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1hrw1z | Is it possible to pull your sphincter muscle? If so, what would happen? | I have always been a bit too embarassed to actually ask someone this in real life, so basically, what would happen if you pulled your butthole? | askscience | {
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"text": [
"It's not really possible to pull (strain) the external anal sphincter. Because it's a ring of muscle its contractile force is applied in all directions and not preferentially in one direction so there is no net strain on any one part of the muscle. Other muscle like the biceps exert their forces linearly and preferentially in one direction, therefore it's possible to strain those muscles by out-doing their work capacity.",
"If you are having rectal pain, like a charley horse in the anus, you might be experiencing Proctalgia Fugax. It is very common and could be confused with a pulled muscle."
],
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} | Is it possible to pull your sphincter muscle? If so, what would happen?
I have always been a bit too embarassed to actually ask someone this in real life, so basically, what would happen if you pulled your butthole? | [
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|
3e63aa | How could new horizons know when to take pictures ? | This is fascinating- how did it know where and when to take pictures ? And how can we pinpoint new horizons in a territory we know so little about ? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"ctbymse"
],
"text": [
"it has two cameras that take pictures of stars. the probe then compares these images with its internal star map and figures out its location.\n\nonce its location and attitude is known, the probe can use gyroscopes and accelerometers to keep further track of its orientation.\n\nfinally, it has a sun sensor, that allows it to figure out it's position with respect to the sun."
],
"score": [
9
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | How could new horizons know when to take pictures ?
This is fascinating- how did it know where and when to take pictures ? And how can we pinpoint new horizons in a territory we know so little about ? | [
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|
253ji9 | If I knock out quail with helium before cutting their heads off, does that alter the meat in any way? | I am raising quail for eggs and meat, and I want them to go as peacefully as possible because they are giving me so much. I am just concerned about ruining the meat. I've tried looking it up, but I can't find any resources on it. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"chdyj6a"
],
"text": [
"I totally support you trying to be as pain-free as possible. I do want to discourage you from using any commercially available gas (including helium, carbon dioxide, or nitrogen) to do it with. you would essentially slowly suffocating it by not giving it oxygen. that's a long, painful process, that can take minutes in birds. one of the most humane ways to put down animals is a quick decapitation - everything is over in a second and minimal pain is registered. If you want, you could put a small dark hood over the animal's eyes. Most of the stress from sacrificing is going to come from being handled, and birds in the dark are much, much, calmer.\n\nseriously. pm me if you have questions."
],
"score": [
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | If I knock out quail with helium before cutting their heads off, does that alter the meat in any way?
I am raising quail for eggs and meat, and I want them to go as peacefully as possible because they are giving me so much. I am just concerned about ruining the meat. I've tried looking it up, but I can't find any resources on it. | [
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|
q9ttc | This man has an insightful question about horses and I, too, am curious | _URL_0_ | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c3vw318",
"c3vwfj3"
],
"text": [
"I'm the one who wrote the original comment. I know the question seems a bit outlandish, but I am genuinely interested in the science behind it.\n\nIf left with no other options will herbivores resort to eating meat?\n\nIf so will they be able to recognize living beings as a potential food source and have the thought to kill them?\n\nWill they be able to digest the meat properly?\n\nIf it were two horses in a room would it be different than if it were a human and a horse?",
"[It is probably not factual, but horses eating meat is documented.](_URL_0_)"
],
"score": [
8,
7
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/AskReddit/comments/q9o45/whats_the_silliest_fight_youve_ever_been_in/c3vu92g"
]
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.horsetalk.co.nz/features/meateatinghorses-190.shtml"
]
} | This man has an insightful question about horses and I, too, am curious
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|
25oax2 | Can anyone tell me what causes this curious rock formation? | [_URL_0_](_URL_0_)
Location: Bare Island, Botany Bay, Sydney. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"chjctnj"
],
"text": [
"What you have there is differential weathering. At some point fluids have moved through the rock, precipitating perhaps quartz or calcite. The fluids have moved preferentially through certain paths, leading to build ups of this more resistant precipitate material. AS erosion has worn the rock down, the more resistant veins are left sticking out proud. Have a look here for similar examples:\n_URL_0_"
],
"score": [
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://i.imgur.com/DnAx2jO.jpg"
]
} | {
"url": [
"https://www.google.co.uk/search?q=boxwork+weathering&safe=off&rlz=1C1CHMO_en-gbGB496GB496&es_sm=122&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=gb11U-rPF8bVOcmJgPAC&ved=0CAgQ_AUoAQ&biw=1537&bih=865&dpr=0.9"
]
} | Can anyone tell me what causes this curious rock formation?
[_URL_0_](_URL_0_) Location: Bare Island, Botany Bay, Sydney. | [
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|
39zw6r | Do hotspots move over time? | I am writing a paper on volcanic hotspots and am wondering if mantle plumes move. I seem to remember reading somewhere that there is evidence that they do, but I can't find the article.
Scientific reports and research GREATLY appreciated. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cs8aiae",
"cs8akom"
],
"text": [
"Non-paywalled sources:\n\n_URL_4_\n\n_URL_0_\n\nPaywalled articles:\n\n_URL_3_\n\n_URL_2_\n\n_URL_1_",
"Yes, they do. [This article (bonus, not behind a paywall!)](_URL_5_) provides a nice summary of the lines of evidence that suggest the hotspot associated with the Hawaii-Emperor seamount chain is \"moving\". I put \"moving\" in quotes as from skimming the article as the data seems to suggest at minimum that the surface location of hotspots is influenced by mantle flow (which really makes sense, it's hard to reconcile a plume of hot material coming straight up from the base of the mantle with the fact that we know there is mantle convection and signficant lateral flow within the mantle), but the extent to which it addresses whether the sources of hotspots and plumes (i.e. their source regions deep within the mantle) move with respect to a fixed reference frame is harder to answer. It's possible this paper touches on that, but haven't had a chance to do a thorough read through."
],
"score": [
10,
7
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.soest.hawaii.edu/wessel/courses/gg711/pdf/Tarduno_2007_ChemGeol.pdf",
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0012821X0100351X",
"http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v391/n6669/full/391739a0.html",
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0012821X02008075",
"http://geology.isu.edu/Digital_Geology_Idaho/Module11/Beranek_etal_2006.pdf",
"http://www.soest.hawaii.edu/wessel/courses/gg711/pdf/Tarduno_2007_ChemGeol.pdf"
]
} | Do hotspots move over time?
I am writing a paper on volcanic hotspots and am wondering if mantle plumes move. I seem to remember reading somewhere that there is evidence that they do, but I can't find the article. Scientific reports and research GREATLY appreciated. | [
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|
qs5s0 | Are antacid tablets good for your bones? | I often have indigestion and take antacid tablets. I notice these are calcium carbonate. Does that mean it's good for my bones as well, because it has calcium in it? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c403sxz",
"c4010g2"
],
"text": [
"(I understand if people have to downvote me, though I'd prefer neither an upvote nor a downvote.)\n\n\nConsistent indigestion resulting in a need to take antacids on a regular basis is a sign of acid reflux (GERD.) Do not put off visiting a gastroenterologist! Long term exposure of acid to your esophagus can cause [Barrett's Esophagus](_URL_0_), which in turn can cause **esophageal cancer**.\n\n\nPutting off a little heartburn here and there is no big deal. I was putting off a lot of heartburn and just dealing with it... Until I spoke to a coworker whose husband died from it, specifically because he refused to see a doctor. This is a very preventable condition and not a topic to be stubborn about. \n\n\nI'm going to cut myself off here so as not to further muddy up this topic, but please ask if you have further questions. Some of the fixes are free and easily performed, others take some effort, there are some tests, etc > stopping now. HTH.",
"Well, calcium carbonate is essentially [chalk](_URL_3_) which the body doesn't absorb well. Some antacids can cause you to be at risk for [osteopenia](_URL_3_) which is on the road to osteoporosis. It appears they may interfere with your body’s ability to absorb calcium and phosphates from your food. \nIf you're worried about protecting your bones then follow the advice on the bottom of [this page](_URL_3_).\nThere are a couple of things to consider here. Elephants and any large herbivore have huge, strong bones and they don't take calcium supplements (or drink milk for that matter) but they do eat large amounts of dark green vegetation. So eat your cruciferous vegetables. Also, protecting your bones with exercise and vitamin D (Sunlight is free!) helps. \n \nThe important question might be why do you have indigestion so often? That's not normal and maybe you should check on that."
],
"score": [
3,
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/barretts-esophagus/HQ00312",
"http://www.drweil.com/drw/u/QAA400065/Tums-For-Calcium.html",
"http://www.osteopenia3.com/Osteopenia-Osteoporosis-Antacids.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chalk#Composition"
]
} | Are antacid tablets good for your bones?
I often have indigestion and take antacid tablets. I notice these are calcium carbonate. Does that mean it's good for my bones as well, because it has calcium in it? | [
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40qlgb | Why do so many things follow Normal Distribution? | Many things in nature and economics seem to follow a Normal/Gaussian distribution. Is there a reason for this? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cywjctc",
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"text": [
"This is a good question so I would be interested to hear how other people answer.\n\nAs I understand it, one of the reasons it is so common is because of the central limit theorem, this tells us that any set of measurements of independent, identical distribution will converge to a normal distribution if you have a large enough sample. What we mean by independent and identical is that each measurement does not depend on any other and that each measurement is taken from the same probability distribution.\n\nThere are a lot of things that meat these criteria, dice rolls, coin flips, roulette spins but not all. That is why normal distributions aren't always there. You specifically mention economics where things like log-normal distributions are common too.\n\nOnce you know that a large sample will converge to a normal then you can exploit this by assuming a single measurement is plucked from the unseen normal distribution and this allows things like least squares fitting to become common tools.\n\nOne example of distributions following a Gaussian is the velocities of atoms in a gas. The interesting thing is that this distribution minimizes entropy, a fact that will be the case anytime there is a quadratic conserved quantity (energy is proportional to v^2). So you would expect them to frequently spring up in nature.\n\nThat said, there are also reasons why they are used as approximations even where the data does not necessarily fit one exactly.",
"As u/Robo-Connery mentioned, the primary answer is the central limit theorem. To expand on that a bit: When your result comes from a single random variable, it can have all sorts of probability distributions: a die has a flat distribution for any integer between 1 and 6, a single pixel on your camera has a poisson probability of sending N bits over a small time window, or a radioactive isotope has a binomial probability of decaying over a certain time window. For each of these processes, we can assign a mean µ and standard deviation sigma. \n\nNow let's consider a variable that is the sum of N independent variables. It is pretty easy to see that the mean of the sum is just the sum of the means:\n\nµ*_tot_* = ∑ (µ*_n_*)\n\nPerhaps less obviously, it is also true that the total variance (i.e. sigma^(2)) sums in the same way:\n\nsigma*_tot_*^2 = ∑ (sigma*_n_*^(2))\n\nThis is true for the first three [central moments about the mean](_URL_3_). \n\nIf all the values of µ*_n_* and sigma*_n_* are identical, this means that:\n\nµ*_tot_* = µ*_n_*\\*N\n\nAnd the standard deviation normalized by the mean scales as:\n\nsigma*_tot_*/µ*_tot_* = N^(-0.5) * sigma*_n_* / µ*_n_*\n\nSince the normalized standard deviation scales as N^(-0.5), this demonstrates the [law of large numbers](_URL_2_): as N increases the standard deviation shrinks relative to the mean. Therefore the simplest approximation to the distribution as N becomes large would be a delta function centered at µ*_tot_*. \n\nWe can do better than the delta function though. You can define a series of [standardized moments](_URL_1_) that are normalized by the variance, such as skewness or kurtosis. ~~Since the central moments all scale with N, the the kth standardized moment will scale as N^(1-k/2). Therefore, as N increases, all the standardized moments larger than k=2 go to zero.~~ Because the third central moment is additive, we can show that the skewness (i.e. the third standardized moment), will scale as:\n\nN/N^(3/2) = N^(-1/2)\n\nTherefore it tends to zero as N becomes large. More generally, the odd standardized moments will tend to zero while the kth even standardized moments, µ*_k_*, will approach the values:\n\nµ*_k_*=(k-1)!!\n\nHere the !! symbol is the double factorial. The formula comes from [eq. (10) of this paper](_URL_0_). The only continuous distribution that has the appropriate higher order standardized moments is the [normal distribution](_URL_4_). (Note that as N gets really large, the normal distribution starts to look like a delta function, so this is consistent with our first approximation). **edit: My original post did not have the right formula for the additive properties of the higher moments**. \n\nYou can see where the central limit theorem breaks down as well. If N isn't big enough, it will not hold. If the skewness of individual distributions is very large, then you need a larger N before the sum converges. And if the individual distributions are not very uniform, it won't converge. For instance, if you rolled a normal die labelled 1-6 50 times in a row, then added that summed total to a roll of a die with 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, and 600 on each face, the total sum won't look very Gaussian.",
"By the Central Limit Theorem, every variable that can be thought of as a sum of many small independent effects will be approximately normally distributed, and every variable that can be thought of as a product of many small independent positive effects will be approximately log-normally distributed. (A variable is log-normal if its logarithm is normally distributed.)\n\nMany variables that are often assumed to be normally distributed, such as the height and weight of humans, are actually log-normally distributed. This is because your height for instance is a result of many small and independent multiplicative effects: many genes each add or subtract a certain small percentage to your height, many influences in your childhood added or subtracted certain small percentages to your height, etc. Percentage changes are combined by multiplying them, not by adding them. \n\nIn practice, often you can't tell the difference between a normal and a log-normal variable, because log(1+x) is approximately equal to x for small x.",
"- An important reason for the presence of gaussians in nature is the [Central Limit Theorem](_URL_6_): it means that, for *independent* repeats of an experience, the total sum of measures (or its average) will look like a gaussian (with the expected mean, and variance, from the sum of all individual experiments). (The central limit theorem is the probability analogue of a second-order approximation of a smooth function, and can actually be proved in this way). Since independent (in practice) repeats happen often, and CLT gives a normal distribution for all distribution on individual events, we often observe gaussians.\n\n - But I also want to point out that there are also a lot of variables that do *not* follow a gaussian in any way. For example, variables that count number of things are integer and always positive by definition, both restrictions being incompatible with a normal distribution; a “number of things” variable will often follow a [Poisson distribution](_URL_5_) instead."
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://arxiv.org/pdf/1105.6283.pdf",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standardized_moment",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_large_numbers",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_moment",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normal_distribution#Moments",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poisson_distribution",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_limit_theorem"
]
} | Why do so many things follow Normal Distribution?
Many things in nature and economics seem to follow a Normal/Gaussian distribution. Is there a reason for this? | [
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|
zitqo | The only non-religious school in Uganda has posted a series of videos featuring the students asking various science questions. I thought Reddit could give these guys some help! | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c653l2k",
"c653bv6"
],
"text": [
"I have to question your claim that this is the **only** non religious school in Uganda. For example, this school _URL_0_ does not appear to have any religious affiliation.\n\nWhy did you include that phrase at all? It isn't relevant to your request.\n\nEdit: I accidentally a letter.",
"There was some concern expressed regarding the \"scripted sound\" of the students' questions, and I thought I would quickly address that for anyone else who may share that sentiment. \n\nThese students were likely given an assignment where they were to think of three questions to ask the internet. As these kids have had little experience with cameras, they appear a bit awkward, plus they have likely worked rather hard to memorize their questions. \n\nI say this as someone who has volunteered for this school and worked with these kids directly."
],
"score": [
3,
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.kisu.com/"
]
} | The only non-religious school in Uganda has posted a series of videos featuring the students asking various science questions. I thought Reddit could give these guys some help!
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9q0f5a | Can someone explain the science behind “breaking the seal”? | I know it deals with ADH, and I always argue that the initial urination process catalyzes the succeeding urinations. Is this true, or does the actual amount of liquid cause the frequent urinations? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"e873u8r"
],
"text": [
"You’re correct that it deals with antidiuretic hormone (ADH). You’re not truly breaking a seal, so much as blood alcohol content gets high enough to inhibit ADH and your kidneys spare less fluid. I only notice this with beer, but I think that is because of the volume involved. I suppose if I started out exceptionally well hydrated and started doing shots of tequila I might have a similar effect.\n\nSo holding it so you don’t “break the seal” is not necessarily a good idea."
],
"score": [
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | Can someone explain the science behind “breaking the seal”?
I know it deals with ADH, and I always argue that the initial urination process catalyzes the succeeding urinations. Is this true, or does the actual amount of liquid cause the frequent urinations? | [
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|
ija6l | Physicists, An Indie Game Dev needs your help | Here's a scanned image of the problem set up: _URL_0_
**Simple Explanation: Solve for the end time (or t2).**
**More involved explanation: Ultimately I need the summation of force applied throughout the 0 to 20 distance, however the yank (or Newtons per second) suffices.**
If the problem cannot be solved explain why. The only variables I NEED to have stay the same is the distance, the starting force, and the ending force.
Also if anyone is interested in the in-game application of this problem I'd be willing to explain.
Thanks and good luck, I've spent hundreds of man hours between my father (an engineer), my brother, and myself and we're at our wits end. You are my only hope AskScience.
EDIT: There is no friction or gravity and the force points along the line to the right.
Also the force from 1 to 4 newtons increase linearly. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c2475fp"
],
"text": [
"What direction does the force point in? Along that line? Include gravity? Also, are you assuming constant 3rd derivative of time (ie acceleration increases linearly with time)?"
],
"score": [
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://imgur.com/hnfDU"
]
} | {
"url": []
} | Physicists, An Indie Game Dev needs your help
Here's a scanned image of the problem set up: _URL_0_ **Simple Explanation: Solve for the end time (or t2).** **More involved explanation: Ultimately I need the summation of force applied throughout the 0 to 20 distance, however the yank (or Newtons per second) suffices.** If the problem cannot be solved explain why. The only variables I NEED to have stay the same is the distance, the starting force, and the ending force. Also if anyone is interested in the in-game application of this problem I'd be willing to explain. Thanks and good luck, I've spent hundreds of man hours between my father (an engineer), my brother, and myself and we're at our wits end. You are my only hope AskScience. EDIT: There is no friction or gravity and the force points along the line to the right. Also the force from 1 to 4 newtons increase linearly. | [
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|
2fo1ss | How do scientists map superclusters? | Ive been hearing a lot about the newly discovered Laniakea supercluster. The biggest question I have is how do we know where we are, and what it looks like. But a bigger question is how do we know there are other superclusters near us, and that ours is right next to perseus-peces. Im 14 so links are helpful when you say things like "quantum space light time thingy" lol. Thanks!
_URL_0_ | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"ckba2mm"
],
"text": [
"Maps of things like galaxy clusters (and superclusters) are created by measuring the distances to objects all over the sky.\n\nIf you think about it, when you look at stars on the sky, you are really seeing a 2-dimensional projection of a 3-dimensional universe - all the stars appear scattered across the surface of a sphere that we call the sky. Making a 2-D map is easy - you just assign a coordinate system to the sky and mark the positions of all the objects. It's the third dimension, distance, that is tricky.\n\nFor galaxies, especially very distant ones, we don't actually measure distance. We instead measure something called [redshift](_URL_0_). Assuming what we know about cosmology is correct, we can then turn redshifts into distances. Doing this for many galaxies allows one to make a 3D map of the universe like [this one](_URL_1_), and from these maps we look for structure. It's very easy to see that the galaxies (colored dots) are not randomly scattered, but are clustered together."
],
"score": [
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-2742446/Welcome-Laniakea-3D-map-super-cluster-galaxies-contains-Milky-Way.html"
]
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redshift",
"http://www.newscientist.com/data/images/ns/cms/dn14546/dn14546-1_700.jpg"
]
} | How do scientists map superclusters?
