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Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS) What Is It? Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) is a common disorder that causes a variety of symptoms, including: - Abdominal pain - Diarrhea and/or constipation The severity of the disorder varies from person to person. Some people experience symptoms that come and go and are just mildly annoying. Others have such severe daily bowel problems that IBS affects their ability to work, sleep and enjoy life. In addition, symptoms may change over time. A person may have severe symptoms for several weeks and then feel well for months or even years. Most people are never cured of IBS. However, the disorder is not related to any other disease. It does not develop into colitis. People with IBS do not have an increased risk of colon cancer. IBS usually starts in early adulthood. It affects twice as many women as men. Approximately 10% to 20% of the population has IBS. But half of all people with the condition never seek medical care for their symptoms. No one knows what causes IBS. Some studies suggest that the nerves of the colon may be much more sensitive than usual in people with IBS. The normal movement of food and gas through the colon causes pain, intestinal spasms and an irregular pattern of bowel movements. Stress does not cause IBS. But stress can increase the frequency and severity of symptoms. IBS has been called irritable colon, spastic colon, mucous colitis and functional bowel disease. People with IBS may have some or all of these symptoms: - Mild or severe abdominal pain, discomfort or cramping that usually goes away after a bowel movement - Periods of diarrhea or constipation, or alternating between these two symptoms - Bloating, gassiness or a feeling of having a distended abdomen - Mucus in bowel movements - Feeling as though a bowel movement is incomplete Although the symptoms of IBS often change over time, people tend to develop their own pattern. For example, some people have mostly diarrhea, some have mostly constipation and others have abdominal pain without a major change in bowel movements. There is no test for IBS. Your doctor will diagnose IBS if you have the typical symptoms and have been tested for other disorders that can cause similar symptoms. Your doctor will ask about your medical history and symptoms. Your doctor will examine you, testing your abdomen for tenderness and feeling to determine whether internal organs are larger than normal. The doctor will check for fever or weight loss. If you have any of these signs, you likely have something other than IBS. Depending on your medical history, your doctor may do tests to eliminate other diseases that may cause similar symptoms. These tests might include: - Blood tests - Stool sample, to check for blood or evidence of infection - Sigmoidoscopy, in which a flexible, lighted tube with a tiny camera on the end is inserted into the rectum and up the left side of the colon - Colonoscopy, in which a longer tube examines the entire colon Your doctor may suggest that you stop eating or drinking certain foods for up to three weeks to determine if your diet is contributing to your symptoms. For example, your doctor may ask you to eliminate milk products if he or she suspects lactose intolerance. IBS symptoms may be a daily problem throughout a person's life. Symptoms may come and go, lasting a day, a week or a month before disappearing. Dietary changes with or without medication may help to reduce the frequency or severity of symptoms. Because no one knows what causes IBS, it is impossible to prevent the disorder. Once diagnosed with IBS, a person may be able to reduce the frequency and severity of symptoms by reducing stress or changing the diet. Changing your diet may improve symptoms dramatically. It often takes a long time to discover what works well for you. And you may need to alter your original program if symptoms flare. Keep track of the different foods you eat throughout the day. See which foods seem to make your symptoms worse. After you discover your particular trigger foods, eliminate them from your diet. Some common IBS trigger foods include: - Cabbage, broccoli, kale, legumes and other gas-producing foods - Dairy products - Fatty foods, including whole milk, cream, cheese, butter, oils, meats and avocados - Raw fruits - Foods, gums and beverages that contain sorbitol, an artificial sweetener The way you eat may help to create IBS symptoms. Eating large meals can cause cramping and diarrhea, so eating smaller meals more often may help some people with IBS. Eating quickly can cause you to swallow air, which can cause belching or gas. Adding fiber to your diet, especially if constipation is one of your main symptoms, often helps to regulate your bowel movements and reduce abdominal discomfort. At first, fiber will increase the amount of gas in your system, so add fiber gradually. Over time, the body adjusts to the effects of fiber and the gassiness will decrease. Fruits, vegetables and whole-grain breads and cereals are good food sources of fiber. Your doctor may recommend a fiber supplement. Some experts believe that the fiber methylcellulose creates the least amount of gas, and brands of this fiber are often recommended for people with IBS. Psyllium is also a good source of fiber. If your symptoms are not relieved after you eliminate trigger foods and add fiber, your doctor may prescribe medications. For people that have frequent loose stools (diarrhea-predominant IBS), medication options include: - Antidiarrheals -- loperamide (Imodium), diphenoxylate (Lomotil and other brand names) - Antispasmodics to reduce cramping -- dicyclomine (Bentyl) - Pain-reducing agents -- amitriptyline (Elavil), desipramine (Norpramin) - Alosetron (Lotronex) is approved only for women with severe diarrhea-predominant IBS who have very severe diarrhea and have not responded to other treatments. To receive this drug, you must sign a form stating that you are aware of life-threatening complications, such as a blocked, ruptured or damaged bowel. For people with constipation-predominant IBS, fiber and plenty of fluids are the mainstays of therapy. If medication is needed, your doctor may prescribe an osmotic laxative such as lactulose. A newer drug approved for women with persistent constipation is lubiprostone (Amitiza). Lubiprostone acts on the cells that line the inside of the intestines. The drug promotes increased fluid secretion into the intestine, making stool passage easier. When To Call a Professional It is useful for anyone with irritable bowel symptoms to discuss their symptoms with a doctor, so that diet, fiber and drug treatment strategies can be planned. After you have been diagnosed with irritable bowel syndrome, contact your doctor if you have: - An episode of severe symptoms - Unexplained weight loss or fever - Blood in your stool - Abdominal pain that is accompanied by vomiting, dizziness or fainting - Abdominal pain or diarrhea that awakens you from sleep There is no cure for IBS. But most people can lessen the symptoms by making dietary changes, reducing stress and, if necessary, taking medication. National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Disorders Office of Communications and Public Liaison Building 31, Room 9A06 31 Center Drive, MSC 2560 Bethesda, MD 20892-2560 American College of Gastroenterology (ACG) P.O. Box 342260 Bethesda, MD 20827-2260 American Gastroenterological Association 4930 Del Ray Ave. Bethesda, MD 20814

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Given that this is the first U.S. presidential election since apps have made their way onto most electronic devices, you might think there would be dozens of worthwhile products available on the topic designed for students. Think again. Sure, there are plenty of apps devoted to November’s election, there just aren’t that many that explain the process to those too young to cast a ballot. Those listed here should get the conversation rolling about how we elect a President and the men who have held that the office. For older students look for apps produced by mainstream media outlets with a focus on election coverage. Start with the major newspapers. In addition to hourly news updates, The Washington Post’s W P Politics includes “campaign files,” an interactive polling map, and a fact checker that “accesses the veracity of candidates’ statements,” awarding “one to four Pinocchios” when deemed necessary. Viewers can also watch videos of candidate’s ads—these alone will generate some lively classroom conversations. It doesn’t get much better than this one, and it’s available for free. The NY Times Election 2012 (The New York Times) app promises all readers access to a half dozen “top” news stories. However, only subscribers can view candidate pages and videos and photos from the campaign trail, read the latest polling news, and receive live election results. High school students who love politics are probably already following Mike Allen’s Politico Playbook (Politico) on their iPhones or iPads. Right now the daily news from this Washington insider is full of election-related coverage, and it’s all for free. To drive home discussions about the Electoral College consider downloading the Electoral-Vote.com (Dubbele.com; Gr 9 Up; Free) app, which will bring users to the website. The site, which has been tracking elections for a number of years, includes detailed maps and commentary (sometimes snarky) on the presidential and senate races. It includes current poll results, graphs, and news features, and links to articles from a range of periodicals and blogs. The 2012 Map: The Presidential Election App is a better choice for younger students (Cory Renzella; Gr 5-9; $1.99), and it’s available in 12 languages. The projected electoral map is easy-to-read and there are daily updates and brief notes on where current presidential polls are in place. Users can create maps with their own Electoral College projections and share them with friends via Facebook, Twitter, and email. As they scroll through the archive of electoral maps from 1789 through 2008 they’ll see the borders of the country change, watch as third parties pop up, discover the shrunken map of 1864, and read the embedded notes on each election. For a simple Electoral College map that can be manipulated for classroom use Election Map 2012 (Teq; Gr 4 Up; $1.99) will also work. A look at the last four election maps is included. Most of the apps for younger students feature lists of the men who have held the office of Chief Executive and provide a few facts about each of them. U.S. Presidents (Encyclopaedia Britannica/MEDL Mobile; Gr 3-6; $1.99) opens with a rendition of “Hail to the Chief” and a photo of President Barack Obama. Beyond this screen viewers can access a page of images of the presidents in chronological order. A tap to any portrait brings up information on the subject along with additional tabs leading to facts about that president’s vice president, First Lady, and birth date, and a bit of trivia. Information on national landmarks, and the lyrics of “Hail to the Chief” are also provided. After exploring the app viewers can take a quiz to test their knowledge of presidential facts answering such questions as “Who was the first U.S. president to be elected with no prior political experience?” and “Who was the only president to serve two terms that weren’t back to back?” The “clear interface” of The American Presidents and First Ladies (Multieducator, Inc.; Gr 4-8; $.99) allows users to sort the lists of leaders and their spouses either alphabetically or chronologically. Each entry includes personal facts, along with a page of information on the president’s early years, family, election, “presidential promises.” The full text of each man’s inaugural text is also included. Information on the First Ladies includes the years before and after each woman’s spouse was in office. Highlights of the app are the embedded videos, which include photos and audio clips. Unfortunately, some out-of-date information and typos mar the overall presentation. What Does the President Look Like? (Kane Miller; Gr 4-8; $2.99 ), based on the book by Jane Hampton Cook and illustrated by Adam Ziskie, takes a different approach to presidential history. It offers a visual survey of the men who have held that office, along the way providing “succinct history of visual media, from portrait making through digital imaging.” Here’s what our reviewer, Erin Sehorn, had to say about the app’s options: “The “timeline” chronicles major events in presidential history, as well as the technological evolution of photographs, movies, television, and the Internet. On each page, glowing stars allow users to learn more about the technological advances of presidential image making through pop-up pictures, early political cartoons, and newsreel footage. “Resources” links to the websites used as source material. There are a few glitches—for example, in the “Gallery” portraits appear only briefly, making it difficult to study an image. Overall, though, kids will enjoy this production.” Our youngest students may not know the ins and outs of how someone makes it into the White House, but they do know that a visit to that famous abode is cause for excitement. While conversation of the election swirls around them, share Marc Brown’s Arthur Meets the President (ScrollMotion, Inc.; $2.99), based on the author’s picture book. In this story, the aardvark’s essay on “How I Can Help Make America Great” wins him and his classmates a trip to the White House to meet the president. En route the characters (and viewers) see and learn about a few other famous Washington, DC landmarks, and perhaps, take a moment to ponder what their contribution to our country might be. Eds. note: After a brief hiatus during the transition to our new website, our app reviews are back. —moving from School Library Journal’s blog roll into a column, and pushing out in our Extra Helping enewsletter. Archived reviews can be found on the SLJ website under “Blogs and Columns.” However, to ensure you receive all of our postings, be sure to add “Touch and Go” to your RSS feed. This article was featured in School Library Journal's Extra Helping enewsletter. Subscribe today to have more articles like this delivered to your inbox for free.

