a scientific reason for speed limits for the SR-71 and similar aircraft: heating of the forward surfaces due to adiabatic compression of the air in front of the plane. There are reports that an SR-71 exceeded Mach 3.3 and caused significant thermal damage to leading edges.\n\nLockheed also studied increasing the flight envelope, but it was deemed to costly to make significant structural changes, so they changed the envelope to include Mach 3.5 for short periods of time.\n\nAlso note that it's possible to overcome the limitations described above by leaving the atmosphere (or flying at higher altitudes, but that gets into problems for winged aircraft to generate lift above roughly 70 - 80k feet).\n\nedit: typo"
],
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.lockheedmartin.com/us/100years/stories/blackbird.html"
]
} | Why hasn't the air speed record been beat since 1976?
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|
mifa3 | How does man create objects and instruments with a greater degree of accuracy/precision than the instruments used to make it? | How did we go from simple tools like a hammer, for instance, to something as refined as the large hadron collider?
If your tools are simple, by what means and methods could they be used to create something more refined?
Maybe a simpler question is how do we create a straight line, and then how do we create a "straighter" line?
Thanks
| askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c317448",
"c317qnt",
"c315zpm"
],
"text": [
"You have 2 tools, A and B. \n\nA + B = C. \n\nC + A = D. \n\nD + D = E.\n\nE is not able to be made with tool A and B alone. The process is called bootstrapping. Its interesting.",
"A few people have mentioned bootstrapping, which is just the *name* for the process. The trick is to use each tool to produce a new tool in such a way that the inaccuracies in the first tool tend to cancel each other out, and to make use of physics and geometry, which allows for exact measurements.\n\nFor example - say you have two \"flat\" plates of glass. In reality, each will be curved, and more-or-less rough. If you put very fine grit between the two, and grind them against each other in more-or-less random paths, the high points on each will gradually get worn down such that over time, they each become more flat.\n\nOnce you've done that enough, you can use a monochromatic light source to produce interference fringes between the two plates, which will tell you just ho flat the really are.\n\nSimilarly, if you have a piece of metal that's supposed to be a right angle, you can use it to scribe a line perpendicular to another line on a flat surface, then flip it over and scribe another line. Those two scribed lines should be parallel, and whatever error there is in the angle will be doubled. Go back and adjust the grinding tool to make the angle closer and closer to 90 degrees over time.\n\nSimilar tricks can be used to use a wobbly lathe to make more-round shafts, which can then go back into another lathe...",
"We build something that doesn't require the previous tool. For instance, we build a laser. A laser doesn't require a straight-edge *per se*, but can be used to make a very accurate straight line."
],
"score": [
8,
5,
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | How does man create objects and instruments with a greater degree of accuracy/precision than the instruments used to make it?
How did we go from simple tools like a hammer, for instance, to something as refined as the large hadron collider? If your tools are simple, by what means and methods could they be used to create something more refined? Maybe a simpler question is how do we create a straight line, and then how do we create a "straighter" line? Thanks | [
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38pxid | If I had a 1 dollar coin, could I theoretically flatten it to the point where the coin would cover the entire Earth? | Also would the atom need to subdivide? What would happen at that point?
Edit: looking at such a large discussion about coins and atoms stemmed off from one question that I had is the weirdest feeling ever. | askscience | {
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"text": [
"A dollar coin has a mass of about 8.1 grams. For simplicity assume it to be all made out of copper (it's really about 90% copper). Copper has an atomic density of 63.55 grams/per mole, giving us 7.68 x 10^22 atoms in a dollar coin. The earth has a surface area of 5.1 x 10^8 km^2, so that if the coin were smashed until it was just a one atom thick layer of material (to maximize how far we can spread it) covering the entire earth, then each atom would occupy an area of about 7000 square microns. If the atoms were arranged in a square lattice, each copper atom would be at least 80 microns away from the next nearest atom. For regular bulk copper, atoms are spaced about 0.4 nm apart. So, the atoms would be about 200,000 times too far away from each other to form stable chemical bonds. Simply put, you no longer have a solid chunk of metal if you want it to cover the earth. You have a very sparse copper gas. \n\nIf you subdivide the atoms, you don't have copper anymore. But subdividing won't really help anyways. If you manage to divide each copper atom into 29 hydrogen atoms (ignoring all the messy details of nuclear reactions), then the hydrogen atoms would still be 15 microns away from each other, still several thousands times too far apart to form bonds.",
"Hey. Materials scientist here. The short answer is that one silver dollar coin would cover 1.99*10^-9% of Earth's surface. That's roughly 2 billionths of a percent. So let's look at the details.\n\nAssume we're considering a US silver dollar. The US mint website says they're approximately 1 troy ounce of 99.9% pure silver. Let's make that and even troy ounce of 100% silver. One troy ounce is 31.1 grams. Divided by the molar mass of silver (107 g/mole) and multiplied by Avogadro's number (units of atoms/mole), we have 1.736*10^23 silver atoms. Now consider the atomic radius of metallic silver, 130 pm (picometers, or 10^-12 meters). One atom would occupy an area of pi*(130 pm)^2, therefore giving us a total area of 9217 m^2. But wait there's more. Pure metals tend to crystalize in a hexagonal close packed structure when considered in 2D. The packing efficiency of such a structure is 0.9069 (see Wikipedia's entry on Circle Packing). Thus and therefore, the actual area occupied by a 1 troy ounce silver good ole fashioned American dollar would be 10163 m^2. Considering Earth's surface area of 5.1*10^14 meters, our coin would cover 2 billionths of a percent.",
"Ben Franklin did this with a similar amount of oil on water:\n\n'He \"fetched out a cruet of oil, and dropt a little of it on the water.\" Ben wrote that \"it spread itself with surprising swiftness upon the surface....and there the oil, though not more than **a teaspoonful**, produced and instant calm over a space several yards square, which spread amazingly, and extended itself gradually till it reached the lee side, making all that quarter of the pond, **perhaps half an acre**, as smooth as a looking glass.\"\n\n... Importantly, he wrote about how a given quantity of olive oil would only cover a set amount of pond surface. **Twice the volume of oil would cover twice the area of pond surface.** Ben concluded that there was a limit to how thin the oil could be spread. He carefully recorded the volumes of oil and the surface areas that they covered. We don't actually know whether he calculated the thickness of the oil layers (it isn't recorded in his notes), but if he did, his measurements would have predicted a thickness of approximately 10 Angstroms (one Angstrom is approximately one ten-billionth of a meter). This would have been a remarkably close measurement of the thickness of a single-molecule thick layer (called a \"monolayer\") of triolein, one of the major lipids in olive oil. Had he written this down, it would have been the first recorded measurement of the size of a single molecule. It wasn't until over 100 years later in 1890 that the scientist and eventual Nobel Prize winner John William Strutt, better known as **Lord Rayleigh, repeated these experiments and measured the thickness of the triolein monolayer as 16 Angstroms.**'\n\nSource: _URL_0_",
"Theoretically, it should be possible to flatten the coin enough that if placed in the correct location relative to the sun, you could cover the earth with the shadow.\n\nIn answer to your actual question, there is insufficient mass in the object to maintain molecular cohesion.",
"Here is my approximation, which is a bit simpler that some of the top answers here. Multiply the surface area of the earth by the thickness of a copper atom. Divide that by the volume of a copper coin: [wolfram alpha link](_URL_1_)\n\nYou need approximately 120 billion coins to do this, which seems to be in line with the other answers here.",
"Some very good answers here, but I've got another twist for you: The surface of the earth is approximately fractal at most scales until you reach the molecular level (where the term \"surface\" stops making sense). This means that the surface area of the earth, as \"seen\" by copper atoms is a lot larger than the 10^14 m^2 which is assumed in the other replies."
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"url": []
} | {
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} | {
"url": [
"http://www.themadscienceblog.com/2010/07/scientific-exploits-of-ben-franklin.html",
"http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=%28surface%20area%20of%20the%20earth%20*%20radius%20of%20copper%20atom%20*%202%29%20%2F%20%28volume%20of%201%20dollar%20coin%29&dataset="
]
} | If I had a 1 dollar coin, could I theoretically flatten it to the point where the coin would cover the entire Earth?
Also would the atom need to subdivide? What would happen at that point? Edit: looking at such a large discussion about coins and atoms stemmed off from one question that I had is the weirdest feeling ever. | [
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64wgn3 | A conductive cable over a light-year long is connected to a positive & negative pole, how long until current flows? | Assuming an infinitely large power source for the current. What would the electrical dynamics be if a cable capable of carrying the current from the (-) end to the (+) end starting the second of creating the complete circuit?
Do these electrical dynamics breakdown at some point of scale?
At this scale could we watch the 'flow' of electricity? | askscience | {
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"text": [
"The current would start to flow as soon as the circuit is completed, but it would travel at a finite propagation speed.\n\nElectrodynamics doesn't break down, but basic circuit theory does. Circuit theory is just a simplified way to look at electrical circuits without solving Maxwell's equations every time. You make certain assumptions, for example in small circuits you neglect the propagation time of electrical signals.\n\nIn larger circuits, and definitely in this hypothetical situation you've proposed, you need to consider the finite propagation speed of electrical signals. You have to really solve Maxwell's equations to see how this system will behave. What you'll find is that the electrical signal (voltage or current) obeys some kind of wave equation, where the wave speed is related to the capacitance and inductance of the cable. The signal will propagate like a wave down the cable with some speed v, and it will reach the other end after a time delay of L/v, where L is the length of the cable.",
"As RobusEtCeleritas says it will start flowing immediately. But the very long cable would not appear to the power source as a 'wire' from the plus to the negative side. It will just appear as a sort of 'vat' in which it can release and dump its charge. Normally, if you connect a meter long wire a similar thing would happen as well. HOWEVER, as charge accumulates in the 1m long wire if it is not connected, a charge accumulation will build up an electric potential in the cable which will oppose the terminal potential and the flow will stop. As charges spread through the light year long cable, the charge buildup in the cable will make it harder and harder for the electrons to leave the source. An electron, trying to leave the current source, sees more and more charge ahead of himself which will make it harder and harder for it to leave the source. So the current at first will be very large and it will start decaying. After a certain while, when the charges reach the end of the cable (after a couple of years) only a tiny tiny tiny current will be left as the potential is distributed evenly throughout the cable which makes the local electric field in the cable, driving the charges, almost negligible.\n\nThis is a very expensive way of saying: a light year long cable has an incredible resistance and the steady state current is almost 0. Only in the beginning a surge current will flow which will settle in the the cable to its steady state value.",
"> At this scale could we watch the 'flow' of electricity?\n\nYes. Really all we're getting at is the much more mundane situation of transient response. Take for example a transistor, billions of which are the basis of the computer you're using right now, your CPU has a clock rate, say 2 GHz, the higher the clock rate, the faster the computer. The clock rate, amongst other issues, is bottlenecked at the actual physical time it takes to push and pull electrons into and out of a MOSFET transistor. At a GHz clock rate, you have to be able to do it in a fraction of a billionth of a second. \n\nElectricity and circuits have a time scale to them that is a part of everyday electrical engineering. Transient analysis of circuits is an entire field of electrical engineering. Current does not flow instantaneously and it's not something that only matters in heady thought experiments on light-year long poles."
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} | A conductive cable over a light-year long is connected to a positive & negative pole, how long until current flows?
Assuming an infinitely large power source for the current. What would the electrical dynamics be if a cable capable of carrying the current from the (-) end to the (+) end starting the second of creating the complete circuit? Do these electrical dynamics breakdown at some point of scale? At this scale could we watch the 'flow' of electricity? | [
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4w22k6 | With an estimated 1,000,000 nematode species, what distinguishes them all? | I was on a Wikipedia safari, and read that there are 25,000 known nematode species, and 1,000,000 estimated total species.
I'm wondering what could possibly distinguish between 1,000,000 variations of a little worm. Could someone explain the minimal distinguishing characteristics of a species of nematode? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
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"text": [
"Many of the distinctions are on the genetic level. Two worms may look the same to the unaided eye and even live in the same habitat, but be vastly different genetically and totally unable to crossbreed.",
"Nematodes are found everywhere on the planet, literally everywhere. Each type of environment is going to require a different strategy for optimal survival. Then you have to think about how many types on environments there are. Just considering a blanket term of the ocean floor is not enough. Different depths will require different strategies as much as if a different region has a different water chemistry and the same depth.\n\nWhat also needs to be considered is the evolutionary history. As an example, imagine that a single nematode species living on the coast of North America split so some worms began to move further north and some moved further south. Eventually, we have a species living on the equator and a species living in the arctic. They have different methods of adapting to their environment. Now imagine that fir some reason, each slowly moved to the same location somewhere in the Atlantic. They may live in the same environment now, but because they each had different \"machinery\" from their adaptations to the equator/arctic, the way they adapt to this new environment may \"repurpose\" that machinery. This leads to 2 distinct species with different strategies of survival living in the exact same place. \n\nJust apply this to the entire planet and it isn't hard to see how 1,000,000 different nematode species could exist.",
"The distinction between species is somewhat nebulous, really. The idea is an entirely human concept. While it's easy to distinguish between a horse and a nurse shark, for instance, the line between a horse and a donkey is a little fuzzier (they can mate, but their offspring is infertile). With things like nematodes we are relying largely on genetic differences to make that distinction. That itself is a bit arbitrary. Every individual is genetically different, so it is up to researchers to decide if a population is different enough to be considered a new species, or perhaps just a sub-species. You also have the question of what genes to analyze. There are a number that are commonly used, but they are not always well suited to every taxon. A colleague of mine was working with sea anemones and he found that one of the more commonly used marker genes couldn't even distinguish between families of anemones, let alone species. \nThat's not to say that taxonomists are just making it all up as they go. There is a lot of debate and discussion within a particular taxon about what classifies a new species. Whenever possible, the genetic information is coupled with breeding, and growth studies to give further verification. \nTL:DR - A lot of work goes into defining a new species, which is part of the reason why we only have estimates of how many nematide species are out there."
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"url": []
} | With an estimated 1,000,000 nematode species, what distinguishes them all?
I was on a Wikipedia safari, and read that there are 25,000 known nematode species, and 1,000,000 estimated total species. I'm wondering what could possibly distinguish between 1,000,000 variations of a little worm. Could someone explain the minimal distinguishing characteristics of a species of nematode? | [
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|
c2c2oh | When I point my contactless IR thermometer straight up, what am I taking the temperature of? | It's currently 85 degrees F on the ground here at 10 pm at night. That's the current nighttime air temperature. It's also the temperature I get when I point the IR thermometer at the grass on the ground. When I point my contactless IR thermometer straight up it registers 57 degrees F. That temperature increases as I point it more towards the horizon presumably towards denser and lower layers of air. So what am I measuring straight up? The cosmic background radiation temperature? An average of the stars and deep space in view? The average temperature of the atmosphere? A layer of IR-opaque water vapor in the troposphere? If the latter, how high up is it? How can I find out? Would the temperature it records be different in a dry desert area? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"erjga97",
"erjcull",
"erlfiay"
],
"text": [
"You are measuring the infra-red radiation given off by gasses in the atmosphere. Many atmospheric gasses give off infra-red - mostly it is the water vapor. But as the IR they give off is very different from the IR given off as black-body radiation from solids, you aren't getting an accurate measurement of the temperature of anything.",
"You're not measuring anything of any real value. First of all they measure something fairly close. a distance to spot ratio of 1:1 would lead to 1 inch diameter of measuring at 1 inch distance. Since most guns are higher like 12:1. At 1 foot, they would measure 1 inch of the object. When aiming at the sky. You're trying to measure the air at a huge distance, which doesn't really work because it doesn't know the distance of the air.\n\nSo instead what you're measuring is random amounts of Infra red entering the gun from the totality of the air.",
"You're measuring the temperature of the air in the atmosphere at the top of a layer that has an [optical thickness](_URL_0_) of about 1, i.e. you're measuring the temperature from the part of the atmosphere from which most of the infrared radiation reaching the surface comes from.\n\nTo find out high how up the optically-thick level of the atmosphere is, you would need a profile of specific humidity and the absorption coefficient of water vapor, which you could integrate upwards from the surface until you reach an optical thickness of 1 (there are a few other constant factors in the integrand that I haven't mentioned). The reason this is tricky is because the absorption coefficient is a *very* strong function of wavelength (and for an accurate estimate, you would need to include CO2 at least and maybe even O3 and CH4). You could use a radiative transfer code ([shown here for the upwelling infrared radiation at the top of the atmosphere](_URL_1_)) to actually calculate all of these things accurately if you wanted.\n\nA desert region would give a cooler value as the optically-thick level would be higher up and at colder temperatures."
],
"score": [
23,
8,
4
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_depth",
"https://github.com/hdrake/IntuitiveGreenhouse/blob/master/figures/IntuitiveGreenhouseEffect.mp4"
]
} | When I point my contactless IR thermometer straight up, what am I taking the temperature of?
It's currently 85 degrees F on the ground here at 10 pm at night. That's the current nighttime air temperature. It's also the temperature I get when I point the IR thermometer at the grass on the ground. When I point my contactless IR thermometer straight up it registers 57 degrees F. That temperature increases as I point it more towards the horizon presumably towards denser and lower layers of air. So what am I measuring straight up? The cosmic background radiation temperature? An average of the stars and deep space in view? The average temperature of the atmosphere? A layer of IR-opaque water vapor in the troposphere? If the latter, how high up is it? How can I find out? Would the temperature it records be different in a dry desert area? | [
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4j8ulh | Am i correctly following Newton's Laws? | I recently just got into physics (I'm 16) and was told that the earth (gravitationally) is just as attracted to us as we are to it (around 9.8m/s^2) If this is the case, using f=ma or a=f/m i came to the conclusion that the earth accelerates towards us at a speed of approximately 1.633333 x 10^-24 metres per second squared. This sounds reasonable but i was just wondering if this is accurate in any way? | askscience | {
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"Mass of earth (M) = 5.972×10^24 kg\n\nGravitational constant (g) = 6.67408 × 10-11 m3 kg-1 s-2\n\nYour mass (m) = 80 kg\n\nRadius of earth (R) = 6.371×10^6 m\n\nThe magnitude of the gravitational force that Earth exerts on you (and vice versa) is predicted by the formula:\n\nF = gMm/R^2\n\nYour acceleration is: a = F/m = gM/R^2 = 9.81 m s-2\n\nEarth's acceleration (due to you alone) is:\n\na' = F/M = gm/R^2 = 1.3×10^-22 m s-2\n\nYou seem to have left out the m (your mass) term in your calculation.",
"You are on the right track. Not sure what you plugged in for the mass of a human, but if we take it to be 75 kg you get:\n\na*_earth_*=a*_human_*\\*(m*_earth_*/m*_human_*)=9.8 m/s^2 \\* (75 kg/6e24 kg) = 1.2 x 10^(-22) m/s^2\n\nSo a little larger than what you got. I think you probably divided by 9.8 instead of multiplying, since your number of off by a factor of around 100. One good trick to getting calculations like this right is to make sure the units cancel out on each side of the equation. \n\nNow as to whether this is accurate...\n\nThis calculation assumes that you and the earth are the only two objects in the universe and you are falling/jumping near the surface of the earth. In that case you really are accelerating towards the earth at 9.8 m/s^2 and the earth is accelerating towards you at 1.2 x 10^(-22) m/s^(2).\n\nIn the real world, the earth (and you) are also being accelerated by forces from the moon, the sun, and the other planets. The total acceleration on the earth is therefore much larger than the small number we calculated (the sun alone produces an acceleration of ~0.006 m/s^(2)). Note that 9.8 m/s^2 is still a good approximation for the total acceleration on you, since the other bodies are producing much smaller accelerations compared to this number.",
"So you got the physics right: that the Earth applies an attractive force on you, while you in turn apply an attractive force to the Earth, all via gravity. However, F=ma relates accelerating objects to the *net* force required to achieve that acceleration. The point is that if I observe something accelerating, I could *infer* that it experienced a net force which *caused* the motion. A corollary of this fact is that you should never worry about ghosts; if an object moves you can be guaranteed that it experienced a net force applied by matter.\n\nIn your thought experiment, when the Earth and your feet are in contact, you apply a force on the Earth while the Earth applies a force on your feet. The net force on your feet is zero in this situation, because you are not accelerating into the Earth (it's holding you up).\n\nNow, if you were above the Earth falling toward it, you and the Earth would exert forces via gravity on each other as before, but now both of you have room for movement. In that case, the Earth will imperceptibly move to you, while you more substantially move toward it. The relative speed of the movement depends on the relative mass between you and the Earth.\n\nHope that helps."