Ive been hearing a lot about the newly discovered Laniakea supercluster. The biggest question I have is how do we know where we are, and what it looks like. But a bigger question is how do we know there are other superclusters near us, and that ours is right next to perseus-peces. Im 14 so links are helpful when you say things like "quantum space light time thingy" lol. Thanks! _URL_0_ | [
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busa80 | Is it possible to artificially induce strong intermolecular forces? | I was just wondering if you could create an appliance which temporarily combined gases in the air into a solid to make an "air" step. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"epgwht2"
],
"text": [
"Sort of, but not in the way that you're thinking. Trapping multiple cold atoms in a laser beam can cause them to have much stronger attraction to one-another than they would normally have at equilibrium.\n\ne.g. _URL_0_"
],
"score": [
7
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://scholarship.rice.edu/bitstream/handle/1911/79442/PhysRevLett.75.1687.pdf?sequence=1"
]
} | Is it possible to artificially induce strong intermolecular forces?
I was just wondering if you could create an appliance which temporarily combined gases in the air into a solid to make an "air" step. | [
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|
170pcp | How does this security feature from a thread over on r/silverbugs work? | There are pictures here:
_URL_1_
and the OP gave us what the company's marketing department said in the comments here:
_URL_0_
My guess is polarization somehow. But how do they get that on what must be a reflection? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c81etck"
],
"text": [
"If we look up infos about the company on the card:\n\nThe card is this: _URL_0_\n\nApparently (see their patent _URL_1_) the technology relies on regular background, basically on the card there is a very fine grid of lines, and on the security feature, there is also a fine grid of lines with the same period (or is it twice ? anyway...). The \"VALID\" text is written inside the lines on the security feature. If you put the two grids aligned, then you have an effect similar to lenticular printing, and you see the text, when the grids are not properly aligned or there is no card you don't see the text."
],
"score": [
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/Silverbugs/comments/170n3c/just_got_our_first_shipment_in_10oz_sunshine/",
"http://imgur.com/a/g1jPS"
]
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.graphicsecurity.com/index.php/authentication/optical-decoders",
"https://www.google.com/search?ie=UTF-8&oe=utf-8&q=patent+5%2C708%2C717"
]
} | How does this security feature from a thread over on r/silverbugs work?
There are pictures here: _URL_1_ and the OP gave us what the company's marketing department said in the comments here: _URL_0_ My guess is polarization somehow. But how do they get that on what must be a reflection? | [
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|
46cwe4 | Do you need both a -10 and -35 sequence for a promoter to bind? | Just a bit of background. I have a DNA sequence I am trying to interpret and there is a -10 sequence for RpoD (regulatory gene regulator) and there is no -35 sequence that matches a promoter for RpoD. However, at the -17 position I have a sequence that matches AlgT (sigma factor/transcription factor) and a promoter sequence at -42. Is it possible for the RpoD to only bind at the -10 sequence and initiate transcription? Is it possible for AlgT to initiate transcription even if it is 17 nucleotides downstream of the promoter? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"d046ux4",
"d047fhi"
],
"text": [
"The sequence regions in question are part of the promoter, and help to recruit the transcription multiplex. Both -10 and -35 are not in general required, but a closer match increases the probability of recruitment and promoter clearance. One of the first, most basic regulatory controls is the overall strength of the promoter and how easy it is to transcribe in the first place, i.e. promoter sequences that deviate from the strongest binding sequence are inherently less active.",
"/u/paladonezo's answer is correct. Most bacterial promoters do not have the consensus -35 and -10 sequences or even have them 35 and 10 nucleotides upstream of the transcription start site. The closer to the consensus sequence, the stronger the promoter, usually. \n\nOne individual sigma interacts with both the -35 and -10 sequences. It sounds like both sigmas you're considering are candidates to regulate this particular gene."
],
"score": [
13,
8
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | Do you need both a -10 and -35 sequence for a promoter to bind?
Just a bit of background. I have a DNA sequence I am trying to interpret and there is a -10 sequence for RpoD (regulatory gene regulator) and there is no -35 sequence that matches a promoter for RpoD. However, at the -17 position I have a sequence that matches AlgT (sigma factor/transcription factor) and a promoter sequence at -42. Is it possible for the RpoD to only bind at the -10 sequence and initiate transcription? Is it possible for AlgT to initiate transcription even if it is 17 nucleotides downstream of the promoter? | [
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|
v2szo | Can someone explain heliotropism? | How do plants follow the sun? I was told that scientists don't really understand the process, but I find that hard to believe. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c50tjxv"
],
"text": [
"Who told you scientists don't understand? That's just false. The minor details are sometimes in dispute, but it is known that phototropism is caused by a hormone called auxin. This hormone causes cells to elongate. Auxin is released from the tip of a plant and flows down the stem, on the side that is on the darker side of the shoot. The unlit side stretches while the lit side remains the same, and the result is a stem that is curved towards the light.\nEdit: wrong word\nEdit 2: For the record, auxin does a lot of things. this is what it does as it relates to the question."
],
"score": [
6
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | Can someone explain heliotropism?
How do plants follow the sun? I was told that scientists don't really understand the process, but I find that hard to believe. | [
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|
b5iqyp | Easiest way to prove Heliocentrism, without equipment? | I was asked to prove that the Earth orbited the Sun. It seemed like such an obvious thing to do, but really I couldn’t find a simple way to prove it (unlike proving the Earth is round).
Is there a way to prove heliocentrism by simple deduction and reasoning in a quick time frame? Or is it frankly impossible without the usage of telescopes and long term observation of star movements? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
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"text": [
"It's basically impossible to do without a telescope. A geocentric model, plus epicycles, can accurately describe the naked-eye motions of all the planets even though it's wrong.\n\nWith a small telescope or binoculars, though, one of the most vivid demonstrations is by watching Venus and Mercury for a couple of years. Sometimes when they're close to the sun in the sky, they look like crescent moons, but on their next close pass they look like a smaller full moon. This makes perfect sense if Venus and Mercury are moving in front of and behind the sun as they orbit around it, but makes no sense in a geocentric model.\n\nSo now you've broken the back of the geocentric model by showing that *some* planets orbit the Sun rather than the Earth, and can make an Occam's Razor argument that the simplest explanation is that they *all* orbit the Sun.\n\n... but that takes a small telescope, and a few years. If someone believes only what their naked eyes tell them at a casual glance, there's no way to convince them of anything. *Anything*.",
"I can think of a couple of different ways, but all of them require pretty involved astronomical observation. And if the person you are trying to convince does not accept that the motions of solar system bodies are governed by gravity, I can hardly think of a way to do it at all.",
"The other planets usually move in a general eastward direction through the background stars. Sometimes, though, they appear to change and move westward. This is called [\"retrograde\"](_URL_0_) motion, and is difficult to explain from a geocentric perspective. It only really makes sense in a heliocentric system. \n\nWhat is actually happening is this: As the planets orbit the Sun they seem to move east through the stars (from Earth's perspective). But the Earth is also orbiting the Sun. The Earth sometimes \"passes\" the outer planets, since our orbit is smaller and faster. As we pass them, from our perspective relative to the stars they move west. This is strong evidence of heliocentrism. It takes some time to use it as proof, though, because you need to observe the sky for many months."
],
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} | {
"url": [
"https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apparent_retrograde_motion#From_Earth"
]
} | Easiest way to prove Heliocentrism, without equipment?
I was asked to prove that the Earth orbited the Sun. It seemed like such an obvious thing to do, but really I couldn’t find a simple way to prove it (unlike proving the Earth is round). Is there a way to prove heliocentrism by simple deduction and reasoning in a quick time frame? Or is it frankly impossible without the usage of telescopes and long term observation of star movements? | [
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|
yfbbf | Is there anything in what this guy says? (Some probably insane youtube video about the magnetosphere) | TL;DW - This guy is saying data is missing from the magnetosphere data on the NASA website for March 12th 2012 and that it may be a magnetosphere reversal? (Which, in my laymen head, doesn't make sense since I thought the magnetosphere didn't really have poles).
Just curious whether this is crazy or could make sense?
_URL_0_ | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c5v3ane",
"c5v4gkk"
],
"text": [
"The guy doesn't seem to postulate what the cause is of the event, just that there appears to be a reversal that occurred and that the data for this time frame has now been removed.\n\nI am not an expert on this field, but I will say that it is not uncommon for experimentalists to hide data of interesting events until they have analyzed it. This has two reasons - 1. so that the data can be analyzed properly by experts, 2. so that people don't jump to conclusions and start spreading hard-to-destroy rumours about the results.",
"Due to the solar wind, the magnetic field lines are distorted from what would be approximately symmetrical shape, into one that is 'drawn out' into a tail facing away from the sun. It seems that by reversal he means that he believes something on the dark side of Earth distorted the field to face in the opposite direction, something stronger than the solar wind. \n\nHowever, as ignatiusloyola mentioned it is not common for scientific results to be hidden from the public (unless the research itself is confidential, such as private company R & D, classified military projects etc) but this does not apply to this kind of research. There are countless unaffiliated bodies monitoring the magnetosphere, and even the big NASA ones will have lots of involvement from external institutions such as universities from all around the world. Basically, although it is not likely for data to be hidden from the public to hide some disastrous event like he claims, I also doubt it could be done even if they wanted to."
],
"score": [
5,
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aUeqkwzykM4"
]
} | {
"url": []
} | Is there anything in what this guy says? (Some probably insane youtube video about the magnetosphere)
TL;DW - This guy is saying data is missing from the magnetosphere data on the NASA website for March 12th 2012 and that it may be a magnetosphere reversal? (Which, in my laymen head, doesn't make sense since I thought the magnetosphere didn't really have poles). Just curious whether this is crazy or could make sense? _URL_0_ | [
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|
10v7gk | This has been bugging me lately. Why is it when I look at my fishtank from the side, it looks straight through, but when I look at it slightly askew, the front will redirect the image? | As I said in the title, if I look at my fish tank from one corner, the front will look as if I'm seeing it from straight ahead.
_URL_0_
_URL_1_
As you can see from the second picture, you can see the plants as if you were seeing them from the front. Any explanation would be great. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c6gxofv"
],
"text": [
"This is due to [Refraction](_URL_0_). In this situation refraction occurs twice, one at the water/glass surface and a second time at the glass/air surface."
],
"score": [
4
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://i.imgur.com/XVw5M.jpg",
"http://i.imgur.com/JFIeH.jpg"
]
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refraction"
]
} | This has been bugging me lately. Why is it when I look at my fishtank from the side, it looks straight through, but when I look at it slightly askew, the front will redirect the image?
As I said in the title, if I look at my fish tank from one corner, the front will look as if I'm seeing it from straight ahead. _URL_0_ _URL_1_ As you can see from the second picture, you can see the plants as if you were seeing them from the front. Any explanation would be great. | [
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|
6sxq2e | Why did scientists like Slotin and Daghlian do their criticality experiments manually? | I was reading about the [demon core](_URL_0_), and I was wondering why the two scientists involved ever attempted to do their experiments manually? Maybe I'm just being a wimp, but I would think of anyone on the planet, Slotin and Daghlian would know best how dangerous that was. I understand that a remote system for doing these experiments was built after the second incident. Is there a reason this wasn't developed and used earlier? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"dlghkbf",
"dlh23f6"
],
"text": [
"From what I read, during the war, time was the problem. They didn't have time to engineer a remote automated system to do it. By the time of Slotin's accident, May 21, 1946, there was no reason to do it manually. The war was over almost a year and the cold war had not yet begun. They said Slotin was just a daredevil, and liked showing off doing that.\n\n_URL_0_\n\n > Under Slotin's unapproved protocol, the only thing preventing this was the blade of a standard straight screwdriver, manipulated by the scientist's other hand. Slotin, who was given to bravado, became the local expert, performing the test on almost a dozen occasions, often in his trademark blue jeans and cowboy boots, in front of a roomful of observers. Enrico Fermi reportedly told Slotin and others they would be \"dead within a year\" if they continued performing it.[12] Scientists referred to this flirting with the possibility of a nuclear chain reaction as \"tickling the dragon's tail\", based on a remark by physicist Richard Feynman, who compared the experiments to \"tickling the tail of a sleeping dragon\".[13][14]\n\nDaghlian's accident was just as the war ended. So time would have forced the tricky manual test. They were getting ready for a third bomb for Japan.\n\n > The next bomb of the implosion type had been scheduled to be ready for delivery on the target on the first good weather after August 24th, 1945. We have gained 4 days in manufacture and expect to ship the final components from New Mexico on August 12th or 13th. Providing there are no unforeseen difficulties in manufacture, in transportation to the theatre or after arrival in the theatre, the bomb should be ready for delivery on the first suitable weather after August 17th or 18th.[3]\n\n > Marshall added an annotation, \"It is not to be released on Japan without express authority from the President\", as President Harry S. Truman was waiting to see the effects of the first two attacks.[3] On August 13, the third bomb was scheduled. It was anticipated that it would be ready by August 16 to be dropped on August 19.[3] This was pre-empted by Japan's surrender on August 15, 1945, while preparations were still being made for it to be couriered to Kirtland Field. The third core remained at Los Alamos.[5]\n\n > On August 21, 1945, the plutonium core produced a burst of neutron radiation that led to physicist Harry Daghlian's death. Daghlian made a mistake while performing neutron reflector experiments on the core. He was working alone; a security guard, Private Robert J. Hemmerly, was seated at a desk 10 to 12 feet (3 to 4 m) away.[8] The core was placed within a stack of neutron-reflective tungsten carbide bricks and the addition of each brick moved the assembly closer to criticality. While attempting to stack another brick around the assembly, Daghlian accidentally dropped it onto the core and thereby caused the core to go well into supercriticality, a self-sustaining critical chain reaction. He quickly moved the brick off the assembly, but received a fatal dose of radiation. He died 25 days later from acute radiation poisoning.[9]",
"You might find this serie of articles interesting too:\n_URL_1_\n\nthis has many example of chemists taking unnecessary risks, as well as a long long list of terrifying experimental setups. Some people just seem prone to risk taking, even when they should know better."
],
"score": [
8,
4
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demon_core"
]
} | {
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demon_core",
"http://blogs.sciencemag.org/pipeline/?s=things+I+won%27t+work+with"
]
} | Why did scientists like Slotin and Daghlian do their criticality experiments manually?
I was reading about the [demon core](_URL_0_), and I was wondering why the two scientists involved ever attempted to do their experiments manually? Maybe I'm just being a wimp, but I would think of anyone on the planet, Slotin and Daghlian would know best how dangerous that was. I understand that a remote system for doing these experiments was built after the second incident. Is there a reason this wasn't developed and used earlier? | [
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|
82eroz | Why are most studies on retinal ganglion cells done on salamanders? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"dv9ouzb"
],
"text": [
"It's the next step!\n\nFor the last quarter of the 20th century, there was a **ton** of work on retinal-tectal axon guidance/ visual system architecture in zebrafish (*Danio rerio*). The reason is that the zebrafish was adopted as a model organism for vertebrates early on, so biologists were very familiar with it and its genes. That way, zebrafish scientists in different labs could still understand tiny details of each others' works, because they all worked on the same species. Everyone learned how to \"talk\" zebrafish.\n\nBut there's only so much you can learn from a tiny fish.\n\nSo, work began on higher organisms. Amphibians like *Xenopus laevis* are a popular next step, because their visual system is more complex. For practical reasons, they're really easy to keep alive in a lab, and they can be induced to lay eggs. They're hella convenient. \n\nIt's not that we know *nothing* about the visual system of mammals (and humans). But to know **everything** about the development, structure, and function of the early visual system, you need to start (with a) low(er organism) and work your way up."
],
"score": [
10
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | Why are most studies on retinal ganglion cells done on salamanders?
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||
j9a7c | Why is honeycombed armor better? | Hey, my first ever post because I thought who better to solve this question than the people of Reddit.
Large military vehicles and ships have honeycombed armor, rather than solid plates. Why is this better? Is it just because it's lighter or does it actually stop ballistics better? Or is it a pliability thing? Or is it so the armor can take damage without it "tremoring" (super scientific way of putting it I know) out to vital systems, but it actually makes it weaker?
My friend claims it's because it's actually better to have variable resistance when you want to stop ballistics, if that's so, why? Thanks! | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c2a80ts"
],
"text": [
"A honeycomb geometry is very strong--I suppose the best intuitive argument that I could make for this is to note that hexagonal packing as in a honeycomb is also the best (closest) was to pack spheres together in **two dimensions**: _URL_1_ This geometry responds very well to stress.\n\nNote that the cases you describe are all ones in which large amounts of thick armor are being applied to vehicles that are all quite heavy already. My guess would be that the design is popular as a route to providing acceptable protection and mass.\n\nThis paper has a more detailed description of some honeycomb materials: _URL_0_ Using a composite material allows the engineers to account for bending and sheer stresses separately."
],
"score": [
5
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.suparco.gov.pk/downloadables/properties-honeycomb.pdf",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Close-packing_of_spheres"
]
} | Why is honeycombed armor better?
Hey, my first ever post because I thought who better to solve this question than the people of Reddit. Large military vehicles and ships have honeycombed armor, rather than solid plates. Why is this better? Is it just because it's lighter or does it actually stop ballistics better? Or is it a pliability thing? Or is it so the armor can take damage without it "tremoring" (super scientific way of putting it I know) out to vital systems, but it actually makes it weaker? My friend claims it's because it's actually better to have variable resistance when you want to stop ballistics, if that's so, why? Thanks! | [
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|
1aehem | how are mountain bases safe? | Seeing as mountains are the product of the tectonic plates colliding, why is it considered one of the safest places to build military bases/shelters for nuclear bombs ect?
would it not be a hot spot for earthquakes? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c8wpzh9"
],
"text": [
"There are many techniques for making buildings \"earthquake-proof\", including limiting height, adding a moving mass to absorb the energy of the quake, and using strong materials for the construction. Some more radical techniques, like those used in Cheyenne Mountain AFB / NORAD, include mounting office buildings on giant springs that act as shock absorbers, though that works best in underground settings where the side to side movement can be similarly constricted.\n\nSince the earthquakes are slightly negated, what's left are the benefits of the mountains. For a surface base, such as Raven Rock, the benefits are defensibility and observability of the surrounding area. Being uphill also means any water sources found on the site don't have upstream contaminants. \n\nSubsurface bases, like Cheyenne Mountain / NORAD, and nuclear bunkers, like that West Virginia hotel, are put in mountains because they're a natural radiation shield, with varying benefits depending on the composition of the mountain's material. Digging into a mountainside allows easy access on-grade for construction equipment and vehicular traffic, where digging down requires massive elevators. The mountain also provides shielding against conventional attacks, which are deflected using similar techniques to earthquake-proofing."
],
"score": [
5
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | how are mountain bases safe?
Seeing as mountains are the product of the tectonic plates colliding, why is it considered one of the safest places to build military bases/shelters for nuclear bombs ect? would it not be a hot spot for earthquakes? | [
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|
7xp5w9 | How does the Meltdown patch work? | Before I ask the question, please tell me if my understanding is wrong as I am still learning about computer architecture:
Modern CPU's utilize out of order execution, which means instead of waiting for each instruction cycle to finish, it will start fetching other instructions.
So if there are branch dependent instructions, the CPU will need to predict what data will be coming from the branch (branch prediction)
If the prediction is wrong, the register will remove the data, and it will be gone in theory, but in practice they are stored in the cache. (This is where I think I'm gonna be wrong)
And through cache side channel attack, attackers can get data.