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EAU CLAIRE, Wis. — David Ciresi, M.D., describes himself as a “safety fanatic.” The trauma surgeon at Mayo Clinic Health System in Eau Claire, a Level II Trauma Center, also is an avid bow hunter. Because of his job, Dr. Ciresi and his colleagues will see about 10 patients a year with major injuries related to tree stands — head or spinal cord injury, broken bones or hypothermia. “All these things are 100 percent preventable,” Dr. Ciresi said. So, Dr. Ciresi filmed a tree stand safety video, posted on YouTube, to offer tips to hunters, www.youtube.com/watch?v=Bhg58pMNxLM. The video follows Dr. Ciresi in the woods to show how to use a five-point harness, which holds hunters from below as well as from above, as opposed to using a strap across the chest. “Don’t think it won’t happen to you,” Dr. Ciresi said of potential tree stand falls. “The only way to protect yourself is to prepare ahead of time.” Besides using a harness, other hunter safety tips include: • Tell someone where you’re going: Draw a map if you’re hunting somewhere unfamiliar to them. • Carry global positioning system (GPS) navigation and a cell phone: Technology can be helpful to lost or injured hunters but may not always work in the woods. Injuries can limit hunters’ ability to use their arms or legs, so relying solely on a cell phone to call for help is not sufficient. • Keep alert: Staying up late or drinking to excess the night before a hunt can lead to injury. • Watch the weather: Be aware of conditions. A snow-covered tree stand, for example, can lead to a fall. • Know your limitations: If you’re too heavy or too weak, a tree stand may not be appropriate for you. A ground blind can be as effective for hunting as a treestand. With planning and precaution, hunters can enjoy their time outdoors, Dr. Ciresi said. “Have fun, be safe and good luck hunting.” # # # Mayo Clinic Health System consists of Mayo-owned clinics, hospitals and other health care facilities that serve the health care needs of people in 70 communities in Iowa, Minnesota and Wisconsin. The community-based providers, paired with the resources and expertise of Mayo Clinic, enable patients in the region to receive the highest-quality health care close to home.

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|Born||15 Jun 1880| |Died||5 Jan 1947| Contributor: C. Peter Chen Osami Nagano was born in 1880. As a naval officer, he established a strong record in administration. He studied in the United States during the 1910s and was naval attaché to the US between 1920 and 1923. In Dec 1935, he represented Japan as the chief delegate at the Second London Naval Conference. Between May 1936 and Jun 1937 he was the Navy Minister under Prime Minister Koki Hirota. In Dec 1937, he was named commander in chief of the First Fleet and the Combined Fleet. From Apr 1941 to Feb 1944, he was chief of the Navy General Staff. Although he was a proponent of a southward expansion, he was against a war against the United States; he deduced that if even Japan was to take over British and Dutch colonies in Asia, the isolationist United States still would not enter the war against Japan, leaving Japan to establish her empire without the interference from the industrial giant. However, like he had done so a number of times before, he entrusted too much of strategic planning to Isoroku Yamamoto and his staff officers, essentially giving away control of the entire navy to the Combined Fleet. Yamamoto, although not a supporter of a war against the United States either, dutifully accepted his orders and led the Japanese Navy into the great attack at Pearl Harbor that brought the US into war. Nagano essentially lost real control of the navy after Pearl Harbor; Yamamoto had, in effect, gone as far as to tell Nagano "not to interfere too much and thus set a bad precedent in the navy." From Feb 1944 to the end of the war, he was Emperor Showa's personal naval advisor. After the war, Nagano was among the highest ranked officers interrogated by United States naval officers. He was described as "thoroughly cooperative", "keenly alert", "intelligent", and "anxious to develop American friendship". He was subsequently tried as a war criminal, but died in 1947 before the trial ended. Sources: Interrogation of Japanese Officials, Nihon Kaigun, Shattered Sword. Osami Nagano Timeline |2 Feb 1937||Osami Nagano was named the commander-in-chief of the Japanese Navy Combined Fleet.| » Third London Naval Conference » Tokyo Trial and Other Trials Against Japan » Interrogation Nav 80, Fleet Admiral Osami Nagano Advertise on ww2db.com - » 725 biographies - » 302 events - » 26816 timeline entries - » 665 ships - » 300 aircraft models - » 163 vehicle models - » 254 weapon models - » 64 historical documents - » 282 book reviews - » 209 maps - » 16063 photos, 1464 in color George Patton, 31 May 1944

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I am a newby taking my first Java class. I have to create an Applet of a working Calculator. So far, all I know how to do is create buttons and JTextArea. I don't know how to set up any functionality among the components. I don't even know which is better to use; JTextField or TextArea. If anyone out there can help, I will be happy to wash your car and maybe even do some free yard work if you could give me some pointers. Thanks. Joined: Jan 29, 2003 Hi, welcome to the ranch! This is a big subject area, but fortunately Sun has pretty good tutorials on almost everything Java. See if the Swing Tutorial covers the right kinds of things. For adding functionality to the widgets, what you're looking for is probably in the EventListener and ActionListener family. You add these objects to your UI components and Swing calls them when interesting things like mouse clicks and keystrokes happen. If this seems like the right direction, you might wander over to the Swing forum with further questions. [ July 05, 2007: Message edited by: Stan James ] A good question is never answered. It is not a bolt to be tightened into place but a seed to be planted and to bear more seed toward the hope of greening the landscape of the idea. John Ciardi Joined: Jun 04, 2007 Thanks for the help. I know how to set up the event handlers (sorry I didn't mention that). I guess I need to figure out which events to use. I have managed to get numbers to show up in the JTextArea, but I don't know how to get any results from the numbers.

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- science (n.) - c.1300, "knowledge (of something) acquired by study," also "a particular branch of knowledge," from Old French science, from Latin scientia "knowledge," from sciens (genitive scientis), present participle of scire "to know," probably originally "to separate one thing from another, to distinguish," related to scindere "to cut, divide," from PIE root *skei- (cf. Greek skhizein "to split, rend, cleave," Gothic skaidan, Old English sceadan "to divide, separate;" see shed (v.)). Science, since people must do it, is a socially embedded activity. It progresses by hunch, vision, and intuition. Much of its change through time does not record a closer approach to absolute truth, but the alteration of cultural contexts that influence it so strongly. Facts are not pure and unsullied bits of information; culture also influences what we see and how we see it. Theories, moreover, are not inexorable inductions from facts. The most creative theories are often imaginative visions imposed upon facts; the source of imagination is also strongly cultural. [Stephen Jay Gould, introduction to "The Mismeasure of Man," 1981] Modern sense of "non-arts studies" is attested from 1670s. The distinction is commonly understood as between theoretical truth (Greek episteme) and methods for effecting practical results (tekhne), but science sometimes is used for practical applications and art for applications of skill. Main modern (restricted) sense of "body of regular or methodical observations or propositions ... concerning any subject or speculation" is attested from 1725; in 17c.-18c. this concept commonly was called philosophy. To blind (someone) with science "confuse by the use of big words or complex explanations" is attested from 1937, originally noted as a phrase from Australia and New Zealand.

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(You can find in this post the answers to the Questions C-06, C-o7 and C-O8) As discussed in a former post Polysaccharides are carbohydrates formed by more than 9 monosaccharides linked by glycosidic bonds. When they are formed by the same kind of monosaccharides, they are called homopolysaccharides, like starch, glycogen and cellulose, formed each of them by hundreds of molecules of glucose linked by glycosidic linkages. If the polysaccharides molecules are formed by different kinds of monosaccharides, they are considered heteropolysaccharides. Hyaluronic acid, formed by thousands of alternative units of N-acetyl glucosamine and glucuronic acid, is an example of heteropolysaccharide. Cellulose is a linear polymer of D-glucose residues bonded by b(1, 4)-O-glycosidic linkages. It is the most abundant carbohydrate in nature. It is formed by glucose units, linked by Beta-1, 4 O-glycosidic linkages. We can say then that, if we consider the kind of linkage, the repeating unit in cellulose is cellobiose, the disaccharide formed by two molecules of glucose linked by Beta-D-O glycosidic bonds, (that is why some text books say that the monomer in cellulose is cellobiose). The long fibers of cellulose are held together by intermolecular hydrogen bonds. Hydrogen bonding continues in the same plane with other chains as well as in planes above and below this plane to form strong, fibrous bundles. It made cellulose very appropriate for its structural function in plants Since cellulose is formed by glucose molecules, it can be a source of energy for certain species. The lack in human beings of appropriate enzymes for digesting cellulose make this polysaccharide unsuitable for human nutrition (Have you though about how hunger in the world could disappear if we had enzymes for digesting cellulose?). Cellulose and derivatives are used as a component of laxatives for humans. Starch is the second most abundant carbohydrate in nature. The biological functions include, in plants, the main way of storage of sugar, and consequently, of energetic sources; in humans, the first supply of glucose on diet (Answer to C-O7) Starch is not really a molecule, but a grain formed by two different kinds of molecules: Amylose and Amylopectin Amylose is a linear molecule formed by glucose units linked by alpha-1, 4 O glycosidic linkages. Taking in account the kind of linkage we can say that the repeating unit in amylose is maltose. (It explains that some books indicate that the monomeric unit in amylose is maltose). Amylose molecule is helicoidal Amylopectin is the second type of molecule that forms starch. It is a branched molecule, formed also by glucose. Amylopectin contains D-glucose residues bonded together by a(1, 4)-O-glycosidic linkages with branching through a(1 6)-O-glycosidic linkages. The disaccharides that can be obtained from the digestion of amylopectin are maltose and isomaltose. Amylopectin shows a branch each 24-30 units of glucose, The structure of glycogen is very similar to amylopectin but more branched, with one branch every 8 to 12 glucose unit Glycogen is the way in which glucose is stored in animals. Glycogen is stored mainly in liver (to release glucose to blood when necessary) and in muscle, where it is used as a reserve of energy for muscular contraction (Answer to C-o8) Heteropolysaccarides contain two or more different kind of monosaccharides. Usually they provide extracellular support for organisms of all kingdoms: the bacteria cell envelope, or the matrix that holds individual cells together in animal tissues, and provides protection, shape and support to cells, tissues and organs. Heteropolysaccharides provide extracellular support to very different organisms, from bacteria to humans; together with fibrous proteins, like collagen, elastin, fibronectin, laminin and others, heteropolysaccharides are the most important components of the extracellular matrix. Hyaluronic acid, condroitin sulfates and dermatan sulfates are important heteropolysaccharides in the extracellular matrix. These heteropolysaccharides usually are formed by the repetition of a disaccharide unit of an aminosugar and an acid sugar. A typical example Other common constituents are sulfate groups linked to certain monosaccharides. Usually heteropolysaccharides are associated with proteins forming proteoglycans, glycosaminoglycans or mucopolysaccharides (since they are abundant in mucous secretions). As a group, they perform diverse functions: structural, water metabolism regulation (as a reservoir of water), cellular cement, biological sieve, biological lubricant, docking sites for growth factors, among other functions. Established specific functions of some glycosaminoglycans are: Hyaluronic Acid (Hyaluronate): It is a lubricant in the synovial fluid of joints, give consistency to vitreous humor, contributes to tensile strength and elasticity of cartilages and tendons (Answer to C-O6) Chondroitin Sulfates: contributes to tensile strength and elasticity of cartilages, tendons, ligaments and walls of aorta. Dermatan sulfate (former chondroitin sulfate B) is found mainly in skin, but also is in vessels, heart, lungs. It may be related to coagulation and vascular diseases and other conditions. Keratan sulfate: Present in cornea, cartilage bone and a variety of other structures as nails and hair. It is a potent natural anticoagulant produced in the Mast Cells that causes antithrombin bind to thrombin and produce inhibition of blood coagulation. Glycosaminoglycans are synthesized in the ER and Golgi. They are degraded by lysosomal hydrolases. A deficiency of one of the hydrolases results in a mucopolysaccharidosis. These are hereditary disorders in which glycosaminoglycans accumulate in tissues, causing symptoms such as skeletal and extracellular matrix deformities, and mental retardation. Examples of these genetic diseases are Hunter and Hurler syndromes. These diseases, caused by different enzyme deficits, are characterized by physical deformities, mental retardation and disturbances in the degradation of heparan sulfate and dermatan sulfate.