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} | Am i correctly following Newton's Laws?
I recently just got into physics (I'm 16) and was told that the earth (gravitationally) is just as attracted to us as we are to it (around 9.8m/s^2) If this is the case, using f=ma or a=f/m i came to the conclusion that the earth accelerates towards us at a speed of approximately 1.633333 x 10^-24 metres per second squared. This sounds reasonable but i was just wondering if this is accurate in any way? | [
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4sz0mr | I noticed Nice, France looks very tropical. It is at 43 degrees N. I'm in Portland, ME...hardly tropical at 43 degrees N. How is this? Is it because of the Mediterranean? | askscience | {
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"This [paper](_URL_1_) disputes the claim that the Gulf Stream is largely responsible (although their climate models indicate that it does have an effect, especially for [Norway](_URL_0_)).\n\nInstead they attribute the warmth of Europe compared to America as the result of air currents. Wind flows from west to east in the northern hemisphere, and as it flows across America, it crosses the Rocky Mountains. As the air is pushed over the Rockies, it is compressed vertically and expands horizontally, but because of the conservation of angular momentum, it develops a [clockwise spin](_URL_2_). This spin diverts it to the south as it moves across America and then swings it north as it crosses the Atlantic, delivering warm air to Europe.",
"The association of palm trees with tropical climates is somewhat inaccurate, as they are native to and/or can survive other climates as well - desert, humid subtropical, Mediterranean (which is the name of a type of climate seen in coastal California as well as in Nice.) \n\nAlong the eastern coast of the US, palms are native all the way to North Carolina, and inland up to Oklahoma. Only a small part of Florida -- the Keys, the Everglades, and the Miami and Naples metro areas -- has a tropical climate. The rest of the state and the Southeast are humid subtropical. No part of California has a tropical climate.\n\nThe tropical tip of Florida is in plant hardiness zone 10, but there are various palm species that can survive up to plant hardiness zone 7 and beyond. You can find them planted and surviving year-round (with care) in places as far inland as Missouri and Illinois and as far north on the coasts as New York and British Columbia.",
"**Edit:** It looks like what I thought I knew was wrong - it's related to the Gulf Stream but not the way I thought. See: [Why U.S. East Coast Is Colder Than Europe's West Coast](_URL_3_)\n\nThe Gulf Stream does warm up the UK, though: [The North Atlantic Current of the Gulf Stream, along with similar warm air currents, helps keep Ireland and the western coast of Great Britain a couple of degrees warmer than the east.[27] However, the difference is most dramatic in the western coastal islands of Scotland.[28] A noticeable effect of the Gulf Stream and the strong westerly winds (driven by the warm water of the Gulf Stream) on Europe occurs along the Norwegian coast.[8] Northern parts of Norway lie close to the Arctic zone, most of which is covered with ice and snow in winter. However, almost all of Norway's coast remains free of ice and snow throughout the year.[29] Weather systems warmed by the Gulf Stream drift into Northern Europe, also warming the climate behind the Scandinavian mountains.](_URL_4_)",
"Today I learned\nNice/France: 43.7102° N, 7.2620° E\nPortland/USA: 43.6615° N, 70.2553° W\nToronto/Canada: 43.6532° N, 79.3832° W\nmaking them all roughly the same latitude.\n\nAs far as I know the weather in all three places are dramatically different. I don't think Portland or Nice get the same -40 degree temperatures that Toronto gets in Winter or, equally, high temperatures in Summer, 40C/105F (with humidex).",
"The climate is similar to L.A.; it's sub-tropical/dry.\n\nThe Alps block cold air masses from the north. so those palm trees don't face the sort of harsh winters which would kill them. A starker example of this phenomenon is the warm climate in the lakes region north of the Po river: Locarno- and Lugano- region in sub-tropical Switzerland.\n\nYou will also find palm trees in Cornwall, where Great Britain gets the fullest effect of the warmth-bringing Gulf Stream. Cornwall seldom gets rip-your-shirt-off hot, but it also seldom freezes. That seems to be more important for palm trees than a high average temperature.",
"Sort of related...\n\nI moved to the Norwegian arctic which lies on the same latitude as the most northern part of Alaska, yet summers here are green and sunny. All because of the gulf stream going past lofoten and up towards the north. \n\nYet a few hundred miles directly east towards Sweden it's quite literally a frozen tundra with temperatures 20 degrees C cooler than us. \n\nOceans affect climate SO much!",
"Hi, PhD climatologist here. /u/superkamiokande 's link to the Seager paper is a good one. The Gulf Stream's role is pretty minor.\n\nThe major factors are:\n\n1) ocean water absorbs heat from the air when it's hot, and returns it when it's cold, so the oceans minimize the seasonal temperature changes that occur over them and downwind of them. In middle latitudes, the winds blow west to east. Porto, Portugal, on the east side of the Atlantic, has an average daily temperature ranging between [10 and 20 °C](_URL_5_) over the course of the year; New York, at the same latitude, ranges between [0 and 25](_URL_6_). The same pattern holds in the Pacific: Beijing (same latitude) ranges between -4 and 27 °C; Eureka, CA (biggest town I could find at that latitude on the east side of the Pacific) ranges between 9 and 15.\n\nNote the annual averages are only slightly different: 15° for Porto, 12° for New York, 12° for Beijing, 12° for Eureka.\n\n2) Mountains create wave patterns in the atmospheric winds. The Rockies create a southeastward flow of air over the American east coast, bringing in cold air from Canada.",
"I lived a while in southern France, and Nice is especially warm (in winter) in comparison too Marseilles or Montpelier. \n\nA few year ago, my alpine club was offering a series of course of meteorology for mountain. The trainer showed us an amazing video of the cloud (and the cold air coming with it) being bent-over by the Alps. Nice is like 30min drive from the alps (*non millionaire who want to buy a house will live there and commute, you have valley where you don't see the sun in the winter, housing is suddenly way cheaper*) which will protect the region from the northern wind. \n\nAnother example in the \"french\" alps is the difference between *Savoie* and *Provencal alp* In the first region you have a classic \"central Europe forest\" while in the secand region you have a typical Mediterranean region. But there is less than 50km between the two regions (if you have a serious accident the helicopter will bring you to the same hospital)",
"I am not answering your question, but suppling a few ideas for you to pursue. After looking up what ME stood for, I find you are on the northern-eastern coast of N America. You are probably affected by cold air streaming from the west and NORTH of you.\n\nThe Gulf Stream does not enter the Med, but does warm the air over the UK (north like New Foundland) which is further north than Maine. The Med is more a lake with the southern coast on Africa and the northern coast on southern Europe."
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"url": [
"http://www.americanscientist.org/Libraries/images/20066110140_866.jpg",
"http://www.americanscientist.org/issues/pub/the-source-of-europes-mild-climate",
"http://www.americanscientist.org/Libraries/images/20066110455_866.jpg",
"http://www.livescience.com/13573-east-coast-colder-europe-west-coast.html",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_Stream",
"https://weather-and-climate.com/average-monthly-Rainfall-Temperature-Sunshine,Porto,Portugal",
"http://www.usclimatedata.com/climate/new-york/united-states/3202#"
]
} | I noticed Nice, France looks very tropical. It is at 43 degrees N. I'm in Portland, ME...hardly tropical at 43 degrees N. How is this? Is it because of the Mediterranean?
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of5y7 | The basic units... | Ok so to preface my question I do consider myself semi-competent when it comes to scientific material and understanding.
This question is probably simple to answer for someone and I am embarrassed to have to ask it, but it is one of those moments where my mind is sort of stuck and unable to extrapolate my scientific knowledge.
I think the best way to ask my question is to ask it in an example format. So here it is, I hope it makes sense.
Taking a cell of the human body, for simplicity, an epithelial cell. What is the composition of the cell? What I mean is that I understand that everything is made up of atoms, atoms being made up of protons, neutrons and electrons. So when looking at an epithelial cell how do you breakdown its composition in terms of atom composition?
I know this is sort of a peculiar question but I feel like my brain is stuck.
Thanks for any help. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c3gqitb",
"c3gqhdy",
"c3gqhgo",
"c3group"
],
"text": [
"Its a hard question to answer too. A cell is going to contain proteins, lipids, cytoplasm, DNA, RNA and numerous ions and solutes. Each of these parts of the cell have a molecule structure, based on the number and type of atoms in the molecule. This can be a simple structure (ions are a single atom with a charge) or very complex (the protein titin weighs nearly 4,000,000 daltons, with a dalton being equivalent to a proton in mass). In the end all matter is made up of atoms, and cells are complex enough to contain a large variety of atoms, in addition to a large number.",
"Here is my attempt at answering my own question. \n\nAn epithelial cell has a cell membrane, which is made up of a phospholipid bilayer and has protein channels, cholesterol etc...embedded.\n\nThe phospholipid molecules are made up of different regions, the head and tail region. For example the tail region is made up of fatty acids. The fatty acid has a chemical composition consisting of a carbon hydrogen chain. Then of course those atoms are built from differing amounts of protons, neutrons and electrons.\n\nAm I doing it right?",
"Most of it will be water and protein, protein is (generally) a chain of amino acids. Amino acid is a molecule with a general structure like [this](_URL_0_), made up of atoms.",
"The question has already been answered, I won't take another stab at it.\n\nHowever, you should never be too ashamed to ask a question. Curiosity is, in my opinion, our greatest asset. Making a mockery of someone for trying to expand their personal knowledge is ridiculous. It infuriates me when someone is laughed at for asking a question, regardless of how 'stupid' it may seem. These people are actively trying to learn and being ridiculed for doing so. It disgusts me to the very core.\n\nTL;DR: You wouldn't laugh at an overweight person on a treadmill."
],
"score": [
6,
3,
3,
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amino_acid"
]
} | The basic units...
Ok so to preface my question I do consider myself semi-competent when it comes to scientific material and understanding. This question is probably simple to answer for someone and I am embarrassed to have to ask it, but it is one of those moments where my mind is sort of stuck and unable to extrapolate my scientific knowledge. I think the best way to ask my question is to ask it in an example format. So here it is, I hope it makes sense. Taking a cell of the human body, for simplicity, an epithelial cell. What is the composition of the cell? What I mean is that I understand that everything is made up of atoms, atoms being made up of protons, neutrons and electrons. So when looking at an epithelial cell how do you breakdown its composition in terms of atom composition? I know this is sort of a peculiar question but I feel like my brain is stuck. Thanks for any help. | [
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2wu9lz | In between the numbers 1 and 1,000 (including those numbers), what single digit number occurs the most often? | As a follow up question, how many times does this digit occur? | askscience | {
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"text": [
"1.\n\nConsider the numbers from 1 to 9, each digit occurs once (except for the 0). Similarly, from 10 to 19, each digit occurs once plus we have ten extra 1's. From 20 to 29 the same, but ten extra 2's. An so on. Once you reach 99, every digit has occurred the same amount of time as last digit of the number and each digit (except 0) has 10 extra occurrences from being the first digit. So all digits (except 0) are still tied.\n\nThe same reasoning can be applied to the numbers from 100 to 999, all digits other than 0 will occur the same amount of times. So from 1 to 999, there is no unique digit with the highest amount of occurrences. But along comes 1000, which adds an extra 1 (and the three extra 0's are not relevant, as 0 is trailing too far behind).\n\nCounting how often each digit occurs is left as en exercise for the reader, but if you follow the train of thought from my post, the counting should be relatively easy.",
"Let's enumerate the numbers between 1 and 1000 inclusive on a table:\n\nA | B | C | D\n:-: | :-: | :-: | :-:\n. | . | . | 1\n. | . | . | 2\n. | . | . | 3\n. | . | . | 4\n. | . | . | 5\n. | . | . | 6\n. | . | . | 7\n. | . | . | 8\n. | . | . | 9\n. | . | 1 | 0\nblah | blah | blah | blah\n. | 9 | 9 | 8\n. | 9 | 9 | 9\n1 | 0 | 0 | 0\n\nNote that in column A, the digit 1 appears once. No other digits appear.\n\nIn column B, the digit 1 appears 100 times (in 100-199)\nThe digit 2 also appears 100 times (200-299). So do 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9. The digit 0 appears only once (in 1000)\n\nIn column C, the digit 1 appears 100 times (10-19, 110-119, 210-219, ..., 910-919), the digit 2 appears 100 times (20-29, 120-129, 220-229, ..., 920-929). Same logic for digits 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9. The digit 0 appears 91 times (100-109, 200-209, ..., 900-909, and 1000).\n\nIn column D, the digits 1 appears 100 times (1, 11, 21, 31, ..., 991), same logic for digits 2 thru 9. The digit 0 also appears 100 times (10, 20, 30, ..., 990, 1000)\n\nCombining columns A, B, C, and D, the digit 0 appears 192 times (0+1+91+100). The digit 1 appears 301 times (1+100+100+100). All other digits appear 300 times (0+100+100+100).\n\nSo the digit 1 appears the most (301 times) and the digit 0 appears the least (192 times)",
"Somewhat related interesting side note. There's a distribution known as Benfords law which describes the frequency of single digit numbers in random numbers. Violations of it are used to catch tax fraud among other things.",
"1.\n\nThere is actually a mathematical theory regarding the natural distribution of numbers in a data set.\n\n'1' should pretty much always be the most common, and numbers should generally be more likely to start with '1'.\n\nThis is a tactic that is used to catch people who are cooking the books and putting in seemingly \"random numbers\".\n\n\n_URL_0_",
"to guess the answer to this, i reasoned that 1 to 10 has the numbers 2-9 and 0 each on time, but 1 twice. i believe this pattern would remain no matter how many zeroes you tacked on to 10. so from 1 to 1000, inclusively of each, the answer should be that the numeral 1 appears the most."
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"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.forbes.com/sites/danielfisher/2014/05/30/the-simple-mathematical-law-that-financial-fraudsters-cant-beat/"
]
} | In between the numbers 1 and 1,000 (including those numbers), what single digit number occurs the most often?
As a follow up question, how many times does this digit occur? | [
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2ixu0a | What exactly is "Information"? | In many other posts they say that information can not travel faster than the speed of light, but what exactly is information and what can be considered not information. | askscience | {
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"At its most fundamental, information is any propagation of cause and effect within a system. The degree to which the the past state of one part of the system can be known through observation at another part of the system. Effect can only propagate at the speed of light (since nothing can go faster).\n\nInformation is carried in a \"signal\", which is the variation of any physical property, over time, against the backdrop of random variation (entropy). \n\nDifferent fields discuss information in different contexts. E.g. in physics you'll probably be talking about the propagation of cause and effect. In information theory, you're probably talking about formal logic, statistics, signalling, bandwidth, [edit: also, should include language, coding, compression, cryptography, etc.] etc.",
"There is a book that I think would really help you understand this. I recently listened to the audiobook version of **[The Information: A History, a Theory, a Flood by James Gleick](_URL_0_)**. Gleick goes into great detail about when the term \"information\" came into scientific literature, and discusses information from the first mathematical and scientific theorists to current work in quantum theory.",
"\"what exactly is information\"\n\nThat word 'is' causes a whole lot of trouble for a little guy. Using it tends to force an answer into an either / or category. Many of the replies so far have shown that defining what information 'is' (and isn't) will often be dependent on whoever answers the question. \n\nFor clarity and ease it may be more useful to reframe the question to something like: 'What are some good / useful models that help us understand or explain what we mean when we use the word information.\n\nIf I was trying to answer the question to the common man I'd try and (almost ridiculously) simplify [Shannon's Information Theory](_URL_1_) (especially his equation for calculating the Information content of a message) to state:\n\nInformation can be considered as *'the amount of unexpectedness' in a message'.*\n \nA simple example. The sequence 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, (recurring) is a message with a very low information content. The number string has little unexpectedness, we have 1 followed by 1 followed by 1 and so on ad-infinitum.\n\nOn the other hand Pi 3.1415927 etc. has a high information content as we are continuously faced with unpredictability (despite our very best efforts) \n\nThe information in a message equals the negative of the probability that you can predict what will come next at every step of the way.\n\nSo the easier you can predict a message the less information the message contains.\n \nWhat I find fascinating about this model of Information is how it also occurs in Science's usual mortal enemy The Arts. \n\nHighly creative artists like Orson Welles, Stanley Kubrick, James Joyce or Verdi all produced work that had extremely high information content. During their 'messages' (films, books, operas) it is extremely difficult to predict what will come next.\n\nCompare this to mediocre talent where you have low information content - the story's are repetitive, unoriginal, easily deciphered i.e they are boring. \n\nIt is my very humble opinion that great art and great science share the similarity of both having very high information content.",
"information is confirmation that work has been done. \nso basically any **action** that has taken place is information.\n\nwork being \n\n_URL_4_ \n_URL_4_ \n\ninformation cannot travel faster than the speed of light because the results of anything cannot be observed until the information travels through a medium between the observer and what they are observing,\nlight through a vacuum being the fastest possible transference.\n\n*edit _URL_3_",
"I think the more interesting part of your question is what is not information. Because any event in space time that can influence another event is considered information in this sense, it seems like for something not to be information it either (a) cannot be an event in spacetime , or, (b) cannot be able to influence any other event in spacetime. Of course (a) means it would be nothing. So it looks like for something not to be information it simply must not be able to influence anything else. The spacetime equivalent of a tree falling in the woods when no one is around to hear it.\n\nI found this from Wikipedia, which to me helps reconcile the physics idea of information and the more traditional information theory/comp sci view;\n\nAnother link is demonstrated by the Maxwell's demon thought experiment. In this experiment, a direct relationship between information and another physical property, entropy, is demonstrated. A consequence is that it is impossible to destroy information without increasing the entropy of a system; in practical terms this often means generating heat. Another more philosophical outcome is that information could be thought of as interchangeable with energy. Thus, in the study of logic gates, the theoretical lower bound of thermal energy released by an AND gate is higher than for the NOT gate (because information is destroyed in an AND gate and simply converted in a NOT gate).",
"Well, there's the information theory / computer science view of information, of course, but in the physics context that you're asking about, \"information\" refers to events having a causal relationship.\n\nIf an event at A somehow influences an event at B, then information travels from A to B. \"Information cannot travel faster than the speed of light\" means that this can only happen if light can depart from A after the first event, and arrive at B before the second event.\n\n(In this simplified case, you can think of the information as a single bit: \"A has occurred\". If the outcome of B depends on whether or not A happened, then this bit has been transmitted from A to B.)",
"I met a philosopher of information at Oxford University named Luciano Floridi. His definition of information (via wiki):\n\nAccording to Luciano Floridi, four kinds of mutually compatible phenomena are commonly referred to as \"information\":\n\nInformation about something (e.g. a train timetable)\n\nInformation as something (e.g. DNA, or fingerprints)\n\nInformation for something (e.g. algorithms or instructions)\n\nInformation in something (e.g. a pattern or a constraint).\n\nThe word \"information\" is commonly used so metaphorically or so abstractly that the meaning is unclear.",
"Probably the most useful definition is information is a difference that makes a difference. \n\nBreaking that down you can say that information is some capacity or difference in potential or difference from the background that can effect a material change in the behavior of a system. This requires some kind of boundary condition that can concentrate some material enough that it can be differentiated from the background or entropically diffuse state of the system. It then needs a receiver that has a structure that can be affected by this material concentration. Classic Shannon information theory measures the predictability of the flow of concentrations along a channel compared with the amount of noise or entropy. So a pattern of concentrations gives a more predictable signal than a random flow. There's some evidence that evolution selects for conditions which are on the edge of critical transitions between patterned flows and random or chaotic flows. This may be because these types of flows tend to be computationally complete ( they can perform any possible sequence of computational events ) and can also produce novel structures and sequences of events that are extremely unlikely in highly ordered systems or highly random systems. \n\nTo be computationally complete a system also has to be able to store state information in a structure. This can be a simple on off state or be a more complex process of change. State information is a difference in concentration between one part of a system and it's neighborhood. So in a general sense this is what information is. It is a local difference within a boundary condition than can act as a signal to a receptive structure to effect a change in the form or state or behavior of that structure.",
"In answer to your \"what can be considered not information\" part of the question, this is the example my physics teacher gave me in high school about 12 years ago when I asked her the same question:\n\nConsider the point at which two lines intersect. Now rotate the lines towards being parallel. The point of intersection will eventually \"move\" faster than the speed of light, relative to the frame of reference in which the pivot-points of the lines are fixed. This is possible because the point does not \"contain\" information -- that is to say, there is no way that this point, when it reaches a certain place, can affect it in any way.",
"\"Information\" refers to knowing something about the state of the universe. We think of it as abstract things like: \"What's John's phone number?\" But in physical terms, things are their own information. An atom has a certain mass and is at a certain position because it's is itself at that place. Pretty tautological. \n\nDifferent parts of the universe then talk with each other - convey information about their own states with each other - through *forces*.\n\nFor instance, the sun lets us know it's there by the gravitational force it exerts. It tells us some relationship between its mass, and it's direction and distance from us. Gravity communicates with us. Gravity conveys *information*.\n\nAnd forces propagate at the speed of light. If our Sun suddenly vanished, we continue to receive sunlight, and continue to feel it's gravity, for about 8 minutes. There isn't any force that propagates faster than the speed of light, so we literally *can't* know anything about some part of the universe until forces [traveling at the speed of light] have time to reach us.\n\nInformation can also be stored in states of particles - for instance the intensity of the solar wind can tell us things about the Sun's temperature. But that's just derivative of forces. Forces which imparted momentum into those particles, which then impart momentum onto us through mechanical force or magnetic force.\n\n & nbsp;\n\n\nThink about it this way:\n\nInformation can be things like mass, position, temperature.\n\nEquations for forces are functions of that information. \n\n & nbsp;\n\n\nG m_1_ m_2_ / r ^2 = F_g_\n\n & nbsp;\n\nTherefore, when we feel the effect of gravity, it is conveying information about some object.",
"A really broad definition of information is 'a pattern of organization of matter and energy'- most of the time this gets broken down into more specific categories or altered to to take into account human experience. So a more specific definition would be 'some pattern of organization of matter and energy given meaning by a living being (or its constituent parts)'. This can be further differentiated from knowledge which could be 'information given meaning and integrated with other forms of understanding'- all these definitions are described in [this](_URL_5_) essay.However, from what I gather from professors in my field (Information Science/Studies) there's no universal definition of information and there are several influential theories.",
"In the simplest terms, Information is Data with Context. Following the principle of DIKW (Data, Information, Knowledge, Wisdom), it is the progression of how raw data becomes more. For example, data would be temperature of your oven at a set point in time, information would be adding context such as time, so you can know how quickly your oven heats up (knowledge). The 4th level is understanding is Wisdown why it heats up at a certain rate.",
"Is it also true that information is conserved in the universe, meaning it cannot be destroyed nor created? How does this also come into play regarding Stephen hawking controversial paper in which he proves information is destroyed in a black-hole, which breaks the most solidified law of the Quantum Theory?",
"Where in the universe are the properties of mathematics stored? Aren't they a type of information, even though we can't directly observe a physical location from where they originate? \n\nIs physicality a prerequisite for information, or vice versa?"