Now what has the kernel memory got to do with this, and how does the KAISER patch slow down the CPU? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"duah0xd"
],
"text": [
"The patch set you're referring to is better called the \"Kernel Page Table Isolation Patch\" as this is a more descriptive name.\n\n_URL_0_\n\nThe meltdown vulnerability is caused by how Intel processors try to optimize speculative memory accesses. The normally-understood security model says that read permissions should always be checked before allowing a memory read to occur. For example, a user program I write should not be allowed to read or modify kernel data, either intentionally on accident. This would allow me to steal kernel secrets.\n\nApparently Intel thought they could optimize speculative memory reads by allowing reads to happen while checking permissions in parallel. This allows the actual memory transaction to happen even when the process requesting the read doesn't have permission to do so. In theory this is OK, because permissions would always be checked before this memory is allowed to be used by a program, and use of that memory would be denied even though it had been loaded from memory into a cache. In practice, the Meltdown authors discovered a very clever trick to \"leak\" this memory out of the processor cache and circumvent that permissions check.\n\nThere are two steps to the meltdown attack:\n\n1) Exploit Intel's optimization to read kernel data into the cache.\n\n2) Leak the data outside of the cache using a side-channel attack. \n\nStep 2 is a basic vulnerability in how caches work. It's not really fixable. The objective of the Kernel Page Table Isolation Patch (KPTI) is to prevent Step 1 from happening.\n\nIn order for Step 1 to happen, a malicious user program needs to be able to request the kernel memory in the first place. This is actually something that's easy to do. Modern programs can switch between running kernel (OS) code and program code very frequently, every time a System Call is made. Some programs make System Calls extremely frequently, so those programs need to be able to switch between kernel code and user code very quickly in order to run efficiently.\n\nAs a result, the normal approach is to have both kernel memory and program memory *mapped* (meaning accessible) when programs run. Whenever a System Call happens, the machine can simply redirect its execution into kernel memory. There is a special mechanism used for making System Calls that does some security checks, but executing code in kernel space through a System Call is roughly as complicated as making a regular function call. (In practice it can be up to about 10x slower, but function calls are already very fast so this is not a big problem.) \n\nSo, the purpose of the KPTI patchset is to prevent these illegal reads into memory by simply removing the kernel mapping from userspace programs. If the kernel is not mapped it is not accessible, meaning that a malicious program can't generate memory accesses that would exploit the flaw in the Intel processors. The way that KPTI achieves this is just by unmapping the kernel while executing program code and re-mapping the kernel while executing kernel code.\n\nWhat this means for performance is that System Calls are now inherently slower, because the extra step of mapping and unmapping must be made. The other major effect is that this requires clearing the cache at the end of every system call, to prevent information placed into the cache by the kernel from leaking out. This means that cache performance for programs that make frequent system calls can be seriously degraded.\n\nWhat do Page Tables have to do with all of this? Modern machines use a memory management technique called *Paging*. A full discussion of the technique is beyond your question, but Page Tables are how the mapping and unmapping of memory is accomplished. By isolating the kernel's Page Table from user programs, user programs cannot successfully generate memory accesses in kernel space. \n\n_URL_1_"
],
"score": [
15
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernel_page-table_isolation",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paging"
]
} | How does the Meltdown patch work?
Before I ask the question, please tell me if my understanding is wrong as I am still learning about computer architecture: Modern CPU's utilize out of order execution, which means instead of waiting for each instruction cycle to finish, it will start fetching other instructions. So if there are branch dependent instructions, the CPU will need to predict what data will be coming from the branch (branch prediction) If the prediction is wrong, the register will remove the data, and it will be gone in theory, but in practice they are stored in the cache. (This is where I think I'm gonna be wrong) And through cache side channel attack, attackers can get data. Now what has the kernel memory got to do with this, and how does the KAISER patch slow down the CPU? | [
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|
kai5c | {xpost askreddit} Neurologist redditors: how do our brains identify an abstract thought like 'gun pointed at my head' and then categorize it as 'I'm worried' which then triggers the natural physical reaction like 'stomachache'? | There are basic instinctive triggers like fight/flight and infatuation linked to specific chemicals, but even within those I don't grasp precisely how our brains are able to identify and extract specific abstract thoughts (which I am led to believe are a pseudo-magical neurological singularity) and then decide that it falls into whatever category of natural physical responses/symptoms that we can say is related to fight/flight etc. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c2ipzv6"
],
"text": [
"Not a neurologist but a psych student and here's an answer based on my level of knowledge, hope it helps:\n\nI'm not completely certain which part of the process you're having issues with so I thought I'd give you a basic outline of the process. The first to remember though, is that your conscious thought is only a very small part of the process. You brain will react to a gun in several ways before you're even consciously aware you've seen it.\n\nOkay, so the first step in the process is perceiving the gun. The gun node (collection of neural connections) is connected to all sorts of areas that relate to fear and it's quickly identified that you should be scared. At this point, signal are sent to (lots of different areas but in particular) your prefrontal cortex and your amygdala. The amygdala is an older part of your brain that responds to stimuli by sending out chemicals in response. In this situation, it would want to send out an order quickly to tell your body to prepare for action (fight/flight). Conversely, your prefrontal cortex, which is the newest part of our brain, is far more focussed on logic and reason. It will regulate the function of the amygdala if it's necessary (for example, it's only a toy gun). \n\n**Note**: I know my exlpanation isn't perfect so if anyone wants to help clarify any of my points, feel free, this is an area I'm still trying to learn about as much as possible."
],
"score": [
4
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {xpost askreddit} Neurologist redditors: how do our brains identify an abstract thought like 'gun pointed at my head' and then categorize it as 'I'm worried' which then triggers the natural physical reaction like 'stomachache'?
There are basic instinctive triggers like fight/flight and infatuation linked to specific chemicals, but even within those I don't grasp precisely how our brains are able to identify and extract specific abstract thoughts (which I am led to believe are a pseudo-magical neurological singularity) and then decide that it falls into whatever category of natural physical responses/symptoms that we can say is related to fight/flight etc. | [
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|
353azk | Are pointed arches stronger than round arches? Why or why not? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cr1fayj"
],
"text": [
"That would depend on what kind of load you want to subject them. If you want to support a point load with a structure made of weightless material your ideal 'arch' would be a triangle. As you distribute the load the arch gets more rounded, to make sure all loads are parallel with the arch. For a continuous weight distribution the ideal arch would be a catenary.\n\nGaudi was quite fond of using catenary-like arches. If you look at his buildings (Sagrada Familia cathedral among others) you will see they have relatively thin, smoothly curved pillars. Not only are they pretty to look at, but also very efficient in terms of material use and force distribution."
],
"score": [
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | Are pointed arches stronger than round arches? Why or why not?
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pjgms | I'm in a hot air balloon with my 2 year old son. We're pretty high up and the balloon collapses. We start to plummet towards the ground. How can I save my son? | Say we're at 200 feet.
Could I wait until just before impact and throw him upwards as hard as I could? Could I lie down and hold his head against my belly to cushion him?
My son weighs 11 kg and is 75cm tall.
Edit: I don't care if I live, we're just trying to save my son here. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c3pyjj2",
"c3px6fi"
],
"text": [
"There's two courses of action here. \n\nThe first: bank on the excessive amount of fabric above you to create almost as much drag as a parachute and ride the wreckage to the ground. Hard to calculate the drag of such an object, but I think this might work, depending on what kind of catastrophic event you just experienced. You potentially have to dodge the sharp bits of the blower, etc.\n\nThe second is the famous five point landing. Assuming you are not entangled by wreckage, you have about a 3.5 second fall in front of you, which will net you a velocity of about 115 ft per second or 78mph. If you know about falling you know that this will kill you if you don't do something.\n\nYour child will survive easily if you can manage to hit the ground flat with him on top of you, as you will absorb any of his momentum left over after you pancake yourself. You are dead. \n\nIf you want to risk world class levels of guilt and try to bring both of you out of it alive, you have to spread the momentum out across your body, hitting with your feet, then calf, then thigh, hip etc, while holding him. if you do this correctly each body part should absorb about a fifth of your momentum. Your legs will be horribly mangled but you might survive. The difficulty above and beyond landing in such a specific way will be holding onto the child while falling over sideways. \n\nSafest to pancake yourself and preserve your lineage, in general.",
"Kudos on the fast typing and edit over I'm assuming 3G/4G while falling from 200 feet. Hopefully this reaches you in time. I'm not sure how fast you're falling. Can you throw him onto a building close by? Any hay bales or bodies of water? If keeping him alive is your only concern, and you are still falling, removing yourself from the balloon will slow the rate of decent. Good luck!"
],
"score": [
3,
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | I'm in a hot air balloon with my 2 year old son. We're pretty high up and the balloon collapses. We start to plummet towards the ground. How can I save my son?
Say we're at 200 feet. Could I wait until just before impact and throw him upwards as hard as I could? Could I lie down and hold his head against my belly to cushion him? My son weighs 11 kg and is 75cm tall. Edit: I don't care if I live, we're just trying to save my son here. | [
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|
mnn31 | AskScience, I am so tired of newspapers turning every piece of scientific news into sensationalist bullshit. Can you recommend me a news source that tells it as it is? | I know about specialized scientific journals, but I want something lighter, where they actually read the important scientific paper in question, understand it, and write an article about it for the general audience. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c32d9y4"
],
"text": [
"physorg and sciencedaily.\n\nlighter than a journal, several reading levels above a newspaper."
],
"score": [
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | AskScience, I am so tired of newspapers turning every piece of scientific news into sensationalist bullshit. Can you recommend me a news source that tells it as it is?
I know about specialized scientific journals, but I want something lighter, where they actually read the important scientific paper in question, understand it, and write an article about it for the general audience. | [
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kka7s | Have any scientists here experienced "the decline effect" in their experiments? What do you theorize is going on? | I heard about this effect in [Radiolab](_URL_1_): that the effect you first observe in early experiments decrease the more and more experiments you do.
Links to 2 articles about it:
[Nature](_URL_2_)
[The New Yorker](_URL_0_)
What the heck is going on here? Is this just the media overblowing things? The decline effect seems really interesting, and seems like it would revolutionize the principles behind the scientific method. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c2kz6c9",
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"text": [
"The Nature article you link to offers the same explanations I would.\n\nIf scientists test something many times, eventually someone is going to get a statistical outlier that exaggerates the effect. A very strong effect is more likely to get noticed and reported by the scientist. And it's also more likely to get published by a journal. As scientists try to recreate the effect, they get results closer to the actual effect.\n\nFurthermore, once something is published, there's a strong tendency to believe it, so at first the scientists who get a significantly lower result might not report it, or delay publication thinking their experiments are flawed. But slightly lower results do get reported. The next round of reports are seen as a correction, and the process repeats, until the results reflect the actual effect.",
"I've seen this many times. Most of it (in my experience) is regression to the mean, and part of it is just psychology. I know that the articles say nobody knows if it's regression or not, but I think it is. The way science is done is prone to this kind of effect; let me explain.\n\nWhen you start something off, you often try many different ways to approach the problem. Some work, some don't. Of the ones that work, some kinda work, some just work, some work well, and some work *really* well.\n\nYou are at the start of the project. You have limited resources. You want big bang for the buck....so you pick the one out of 10 that worked *really* well. But odds are, that was a fluke. It just so happened to work that well on your first iteration.\n\nTo examine it more closely; take 3 techniques that make widgets go clank. You apply all three in a preliminary test and get:\n\nMethod A - 10 clanks\n\nMethod B - 15 clanks\n\nMethod C - 2 clanks\n\nAs an early researcher, it seems that method B worked the best. But let's say you have unlimited resources. You try all three techniques 6 more times.\n\nA gives you : 10, 14, 13, 12, 15, 15\n\nB gives you : 15, 14, 13, 15, 12, 12\n\nC gives you : 2, 1, 4, 3, 6, 1\n\nA and B actually wind up being just as good as each other (averages are the same). But it you plot the average over time:\n\nRunning average of all experiments to date\n\nA - 10, 12, 12.3, 12.3, 12.8, 13.2\n\nB - 15, 14.5, 14, 14.3, 13.4, 13.2\n\nC - 2, 1.5, 2.3, 2.5, 3.2, 2.8\n\nYou can see that B looks like it got worse and A looks like it got better. Really, both just got more accurate as you repeated the experiment.\n\nBut in the real world, you don't have that. You have limited resources, so you have to pick. And based on that preliminary data, B is the best. You go with it. And you running average looks like just the row for B:\n\nB - 15, 14.5, 14, 14.3, 13.4, 13.2\n\nOh no! we went from an average of 15 clanks to an average of 13.2??? What happened? Regression to the mean.\n\nBUT.....this isn't the whole story. There is also accumulation and elimination of error. Here, an anecdote may help.\n\nWhen I was a tech, we had a genetic model in which a specific cell type would invade the lung and the mice would die of inflammation at around 18 days of age. We worked on this for a year or two, one guy studying that specific cell type. But suddenly....that cell type stopped showing up. And the mice lived to 21d of age. Uh-oh....\n\nLong story short, the animal facility had switched to dust free bedding in our room. It was the dust exacerbating underlying disease causing this cell type to infiltrate and worsen the disease. This was elimination of error; a problem we didn't even know existed. We didn't know the first bedding wasn't dust free anyway; turns out someone had been ordering the wrong stuff they whole time. \n\n---EDIT---\nForgot to include....there's a rule of thumb in industry. If you have some super-cool technique that just popped up in a lab somewhere, you don't heavily pursue it until at least two other labs have repeated it. Odds are you won't be able to repeat it because it's that \"one guy\" that is able to do it. This can be due to somebody massaging the technique or the data, but it's more often because this \"one guy\" has been doing this so long he's the world's only expert on the technique. Nobody else can do it. You have to wait to see if this \"one guy\" also has the ability to teach his awesome new technique to other people. \"If in the end, nobody knows what you've been doing, all your doing has been for nothing.\"",
"I think it's nothing more than publication bias and regression to the mean."
],
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10,
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2010/12/13/101213fa_fact_lehrer",
"http://www.radiolab.org/blogs/radiolab-blog/2011/may/03/cosmic-habituation/",
"http://www.nature.com/news/2011/110223/full/470437a.html"
]
} | {
"url": []
} | Have any scientists here experienced "the decline effect" in their experiments? What do you theorize is going on?
I heard about this effect in [Radiolab](_URL_1_): that the effect you first observe in early experiments decrease the more and more experiments you do. Links to 2 articles about it: [Nature](_URL_2_) [The New Yorker](_URL_0_) What the heck is going on here? Is this just the media overblowing things? The decline effect seems really interesting, and seems like it would revolutionize the principles behind the scientific method. | [
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|
4dtt37 | Why isn't there an alternative to tympanotomy? | If the Eustachian tube already drains into the throat area, why do they put tubes in your eardrums to drain fluid? Why isn't there a stent or shunt to keep the Eustachian tube from swelling shut? Doesn't perforating the eardrum cause hearing damage? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"d1vkmc6"
],
"text": [
"Tympanostomy tubes generally fall out over time as the eardum grows, pushing the tube out and repairing the hole. While a perforation in the eardrum can cause a temporary hearing loss in a healthy ear, tympanostomy tubes generally provide an immediate *benefit* to hearing when inserted, since the fluid build-up in the middle ear space was already causing a large conductive hearing loss. This is one of the reasons why tubes are inserted in the first place, since a long-term hearing loss at an early age can lead to developmental problems, e.g. delays in language or speech acquisition. However, [this might not be true in the case of ear infections](_URL_3_).\n\nI think another reason in favor of using them is that chronic ear infections are associated for increased risk of other things like [cholesteatomas](_URL_2_). These are rare, but destructive skin growths that can cause permanent conductive hearing loss by eating away at the middle ear bones. [This study](_URL_0_) suggests the use of the tympanostomy tubes has reduced the incidence of cholesteatomas.\n\nLastly, it does seem like there are potential alternative treatments. I found [this clinical study from 2010](_URL_1_) that used small balloons to dilate the eustachian tube, but I don't know if this has lead to anything. I imagine tympanostomy tubes are, for now, easier to use and have more evidence supporting them.\n\nedit: fixed a link"
],
"score": [
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0165587600004079?np=y",
"http://www.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/lary.20950/abstract",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cholesteatoma",
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20927726"
]
} | Why isn't there an alternative to tympanotomy?
If the Eustachian tube already drains into the throat area, why do they put tubes in your eardrums to drain fluid? Why isn't there a stent or shunt to keep the Eustachian tube from swelling shut? Doesn't perforating the eardrum cause hearing damage? | [
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|
3y03uz | Is Kurzgesagt right when he says that fields create the most basic particles from the void? | I mean, in this video he's pointing that at 0:56:_URL_0_
Has been this proved? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cy9ubn8"
],
"text": [
"What they are talking about is quantum field theory (QFT) and one application of it, quantum electrodynamics is the most precision tested theory in all of science: Specifically the anomalous magnetic moment of the electron. This measurement agrees with theory up to something like one part in one billion.\n\n > Has been this proved?\n\nTo offer a small correction, nothing is ever really proven in science. We simple built large and well established bodies of evidence. Evidence however is not married to any one theory and can be repurposed to support better theories. Currently, the standard model is incredibly successful as a scientific theory and has no competitors. While many physicists presume it will be replaced with a better and more complete in the future, the standard model will always be \"a good model\" in its domain of validity. This is similar to how Newtonian gravity is \"wrong,\" but still very relevant and useful as long as you understand where it fails. \n\n > Is Kurzgesagt right when he says that fields create the most basic particles from the void? \n\nI feel in the video the animation didn't 100% meld with the script. He specifically talks about the particles as ripples and waves which I feel is good language, but presents the particles on screen as somehow being separate from the fields. This is not the case, the particles are attached to the fields, they are part of the field. While the whole universe is not filled in every nook and cranny with electrons, the electron field fills all space. Also the field is not placid and necessarily calm (as the video says) but it has excitations and short lived ripples on it constantly. These are called vacuum fluctuations and are responsible for a great deal of physics.\n\nCheck out the first few paragraphs of section 5.2.2 in this textbook, \n\n* _URL_0_ \n\nThe math itself is not important to understand what they're saying. Specifically the field strength averages are zero (5.34), but their variance is nonzero (5.36–38). In the same way the average position of a grandfather clock's pendulum is \"zero\" in the middle, the clock is still constantly in motion and often in places that are nonzero so do the quantum fields. They then talk about where this result is essential to understanding the behavior of atoms."
],
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X9otDixAtFw"
]
} | {
"url": [
"https://books.google.com/books?id=l-l0L8YInA0C&pg=PA351&hl=en#v=onepage&q&f=false"
]
} | Is Kurzgesagt right when he says that fields create the most basic particles from the void?
I mean, in this video he's pointing that at 0:56:_URL_0_ Has been this proved? | [
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|
47y46x | Standing on the other side of the world, would I have felt the Chicxulub impact? | I know that puts me in the Indian Ocean today and that the landmass was [distributed differently 66 million years ago](_URL_0_). I only mean hypothetically.
If Chicxulub's 4.2×10^(23) joule impact was too weak to feel, then how about the [Vredefort or Sudbury](_URL_1_) impacts? What other immediate effects might I notice on the other side of the world? To what extent did any of these alter the world's spin, axis, or orbit around the sun?
BONUS: [Discovery Channel simulation of an object 50 times larger than Chicxulub impacting the Pacific Ocean](_URL_2_). | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"d0gqv38",
"d0gqub0"
],
"text": [
"I did a quick [calculation](_URL_0_) for the Chicxulub impact with the [Earth Impact Effect Program](_URL_1_): Energy and crater size match pretty well. On the other side of the planet, you would not feel much of the impact. Very slight shaking after an hour and bad weather after 16.",
"It certainly appears so from this article: _URL_2_\n\nI'm not able to make out whether the 4 meter displacement is as huge as it sounds, as the discussion of earthquakes seems fairly mild."
],
"score": [
14,
4
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5c/Pangaea_to_present.gif",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_impact_craters_on_Earth",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PENT_hnyO-o"
]
} | {
"url": [
"http://impact.ese.ic.ac.uk/cgi-bin/crater.cgi?dist=20000&distanceUnits=1&diam=10&diameterUnits=2&pdens=&pdens_select=3000&vel=20&velocityUnits=1&theta=60&wdepth=&wdepthUnits=1&tdens=2500",
"http://impact.ese.ic.ac.uk/ImpactEffects/",
"http://www.geologyinmotion.com/2011/10/chicxulub-impact-what-happened-on.html"
]
} | Standing on the other side of the world, would I have felt the Chicxulub impact?