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Other Dairy Products ( Originally Published 1939 ) It has been known for a long time that babies fed with boiled milk thrived better than those fed with regular milk. It was supposed that this improved quality lay in the destruction of pathogenic organisms. Gradually a wealth of data has been accumulating which shows that boiling or other treatment of milk increases its digestibility. After Buckley had showed that the physical nature of the curd of milk is important in determining the food value of milk,' and Ladd had published some chemical data that showed that homogenized milk produced a soft curd in the infant's stomach and was similar to breast milk in this respect,' Washburn and Jones showed that homogenization of milk produced curds which were much more flocculent and friable than those of regular milk, although this property was not reflected in any improved nutrition of his experimental animals, young pigs. The recent work of Hill is credited with giving this subject of the digestive quality of milk an emphasis which has found important application in the commercial production of soft curd milk. Interest has been further stimulated competitively by reason of the inroads that the evaporated milk industry has made into the bottled trade, largely by reason of the superior properties of the canned product in infant feeding. This has led to laboratory activity directed toward devising processes for imparting soft curd properties and for measuring curd hardness rather than toward ascertaining to what extent, if any, these treatments actually improve the digestibility of the milk. The scientific literature leaves the subject in a very con-fused state. Whatever improved digestibility there is seems to result entirely from the speeding of the passage of the milk from the stomach and not from any increased food value or degree of assimilation.' The whole subject is excellently reviewed by Doan in the Journal of Dairy Science, 21, 739-756 (1938). NATURAL SOFT-CURD MILK Hill found that the milk of different cows possessed unequal digestibility, and that many infants could tolerate milk from certain cows but not that from others. In general, this improved tolerance was associated with milk of relatively low total solids content, al-though this relationship did not seem to be exclusively specific. Soft-curd milk was produced by cows of different breeds and was fairly uniform over the lactation period of a given cow. This property enabled herdsmen to select cows for the regular production of this kind of milk. Soft-curd milk is more rapidly digested by humans, calves, and rats, and leaves the stomach more quickly than regular milks At the same time, soft-curd milk has a lower content of total solids and a smaller calorific value. It has been observed that cows suffering with mastitis produce a soft-curd milk. This has led many persons to think that all soft-curd milk is pathologic. Such a belief is erroneous. Soft-curd milk is actually under more stringent control than regular milk because its production is mostly, if not entirely, limited to Grade A and certified herds. However, on account of the widespread prevalence of sub-clinical mastitis, it is recommended that the presence of udder infections be tested for when the curd tension is determined. Elias- showed 10 that soft-curd milk gave curds in the stomach similar to those of boiled milk. Espe and Dye reported that doubling the curd tension increased the length of the digestive period from 30 to 65 percent, and that boiling markedly lowered the curd tension. Welch and Doan showed that curd tension was greater in milk of high casein content, and that equalization of casein content by dilution with water caused both the curd tension and differences in rates of digestion largely to disappear, although the casein content might exercise only a minor role in the rate of digestion if the curd is artificially softened by heating, homogenization, and other means. ARTIFICIAL SOFT-CURD MILK Soft-curd by homogenization. Softness of curd can be imparted to a milk by homogenizing it. This procedure consists in pumping milk under very great pressure through a special valve with small clearance so that the, butterfat globules are broken up and uniformly distributed. The homogenization of skimmed milk does not impart soft-curd properties; at least about 1 percent of butterfat or other oil must be present. Chocolate milk is a soft-curd milk. Therefore, it seems that the imparting of soft-curd properties by mechanical means is a function of the degree of dispersion of discrete particles whereby the curd is mechanically prevented from setting into a solid homogeneous mass. Feeding experiments on rats showed that this homogenized soft-curd milk was digested just about as quickly as boiled milk or natural soft-curd milk. Letters patent 12 have been issued to cover the production of soft-curd milk by homogenization, although the process seems to have been practiced by milk companies for many years previously to the granting of the patent. The difficulty of controlling exactly the effectiveness of the homogenizing machine, together with the variability in the composition or physical nature of the milk, particularly the butterfat, precludes the determination of the most efficient temperatures and pressures. Experience has taught that the curd of a given milk cannot be softened beyond a certain point, regardless of the pressure used, and on the other hand, too light a pressure does not insure permanency to the imparted curd softness. In industrial practice, consistent results can be obtained when milk is homogenized at pressures of about 2500 to 3000 pounds per square inch at a temperature of about 145° F. This softens the curd to a tension of about 30 grams, or reduces the curd tension of average market milk about 50 percent. The homogenization of milk must be carefully conducted if a satisfactory product is to be obtained. Trout and his associates found 13 that some milk upon homogenization developed rancidity within 15 minutes after treatment. This effect seemed to be caused by a lipolytic enzyme which could be inactivated at temperatures of pasteurization. Accordingly, this off-flavor can be prevented by pasteurizing the milk before or immediately after homogenization. The flavor of the finished product is generally considered to be slightly better if pasteurization precedes homogenization, but health officers are inclined to require pasteurization to come last. Homogenized milk, unless the milk was initially of high quality, may exhibit a smudgy yellow or gray sediment in the bottom of the bottle. It is too finely divided to be revealed on a sediment disc. Babcock 14 reported that it consists largely of leucocytes, epithelial cells, and some finely divided dirt. Charles and Sommer 15 state that sediment may occur in milk of the highest sanitary quality and may come from a healthy udder. It is not seen in unhomogenized milk because the rising of the fat globules into the cream layer sweeps this light material upward. Clarification by centrifugal clarifying ma-chines will remove it. Soft-curd properties, artificially imparted to milk by homogenization, were studied by Anthony on two adult males who possessed the unusual ability to regurgitate at will without distress. This enabled them to drink the milk, hold it in their stomachs for 30 minutes, and then return it without the aid of a stomach pump or an emetic. These experiments showed that the tests on curd strength made in vitro and determined with the curd knife reasonably evaluated the nature of the curd in the human stomach (except in the case of mineral modified milk). The curd particles of breast milk were minute and soft, and were so finely divided that they could not be separated from the accompanying juices with a 20-mesh screen. On cows' milk, when the curd tension (by laboratory curd-knife technic) was high, the regurgitation specimens of curd in every case were large and leathery. When the readings were low, the curd particles were small and soft. Breast milk registered 0 curd tension, natural cows' milk 50-100 grams, and homogenized milk (processed at 3500 pounds) 15 grams. The patients reported that the milk tasted better (because of the minute division of the milkfat globules) and gave less distress. However, no digestive advantage is reported by some other investigators who worked on samples in vitro and on experimental animals. The latter work is not so impressive as clinical studies but may be better controlled. Much more fundamental and clinical re-search is necessary before the value of this processing is substantiated. Soft curd by sonic vibration. A modification of the homogenizing process for the production of soft-curd milk has been developed by subjecting milk to intense sonic vibration. Electromagnetic oscillators, somewhat similar to those used in submarine communications, are constructed to allow the passage of milk in a thin film between the "anvil" and the vibrating diaphragm. Sonic vibration acts directly on the butterfat of the milk to cause a more complete dispersion. The reduction of curd tension is a function of the number of fat particles, and not of the actual fat concentration. A direct relationship seems to exist between the degree of fat dispersion-and the degree of curd-tension reduction. Inasmuch as only a small proportion of the total fat in milk need be finely subdivided to reduce the curd tension, it is possible to produce soft curd by vibration without destroying the cream volume (cream line). Commercial homogenization. The practice of homogenizing market milk is gradually extending. It is quite general in parts of Canada, and is increasing irregularly in the United States. Fifteen states have no regulations for the control of homogenized milk, 19 states and the District of Columbia permit its sale if properly labeled, 2 states have taken no action but look upon it with disfavor, and 4 states prohibit its sale. It is a useful practice for the treatment of milk which is to be consumed in restaurants, institutions, or wherever the sale of bulk milk introduces the likelihood that the consumer may be served a portion from which a substantial part of the butterfat has separated. Tracy states that the unpopularity of homogenized milk in the past has been due largely to the emphasis placed on the cream line as a measure of the value of a milk, and to the unfriendly attitude of some regulatory officials who felt that homogenization might encourage fraudulent practices. About one-third of the milk-route customers of the University of Illinois changed to this milk for the following reasons: it looked and tasted better; no cream adhered to the bottle cap; no mixing was required; it tasted better for breakfast foods; it removed the temptation to abstract cream; it was easier to prepare for infant feeding; it did not allow rising of cream to top of glass in refrigerator; it made better milk drinks; it tasted better to children; it was more easily digested by infants; and it did not churn out on freezing. Soft curd by base exchange. Hard waters are softened by the zeolite or base-exchange method, whereby the percolation of water through a bed of zeolite (a sodium-aluminum silicate) effects an ex-change of sodium and calcium. As applied to milk, sodium from the zeolite replaces soluble calcium from the milk. The milk is first acidified to about 0.3 percent as lactic acid (with a dilute nitric acid solution) and then percolated at 64° F. over a granular column of zeolite. During the process, the pH is adjusted to that of ordinary cows' milk (about 6.50), and the acidity is reduced to about 0.15 per-cent as lactic acid. This process is reported 22 to change the taste, appearance, and other qualities very little from those of regular milk. The cream line is practically the same as in pasteurized milk. Bacteria counts are said to be lowered by the filtering effect of the pass-age of the milk through the zeolite bed. The Hill method cannot be used to measure the curd tension by this process because the Hill technic introduces about ten times as much soluble calcium into 100 milliliters of milk as is removed by the base-exchange treatment. Moreover, it is considered more desirable to use a method which more closely simulates gastric digestion. Such a method has been developed by Miller. Hess, Poncher, and Woodward 24 studied the nutritional effects of such a milk on an infant on a metabolism frame. They report that, in spite of the decrease of the percentage content of total calcium and phosphorus, 100 milliliters of such milk per kilogram of body weight kept a normal growing infant in a positive calcium and phosphorus balance during the entire time of feeding. Soft curd by enzymic action. Milk can be given soft-curd properties within a range of 20 to 30 grams by the addition of pancreatic extract, concentrated in the proportion of 1 part of the powder to 10,000 parts of milk. The milk containing the enzyme is heated at a temperature of 42° C. (108° F.) for 15 minutes, and then is pasteurized in the regular way. The preliminary heating brings about a partial digestion of the curd, and the pasteurization inactivates most of the enzyme. The mineral content, the protein, and the formol titration values remain substantially unchanged. Standards of quality. The quality of curd is usually determined by the Hill test, or some modification of it. Although natural milks may give a range of reading on the scale from 15 to 200 grams of tension, the average of numerous milk supplies has been found to be about 60-70. The American Association of Medical Milk Commissions 27 specifies that a soft-curd milk must show a curd tension be-low 30 grams, determined at least twice at an interval of 1 to 5 days before it can be claimed to be a soft-curd milk, and that the test must be repeated at monthly intervals thereafter. Determination of curd tension. Hill's method for determining the characteristics of milk curd is based on the measurement of the degree of toughness of the curd which is coagulated by pepsin in calcium chloride solution. The measurement is the indicated pull in grams necessary for a special knife to cut through the coagulated curd. The knife consists of several radial horizontal blades soldered at right angles to an upright slender rod. This knife is placed in a jar containing 100 milliliters of the milk to be tested. A coagulating solution of scale pepsin and calcium chloride is then added. This sets the curd around the knife. The knife is then hooked to a spring balance, and its pull as it cuts upward through the curd is read directly from the dial. Caulfield and Riddell have shown that it is expedient to make each determination in triplicate, and that temperature of reaction and time interval between the addition of coagulant and cutting of the curd must be kept constant. Miller 23 has modified this method by substituting an acid pepsin solution for the pepsin-calcium chloride solution. The measurement of toughness of curd by this method substantially parallels the digestibility of the milk by animals. See also the method of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, and that of the American Dairy Science Association reported supra by Doan. Determination of butterfat. Authorities are not in agreement as to the effect of homogenization on the accuracy of the butterfat de-termination by the Babcock method. Babcock found that in every case the homogenized milk averaged in fat about 0.1 percent lower than the same milk before it was homogenized. On the other hand, Tracy' states that homogenized milk can be tested satisfactorily by the Babcock method if both the acid and milk are at about 70° F., if the acid is added in small portions, if slightly less acid (1.5 milli-liters) is used, and if the solution is shaken well after each addition of acid. Microbiological examination. Inasmuch as natural soft curd has been associated with mastitis, it is advisable in the interest of sanitation and wholesomeness to examine samples of natural soft-curd milk for the presence of mastitis organisms. 1. S. S. BucKLEY, Maryland Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 184, 1914. 2. M. LADD, Boston Med. and Surg. J., 173, 13 (1915). 3. R. M. WASHBURN and C. H. JONES, Vermont Agr. Exp. Bul. 195, 1916. 4. R. L. HILL, Utah Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 207, 1928; Circular 101, 1933. 5. Council on Foods, J. Am. Med. Assoc., 108, 2040, 2122 (1937). 6. F. J. DoAN and R. C. WELCH, Pennsylvania State College Agr. Exp. Sta. But. 312, 1934. See also F. J. DoAN and C. C. FLORA, ibid., 380, 1939. 7. H. C. HANSEN, D. R. THEOPHILUS, F. W. ATKESON, and E. M. GILDow, J. Dairy Sci., 17, 257 (1934). 8. R. C. WELCH and F. J. DoAN, Milk Plant Monthly, 22 (11) 30 (1933). 9. W. V. HALVERSEN, V. A. CHERRINGTON, and H. C. HANSEN, J. Dairy Sci., 17, 281 (1934). 10. H. L. ELIAS, Am. J. Diseases Children, 44, 296 (1932). 11. D. L. EsPE and J. A. DYE, ibid., 43, 62 (1932). 12. R. FLUCKIOER, U. S. Patent 1,973,145, Sept. 11, 1934. 13. G. M. Tamil, C. P. HALLORAN, and I. GouLD, Mich. Agr. Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. 145, 1935. 14. C. J. BARCOCK, U. S. Dept. Agr. Tech. Bul. 438, 1934. 15. D. A. CHARLES and H. H. SOMMER, Milk Plant Monthly, 24, 26, 32 (1935). 16. G. E. ANTHONY, The Bulletin (official publication of the Genesee County Medical Society), 9, March 4 (1936). 17. L. A. CHAMBERS, J. Dairy Sci., 19, 29 (1936). 18. Milk Dealer, 25, 36 (1936). 19. R. H. TRACY, Milk Plant Monthly, 24, 28 (1935). 20. U. S. Patent 1,954,769, assigned to M. & R. Dietetic Laboratories, Inc. 21. J. F. LYMAN, E. H. BROWNE, and H. E. OTTING, Ind. Eng. Chem., 25, 1297 (1933). Also see Milk Plant Monthly, January, 1934, p. 37. 22. H. E. OTTING and J. J. QuILLIGAN, Milk Dealer, 23, 36 (1934). 23. D. MILLER, J. Dairy Sci., 18, 259 (1935). 24. J. H. HESS, H. G. PONCHER, and H. WOODWARD, Am. J. Diseases Children, 48, 1058 (1934). 25. V. CONQUEST, A. W. TURNER, and H. J. REYNOLDS, J. Dairy Sci., 21, 361 (1938). 26. R. L. HILL, ibid., 6, 509 (1923). 27. Methods and Standards for the Production of Certified Milk, Am. Assoc. Med. Milk Commissions, New York, 1936. 28. W. J. CAULFIELD and W. H. RIDDELL, J. Dairy Sci., 17, 791 (1934). 29. Chief of Bureau of Dairy Industry, 1938, J. Milk Technol., 2, 48 (1939). 30. Curd Tension Committee. Rept. Annual Meeting Amer. Dairy Sci. Assoc., 31. P. H. TRACY, Milk Dealer, 25, 30, 60 (1936).