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3,
3,
2,
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/8701960-the-information",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_theory",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Work_%28thermodynamics%29",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faster-than-light#Quantum_mechanics",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Work_%28physics%29",
"http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.87.8443"
]
} | What exactly is "Information"?
In many other posts they say that information can not travel faster than the speed of light, but what exactly is information and what can be considered not information. | [
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k5vpg | A lone man is dying of thirst in the middle of a desert. How much more time does one glass of water buy him? | Just wondering if a small amount of water would do much to help someone who is dying of dehydration? Or if by that point, would it be hopeless without medical intervention? | askscience | {
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"Related question: When should you drink the water? All at once or a little at a time? As soon as you get it, or once you're really thirsty?",
"It depends really on the type of dehydration.\nYou will also need to replenish electrolytes as they are lost in a proportional amount to water.\n\nSo for a very severe dehydration, I'm not sure a glass of water will do anything but relive the sensation of thirst and dry throat.\n\nHe would be better off if that glass of water was used for \"pre-hydrating\" rather than the same amount being used to rehydrate.",
"I have a related question: if it were a glass of beer, rather than water, would it be beneficial to drink it? Alcohol is a diuretic, and so it increases the rate of urination, but does it increase it enough so that drinking the beer results in net loss of fluid?",
"Side question, what would be the most useful thing you drink in that situation if you could only acquire a glass of it? (ex: gatorade, orange juice, water, animal blood)",
"You can lose 1-2 liters of water an hour in the desert depending on how hot it is, how well prepared you are (body coverage, mouth vs nose breathing, covered eyes, type of clothes, food type & quantity eaten), and how used to the weather your body is. \n\nIf they are severely dehydrated, they won't necessarily act rationally. regardless of whether it would do them any good or not, they will gulp down the water given to them. They'll probably also spit it back up because digestion stopping is one of the body's defenses when the body starts to dehydrate.\n\nBasically, it's hopeless if they're already \"dying of thirst\", as in 15+% dehydrated, it's not even going to delay the inevitable. Earlier than that, it will help a little, but electrolytes are important too, and assuming they aren't getting replenished, it may not help either. Also, there's some lag time in between when you drink and when the water is absorbed to be used (30-60 minutes I think), so it is actually possible to drink a bunch of water right before you die of dehydration. Not likely, but possible. Less likely if they use a rehydration pack intravenously, or use a rehydration drink\n\n(I used to be a search and rescue volunteer, and attended a number of trainings on desert survival and dehydration. Probably the best source I can give is from those trainings, though I know the military studied this quite a lot, but my google foo isn't working tonight)",
"I guess it depends on how many times he drinks that glass of water.",
"while I'm not a biologist, there are some parameters you need to narrow down to give you an estimate:\n\n1) the temperature of the desert\n2) the age and health of the man before he went in\n3) his current condition: how much water has he lost? what's his blood pressure? etc etc.",
"What is the quantity of water? I can imagine a 2oz or 200,000oz glass. Operationalize before specialization."
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} | A lone man is dying of thirst in the middle of a desert. How much more time does one glass of water buy him?
Just wondering if a small amount of water would do much to help someone who is dying of dehydration? Or if by that point, would it be hopeless without medical intervention? | [
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|
u0ef7 | plausible interstallar travel | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c4r937i",
"c4rb7ql",
"c4rb5g3"
],
"text": [
"If you have a propulsion system that lets you gain a large percentage of light speed relative to your initial port, then the trip will feel much shorter for the people the trip. The next star could be reached in what seems like six months at 99% light speed.",
"Look up project orion. Using nuclear pulse detonation, you could probably get up to around 10% of C if you used thermonuclear warheads. \n\n10% won't get you anywhere fast, but it does put a bunch of stars within the range of a human lifespan.",
"Traveling between individual stars seems entirely possible even with what we currently know. It would take resources that aren't available, but it's certainly within the realm of possibility. Traveling between galaxies will almost certainly never be possible unless we are able to better understand and use space-time changes like wormholes."
],
"score": [
6,
4,
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | plausible interstallar travel
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kt0xn | "Banking" umbilical cord blood - Is there any evidence that paying a facility to keep your newborn's hematopoietic stem cells is a good idea? | I feel like maybe someday I'll be glad I did it. At the same time, I also feel like maybe I'm being scammed by people taking advantage of my fear and ignorance. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c2mz2ah",
"c2n1l8r",
"c2mz49n"
],
"text": [
"[Absolutely](_URL_2_). Though scientists are making rapid advancement in developing techniques for creating stem cells from the cells of adults, cord blood still appears to be the easiest source of stem cells. Given the future prospects for stem cell-based therapies (hype or not), it seems worth it to keep the options for your child open.\n\nThat said, a lot of it would seem to be an economic factor. I don't have a feel for the costs associated with privately banking blood, and there is definitely [debate](_URL_0_) on the issue--particularly as to whether the stored blood will remain viable. Check the opinion of the [World Marrow Donor Association](_URL_1_).\n\n**TL;DR**- Could potentially be worth it, but not necessarily worth taking out a second mortgage on your house. Future prospects unclear, but range from good to excellent.",
"Right now they're popular for stem cell studies. I work in one of the leading immunotherapy lab groups in the country. One of my colleagues just got a 12 million dollar grant for cord blood transplantation studies. \n\nAnother of my colleagues just defended his PhD thesis on how cord blood T cells recognize different epitopes from fully mature T cells, and how this can provide another opportunity for tumor antigen and immunosuppression-related virus studies. \n\nYou have NO IDEA how cutting edge and huge this is going to be. This is the turn that anti-cancer therapies is going. Cord blood cells are unique in that they are a purely naive and virgin population of immune cells. If your child develops leukemia (heaven fucking forbid) you'll be glad you have that cord blood.",
"the field is still relatively \"young\" in terms of both research as well as the ethical issues invoked. most scientists would tell you that it is worth it while most layman have no idea where to even start. and that instead incites the ethical debate about stem cells as a result. working in a stem cell lab has shown a lot of promise, but at the same time there are major ethical and governmental hurdles to overcome before the idea of saving cord blood is popularly known/accepted as normal. imho, there's no question. absolutely worthwhile. its like a pascal's wager type situation where it is better to have something and not need it than need it and not have it."
],
"score": [
21,
8,
4
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cord_blood#Controversy",
"http://web.archive.org/web/20060926115915/http://www.worldmarrow.org/fileadmin/WorkingGroups_Subcommittees/DRWG/Cord_Blood_Registries/WMDA_Policy_Statement_Final_02062006.pdf",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cord_blood#Use_and_applications"
]
} | "Banking" umbilical cord blood - Is there any evidence that paying a facility to keep your newborn's hematopoietic stem cells is a good idea?
I feel like maybe someday I'll be glad I did it. At the same time, I also feel like maybe I'm being scammed by people taking advantage of my fear and ignorance. | [
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2q2umr | Is there a unit to describe the speed that time passes? | Such as the speed of time when at rest vs. moving near the speed of light or moving close to a large gravitational body? | askscience | {
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"The unit of time is the second. A \"speed\" is defined as how a variable changes per unit time. Therefore, within a single reference frame, the \"speed of time\" would have units of seconds per second, which units cancel out to end up not being units. Furthermore, within a single reference frame, the speed of time is always 1 second per second, and therefore has a trivial, constant value in addition to being dimensionless. This is not very illuminating, but what it does show is that the concept of \"speed of time\" within a single, isolated reference time is not a very useful or meaningful concept.\n\nBut, we know that time can progress at different rates in different reference frames, therefore the concept of \"speed of time\" must have more significance in general. We can calculate the speed of time in one frame relative to another frame and then it will not be so trivial, because of relativistic time dilation. For instance, if we are at rest on the ground and measure the length of a second t' in some moving reference frame that is moving relative to the ground at speed v (i.e. we watch a clock tick that is moving with the moving reference frame), and then measure the length of a second t in our own ground frame, we find\\*:\n\nt'/t = 1/(sqrt(1 - v^2 /c^2 ))\n\nThe part on the right is called the Lorentz factor, or the gamma factor. The ratio of time in one frame, to the time in another frame can be thought of as the relative speed of time. Therefore, the relative speed of time has the value of the Lorentz factor. This speed still just has units of seconds per seconds, which divides out to be no units. Therefore, whether talking about the single-frame speed of time (which is always one), or the relative speed of time (which is the Lorentz factor), the speed of time is always unitless. \n\n\\*To actually measure this equation, you need very accurate clocks and very high speeds.\n\nUPDATE: Because this post has got a lot of hits, I'll summarize and respond to some of the comments below.\n\n- For brevity, I only mentioned relative-velocity time dilation. But gravity can [also cause time dilation](_URL_0_). \n\n- Some people have argued that for a ratio of two variables that both have the same units (such as the speed of time), the ratio is \"dimensionles\" but not \"unitless\". This depends on how you use units. If you use a strictly standardized unit system only considering the main units, then such ratios do not have units. An example of this is the \"base units\" of the SI. If you use \"units\" more broadly to help you remember where such ratios come from, then such ratios do have units. An example of this is the \"derived units\" of the SI. In the SI, radians are derived units but not base units. Expressed in terms of base units, the radian has units of m/m which cancels out to unitless in base units.\n\n- The concepts, \"time is not real\" or \"time only exists in the human perception\" may make for some fun philosophizing, but do not real hold up in the realm of physics. Pulsars were periodically pusling in time long before humans came along to perceive time.\n\n- As far as we can currently tell, time is not quantized and there is no smallest increment of time. The Plank time is not a limit on how small an increment of time can get. This is a common misconception.\n\n- Relativistic effects such as time dilation are real and are independent of human perception. Machines can reproducibly measure relativistic effects without any humans being around. Einstein's famous quote about relativity being how time seems to go quicker when you are with a pretty girl was given as a joke. He was trying to be funny, and was not trying to actually describe the science of Relativity.",
"The net velocity of any given observer through 4D space-time is always c, the speed of light. Interestingly, c isn't really \"the speed of light\", but rather a conversion factor between spatial and temporal dimensions at which photons happen to travel: 3*10^8 m = 1 second, just like 2.54 cm = 1 in. Space and time are the same \"substance\", but time itself is somewhat special in that it has the mysterious quality of being a sort of one way street. This is all fixed, and acceleration through space does not change one's overall speed, but rather changes ones direction in space-time to favor faster space-like travel and slower time-like travel. So if one is at rest in each spatial dimension, one is traveling through time at c. As one accelerates in the x-direction, one's velocity in the t-direction slows down, until ultimately one is traveling at c in x, and 0 in t (impossible, mind you). Similarly for the other spatial dimensions, following an equation which escapes me at the moment. Something like: x^2 + y^2 + z^2 + t^2 = c^2. It gets complicated when you consider this is different for observers in differing reference frames, and it doesn't take into account gravitational effects, but that's the gist of relativistic travel.",
"What you're looking for is \"gamma\" or the Lorentz factor.\n\nWhat you're missing in your question is the implicit understanding that time is relative. When we say that time \"slows down\" at high speeds, we mean that time slows down *relatively*. There's no such thing as an absolute frame of reference so there's no such thing as absolute speed or absolute time dilation.\n\nIn fact, if you have two spaceships both traveling apart from each other, each will consider that their local time is not dilated and the other ship's time is slowed relative to their own. This seems paradoxical, and it is, it's the origin of the twin paradox thought experiment, but it works out. The only way for either ship to return to the same location as the other ship is for one of the ships to accelerate, which will break the seemingly paradoxical symmetry of the model.",
"What you're sort of describing is what's known as 'proper time' denoted by the symbol tau usually. It's not a unit, more a concept. Time is measured in seconds. \nProper time is simply the time measured (to get from A to B) in an object's reference frame and it will be smaller than the time measured by an observer watching from another inertial reference frame by a factor as described by /u/chrisbaird.",
"Sure, you use seconds, minutes, and hours. The fact that the thing being measured is variable doesn't make the unit invalid, any more than measuring an object whose size varies with temperature changes makes centimeters invalid.\n\n\"The point of a yardstick is NOT that the thing to be measured must be 36 inches long.\" -- Ludwig Wittgenstein",
"To take a different angle from most answers here, in [horology](_URL_1_) by abuse of terminology we often have \"units\" like \"seconds per day\" or even \"seconds per day per day\":\n\n* The *rate* of a clock, how fast or slow it runs over a given averaging period, is often informally stated as \"seconds per day.\"\n* The *instability* of a clock, how much its rates vary from one period to the next, is likewise informally stated as \"seconds per day per day.\"\n\nAs I said above, this is abuse of terminology, because what's being really measured isn't how many seconds there are in a day, but rather how many **clock cycles** happened over 86,400 seconds. So stated properly:\n\n* Rate is **frequency**, and thus the proper unit is s^-1 (Hertz).\n* But what we often use is **frequency error** expressed as the ratio of the clock's observed frequency to the standard frequency. This is a dimensionless quantity. \n* Instability has the same dimensions as frequency error (i.e., none).",
"I'm surprised no-one sees this from a linear algebraic point of view! I have always seen \"units\" as linearly independent magnitudes. I.e. a unit is a unit if it is not the sum of other units. The measures are then a 1-D vector space over the reals, R\\*unit. A position in space, say, is then a point in the formal Cartesian product space (R\\*m)^3.\n\nDifferent units for length are not \"different\" units, they are merely different base vectors for the space of length. Constants like pi and e have nothing at all to do with units, they are points in R, and are not more or less fundamental.\n\nThis is ofc coming from my point of view as a mathematician, where mathematics are the foundation of the universe, not the other way around.\n\nTL;DR: The defining property of a unit is that it cannot be expressed as a sum of other units. I.e. units are vectors.",
"On a related note (maybe). I hope this makes some sense:\n\nIs there a unit for space-time? And is there such a unit that is independent of gravity?\n\nAs in: Black holes effect on spacetime is sometimes likened to a bowling ball sunk into stretchy fabric. So both time and space is stretched out near to it due to gravity. Is there some conceptual independent grid that doesn't stretch? Something from which independent units could be derived? Units for which one could then measure how much space-time is stretched near a black hole due to gravity?",
"For photons with velocity in space of c, velocity in time is 0. This is essentially why photons can never decay. Velocity through time and space are directly related, and, through the lorentz equation, the sum can never surpass c. When an object is at rest, in that reference frame, velocity in space is zero, but velocity in time is c.",
"As others have said, time passes at, well, one second per second. The unit of time is the second. However, you may be interested to hear that one second is the time that elapses during 9,192,631,770 (9.192631770 x 10^9 ) cycles of the radiation produced by the transition between two levels of the cesium 133 atom.",
"To put the other, better answers in a few digestible words, no units, but a ratio between speeds of time passage. You have to pick another time speed to compare to and then you just have a Lorentz factor to compare them."
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Such as the speed of time when at rest vs. moving near the speed of light or moving close to a large gravitational body? | [
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|
2wz7ni | How can a modern processor draw 130 watts in power at 1.1 volts or so? | If you do the math you will end up with am amperage of around 100 amps or so. Which I find it hard to believe, maybe the processor draws multiple voltages and the higher ones contribute to most of the power. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"covl9kj",
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],
"text": [
"It really does draw 100 amps.\n\nIf you look at the pinout of a modern processor, you will see that there are hundreds of pins dedicated to power and ground - so no one pin has to carry all that current.",
"There is circuitry on the motherboard to step the voltage down from the supplied voltages from the power supply (3.3v, 5v and 12v rails) to the lower voltage used by the CPU.\n\nAll that current doesn't just flow through one or two pins though. [Here's a diagram of an LGA1155 socket layout](_URL_0_), all those green (Vcc) and red (Vss) pins are power and ground. That's how so much power can be supplied at those low voltages.",
"One thing to keep in mind with step down converters is power is conserved (minus efficiency losses) not Voltage or Current.\n\nTo pull 100A at 1.1V with 90% efficiency you only need to supply 10.2A at 12V. So your main CPU power supply really may only need to be rated for like 12-15A on the 12V dedicated to the CPU.\n\nOne of the reasons this is done, is losses due to resistance are in the form Current * Current * Resistance (I^2 * R). So if the power supply distributed all the current right from the main brick, then the losses would be more than 100 times higher using the same gauge of wire.\n\nAnother neat thing they can do is run multiple power supplies out of phase with each other. You may read about motherboards with 4 phase, 8 phase, 12 phase, 16 phase supplies. Basically what this means is there are a bunch of supplies in parallel supplying only a portion of the 100A needed. This has many advantages as it reduces the resistance losses due to cutting the individual current through each node down considerably, it spreads the heat generation out over a larger area, allows for smaller components, and in some cases even allows for a certain level of redundancy if a single supply fails in a detectable manner."
],
"score": [
41,
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://i.imgur.com/C6im1Ay.png"
]
} | How can a modern processor draw 130 watts in power at 1.1 volts or so?
If you do the math you will end up with am amperage of around 100 amps or so. Which I find it hard to believe, maybe the processor draws multiple voltages and the higher ones contribute to most of the power. | [
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|
oox5p | Is it possible to fashion a "stone" for a ring from graphite? | Some Background: As a chemistry nerd-girl at heart I've grown up in meager conditions and have always joked with my boyfriend that an engagement ring with graphite would mean more to me than one of diamond.
I am curious though, *is this possible*?