I know that puts me in the Indian Ocean today and that the landmass was [distributed differently 66 million years ago](_URL_0_). I only mean hypothetically. If Chicxulub's 4.2×10^(23) joule impact was too weak to feel, then how about the [Vredefort or Sudbury](_URL_1_) impacts? What other immediate effects might I notice on the other side of the world? To what extent did any of these alter the world's spin, axis, or orbit around the sun? BONUS: [Discovery Channel simulation of an object 50 times larger than Chicxulub impacting the Pacific Ocean](_URL_2_). | [
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|
z7xyc | Psychologists and Social Scientists: I need help identifying a certain phenomenon that has been observed. | I need help identifying a theory behind a certain phenomenon that has been observed and named by a scientist whose name I cannot recall. To my understanding, it is an occurrence that sometimes happens where a concept or object that is typically considered rare is observed, followed by a seemingly inexplicable recurrence of said observation for a period of time that is usually considered to be a coincidence. For example, a driver might notice an expensive car that they don't normally see on the road, and over the next week or so, the same car keeps popping up everywhere the driver goes. An example of it's non-tangible use could be a word or an idea that has not heard or presented in years that suddenly becomes relevant again in various discussions. I am not sure of this, but I might have read that the concept describes events that occur over a short length of time and then cease to occur, as opposed to more permanent changes. The ironic part of this is that I read about it in the comments section in a random Reddit thread, and now I am noticing examples of this strange phenomenon everywhere, which only further supports the validity of the concept. Just today, a friend of mine posted a cover of a song by an artist that has never received very much media coverage. After listening to it, I turned on the television and the same song played in a commercial. I was stunned, not only because it was a song that was recorded on a cassette in 1984 and was never a hit, but because I had just heard it. If there is any truth behind this idea, then I would not be surprised if the song played when I shuffled my iTunes library or played on the radio, and then I probably won't hear it again for a very long time unless I decide to listen to it. I know that there is a chance that my friend saw the same commercial that I did and was inspired to play it, but for arguments sake let's say that is is just a coincidence. Can anyone please help me identify this phenomenon? It's been bugging me since the moment I realized I had forgotten where I read it. I have no idea how to search what I'm looking for into Google search, so I figured /r/askscience could help me.
EDIT 1: Thank you sulejmankulenovic for answering this. It is called the [Baader-Meinhof Phenomenon](_URL_0_). If you have some time to read about it, the theory behind it's occurrence is quite interesting. Who knows, it might be referenced again in the near future.
EDIT 2: [Another souce](_URL_1_) with the number 23 as an example.
EDIT 3: For those of you who don't feel like reading the articles, I will paraphrase. Essentially, the theory behind the Baader-Meinhof Phenomenon claims that our brains are inclined to find patterns in every day occurrences. There is an observational bias towards these patterns, and our brains often exclude the information that does not stand out to us, a concept called *selective attention*. The second article uses the example of the number 23. The writer had a crush on a girl who lived in room 23, and he began to notice the number 23 everywhere he went (interestingly, this is very similar to the plot of the 2007 psychological thriller *The Number 23*). The Baader-Meinhof Phenomenon explains that the writer's brain takes notice of the occurrences because the number had significance to him, and that all the other "uninteresting" number combinations were ignored. The article then goes on to explain that coincidence is in fact a result of a prejudice in our perception, and that the rate at which we notice this phenomenon is increased by the *recency effect*, "a cognitive bias that inflates the importance of recent stimuli or observations."
EDIT 4: I confirmed it with my friend, it was indeed chance that I happened to hear his cover and the song in the commercial on the same day, as he had not seen the commercial when his song was recorded. Coincidence or Baader-Meinhof Phenomenon? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c62g0bc"
],
"text": [
"Thank you! I have experienced this several times, often when I learn a new word, and then it suddenly pops up 2-3 times later the very same week, and it's awesome every time it happens."
],
"score": [
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.damninteresting.com/the-baader-meinhof-phenomenon/",
"http://memeingful.com/2011/08/16/how-the-baader-meinhof-phenomenon-makes-us-think-there-are-coincidences/"
]
} | {
"url": []
} | Psychologists and Social Scientists: I need help identifying a certain phenomenon that has been observed.
I need help identifying a theory behind a certain phenomenon that has been observed and named by a scientist whose name I cannot recall. To my understanding, it is an occurrence that sometimes happens where a concept or object that is typically considered rare is observed, followed by a seemingly inexplicable recurrence of said observation for a period of time that is usually considered to be a coincidence. For example, a driver might notice an expensive car that they don't normally see on the road, and over the next week or so, the same car keeps popping up everywhere the driver goes. An example of it's non-tangible use could be a word or an idea that has not heard or presented in years that suddenly becomes relevant again in various discussions. I am not sure of this, but I might have read that the concept describes events that occur over a short length of time and then cease to occur, as opposed to more permanent changes. The ironic part of this is that I read about it in the comments section in a random Reddit thread, and now I am noticing examples of this strange phenomenon everywhere, which only further supports the validity of the concept. Just today, a friend of mine posted a cover of a song by an artist that has never received very much media coverage. After listening to it, I turned on the television and the same song played in a commercial. I was stunned, not only because it was a song that was recorded on a cassette in 1984 and was never a hit, but because I had just heard it. If there is any truth behind this idea, then I would not be surprised if the song played when I shuffled my iTunes library or played on the radio, and then I probably won't hear it again for a very long time unless I decide to listen to it. I know that there is a chance that my friend saw the same commercial that I did and was inspired to play it, but for arguments sake let's say that is is just a coincidence. Can anyone please help me identify this phenomenon? It's been bugging me since the moment I realized I had forgotten where I read it. I have no idea how to search what I'm looking for into Google search, so I figured /r/askscience could help me. EDIT 1: Thank you sulejmankulenovic for answering this. It is called the [Baader-Meinhof Phenomenon](_URL_0_). If you have some time to read about it, the theory behind it's occurrence is quite interesting. Who knows, it might be referenced again in the near future. EDIT 2: [Another souce](_URL_1_) with the number 23 as an example. EDIT 3: For those of you who don't feel like reading the articles, I will paraphrase. Essentially, the theory behind the Baader-Meinhof Phenomenon claims that our brains are inclined to find patterns in every day occurrences. There is an observational bias towards these patterns, and our brains often exclude the information that does not stand out to us, a concept called *selective attention*. The second article uses the example of the number 23. The writer had a crush on a girl who lived in room 23, and he began to notice the number 23 everywhere he went (interestingly, this is very similar to the plot of the 2007 psychological thriller *The Number 23*). The Baader-Meinhof Phenomenon explains that the writer's brain takes notice of the occurrences because the number had significance to him, and that all the other "uninteresting" number combinations were ignored. The article then goes on to explain that coincidence is in fact a result of a prejudice in our perception, and that the rate at which we notice this phenomenon is increased by the *recency effect*, "a cognitive bias that inflates the importance of recent stimuli or observations." EDIT 4: I confirmed it with my friend, it was indeed chance that I happened to hear his cover and the song in the commercial on the same day, as he had not seen the commercial when his song was recorded. Coincidence or Baader-Meinhof Phenomenon? | [
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|
1f0mlk | Is there anything like the rainbow or color wheel for sound? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"ca5mlnp",
"ca5o85d",
"ca5nrxx",
"ca5qjdn"
],
"text": [
"What you are looking for is a frequency chart. Hertz (Hz) measure these frequencies. Decibals (dB)measure their loudness.\n\n\n\nIt is most often used in Music Production and Recording. Of course, the recommended frequencies are just suggestions like any other color palette an artist uses.\n\nOscilloscopes in modern electronic music can also give a real time visual of the sound.",
"Not totally relevant, but there is a constructed language called [Solresol](_URL_0_) that associates a color to a tone as well as a syllable. It's based on the \"Do re mi\" scale and uses seven colors/notes/syllables to communicate ideas.",
"Of course there are the standard 7 western natural tones, A-G, with 5 added flats (or sharps), that cycle as pitch increases. This even matches well with the color wheel analogy since these tones do have a relationship with the other tones on the wheel in a very specific way, as they harmonize.",
"There is nothing other than frequency and overtones, but there is a more abstract descriptive categorization of sounds:\n _URL_1_\n\nIt apparently lists all the foundational noises of which all other noises are made. It's not technical, but gives a kind of overview you might like."
],
"score": [
6,
3,
2,
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solresol",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Art_of_Noises#Six_Families_of_Noises_for_the_Futurist_Orchestra"
]
} | Is there anything like the rainbow or color wheel for sound?
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||
r73xe | Vibration, Booming Sounds Reported In Clintonville, WI | Officials in an eastern Wisconsin city are trying to record a series of mysterious booming sounds that have roused residents from bed in the past few days, but their attempts have so far come up empty.
_URL_0_
My Question is, WTF is it? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c44bflj"
],
"text": [
"My guess is it's related to the fracking going on 25 miles south of there in Readfield. _URL_0_\n\nUnfortunately we don't have enough data to call it a solid fact yet, but this wouldn't be the first time that fracking has been held responsible for an earthquake: _URL_1_\n\nI guess only time will tell for sure, but it's probably the best hypothesis so far."
],
"score": [
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.nbc15.com/home/headlines/Vibration_Booming_Sounds_Reported_In_Clintonville_143313816.html"
]
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.wisconsinwatch.org/2011/07/31/frac-sand-wisconsin-sites/",
"http://www.csmonitor.com/Science/2012/0102/How-fracking-might-have-led-to-an-Ohio-earthquake"
]
} | Vibration, Booming Sounds Reported In Clintonville, WI
Officials in an eastern Wisconsin city are trying to record a series of mysterious booming sounds that have roused residents from bed in the past few days, but their attempts have so far come up empty. _URL_0_ My Question is, WTF is it? | [
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|
79fs3x | What is the farthest direct parallax measurement of an object? | I haven't been able to find any clear reporting on the Gaia mission, even though it was supposed to be able to directly measure a lot farther than before. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"dp1qp31"
],
"text": [
"GAIA hasn't released parallax measures of distant stars yet, that's going to take some more time. While optical parallax has been limited to the nearest 100 pc or so, parallax from radio measures can go significantly further by using interferometry, where multiple radio telescopes across the globe are linked up to act as a single giant telescope, the Very Long Baseline Interferometer and the Event Horizon Telescope being the main examples (These use many of the same physical dishes). \n\nOn top of the positional accuracy from a telescope the size of the Earth, the position of a radio source is also uncertain by an amount inversely proportional to the signal to noise. I.e. the brighter the source is, the better you know the position. I know [microquasars such as V404 Cyg and GRS 1915+105 in our own galaxy have had their distances measured by trigonometric parallax to a distance of at least 8600 pc](_URL_0_) (almost 100x better than optical!), but I don't know what the actual \"world record\" is. Anything in our galaxy of sufficient radio brightness could have its distance measured by parallax, but past 10 kpc, the density of stars starts to dive precipitously. \n\nSo some objects as far as GAIA can go have already had their distances measured. GAIA scores not in going further, but doing it reliably for a great many ordinary stars."
],
"score": [
12
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014ApJ...796....2R"
]
} | What is the farthest direct parallax measurement of an object?
I haven't been able to find any clear reporting on the Gaia mission, even though it was supposed to be able to directly measure a lot farther than before. | [
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|
193796 | Do our bodies depend on quantum effects to function? | I was surprised to learn that photosynthesis exhibits quantum effects. I'm wondering if quantum mechanics plays a role in our biological ability to function? (visual perception maybe?) | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c8kftyk",
"c8kg168"
],
"text": [
"There are some papers suggesting that smell might rely on quantum effects, particularly that a molecule's vibrational properties (which are quantum) affect how our nose detects it ([recent BBC story](_URL_0_)). But this is the sort of thing that's still very speculative and as far as I know pretty controversial. It seems to be the sort of thing that one scientist/group is always writing about, while other groups don't get the same results, which is always something to be wary of.",
"There is evidence that birds may rely on quantum entanglement in order to migrate South. It seems as if the earth's magnetic field interacts with the bird's eye such that it can \"see\" the earth's magnetic field. This is only possible if entangled states last for a significant period of time, which turns out to be longer than the most sophisticated laboratory systems can protect an entangled state for. [This](_URL_1_) paper indicates that a bird's sense of direction can be altered by a magnetic field so weak that it must interacted with a quantum-entangled system. \n\nI realize that birds aren't people, but this seems relevant."
],
"score": [
8,
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-21229699",
"http://www.physics.uci.edu/~tritz/Publications/RITZ2004.pdf"
]
} | Do our bodies depend on quantum effects to function?
I was surprised to learn that photosynthesis exhibits quantum effects. I'm wondering if quantum mechanics plays a role in our biological ability to function? (visual perception maybe?) | [
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|
lvvrq | What's the science behind why frog's legs and dead octopi move when exposed to salt? | Here's a video of an octopus (?) [spazzing out](_URL_0_) after what I assume is soy sauce being poured onto it.
What's going on at the cellular level to cause this movement? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c2w0ml2",
"c2w2i91",
"c2w0slf"
],
"text": [
"Layman here, but I think the answer is that sodium channels are part of the motor neuron's action potential, which then causes calcium ions to cross the muscle cell's calcium channels, which is what triggers the myosin to contract the cell. This [wikipedia article](_URL_0_) seems pretty good, though I can't really evaluate its sources.",
"The basic components of an action potential\n\n1. Neurotransmitters bind the receptors, causing the opening of ligand-gated sodium channels, allowing sodium to flow into the neuron. This starts the depolarization of the neuron (the resting potential of the neuron is -70mV, and since sodium ions are positively charged, the charge across the neuron starts becoming less negative).\n\n2. When the voltage across the neuron reaches -55mV, this triggers the opening of voltage-gated sodium channels. This point is known as the \"threshold\", and from here the neuron will continue firing the action potential all the way to complete.\n\n3. The sodium entering through the voltage-gated sodium channels brings the charge across the neuron all the way up to +70mV. At this point the voltage-gated sodium channels close, and voltage-gated potassium channels open, allowing the potassium stored inside the neuron to rush out. The mass exodus of positively-charged potassium ions begin the process of \"depolarizing\" the neuron-returning the voltage back to the resting potential of -70mV.\n\n4. As the depolarization process continues, the charge across the cell actually dips below -70mV (I believe to about -80mV or so). This is called hyperpolarization, and it results in what is known as the \"refractory period\". The purpose of the refractory period is that it prevents neuron from being able to fire another action potential for a short time after firing. This is necessary because if neurons fire too many times in too short a time period, it can actually kill them, a process called excitotoxicity.\n\n5. This wave of electrical activity will propagate down the axon toward the axon terminals. The axon is wrapped in sheets of a lipid layer known as myelin, an electrically insulating material that prevents the crossing of charged ions. There are spaces between the myelin sheets (the axon kind of looks a like a string of sausage links) known as nodes of ranvier. The action potential will jump from node to node in a process known as saltatory conduction.\n\n6. When the action potential arrives at the axon terminal, it causes the opening of voltage-gated calcium channels. The entering of the calcium into the axon terminals causes the fusing of vesicles with the cell-membrane. These vesicles contain the neurotransmitter molecules, and when the vesicles fuse, it releases the neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft, where they diffuse across the synapse to the next neuron.\n\nNow that we have all that out of the way. The soy sauce causes these muscle contractions because of its extremely high sodium content. When the soy sauce is poured on the squid, there is so much sodium in that fluid, that it creates a gradient big enough to force the sodium ions into the neuron. This substitutes for the binding of the neurotransmitters at the beginning of the action potential, and allows the neuron to complete an entire action potential.",
"According to [Scientific American blogs](_URL_1_):\n\n > The key is that the muscle has to be fresh – very, very fresh. So fresh, in fact, that its neurons are still completely in tact and ready to fire.\n\n > Salt – or sodium chloride – is chock full of sodium ions. This overwhelming dose of sodium ions is enough to trigger the still-working neurons into firing, signalling the muscles to contract.\n\nFYI: the dish is called \"Odori don\" and it is supposed to be prepared with squid"
],
"score": [
8,
3,
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=irpArZtAut4"
]
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muscle_contraction",
"http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/science-sushi/2011/07/28/instant-zombie-just-add-salt/"
]
} | What's the science behind why frog's legs and dead octopi move when exposed to salt?
Here's a video of an octopus (?) [spazzing out](_URL_0_) after what I assume is soy sauce being poured onto it. What's going on at the cellular level to cause this movement? | [
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7l7luv | How is it possible to change direction when drilling down into the earth? Aren't drill pipes rigid? How is it possible to keep a drill string turning with a bend in it? What is the max radius of the curve in a drill string? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"drlodw0",
"drk5na1"
],
"text": [
"A single section of drill stem is essentially a length of pipe with threads at each end to screw multiple sections together into a longer drill stem. While each pipe will appear ridgid and show minimal flex, when tied together with other sections into a longer drill stem, the longer length will be able to flex much more without damaging the pipe. The entire stem then rotates through any bends, in the same way a plumbers snake would. \n\nThere are two types of drill that I have seen. One has a tip that looks kind of like a duck bill, but set at an angle , and with teeth around the edge. This type cuts through the earth by the spinning action of the drill stem. To move the drill straight forward, the stem spins and is pushed forward. To turn the drill, the stem is stopped from spinning and is pushed forward. The angle of the \"duck bill\" forces the drill to bend slightly at an angle. Then the drilling is continued by turning the stem. The rotational position of the drill is known, which allows for control of the drilling direction. These tend to be smaller drills.\n\nThe other type I have seen has a bit at the tip that is rotated by drilling fluid. Drill stems are pipe so that drilling fluid can be pumped to the tip of the drill. These types of drills spin the tip using the flow of the drilling fluid. Additionally, the drill tip is mounted on a short section of pipe that has a slight bend to it. To turn these drills, while drilling fluid is flowing, thereby turning the drill tip, the stem is pushed forward. This results in a curved drill path due to the angle of the pipe at the end of the drill. To move these drills straight, the stem is spun while pushing forward with the drilling fluid still flowing. This results in a slightly larger diameter bore because of the angle at the tip, but causes the drill to move straight. \n\nThe minimum radius depends on the size of the drill and a lot of factors. However, typically the minimum radius allowed is above the minimum radius the drill could actually achieve. This is because most directional drills are made to install a casing or conduit which has its own minimum bend radius.",
"I think I meant to say \"What is the *minimum* radius of the curve in a drill string.\" Sorry about that."
],
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} | {
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} | {
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} | How is it possible to change direction when drilling down into the earth? Aren't drill pipes rigid? How is it possible to keep a drill string turning with a bend in it? What is the max radius of the curve in a drill string?
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||
3gciz1 | Is it possible to reverse the classical conditioning (aka Pavlov's dog) ? | So, I've accidently Pavlov'ed myself, by linking porn and taking a shit together. So, whenever I get horny, I have the biggest urge to take a shit, like my asshole wants to vomit its contents even though I don't have a shit. It came to a point that it's not possible for me to fap before I take a shit first and I want to reverse it. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"ctx2vrq"
],
"text": [
"Yes, this is called [extinction](_URL_0_). [External inhibition](_URL_1_) is another way in which a conditioned response can be reduced in response to a conditioned stimulus."
],
"score": [
6
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_(psychology\\)",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/External_inhibition"
]
} | Is it possible to reverse the classical conditioning (aka Pavlov's dog) ?
So, I've accidently Pavlov'ed myself, by linking porn and taking a shit together. So, whenever I get horny, I have the biggest urge to take a shit, like my asshole wants to vomit its contents even though I don't have a shit. It came to a point that it's not possible for me to fap before I take a shit first and I want to reverse it. | [
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|
584m3q | What role or roles do archaebacteria play in humans? | I've been given this topic to present on, and I know nothing about it. My presentation thus far is very bland; can one of you smarter people share some "exciting" or at least moderately compelling information about this subject? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"d8yby1r"
],
"text": [
"The intestinal microbiome of humans has numerous functions, including its metabolic effects. The gut microbiome is responsible for the fermentation of non-digestible dietary fibres, and produces short chain fatty acids (SCFAs) in the proces, which the colonocytes (epithelial cells lining the mucosa of the colon) use as an energy source. However, decay products (hydrogen, CO2) accumulate as a byproduct. This is where Archaea (such as (M. smithii & M. stadtmaneae) jump in: they are responsible for methanogenesis (the final step in the decomposition of biomass), meaning they produce methane from hydrogen CO2. Methanogenesis effectively removes the semi-final products of decay: hydrogen, small organics, and carbon dioxide."
],
"score": [
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | What role or roles do archaebacteria play in humans?