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- Health Library - PetMD U |8 Common Snacks That Will Prompt a Portly Pet||Overweight Pets: Addressing the Epidemic||How to Care for Senior Pets||10 Simple Ways to Help Your Overweight Dog| |Six Signs it’s Time to Change Your Pet’s Food||Top 5 Common Pet Owner Mistakes||Pet Nutrition in People Terms: Weight Gain||How to Choose the Best Dog Food| |8 Best Hiking Trails for Dogs||5 Ways to Get Your Cat with Mobility Issues Moving||5 Ways to Get Your Dog with Mobility Issues Moving||5 Exercise Tips for Arthritic Cats| |Top Ten 'Small Breed' Dogs||Top Ten Dogs for Kids||If Your Pet Had Thumbs...||Top Five Pet Poisons in Your Purse| |Ten Common Poisonous Plants for Cats||Does My Cat Have Ticks?||Top Ten Reasons to Hug your Cat||7 Ways Cats Are Not Small Dogs| Selecting a dog food with the proper balance of necessary nutrients from healthy ingredients is important for your dog’s well being. As you will see while reviewing MyBowl, minerals are one essential class of nutrients that must be included in a healthy, balanced diet. Minerals are crucial for the proper development and function of your dog’s body. Specific minerals must be present in a dog food in the right amounts to provide optimal health. Minerals work together to coordinate body functions and maintain normal activities. While not providing enough of certain minerals is a concern, oversupplementation can also cause problems. Pet food manufacturers keep a close eye on just how much of each and every mineral is used in a dog food. Minerals used must also be able to survive processing and storage and they must also be of good quality and easily absorbed by the dog. Many essential minerals are provided by common fruits, vegetables, meats and whole grains. These ingredients are used in many high quality products on the shelves today. The bulk of the minerals used in pet foods typically come in pre-combined powdered mixes. It is not reasonable to source minerals only from raw ingredients because they are less likely to survive processing. This is why you will see many chemical names on a bag of dog food. Macrominerals include calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, sodium, chloride, potassium and sulfur. Calcium and phosphorus are very important macrominerals. A deficiency in either of these minerals can lead to bone deformities or weakness. Fractures can easily result in animals with calcium and phosphorus deficiencies. In young animals, oversupplementation of these minerals can lead to abnormal growth and development, especially in large breed dogs. Calcium and phosphorus are also essential for blood coagulation, muscle growth and nervous system function. Magnesium works in harmony with calcium and phosphorus. Sodium and chloride work together to control the balance of fluid in the body. Imbalances of sodium and/or chloride can result in hair loss, fatigue, dehydration and even paralysis. Potassium is similar to sodium and chloride. Without adequate potassium the heart will not be able to beat normally. Sulfur is important in maintenance of hair, skin and nails. It also assists wound healing and detoxifies the body. Even though they are only needed in extremely small amounts, trace minerals are essential in a healthy, balanced dog food. Common trace minerals include iron, zinc, copper, iodine, magnesium and selenium. Iron is important for oxygenation of red blood cells, energy production and immune system maintenance. Zinc supports the immune system, skin and hair coat health and aids in digestion. Other trace minerals include nickel, molybdenum, aluminum, silicon, chromium, boron, cobalt and fluorine.

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The Working Group III Special Report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation (SRREN) presents an assessment of the literature on the scientific, technological, environmental, economic and social aspects of the contribution of six renewable energy (RE) sources to the mitigation of climate change. It is intended to provide policy relevant information to governments, intergovernmental processes and other interested parties. This Summary for Policymakers provides an overview of the SRREN, summarizing the essential findings. The SRREN consists of 11 chapters. Chapter 1 sets the context for RE and climate change; Chapters 2 through 7 provide information on six RE technologies, and Chapters 8 through 11 address integrative issues. References to chapters and sections are indicated with corresponding chapter and section numbers in square brackets. An explanation of terms, acronyms and chemical symbols used in this SPM can be found in the glossary of the SRREN (Annex I).Conventions and methodologies for determining costs, primary energy and other topics of analysis can be found in Annex II and Annex III. This report communicates uncertainty where relevant. You are here Residential Photovoltaic Energy Systems in California: The Effect on Home Sales Prices (2011)

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Here: have at it with a Swedish nuclear power plant simulator. Raise and lower the control rods, turn pumps on and off, open and close valves, just make sure you don’t blowup anything. Go look at the Chernobyl tour to see what happens when you mess up. The original page includes this context: The control-room operators of the Kärnobyl nuclear power plant are telecommuting and are running the plant through the Web. However, the mean time between failure for the components of Kärnobyl is not great. Try to keep the reactor stable when component failures occur! tags: chernobyl, control rods, control room, control room operators, mean time between failure, nuclear power, nuclear power plant, nuclear power plant operator, nuclear power plant simulation, nuclear power plant simulator, operator, power plant, power plant operator, pumps, reactor, simulation, simulator, telecommuting

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[Embargoed for release until 12 p.m. ET Thursday, August 5, 2004, to coincide with publication in the journal Cell.] BAD NEWS FOR PATHOGENIC BACTERIA: SCIENTISTS FIND PROTEIN ESSENTIAL FOR BACTERIAL SURVIVAL COLUMBUS, Ohio – Further investigation into how the common organism Escherichia coli regulates gene expression has given scientists new ideas for designing antibiotics that might drastically reduce a bacterium's ability to resist drugs. The findings, reported in the current issue of the journal Cell, suggest that bacteria rely on a key protein in order to properly regulate gene expression -- a process fundamental to cell survival. This protein, called DksA, coordinates the expression of numerous genes in response to environmental signals. Figuring out how to block DksA production in harmful bacteria may help scientists develop antibiotics that these bacteria are less likely to resist, said Irina Artsimovitch, a study co-author and an assistant professor of microbiology at Ohio State University. The current study suggests that DksA is the glue that holds together two key components of bacterial gene expression – a molecule called ppGpp and an enzyme called RNA polymerase. RNA polymerase carries out transcription, the first step in gene expression. In recent work, Artsimovitch and her colleagues discovered that ppGpp regulates gene expression by controlling amino acid production in bacteria. A cell makes ppGpp when amino acid levels are low, and ppGpp tells a cell to go dormant until amino acid levels return to normal. "But there was something missing from the ppGpp story," Artsimovitch said. "We knew that ppGpp had a dramatic effect on gene expression, but for some reason that effect was drastically decreased when we conducted experiments in the laboratory." Work by other researchers had suggested a link between DksA and the ppGpp-initiated stress response in the cell. But scientists couldn't agree on what role, if any, DksA played in the effect of ppGpp on gene expression. Working with a team of researchers led by Dmitry Vassylyev, a scientist with the RIKEN research institution in Japan, Artsimovitch and Ohio State microbiologist Vladimir Svetlov solved high-resolution crystal structures of DksA. Solving this structure meant that the researchers could at last determine just how DksA helped ppGpp hold fast to its target, RNA polymerase. DksA uses something scientists call the "backdoor of gene expression," a cavity on the RNA polymerase molecule called the secondary channel. DksA squeezes through this narrow tunnel toward the site where ppGpp binds to the enzyme. Once here, the protein helps ppGpp stay bound to RNA polymerase. "The secondary channel seems to be the hotspot for many interactions," Artsimovitch said. "It leads straight to the active site, and presents a confined area where many proteins and antibiotics that control transcription may bind to carry out their business." Knowing what roles ppGpp and DksA play in how bacteria respond to stress and other physiological stimuli may help scientists create new antibacterial drugs that target mechanisms specific and unique to harmful bacteria. "Conventional antibiotics aimed at killing bacteria also put immense pressure on bacteria to survive, and to ultimately develop resistance to these drugs," Artsimovitch said. "Forcing harmful bacteria into a stationary state by controlling ppGpp levels may be the way to circumvent the rise in antibiotic resistance. "ppGpp and DksA are found in all bacteria, including harmful ones," she continued. "Using ppGpp-based compounds to shut down gene expression in harmful bacteria could help curb the spread of infections." Grants from the National Institutes of Health and from RIKEN supported this research. Artsimovitch, Vassylyev and Svetlov conducted the study with Anna Perederina, Marina Vassylyeva, Tahir Tahirov and Shigeyuki Yokoyama, all with RIKEN.