No luck through searching google about such items. Plus, I'd like a little more explanation about the science behind it :) | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c3ivffi",
"c3iw0a6",
"c3ix72i",
"c3iyuq2"
],
"text": [
"Graphite is extremely soft. \n\nI suppose that you could encase it in a transparent shell, but otherwise it wouldn't last long. \n\n[Edit] Go with Buckminsterfullerene ....",
"You could go halfway - [Mossianite](_URL_0_) (silicon carbide), which is carbon and silicon atoms mixed in a somewhat diamond-like lattice. \n\nIt's very close to diamond in a lot of its material properties (read: very hard). As a mineral it's very rare, and the gemstones are entirely made synthetically, which I'd think would add to the novelty for a chemist, really. \n\nI'm not a big fan of diamonds either; they're highly overpriced (due to De Beers monopoly), and a bit boring. One of the reasons they're so popular isn't because they're so unusually pretty, but because they're so relatively homogenous and consistent. In other words, you can buy diamonds in a certain size and mass-produce diamond jewelry. Other gemstones (especially emeralds) are more often flawed, and need custom-designed jewels/mounts to look good.",
"I see that covalent vs. ionic bonds, graphite's (lack of) hardness, and graphene/other alternatives have been discussed. I have no additional science to offer.\n\nHowever, I have some practical advice: graphite will leave marks *everywhere*. That's one of the easiest ways to identify it. \"Looks a little like galena but is quite light and leaves schmutz on your fingers? Yep. Graphite.\"\n\nOf course, it leaving marks everywhere is a result of those weak ionic bonds; that is to say, the schmutz is just graphite that's broken off.",
"There are a handful of graphite [compounds that are machinable.](_URL_1_) One of these might be more-or-less useful in making a ring one could wear, but I suspect the properties (softness or brittleness) would ultimately cause it to break or wear away."
],
"score": [
6,
5,
3,
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moissanite",
"http://www.ceramisis.com/carbons_graphites_a1.htm"
]
} | Is it possible to fashion a "stone" for a ring from graphite?
Some Background: As a chemistry nerd-girl at heart I've grown up in meager conditions and have always joked with my boyfriend that an engagement ring with graphite would mean more to me than one of diamond. I am curious though, *is this possible*? No luck through searching google about such items. Plus, I'd like a little more explanation about the science behind it :) | [
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|
3egnfd | How do we communicate with space crafts so quickly? | I read in Event Horizon thread that it takes us 4.5 hrs to receive messages from Pluto. After some Googling I found one source that says Pluto is 13 light hours away and another that said it was 327 minutes away (5.5 hrs). First off, which is it? Secondly, If it takes light at least 5.5 hrs to travel that distance, how are we communicating at that distance in less time than that?
Keep in mind I am new to this sub and my knowledge is fairly limited so don't get too over the top. Secondly, if an explanation like that is more suited for another sub, let me know. Thanks!
(I tried posting this when the pluto thing was more relevant, but it was deleted for mentioning pluto even though thats not the point of the question. I messaged mods but never saw a reply) | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cteurxl",
"cteull2",
"ctfcg8o"
],
"text": [
"they do travel at the speed of light, or near enough to make no difference to us. (technically they slow down in our atmosphere, but thats like a milimeter to a marathon, so not worth calculating.\n\nThe rest has to be inconsistent sources. For one, our distance to pluto changes dramatically depending where we both are in our orbits.",
"Through radio waves. To simplify - they travel with the speed of light. There is no way to go faster, so I guess the source saying the data travels faster than the distance in light-hours is wrong?",
"Pluto has a highly elliptical orbit, meaning the distance to it varies quite a lot.\n\nThe time delay is speed of light; any discrepancies are due to incorrect references."
],
"score": [
7,
4,
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | How do we communicate with space crafts so quickly?
I read in Event Horizon thread that it takes us 4.5 hrs to receive messages from Pluto. After some Googling I found one source that says Pluto is 13 light hours away and another that said it was 327 minutes away (5.5 hrs). First off, which is it? Secondly, If it takes light at least 5.5 hrs to travel that distance, how are we communicating at that distance in less time than that? Keep in mind I am new to this sub and my knowledge is fairly limited so don't get too over the top. Secondly, if an explanation like that is more suited for another sub, let me know. Thanks! (I tried posting this when the pluto thing was more relevant, but it was deleted for mentioning pluto even though thats not the point of the question. I messaged mods but never saw a reply) | [
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|
nllht | What happens to extra current in the power grid? | If power stations are generating x kw and the power grid is only drawing y kw where y < x, how does the grid handle this extra current? I suppose the same question applys for a generator. If I am powering my house from a 10,000 watt generator and my house only draws 5,000 watts, what happens to that extra current? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c3a1l0a",
"c3a1vw5",
"c3a1o1i"
],
"text": [
"Electric companies have developed all kinds of ways to store this 'extra' energy. One very efficient way is to [use giant flywheels](_URL_0_). You basically crank up a big heavy wheel to absurdly high speeds. Later, you can use that flywheel to crank a generator and get your power back.\n\nAnother way is to store the energy in a water reservoir. You use the electricity to pump water uphill into a lake, and later you can use a hydroelectric dam to get the energy back.",
"It's not extra current, it's extra power.\n\nThe short answer is they stop generating as much power. The power grid consists of a number of \"base load\" plants, which are slow to turn on and off and designed to be as cheap to operate as possible. Additionally there are \"peak load\" plants which are fast to turn on and off and can be somewhat more expensive to operate.\n\n_URL_2_\n\nWhen the daily electric requirement starts dropping in the evening, these plants are shut off, matching the generated electricity to the demand.\n\nSo that's managing the supply of power to meet the demand. There are two other ways to make them agree: you can manage the demand, or you can temporarily store/inject extra power from storage devices. For the first, utilities can charge higher prices for peak power and enter into agreements where users cut their use automatically during times of high demand. The second is called grid storage and it's not common yet but might become more so in the future.\n\nIf the supply of power is significantly mismatched to demand and remains that way, the grid manages this in the traditional electrical way: it overheats and catches on fire. Actually, hopefully circuit breakers cut out, but in the event that they don't, the overheat-and-catch-fire scenario is always in play. Circuit breakers for big lines are themselves big:\n\n_URL_2_\n\n(With regard to your portable 10kW generator, it senses how much power is required and runs the engine faster or slower to compensate. So if no power is requested of it, the engine just idles and generates no power. If power is requested, it runs faster. If more than 10kW is requested, hey look, it's overheat and catch fire time.)",
"Your 10,000 watt generator isn't generating 10,000 watts at all times. If the load connected to it is less, it generates less power. The extra power isn't \"going\" anywhere, it's simply not being generated. You're running at a lower load than the maximum load the generator can handle."
],
"score": [
4,
3,
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]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flywheel_energy_storage",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6GiIVze2Tac",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peaking_power_plant"
]
} | What happens to extra current in the power grid?
If power stations are generating x kw and the power grid is only drawing y kw where y < x, how does the grid handle this extra current? I suppose the same question applys for a generator. If I am powering my house from a 10,000 watt generator and my house only draws 5,000 watts, what happens to that extra current? | [
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|
1c51i6 | When a cheetah runs down a gazelle at 60+ mph, what keeps them from getting hurt in the resulting 60 mph crash? | I understand the stop is not so sudden as a car crash, but at that speed I would still expect to be hurt if I fell off a bicycle.
Or am I wrong and they *do* get hurt but just take a few days to heal up after a successful hunt?
| askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c9d9kon",
"c9d6ybj",
"c9ddobm"
],
"text": [
"Two points:\n\n* The cheetah reaches its high speeds when closing the gap between it and the gazelle. As it approaches its prey, the cheetah slows down to match its speed. This is often needed, because by this time the gazelle has switched from direct flight to avoidance maneuvers (zig-zagging). \n\n* The cheetah's primary take-down maneuver is to trip its prey (unlike lions which tend to grab on and haul down the victim). So for the gazelle, it really is like falling off a bike - an uncontrolled tumble. The cheetah has the luxury of a more controlled deceleration. It still must decelerate quickly, though, or the gazelle may regain its footing. So the cheetah does a \"180\" - planting its front paws and allowing its rear end to swing around, so that it ends up facing the prey.\n\nEdit 2 months later: See [this](_URL_0_)",
"Because gazelles are soft and the crash isn't at 60mph, because the gazelle is running from him.\n\nFor example: Joe and Sara are driving in the same direction. If Joe’s velocity is 90 km/h and Sara’s 100 km/h, then Joe sees Sara moving at 10 km/h. If Joe crashes Sara at that speed, it's as if he crashed her at 10km/h.",
"I know this [video](_URL_1_) is anecdotal, but it provides a similar idea.\n\nAs with the motorcyclist, although he crashes at 140km/h, his impact to the ground is theoretically no different than somebody falling off a chair at the height of his seat. The speed of the landing is minimal. That said, if he'd been going that speed and slid into a guardrail/lamppost/tree, the deceleration would kill him.\n\nAnother example might be a plane landing. Sure, it's landing at hundreds of miles an hour...but the speed of descent is obviously considerably lower than that. Yes, I know this isn't ELI5, but analogies seem like the best bet here."
],
"score": [
69,
5,
4
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.nytimes.com/2013/06/13/science/agility-not-speed-is-cheetahs-meal-ticket-study-says.html",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B5PhwIxVnck"
]
} | When a cheetah runs down a gazelle at 60+ mph, what keeps them from getting hurt in the resulting 60 mph crash?
I understand the stop is not so sudden as a car crash, but at that speed I would still expect to be hurt if I fell off a bicycle. Or am I wrong and they *do* get hurt but just take a few days to heal up after a successful hunt? | [
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|
13mhv9 | Is it true that the North Sea and the Baltic Sea have a "border"? | _URL_0_
\^Alright, so I've seen this picture a lot, with people saying that it's the place the North Sea and the Baltic Sea meet, accompanied with text claiming that the waters never mix. I know that the waters obviously mix, there's no way that it could be a perfect border, but I was wondering if this is a special phenomenon or is this actually how the ocean always looks? Basically, was this picture taken under any special weather circumstances that made the seas look like this or does it look like this by default? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c759s80",
"c759qhu",
"c75bsfw",
"c75gav9"
],
"text": [
"This picture pops up every now and again, theories range from different salinity levels to different temperatures, both somewhat plausible.\n\nHowever, the picture [was actually taken in Alaska](_URL_0_), nowhere near the baltic or north sea.",
"What is shown is an [oceanic front](_URL_2_). They are common but not ubiquitous. They are not always so visibly apparent as this example - it depends on the contrast of the water types on either side. Ocean fronts are akin to cold-fronts and warm-fronts in the atmosphere and shown on weather maps. Some are semi-permanent features, such as the [subpolar fronts around Antarctica](_URL_2_) while others may only form at certain times of the year.",
"If you go to the northern tip of Jylland, Denmark, and a Place called Skagen then you can see the waves of the two seas clash. I can't say anything about this picture though.",
"Water masses are differentiated broadly by density, which is a function of temperature and salinity. Different water masses actually can be quite discrete, and essentially form \"borders\". On a larger (and more stable) scale than these surface fronts, the oceans are basically formed of relatively consistent and predictable water masses, based on the salinity and temperature conditions where they form at the surface, before eventually sinking (as part of global Thermohaline Circulation (_URL_3_).The presence and location of larger water masses actually can play a part in determining 'border' between different oceans and seas in the essentially interconnected global water mass. In any case, wherever this photo was taken, what you see is the meeting of 2 separate water masses, which is also why you get that nice line of foam (unless those are breakers? Hard to tell at this scale)- the floating foam gets stuck at the pycnocline where the density changes. The colors, as a few folks mentioned, would be different not because salt content or heat directly changes color, but because it effects what is growing in the water. Alternately, if it's a meeting of terrestrially-sourced fresher water and oceanic salty water the color could be due to suspended terrigenous material and color dissolved organic matter. Likely it's a combination of all of the above\n\nSource: I'm an oceanographer."
],
"score": [
25,
13,
7,
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]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://bobbiblogger.files.wordpress.com/2012/01/baltic.jpg"
]
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.flickr.com/photos/kentsmith9/4955772693/",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Front_%28Oceanography%29",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antarctic_Convergence",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermohaline_circulation"
]
} | Is it true that the North Sea and the Baltic Sea have a "border"?
_URL_0_ \^Alright, so I've seen this picture a lot, with people saying that it's the place the North Sea and the Baltic Sea meet, accompanied with text claiming that the waters never mix. I know that the waters obviously mix, there's no way that it could be a perfect border, but I was wondering if this is a special phenomenon or is this actually how the ocean always looks? Basically, was this picture taken under any special weather circumstances that made the seas look like this or does it look like this by default? | [
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|
44067n | Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology | Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology**
Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: "What would happen if...", "How will the future...", "If all the rules for 'X' were different...", "Why does my...".
**Asking Questions:**
Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions.
The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.
**Answering Questions:**
Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. [The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here](_URL_1_). In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.
If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, [please refer to the information provided here](_URL_2_).
Past AskAnythingWednesday posts [can be found here](_URL_0_).
Ask away!
| askscience | {
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"To me a $15 minimum wage seems like an arbitrary number thrown out to the people as a catch all fix it. My problem is not with the idea of raising minimum wage but in that doing so seems short sighted when wages aren't the only contribution to living in poverty. How is a $15 minimum wage going to affect the cost of living, tax brackets, prices of common goods, etc? How would the change in wages stop companies from marking up products and services? How would it make health care any more affordable, when as a person who makes roughly that amount hourly, I can still barely afford the plan I have?",
"Do you think that the expansion and ubiquitous nature of American media within America will eventually cause a smoothing out and evaporation of localized accents?For instance, eventually will we lose the Bostonian or Brooklynian accent because Standard American English is dominant in our media?",
"Is there any real link between the Zika virus and the Brazil birth defects yet? It seems the [CDC is implying an association between the two](_URL_0_) and warning pregnant women about traveling to certain areas. Is this, at the point, anything more that the an abundance precaution because of the correlation of the two, being in the same area and around the same time? Or has some reasonably tangible links between the two been found?",
"I've been trying to understand the relationship between growth in GDP and inflation. In a simple sense, it seems like inflation growth of 2% would counter GDP growth of 2%, but it is surely more complex under the hood.\n\nWould love if someone who understands these topics well could riff on how to think about them relative to each other.",
"Hi! I am currently a student in the uk, and was looking into studying anthropology next year. My questions are the following: \n\nwhat kind of work do you most commonly see as an anthropologist? And what do you find to be most rewarding? Why?\n\nThanks for taking the time to read/answer the questions on this thread- we appreciate it!",
"There is a current negative attitude toward the US Economy that leads me to question what the fundamental issues are. A lot of what I hear is regarding wage stagnation, a lack-luster job market, the ludicrous cost of living (could be local to me, San Diego), unfair taxation, and income disparity. Personally, I have not felt many negative effects caused by these things. \n\nSo my question is, what is the current state of the US economy that can be put into perspective for the average joe? Are things really that bad? Are some people more affected by the negatives than others? \n\nBonus question: Is Northern Europe really in that much of a better economic state than we are?",
"I've been reading about post- structuralism and deconstruction and two figures associated with it: Barthes and Derrida. Could you give me a more boiled down version of this very abstract philosophy and some classic and/or modern examples?",
"So if there is a protein in our body that proofreads our copied DNA, couldn't we enhance or specifically nourish that one protein to avoid developing cancer?"
],
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} | {
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"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/search?q=flair%3A%27meta%27&restrict_sr=on&sort=new&t=all",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/wiki/index#wiki_answering_askscience",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/3exo6p/askscience_panel_of_scientists_xiii/"
]
} | {
"url": [
"http://wwwnc.cdc.gov/travel/notices/watch/carnival-mardi-gras-2016"
]
} | Ask Anything Wednesday - Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology
Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Economics, Political Science, Linguistics, Anthropology** Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: "What would happen if...", "How will the future...", "If all the rules for 'X' were different...", "Why does my...". **Asking Questions:** Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists. **Answering Questions:** Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. [The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here](_URL_1_). In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience. If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, [please refer to the information provided here](_URL_2_). Past AskAnythingWednesday posts [can be found here](_URL_0_). Ask away! | [
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iihk3 | In quantum uncertainty, you sometimes here people say "we altered it by observing it," however, isn't the alteration somehow the result of the tools we must use to measure such small particles? | In the double-slit experiment, when they measured which slit the electron went through, it behaved as a particle. My question is, what device exactly did they use to measure it? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c240v1j",
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"text": [
"It's not at all the observer that alters it of course. It is the experiment that changes. For instance, if you are measuring the path of an electron, you might use an electric field or magnetic field to measure it. But that field then interacts with the electron in such a way as to cancel the wave effects.",
"Shavera already answered your question quite well, but let me quote something on the uncertainty principle from my chemistry book:\n\n > Objects can be located to an accuracy no greater than the wavelength of the radiation used. Thus, if we want an accurate position measurement for an electron, we must use a short wavelength. This means that photons of high energy must be employed. The more energy the photons have, the more momentum they impart to the electron when they strike it, which changes the electron's motion in an unpredictable way. The attempt to measure accurately the electron's position introduces considerable uncertainty in its momentum; the act of measuring the electron's position at one moment makes our knowledge of its future position inaccurate.\n\n > Suppose, then, that we use photons of longer wavelength. Because these photons have lower energy, the momentum of the electron is not so appreciably changed during measurement, but its position will be correspondingly less accurately known. This is the essence of the uncertainty principle: *There is an uncertainty in simultaneously knowing either the position or the momentum of the electron that cannot be reduced beyond a certain minimum level.*",
"Of course it is directly a result of your measurement apparatus, but there are fundamental reasons why no apparatus is ever good enough. In quantum mechanics, a particle literally *does not have* a single precise location or momentum, but rather a range of possible ones. You can't measure its position without immediately ruling out the possibility that the particle is somewhere other than the place where you found it. Insofar as this was previously possible but no longer is, you have changed the particle's state.",
"The universe is fuzzy, not our glasses! The uncertainty principle is NOT a result of measurement equipment not being perfect."
],
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | In quantum uncertainty, you sometimes here people say "we altered it by observing it," however, isn't the alteration somehow the result of the tools we must use to measure such small particles?
In the double-slit experiment, when they measured which slit the electron went through, it behaved as a particle. My question is, what device exactly did they use to measure it? | [
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|
ih79d | What is the difference between time and matter? | We all know that time is linear and that time is interconnected with matter. When matter change it does so over time. And we calculate and see time as matter is changing.
What is the difference between the two?
And how are they dependent on each other?
Would any of them exist without the other? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c23q313",
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"c23r1e9",
"c23rb3x"
],
"text": [
"Time is what you measure on a clock. Matter is ill defined but generally considered to be \"stuff that's made of fermions and their bound systems.\" In the same way that all of these fermions aren't piled up at the same point in space, they're not all piled up at the same point in time. There are processes that happen 'here and now', and events 'there and then.'",
"Time is something odd to discuss, for now we can just talk about it as a measurement, like distance, in fact Relativity puts them on the same footing and says that time and distance are the same thing and that we move through both of them. So for now lets just assume its an intrinsic property of space.\n\nLets talk about the content of that space now. There is matter and there is radiation. Matter as shavera tells you is made up of fermions. Fermions behave in such a way (the pauli exclusion principle) that they occupy a volume of space. Now radiation is different, it doesn't occupy space, in fact a system made entirely of radiation as the ability to collapse to a point and become what is known as a bose-einstein condensate. This is because radiation is made up of what are known as bosons, and they are free of the exclusion principle. \n\nWithholding some theories, time is just a measure, and doesn't fit into either of these 2 classifications.",
"\"What is the difference between left and sandwich\" is essentially the same question.",
"> linear and that time is interconnected with matter\n\nAre you confusing matter with space? Time is interconnected with space, and matter exists within space. It's like thinking about a box and its lid; the lid is related to the box, but not to whatever the box holds."
],
"score": [
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | What is the difference between time and matter?
We all know that time is linear and that time is interconnected with matter. When matter change it does so over time. And we calculate and see time as matter is changing. What is the difference between the two? And how are they dependent on each other? Would any of them exist without the other? | [
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|
4es7zo | What are some of Newton's less famous discoveries? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
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],
"text": [
"Although he his best known for his theoretical and mathematical work, he did some of the most rigorous optics experiments to date, leading to his book Optiks. These typically involved scattering light through prisms and lenses and the like, but he also stuck a knitting needle into his eye socket to see if he could alter his perception of colours.\n\nThere is an urban legend that he invented the cat door, but apparently it's apocryphal.",
"I'd like to encourage more such questions on /r/askscience; however, if you don't get an answer here, you can try /r/askhistorians, /r/historyofscience, /r/philosophyofscience, or /r/historyofideas",
"Newton had some basic ideas related to geology:\n\n_URL_0_"
],
"score": [
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://books.google.com.br/books?id=4gGAgHcKX6YC&pg=PA41&lpg=PA41&dq=newton+geology&source=bl&ots=W4F0xHPzBL&sig=cXFTZNG37X9hon9JkAsxstFqEC0&hl=pt-BR&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjk5q3jwo_MAhUJlpAKHSRCACIQ6AEIVDAH#v=onepage&q=newton%20geology&f=false"
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} | What are some of Newton's less famous discoveries?