I've been given this topic to present on, and I know nothing about it. My presentation thus far is very bland; can one of you smarter people share some "exciting" or at least moderately compelling information about this subject? | [
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|
35lga6 | Does water movement possess properties that allow use to determine the scale we are observing? | If we observe water sloshing about in a glass, vs water on the surface of an ocean, is there a way to determine the difference? Are the features and irregularities just scaled up? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cr6i1kn"
],
"text": [
"If you rescale *all* the right variables (e.g. including time) in the right way, you get identical behaviour. Read up on Reynold's number and dimensional analysis.\n\nHowever, these variables include viscosity, and changing viscosity means changing fluid. So my answer would be yes, you can tell, if the fluid is always water.\n\nHowever #2, if you are in a situation where viscosity is negligible, and you are allowed to rescale both time and space, I think you shouldn't be able to tell."
],
"score": [
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | Does water movement possess properties that allow use to determine the scale we are observing?
If we observe water sloshing about in a glass, vs water on the surface of an ocean, is there a way to determine the difference? Are the features and irregularities just scaled up? | [
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|
10wtqn | Can someone identify this infernal substance I found in my washing machine? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c6hcl0v",
"c6hf42z"
],
"text": [
"> When I pushed the drum to the side\n\nThis was your big mistake. Normally we don't do this. LOL\n\n > Can someone help me identify this substance?\n\nIt's a substance technically known as \"grunge\".\n\nIANA microbiologist, just a housewife. Washing machines tend to collect grunge in odd corners and nooks, it's the nature of the beast. You normally take a small scrub brush and clean out the ring of grime that collects at water level inside the drum, but why would you need to wash the inside of the washer? The clothing doesn't come into contact with it. It just sits there, with the drum rotating inside it, and collects grunge. I've totally never heard of anyone ever cleaning out the inside of the washer, because why. \n\nFWIW, [this here](_URL_0_) recommends that to deal with this particular variety and location of grunge, you contact a repair person and let HIM burrow around in there with a toilet scrub brush or whatever.\n\nReally, this is not something that is your problem. If it really smells bad and is making your clothes smell bad, talk to your landlord about either having a Repair Person clean it, or buying a new one.",
"It looks to me like a combination of hair, dead skin and some bacteria. We can't really comment much further as there's not much that can be deduced from the picture. Could be fungal, could be bacterial. Whatever it is, it shouldn't be your problem, and you need to contact your landlord and get them to pay for a handyman to clean it, or get a new washing machine"
],
"score": [
18,
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://voices.yahoo.com/how-clean-top-loading-washing-machine-576480.html"
]
} | Can someone identify this infernal substance I found in my washing machine?
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15819n | What spesific mechanism stops one lump of matter from occupying the same space as another? | Looking at different pictures made by electron microscopes got me thinking, matter looks solid enough but physics tells us its 99% nothing.
So then, what stops my glass when put on the table, from ever so slightly occupying the same space as the table?
Thanks in advance.
G | askscience | {
"a_id": [
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"text": [
"The facile answer is \"electrostatic repulsion\" between the electrons in matter - but that isn't really the case, since most atoms and molecules are, on the whole, electrically neutral - as would be a mix of nuclei and electrons all crammed into the volume of a normal molecule.\n\nReally it's the fact that electrons are a special kind of quantum particle called a \"fermion\" (after Enrico Fermi). Fermions have a weird symmetric property that prevents any two of them from occupying the same quantum state. The weird property that it takes 720° of rotation to bring a fermion back to its original pre-rotation state. That is weird because we're used to the idea that after only 360° of rotation any system looks just like it did before the rotation. \n\nHere's how that works: Rotating a single fermion (like an electron) by 360° has the effect of multiplying its wave function by -1 everywhere. Bizarre but true -- it takes 720° (two full rotations) to see the fermion exactly the same way. I won't get into why in this post, it just is.\n\nA system of *two* fermions has the opposite symmetry of a single fermion - rotating the two fermions together by 360° has the effect of multiplying the total wave function by 1 everywhere, since you get a factor of -1 for each of the two particles, and (-1)*(-1) is just 1. \n\nBut two particles in *exactly the same state* have the same wave function as a single particle in that state, multiplied by 2. So if you start with two electrons in exactly the same state, and rotate the system by 360°, one method of reasoning gives you a factor of -1 and the other a factor of 1 in front of the wave function. The only way they can both be right is if the total wavefunction is 0, since (-1)\\*(0) and (1)\\*(0) have the same value. That means the wavefunction *has* to be 0 everywhere, which means the probability of ever finding two fermions in the exact same quantum state is always 0.\n\nThat in turn means putting two electrons into the same location in space requires exciting one to a higher energy state to make their two wave functions slightly different. Exciting one of them costs energy, which acts like a repulsion -- if it costs a lot of energy to put two molecules in exactly the same place, then you have to supply that energy by pushing hard if you try to compress them together.\n\nFermions are counterintuitive and bizarre, but without them there would be no solid matter - bosons, the other main kind of quantum particle, are more gregarious and matter would tend to condense into very dense blobs rather than remaining relatively spread out. The Universe would be very different, and probably wouldn't contain people.\n\n**tl;dr**: You can't put two electrons into the same place without exciting one by giving it more energy. That effect, not electrostatic repulsion, is what keeps electrically neutral atoms from occupying the same space."
],
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} | {
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} | {
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} | What spesific mechanism stops one lump of matter from occupying the same space as another?
Looking at different pictures made by electron microscopes got me thinking, matter looks solid enough but physics tells us its 99% nothing. So then, what stops my glass when put on the table, from ever so slightly occupying the same space as the table? Thanks in advance. G | [
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2dcxrj | How can the directionality of reflection be explained with QED? | If all light-matter interaction in these cases is a result of the absorption of photons by electrons and re-emission, why is the light reflected off of a mirror beholden to a given direction? Is it due to the specific electronic configuration of the mirror? For example, if I take a fluorescent Chroma slide (which is also a solid) and excite it with a laser, light is emitted in many directions. If I take the same laser and shine it at a mirror, the photons are supposedly absorbed by electrons but re-emitted only in a specific direction (or two in the case of refraction depending on the optical boundary). Why is this the case? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
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"text": [
"It absolutely has a lot to do with the electronic configuration. The most reflective materials tend to be metals, whose distinguishing property is that many of their electrons are \"free\" - they're not bound to any particular atom, but instead move amongst them in a \"cloud\" of electrons. In terms of the electric and magnetic fields, the electrons in these clouds will move to \"oppose\" incoming electric and magnetic fields (this means that an electron which moves in the direction a local electric field compels it to move will set up a charge imbalance that causes an electric field in the opposite direction; a similar thing happens with magnetic fields but with circular motion and currents instead of linear motion and charge imbalances). Now that means that, after a certain depth, electric and magnetic fields will be \"expelled\" from metals by matching patterns of electron movement which cause matching waves moving away from the material; intuitively, you start with a part of the electromagnetic wave that's moving across the material, which is unaffected, and a part that's moving into the material, which gets deflected out of it, and that's how directionality happens. (Aside: the \"free\" behavior of the electrons is dependent on the scale of the waves: visible light has a wavelength much larger than atomic spacing, so when it interacts with metallic electrons their behavior, while actually jumping between atoms, can be treated like free motion; gamma rays, which have wavelengths much smaller than free electrons, either penetrate completely or as in lead are absorbed by nucleii; X-rays, meanwhile, which are about the same scale as atom spacings, create interesting diffraction effects.)\n\nBut adding in photon mechanics complicates things a bit. Naively, electron absorbs photon going one way, causes electron to move in a certain direction; when the photon is released it goes in a direction that opposes the electron's motion. But that doesn't quite capture all of the directionality. What you need for that is the bosonic statistics of photons, where outcomes in which identical particles are behaving similarly are more likely (as opposed to fermionic statistics, where those outcomes are less likely, or distinguishable-particle statistics, where that doesn't directly affect probability. That's what causes bosonic fields such as the electromagnetic field to behave like coherent waves while fermionic fields such as the electron field tend to behave like a bunch of individual particles.) In a very small nutshell, that causes reflected photons to cohere to each other and behave in non-random wave patterns.",
"As you know already, in QED, each point of a mirror is a point where a photon can be \"absorbed\" and \"emitted\" - and you can absolutely think about random emissions.\n\nBut what we need to keep in mind is the _phase_ of the incident and reflected light. When you try to map out all the paths from the source, to a point on the mirror, to the detector, you would get something [like this](_URL_0_). You can note that points far from center (e.g., A and B) have vast path length differences, while points at the center (e.g., G and H), have paths that are very close in length. This means that light that is \"absorbed\" and \"emitted\" in those central points are more likely to be in phase, while those far away from the middle are likely to be out of phase. This is represented by the direction of those arrows at the bottom of the image.\n\nIf we do the path integral over the entire length of the mirror, you'll find that there is a lot of destructive interference at the fringe, and a lot of constructive interference in the middle. In other words, light is likely to come from the source, hit the middle of the mirror, and reach the detector. In other words, the system simplifies into the classical case where angle of incidence = angle of reflection.\n\nThis very same explanation can be used to describe how a [diffraction grating](_URL_1_) works - by cutting out regular chunks of reflective material, you're... interfering with the interference between adjacent points seen in the case of the mirror, thus only allowing certain wavelengths of light to reflect off those points.",
"On the individual atomic level, a photon can be absorbed and emitted in any direction (except parallel to the electron motion). When you have billions of these photons, they interfere with one another, causing light that is (primarily) reflected in just one direction. You can think of it like Young's double slit interference pattern, except instead of seeing bright and dark fringes, you would see one bright spot (the center of the reflected beam) and the rest is dark. \n\nIf you were to perform this with individual photons, it would be similar to performing young's double-slit with individual photons, just with a different pattern."
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"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://nige.files.wordpress.com/2010/08/feynmans-path-integral-for-particle-reflection-off-a-plane-in-his-1985-book-qed.jpg?w=646",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diffraction_grating"
]
} | How can the directionality of reflection be explained with QED?
If all light-matter interaction in these cases is a result of the absorption of photons by electrons and re-emission, why is the light reflected off of a mirror beholden to a given direction? Is it due to the specific electronic configuration of the mirror? For example, if I take a fluorescent Chroma slide (which is also a solid) and excite it with a laser, light is emitted in many directions. If I take the same laser and shine it at a mirror, the photons are supposedly absorbed by electrons but re-emitted only in a specific direction (or two in the case of refraction depending on the optical boundary). Why is this the case? | [
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1ttn6o | Do the theories of /r/pornfree and /r/nofap hold any scientific weight? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cebg28y",
"cebgnat",
"cebuwo2"
],
"text": [
"User SteezmasterJones has alluded to the argument about pornography affecting our respect for women and objectification, which I don't know of research that directly speaks to the question, so I'll tackle this from a different angle. Novelty, habits, and habituation.\n\nSociety seems to have welcomed the advent of digital media into their lives. However, little attention has been devoted to the potentially harmful effects of use of such media on users’ cognition and behavior. For instance, multi-tasking has become so engrained as a necessary employment qualification that many have overlooked how such working styles foster increased distractibility to irrelevant, peripheral environmental stimuli (Dempsey, 2009; Ophir, Nass, & Wagner, 2009). Further, since the inception of the Internet, individuals are reporting decreased instances of in-depth, concentrated reading, while browsing and page skimming has concurrently increased (Liu, 2005). This creates a major difference between Internet porn and DVD/VHS porn in how it affects us.\n\nWhat this speaks to is a two-fold system: 1) that humans crave novelty, and 2) that habits form in conjunction with repeat patterns of behavior. \n\n1) Evolutionarily speaking, organisms are naturally prepared to seek out novel stimuli, which are necessarily more interesting and worth our attention than the familiar. This is because such stimuli has potential as a significant source of pleasure or pain, and identifying such sources facilitates survival by reducing uncertainty in the external environment. In the brain, novelty seeking is mediated by the mesolimbic dopamine system, which is a primary pathway connected to pleasure production (Fink & Smith, 1979; Bardo, Donohew, & Harrington, 1996; Hansenne et al., 2002). \n\nHowever, with repeated exposure, organisms will habitually adapt to these stimuli, and over time will exhibit increasingly desensitized or intense arousal (i.e. sympathetic) responses. Importantly, though, the positive incentive remains to attend to any future novel stimulus, given the uncertain utility regarding its potential survival value. \n\nMAIN POINT 1: Internet and internet porn is virtually unlimited, offering ceaseless novelty.\n\n2) With a medium offering constant novelty, and porn that is uncommon to our daily routine and therefore especially novel, frequent use eventually becomes conditioned habit, even if one is not proactively looking for specific content (Ouellette & Wood, 1998; LaRose, Lin & Eastin, 2003; Wise, Kim, & Kim, 2009). This is why the internet is addicting, and internet porn moreso. This is why you can't get off reddit, either. It's a variable reinforcement schedule where at some random interval you will find something interesting (hmm that's new), relevant (for porn: hmm, that really turns me on), and successful (porn: this is a way to give me lots of pleasure at minimal expense of effort). Porn is especially novel in triggering access to sex that we don't always get, but in a simulated form. Eventually you are creating a habit that associates touching yourself with the images on the screen, and learn that this is the way arousal and orgasm is achieved (especially as you learn the right way that works for you, rather than someone else). \n\nMAIN POINT 2: Repeat engagement in a given behavior yielding positive/satisfying outcomes is associated with an increased likelihood of engaging in that behavior in the future (habit, Law of Effect).\n\nEver have a ton of tabs open at the same time? Ever keep searching for the right scene? Ever keep skipping ahead in videos? Ever find yourself watching material many would consider very disgusting/dirty/risque/unusual? This is all a joint function of our evolutionary craving for novel stimuli, and seeking the same level of arousal (the \"need more to get same high effect\" of habituation). \n\nMAIN POINT 3: Frequent use of internet porn for sexual gratification makes you more likely to seek out internet porn for sexual gratification (novelty X habit X dopaminergenic reward), making other means of sexual gratification less likely.\n\nI can't speak to how porn affects our objectification of others, but it does change the way we habituate and create associations between ourselves and sexuality--associations that undermine physical contact with OTHERS, that undermine communication and presence, and that undermine our own physiological responses to visualizations of sexual content (virtual or real). Hebbs Law: Neurons that fire together, wire together. At the same time, you are becoming better at quick information processing and filtering irrelevant stimuli, but at what cost? And especially recognizing that your need for novelty will actually never be fully satiated.",
"It depends on what you're asking.\n\n\nThere are a lot of theories about a lot of different topics floating around in r/pornfree (I see a thread on the front page of the subreddit talking about porn as a cause of mental disorders). Within psychology, there are multiple ways of approaching this topic, dependent upon the question being asked. Since no specific question was asked apart from whether there was a negative effect of excessive porn and masturbation (taking the \"and\" here to be either/or, rather than both), I'm going to talk about pornography and attitudes toward women, which can generalize to the relationship between pornography and cognition.\n\nI'm going to start by straying off topic. Just consider it a bonus.\n\nThe research on pornography and attitudes toward women can be a bit muddied. For one, most people, both men and women, have been exposed to pornography, and most men view it at least occasionally - so the range of past pornography exposure is fairly small (in other words, there's a bit of a floor effect). Additionally, attitudes toward porn and attitudes toward women are both moderated by conservatism - conservative individuals will have negative views towards both women and pornography. This doesn't necessarily mean that people who view porn are going to be more egalitarian or feminist than people who don't, just that people who don't watch porn have negative views of women for other reasons (e.g., instead of thinking of women as sexual servants, they think of them as domestic ones).\n\nBut despite all this, research, especially experimental studies, have shown a relationship between exposure to pornography and negative attitudes toward women. A few references:\n\nGlascock, J. (2005). Degrading Content and Character Sex: Accounting for Men and Women's Differential Reactions to Pornography. Communication Reports, 18(1), 43-53. doi:10.1080/08934210500084230\n\nFrable, D. S., Johnson, A. E., & Kellman, H. (1997). Seeing masculine men, sexy women, and gender differences: Exposure to pornography and cognitive constructions of gender. Journal Of Personality, 65(2), 311-355. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.1997.tb00957.x\n\nSherkat, D. E., & Ellison, C. G. (1997). The cognitive structure of a moral crusade: Conservative Protestantism and opposition to pornography. Social Forces, 75(3), 957-980. doi:10.2307/2580526 (there are many reasons for opposition to pornography)\n\nHald, G., Malamuth, N. M., & Yuen, C. (2010). Pornography and attitudes supporting violence against women: Revisiting the relationship in nonexperimental studies. Aggressive Behavior, 36(1), 14-20. doi:10.1002/ab.20328\n\nAllen, M., Emmers, T., Gebhardt, L., & Giery, M. A. (1995). Exposure to pornography and acceptance of rape myths. Journal Of Communication, 45(1), 5-26. doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.1995.tb00711.x \n\nEvans-DeCicco, J. A., & Cowan, G. (2001). Attitudes toward pornography and the characteristics attributed to pornography actors. Sex Roles, 44(5-6), 351-361. doi:10.1023/A:1010985817751 - male pornography actors are viewed more positively than female pornography actors.\n\nHald, G., Malamuth, N. N., & Lange, T. (2013). Pornography and sexist attitudes among heterosexuals. Journal Of Communication, 63(4), 638-660. doi:10.1111/jcom.12037\n\nDon't mind the wall of citations, it's mostly for myself.\n\nSome people of pornography as a form of sexual catharsis (it relieves tension and therefore reduces rape, sexual violence, etc). The aggression-catharsis hypothesis suggests that people are less aggressive when given avenues to vent or \"let off steam\" - but research shows that this isn't true. In fact, catharsis tends to *reinforce* aggression. The above studies indicate that exposure to pornography is related to things like greater rape myth acceptance and arousal at the degradation of women - from a social psychology perspective, pornography aids in the establishment/maintenance of social norms about women and sex. \n\nFrom a basic behaviorist standpoint, it isn't difficult to see how masturbation could become addictive. It feels good, you do it again. It feels good, you do it again. Something can be classified as an addiction when it becomes a problem - when receiving a reward through one means comes to take precedence over more pressing responsibilities or when not receiving it causes distress. A rat in a Skinner box can press the lever for a bit of sugary juice over and over for hours on end, but it isn't classified as a problem unless the rat sacrifices food or sleep to keep pressing the lever (which it will do with more reinforcing stimuli).",
"> What would be the best way for the average man to approach these things based on scientific studies?\n\nThere isn't much actual science to be had on the topic. [Preliminary results from a U of Cambridge study suggest internet pornography is an addiction because they see the same kind of abnormal activation of reward system as in other addicts..](_URL_0_)\n\nBut those are preliminary. There isn't any hard data to be had. \n\nHowever, it seems likely that pornography, like anything that provides immediate gratification can be addictive, [because addiction isn't a disease, but an extreme form of learning.](_URL_1_)\n\nQuote from the linked post:\n\n > According to a standard undergraduate text: “Although we tend to think of regions of the brain as having fixed functions, the brain is plastic: neural tissue has the capacity to adapt to the world by changing how its functions are organized…the connections among neurons in a given functional system are constantly changing in response to experience (Kolb, B., & Whishaw, I.Q. [2011] An introduction to brain and behaviour. New York: Worth). To get a bit more specific, every experience that has potent emotional content changes the NAC and its uptake of dopamine. Yet we wouldn’t want to call the excitement you get from the love of your life, or your fifth visit to Paris, a disease. The NAC is highly plastic. It has to be, so that we can pursue different rewards as we develop, right through childhood to the rest of the lifespan. **In fact, each highly rewarding experience** builds its own network of synapses in and around the NAC, and that network sends a signal to the midbrain: I’m anticipating x, so send up some dopamine, right now! That’s the case with romantic love, Paris, and heroin. During and after each of these experiences, **that network of synapses gets strengthened: so the “specialization” of dopamine uptake is further increased.** London just doesn’t do it for you anymore. It’s got to be Paris. Pot, wine, music…they don’t turn your crank so much; but cocaine sure does. Physical changes in the brain are its only way to learn, to remember, and to develop. But we wouldn’t want to call learning a disease.\n\nSo, a scientific answer can't be had, yet. \nBest adopt a precautionary approach and restrict yourself to printed magazines and such. If those caused erectile dysfunction, there'd have been a study on that by now."