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In employment, a young person is someone who is over the compulsory school age but under the age of 18. In England and Wales, a person is no longer of compulsory school age after the last Friday of June of the school year in which their 16th birthday occurs. In Scotland, pupils whose 16th birthday falls between 1 March and 30 September may not leave before the 31 May of that year. Pupils aged 16 on or between 1 October and the last day of February may not leave until the start of the Christmas holidays in that school year. In Northern Ireland, a person is no longer of compulsory school age after the 30th June of the school year in which their 16th birthday occurs. The Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations 1999 (or Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2000) requires you to undertake a risk assessment before a young person starts work or work experience. Try to look at your workplace from an adolescent's viewpoint. What dangers will they recognise? They may not be fully grown - will they find the workplace awkward and the tools too big? In particular you should look at: - How the workplace is laid out (and the particular site where they will work) - What type of work equipment will be used and how it will be used - How the work is organised - The need to provide health and safety training - The nature of any physical, biological and chemical agents they may be exposed to, for how long and to what extent - The risks from certain work hazards. Work they cannot do because of their age You must not allow a young person to carry out activities when you find that a significant risk remains in spite of your best efforts to take all reasonable steps to control it. You must protect your young employees and work experience students from the risks of accidents or ill health which they are unlikely to recognise because: - They are inexperienced - They have not been trained - They may not pay enough attention to safety. The overall rule is that young people under 18 years old must not be allowed to do work which: - Cannot be adapted to meet any physical or mental limitations they may have - Exposes them to substances which are toxic or cause cancer - Exposes them to radiation - Involves extreme heat, noise or vibration. Young people who are over the minimum school leaving age can do this work under special circumstances which are: - The work is necessary for their training - The work is properly supervised by a competent person - The risks are reduced to the lowest level, so far as is reasonably practicable. Children below the minimum school leaving age must never do work involving these risks whether they are employed or under the following special circumstances. Work activities permitted for children and young persons At 13 years of age the following work activities are permitted (14 years in Scotland, but local education authority bylaws are likely to permit children aged 13 to do the following): - Delivering newspapers - Shop work - Office work - Working in hairdressing salons - Washing cars by hand - Work in a cafe/restaurant cleaning tables (not in a kitchen) - Light work in riding stables - Domestic work in hotels - Light agricultural/gardening work (not using machinery) There are also very detailed restrictions on the number of hours a child can work which are greatly restricted in term time and on Sundays. Whilst of compulsory school age the following work activities are not permitted: - Selling/delivering alcohol - Delivering milk - Delivering fuel - Working in a kitchen including: use/cleaning of food slicers, mixers, food processors, potato chippers; cleaning/draining and use of fat fryers; de-boning meat - Use of chemicals including corrosive cleaning materials, e.g. oven and beer line cleaners - Collection/sorting of refuse including use of waste compactors - Work in telephone sales - Work more than 1 metre above ground (on ladders) - Work in a cinema/nightclub - Work as an attendant/assistant in a fairground/amusement arcade - Work as a personal care assistant of residents in a nursing home

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Causes of Cancer Cancers can develop from a variety of sources and causes. A major source is a group of chemicals known as carcinogens, which have been found in industrial pollutants, cigarette smoke and some food additives and pesticides. People exposed to carcinogens are more susceptible to cancer, but not everyone exposed to these carcinogens develops cancer. Other causes of cancer include obesity, excessive consumption of alcohol, a sedentary lifestyle, exposure to large amounts of radiation and too much sunlight. Certain viruses can also cause cancers, such as cervical cancer or liver cancer. Cancer is also linked to heredity. If you have a strong family history of cancer, you may be more likely to develop cancer. Your parents can pass a gene to you that makes you more susceptible to cancer, or a genetic mutation can be passed to you through your father’s sperm or your mother’s egg that makes cancer more likely. Many scientists believe that the combination of a hereditary susceptibility to cancer and an environmental trigger, such as exposure to a carcinogen or being obese, puts individuals at risk of developing cancer, especially at an earlier adult age.

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Write a program that uses a loop to display the characters for each ASCII code 32 through 127. Display 16 characters on each line with one space between characters. We are using the Starting out with C++ Early Objects 6th edition. I really don't know how to start this program, I'm not sure if it wants me to display ever character, or if I have to do get the user to input numbers and give me the characters that it should be or the other way around. If you can please help me that would be great.

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Our Fifth Grade students have just held their Invention Convention, a culminating experience for a library research unit. In addition to learning about famous inventors and the invention process using books and online resources, each student had the opportunity to design an invention. Working individually or with partners, the students developed original ideas for new products, some of which help to solve everyday problems. This creative group of students worked enthusiastically, brainstorming for ideas, developing models and prototypes, and creating ads to market their inventions. Some groups even wrote “commercials” to go along with their inventions. The students presented their inventions to an appreciative audience at school, and all were impressed with the level of creative enthusiasm. The video below highlights the students talking about their inventions and features some of their commercials. Enjoy watching and please feel free to leave a comment on this post!

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When Edgar Degas painted his friend Henri Michel-Levy in 1878, he included a lay figure sprawled on the ground below him. How did lay figures hold a pose? As we saw in the final illustration yesterday, lay figures could be held up with ropes attached to the extremities. But some of them also had adjustable screws in the joints. For standing poses, the figure generally also had a support attached to the pelvis from behind. This wood and metal skeleton has many points of articulation, even separate radius and ulna “bones” in the arm. In this one, the arms also pronate, and the knees can rotate outward. All the joints can be tightened with screws. It has sort of a pre-Steampunk (“wood-punk?”) mech vibe to it. Imagine an army of these guys with crossbows. This full size lay figure had sufficient bulk and volume to support the shape of the clothes. But such mannikins never looked completely natural, and artists were often embarrassed to use them, regarding them as a poor substitute for a live model. For this reason, lay figures were not often discussed, or if so, they tended to be disparaged. The Journal of the Society of the Arts in 1854 said that under pressing financial circumstances, a painter with a “mercantile spirit” might use a lay figure that “answers for both the male and female form,” which could lead to a disharmonious and incongruous figure. Check out the robot blog where I'm a guest contributor: "Nuthin' But Mech." Read the full GurneyJourney series on lay figures:Part 2