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3ggv5g | What would happen to a human body if it was exposed to say 2000°C for just a 1000th of a second? | The body (person would be alive) would be exposed to this temperature only for a 1000th of a second then it would return to normal bodytemperature. Would this short time be enough to destroy DNA, cells etc.?
What would happen? And for other time intervals?
Thank you for your answers! | askscience | {
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"It would have to do with what kind of medium the temperature was being carried through. That makes a difference because it'll determine how much energy is transferred to the body. Air wouldn't transfer very much because the thin layer of air next to the skin would transfer a little heat, then act as a thermal insulator that prevents the other hot air from touching the skin.\n\nIn any case, it's really unlikely anything more than some surface burns would occur. I say that because your body is mostly water (~75% we'll say) and most of that water is near the surface (in your skin). You bones and organs, are therefore, pretty well protected. \n\nSo let's say you weigh in at about 80 kgs. That means about 60 kg of you is water. Water can absorb a lot of energy before increasing in temp; in fact it takes 4.16 Joules to raise 1 gram of water 1^^o C. So, to raise your body temp 1 degree C we'd need about \n\n (4.16 J/g) x (60,000 g) = 249,600 Joules of energy. \n\nOkay, we can concede one point here: heat transfer isn't perfect and since your body is being heated from the outside the top layers of skin will heat faster. Skin accounts for about 3.7 kgs (8 pounds). \n\nTo raise the temperature of the skin 1 degree C would then (still assume 75% water):\n\n (3.7 kgs of skin) x (1000 g/kg) x (.75 water) x (4.16 J/g) = 11,544 J\n\nSo to raise our skin temperatures 1 degree would require about 11.5 kJ. \n\nIf we assume skin temp is about 37^^o C and it gets damaged at around 75^^o C we'd need to raise skin 38^^o C so we'd need about 437kJ of energy.\n\nThe big question, then, is in 1/1000th of a second, how much energy could be transferred to the skin?\n\nIf the material we're using is at 2000^^o C we need it to be able to impart and transfer a lot of energy very quickly. The truth is that most things don't transfer energy that quickly. So how could we transfer 437 kilojoules of energy into your skin? Well, We could try it with light. \n\nUsing light we can assume we'll use normal, visible light (though UV light could be used too). Assume we heat the body all the way around - like you're standing in a big room filled with light bulbs. \n\nA good way to measure this would be wattage since that's what we're used to measuring light in. 1 watt = 1 J/sec. In 1/1000th of a second a 100 watt lightbulb will release .1 watts. Hmm.. that's really low output if we need 437,000 joules in 1/1000th of a second.\n\nSo let's do the math to figure out how bright the room will need to be:\n\n 437,000 J x 1,000 = 437,000,000 watts \n\nIn other words, you'd need a light that shines at about 437 million watts to raise your skin temperature to a dangerous level. \n\nIn reality, it'd need to be higher than this because your body actually does a nice job of reflecting a lot of light off you. In addition, air would almost immediately carry the heat (in the form of thermal or infrared radiation) away from your skin. \n\nI'd estimate about 60% of the heat would be reflected away and not absorbed. So really then, we're looking at a light that is 612 million watts.\n\nThat would be enough energy in 1/1000th of second to singe your skin and leave you feeling hurt. But it probably wouldn't kill you. \n\nIn the few seconds after being exposed to the heat the energy would be transferred deeper into your skin and muscle, but again, most of you is water and water has a high specific heat capacity. So your internal body temp would rise, but for the most part, not to any dangerous levels. Your body would immediately start cooling itself through sweating and dilating blood vessels. In addition, the air around you would heat from your skin radiating thermal energy away, which would create a convective cycle around your body and carry heat away faster. You'd actually probably cool down pretty fast.\n\nLight is probably the best form of energy transfer. And you couldn't really expose a body to any other medium for only 1/1000th of a second. To expose your body to molten metal in just 1/1000th of a second you'd have to have the metal moving at around 1,000 ft/sec. That alone would kill a body. Water would be moving at around the same speed. Air would carry less momentum, but it would still need to hit a body at ~1,000 ft/s which is enough to tear your skin off (1,000 ft/s is about Mach 1 @ 681mph). \n\nOkay, one note: your eyes would be cooked if exposed to this much light. Your eyes are EXTREMELY sensitive. Imagine, you can sit on a beach and your skin can handle being exposed to direct sunlight for a while. If your eyes are exposed to direct sunlight for even a short glance (by looking at the sun) it hurts. If you stared for a few seconds at the sun you can suffer permanent damage. So you'd need something to cover your eyes that blocked out all light during the exposure. \n\nTL;DR: You should really ask about exposing the body to energy (not temperature). For such a short period of time the only energy source really capable to do that would be light. You'd need a room with about 612 million watts of light to raise the skin enough to cause a burn. Although painful, 1/1000th second exposure to that wouldn't kill you.\n\n2000^^o C of any other material wouldn't be able to transfer enough energy to your body to seriously hurt you (other than burn your skin). However, the burns might be severe enough to cause infection, which maybe could kill you? Probably not that bad of burns though.",
"_URL_0_\n\nThis xkcd what-if answers a similar question in much more detail. \n \nOn mobile ATM but I'll try to give an overview. Numbers are going to be ballparked.\n\nIt depends on how you're exposed. Being dipped in 2000 degree molten steel is different fron being exposed to 2000 degree air and standing near a 2000 furnace since it affects how much energy is conducted into your skin. \n\nRadiation-wise (taking numbers from the xkcd) the Stefan Boltzmann law means that energy emitted scales with the 4th power of temperature, which means that the blackbody radiation is about 70 times less than the initial scenario in the xkcd but your exposure time is 100,000 times longer. Using this as a guideline, you're exposing your skin to ~10^-2 j/m^2 of enegy, on the order of what intense sunlight delivers to your skin in a second. The light into your eye is in the 10s of milliwatts, like a bright flash from a small laser pointer, but not threatening.\n\nEdit: re-read question, if you were talking about raising every cell in your body to 2000 degrees and dropping it again, I'm sorry, but you'd be dead. The water in your cells would flash to steam and pop apart all the cells in Your body, similar to popcorn on a much smaller scale. Will leave the above because I found it interesting.\n\nI'm not very qualified to answer questions about effects on biological function unfortunately.",
"I understood your question slightly differently, so apologies if this isn't what you're looking for.\n\nAssuming that the body suddenly \"becomes\" 2000 degrees for 1000th of a second, then cools off. We're ignoring heat transfer for magic's sake.\n\nAt 2000 degrees, nearly every molecule in your body will immediately break free of its neighbors, mostly as gas but some as liquid. This will happen pretty instantaneously, leaving pretty much a full millisecond for your body to explode. 60 percent of your body is now steam, and the other 40 percent are other gases. Why's that:\n\nAs a previous poster commented, raising your body temperature 1 degree would take about 250,000 joules\n\nFor approximation sake, lets say you're about 0 degrees.\n > 2000 * 250,000 = 500,000,000 joules.\n\nThat is the same as about 500lb of TNT. That's roughly the about of energy your body is now exploding with. \n\nThe steam in your body is now under about 24,000 psi (approximate, because the ideal gas law stops applying at these extremes)\n > 1700 * 14psi \n\nAccording to (this)[_URL_1_] site, the speed of sound at that pressure is about 1,100 m/s. So your molecules would have travelled a full meter in the 1000th of a second.\n\nNow, 1 ms later, all your molecules magically cool off. You were just 20 square meters of steam, now that steam has returned to liquid state, leaving an enormous vacuum. Your entire body is already molecularlized, but now the collapsing air randomizes your particles even more. \n\nIn the explosion and subsequent collapse, the various byproducts are scattered in all directions. You have been broken down into simple molecules like carbon, water and others and sprayed onto every surface of the room (assuming you were in a bomb-proof room)\n\nedit: There is almost no time interval for which your body could survive \"being\" 2000 degrees celcius. It would have to be an interval so short that the molecules in your body didn't have time to stretch their bonds significantly, so somewhere on the order of a trillionth of a billionth of a second, give or take a dozen orders of magnitude."
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"url": [
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} | What would happen to a human body if it was exposed to say 2000°C for just a 1000th of a second?
The body (person would be alive) would be exposed to this temperature only for a 1000th of a second then it would return to normal bodytemperature. Would this short time be enough to destroy DNA, cells etc.? What would happen? And for other time intervals? Thank you for your answers! | [
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|
zk1jj | Can you build a pipe or tube that delays light? | I was thinking, what if light enters that tube during the day and is delayed 12 hours and then exits from the other side during the night, to bring its blessing for the night time. Can it be done?
Edit: Preferably, the method must not use energy.
Follow up question: Can you build a circular tube in which light goes around, so in a way you are storing it, and then 'cut' the circle so as to release the light that was circulating there? | askscience | {
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"text": [
"a perfectly-functioning fibre optic cable 12 light hours long would do the trick",
"There is an entire field of study around what you're thinking of, though it's application is for computers and IT. [Slow Light](_URL_0_)\n\n > ... optical switches controlled by slow light could cut power requirements a million-fold compared to switches now operating everything from telephone equipment to supercomputers.",
"Stuff like this has been done, but light bulbs are easier and cheaper.",
"Yes, with considerably effort we've managed to slow light down to roughly the speed of a bicycle, but you need to be very close to absolute zero for that to work and the amount of energy you expend is far greater than say.. running an LED at night.",
"A round about way to do just what you are asking is glow in the dark paint.",
"Yes, not really, definitely not, and then not really. Yes light is delayed in certain materials. In fermion condensates light can be slowed down to just a few meters per second. Assuming you want 12 hours delay and you wanted it to be released in darkness then you could make very long tube. Let's say it was a quarter of the circumference of the globe, allowing you the light to enter, the world to turn, and light to leave within a relatively dark time. That would mean the tube would have to be about 10,000 km long. Using these numbers you'd have to slow the light to 232 m/s, so yes it could be done. If you don't use energy then there is no way to slow light that much (slowing down anything changes energy levels). Yes you can build a huge circular tube, but light moves pretty fast and it gets absorbed. Assuming no absorption and that you can get it in this circle without breaking the circle then yes you could store light. Trying to make that light usable upon breaking the tube would be hard since you'd need to cut it around 186,000 m/s",
"Photoluminescence is the effect you are talking about. A material absorbs higher energy then radiates a different wavelength some time after. There is a time delay of course, but I don't think 12 hours is really possible. Thus far these materials are on the range of minutes.\nThere is no way to store light without energy. A circular tube will not work because light has no mass and thus you need an electric/magnetic field to affect it.\nAn a really long fiber optic cable will not work because the impurities in the glass, while remain extremely low, is still enough to lower the amplitude of the light significantly over just 1km.",
"Yes, you could. If you built the pipe out of a material whose region of anomalous dispersion coincided with the carrier frequency of your pulse you could slow it down to a several meters a second. [See this paper](_URL_1_).",
"Storing the light energy in a different form and then converting it back is about as close as you'll get effectively. Solar panel - > battery - > lamp"
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} | {
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} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slow_light",
"http://www.polymtl.ca/phys/rensgen/journal/num1/art_1_4.pdf"
]
} | Can you build a pipe or tube that delays light?
I was thinking, what if light enters that tube during the day and is delayed 12 hours and then exits from the other side during the night, to bring its blessing for the night time. Can it be done? Edit: Preferably, the method must not use energy. Follow up question: Can you build a circular tube in which light goes around, so in a way you are storing it, and then 'cut' the circle so as to release the light that was circulating there? | [
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21r485 | Why isn't every month the same length? | If a lunar cycle is a constant length of time, why isn't every month one exact lunar cycle, and not 31 days here, 30 days there, and 28 days sprinkled in?
Edit: Wow, thanks for all the responses! You learn something new every day, I suppose | askscience | {
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"Our current calendar originated with the Romans. They were a little lax about keeping time, so they had 10 months (hence _December_) that they cared about, and then an intercalary period of indeterminate length.\n\nThen the second king of Rome, Numa, said \"Dude!\" And he added two extra months, and changed the number of days in a month to always be odd, because obviously odd numbers are lucky, and he alternated months of 31 and 29 days, and still had an intercalary period.\n\nThe Pontifex Maximus, head of the College of Pontiffs, would decide how many days to put in the intercalary period most of the time, but a couple of times people just didn't do their job.\n\nFinally, Julius Caesar came along, and he was a genius in many fields. Problems with the calendar annoyed him all his life, and he became Pontifex Maximus so he could do something about it. But there were other problems going on, so he didn't get around to fixing it until the Senate made him Dicator Perpetuo.\n\nThen he made the Julian Calendar, and alternated the number of days in a month between 30 and 31, with February having 29, because if you make 12 months of 30 days, you only get 360 days, then you would have to have a 5 or 6 day \"month\" to round it out. But then Octavian took a day from February and changed Sextilius' days to 31 and called it August.\n\n_URL_0_",
"A solar year is about 365 days, twelve lunar cycles is about 354 days. If you make the months synch up with the lunar cycle, like in the Hebrew calendar, the year won't synch up with a solar year. If you ensure that the year synchs up with the sun, like the Gregorian calendar, it won't match the lunar cycle.",
"A better question is \"why haven't we changed to something that makes more sense than keeping to a Sumerian/Gregorian hybrid timekeeping system?\" The meter is measured by the speed of light, why isn't our method if time keeping similar.",
"Our current calendar is derived from the Roman Calendar. Around 713 BC, because the Romans believed odd numbers to be lucky, distributed one day from the months with 30 days, and created months of 29 and 31 days. Because the calendar was not previously based on the solar cycle, they created to more months to achieve one that was. The old calendar was modern March to December. Sept is seven, octo is eight, etc. January and February were the added months at the end of the year. Because the calendar was very imperfect, they would add days at the end of the year (in February and sometimes adding another month) to resync with the solar calendar. Later, January and February were moved to the beginning of the year but February maintained the role as the leap year month. Julius Caesar reworked the calendar as our knowledge of the solar year grew. Caesar created a more reasonable calendar of 30 and 31 days, and adding a day in February to compensate for the leap year every four years.",
"There are three physical properties at play:\n1. Time it takes for the Earth to orbit the Sun\n2. Time it takes for the Moon to or bit Earth\n3. Time it takes for the Earth to rotate on its axis\n\nFrom those time periods we get the year, month, and day. These quantities are not integer multiples of each other, so it is not possible to pick values for day/month/year that divide into each other nicely.",
"In 1908, Alexander Philip proposed a Simplified Calendar:\n\nThe first day of the year — New Year's Day — is to be regarded as a day apart and is not to be counted as a day of the week or as belonging to any month. The Leap Day required in Leap year would be treated similarly to New Year's Day. \n\nThe year would then consist of three hundred and sixty-four days, divided into four quarters of ninety-one days each. The months would then be made symmetrical so the lengths of the months would then stand like this: 30, 30, 31; 30, 30, 31; 30, 30, 31; 30, 30, 31. \n\nEvery quarter would thus consist of exactly thirteen weeks, and there would be a perpetual calendar. We should no longer have to talk of the \" first Thursday in the month\"; if Thursday fell on April 2nd in one year, it would always do so.\n\n[Link.](_URL_1_)",
"It's basically because the year doesn't split nicely into a whole number of days, so we have to have leap years to account for it.\n\nThere was a proposal to change the international calendar such that there were 13 months, each with 28 days to match the lunar cycle give a total of 364 days, with the extra day being made up every 4 years with a day added onto the 13th month (called undecember).\n\nThere was one nation which raised an objection to the proposal in the League of Nations (think WW1 version of the UN) - The United States of America. Why? Because then independence day wouldn't be on the 4th of July.",
"At the risk of repeating:\n\n* Because 29.531 (the number of days it takes for the Moon to orbit the Earth) doesn't divide well into 365.242 (the number of days it takes for the Earth to orbit the Sun);\n* Because neither of those numbers are integers, and making months and years be some-number-that's-not-an-integer days would be weird and confusing;\n* Because the calendar that's most used in international discourse (Gregorian) was derived from a Roman calendar that had weird political things happen to it.\n\nThe Romans had a decent calendar with 12 months, 5 of which had 31 days, and 7 of which had 30 days. It started in March; this explains why September (containing the root \"sept-\" which means 7), October, November, and December got their names. (We switched to starting in January much later.) When Julius Caesar became emperor, they named the month of July after him; it was a 30-day month, so to make it more \"grand\", they made it a 31-day month, \"stealing\" a day from what was then the last month of the year, February. Then when Caesar Augustus became emperor, they named August after him, and did the same thing; bumped it from 30 to 31 days, stealing the day from February.\n\nThere are various proposals for calendars that would be more consistent:\n\n* 13 months of 28 days, plus one day (two for leap years);\n* 12 months where each quarter's months are 31 days/30 days/30 days, also plus one day (two for leap years);\n\nbut they've never gotten anywhere, primarily because Christian, Jewish, and Muslim people and churches don't want to have a calendar that throws off the 7-day week. (In those calendar proposals, the extra day or two wouldn't be part of any 7-day week.)",
"I had a math professor propose we should have 13 months all with 28 days and then have a 48 hour day for the leap year. The extra month he named Bighamuary after himself. I thought it was kinda funny. He went on to say that the leap day would be a 48 hour celebration of him. He was a weird dude but he made math interesting with his weird ass commentary.",
"What I don't understand is why we didn't organize our calendars to have 12 months of 28 days and 1 month of 29. That way 12 months have exactly four weeks. It just makes scheduling and mental date calculating far easier.",
"The ancient Greeks considered months to start with each new lunar cycle, but they had days that were considered outside weeks, for religious purposes (hence accounted for 365 days). However, different areas/city-states used different calendars, with differently-named months as well.\n\nWhen the Romans took over, they enforced their calendar across the empire and hence today we use the Roman calendar as altered by various people. It used to be they had 10 months, with unique days in between weeks. They later added 2 more months, and then after that they rearranged the days of each month to go 29, 31... and then Julius Ceasar made it 30, 31... The last Roman to change the calendar was Augustus Octavian, who stole a day from February and gave it to August.\n\nLater on, the Catholic pope adopted the Julian calendar and reshaped it, so as to put official days on Christmas and Easter celebrations for all christians. Hence the Gregorian calendar was born, which is the one we use today. Later on, an Italian physician observed that the calendar used then was not accurate, because the Earth did not complete a circuit around the Sun in exactly 365.25 days as the Julian calendar proposed, but 365.24 days, hence making the calendar 11 minutes longer than an actual year, and realized that the world was 10 days behind the actual time the calendar suggest. Spring equinox fell on 11th of March, rather than 21st, as it was supposed to. So he proposed to skip leap years for 40 years, and then made calculated how clocks should be modified to keep proper time.\n\nThe Gregorian calendar and the physician's proposal came up in the renaissance, and as a result, Orthodox christian countries did not change their calendars until much later. Russia, Poland, Serbia and a few other Orthodox churches still maintain the unchanged Julian calendar, and as a result, locally at least, they are 13 days delayed from the rest of the world (e.g. their Christmas coincides with the Gregorian 7th of January, and Russians celebrate the October Revolution in the Gregorian November)",
"A lot of people have mentioned the history of the calendar, but there is also the fact that the rotation of the earth (day), the lunar cycle (month) and the Earth's orbit around the sun (year) are all independent occurrences that have little to do with each other. Humans have basically taking something that is close by chance and given it significance. If 1 complete lunar cycle was counted as a month, than it would have an incomplete number of days. January may start at midnight on the first, but then February may start at 3pm on it's first. So would that be the new midnight? Plus if we counted a full orbit as a year, our time and calendar would get even more off. All of the weird rules that humans have come up with have to do with smoothing out natural inconsistencies in three unrelated systems to make them appear related.",
"Here is an analogy I found quite helpful: There is a truck driving in circles and on top of the truck there is a ballerina spinning on her toes. Counting the speed in which the truck drives a circles by watching the spins of the ballerina is, as you can imagine, inaccurate as the two are not related. The same goes for the spins around the sun (years) and the spin of the earth around its own axis (days).",
"Blame *Julius Caesar* for naming the \"first month in summer\" after himself and adding a day to it. Also blame his son, *Augustus Caesar* for doing the same with second month of summer. They stole the days from the middle of winter (February) and \"moved out\" the remaining months of the year.\n\nDid you ever wonder why the last four months of the year mean \"7th, 8th, 9th, 10th\" month?!",
"I would prefer a Mesoamerican based calendar system with 18 months of 20 days and five \"extra\" days each year. We would probably add a sixth every four years for a leap day to prevent drift.\n\nThen we could start using the Long Count and pick the day we adopt it as 0.0.0.0.0 and go up from there.",
"Very interesting answers, most of them true, none of wich answers the original question,\n\nWhy isn't every month the same length?\n\nThe true answer, is because you can not divide a year (a year being the time it takes the earth to orbit around the sun) into any given number of months (10, 12 or any number) that has an exact number of days for each month.\n\nYou see, an earth year is roughly 365.24218967 days or aproximately 365 days 5 hours 48 minutes and about 45.16 seconds. So people had to figure a way to round up a year.\n\nIn the Julian Calendar, wich indeed started in March, they had 12 months, 30 days long each and then 5 extra festive days a the end of the year. The roman catholic church, in year 352 during the first council of Nicaea had set the astral time to celebrate easter using the Julian calendar, wich ignores those 5 hours and extra minutes, and by 1582, there were 10 days of inaccuracy. So Pope Gregory XIII, on October 4, 1582 eliminated 10 days of the calendar, and the very next day was counted as October 15th. (Teresa of Avila died 10/04/1582 and was buried the very next day 10/15/1582!!!)\n\nSince then, the calendar most of the world uses is the Gregorian Calendar, wich starts in January has 12 months, (where months 1,3,5,7,8,10 and 12) have 31 days; (months 2,4,6,9 and 11) have 30 days and month 2 has 28 days or 29 every 4 years (leap year), when the last two numbers of the year can be divided perfectly by 4. There is an exception, and that is that years where the last 3 numbers are perfectly divided by 100 (1700,1800,1900 etc.) the year is not a leap year, and there is also an exception for that rule, wich is that if the year's number is perfectly divided by 400, then the year is indeed a leap year(1600, 2000, 2400 etc.)",
"Had an idea when i was younger to make 13 months each with four weeks. That would leave one extra day we would call New Year's Day. It would be a free for all. It would not count as a day of the week. leap year would just add one more day at the beginning of the year and it would be called Leap day. And it would be another free for all day and would not count as a day of the week. All weeks start on Monday and end on Sunday. Yes I know it has problems but I still like the idea. Every January 3 would always be the same day of the week. See how simple that is.",
"As noted elsewhere here we are basically using the Roman calendar. There is nothing fixed about having 12 months, its just an historical artifact. If we were open to changing the calendar, and wanted equal length months, we could do it (ignoring leap years). However, the prime factors of 365 are 5 and 73, so our only options for equal length months are either 5 months of 73 days each, or 73 months of 5 days each."