],
"score": [
40,
8,
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/health-and-families/health-news/pornography-addiction-leads-to-same-brain-activity-as-alcoholism-or-drug-abuse-study-shows-8832708.html",
"http://blogs.plos.org/mindthebrain/2012/11/12/why-addiction-is-not-a-brain-disease/"
]
} | Do the theories of /r/pornfree and /r/nofap hold any scientific weight?
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203bld | Are people biased towards things that come first? | You've probably seen this at your local supermarket. A table with two products, Product A and Product B, on it. You're asked to try them both and say which one you like better. But are people biased towards Product A just because it's Product A, it's first. For instance, If you put coke in bottle A and the same thing in bottle B, would more people say they like Product A because of some kind of bias we have? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cfzm5om",
"cfzs2lg"
],
"text": [
"There are social psychological phenomena called primacy and recency. They stipulate that if given two or more differing items/opinions/arguments one right after the other (or with a short time period in between), you are more likely to be influenced by the first item/opinion/argument. Now, if the things are split up by a large amount of time you are more likely to be influenced by the most recent or last thing you've seen/heard/tasted.",
"Yes. Although exactly which product will be selected can be manipulated in various ways, it's not always the first one. See [this wiki article](_URL_0_) for some more examples. Some marketers are very skilled at using effects like this to influence potential buyers."
],
"score": [
3,
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serial_position_effect"
]
} | Are people biased towards things that come first?
You've probably seen this at your local supermarket. A table with two products, Product A and Product B, on it. You're asked to try them both and say which one you like better. But are people biased towards Product A just because it's Product A, it's first. For instance, If you put coke in bottle A and the same thing in bottle B, would more people say they like Product A because of some kind of bias we have? | [
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|
8tlo5g | Chemically speaking, what is "Fishiness?" | A lot of fish and other seafood definitely share this trait, sometimes with smell more than flavor. What causes a fish to be "fishy?" | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"e18ma7h"
],
"text": [
"In order to keep their hydric balance, marine creatures have to have something inside their cells to be isotonic. What most of them have is trimethylamine oxide, a somewhat volatile compound when broken down to trimethylamine. The problem is, trimethylamine happens to smell... bad."
],
"score": [
38
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | Chemically speaking, what is "Fishiness?"
A lot of fish and other seafood definitely share this trait, sometimes with smell more than flavor. What causes a fish to be "fishy?" | [
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|
10asps | How do heartrate zones work in workouts? | [This image](_URL_0_) shows the classic heart rate zones for different kinds of workouts. It's everywhere but no-one seems to be able to validate it or even explain it very well. I have 2 questions:
1. How solid is the science behind it
2. If I'm 40 and have a heart rate of 160 then I'm told that I'm in the anaerobic zone. Does that mean that I'm no longer dong my body any aerobic benefit because I left that zone at 147 bpm? Or does it mean that I'm doing my body ALL the aerobic goodness PLUS some anaerobic goodness.
I ask because I have always believed it's the latter but people say "Oh you're working out to hard to lose weight effectively."
I could have posted this in /r/fitness but I'd be more grateful for science than opinions. | askscience | {
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],
"text": [
"It is well known that the ratio in which different energy substrates are utilized during exercise is dependent on exercise intensity. Fat oxidation is dominant during very low-intensity activities such as walking. As intensity increases, muscles rely progressively more on carbohydrate oxidation. Even though the proportion of fat utilization decreases, in *absolute* terms the peak of fat oxidation is reached at around 63% VO2max (approx. 75%–80% of max HR).\n\n[_URL_0_](_URL_0_), full article available [here](_URL_1_) (PDF)\n\nHowever, even very high-intensity exercise has been shown to be beneficial in terms of fat burning. The amount utilized during the session may be negligible, but when you look at subsequent energy expenditure and the adaptations your body undertakes, the picture changes. Indeed, there are a number of controlled studies in which high-intensity interval training was found superior for fat loss compared to long bouts of lower-intensity exercise.",
"Like c_ziet_run stated, 220-age is very inaccurate at estimating a max heart rate. In order to find a max HR properly, a max test, or submax test could be performed by a professional under supervision in a controlled setting. Back to the question at hand, it is established that \"fat burning\" zones and aerobic zones do exist in exercise. At the fat burning zone, the primary fuel being utilized comes from the body's fat stores instead of its carbohydrate stores. As you move into higher intensities, you utilize carbohydrates as fuel, until you rely exclusively on carbohydrates. \n At the fat burning zone, obviously you burn fat instead of carbohydrates. However, as you move into the aerobic zone, relying on more and more carbohydrates for fuel, you begin to expend more calories than lower intensity exercise. When you are in the aerobic zone you are still utilizing some fat for fuel. It is only when you move into the higher (more intense) end of the aerobic zone that you burn exclusively carbohydrates. Until that point, both fat and carbs are used for fuel, with the proportions depending upon intensity. \n The bottom line is, as long as an individual reaches 60-70% of their max heart rate, they will be able to both obtain and preserve aerobic fitness. As they become more trained, more intense exercise will be required to achieve further gains in V02 max and fitness. Also, it should be noted that more intense bouts of exercise have been shown to increase basal metabolic rate for up to 12 hours after exercise, therefore, increasing calories used by the body post-exercise (ACSM). While lower intensity exercises can effectively burn fat, it is inaccurate to say that you are working out to hard to lose weight effectively."
],
"score": [
3,
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://imgur.com/fbRRr"
]
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14750010",
"http://www.sns.ias.edu/~vazquez/notes/papers/ref.warburg.muscle.Achten_2004.pdf"
]
} | How do heartrate zones work in workouts?
[This image](_URL_0_) shows the classic heart rate zones for different kinds of workouts. It's everywhere but no-one seems to be able to validate it or even explain it very well. I have 2 questions: 1. How solid is the science behind it 2. If I'm 40 and have a heart rate of 160 then I'm told that I'm in the anaerobic zone. Does that mean that I'm no longer dong my body any aerobic benefit because I left that zone at 147 bpm? Or does it mean that I'm doing my body ALL the aerobic goodness PLUS some anaerobic goodness. I ask because I have always believed it's the latter but people say "Oh you're working out to hard to lose weight effectively." I could have posted this in /r/fitness but I'd be more grateful for science than opinions. | [
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|
140h98 | Here is a gif of 3 months of fetal facial development. There are some distinctly animal like-forms presented here. That implies a kind of evolutionary microcosm. Is this so, or is this just an illusion? | [Here is the gif in question](_URL_1_)
It's from a video from [this](_URL_0_) program.
And sorry about the misplaced hyphen in the title. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c78ryle",
"c78tl8o"
],
"text": [
"If you're onot already familiar with the phrase, google \"*ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny*\". That's what you're asking about.",
"When I was taught embryology, our lecturer used lots of examples of how the foetal human begins simply and becomes more complex and he brought in many animal examples to illustrate the simpler forms and show how they 'hold the fort' at maintaining foetal physiology while more complex structures develop (for example, a single-chamber heart which can squeeze fluid around a forming circulatory system developing into a two-chamber heart which performs the job better, developing into a four-chamber heart...). \n\nHowever, he stressed that the animal examples were there to illustrate the structures, not to show or suggest that the human foetus has a 'fish' stage, or any other point on the evolutionary chain. \n\nSo essentially: yes, it's an illusion of evolution."
],
"score": [
17,
13
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b01102yg",
"http://gifs.gifbin.com/072012/1343148096_bbc_one__human_face_development_in_the_womb__1_to_3_months.gif"
]
} | {
"url": []
} | Here is a gif of 3 months of fetal facial development. There are some distinctly animal like-forms presented here. That implies a kind of evolutionary microcosm. Is this so, or is this just an illusion?
[Here is the gif in question](_URL_1_) It's from a video from [this](_URL_0_) program. And sorry about the misplaced hyphen in the title. | [
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|
jpdcq | Are there any good pop science books? | I really enjoy reading about fields of science I'm not familiar with in my spare time, but textbooks can be rather dry. I've found pop science-y introductions like "A Brief History of Time" and "The Selfish Gene" are much easier to bite into - but scientists I've spoken to, and some of the panelists I've read on r/askscience, have expressed skepticism about how trustworthy pop science authors like Dawkins and Dennett are.
Are there authors/books that provide a good, not-too-inaccurate layman's introduction to your field? Are there authors/books you would advise I stay away from? Do you have any tips about approaching the "science" section of my local bookstore? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c2e0nvl",
"c2e1fxt",
"c2e0mzs"
],
"text": [
"People expressed skepticism about Dawkins and Dennet's trustworthiness? I've always thought they were quite good. Some individuals may have disagreements with them on some matters (as I may with Dennet on some issues, although I still think the man is brilliant), but theirs are fairly mainstream positions in their respective fields, and I think they both do a very good job communicating.\n\nAs for other suggestions, Sean Carroll's books are pretty good (the biology Sean Carroll, that is; there's also a physicist).",
"Checkout books by Brian Green, David Deutsch, and Lee Smolin for physics, V. S. Ramachandran and Oliver Sacks for cognitive neuroscience, Guy Deutscher for linguistics.",
"Bill Bryson *A Short History Of Nearly Everything*"
],
"score": [
6,
3,
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | Are there any good pop science books?
I really enjoy reading about fields of science I'm not familiar with in my spare time, but textbooks can be rather dry. I've found pop science-y introductions like "A Brief History of Time" and "The Selfish Gene" are much easier to bite into - but scientists I've spoken to, and some of the panelists I've read on r/askscience, have expressed skepticism about how trustworthy pop science authors like Dawkins and Dennett are. Are there authors/books that provide a good, not-too-inaccurate layman's introduction to your field? Are there authors/books you would advise I stay away from? Do you have any tips about approaching the "science" section of my local bookstore? | [
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|
1af481 | A question regarding the limit of the human mind (or lack thereof). | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c8wttc8"
],
"text": [
"There are limitations, but we are pretty good at working around them. A nice example is a four-dimensional object. We can mathematically describe such an object and make all kinds of clever deductions about its properties, but our mind is simply incapable of visualizing it. The best we can do is make projections how it looks in 3d space."
],
"score": [
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | A question regarding the limit of the human mind (or lack thereof).
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4fueyd | Why specifically is Tris buffer problematic with single junction AgCl pH meters? | Why specifically (what's the chemical reaction?) is Tris buffer problematic with single junction AgCl pH meters? Our double junction pH meter broke and we switched to single junction AgCl meter for a ~month. All my experiments stopped working and I didn’t correlate right away cause’ everyone elses pH meter stuff worked fine … tried all sorts of unhelpful stuff (getting new polymerase, isolating fresh gDNA, re-making all of my reagents from scratch etc.,). It turns out that Tris buffers form a complex, with silver, that clogs single junction AgCl meters. < _URL_0_; Everything’s working now, but I’m wondering: what specifically is the precipitation reaction here? I recall that methylamine can form a soluble complex with the Ag of AgCl (is it just that this Tris complex is too big to be soluble?), BUT there are *three* hydroxyls on Tris that can play too! Anyone know the deets? Google was vague. I don’t actually need to know, cause’ everything works now … I’m just wondering :D | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"d2caxgj"
],
"text": [
"Seems like tris and silver form a stable complex. See this paper (from 1955):\n\n_URL_0_"
],
"score": [
5
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.bio-rad.com/…/faq/268453677/technical-support-faq>"
]
} | {
"url": [
"http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ja01615a021"
]
} | Why specifically is Tris buffer problematic with single junction AgCl pH meters?
Why specifically (what's the chemical reaction?) is Tris buffer problematic with single junction AgCl pH meters? Our double junction pH meter broke and we switched to single junction AgCl meter for a ~month. All my experiments stopped working and I didn’t correlate right away cause’ everyone elses pH meter stuff worked fine … tried all sorts of unhelpful stuff (getting new polymerase, isolating fresh gDNA, re-making all of my reagents from scratch etc.,). It turns out that Tris buffers form a complex, with silver, that clogs single junction AgCl meters. < _URL_0_; Everything’s working now, but I’m wondering: what specifically is the precipitation reaction here? I recall that methylamine can form a soluble complex with the Ag of AgCl (is it just that this Tris complex is too big to be soluble?), BUT there are *three* hydroxyls on Tris that can play too! Anyone know the deets? Google was vague. I don’t actually need to know, cause’ everything works now … I’m just wondering :D | [
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|
a1ezvm | Are there predators in the microscopic world? | I've been thinking a lot about how life is sustained on earth by consuming. There are top predators all the way down the food chain [such as this cat](_URL_0_). I was wondering about microscopic world, are there any awesome predators in the microscopic world? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"eapk1yc"
],
"text": [
"The predator-prey relationship is pretty consistent across all life forms. In the microscopic world, there are bacteria that devour other bacteria and there are fungi that produce antibiotics to kill various bacteria. We can go a bit below the light microscopy world into the electron microscopy world and you will find that most of the viruses are predators that don't bite the necks of bacteria and devour their meat but instead hijack their cellular mechanisms and devour them from inside."
],
"score": [
18
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://youtu.be/s6d9rqhivQY"
]
} | {
"url": []
} | Are there predators in the microscopic world?
I've been thinking a lot about how life is sustained on earth by consuming. There are top predators all the way down the food chain [such as this cat](_URL_0_). I was wondering about microscopic world, are there any awesome predators in the microscopic world? | [
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|
4809yb | What causes this type of glitch? | _URL_0_
could you help me understand what in the system could cause an error like this? I know is a glitch and is not supposed to happen, but how does it happen? does the game somehow loses track of where the body is and is trying to correct it erratically? is it a problem with the raddoll physics, cause you'll notice the enemy isn't dead yet | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"d0h7fq6"
],
"text": [
"Possibly someone with game developer experience would be more qualified to answer this question, but this type of glitch would certainly be caused by a glitch in the physics simulation. Objects in a game follow the same basic physical rules as objects in real life, but only because some really non-trivial code models the entire interaction between objects and the world. Any error in that could could cause weird or erratic behaviour. Some bugs would cause obvious defects, like accidentally inverting gravity, but these would (hopefully) have been weeded out before a game hits the shelf. Hence it is usually the less trivial and more difficult to find weird things that are included in a final product.\n\nTo make matters more difficult, computers have finite precision. The coordinates software will use to determine an object's location can only be expressed with a finite number of bits, hence there is always a certain incertainty (is the object really at position 100 or maybe 100.0000001 or 99.99999997?). On top of that, all calculations have the same problem, which causes the incertainty to grow. Since a system like this game example would need to do a *lot* of calculations, the physics simulation will need to take into account a fair degree of incertaincy.\n\nAs a result of this incertaincy, you might sometimes see an object that cannot decide what it's going to do. Is the object really in the wall? Should the game move it out? Oops, moving it out still causes it to fall in the incertaincy range of \"in the wall\"... Is it still in the wall now?\n\nIn this case, my (slightly educated) guess would be the collision detection, possibly combined with the wall/object interaction, messing up. The object (monster) gets moved by your attacks and ends up partially clipping the wall/floor. Since enemies should not clip walls/floors, the game attempts to correct the enemy's position but messes up a bit, causing the enemy to still be in the wall/floor. Hence, the correction gets applied again and again, until e.g. the corrected velocity is high enough to catapult the enemy out of the wall."
],
"score": [
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hKZeqvF1lDs"
]
} | {
"url": []
} | What causes this type of glitch?
_URL_0_ could you help me understand what in the system could cause an error like this? I know is a glitch and is not supposed to happen, but how does it happen? does the game somehow loses track of where the body is and is trying to correct it erratically? is it a problem with the raddoll physics, cause you'll notice the enemy isn't dead yet | [
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|
94eq86 | How can a system have a high pressure and a low temperature? | More specifically, how does a can of compressed air have a high pressure (relative to the atmosphere) without it having a high temperature? Correct my intuition, but if pressure is the perpendicular force over the area of the can's surface, then the force of the particles has to come from somewhere. If temperature is the average kinetic energy of the particles in the can, and the particles' force on the surface of the can is high, the particles should not only apply that force to the surface of the can, but also to other particles. Particles hitting other particles should increase the kinetic energy of the system. Why is this not the case?
TL:DR Why does a closed system, such as can with a high pressure, not have a high temperature "to-the-touch"? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"e3kizim",
"e3kpm83"
],
"text": [
"Thermodynamic systems have more than one independent variable. If you take a classical ideal gas, the equation of state is PV = NkT. Or written in terms of the number density n = N/V, P = nkT.\n\nIf you take the pressure and temperature to be your independent variables, you can pick any values of the pressure and temperature you want, that just means that you're constraining the number density to be n = P/kT.\n\nOr you can choose to take the pressure and number density as independent variables, set them to whatever you want, but that constrains the temperature to be T = P/(nk).",
"There are simply many particles in the can. The momentum transfer per particle is not large (it is cold) but there are many particles hitting the walls.\n\n > Particles hitting other particles should increase the kinetic energy of the system.\n\nWhere would that energy come from? They can transfer energy between each other but overall energy is conserved."
],
"score": [
11,
4
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | How can a system have a high pressure and a low temperature?
More specifically, how does a can of compressed air have a high pressure (relative to the atmosphere) without it having a high temperature? Correct my intuition, but if pressure is the perpendicular force over the area of the can's surface, then the force of the particles has to come from somewhere. If temperature is the average kinetic energy of the particles in the can, and the particles' force on the surface of the can is high, the particles should not only apply that force to the surface of the can, but also to other particles. Particles hitting other particles should increase the kinetic energy of the system. Why is this not the case? TL:DR Why does a closed system, such as can with a high pressure, not have a high temperature "to-the-touch"? | [
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1rgx9w | Influence of Ca2+ or ACh on muscle relaxation and tetanus. | Hi, I'm not sure if this is the right place for me to post or not, but I've got nowhere else to go.
Here it goes, I'm a first year chiropractic student and I have to write an essay about the properties of nerve conductions.
I've been writing about this for a long time and in the end found myself being confused wether summation occurs due to excessive Ca2+ or acetylcholine (ACh) in the synaptic left.
Or is Ca2+ a part of ACh and does it just split off?
Anyway, I'm trapped at the subject of tetanus.
Tetanus obviously has an influence in the muscle fiber relaxation period, but is this due to Ca2+ molecules or ACh being stuck in the synaptic cleft? And, do they both have same effect on the postsynaptic membrane? Being that they both occupy chemically regulated channels and so influence the depolarization of the membrane thus causing a larger peak tension.
Thanks in advance!
Note, I am talking about a series of stimuli that take place on intervals of 4Hz/8Hz/12Hz/20Hz.
| askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cdn5cpe"
],
"text": [
"ACh is your neurotransmitter which triggers a cellular response. In the case of muscles it will cause calcium influx into the cytosol (either from the sarcoplasmic reticulum or from intracellular reservoirs depending on the type of muscle). The summation is a result of excessive Ca2+, which itself is brought about by ACh\n\nTetanus refers to sustained contraction and is usually a bad thing if it goes on too long. It can be brought about by overstimulation of the muscle cells, and this can happen either through sustained excitation or as a result of acetylcholinesterase inhibitors.\n\nIn regards to the intervals, not all the calcium leaves the cytosol immediately after stimulation ends, so if the intervals are close enough together, the residual calcium from each stimulation will begin to add up until your are constantly at a maximally contracted state even in between stimulations, which leads to a tetanic state.\n\nHope that explained it well enough"
],
"score": [
7
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | Influence of Ca2+ or ACh on muscle relaxation and tetanus.
Hi, I'm not sure if this is the right place for me to post or not, but I've got nowhere else to go. Here it goes, I'm a first year chiropractic student and I have to write an essay about the properties of nerve conductions. I've been writing about this for a long time and in the end found myself being confused wether summation occurs due to excessive Ca2+ or acetylcholine (ACh) in the synaptic left. Or is Ca2+ a part of ACh and does it just split off? Anyway, I'm trapped at the subject of tetanus. Tetanus obviously has an influence in the muscle fiber relaxation period, but is this due to Ca2+ molecules or ACh being stuck in the synaptic cleft? And, do they both have same effect on the postsynaptic membrane? Being that they both occupy chemically regulated channels and so influence the depolarization of the membrane thus causing a larger peak tension. Thanks in advance! Note, I am talking about a series of stimuli that take place on intervals of 4Hz/8Hz/12Hz/20Hz. | [
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|
1ui60r | Is there a term for this evolutionary pattern? | I know that when organisms in the same environment evolve, they often evolve toward similar adaptations. For example, a fish and a dolphin have similar body shapes even though they come from different ancestors.