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(Student produced study guide from Foss, Foss, and Trapp ) characterized by the use of the scientific method and based on the presumption that we (people) can know objectively and comprehend the objects around us. (146) forms of understanding from which reality is to be deduced. (146) refers to the philosophical movement and is not based on the problem of existence, but deals with the problem of words, and the ways of rhetorically thinking and speaking that were perfected as a way of philosophizing in the 15th Century. (147) deals with scientific objectivity, universality, and rational deduction over other ways of knowing the world. (148) Cogito ergo sum: "I think; therefore I am." This is a self- evident axiom and is based on the human power to apprehend reality by means of reason. (146) what in essence, separates the human being from the animal. (149) ability to make adjustments in nature simply because we are humans. (149) the basic process by which humans gain control over nature; refers to a basic capacity to grasp what is common or similar in ideas or experiences. (151) "It leads to light because it stems from the need to see: that which is not obvious...is to be transferred," (154) and provides the connection between rhetorical and rational speech. (158) fundamental or original principle upon which philosophical arguments are based. (155) illuminates historical fact, making a situation concrete, relevant and understandable using metaphor and imagery. (157) deductive in nature and achieving its effect through logical demonstration. (157) a "system" of signs whose elements receive meaning through and within this system. Morse code is an example. (159) superficial and mistaken definition of rhetoric, as a technical art of persuasion, that acts on emotions to form beliefs. (159) practice, or doing. Reality is manifested in concrete situations. coming to terms with things by studying words individually. choosing what perspective to take in a situation; the unveiling of an essential meaning. approaches in research which are concerned with human's role in constructing rhetorical knowledge rather than with the possibility of objective knowledge (165) A. Grassi's education was the product of two opposing philosophic traditions: German Idealism and Italian Humanism. 1. Grassi's background of Italian Humanism was challenged at the University of Freiburg, where German philosophy dominated. 2. The dissonance of the two views led Grassi to examine his own beliefs more carefully, from which he determined that rhetoric constitutes the foundation of human thought. B. Two people were especially influential in differentiating the two philosophies for Grassi. 1. Bertando Spaventa's (Italian philosopher of the late nineteenth century), following statement left an impression on Grassi. "The development of German thought is natural, free, and independent, in a word, it is critical. The development of Italian thought is unsteady, hindered, and dogmatic. This is the great difference." (p.145) 2. Martin Heidegger, a German philosopher who worked with Grassi for ten years in Freiburg, held a strongly negative attitude towards Italian philosophy. Heidegger's attitude was influential in causing Grassi to seriously consider the value of both German philosophy and Italian philosophy. A. In order to understand Grassi's approach to rhetoric, more precise definitions are needed for the Scientific Tradition and Italian Humanism. 1. Scientific Tradition is based on objective knowledge. a. Rational deduction is at the core of the scientific method and involves starting from the premises and deriving the inferences already inherent in them. b. Grassi lists three limitations of this scientific paradigm, which he believes constrain what is studied as philosophy. i. The scientific method examines first principles, but not their sources. ii. The scientific method focuses on quantification. iii Scientific thought is concerned only with universals. 2. Grassi's Italian Humanism refers to a philosophical movement. a. Grassi's Humanism is Platonic and Aristotelian in orientation. b. Grassi's Humanism is concerned with "the problem of words, metaphorical thought, and rhetorical thinking." c. Grassi's Humanists sought to understand ways in which humans respond to a set of demands from the world and, by their linguistic choices, reveal the way they view this world around them. B. The Scientific Approach was in direct opposition to Grassi's Humanist Approach. (p.147) 1. The Scientific approach deals with objectivity while the Humanist approach deals with distinctions and contextual variations. 2. The Scientific Approach came to dominate philosophy, while the Humanists were seen as searching for and moving toward this position. 3. Grassi believed that the Scientific Method was one tool for understanding, while Humanism dealt with broader areas and combined the areas of rhetoric and philosophy. A. Grassi believed Vico represents the thought of Italian Humanism most fully. 1. Vico considered the rise of human history to be the basic problem of philosophy. 2. History is what differentiates humans from animals. B. Grassi's support for Humanist thought is based in Vico's conception of the humanization of nature. (p.150) 1. Grassi has a term called "meeting the claims or demands of life." a. All living beings experience the world using their senses, and inherently organize their environment to meet their basic needs. b. Animals rely on instinct to function. 2. The human process is very complex. a. Humans can choose and aren't limited to actions of instinct. b. Humans can define images through language and therefore can interpret the world in different ways. 3. Humanization or historication of nature occurs when: a. Humans become aware of these capabilities. b. They begin to make adjustments in nature, or "direct their own destinies." 4. Humans must take sensory level meanings and translate them into an intellectual level. 5. The clearing of forests and the cultivating of land is the first unfolding of human consciousness. (p.151) 6. This feeling of control over nature wasn't a sudden change: there were three developing stages. a. In the Cultural Age, humans felt they were a part of the cultural world. b. In the Age of Heros, combination of heros and gods (superhuman benefactors) were seen as helping humans by introducing social institutions and laws. c. In the Age of Humanity, humans realized that they could control nature. C. Humans gain control over nature using the Ingenium, which is the process of humanization. (p.151) 1. Ingenium transfers meaning from the sensory world to a higher human one. 2. Ingenium frees humans by allowing them to see relationships and making connections in experience which are needed to think new thoughts. D. There are three basic ways in which Ingenium is manifest to create the humans world. (p.152) 1. Imagination functions to grasp control of reality into two ways. a. Imagination allows humans to realize that they are not bound to nature in the same way that animals are bound. (152) b. Imagination allows humans to explain the world around them. It allows us to select certain interpretations of what we sense and allows us to define and order. 2. Work allows us to make and interpret connections of the sensory phenomena. Work allows us to act upon those interpretations made by our imagination. (p.153) 3. Language allows us to name and assign meanings to things in the world. By naming something we create a reality apart from the world. E. Humanists sought to understand things in the context of practical human action. 1. Praxis is action: the application of abstract philosophical concepts into concrete situations. (p.153) 2. Grammarians examine words and interpret the abstract human condition in combination with individual action. (p.154) A. Grassi refers to Aristotle and Cicero to define the metaphor. 1. Aristotle: "[The metaphor allows us] to see the similarity between what is actually the most widely separated." 2. Cicero's definition of metaphor said it was like a "light" which gives insight into a "relationship." B. Metaphor transfers insight on several levels. (p.154) 1. At the most basic level, the metaphor allows us to grasp similarities between two unrelated things. a. The metaphor operationalizes ingenium by allowing the human to connect himself/herself to the world of senses. b. We relate to nature in human terms. 2. Language works metaphorically, transferring insight. a. Language is symbolic because it helps us relate two dissimilar things. b. Language helps us interpret and connect to our world and experiences. 3. The process of philosophizing is metaphoric. a. A philosophical argument cannot be made without understanding the first principle. b. First principles are nonrational and "experienced" as an "urge." c. Philosophical systems are constructed with a first principle as the base. d. The similarities we make between "urges" to understand philosophical problem and the actual logical arguments we use are metaphorical. A. Grassi discusses the superiority of rhetorical language over rational speech. 1. Rhetorical language adapts various uses of imagery to illuminate historical fact and make it concrete, while rational speech is deductive and achieves effect through logical demonstration. 2. Rhetorical language deals with concrete particulars of life, while rational speech is universal and abstract. 3. Rhetorical language is like dialogue because it takes the world into account, while rational speech is monologic and has no need to interact. 4. Rhetorical language concentrates in images, symbols and metaphors, while rational speech is grounded in logical events and chronology. 5. Rhetorical language goes beyond a formal system, while rational speech is set in a "code" and can only move through the use of metaphor, which is indicative of rhetorical speech. B. A third form of speech identified by Grassi is "external rhetorical speech." 1. This is the superficial and mistaken definition of rhetoric as a technical art of persuasion. 2. This is "false speech" because images do not stem directly from metaphors or nature, but a limited understanding of nature and its images. A. Many feel that rhetoric is only the form of a message, while philosophy supplies factual content. B. Humanists see rhetoric in a positive light, as a way to make logical reasoning palatable to an audience. C. Grassi sees no separation of passion from logic. 1. The power of a message derives from its starting point in images that inspire wonder, admiration, engagement and passion. 2. Rhetoric, rather than logical deduction, is the true philosophy since it undertakes questions about the process by which "humans know, interpret, and create their world." D. The emphasis on science in the Western world has resulted in this separation of content from form, and contrasts with the World View of the humanists. (p.161) 1. Without scientific proof, an idea will not be believed. 2. We have forgotten that we need to study the insights upon which these calculations are based. E. There are many consequences for society that over-values the rational paradigm. 1. Those who believe in the "primacy of logic" and the ability for technology to deal with all problems tend to have an attitude of superiority. a. Humans see their rationality as giving them a dominance over all things. b. This actually limits humans' capability to fully interpret all things. 2. This affects our relationships with other cultures who do not share this attitude. a. We see these cultures as being underdeveloped. b. This view makes it impossible to fully understand them and constricts our interactions with them. 3. Logical thought has become synonymous with the domination of humans. (p.162) 4. The dawning of the atomic age is the ultimate example of humans' need to dominate nature. F. The rational approach which has dominated Western culture has been detrimental to philosophy. A. Renaissance Humanism defined folly as speaking irrationally without reason. B. Grassi studied literature for examples of folly, defining it instead as the ability, using language, to choose the perspective to take on a situation to unveil something's essence. (p.163) 1. Folly is an engagement of ingenium 2. Folly is the fundamental process by which humans move from the nonhuman to the human realm. 3. Folly, as an extension of ingenium, allows humans to imagine themselves in new situation and to deal with these situations effectively. A. Grassi's ideas of rhetoric are not well known among communication scholars. 1. Grassi has published in English only in Philosophy and Rhetoric and there are few essays or discussions on his work. 2. Grassi asserts the contributions of Italian Humanism to rhetoric and philosophy rather than with fully developing the contemporary implications of the philosophic perspective. B. Grassi made several important contributions to rhetoric from the Humanistic perspective. 1. Grassi asserts that rhetoric and philosophy are necessarily connected, since rhetoric is the starting point of philosophy. 2. Grassi preference of thought, speech, and action made from connections with nature (ingenium) rather than from logical reasoning is similar to the "new paradigm." 3. Grassi's notion of folly allows humans choices in how they perceive the world they live in. 4. Grassi's work generated renewed interest in Renaissance Humanism. 5. Grassi gives new significance to rhetorical speech and asks us to reconceptualize our definition of rhetoric. Grassi, Ernesto "Italian Humanism and Heidegger's Thesis of the End of Philosophy," Philosophy and Rhetoric, 13 (Spring 1980), 83. In this article, Grassi points to the parallelism between Heidegger's German Idealistic thought and the Italian Humanist tradition in order to create a historical framework in which to make evident the problems of Humanism in relation to present day. This article, separated into ten major ideas, begins with the End of Metaphysics and ends with Heidegger's Theory of the Brutality of the Being. In between these two major points, as Grassi explains Heidegger's Twofold thesis, the Traditional Model of Scientific Thought, the basic problem of Italian Humanism, The Question of the Veil of the Poetic Word, and the "clearing" of the Primordial Forest. Grassi, Ernesto Die Macht des Bildes, 221, cited in Walter Veit, "The Potency of Imagery - the Impotence of Rational Language: Ernesto Grassi's Contribution to Modern Epistemology," Philosophy and Rhetoric, 17 (1984), 235. Veit gives analysis to some of Grassi's theories in this article. Grassi once again confronts the separation of logical reasoning and rhetoric. Many of Grassi's ideas have literally reconstructed the philosophical dimension of rhetoric in the eyes of contemporary Italian Humanists. Much of this article is similar to the subjects covered in FFT, and it even helps in the understanding since it gives different explanations and examples to similar material. Emphasis is placed on some of the ideals of eighteenth century philosopher Giambattista Vico, who Grassi found as a source for some of his rhetorical ideas. Once again, it is stated that Grassi believed that the philosophical revolution began with the Italian Humanists, who showed that philosophy gains insight into the principles "through the creativity of the image." Grassi, Ernesto "Humanistic Rhetorical Philosophizing: Giovanni Pontano's Theory of the Unity of Poetry, Rhetoric, and History," Philosophy and Rhetoric, 17 (1984), 146. This article is simply Grassi's analysis and reaction to Potano's theories. It gives the reader some idea of the process of critical thinking that Grassi goes through in regards to the ideas of others. It is standard to differentiate between logic and rhetoric. The premises resulting from a rational process as exemplified by traditional metaphysics are necessary and universally valued. Rhetoric is bound by time and place, and it must use metaphor and images in order to be effective. In order for metaphor to be effective, there must be a common viewpoint shared between source and receiver which permits the audience to see the relationship of the metaphor. The unity of poetry, rhetoric, and history has a philosophical significance. All three are rooted in directive language. Potano's ideas are that the traditional thoughts need to be revised. A new kind of philosophy starts with the Humanists and the turn to rhetoric, away from rational argument. Grassi, Ernesto "Remarks on German Idealism, Humanism and the Philosophical Function of Rhetoric," Philosophy and Rhetoric, 19 (1986), 125. Grassi discusses his blending of Vico's Italian Humanism and German Idealism. The entire system of thoughts is summarized as follows: "The faculty that is crucial to the making of metaphors is ingenium, which allows us to see the world. The power of language is beyond logic and rational thinking. To think rationally involves assuming some presuppositions and drawing inferences from them." This text is simply and expansion of the work in Foss, et al. and provides a historical context for Grassi's work. Grassi, Ernesto "The Ordinary Quality of the Poetic and Rhetorical Word: Heidegger, Ungaretti, and Neruda," Philosophy and Rhetoric, 20 (1987), 248. This article is divided into three sections. The first section concentrates on making clear the philosophical function of poetical and rhetorical language, by looking at statements of philosopher Martin Heidegger and of two poets Ungaretti and Neruda. The poetic world, according to Heidegger, receives not only priority over the rational world, but also has a philosophical function comparing it to the ideas of philosopher Giambattista Vico. Second, it deals with the idea that reality cannot be revealed through a rational process. Next it deals with the philosophical function of poetry, showing that every beginning of a historical era is announced with a poetic expression, showing connection of poetry, rhetoric and history. Imagery is poetry. The third part shows what can happen when rational word becomes superior to rhetorical word, using the stories of Prometheus and Ulyssses. The fire Prometheus brought is considered metaphoric, but the fact that his liver is being destroyed keeps him historical and not eternal. Dante condemns Ulysses when he wishes to go beyond Hercules' pillars. Grassi, Ernesto "Why Rhetoric is Philosophy," Philosophy and Rhetoric, 20 (1987), 75. Traditional philosophy arrives at an important admission: rational language cannot reach "passions." What is "true" language? The model provided by German romantic thought recognizes an essentially literary character. In Monologne, Noralis, language is a game; language does not occur for the determination of beings. Tongue speaks for itself alone. An object has its own destiny and at the same time it doesn't in that each appears in its merry through the code which is revealed in the history. Rhetorical, historical language is shown to be the true philosophical language because it is by means of it that we "uncover" the various world by "playing" with our "orders" at stake. Verene, Donald Phillip, rev. of Die Macht der Phantasie and Rhetoric as Philosophy, by Ernesto Grassi, Philosophy and Rhetoric, 13 (Fall 1980), 281. This article summarizes Grassi's ideas in Rhetoric as Philosophy: The Humanist Tradition and in Die Macht der Phantasie. Zur Geschitchte abenlandischen Denkens. According to Verene, these books are "treasure houses of an understanding of the nature of rhetoric and its relationship to philosophy that is absent in contemporary thought." Grassi's thesis is that rhetoric is at the basis of philosophy. Considering this relationship, Grassi asks his readers to understand the power of language by choosing Humanism over science. Verene, Donald Phillip, "Response to Grassi," Philosophy and Rhetoric, 19 (1986), 135. Verene is delighted to be discussing Grassi's work. He admits skepticism to the blending of Italian Humanism and German Idealism. The most important element of Grassi's thought is the metaphor because metaphors embody the starting pints for thought. It is essentially a recovery of ancient ideas that Verene feels is long overdue. back to lecture note index