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} | Why isn't every month the same length?
If a lunar cycle is a constant length of time, why isn't every month one exact lunar cycle, and not 31 days here, 30 days there, and 28 days sprinkled in? Edit: Wow, thanks for all the responses! You learn something new every day, I suppose | [
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4gof2i | What is the maximum speed of a liquid running through a tube? | askscience | {
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"Engineering answer.. There is a practical speed limit called choked flow that occurs as the fastest streamlines approach the speed of sound. It basically says you can't increase the mass flow rate by decreasing the pressure downstream. If you increase the pressure upstream you are increasing the mass flow by increasing the density of the fluid. You can get to supersonic internal flow within a well configured nozzle (e.g. rocket throat/nozzle) but the pressure of the fluid is rapidly dropping in order to do so. Managing the shock waves and structural loads on tubing and valves gets nuts pretty fast, typically internal flows are kept subsonic for this reason.",
"Probably the best you could get from a practical device is about 4700m/s with liquid aluminum driven by a hydraulic ram through a steel tube with a diminishing inner diameter. The exit diameter would have to be calculated for an exit velocity at the speed of sound of the liquid medium for the amount of pressure you can produce, and care would have to be taken not to allow the liquid to boil since the speed of sound in a gas is lower than that for a liquid. For sure, there are more difficult materials like boron that you could use to improve on this, but it would be, um, difficult. \n\nWhat could you do with such a device? Well, for sure you could cut through any damn thing. Another thing you could do is to use it as the anode for an extremely intense source of x-rays by directing it across the path of an electron beam powerful enough to vaporize the liquid as it exits the tube.",
"You're getting a lot of theoretical answers with the top replies. Bernoulli's equation is unhelpful when the two factors limiting velocity are fluid viscosity and pipe friction.\n\nSince you're usually transporting water and pipe diameters are standardized, they have empirical tables that define this: \n_URL_0_\n\nWater velocity starts to level off before 15 ft/s (~10 MPH or ~16 KPH).\n\nSource: Powerplant engineer. We use max flow estimates to make system design decisions, like whether a deadheaded pump can flow enough water through a 2\" diesel cooling line to prevent pump cavitation.",
"It appears to be the speed of sound in that fluid, though other material limitations may apply.\n_URL_1_",
"The maximum speed of a liquid running through a straight tube is the speed of sound, end of story. Even in the idealized frictionless environment, the speed of sound is still the limit. There is no need to fall back on the lazy \"the speed of light is always the limit\" answer.\n\nThis is true for the same reason that flow through a constriction (e.g. a converging-diverging nozzle throat) can *only* ever reach a maximum of Mach 1 at the throat. It cannot go higher. Fundamental reading on compressible flows through pipes can be found on [Fanno flow](_URL_3_) (flow through a straight pipe considering friction effects), [Rayleigh flow](_URL_4_) (flow through a straight pipe with no friction but considering heat transfer effects), and [choked flow](_URL_4_), which is a discussion of why the speed of sound is the limiting factor at the narrowest area of a tube.\n\n > For homogeneous fluids, the physical point at which the choking occurs for adiabatic conditions, is when the exit plane velocity is at sonic conditions i.e. at a Mach number of 1.[1][2][3] At choked flow, the mass flow rate can be increased only by increasing density upstream and at the choke point.\n\nTo boil down the physics into a single statement, in a straight pipe a fluid moving at Mach=1 is the state of maximum entropy, and cannot be exceeded without violating the 2nd law of thermodynamics.",
"I remember when I installed fire protection systems, our engineer told us that in a 1\" pipe, if you put something like 50 90 degree bends and use 100 lbs of water pressure on one end, then the other end will barely trickle. I'm not sure about the math or if this is related to the topic enough but I know direction changes in pipe will greatly affect the speed of flow.",
"I have held myself back for a while to see what conversations sprung up, and wow, did they! Not only did I learn lot about fluid dynamics, I think a lot of the other people learned something as well.\n\nI have been asked repeatedly about my specific example, so here it is: \n\n* An unbreakable tube filled with regular air, with a liquid flowing through it at high pressure. I visualise it as a literal wall of liquid storming through the tube, encountering nothing but air. \n\nMy question is at what speed does increasing the pressure behind the liquid not speed up this wall of liquid any more?",
"xkcd covered this a bit in this \"What If?\": _URL_5_\n\n\"There are limits to how fast you can push fluids through things. If you pump a fluid through a narrow opening, it speeds up. If the fluid is a gas,[3] it becomes \"choked\" when the speed of the gas flowing through the opening reaches the speed of sound. At that point, the gas flowing through the hole can't move any faster—although you can still get more mass to flow through per second by increasing the pressure, which compresses the gas further.\"",
"If you weren't looking for nuanced scientific reasoning but just a number, in irrigation we work with a rule of thumb of 5 fps through all types PVC and PE and 7 fps for copper and steel pipes.\n\nSource: Google 'friction loss charts'. Either Toro or Rainbird will tell you the same.",
"Some of the answers have devolved into nuclear fusion and stuff. So I thought it might be interesting to note, the vasimr rocket (which is kind of like a tube) accelerates a plasma (which is kind of like a liquid) to an exhaust velocity of 50 km/s. That's about 0.00017 c.\n\nI'm sure they can get higher too! But the whole contraption works in such a way where magnetism is containing the plasma and there is no friction with the walls. As well, you have a magnetic nozzle on the output which funnels everything to maximum velocity.",
"Wouldn't it depend on the tube? I ask because [correct me if I am wrong], a liquid speeding through the tube then becomes pressure, like water pressure in your home for example. If my thinking is right wouldn't the maximum speed a liquid can travel through the tube depend on how much pressure the tube itself can handle? [Again correct me if I am wrong.]",
"I'd think there are a lot of considerations for this question...what type of liquid? I'd think a less viscous solution would be able to move quicker. What type of material is the pipe? You can increase the pressure of a stainless steel pipe much higher than you can on a plastic one.",
"The fluid doesn't flow as a wall, not over Re=~4000 where the turbulence mixes the fluid and friction is increased with the square of the speed. Basically to get anywhere near mach 1 you'd need a huge pump. Just pick a pipe size and calculate the [pressure drop](_URL_6_)\n There's a parabolic flow profile that has the fluid right near the walls stopped. Rule of thumb is that the speed, for practical purposes (plant design) should be in the order of 1 to 2 m/s to save energy. \nSource, I'll finish a chemical engineering degree soon.",
"It depends on the diameter of the tube and the pressure of the liquid. The diameter affects the frictional losses, proportional (mostly) to the reciprocal of the diameter and the square of the velocity. The pressure prevents cavitation, which has been mentioned before.\n\nIn theory, the only limit is the speed of light. However you would need a very large pipe and a very high pressure to get high velocities. Also, it would have to be straight, or at least very gently curved.",
"Ask Poiselle. Flow through a tube is a product of the pressure difference at either end and the radius of the tube, divided by the product of the viscosity of the liquid and the length of the tube in question.\n\nLow viscosity, high lumen size and pressure driving flow increase the flow rate."
],
"score": [
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/steel-pipes-flow-capacities-d_640.html",
"http://what-if.xkcd.com/147/",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Choked_flow",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fanno_flow",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rayleigh_flow",
"https://what-if.xkcd.com/147/",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friction_loss?wprov=sfla1"
]
} | What is the maximum speed of a liquid running through a tube?
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8dfb9t | Are there any "weird" uses for heavy/transuranic elements? | I recently came across the fact that Americium is used in smoke detectors [(Wikipedia)](_URL_0_). Are there any other interesting applications of other heavy elements? | askscience | {
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"Curium [Cm - 96] is used in X-Ray Spectrometers as an alpha particle emitter. Mars Rovers (among others) used this tool. It was also used a a fuel for thermoelectric generators in other spacecraft. So not much really interesting \"everyday\" stuff.\n\nCalifornium [Cf - 252] is a powerful neutron emitter. So is useful for \"jump starting\" nuclear reactors. Also, from the wiki:\n\n > Neutron penetration into materials makes californium useful in detection instruments such as fuel rod scanners;[15] neutron radiography of aircraft and weapons components to detect corrosion, bad welds, cracks and trapped moisture;[60] and in portable metal detectors.[61] Neutron moisture gauges use californium-252 to find water and petroleum layers in oil wells, as a portable neutron source for gold and silver prospecting for on-the-spot analysis,[19] and to detect ground water movement.[62] The major uses of californium-252 in 1982 were, in order of use, reactor start-up (48.3%), fuel rod scanning (25.3%), and activation analysis (19.4%).[63] By 1994 most californium-252 was used in neutron radiography (77.4%), with fuel rod scanning (12.1%) and reactor start-up (6.9%) as important but distant secondary uses.[63]\n\nAgain not as \"everyday\" interesting. Don't be fooled by the \"portable metal detectors\". That is a very different animal from those beach combers use.",
"Depleted uranium (mostly U-238) has been used for tank armor, armor piercing rounds, etc because it is extremely dense (~19 times denser than water, 2.5 times denser than steel IIRC).\n\nAnother user mentioned curium for RTGs. Pu-238 is what is used in RTGs for space missions; both this and curium have a high specific activity (so relatively high decat rate per gram) and decat primarily by alpha decay, so they create lots of heat.\n\nRadium used to be used for glow-in-the-dark watches! There's some cool history there that I'm too lazy to really type out on my phone, but the problem with it is that it emits higher energy radiation and for a long time, so it's really not a safe thing to wear and it was eventually banned. Tritium is used for those watches now, which is radioactive but it's a very low energy beta emitter, so you get effectively zero dose from a tritium watch.\n\nSome more:\n\n* Lanthanum is often used for flints in lighters\n* Thorium has been used for lantern mantles (heat up thorium oxide and it glows bright white)\n* Erbium is used for to make pink glazes (similar to the old orange fiestaware that contained uranium)",
"Uranium itself had uses within fluorescent glass. They're definitely [beautiful](_URL_0_) although they are less common today for food. You still find it used for green fluorescence standards for calibration though.\n\nAlso fiestaware used to use a different uranium compound as a glaze. Not so much anymore.",
"Thorium is used as a common additive to welding rods.\n\nUranium235 can be used to store hydrogen isotopes as a hydride within the metal. Heating it alters the equilibrium pressure. This is the preferred way to store tritium.\n\nStrontium90 is used as an electron source.\n\nA common strategy for making a neutron source is to combine an alpha emitter like americium or californium with beryllium, which then picks up the alpha particle and releases neutrons.\n\nA specific lab example might be using a special californium source to measure the efficiency of a neutron detector. If the californium sample is itself watched with a charged particle detector, the exact instant of every fission can be recorded. Each fission releases a variable number of neutrons at a variety of energies, but the statistics for these quantities are well known. The time of arrival of neutrons at the detector under test is compared with the timestamps of fission events. The detector is a known distance from the source, so the velocity (and thus energy) of every neutron is known. The number of neutrons measured at each energy is compared with the number expected to intersect the detector.",
"Gadolinium is widely used as contrast material for magnetic resonance imaging. Every time you get MRI contrast, you get a small amount of a heavy metal into your body. It's formulated as so the majority of the dose leaves the body, but a small percent of it stays in the body permanently."
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Americium#Applications"
]
} | {
"url": [
"https://www.google.com/search?q=uranium+glass&rlz=1C1CHHZ_enUS529US529&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjb2KfvwMfaAhUUyYMKHTITDpMQ_AUICygC&biw=1304&bih=653"
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} | Are there any "weird" uses for heavy/transuranic elements?
I recently came across the fact that Americium is used in smoke detectors [(Wikipedia)](_URL_0_). Are there any other interesting applications of other heavy elements? | [
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1p9qd6 | Question about mass of my airpack from a firefighter. | Hey guys quick question. I was filling my air tank tank late at night after a house fire and a thought struck me. When I put the air tank in the compressor it has approximately 0 psi inside it. We I put 2216 psi in the tanks, I still can't feel a difference between the full one and the empty one. Is there a formula or something to tell how much more mass it has gained? For all intensive purposes it has a 12 liter volume. | askscience | {
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"text": [
"PV = nRT\n\nP= 2216 psi\n\nV = 12 L\n\nn = number of moles of air\n\nR = universal gas constant\n\nT = temperature... assume it's 298K which is standard temperature.\n\nPlug and chug for number of moles of \"air\". If you now pretend that air is mostly nitrogen (nitrogen and oxygen are relatively similar in mass), you can use 28 g/mol as the molecular mass of air. Either that or you look up the effective molecular mass of dry air (29 g/mol).\n\nn * 29 g/mol = m\n\nwhere n is the number of moles you calculated above and m is the mass of the air in grams.\n\nI could perform this calculation but I know I'm going to screw up the answer because of the various units involved. In particular - you need a gas constant that's in units of psi L/(mol K). You can use one of the other standard atm L/K or Pa L /K but you'd have to convert between psi and atm or psi and Pa and I don't feel like math right now.\n\nEdit: Formatting + the fact that I used 1.2L instead of 12L",
"OP, you probably can't feel a difference because humans aren't good at noticing fine differences between large values. Specifically, an aluminum tank that weighs 10-20kg is going to make a difference of under a kilogram hard to detect, especially if your arm is fatigued.\n\nThe changing weight of tanks at different pressures is something that scuba divers have to account for with buoyancy control. The effect is quite noticeable. However, different tanks will already weight different amounts, so you would likely not be able to tell very well.",
"At nominal pressure (14.7 psi) and room temperature, 22.4 liters is one mole. For air (nitrogen + oxygen), this is about 29 grams. Your tank has about half that volume, so 15 grams of air before pressurization. When you pressurize it to 2216 psi (about 150 atmospheres), the weight of the air in the tank becomes 150*15 g = 2250 g = 2.2 kg ~ 5 pounds.\n\nHow much does the empty tank (*i.e.*, the metal) weigh?",
"aproximetly you can calculate it with pV=nRT. it's for ideal gases, but probably you don't want to mess with real gases equations. you can calculate n (number of moles), and with that calculate mass.\n\nif you want to, you must have pressure in Pa, and volume in m^(3). it will not be very good, but mass is not so big.",
"Most will quote the Ideal Gas Law which is going to include a number of constants and variables which will cancel out. My preference is to work relationally which saves a bunch of calculator punching. Starting with:\n\npV = nRT\n\nAssuming that R is constant (Universal gas constant), \n\nT is constant: Filling a tank will make it warm, but for the interest of simplicity I will assume that your final pressure gauge reading is for the same temperature as the beginning pressure reading.\n\nV is constant: the volume of your tank will not change, although it will actually stretch some very small amount.\n\nWe can get rid of one variable to some degree: n (number of moles)\n\nFor an empty bottle, your gauge will read 0psi, but there will actually be 14.7psi of pressure in it, assuming it is at atmospheric pressure instead of you sucking a vacuum from it in an intense fire. With this in mind, ratio of pressure in a full tank will be ratio to P1:14.7psi and P2:2216psi. This ratio is about 151.\n\nso let's rearrange:\n\npV = nRT\n\nto\n\nRT/V = p / n\n\nThis means we can equate the two states of your tank since everything on the left is going to be held constant. This gives:\n\nRT/V = P1/n1 ; RT/V = P2/n2\n\nTherefore P1/n1 = P2/n2\n\nTherefore P1/P2 = n1/n2 or P2/P1 = n2/n1\n\nSince P2/P1 = 151, N2/N1 = 151\n\nThis means that there will be 151 times as many molecules of air in your full tank relative to your empty one. So I will finally get my hands dirty with some actual numbers and dig up a value for the density of air at 1.204kg per thousand liters (at 20C and sea level atmospheric pressure). Given your 12L tank volume, your empty tank will start with 14g of air. A full tank (151x as much mass) will contain 2.181kg of air. About 2.16kg of difference in weight for your rig between full and empty.",
"There is a difference if you weighed them. The gas however, even when heavily compressed, does not weigh much.\n\nThey weight would be n from PV=nRT \n\nSo P= 2216 psi x 0.068 psi / atm = 150\n\nT = 21 C or 294 K\nn = 150 x 12 / (0.082 x 294) = 74 mols\n\n74 mols O2 x 32 g / mol = 2304 g or 2.3 kg or 5 lbs\n\nNot to noticeable on a what 50 lb tank to begin with."
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} | Question about mass of my airpack from a firefighter.
Hey guys quick question. I was filling my air tank tank late at night after a house fire and a thought struck me. When I put the air tank in the compressor it has approximately 0 psi inside it. We I put 2216 psi in the tanks, I still can't feel a difference between the full one and the empty one. Is there a formula or something to tell how much more mass it has gained? For all intensive purposes it has a 12 liter volume. | [
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|
5hj5rn | Why isn't CO2 visible? | I happened across a [absorption spectrum](_URL_0_) of CO2 which included the very end of the visible spectrum. It seems to show CO2 absorbs light in the 630-700 nm wavelength, at least somewhat. I'm curious why, if CO2 seems to absorb some visible light, high concentrations of it are not visible as bluish/cyan gas (white light removing the deep reds). Is there something I am missing here?
What led me to this was an interest in replicating the sort of things shown [here](_URL_1_) or [here](_URL_2_). These all seem to use mid wave IR and a narrow bandpass filter. I would imagine that if a narrow bandpass filter around 650 nm on a regular camera would let you see CO2, they would have done that instead. But I don't see why it wouldn't work.