Of course, there's obviously more than one advantageous adaptation for an environment, which leads me to my question: What about when organisms in an environment evolve toward several groups of adaptations? In other words, instead of adaptations converging toward one point, they evolve toward several different points. So while some sea creatures have evolved into fish and a dolphins, another group of sea creatures have evolved legs, like crabs and lobsters. The adaptations could, in theory, cluster into groups like those.
Is there a term for this sort of evolutionary pattern?
Let me know if that's not clear enough and I'll try to explain more betterly. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"ceih7f0",
"ceirsj4"
],
"text": [
"Yes, this is called 'Convergent Evolution' and is a major biological theme, and there a number of excellent examples.\n_URL_0_\n\nAs for your second question: \nThere are two things that genetic drift strives towards; though one is technically the subset of the former so you could state that there is only one overall 'goal'. \n\nThat goal is optimization (the first 'goal') with the latter being niche specialization. In other words, organisms want to find a role and be the best at that role, because that will give them the greatest odds of survival.\nThus you see 'clusters' of different convergent evolutions because those adaptations are optimal for their specific role.",
"The concept you are describing is related to [character displacement](_URL_2_). When organisms are found separately, they look similar, however when they are found together they interact and drive each other in opposite directions. This allows them to reduce competition and specialize on different things and therefore coexist. See also, [niche partitioning](_URL_2_)."
],
"score": [
3,
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convergent_evolution",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Character_displacement",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niche_partitioning"
]
} | Is there a term for this evolutionary pattern?
I know that when organisms in the same environment evolve, they often evolve toward similar adaptations. For example, a fish and a dolphin have similar body shapes even though they come from different ancestors. Of course, there's obviously more than one advantageous adaptation for an environment, which leads me to my question: What about when organisms in an environment evolve toward several groups of adaptations? In other words, instead of adaptations converging toward one point, they evolve toward several different points. So while some sea creatures have evolved into fish and a dolphins, another group of sea creatures have evolved legs, like crabs and lobsters. The adaptations could, in theory, cluster into groups like those. Is there a term for this sort of evolutionary pattern? Let me know if that's not clear enough and I'll try to explain more betterly. | [
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|
2d2db3 | How does the Valsalva Maneuver work? | I'm quite confused now. The thing I'm particularly unsure about is how it can be used in supraventricular tachycardias. Because after initiating the maneuver, wouldn't we first expect a reflex activation of the sympathetic nervous system (due to falling CO) in an attempt to preserve homeostasis, and this would NOT be beneficial at all in regard to tachycardia due to many reasons. When the maneuver is ended, only then would we see an increase in vagal tone, but this would not lower the hearts performance below "baseline" so we have done nothing to prevent the tachycardia. Anyone can help me understand? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cjliciw"
],
"text": [
"You get an initial rise in cardiac output as the blood in the Vena Cava is \"squeezed\" into the right ventricle. \n\nThe extra blood in the right ventricle causes increased inotropy by the Frank-Starling mechanism and cardiac output initially rises and heart rate slows to deal with the extra blood. \n\nAt that point there's a decrease in output due to the intrathoracic pressure leading to a tachycardia. \n\nOnce the pressure is let off and cardiac output returns to normal there is a vagal response to help stop the tachycardia and theoretically terminates the SVT. \n\nNever works though, carotid sinus massage does sometimes but in all honesty just go straight for the adenosine and stop faffing."
],
"score": [
5
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | How does the Valsalva Maneuver work?
I'm quite confused now. The thing I'm particularly unsure about is how it can be used in supraventricular tachycardias. Because after initiating the maneuver, wouldn't we first expect a reflex activation of the sympathetic nervous system (due to falling CO) in an attempt to preserve homeostasis, and this would NOT be beneficial at all in regard to tachycardia due to many reasons. When the maneuver is ended, only then would we see an increase in vagal tone, but this would not lower the hearts performance below "baseline" so we have done nothing to prevent the tachycardia. Anyone can help me understand? | [
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|
39ow7l | Is there a reason people from the Black Sea were so succesful spreading their genes and culture? | I mean because the Indogermanic language is spread across a vast territory and i just read that blue eyes also developed there | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cs5dc1j"
],
"text": [
"Language does not correlate well at all with genes. That's an old 19th century view that has been thoroughly discredited by modern genetics. Just to take one example, there's a larger genetic variation within the Finnish-speaking population than there is between many groups of Europeans who speak different languages."
],
"score": [
2
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | Is there a reason people from the Black Sea were so succesful spreading their genes and culture?
I mean because the Indogermanic language is spread across a vast territory and i just read that blue eyes also developed there | [
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] |
|
2pggqy | Why does water show anomalous behaviour of expansion ? | Water expands from 4 degrees to 0 degrees temperature, this is deviation from general behaviour of fluids.
Why water show this behaviour ?
Was Water 'designed' such by 'someone' so life in water can survive and evolution can happen as life on earth began from water ? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cmwmesp"
],
"text": [
"The jury is still out on this one. What we know is that it has something to do with the hydrogen bonding behaviour of water. \n\nThere are two related scenarios that seem plausible. Both have in common the notion that the normal pressure phase ice Ih has a lower density than liquid water due to forming a strong tetragonally coordinated crystal. We might then expect that some ice-like low-density liquid exists at higher temperatures. These two different phases of water are called high-density and low-density liquid, which might coexist to some extent. \n\nThe two scenarios I mentioned differ in one important detail: We might expect a phase transition to occur between the high-density and the low-density form of water. Such a phase transition could be expected to end in a critical point. In the first scenario, called the LLCP (liquid-liquid critical point) model, the critical point would be at positive pressure. while in the \"critical-point free\" scenario, it would be at negative pressure, so a liquid-liquid phase transition would occur at all positive pressures. In the LLCP, cooling water decreases its density below 4°C because you are moving through the \"shadow\" of this critical point, while in the CPF scenario, you would deal with a possible coexistence of regions with LDL and HDL.\n\nUnfortunately, water undergoes homogeneous nucleation before the postulated critical point could be reached experimentally. Tricks have to be applied to do this, and a final conclusion can not yet be drawn. [Here](_URL_0_) is a recent scientific article about the topic by Angell\n\nAs for whether someone has 'designed water to sustain life', this is a matter of belief. Scientifically, it's a possibility, but a non-sequitur - simply observing things being as they are cannot be used as evidence that \"somebody\" must have created them. The anthropic principle states that we should not be surprised to have evolved in conditions where life can evolve, because duh! I will refrain from further indulging religious thoughts here, and hope other posters will follow suit."
],
"score": [
4
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.nature.com/nmat/journal/v13/n7/full/nmat4022.html"
]
} | Why does water show anomalous behaviour of expansion ?
Water expands from 4 degrees to 0 degrees temperature, this is deviation from general behaviour of fluids. Why water show this behaviour ? Was Water 'designed' such by 'someone' so life in water can survive and evolution can happen as life on earth began from water ? | [
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|
387e1w | I want to drive across Lake Superior. How cold does it need to get and for how long before this would be safe to do? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"crt32nv",
"crt6txj"
],
"text": [
"Ice thickness on a river/lake can be estimated by [Stefan's Equation](_URL_0_):\n\nt=0.5(AFDD)^1/2\n\nThe exact coefficient (I used 0.5) depends upon snow cover/wind etc. AFDD is the accumulated freezing degree days (fahrenheit). For each day, you calculate the average air temperature then take 32 minus the average, that gives you that day's freezing degree days number. Sum over time to get the AFDD.\n\n\nSo, if it averages 2 degrees F for 30 days, you get AFDD = 900 and ice thickness of 15 inches. That should be sufficient to drive a car on. \n\n(Based on experience, with 1-2 inches thickness, you can hear it cracking as you walk on it. 4 inches you can run/jump with no problem. At 8 inches thickness , crazy guys will bring their car on the ice.)",
"This would depend greatly on what part of the lake you were attempting to cross. Zeba to Baraga would probably be doable most years. Houghton to Hancock looks possible, but is dangerous due to currents. Copper Harbor to Thunder Bay is probably not possible with modern weather conditions."
],
"score": [
14,
7
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://faculty.babson.edu/goldstein/goldsteingroup/TN04-3.pdf"
]
} | I want to drive across Lake Superior. How cold does it need to get and for how long before this would be safe to do?
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166yij | A question about probabilities in a game of hearts. | Consider a standard 52 card deck dealt to 4 people. The rules say that the first card played by each person must be their lowest club (Aces are high). The first cards played are:
Player A: 2 of clubs,
Player B: 3 of clubs
Player C: 4 of clubs
Player D: King of clubs
My question is, What's the probability that Player D has the Ace of clubs? Is it lower than 1/4 because he can only possibly have 1 club? (King was his lowest)
| askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c7tcul5"
],
"text": [
"It's actually *greater* than 1/4.\n\nWe know player D has the king of clubs and no lower clubs. There are 39 choose 12 ways he could have only the king and 39 choose 11 ways he could have the king and the ace. This gives the ratio of \"king only\" to \"king and ace\" as 7:3, which means he has a 30% chance of having the ace.\n\nNote that this is the probability according to an outside observer who knows only the information provided. The other players each have extra information (namely, each knows D doesn't have any of the cards in their own hand) which means that each of them would find a different probability for D having the Ace."
],
"score": [
6
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | A question about probabilities in a game of hearts.
Consider a standard 52 card deck dealt to 4 people. The rules say that the first card played by each person must be their lowest club (Aces are high). The first cards played are: Player A: 2 of clubs, Player B: 3 of clubs Player C: 4 of clubs Player D: King of clubs My question is, What's the probability that Player D has the Ace of clubs? Is it lower than 1/4 because he can only possibly have 1 club? (King was his lowest) | [
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|
sjdzv | How difficult would it be to spike a town's water supply w. LSD? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
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"text": [
"I've worked for a water company so I feel I have some expertise on the ability to poision a water supply. I can't speak about how much LSD or w.e drug you may have it would take, but that would depend on the town.\n\nThe water company I worked for brought water to about 300,000~ local people, and we have a nice brewery that makes a lot of beer (big global beer company, I don't know the amount of bottles they make per day). \n\nTo start, you can't just poison the water source, the water goes through many check points where it's tested, and many chemicals are added to make it better, and some are obviously taken out. So it's pretty much a no-go at the source, and as it's being taken in. \n\nYour best bet would be to poison the reservoir. I believe it's a law to have the reservoir covered, but ours isnt, it was grandfathered in. There is surveillance, and people there 24/7/365 and there is a fence, but the property is often vast and there aren't cameras everywhere. I happen to live right behind my towns reservoir, and I've been on the property before I was working there. \n\nI personally don't think that it would be too difficult to poison it since it's only checked once a week and animals have gone to the bathroom in it, and died in it. I think machinery has almost fallen into it (partially submerged). \n\nHowever this will all be changing very soon because the reservoir is being scrapped and two really big containment towers are going to be used. \n\nSome other information of note, is that NYC's water providers are obviously not from the city it's self, it's not cheap to change salt water to fresh water (yet) so they can't provide from the Atlantic. NYC's pipe line is very old, damaged, and almost impossible to repair, and I believe they are in the works for a new one. You can't just shut down a water pipe, millions of people rely on it. Anyways, it's leaking, and causing property damage above it along the pipe line. I don't know how difficult it would be to drill and inject something into it, but that's just a thought.\n\nOf course don't do any of this because you could kill millions of people. Not to mention \n\nI just scrolled through the few other comments at this time, and if yummy paint is correct then there is no way you could poison the water at any stage, because the chlorine is added either once it gets to the reservoir or once it leaves the reservoir Not to mention the other containers that get filled from the main reservoir have a lot of chlorine, fluoride and other chemicals in them. \n\nTL;DR. Odds are you're not going to be able to do it because cholrine cancels out LSD, how ever while security isn't lax, it isn't unbreakable, at least where I worked.",
"This is more a physical security question than a science question. \n\nThe only sciency thing i could add would be that LSD is active in miniscule doses. 100µg would be enough to seriously disturb someones day. This is probably why the US [looked into](_URL_0_) making it into a bio chem weapon.\n\nAlso, do you have a source for this tall tale? Are you confusing the creator of LSD [Albert Hoffman](_URL_1_), with [Abbie Hoffman?](_URL_2_)",
"With LSD it might be hard since its so unstable as a chemical, for example handling a plotter with your bare hands destroys some of it, UV radiation destroys it so I it would be destroyed to some degree. Hard to estimate to what degree since I dont have the facts on LSD's reaction to chlorine and other things in regular tap water.\n\nHowever there are lots of new more stable psychedelics with similar dosage ranges and these can be ordered over the internet with rather large quantities so it would be feasible to drop several kilos of the stuff into the water supply with a little financial packing and would more likely survive the trip in the pipes.",
"LSD doesn't do well with Chlorine apparently, and is unstable in sunlight, heat & c. I would say that it would be quite challenging to do. The threat is more effective than the method.\n\nAlso:\n\n > the Yippies led by **Albert Hoffman**\n\nDo you mean [Abby Hoffman](_URL_3_)?",
"my understanding is that lsd is unstable enough that chlorine in the water will destroy it relatively quickly."
],
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} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_MKULTRA",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Hofmann",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbie_Hoffman",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbie_Hoffman"
]
} | How difficult would it be to spike a town's water supply w. LSD?
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1mg68w | Why is the evidence for evolution not considered as an example of the sharpshooter's fallacy? | It seems as though the theory of evolution has been worked out by scientists to explain how species could have evolved from single cell organisms through intermediate forms, natural selection, etc. When we find all these fossils and date them, how are we sure that we're not just seeing evidence for a construct we've already set up? I understand the theory of evolution is an easy explanation that has its evidences, but couldn't it have very well been the case that some organisms that we consider to be intermediate forms were unique species that died out and were not necessarily the ancestors of the organisms that we have today? Are other possibilities (that single or even multi-cell organisms might have come to earth from extraterrestrial sources) still on the table?
_URL_0_ | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cc9bm33"
],
"text": [
"The sharpshooter fallacy specifically refers to constructing and testing a hypothesis using the **same data**. The reason all science doesn't fall into this fallacy is that we continue to produce new data. If we had read Darwin's book and only used his specific examples to prove his theories then yes we would have fallen into the sharpshooter's fallacy. But that's not what happened. Lots of research was done and **new data** was collected that supported the theory.\n\nImagine the story behind the name of the fallacy. A man shoots at a barn, then after draws a bulls-eye around the largest group of bullet holes and claims to be a sharpshooter. He obviously has not proven that he is a sharpshooter but has also not prove that he isn't!\n\nWhat you would have to do is get the guy to go back and shoot a bunch of times after the bulls-eye had been painted. Which is exactly what we are doing when we dig up and study new fossils, we are taking shots at a barn and they all happen to be landing in the evolution target that Darwin painted.\n\nThat said it isn't a solved science, we don't know exactly what happened and there are certainly large gaps in our knowledge of the evolution of life. Is it possible that multi-cell organisms might have come to earth from extraterrestrial sources? Sure, just very unlikely."
],
"score": [
7
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_sharpshooter_fallacy"
]
} | {
"url": []
} | Why is the evidence for evolution not considered as an example of the sharpshooter's fallacy?
It seems as though the theory of evolution has been worked out by scientists to explain how species could have evolved from single cell organisms through intermediate forms, natural selection, etc. When we find all these fossils and date them, how are we sure that we're not just seeing evidence for a construct we've already set up? I understand the theory of evolution is an easy explanation that has its evidences, but couldn't it have very well been the case that some organisms that we consider to be intermediate forms were unique species that died out and were not necessarily the ancestors of the organisms that we have today? Are other possibilities (that single or even multi-cell organisms might have come to earth from extraterrestrial sources) still on the table? _URL_0_ | [
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|
qfhls | If you took your dog to the other hemisphere, when would they shed? | If my dog and I live in the northern hemisphere but move to Australia in the middle of the winter, when will he shed next? He would have his winter fur when we moved, but it would be mid-summer in Australia. Would he shed right away and then have to grow winter fur again very soon, or would he go for a long time without shedding? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c3xb3sk"
],
"text": [
"The thing that governs shedding cycles in wild wolves is the seasonal variation of daylight hours. Exposure to light affects the production of melatonin, which in turn affects hair growth.\n\nIn addition to sunlight, most domestic dogs are exposed to all kinds of artificial light and so generally do not show the same kind of prominent seasonal shedding cycles as their wild-living cousins."
],
"score": [
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | If you took your dog to the other hemisphere, when would they shed?
If my dog and I live in the northern hemisphere but move to Australia in the middle of the winter, when will he shed next? He would have his winter fur when we moved, but it would be mid-summer in Australia. Would he shed right away and then have to grow winter fur again very soon, or would he go for a long time without shedding? | [
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|
115f4q | Question about air flow | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c6jh5m0"
],
"text": [
"> Does the outside temperature affect the temperature range of the ac (in my car)? Meaning, if it's 100 degrees outside my ac can blow air at 70 degrees, would running my ac when its 70 make it blow air at 40 degrees? \n\nYes to an extent, air conditioning units can only create a temperature difference in relation to the ambient temperature. During hotter weather they have a much harder time cooling things down as the heat they remove from the cabin is harder to get rid of when the air outside is already hot. Fortunately for car ACs they can have the added benefit of using the fast moving air as the car is driving to expel heat more effectively."
],
"score": [
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | Question about air flow
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8l8a27 | 1 Can anybody who knows psychology explain to me what is going on when people experience serious mental block in front of a camera? | I am talking about this _URL_0_ And let us ignore the point Kimmel is trying to make. I refuse to believe that so many people are not able to name a book when asked in front of the camera. Even if they don't read, I'm sure those people could have come up with an answer if asked casually by a friend. So what is actually going on? Is it some form of stage fright? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
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"text": [
"Aside from the obvious: selective editing, What is probably happening here is - they got nervous. Besides being distracted because they are thinking about being on television, they are going into sympathetic nervous system mode. The 3 Fs. Fight, flight, freeze.\n\nWhen there is an indefinable, yet perceived threat, the body readies itself to do one of the Fs.\n\nIt begins allocating the finite resources available to us by cutting off or limiting the flow of oxygen - carrying blood to non-essential systems so that it can pump more of those resources to the areas that will need it for things like adreneline so we can run for our lives or whatever.\n\nSystems that are not essential for immediate survival are the first to get cut off. That's why, your mouth might tend to go dry when you get nervous. Salivation is the first step in digestion, digestion is not essential for immediate life saving.\n\nYou might feel your lunch sitting like a rock in your stomach or even vomit.\n\nReproductive system also goes early. The immune system, not crucial for keeping you alive for the next 5 seconds gets cut as well.\n\nThis is one of the reasons stress is so unhealthy, btw. Imagine you immune system running on less than optimal resources for long stretches of time.\n\nBut, also, oxygen get cut to the higher brain functions and just feeds the limbic, or \"reptilian\" part of our brain. All that is needed to make a run for it.\n\nWe've all seen game shows where the host says, \"Tell us about yourself, Bob\". And, Bob stammer and hems and haws and can't recall his first name. Same thing happening here.\n\nThe best way to combat this, when stressed or nervous, is to take several deep breaths. Filling your lungs puts pressure on the vagus nerve. Pressure on the vagus throws us back into parasympathetic mode. Of course, as soon as we exhale, the pressure let's up. So, take those deep breaths and while doing this, consciously force yourself to get liquid saliva flowing freely in your mouth. Nice and moist.\n\nWhen you have the first stage of the first system to reengage, then all of the others do as well.\n\nFrom there you should be back in homeostasis and naming books left and right. Lacking entertainment value, your footage ends up on the cutting room floor."
],
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} | {
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} | {
"url": [
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wJdNrCeUdhc"
]
} | {
"url": []
} | 1 Can anybody who knows psychology explain to me what is going on when people experience serious mental block in front of a camera?