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Combating AIDS Around the Globe Lead story from the February Centerpoint In November 2004, just prior to World AIDS Day, the Woodrow Wilson Center and UNAIDS, the joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS, held two high-level briefings as part of a three-part series to expand awareness of the global AIDS agenda outside of the health community, particularly within foreign policy and development circles. World AIDS Day became an annual event in 1988 when some 5 million people were living with the disease. Since then, AIDS has killed more than 20 million people around the world and, this year, 40 million people are living with HIV/AIDS. In sub-Saharan Africa alone, more than 25 million people are living with HIV/AIDS. In the Caribbean, the region second-hardest hit by the disease, at least 1 in 50 adults across five nations already are infected. A November 10 seminar featuring Dr. Kathleen Cravero, deputy executive director of UNAIDS, and Ambassador George Moose, former assistant secretary of state for African affairs, shed light on the disproportionate impact HIV/AIDS has had on women in developed and developing countries. The second briefing on November 30— featuring UNAIDS Executive Director Dr. Peter Piot and U.S. Global AIDS Coordinator Ambassador Randall Tobias—explored the aggressive U.S. emergency plan to combat AIDS and the dangerously fast spread of HIV/AIDS in East Europe and East Asia. A third upcoming seminar will delve into the effects of AIDS on security. Every day around the world, 8,000 people die from AIDS, many of them young people in their productive years, many of them mothers and caretakers. It is a humanitarian crisis that poses serious social, economic, and security threats—one that requires a sustained, collective effort to overcome. The Emerging Pandemic: East Europe, Asia UNAIDS reported at the end of 2004 that nearly a half-million people died from AIDS in South and Southeast Asia and more than 7 million people are living with HIV/AIDS, while in East Asia more than 1 million people are HIV-positive. In addition, nearly 1 million Russians are living with HIV/AIDS, about triple the official statistics, according to Wilson Center Senior Scholar Murray Feshbach and Research Associate Cristina Galvin in a recently released report underwritten by the U.S. Agency for International Development. "The situation we face in China, India, and Russia bears alarming similarities to the situation we faced 20 years ago in Africa," said Dr. Piot in his November 30 address. Piot said these countries are nearing "a tipping point," much like Africa had experienced. In South Africa, he explained, prevalence rates rose from .5 to 1 percent in five years but then in seven years, the rate leapt from 1 to 20 percent. Piot said, "I am calling for intensified attention on these next wave countries-not at the expense of Africa, but also on behalf of Africa." If the epidemic spreads, he said, global resources for Africa could decrease or disappear. "If we don't prevent this breakout, and full-blown epidemics take hold in these large, populous states, there will be dire consequences not only for these countries, but for each of our own." Well over half the world's population resides in Asian-Pacific countries, where HIV/AIDS-related income losses totaled more than $7 billion in 2001 alone. India and China, two of the world's most populous countries, have rapidly growing economies which would be devastated by the stunted growth that AIDS has caused elsewhere as would their global trading partners. AIDS threatens a nation's security and stability, and national defense can be compromised by the growing rates of AIDS in military ranks. In Russia, incidents of HIV among potential military conscripts are estimated to be 25 times the level of five years earlier, according to the Feshbach/Galvin report. The report also noted that while HIV is on the rise, testing has dropped dramatically, in a society that stigmatizes those with the virus. In Asia, increasing populations help offset the AIDS mortality levels, but Russia has a declining population. Furthermore, the report noted, AIDS disproportionately impacts Russia's young people; more than 80 percent of HIV-positive Russians are under 30 years old. "We can pay now for prevention," said Piot, "we can wait a bit longer and pay for treatment; or we can wait even longer and pay the price of losing tens of hundreds of millions of productive citizens. Early investment is everything...the price rises every minute we wait." Women and AIDS World AIDS Day, commemorated on December 1, focused special attention this year on the growing AIDS epidemic among women and girls. In sub-Saharan Africa, 60 percent of all HIV-positive people and 75 percent of infected young people, 15 to 24 years old, are female. Some of the steepest increases are occurring in East Asia, East Europe, and Central Asia. In Russia, the Russian Federal AIDS Center reported in 2003 that 38 percent of people living with HIV were women, compared with 24 percent in 2001. In Brazil, new AIDS cases among women increased by 75 percent in the late 1990s, compared to just 10 percent among men. And, in the United States, AIDS is the leading cause of death among African American women, ages 35-44. "The disproportionate infection of millions of poor women isn't merely an injustice; it's a socioeconomic disaster," said Dr. Cravero, at the November 10 seminar, "Confronting the Crisis: Women and AIDS." Cravero said AIDS among women is on the rise in these countries because "women lack control over their bodies and their daily lives, and the tools, resources and support needed to change their situation." Ambassador Moose discussed the debate within the U.S. government. He said while the U.S. government has recognized the magnitude of the HIV/AIDS threat and has made advances developing affordable antiretroviral treatments for developing nations, it has yet to address the challenge of women and AIDS. "It's one thing to bring policymakers and politicians to an acceptance that HIV/AIDS represents a threat to national and international security interests," he said, "but it's quite another, I would argue, to convince them that the place where that battle will have to be fought and won is in the bedrooms and bordellos of every society around the world." Piot also discussed the rise of AIDS among women and said that solely insisting on abstinence is unrealistic. "The scientists, the doctors, the activists, the churches, and all of us should come together and agree on a broad philosophy of prevention that takes cultural and religious differences into account, but embraces a common principle-that the highest moral ideal is to save lives." Piot said developing countries must encourage educational and economic opportunities for women, pass and enforce laws that deter domestic violence, and promote access to the female condom and microbicides that women can use to protect themselves. Said Cravero, "For women who can't choose when and with whom to have sex, for women whose partners will not use condoms or be faithful, and for women who are too beaten up or beaten down to ask, methods that they control...will make all the difference." The U.S. Relief Plan On November 30, Ambassador Randall Tobias presented the President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief, which commits $15 billion over a five-year period toward combating the disease in more than 100 countries. The plan, which promotes integrated prevention, treatment, and care, is the largest commitment ever by a single nation toward an international health initiative. With special emphasis on 15 focus nations in Africa, the Caribbean, and Asia, where half the world's infections occur, this plan aims to treat 2 million HIV-infected people, prevent 7 million new infections, and care for 10 million people, including orphans and vulnerable children. The emergency plan "strives to bring donors, stakeholders on the ground, and national leadership onto the same page," said Tobias, adding that emphasis will be placed on monitoring and evaluating results. "If this HIV/AIDS challenge is to be met, we in the developed world will have to meet it. If we fail to rise to the occasion, there's really no Plan B." He underscored the importance of such organizations as UNAIDS remaining engaged in the fight. Such groups, he said, "offer other donors a vehicle to sharply increase their commitment, as America has done."

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Occupational Safety and Health Administration OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION The mission of the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) is to assure that every U.S. worker goes home whole and healthy every day. Toward that end, the agency sets and enforces workplace safety and health standards, encourages voluntary compliance through consultation and partnerships, and promotes safety training and education for workers and employers. Since Congress passed the Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970 (OSH Act), which created OSHA as an agency within the U.S. Department of Labor, workplace fatalities have been cut in half and occupational injury and illness rates have declined 40 percent. At the same time, U.S. employment has nearly doubled. Under the OSH Act, employers are responsible for providing a safe and healthful work environment in line with standards set by OSHA. Protecting workers against workplace hazards requires every employer and every worker to make safety and health a top priority. OSHA's charge is to offer leadership and encouragement to workers and employers in carrying out this responsibility. OSHA has a staff of about 2,250, including about 1,250 inspectors in 67 field offices. Sharing the responsibility for oversight of workplace safety and health are twenty-five states that run their own OSHA programs with about 2,800 employees, including about 1,250 inspectors. Early OSHA standards focused primarily on safety and establishing precise safety requirements, such as the specific height for guardrails on stairs. Newer standards take a performance or program approach, identifying a safety or health objective and providing a framework for employers to use in achieving that goal. OSHA standards cover the gamut of workplace safety and health issues, including machine guarding, fall protection, chemical-hazard communication, and protection against blood-borne pathogens such as HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) and hepatitis B. OSHA's enforcement program has changed dramatically over the years. The agency has continually attempted to target its resources toward the most hazardous worksites, as well as respond to worker complaints and investigate fatal accidents. Initially, OSHA focused on sites in industries with high injury rates. More recently, OSHA has obtained site-specific injury and illness data and has been able to concentrate on individual sites with poor safety and health records. The agency conducts about 35,000 inspections each year; states running their own OSHA programs inspect an additional 55,000 workplaces. To foster voluntary compliance with OSHA standards and assist employers in setting up ongoing safety and health programs, OSHA offers free consultations and seeks to establish partnerships with individual workplaces and with trade groups and unions. The OSHA consultation program, designed for smaller employers, provides free assistance to employers who request help with safety and health programs and specific problems. Employers agree in advance to correct serious hazards identified by the consultant. The consultation program is administered by state authorities and is completely separate from the enforcement effort. OSHA's premier partnership is the Voluntary Protection To further assist employers and workers, OSHA maintains an extensive web site (http://www.osha.gov) that includes the agency's standards, publications, training materials, interactive software covering specific standards and hazards, small business information, an online complaint filing system for workers, and links to many other sources of information on job safety and health. The agency also offers safety and health training at its Chicagoarea training institute and through twelve educational centers located at community colleges and universities around the country. OSHA is developing satellite-delivered and web-based training programs to make its training available to a wider audience. Through its New Directions grants, OSHA encourages nonprofit organizations such as unions and trade associations to develop additional training materials and offer training courses. Improving work environments is a long-term proposition that requires daily diligence and ongoing commitment in the face of competing priorities for time, energy, and resources. OSHA's mandate is to aid employers and employees to make this commitment and continually pursue excellence in job safety and health. OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION Occupational Safety and Health Administration. All About OSHA. (OSHA 2056). Available at http://www.osha.gov.

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"Nofollow" provides a way for webmasters to tell search engines "Don't follow links on this page" or "Don't follow this specific link." nofollow attribute appeared in the page-level meta tag, and instructed search engines not to follow (i.e., crawl) any outgoing links on the page. For example: <meta name="robots" content="nofollow" /> nofollow was used on individual links, preventing robots from following individual links on a page required a great deal of effort (for example, redirecting the link to a URL blocked in robots.txt). That's why the nofollow attribute value of the rel attribute was created. This gives webmasters more granular control: instead of telling search engines and bots not to follow any links on the page, it lets you easily instruct robots not to crawl a specific link. For example: <a href="signin.php" rel="nofollow">sign in</a> How does Google handle nofollowed links? In general, we don't follow them. This means that Google does not transfer PageRank or anchor text across these links. Essentially, using nofollow causes us to drop the target links from our overall graph of the web. However, the target pages may still appear in our index if other sites link to them without using nofollow, or if the URLs are submitted to Google in a Sitemap. Also, it's important to note that other search engines may handle nofollow in slightly different ways. What are Google's policies and some specific examples of nofollow usage? Here are some cases in which you might want to consider using - Untrusted content: If you can't or don't want to vouch for the content of pages you link to from your site — for example, untrusted user comments or guestbook entries — you should nofollow those links. This can discourage spammers from targeting your site, and will help keep your site from inadvertently passing PageRank to bad neighborhoods on the web. In particular, comment spammers may decide not to target a specific content management system or blog service if they can see that untrusted links in that service are nofollowed. If you want to recognize and reward trustworthy contributors, you could decide to automatically or manually remove the nofollowattribute on links posted by members or users who have consistently made high-quality contributions over time. - Paid links: A site's ranking in Google search results is partly based on analysis of those sites that link to it. In order to prevent paid links from influencing search results and negatively impacting users, we urge webmasters use nofollowon such links. Search engine guidelines require machine-readable disclosure of paid links in the same way that consumers online and offline appreciate disclosure of paid relationships (for example, a full-page newspaper ad may be headed by the word "Advertisement"). More information on Google's stance on paid links. - Crawl prioritization: Search engine robots can't sign in or register as a member on your forum, so there's no reason to invite Googlebot to follow "register here" or "sign in" links. Using nofollowon these links enables Googlebot to crawl other pages you'd prefer to see in Google's index. However, a solid information architecture — intuitive navigation, user- and search-engine-friendly URLs, and so on — is likely to be a far more productive use of resources than focusing on crawl prioritization via nofollowed links. How does nofollow work with the Social Graph API (rel="nofollow me")? If you host user profiles and allow users to link to other profiles on the web, we encourage you to mark those links with the rel="me" microformat so that they can be made available through the Social Graph API. For example: <a href="http://blog.example.com" rel="me">My blog</a> However, because these links are user-generated and may sometimes point to untrusted pages, we recommend that these links be marked with nofollow. For example: <a href="http://blog.example.com" rel="me nofollow">My blog</a> rel="me nofollow", Google will continue to treat the rel="nofollow" as expected for search purposes, such as not transferring PageRank. However, for the Social Graph API, we will count the rel="me" link even when included with a To prevent crawling of a rel="me nofollow" URL, you can use robots.txt. Standard robots.txt exclusion rules are respected by both Googlebot and the Social Graph API.