**EDIT**: As Shookfoot notes below, the units on the graph are wavenumber, not nanometers wavelength. As such, the absorption isn't in the visible spectrum at all. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"db0sa8y",
"db0ozko",
"db0pk8g"
],
"text": [
"Hi there! The answer to this question is about the units of the absorbance spectrum you have shown us. The units are in wavenumbers, not nanometers. 600 wavenumbers is approximately 17,000 nm. Hope that clears things up!\n\nSource: aspiring chemist.",
"You've mistaken the wavenumber for wavelength.\n\n700cm–1 = 14285.71 nm\n\nSo, far outside of the visible spectrum, into the infrared.",
"I'm thinking spectral sensitivity might have some influence on this. The human eye actually has rather different sensitivity to different wavelengths in the visible spectrum. The sensitivity rapidly falling off close to the UV and IR region. Cameras might very well mimick this effect to make pictures look as natural as possible. This would make detecting weak CO2 absorption in the far red part of the visible region rather difficult.\n\nThe videos are using an IR camera which detect thermal radiation. Therefore the CO2 might show up due to its low temperature and IR emission. This does not really relate to the absorption of IR light by the gas."
],
"score": [
113,
15,
9
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://webbook.nist.gov/cgi/cbook.cgi?Spec=C124389&Index=1&Type=IR",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iH-W3gYx8vY",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O1fJ3UuSFaU"
]
} | {
"url": []
} | Why isn't CO2 visible?
I happened across a [absorption spectrum](_URL_0_) of CO2 which included the very end of the visible spectrum. It seems to show CO2 absorbs light in the 630-700 nm wavelength, at least somewhat. I'm curious why, if CO2 seems to absorb some visible light, high concentrations of it are not visible as bluish/cyan gas (white light removing the deep reds). Is there something I am missing here? What led me to this was an interest in replicating the sort of things shown [here](_URL_1_) or [here](_URL_2_). These all seem to use mid wave IR and a narrow bandpass filter. I would imagine that if a narrow bandpass filter around 650 nm on a regular camera would let you see CO2, they would have done that instead. But I don't see why it wouldn't work. **EDIT**: As Shookfoot notes below, the units on the graph are wavenumber, not nanometers wavelength. As such, the absorption isn't in the visible spectrum at all. | [
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|
a1treo | If an animal within a group (chimps, wolves, etc.) is infertile, are they ostracized by others of their group, or is it not 'noticed' at all? | As the title says! I've been reading up on evolution, and for some reason this question came to my mind. The book (The Human Body) puts a lot of emphasis on how natural selection played a role in making our bodies are they are, obviously through breeding 'advantageous' characteristics, and it made me wonder what happens to animals in the wild who are infertile.
& #x200B;
I had a quick look on the internet, of course, but really couldn't find much in the way of evidence to answer my question.
& #x200B;
So:
& #x200B;
Is infertility 'noticed' somehow by the whole community (e.g. horde of chimps or pack of wolves?). After all, these animals can smell/sense/see when a female is in her most fertile period, so is it possible they can also sense when one of their females/males is infertile?
& #x200B;
What happens if such a thing is 'found out'? Will the animals be ostracized for not being able to breed?
& #x200B;
Does it affect their individual behaviour in any way, e.g. do female animals feel more motherly or less towards offspring from different females?
& #x200B;
PS: Yes, I am aware all of what I have said it really really generalized and a lot of species will differ from each other in this regard, but I'm only looking for a simple, basic overview. Also, please don't nitpick about what evolution/natural selection really is, but focus on the question at hand. I have not explained either of the concepts very well, most likely. I am not a biologist. I'm simply interested and would like to know the answer to my question, not fight about what evolution and natural selection are in detail. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"easyntt",
"eatm4gw",
"eassq96"
],
"text": [
"In the cases of wolves and chimps, the answer is surely \"no\". Most of the group do not reproduce anyway. Their function is to make the group stronger, while the alpha male and alpha female (in the case wolves) or all the females (in the case of primates) actually reproduce. Non-reproducing individuals pose no threat to the leadership or other individuals with a hope of taking over, and are useful troop/pack.\n\nLarger troops/packs do better than smaller ones, so the more members you have who aren't disrupting the hierarchy, the better.",
"In general, no. Animals really only care about breeding when they're in heat. If a female never goes into heat, she may be ignored during the breeding season, but otherwise she would be treated the same way that the animals of that species usually are treated by each other.\n\nInfertile males are interesting in some species. For example, in wild horses, a male stallion will not tolerate a another stallion. However, there are some cases of them tolerating geldings. Infertile males generally don't compete for females like fertile males do, and that can create an interesting dynamic, as other males may completely ignore them at times when they would normally chase them away.\n\n & #x200B;",
"I’m no expert but I don’t think animals can smell fertility, are you thinking of when animals can smell a potential mate and their receptiveness to mating?\n\nEven if animals could sense infertility (pretty sure they can’t, just like we can’t), I can’t imagine a need or benefit for ostracising behaviour in response to infertility. Why do you think this might be possible?\n\nObviously, fertility would be a trait that is favoured by natural selection, but infertility is not entirely excluded by natural selection either. Especially in primates, whose offspring would benefit from more adults in their group able to give them time, training, protection and resources."
],
"score": [
28,
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | If an animal within a group (chimps, wolves, etc.) is infertile, are they ostracized by others of their group, or is it not 'noticed' at all?
As the title says! I've been reading up on evolution, and for some reason this question came to my mind. The book (The Human Body) puts a lot of emphasis on how natural selection played a role in making our bodies are they are, obviously through breeding 'advantageous' characteristics, and it made me wonder what happens to animals in the wild who are infertile. & #x200B; I had a quick look on the internet, of course, but really couldn't find much in the way of evidence to answer my question. & #x200B; So: & #x200B; Is infertility 'noticed' somehow by the whole community (e.g. horde of chimps or pack of wolves?). After all, these animals can smell/sense/see when a female is in her most fertile period, so is it possible they can also sense when one of their females/males is infertile? & #x200B; What happens if such a thing is 'found out'? Will the animals be ostracized for not being able to breed? & #x200B; Does it affect their individual behaviour in any way, e.g. do female animals feel more motherly or less towards offspring from different females? & #x200B; PS: Yes, I am aware all of what I have said it really really generalized and a lot of species will differ from each other in this regard, but I'm only looking for a simple, basic overview. Also, please don't nitpick about what evolution/natural selection really is, but focus on the question at hand. I have not explained either of the concepts very well, most likely. I am not a biologist. I'm simply interested and would like to know the answer to my question, not fight about what evolution and natural selection are in detail. | [
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rwgc9 | If an astronaut in the vacuum of space released a bag of flour, would the powder stick onto him/her? | You know...due to gravitational pull, since the human body (and the space suit) would proportionally weight a lot more than a speck of flour. This is also assuming there are no nearby objects with a greater gravitational pull.
Edit: Wow, thanks for the detailed answers.
Edit 2: I was thinking more along the lines of if static, initial velocity from opening a bag of flour and so on were not a factor. Simply a heavy object weighing 200ish pounds (human body with suit) and a flour specks with no initial momentum or velocity. It is good to know gravity is a very weak force though. Thank you all. :) | askscience | {
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"text": [
"Intermolecular forces like electrostatic attraction and Van der Waals forces would be much much more significant than gravity for these small particles. In fact, the first dust bunnies that started coalescing when the solar system formed and would eventually become planets were first attracted by these weak forces, not gravity.",
"Electrostatic forces pulling sugar particles together in space.\n[Astronaut experiment footage](_URL_0_)\n\nThis is a cool video that is kind of relevant to what some of the commenters have been saying.\n\nThe particles start sticking together, but it doesn't have to do with gravity. Would the same thing happen with no air? I assume that these agglomerate masses would be attracted to the space suit as well.",
"If the flour starts out not moving, then eventually it would, but it would take an extremely long time. However, the escape velocity (√(2Gm/r)), assuming a 80 kg astronaut at a distance of 50 cm is only 1.46×10^-4 m/s. If the flour had any speed at all from the opening of the bag, it would escape the astronaut's gravitational pull.\n\nEdit: This only considers gravity",
"Gravity is a relatively weak force. The acceleration due to gravity between the astronaut and the flour would be negligible, and would be practically unobservable.",
"Gravitational force is calculated via\n\nF=(Gm1m2)/r^2\n\nNote that this is a function of both masses and that G, the gravitational constant, is 6x10^-11 N(m/kg) which means the attraction will be quite small. That being said it would still exist and all particles that didn't have an initial velocity greater than their escape velocity would be trapped in the astronaut's sphere of gravitational influence.",
"[Here's a partially relevant video](_URL_1_).\n\nPart of the Saturday Morning Science that astronaut Dr. Don Pettit would do in his free time aboard the ISS. This particular bit uses salt (NaCl) or sugar in a bag, not flour.",
"electrostatic forces will make the particles cling to each other and form clumps in a relatively short amount of time (5-10 minutes). With smaller particles like flour you might see clumps, but what's interesting is that with slightly larger particles like sand, you'll actually see chains:) Classical physics regards small particles as electrostatic mono-poles, when in fact they accumulate electrons unevenly, which means there are actually areas of higher and lower charge.",
"Maybe, if you wait a really, really long time, and only if the flour had no initial velocity in respect to the astronaut. You can calculate it using Newton's law of universal gravitiation, which is expressed as F=(Gm1m2)/r^2\nIf you input 150 lbs (standard human) as m1, and 1x10^-4 lbs (really rough guess of what a flour speck would weigh) for m2, at a distance of 1 meter, the two would exert 2.06x10^-13 newtons on one-another - about 4.5x10^-9 m/s^2 in acceleration. \n\nSo, technically, yes, a speck of flour will eventually hit the astronaut. Once it makes contact, intermolecular forces would probably make it stick stronger than gravitation force. In a perfect system though, with no intermolecular forces and no other gravitational influences, the flour would stick to the body."
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"url": [
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} | If an astronaut in the vacuum of space released a bag of flour, would the powder stick onto him/her?
You know...due to gravitational pull, since the human body (and the space suit) would proportionally weight a lot more than a speck of flour. This is also assuming there are no nearby objects with a greater gravitational pull. Edit: Wow, thanks for the detailed answers. Edit 2: I was thinking more along the lines of if static, initial velocity from opening a bag of flour and so on were not a factor. Simply a heavy object weighing 200ish pounds (human body with suit) and a flour specks with no initial momentum or velocity. It is good to know gravity is a very weak force though. Thank you all. :) | [
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|
km904 | Traveling to Alpha Centauri, time dilation | If in the near future we generate a technology that allows us to send a space probe to the Alpha Centauri star system at 1/2 the speed of light. Alpha Centauri is 4.5 light years away, logically it would take 9 years to reach it's desination and 4.5 years to beam a signal back to earth.
How does time dilation effect the outcome?, the space probe time should be 9 years relative to itself, but on earth due to time dilation, would the space probe take longer to reach it's destination? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c2le8l5",
"c2legh2",
"c2lez8m"
],
"text": [
"> the space probe time should be 9 years relative to itself\n\nThis is incorrect. The probe takes 9 years relative to *us*. It takes less time relative to itself. I can't tell you exactly how much though.",
"You've got it backward. The journey will take 9 years Earth time, but because the spacecraft undergoes acceleration, its onboard clock will slow down.\n\nAssuming your new engine accelerates it near-instantantly to half light speed, and near-instantly slows it down at the other end, the probe will age 7.8 years during the journey.\n\n(If you assume a more realistic technology that takes a long time to accelerate, the calculation becomes more difficult.)",
"perhaps what you're after is the [Lorentz factor](_URL_0_). as i read the simple chart, the probe would experience a journey of 9 * .866 ~= 7.8 years."
],
"score": [
9,
5,
5
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lorentz_factor#Values"
]
} | Traveling to Alpha Centauri, time dilation
If in the near future we generate a technology that allows us to send a space probe to the Alpha Centauri star system at 1/2 the speed of light. Alpha Centauri is 4.5 light years away, logically it would take 9 years to reach it's desination and 4.5 years to beam a signal back to earth. How does time dilation effect the outcome?, the space probe time should be 9 years relative to itself, but on earth due to time dilation, would the space probe take longer to reach it's destination? | [
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|
2j9u1e | Are there any significant effects of entanglement observed on a regular basis in nature? | It's been studied and applied in a laboratory setting, but does it produce any observable effects in nature? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cl9pxox",
"cl9qqis",
"clb4bs3",
"cl9se7s"
],
"text": [
"It's **possible** that photosynthesis involve larger-scale quantum entanglement, but it's still inconclusive and an active area of research.\n\nSee for example here: _URL_1_ (free version here: _URL_2_)\n\n_URL_0_",
"No, it's certainly not observable in nature. Entanglement, and in particular it's little brother quantum coherence might play a limited role in some macroscopic effects as iorgfelkd pointed out, but that is only relevant on ultra-short timescales and might be entirely accidental.",
"Essentially any strongly interacting microscopic system is entangled. The electrons in a hydrogen molecule, for example (actually, any molecular bond), form a quantum system that may not be described as the product of two single-particle wave functions: _URL_4_\n\nFerromagnetism is another example: _URL_3_\n\nThere are countless more.",
"There is also some evidence that entanglement plays a role in the avian compass. _URL_5_"
],
"score": [
10,
6,
3,
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_biology",
"http://www.nature.com/nphys/journal/v6/n6/full/nphys1652.html",
"http://arxiv.org/abs/0905.3787",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exchange_interaction",
"http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/molecule/hmol.html",
"http://journals.aps.org/prl/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevLett.106.040503"
]
} | Are there any significant effects of entanglement observed on a regular basis in nature?
It's been studied and applied in a laboratory setting, but does it produce any observable effects in nature? | [
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5avr7l | Were hands on criticality experiments ever considered safe? | I was reading a Wikipedia article yesterday about the deaths of Harry Daghlian and Louis Slotin, at Los Alamos during the early days of the Manhattan project.
_URL_0_
The experiments they were conducting seem ludicrously unsafe, to the point were accidents were inevitable. The article says that the accident prompted the researchers to design remote testing equipment for future use.
Prior to the accidents, was this the standard approach for this type of experiment? I can see that plutonium decays into alpha particles, which are relatively easy to shield against and a gap of air could have been enough to protect them from the spontaneous radiation but the whole point of the experiment was to produce more neutrons.
Were the researchers arrogant, ignorant, or just plain stupid? It sounds like Slotin was arrogant but Daghlian's exposure was a completely avoidable accident.
I can't find a good source of information on the rationale for the experiments online and hope that someone knows.
Thanks in advance. | askscience | {
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"> Prior to the accidents, was this the standard approach for this type of experiment? \n\nYes, It was more of a manufacturing quality control than a simple 'experiment'. They needed to do it to be sure they had the proper amount of plutonium or uranium (including the isotope ratios) to achieve critical mass when they were explosively assembled. The critically tests were the most sure way to do this. Otherwise they risked a fizzle. I think the poor safety was due to the pressure to get the bombs 'online'. People often cut corners when schedules press. I had a friend (a propellant chemist) get blown up and spent weeks in the hospital because they skipped the 'ball drop sensitivity test' when working with an explosive mixture. It would have told them how touchy the mixture was.\n\nI would say it was a case of denial. The thought that \"I can control what I'm doing\".",
"Especially with radiation, as you don't sense anything until it's too late, it's pretty easy to get comfortable with things when you work with them every day.\n\nIt does sound like Slotin was warned though, just didn't think it'd happen to him.",
"From a different source about that:\n\n > It was always known to be dangerous—Enrico Fermi himself had warned Slotin that he would be “dead within a year” if he continued—but the exigencies of the Second World War had privileged expediency over safety.\n\nE: If I recall the history correctly, robotics was pretty terrible at that point, and doing hands-on criticality experiments to confirm that you actually had made what you thought you had were somewhat important. *However*, Slotin was routinely performing these experiments as demonstrations. There wasn't a scientific need for it the majority of the times he did the demo with the Demon Core.",
"You might be more excited about the work than about your future longevity, and with both the pressure of war and the glory of being a scientific hero, it's easy to imagine how personal safety could seem like a distraction from progress.",
"Probably not. You may have heard of \"Chicago Pile 1\", which was the first instance of a criticality experiment. If you read through the bit on Wikipedia about [the actual day where they first recorded a critical pile](_URL_0_) you'll see that they had multiple safety measures in place. From that you can assume from the get-go that they understood what they were playing with, and can then reason that the \"hands-on\" criticality experiments were done with full knowledge of the risks. \n\nOn the opposite side of the spectrum, if you read up on [Marie Curie](_URL_1_) you'll see a textbook example of the opposite side of the story where earlier in the century they *didn't* fully understand the potential risks of ionizing radiation. Madame Curie carried test tubes of her work in her pockets with no protection, and supposedly even enjoyed the ionized glow as a night-light at home. To this day much of her personal notes are kept in special containment because they're still radioactive.",
"Well certainly in Slotkin's case, probably not:\n\n > Under Slotin's unapproved protocol, the only thing preventing this was the blade of a standard straight screwdriver, manipulated by the scientist's other hand. Slotin, who was given to bravado, became the local expert, performing the test on almost a dozen occasions, often in his trademark blue jeans and cowboy boots, in front of a roomful of observers. Enrico Fermi reportedly told Slotin and others they would be \"dead within a year\" if they continued performing it.[12] Scientists referred to this flirting with the possibility of a nuclear chain reaction as \"tickling the dragon's tail\", based on a remark by physicist Richard Feynman, who compared the experiments to \"tickling the tail of a sleeping dragon\".[13][14]",
"No, they knew they were cutting corners in order to do the experiments quickly. They left a car running just outside the door so they could flee quickly if it went bad (not that that was much help).\n\nBut there was a war on and millions of soldiers were out there risking their lives, so taking personal risks seemed appropriate.",
"Question about the demon core:\n\nIsn't it constantly radioactive? Can you handle it as much as you like in its sub critical state? I thought stuff like this would emit constant radiation?"
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"url": [
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} | Were hands on criticality experiments ever considered safe?
I was reading a Wikipedia article yesterday about the deaths of Harry Daghlian and Louis Slotin, at Los Alamos during the early days of the Manhattan project. _URL_0_ The experiments they were conducting seem ludicrously unsafe, to the point were accidents were inevitable. The article says that the accident prompted the researchers to design remote testing equipment for future use. Prior to the accidents, was this the standard approach for this type of experiment? I can see that plutonium decays into alpha particles, which are relatively easy to shield against and a gap of air could have been enough to protect them from the spontaneous radiation but the whole point of the experiment was to produce more neutrons. Were the researchers arrogant, ignorant, or just plain stupid? It sounds like Slotin was arrogant but Daghlian's exposure was a completely avoidable accident. I can't find a good source of information on the rationale for the experiments online and hope that someone knows. Thanks in advance. | [
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|
75w3lb | If I have an AC source with a current limiter, what is the minimum voltage required for current to pass through my body (hand to hand) and what current would be fatal? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"do9gizz",
"do9oxwb",
"do9o7mc"
],
"text": [
"The current to kill varies based on a number of factors, but somewhere around 30mA is enough to cause respiratory failure. On the voltage side, again the situation really varies on several factors but respiratory failure has resulted from applied voltages as low as 49 volts.\n\nSource: _URL_0_",
"In a dry environment, 50V is considered safe but could still be dangerous. In a wet environment, like a bathroom, 25V is the threshold because water on your hands reduces the resistance of your body. If you're outside and it's raining, 12.5V is the limit. That's what I learned in my security class in electrical engineering. The current that flows based on the voltage is obtained using Ohm's law.",
"The current limiter was likely designed to protect the equipment, not the operator. \n\nYou have to consider the amount of time it takes for the current limiter to activate, and wether that would allow a fatal amount of energy to pass."
],
"score": [
8,
4,
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/2009-113/pdfs/2009-113.pdf"
]
} | If I have an AC source with a current limiter, what is the minimum voltage required for current to pass through my body (hand to hand) and what current would be fatal?