I am talking about this _URL_0_ And let us ignore the point Kimmel is trying to make. I refuse to believe that so many people are not able to name a book when asked in front of the camera. Even if they don't read, I'm sure those people could have come up with an answer if asked casually by a friend. So what is actually going on? Is it some form of stage fright? | [
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2h9h0e | Psychologists! If someone were assigned to periodically check-in on the progress of a chronic procrastinator's task, would it help them toward accomplishing their task? | This idea came from a conversation between my wife, who is a very motivated/on-task person, and myself, a lifelong procrastinator.
I hypothesized that if I informed someone of my desired task and the time/date to accomplish it, and I instructed them to occasionally check in on me for any measurable progress, this might act as a motivator for me to stay focused on said task.
Initially I thought this wouldn't work based on the experience of living with my parents. Growing up, they'd often remind me of all the things I didn't want to do ("Have you done your homework?", "Have you cleaned your room?", "When are going to mow the lawn?").
However, the scenario I am presenting assumes the procrastinator *wants* to accomplish the task, and *wants* to be reminded and account for his/her progress. Would this work? Would it be sustainable? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"ckv0iaa"
],
"text": [
"Checking up on progress is only one part of a reasonable solution... The next step is positive reinforcement any and all progress. Procrastination can be conceptualized as a negatively reinforced cycle. First, you start working on a task, or just think about starting, which leads to some sort of negative emotion - stress, anxiety, feeling overwhelmed, etc. Turning away from the task (procrastinating) removes that feeling. Since procrastinating does a good job of immediately removing that negative feeling, you are more likely to do it again until it becomes a habit or reflexive response. To clarify the reinforcement language: negative reinforcement means that something is removed or *negated* (the negative emotional state), which makes is more likely that the behavior (procrastination) will happen again - this is the reinforcement of the behavior. Shaping, or positive reinforcement of every step that brings you closer to your desired state (productivity), is a pretty common way to break the learned cycle of procrastination. Breaking down a task into small pieces helps here. Checking up, if done incorrectly, could simply result in punishment for procrastination (disappointment, possibly verbally expressed), and we know that punishment is not as effective as positive reinforcement for creating behavior change. It might even just add to the negative emotional state that drives the procrastination. So your wife should be careful about how she responds when she checks up on you to avoid punishment. You might have several ideas about what might be positively reinforcing, which is good, but the real test is whether her response has the effect of increasing the frequency of the desired behavior."
],
"score": [
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | Psychologists! If someone were assigned to periodically check-in on the progress of a chronic procrastinator's task, would it help them toward accomplishing their task?
This idea came from a conversation between my wife, who is a very motivated/on-task person, and myself, a lifelong procrastinator. I hypothesized that if I informed someone of my desired task and the time/date to accomplish it, and I instructed them to occasionally check in on me for any measurable progress, this might act as a motivator for me to stay focused on said task. Initially I thought this wouldn't work based on the experience of living with my parents. Growing up, they'd often remind me of all the things I didn't want to do ("Have you done your homework?", "Have you cleaned your room?", "When are going to mow the lawn?"). However, the scenario I am presenting assumes the procrastinator *wants* to accomplish the task, and *wants* to be reminded and account for his/her progress. Would this work? Would it be sustainable? | [
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|
34i4ca | What happens to a person if you were to remove all sources of telling time for them? | I'm not sure how to phrase this one.
What would happen if you placed a person in a closed environment with no access to anything that they could use to tell the passing of time, other than their biological functions. No access to changing stimuli I suppose could be enforced also? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"cqw5snz",
"cqvgom4"
],
"text": [
"I'm not sure what aspect of functioning you're questioning here, whether people's \"internal clocks\" would get messed up or whether people would be conscious of how much time is passing. I'll answer the former. People have an endogenous (i.e. internally generated) system for regulating the sleep/wake cycle that can function without outside stimuli (like changing light). On average though, this internally-generated cycle is a little longer than 24-hours, varies from person to person, and may change over your life. You can see [this study](_URL_1_) for more info. Broadly, this change in energy levels is generated by the build-up of [melatonin concentration](_URL_0_).",
"This is the way casinos are designed. The idea is to immerse the customers I an environment that is overloaded on flashing lights and sound, but exclude any indication of time. To see the effect just visit your local casino"
],
"score": [
3,
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12622846",
"http://www.sciencemag.org/content/284/5423/2177.short"
]
} | What happens to a person if you were to remove all sources of telling time for them?
I'm not sure how to phrase this one. What would happen if you placed a person in a closed environment with no access to anything that they could use to tell the passing of time, other than their biological functions. No access to changing stimuli I suppose could be enforced also? | [
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|
52ihro | Years ago I heard about the discovery of the memristor. Haven't heard anything about them since. What's the story? Are they being used widely? | It was hailed as a breakthrough discovery and would supposedly allow all kinds of new (or improved) things. But I've not seen anything about them for years. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"d7l207d",
"d7kvjku"
],
"text": [
"I guess there are a couple of definitions first - when most techies talking about memristors they specifically mean the HP technology. That has proven difficult to commercialise (problems producing at volume). An electrical engineer, however, would consider any passive circuit component where the resistance of the component depends on the history of currents/potentials on the component, in a reversible manner, to be a memresistor. By that broader definition they are on the market already, for instance under the name ReRAM or RRAM, although in fairly niche applications so far, eg Adesto sell a 256kb non-volatile ultra low power memory chip (uses 50 times less power to read/write than normal flash), and I think Western Digital are trialling a 3D version for ultrafast storage class memory, (which is something that you see on servers, sitting between DRAM (low capacity but fast) and SSD/HDD (high capacity and slow). SCM has high capacity towards that of SSDs and high speed towards that of DRAM so can help a lot) talking about a chip that has 128-1024Gb (so way way bigger than DRAM) with a read/write speed that is about 1/3rd that of DRAM (so way way faster than SSD), but this is for products in about 5 years (currently I think they're making 32Gb modules). \n\nIntel's 3D XPoint chip is thought to be (classical definition) memristor based too. Although they have said that it is not memristor based, that probably refers to the HP technology rather than the concept. Certainly it appears to be a two contact, resistance based, memory device.",
"quick google search didn't reveal anything that matched the hype.\n\nThis outfit: _URL_0_ has some tiny ones, but they are an unknown to me. \n\nWired boasted that PC memory would be revolutionized by 2014. Two years after HP made noises about the part.\n\nIt's a cool tech. Could be that other tech price erosion, performance increase and reliability improvements eliminated the motivation to replace them. Happens.\n\nThere are many other examples of any-day-now tech that don't make it."
],
"score": [
10,
4
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://knowm.org/memristors/"
]
} | Years ago I heard about the discovery of the memristor. Haven't heard anything about them since. What's the story? Are they being used widely?
It was hailed as a breakthrough discovery and would supposedly allow all kinds of new (or improved) things. But I've not seen anything about them for years. | [
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|
jxoj5 | This may be explained here: Why is human civilization not generally seen as part of nature but a beaver damn is? | I took this from [here](_URL_0_) so please give [DaYooper](_URL_1_) some love. I didn't find any satisfying answers in AskReddit, and I figured that you may have a more informed opinion. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c2fz25n",
"c2fzp0g"
],
"text": [
"For historical reasons and the desire of humans to set themselves as separate and distinct from the natural world - though Irene and other events show the folly of that belief.\n\nHumans are certainly part of nature and the natural world, and as Pliny the Elder wrote in his book *Natural History*, one of the earliest treatises on the subject (in which he included a discussion of human's work):\n\n*Among these things, one thing seems certain - that nothing certain exists and that there is nothing more pitiful or more presumptuous than man.*",
"Because of the old idea that we are somehow different. For example, we are apes (Hominoidea) but we don't call ourself apes and anthropology is not biology. \n\nFunny fact: In the history of spaceflight, the first animal to reach space was fruit fly (1947). Those flies were Americans (yet another way to divide things)."
],
"score": [
5,
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/AskReddit/comments/jwwv5/why_is_human_civilization_not_generally_seen_as/",
"http://www.reddit.com/user/DaYooper"
]
} | {
"url": []
} | This may be explained here: Why is human civilization not generally seen as part of nature but a beaver damn is?
I took this from [here](_URL_0_) so please give [DaYooper](_URL_1_) some love. I didn't find any satisfying answers in AskReddit, and I figured that you may have a more informed opinion. | [
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|
14oel5 | What are the various methods to find young's modulus? | I want to find young's moduli of rods of different materials. It will be of a lot help to me if some of you can suggest various methods to find it using instruments that will be available in an undergraduate laboratory. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
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"text": [
"Young's modulus is linear stress vs. linear strain. So any test that measures these two properties during incremental loading. The number of tests is staggering, because the number of possible materials that can related to Young's Modulus is very large. If you have a particular material in mind, search for the ASTM method of testing, or comment and I'll send it to you.",
"Use a load-frame to pull-test the material (it's basically a reverse press).\n\nOr, machine a beam out of the material (of some geometrically simple shape, circular is fine) and measure the force vs deflection curve. From this, you can arrive at (first order) Young's modulus.\n\nedit: make sure the beam is long enough to fit well into the Euler-Bernoulli beam regime (20:1 ratio is good). Otherwise you'll have to use the Timoshenko equation, which has more variables that you don't care about (it's used for shorter beams).",
"The most common method is making a dogbone-shaped piece and applying a tensile test. [Here's a video.](_URL_0_)"
],
"score": [
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2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I28m4FZzqro"
]
} | What are the various methods to find young's modulus?
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50m9y1 | How many possibilities are there to arrange these objects? | Assuming I have three of A, one of B and one of C, how many possibilities are there to arrange these five objects and is it possible to calculate the number or do I have to make a list and count them? How would more objects (e.g. 4xA 2xB 3xC 1xD) change it. I know how to calculate the number of possiblities if there are no multiple of one object (5 different objects = > 5!=120 possiblities to arrange them). I'd rather not make a list because I'm pretty sure I will forget at least one possibility.
I hope you understood my question and are able to help me with my problem. | askscience | {
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"If all objects are unique, then the answer, *n*!, is straightforward. Just like you said.\n\nNow how does this change when some objects are not unique but mutually interchangeable? Suppose we *n* objects (*n* > 2), but 2 of them are the same. How many arrangements are there?\n\nClearly, *n*! is the upper limit since that doesn't take into account that we're doublecounting some arrangements. But lets start from that. Take an arbitrary arrangement, where I'll let the X represent one of the 2 identical objects and the O any one of the other, unique objects. We have an arrangement like this:\n\nOO...OOXOO..OOXOO..OO\n\nwith 2 X's taking up some positions in the line. Now suppose these X's were not identical, how many ways would we have to distribute the 2 X's over the 2 spots in the arrangement above? Exactly 2. Lets use Y instead of the second X to demonstrate: \n\nOO...OOXOO..OOYOO..OO\n\nOO...OOYOO..OOXOO..OO\n\nSo in this situation, each possible arrangement is counted double, one instance with X appearing before Y and one with Y before X. But since X and Y are actually the same, we should not count them as separate arrangements. Therefore the total number of arrangement in this case is *n!*/2.\n\nNow, expand this to 3 identical objects. For one given arrangement, how many different possible arrangements with the same pattern of O's and X's would there be if the 3 identical objects were instead unique?\n\nI hope you got to 6. And how about 4 identical objects? Starting to notice a pattern?\n\nNow, the above all deals with a set of objects where one subset is identical and the rest is unique. How about when there are two different subsets, each containing objects identical to other objects in the subset, but different from all others?\n\nAs it turns out, we can start with the solution for just one set of identical objects and then assume that some number of unique objects in each arrangement are actually identical. We can then count the number of arrangement that we're counting double and divide our previous answer by that value. Repeat for the third set of identical objects, and the fourth, etc...\n\nNote that I've stopped shy of giving the actual final answer in two places in my reply. Part of the charm of math is finding out for yourself how it all comes together. I think I provided sufficient background and buildup to make it quite doable to come up with the final answer."
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} | {
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"url": []
} | How many possibilities are there to arrange these objects?
Assuming I have three of A, one of B and one of C, how many possibilities are there to arrange these five objects and is it possible to calculate the number or do I have to make a list and count them? How would more objects (e.g. 4xA 2xB 3xC 1xD) change it. I know how to calculate the number of possiblities if there are no multiple of one object (5 different objects = > 5!=120 possiblities to arrange them). I'd rather not make a list because I'm pretty sure I will forget at least one possibility. I hope you understood my question and are able to help me with my problem. | [
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|
mdo69 | How would one go about producing a KY jelly-like substance for the purpose of jelly wrestling? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c303gbs"
],
"text": [
"[Methyl cellulose](_URL_0_) and [Hydroxyethyl cellulose](_URL_1_) are pretty good bet. \n\nMethyl cellulose dissolves in cold water, and increases viscosity as the temperature increases. You can get different grades of the product. It is non-toxic, non-allergenic, and not digestible. You can get them at many different places, such as this [store](_URL_2_). Note the different gelling temperatures and some methyl cellulose products actually contain sugar."
],
"score": [
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methyl_cellulose",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydroxyethyl_cellulose",
"http://www.willpowder.net/methylcellulose.html"
]
} | How would one go about producing a KY jelly-like substance for the purpose of jelly wrestling?
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t57s6 | What exactly are 'floaters' or- those things that you see and bother you. | I understand that they are inside my eye- but are they alive? Or floating dead bits?
There are the tube-shaped ones and the tiny ones; but is it all a matter of perspective? I've always been so curious. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c4ju4ju"
],
"text": [
"They're not alive. Most often they are little protein splotches in the vitreous humour that fills your eye.\n\nThe vitreous humor is a gel made mostly of water, held in a blob by a matrix of protein. In spots where the matrix breaks down and separates from the water, the protein recoagulates and forms little fibers. Those fibers stay suspended in the gel and cast shadows on the retina.\n\nSome may also be made of leftover tissue from fetal development. When the eye first develops there is an extra artery running through it to help feed its growth. That artery ordinarily breaks down and is resorbed before birth, but sometimes there may be bits of debris left behind.\n\nMore rarely, similar vision changes can be caused by medical problems, like a torn or detached retina. But those more often tend to appear as \"flashes\" rather than floaters."
],
"score": [
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | What exactly are 'floaters' or- those things that you see and bother you.
I understand that they are inside my eye- but are they alive? Or floating dead bits? There are the tube-shaped ones and the tiny ones; but is it all a matter of perspective? I've always been so curious. | [
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|
oopik | In Ion Exchange Chromatography why do the molecules with the same charge as the stationary phase not stay at the top of the column? | I was doing some theory on this and I couldn't understand why the repulsion between the two substances kept them from 'mixing'. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c3iu4s0",
"c3w559v"
],
"text": [
"Well, if they have the same charge as the stationary phase, it means they are not retained by it. At the same time, there is a mobile phase going through the tube, \"pushing\" the products towards the end of the tube. These compounds are not retained, so they elute very fast.\n\nI'm not sure if that answers your question, could you maybe reformulate?\n\nEdit: imagine you put magnets and stones in the tube of your hoover, and you turn on the hoover. The stones, not retained, are going to be sucked in immediately, while the magnets may take a longer time since they stick to the tube.",
"_URL_0_ < -- Check this out to get the brain juices flowing. Sorry it's just a wiki link btw."
],
"score": [
4,
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Streaming_current"
]
} | In Ion Exchange Chromatography why do the molecules with the same charge as the stationary phase not stay at the top of the column?
I was doing some theory on this and I couldn't understand why the repulsion between the two substances kept them from 'mixing'. | [
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|
18k9pb | B12 supplements and athletic efficiency? | I read on a bottle of B12 supplements that they help in the production of red blood cells. Could taking these supplements theoretically improve my athletic efficiency, as there would be more red blood cells to deliver oxygen to my muscles quicker? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c8fjfdd"
],
"text": [
"B12 is the essential for the production of functioning RBCs. It is required for purine and thymidylate syntheses, thus without it you cannot form DNA. Thus, a deficiency will lead to anemia, in which you would most definitely see a decline in athletic performance.\n\nAs it relates to supplementation, B12 will have no effect on RBC formation unless you are already deficient. Any amount in excess of what is needed to replenish RBCs lost over time along with other biological functions will be excreted. Additionally, there is a limit to the amount that can be absorbed in the gut at about 1.6ug/dose [source](_URL_0_).\n\nImportant note: strict vegans are extremely susceptible to B12 deficiency unless they are properly educated and extremely vigilant in supplementation because only bacteria and archaea have the enzymes required to form B12, thus meat consumption is the only \"natural\" source of B12.\n\nEdit: link"
],
"score": [
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.0954-6820.1959.tb14477.x/abstract"
]
} | B12 supplements and athletic efficiency?
I read on a bottle of B12 supplements that they help in the production of red blood cells. Could taking these supplements theoretically improve my athletic efficiency, as there would be more red blood cells to deliver oxygen to my muscles quicker? | [
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|
178coe | Does the Golgi Complex function differently in different tissue types? | I understand the basic structure and function of the Golgi Apparatus however am confused on whether this structure and its functions vary amongst different cells and tissues (ie liver cells v neuron cells) | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c83ohh0"
],
"text": [
"it packages and processes pretty similarly in all cells. if the mRNA was spliced differently in different cells then the protein would be different and would be packaged differently depending on the amino acid sequence. the same protein is always folded similarly in my understanding."
],
"score": [
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | Does the Golgi Complex function differently in different tissue types?
I understand the basic structure and function of the Golgi Apparatus however am confused on whether this structure and its functions vary amongst different cells and tissues (ie liver cells v neuron cells) | [
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|
2lqthg | Why do some materials exhibit an endurance limit, and others not? | _URL_0_
Am I right in thinking that most materials, under cyclic load, exhibit an S-N curve like aluminum's in the above link, and those such as steels that exhibit endurance limits are uncommon?
And if so, why does the endurance limit show up in certain materials? | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"clyaj4d"
],
"text": [
"This is due to the composition of each material. The majority of non ferrous alloys don't have an endurance limit. Steel does. The reason steels have an endurance limit is due to the presence of carbon in the alloy. If you submit a metal to certain stresses, dislocations will tend to appear. In steels, they don't appear (if the stress is low enough) because the carbon will prevent the dislocations from moving and consequently prevent cracks from growing.\n\nOther material's structure don't have that strengthening mechanism that carbon provides, so even at very low stresses the material will eventually fail after many many cycles."
],
"score": [
3
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": [
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/30/S-N_curves.PNG"
]
} | {
"url": []
} | Why do some materials exhibit an endurance limit, and others not?
_URL_0_ Am I right in thinking that most materials, under cyclic load, exhibit an S-N curve like aluminum's in the above link, and those such as steels that exhibit endurance limits are uncommon? And if so, why does the endurance limit show up in certain materials? | [
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|
uxbh6 | How do you calculate when two differing sinusoidal signals become in phase? | Given two signals f1 = sin(w1*t + a) and f2 = sin(w2*t + b) where w1,w2 are radial frequencies and a,b are some initial phase, there will be moments when f1 and f2 are perfectly in phase (i.e., add constructively) and moments when they are perfectly out of phase (i.e., they exactly cancel). How does one calculate the time points when these conditions occur? I know its super simple and I've seen it a million times but I'm just drawing a blank right now. | askscience | {
"a_id": [
"c4ze42t",
"c4ze9zo"
],
"text": [
"The arguments of the sine functions should be equal when the two are in phase",
"To solve for the point where the signal is maximized, you find the time point where each of the arguments of both the sine functions are equal to pi/2 + 2 * pi * n, while for the minimum, you have to find the time point where the arguments of both the sine functions are equal to -pi/2 + 2 * pi * n.\n\nNeedless to say, with some combination of frequencies, you'll never actually see the maximal constructive or destructive interference (think on signal having a frequency of pi and the other having a frequency of e)."
],
"score": [
3,
2
]
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | {
"url": []
} | How do you calculate when two differing sinusoidal signals become in phase?
Given two signals f1 = sin(w1*t + a) and f2 = sin(w2*t + b) where w1,w2 are radial frequencies and a,b are some initial phase, there will be moments when f1 and f2 are perfectly in phase (i.e., add constructively) and moments when they are perfectly out of phase (i.e., they exactly cancel). How does one calculate the time points when these conditions occur? I know its super simple and I've seen it a million times but I'm just drawing a blank right now. | [
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