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36dlf3 | What allele frequency is changing fastest in the human population? | Just curious as to whether we are able to measure this at a meaningful rate, and if so, which is changing fastest. | askscience | {
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"text": [
"edit: I realize I sort of jumped into the deep end here. If you don't know what \"allele frequency\" means, see [here](_URL_4_) and let me know if you have follow up questions.\n\n_________\n\nAnswering the question of what allele frequencies **are currently** changing the fastest is not necessarily that easy, as human generation times are long enough that it's not that easy to observe it happening in real time.\n\nThere have been a number of statistical techniques developed to identify very recent positive selection. Summarizing the literature in a reddit post would be difficult, so I'll try to give just a few highlights. One of the most exciting developments in this field is the recent arrival of so called [ancient DNA](_URL_6_), or the ability to sequence/genotype individuals who have been dead for thousands of years. There is [a paper](_URL_8_) currently posted on a preprint server which examines the genomes of 83 humans who lived in Europe in the range of 4000-8000 years ago, and compares their genomes to a number of present day populations within Europe. They find just 6 loci that show robust evidence of recent positive selection (i.e. very rapid allele frequency change). Two of them, at genes called SLC24A5 and SLC45A2 are [associated with (but not entirely responsible for)](_URL_1_) differences in skin pigmentation between Africans and European.\n\nAnother one, called rs4988235, is largely responsible for the ability of Europeans to continue digesting lactose (i.e. drinking milk) well into adulthood, and [has been known of for a while](_URL_3_).\n\nAnother example is a marker called rs12913832, located near two genes called OCA2 and HERC2, which is in large part responsible for blue eyes and possibly also associated with lighter hair pigmentation ([1](_URL_2_),[2](_URL_9_),[3](_URL_0_))\n\nThe other two strong signals found by the ancient DNA studied cited above are in two genes related fatty acid metabolism and circulating vitamin D levels, suggesting possibly adaptation to diet.\n\nThese are just regions that have been identified as the strongest signals within the continent of Europe. It's pretty widely recognized at this point that to the extent that positive selection has had any impact on recent human evolution (and it's not all that clear that the effects have been that major), [the effects differ from one region to the next](_URL_10_).\n\nI won't give a whole rundown, as that would make this even more ridiculously long (and because Europe is, predictably, the best studied region for this question), but for example populations of Tibetan highlanders appear to have undergone very recent adaptation in a region of their genome which allows them to better tolerate the thin atmospheres they live in, and the it appears that [the allele that they are using to do so actually came from ancient interbreeding with an archaic group of now extinct humans called Denisovans](_URL_5_), who are more closely related to Neanderthals that they are to us.\n\nIn Africa, for example, there has also (in some regions but not in others) apparently [been strong selection for a number of alleles which allow their carriers to digest milk into adulthood](_URL_7_), but the alleles that have been targeted by selection in Africa are different than the ones that have been targeted in Europe.\n\nedited to add: It should be emphasized, however, that it maybe the case that *none* of these regions are any longer experiencing strong natural selection, and therefore may not be changing very fast in frequency \"right now\". I would expect, however, that we will see studies within the next few years that sequence/genotype large numbers of individuals spanning multiple generations of presently living individuals and try to identify regions which are currently the target of natural selection. Whether or not we will find anything interesting doing this remains to be seen.",
"hmm, you are making a bit confusion using the term allele frequency. The top comment gave information on the genes that are evolving the fastest, whilst a change in allele frequency would literally mean it's increase or decrease in % of population, as in what allele is getting more/less frequent than others",
"The alleles with the most rapid frequency changes in humans are those associated with ethnicities whose relative proportion of the species is rapidly changing. These are not adaptive or selected changes but neutral processes that derive from population subdivision, genetic drift, and changing demographic patterns. Exactly which genes/alleles they are isn't actually all that interesting, as they are not changing in frequency because of what they are, but rather because of who has them. \n\nThis is fairly straightforward to measure as population allele frequencies can be determined with simple genotyping technologies like standardized SNP chips and combined with traditional census-taking. The timescale of these changes is years, not millenia.",
"There are 4 different alleles that code for lactase persistance (which gives you the ability to digest milk as an adult). This paper has the selection coefficient as between 0.04 and 0.097, with the confidence interval as 0.01 to 0.15, which is absolutely huge.\n\n_URL_11_",
"Actually, the structural variation at immune related loci is hypothetically the highest, though it's never actually been fully characterized as a result. As evidence of this, take the two assemblies of the human IGHV@ locus: one produced by the Honjo group back in the late 90's and the second from a human haploid cell line CHM1. The second assembly contained 120 kb worth of sequence not in the first assembly including 6 new genes (in a locus roughly 1.4 Mb in size). If that's representative of the normal variance from person to person, that would beat out every other candidate by orders of magnitude; one need not look at ancient humans to see the differences.\nThat having been said, alpha satellite regions are also probably strong contenders for hypervariability, but they don't code for anything and are a pain to measure and impossible to sequence.",
"One candidate could be a decrease in the frequency of the gene for Huntington's disease. It's an autosomal dominant disease (meaning if only one your two chromosomes has it, you will get the disease), but it usually doesn't strike until your late 30s in most cases. So in the past, people with this gene may have been almost as likely to reproduce as people who were in the clear. \n\nBut now there is genetic testing that can identify whether a person is carrying the disease. Some people who have parents with the disease will get themselves tested before they make the decision to have kids of their own. Obviously, those who test positive will usually choose not to reproduce.\nOthers may test their fetus and then abort if it has the defective gene, or test in vitro fertilized embryos before implantation.\n\nOf course, this only applies to richer countries that can afford the testing. There are also some people who simply don't want to know if they are doomed to have this disease, and don't care if they might potentially pass it on to their children. \n\nThere are probably other alleles that are also subjected to this type of genetic screening that may be changing at a faster rate. (And this would probably only apply as a fast rate if you used odds ratio or something rather than a percentage point change).",
"How about genes that code for a big penis, which allows the carrier to \"mate\" more often, and will cause condoms to break more often.\n\nOr genes that code for a small penis, which allows the condom to slip off. \n\nIn the past, these issues would not have been selected for to the degree they are today."
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://journals.plos.org/plosgenetics/article?id=10.1371/journal.pgen.1000074#pgen-1000074-g003",
"http://journals.plos.org/plosgenetics/article?id=10.1371/journal.pgen.1003372",
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0002929707000407",
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0002929707628389",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/36dlf3/what_allele_frequency_is_changing_fastest_in_the/crd6i6n?context=1",
"http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v512/n7513/full/nature13408.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_DNA",
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0002929713003261",
"http://biorxiv.org/content/early/2015/03/13/016477",
"http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00439-007-0460-x#page-1",
"http://journals.plos.org/plosgenetics/article?id=10.1371/journal.pgen.1000500",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2672153/"
]
} | What allele frequency is changing fastest in the human population?
Just curious as to whether we are able to measure this at a meaningful rate, and if so, which is changing fastest. | [
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cetdgb | Can you explain me quantum decoherence in simple language? | askscience | {
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"To understand this, it probably helps to start with quantum coherence. At a simplistic level, coherence can be thought of as the information that the quantum system holds. More precisely, it is a measure of the relationship between different possible states of the system. Quantum computers rely on this information to function.\n\nIf the system is isolated, coherence is conserved. Decoherence occurs when the system interacts with its environment. This means that the information that the system contains gets mixed up with its environment.\n\nHere's a (limited, but useful) analogy. Imagine I have a small bottle of red ink. I can see that it is red because the pigment is highly concentrated. Let's say I now tip the ink into a large lake or the ocean. At first I can see the colour, but it slowly starts dispersing. After a while, I can't distinguish the ink (system information) from the ocean (environment). The larger background completely overwhelms the smaller system, making it impossible to separate. Quantum decoherence is like that. If you are interested, you may also want to look up quantum entanglement.\n\nSource: PhD in High Energy Physics.\n\nEDIT: Thank you for the silver and gold kind strangers!",
"Distilling quantum things into understandable terms is exceedingly difficult. It's easy to say things simply, but it always leaves out critical details and risks leaving the reader with the wrong understanding of quantum phenomena. I'm going to gloss over and poorly explain large parts of quantum mechanics in the hope of establishing an accurate non-quantum concept of decoherence with some idea to how it applies to the quantum world. \n\n\nQuantum systems exist as probability functions known as wave functions. Already some readers will take issue with what I've written, and it only gets worse from here.\n\nWhen an observation or measurement of a quantum system takes place, the wave function \"collapses\" prior to observation. We are observing classical properties, like momentum and position, in our physical world. \n\nOnce the collapse happens the system ceases to exist as it were. In classical qm this is explained by a collapse leading to a new set of wave functions with different probabilities and properties to describe the system. In a more modern approach, observations can also be made in such a way that they only disturb part of a system and only a partial collapse happens. Under some circumstances we also have a much better idea of what the new system will look like.\n\nDecoherence states that an isolated, coherent quantum system that ceases to be isolated incorporates quantum properties of its environment. And to expand beyond that requires a significant amount of background knowledge in how quantum mechanics works. An analogy:\n\n Imagine a rain drop falling from the sky that you measure as it strikes one of the great lakes. \n\nAt some philosophical level the rain drop still continues to exist after interacting with the lake. It just interacted with a new environment and is no longer observable in isolation. If you were to continue to observe the \"rain drop\" it would behave radically different than it had while in free fall through the atmosphere. Any model you had of the rain drop prior to that interaction would no longer work.\n\nAt the same time, there is no discernible change in the great lake's volume, temperature, and other observable properties due to a single rain drop. The great lake may as well have infinite volume and infinite capacity to absorb any observable quantity of the rain drop.",
"A prediction in quantum mechanics is of the following form: given a target system that is prepared a certain state, and given we will choose to measure a certain observable, what are the possible measurement outcomes? Due to the *uncertainty principle,* the outcomes will generally be distributed across a range of values, eg we detect some photons everywhere across the full width of the screen behind the double slit. Due to *interference effects* some of those values/impact spots will be more or less likely than others, and different from what a classical trajectory theory would predict, e.g. the double slit pattern is fringey (alternating regions of high and low concentrations in the build up). \n\nDecoherence is just the name of the phenomenon where if the target system interacts with external degrees of freedom (such as the air, thermal radiation, or a non-demolition measurement apparatus) between preparation and final measurement, the interference effects are suppressed in the final measurement results, so the distribution of possible outcomes loses its fringey-ness, and looks like a sum of simple classical trajectories rather than an interfering quantum wave.\n\nBut how and why a single photon appears at only a single spot is a separate issue, which is the main focus of measurement problem interpretations (many worlds, collapse, hidden variables) nowadays. Decoherence does not solve this - it does not reduce the uncertainty of the state, just reduces the interference among paths - though there often much confusion around this point."
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} | Can you explain me quantum decoherence in simple language?
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3cizkr | Why can't spooky action at a distance allow FTL sending of information? | I understand the results are random but can't you at least send a bit of information (the answer to a yes/no question) by saying a spin up particle is yes and spin down is no or something? I think I'm interpreting this wrong. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
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"text": [
"Because even though once you make the measurement and know what your partner must get light-years away, there is no way to determine if your partner has done the measurement or not until reach back to them and compare results. Only then will you see a match in results, but well, you had to travel subluminally or luminally with radio to find that out.\n\nIf somehow you knew getting spin of spin down meant they had already measured it, thus you know information outside your lightcone, *then* we'd have FTL communication. However, the results are always random so you cannot know this and you know nothing outside your lightcone.",
"I think the confusion is coming from the fact that a lot of people think that \"once two particles are entangled, they stay entangled forever\" when this really isn't the case. If you have two spin-entangled particles (so one is spin-up and one is spin-down) and then you flip the spin of one of them, instead of the spin flipping on the other, the entanglement will be broken- thus, there will be no change in spin on the other particle.",
"> I understand the results are random\n\nYou seem to have answered your own question.",
"You have two coins. These are magical coins that always show opposite faces up. When one is heads, the other is tails. You flip these coins and, without looking, take them away from one another. One scientist looks at his coin, sees heads, and so knows the other is tails.\n\n... that's super simplified, but I hope it shows the concept. Entangled particles don't send info faster than light. At least no info you'd find useful. The only way to know it even worked is for our hypothetical scientists to talk through strictly sub-c speeds."
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"url": []
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"url": []
} | Why can't spooky action at a distance allow FTL sending of information?
I understand the results are random but can't you at least send a bit of information (the answer to a yes/no question) by saying a spin up particle is yes and spin down is no or something? I think I'm interpreting this wrong. | [
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|
kh9kf | Smallest indivisible unit of time? | Okay, can someone explain Planck Time to me? For those, like me, that don't know a lick [it's absolutely freaky](_URL_0_). Pretty much *time does not exist* below this point. Where does it come from?! Does it just pop out of thin air? I need help! | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c2k8mb5",
"c2k8m70",
"c2k9dmk"
],
"text": [
"No, it's not a smallest indivisible unit of time. Let's just say it's a time scale where physics, as we know it, doesn't work so well. If space-time is discrete (which isn't a part of any mainstream-accepted theory at the moment) and it's discrete in a specific way (of the more accepted proposals, it tends to be discrete in this specific \"lorentz violating\" way) then [recent data suggest](_URL_0_) that the structure of space-time is *no larger than* fifteen orders of magnitude smaller than the planck length or time.",
"That's not actually a property of Planck time. There's a misconception that Planck length and Planck time represent absolute minimum values, but there's nothing in quantum mechanics that says that.",
"Someone who knows more than I will hopefully correct me if I'm wrong, but just based on reading the Wiki:\n\n > One Planck time is the time it would take a photon travelling at the speed of light to cross a distance equal to one Planck length. Theoretically, this is the smallest time measurement that will ever be possible, roughly 10^−43 seconds.\n\nI don't think that it's \"time does not exist below one Planck time\"; it's just that we have no conceivable way of *measuring* it in any meaningful way. One Planck length is, if I remember my physics class correctly, the unit at which it is no longer possible to determine the distance between two locations < 1 Planck length apart, due to some sort of quantum effects that I honestly don't know anything about. \n\n1 Planck time is the amount of time it takes a photon travelling at the speed of light to travel 1 Planck length. Since you can't conceivably have a smaller unit of distance than a Planck length, you can't come up with a smaller measure of time than 1 Planck time. You can't meaningfully say \"the time it takes a photon traveling at the speed of light to travel 1/2 a Planck length\" because I believe that at any distance smaller than 1 Planck length it is impossible to tell two points apart.\n\nAgain, please correct me if I'm wrong - that's just how I understand it! I'll be happy to edit my post to reflect any corrections."
],
"score": [
14,
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planck_time"
]
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.physorg.com/news/2011-06-physics-einstein.html"
]
} | Smallest indivisible unit of time?
Okay, can someone explain Planck Time to me? For those, like me, that don't know a lick [it's absolutely freaky](_URL_0_). Pretty much *time does not exist* below this point. Where does it come from?! Does it just pop out of thin air? I need help! | [
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|
vivq9 | how did this picture happen? (google maps) | can anyone explain how this image happened (rainbow colored shadow of the plane?)
[link](_URL_0_) | askscience | {
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"text": [
"Don't know exactly but some guesses about the possible cause. Obviously it's not the actual shadow of the plane, if you look at the trees the actual shadows go to a different direction, and I can't think of any reason why the shadow would be coloured. But I guess you didn't mean shadow literally anyway.\n\nThe satellite images were probably taken using several colour filters and then combined to make a real colour image. The colour \"shadow\" clearly has red green and blue components. If the object moves between taking the pictures then you might expect an effect along these lines. \n\nAlso it seems like there were three pictures for three colours and a separate grey scale picture for brightness. If you look closely you can see how the white plane is of a higher resolution than the colour shadows. Our eyes are more sensitive to variations in brightness and because of this it is not uncommon for the brightness information in digital imagery to be in a higher resolution than the colour information.\n\nBut if the reason for the different colour channels not being aligned is that the plane moves fast, then I would think that the colour layers should be offset along the direction of movement. This is not the case here. So the offset is probably more due to the satellite moving. Of course the satellite is moving all the time, but they know its altitude and how fast it's going so they can then compensate when aligning the different colour layers and features on the ground will align properly. But if you have an object that's significantly higher than expected, like the plane here, then its image will move more than the ground (the parallax effect) and so the different colour layers for it won't align properly. You can measure that the colour channels are separated by about 3 metres in the images, you could probably work out the altitude of the satellite from this alone if you assume the plane is flying at a normal cruise altitude.",
"It's an effect just like a [Harris shutter](_URL_0_). Most \"satellite\" imagery that we see on web maps (Google, Bing, etc) is actually taken from airplanes, which are themselves traveling at some speed (obviously!).\n\nWhat happens is, the imagery is taken with different bands (3 for RGB, and others for infrared, thermal, or whatever else is requested by the client). There are two common sources for this error: (1) a slight delay with each band during image capture, and (2) the bands are captured simultaneously (common in newer equipment) but the sensors for each band are physically offset from one another just slightly. In both cases, the camera equipment can factor in altitude, velocity, and sensor displacement to correctly overlay the bands once the capture is complete.\n\nNow enter a second plane at a much lower altitude and its own velocity. During the image capture from the main plane, the second 'rainbow' plane has moved just enough so that there is error in the bands that the camera equipment cannot account for or rectify, resulting in the error we see here.\n\nEdit: On a somewhat unrelated note, the plane is very close to an airport. The plane may be leaving from the [Linz Airport, which is roughly 38mi (61km) away from the plane's location](_URL_1_). I mention this because others have thrown out elevations and such. Given the proximity to the airport, if this plane did indeed take off from Linz it is unlikely that it is at or near full altitude.",
"While I don't know exactly what camera or image-file was used, colour images are often recorded in three layers, of red, green, and blue. A pixel may have 3 values between 0-255, one value for each colour layer. 0,0,0 is black, 255,255,255 is white. In this case, the shadow has moved during the snap of the exposure, so the R,G,B layers have separated-out when they should have made black, or a very dark tone. \n\nEdit: I should mention that some image capture devices actually have 3 or more separate 'snaps' to record the colour layers. Its the fact that the plane moved in-between these 'snaps' that leads to the inaccurate lining-up of the colour data.",
"A lot of satellite and aerial imagery is actually a composite of multiple greyscale images taken with different color filters. They do this so that they get the full amount of pixel data at each wavelength. \n\nConsumer level cameras get color info by having pixels in the sensor that are only sensitive to particular RGB colors. This works well enough for a cheap digital camera, but for serious high end imagery you want the full resolution in each color.",
"Here is what the camera that does bing maps looks like: _URL_2_\n\nIt has separate sensors for grayscale, red, green, blue, and near-infrared that are far apart from eachother. This makes objects closer (and further) than the desired distance (ground) move out of alignment.\n\nHere are the specs for the camera _URL_3_\n\nYou can see from the specs that the panchromatic resolution is higher than the RGB, this would explain the highely detailed gray plane and the blurry RGB parts.",
"Hello,\n\nThis is not a shadow. It's likely that the satellite which took this picture was using multiple lenses that capture the red, green and blue channels. The satellite is moving at 17,000 mph relative to the ground, and there was a microsecond delay between each of the lenses that were capturing the different channels.",
"I would guess something like:\n\nDifferent cameras, spaced apart, are used to record colors. They are focused on the same point at the ground plane. If something is a lot closer than that (plane) then the color images are no longer overlaying properly / diverge and you get such 'color shadows'. \n\nThough i do not know how many colors they used / if they have some kind of YUV setup etc.",
"[We've gone full circle here](_URL_4_)\n\nNow with 80% more math.",
"This was fully solved and discussed on reddit in the summer of 2010. My sleuthing abilities are not worthy of finding it. \nHowever, I remember being fascinated by the reddit community by how much they could figure out by this image.",
"_URL_5_\n\nsaved this from a while ago but same question already with answers."
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"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://maps.google.co.uk/maps?q=47.902279,+14.88553&ie=UTF8&ll=47.902268,14.885863&spn=0.001881,0.004538&hnear=0x477224b39725ed2b:0xaf20cf05591d01c,%2B47°+54'+9.32%22,+%2B14°+53'+5.42%22&gl=uk&t=h&z=18"
]
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harris\\_Shutter",
"https://maps.google.co.uk/maps?saddr=Flughafenstr.&daddr=48.1619081,14.3071656+to:Grossprolling+38,+3341,+Austria&hl=en&ll=48.063397,14.518433&spn=0.691084,1.582031&sll=48.082666,14.544525&sspn=0.690825,1.582031&geocode=Fd4W4AIdyoTYAA%3BFXTk3gIdXU_aACnhCOt2mb9zRzEgM1xSZ2NlCQ%3BFab62gIdbiTjACkr7SWXsyRyRzEc0JFV8AzyCg&t=h&gl=uk&dirflg=w&mra=ltm&z=10&via=1",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dNID6EbzTrE",
"http://www.microsoft.com/ultracam/en-us/UltraCamXp.aspx",
"http://www.wired.com/wiredscience/2010/11/what-can-be-said-about-the-rainbow-plane/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/science/comments/cfwwf/anyone_know_what_caused_this_im_especially/"
]
} | how did this picture happen? (google maps)
can anyone explain how this image happened (rainbow colored shadow of the plane?) [link](_URL_0_) | [
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