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http://support.google.com/webmasters/bin/answer.py?hl=en&answer=96569&ctx=cb&src=cb&cbid=-m17sgxl5salw&cbrank=3

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en

Luckily, Music Theory for Dummies shows you the fun and easy way to understanding the concepts needed to compose, deconstruct, and comprehend music. This helpful guide will give you a great grasp of: - Note value and counting notes - Treble and bass clefs - Time signatures and measures - Naturalizing the rhythm - Tempo and dynamic - Tone, color, and harmonics - Half steps and whole steps - Harmonic and melodic intervals - Key signatures and circles of fifths - Scales, chords, and their progressions - Elements of form - Music theory’s fascinating history This friendly guide not only explores these concepts, it provides examples of music to compliment them so you can hear how they sound firsthand. With a bonus CD that demonstrates these ideas with musical excerpts on guitar and piano, this hands-on resource will prove to you that music theory is as enjoyable as it is useful. Don’t get discouraged by the seemingly complicated written structure. With Music Theory for Dummies, understanding music has never been easier! Note: CD-ROM/DVD and other supplementary materials are not included as part of eBook file.

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http://www.amazon.ca/Music-Theory-Dummies-Audio-CD-ROM/dp/0764578383

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Family: Corvidae, Crows, Magpies, Jays view all from this family Description ADULT Has a pale gray-brown back, but otherwise mostly dark blue upperparts; note, however, the dark cheeks and eyeline and pale forecrown, extending back as faint supercilium. Throat is whitish and streaked, with discrete demarcation from otherwise grubby pinkish gray underparts. JUVENILE Similar, but dull gray on head, back, and wing coverts, with blue flight feathers and tail. Dimensions Length: 11" (28 cm) Endangered Status The Florida Scrub-Jay is on the U.S. Endangered Species List. It is classified as threatened throughout its range in Florida. Like many other Florida wildlife species, the scrub-jay has declined as its habitat has succumbed to development. Remaining habitat has been fragmented and degraded, and existing populations are small and isolated. This makes them vulnerable to any change to their environment, as an entire population can be wiped out at once. In some areas the rate of mortality appears to exceed the rate at which the populations is reproducing. A long-term problem for this species could be rising sea levels caused by global warming, as their remaining habitat could easily become inundated. Habitat Common and widespread resident of scrubby woodland and overgrown suburban lots. Has declined markedly due to habitat loss and degradation Observation Tips Easy to see and often indifferent to people. Voice Utters a harsh, nasal cheerp, cheerp, cheerpÖ and other chattering calls. Similar Species Western Scrub-jay A. californica (L 11-12 in) is bluer on head but otherwise similar; a mainly western species, resident in Texas. Discussion Florida endemic with slim body, long tail, and stout, but rather slender bill. An opportunistic feeder with an omnivorous diet that includes berries, fruits, insects, and the eggs and young of songbirds. Usually seen in family groups. Sexes are similar.

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http://www.enature.com/fieldguides/detail.asp?sortBy=has+audio&curFamilyID=246&curGroupID=1&lgfromWhere=&viewType=&curPageNum=2

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You can help keep your heart and blood vessels healthy by taking steps toward a healthier lifestyle. These healthy habits include not smoking, eating right, exercising regularly, staying at a healthy weight, and getting the screening tests you need. A heart-healthy lifestyle is important for everyone, not just for people with existing health problems. It can help you keep your heart and blood vessels healthy. If you already have heart or blood vessel problems, such as high cholesterol or high blood pressure, a healthy lifestyle can help you manage those problems. If you have children, you can be their healthy role model. If your habits are healthy, your children are more likely to build those habits in their own lives. Everyone who uses tobacco would benefit from quitting. When you quit smoking—no matter how old you are—you will decrease your risk of heart attack, stroke, and many other health problems. For help with quitting smoking, see these topics: Eating healthy foods is one of the best things you can do to prevent and control many health problems, including heart and blood vessel disease. For help with healthy eating, see these topics: Improving your fitness is good for your heart and blood vessels, as well as the rest of your body. Being active helps lower your risk of health problems. And it helps you feel good. For more information about being active, see these topics: Staying at a healthy weight is also part of a heart-healthy lifestyle. Read more in these topics about reaching and staying at a healthy weight: Seeing your doctor regularly and getting screening tests is important. The sooner your doctor diagnoses a disease, the more likely it can be cured or managed. To reduce your risk of heart and blood vessel problems, be sure to keep an eye on your cholesterol and blood pressure. The tests you might have to check your risk for heart and blood vessel problems depend on your age, health, gender, and risk factors. Talk to your doctor to find out which tests are right for you. Other Works Consulted - Expert Panel on Integrated Guidelines for Cardiovascular Health and Risk Reduction in Children and Adolescents (2011). Expert panel on integrated guidelines for cardiovascular health and risk reduction in children and adolescents: Summary report. Pediatrics, 128(Supplement 5): S213–S256. - Redberg RF, et al. (2009). ACCF/AHA 2009 Performance measures for primary prevention of cardiovascular disease in adults: A report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation/American Heart Association Task Force on Performance Measures. Circulation, 120(13): 1296–1336. |Primary Medical Reviewer||Rakesh K. Pai, MD, FACC - Cardiology, Electrophysiology| |Specialist Medical Reviewer||Robert A. Kloner, MD, PhD - Cardiology| |Last Revised||April 6, 2012| Last Revised: April 6, 2012 Author: Healthwise Staff To learn more visit Healthwise.org © 1995-2012 Healthwise, Incorporated. Healthwise, Healthwise for every health decision, and the Healthwise logo are trademarks of Healthwise, Incorporated.

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http://www.sanfordhealth.org/HealthInformation/Healthwise/Topic/abk9834

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Bipolar disorder, also known as manic-depressive illness, is a brain disorder that causes unusual shifts in mood, energy, activity levels, and the ability to carry out day-to-day tasks. Symptoms of bipolar disorder are severe. They are different from the normal ups and downs that everyone goes through from time to time. Bipolar disorder symptoms can result in damaged relationships, poor job or school performance, and even suicide. But bipolar disorder can be treated, and people with this illness can lead full and productive lives. Bipolar disorder often develops in a person's late teens or early adult years. At least half of all cases start before age 25. Some people have their first symptoms during childhood, while others may develop symptoms late in life. Bipolar disorder is not easy to spot when it starts. The symptoms may seem like separate problems, not recognized as parts of a larger problem. Some people suffer for years before they are properly diagnosed and treated. Like diabetes or heart disease, bipolar disorder is a long-term illness that must be carefully managed throughout a person's life.

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http://www.jgarybookermd.com/2152/6833.html

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UNESCO describes the Site Piedmont and Lombardy Sacred Mounts as follows: The nine northern Italy’s Sacred Mounts are composed of groups of chapels and other architectural elements built within the end of XV and the end of XVII century and dedicated to different aspects of Christian Faith. In addition to their symbolic religious meanings, these places are characterized by a remarkable beauty thanks to the careful integration of architectural elements into the surrounding natural landscapes: hills, woods and lakes. Furthermore they boast very important works of art like frescos and statues. UNESCO World Heritage Committee has put the Site on its List for the following reasons: The realization of an architectural and sacred art’s work into a natural landscape for didactic and religious aims, finds its highest expression in northern Italy Sacred Mounts and it has deeply influenced following developments of this phenomenon in the rest of Europe. Sacred Mounts of northern Italy represent the successful integration into a landscape of remarkable beauty of architecture and fine arts realized for religious aims during a critical period of Catholic Church history. UNESCO Site’s Sacred Mounts are mainly located in the Alpine arc, close to lakes or at the bottom of valleys crossed by river Po’s tributaries and by important old routes. The complexes’ panoramic and prominent locations on hills or mountains and their subdivisions into chapels, let them become territorial reference points easy to identify; we don’t have to forget that creating sort of territorial reference points was probably one of the aims for such locations, considering that sacred mountains strategical position marks the northern limit of the Po valley, which was, at that time, symbolically protected by them, that is by the Christianity itself. There is an important thread ideally binding these nine Sacred Mounts: the first crib of Greccio, made by Saint Francis of Assisi, the Holy Representations, the protection of the Holy Land, the Sacred Mounts foundations (first by gerosolimitani then by counter-reformists) and the Viae Crucis, almost all the above stories in fact tell us about Franciscan fathers who had been fundamental for all complexes’ building. Some had been the inventors, like Bernardino Caimi in Varallo, Tommaso of Firenze in Montaione and Michelangelo of Montiglio in Belmonte; some the designers, like Cleto of Castelletto Ticino in Orta, or the preachers like Giovan Battista Aguggiari in Varese, Fedele of San Germano in Oropa, Gioacchino of Cassano and Andrea of Rho in Domodossola. More we remeber that between 1731 and 1751 it was again the Franciscan Leonardo of Porto Maurizio who built five hundred and seventy-two Viae Crucis throughout Italy; we owe nineteenth-century-restoration and renewal of Crea’s Sacred Mount to Franciscan fathers Costantino Cerri and Giuseppe Latini. Observants or Capuchins, that are disciples of the poor of Assisi, are the most sensitive and active champions of the theatre-, sculpture- and painting-representations. Dedications and histories told in each complexe remind both of pre-existent local devotions and of religious and cultural foundation times. Therefore in Varallo prevails the representation of Jesus Christs’ life, in Orta of Saint Francis of Assisi, in Oropa of the Virgin Mary, while in Varese and in Ossuccio they represent the Marian Rosary prayer with its fifteen Misteries. Wishing to follow again the steps of Christ’s Passion, like the Jesus’s Via Dolorosa in Jerusalem (that is ‘Very Painful Viae’), they modified the Sacred Mount of Crea and built the Sacred Mounts Calvaries of Domodossola and Belmonte. In Ghiffa instead Holy Trinity’s devotion resulted so difficult and abstract to represent that, in the end, they went back in part to a much usual and immediate issue: the Via Crucis.

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http://www.sacrimonti.net/User/index.php?PAGE=Sito_en/app_storia_3

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How lego does it today. I found little information about Autodesk Maya being the 3D modeling software being used. Here`s a blurb about their current design process : Primary concept and development work takes place at the Billund headquarters, where the company employs approximately 120 designers. The company also has smaller design offices in the UK, Spain, Germany, and Japan, which are tasked with developing products aimed specifically at these markets. The average development period for a new product is around twelve months, in three stages. The first stage is to identify market trends and developments, including contact by the designers directly with the market; some are stationed in toy shops close to holiday periods, while others interview children. The second stage is the design and development of the product based upon the results of the first stage. As of September 2008 the design teams use 3D modeling software to generate CAD drawings from initial design sketches. The designs are then prototyped using an in-house stereolithography machine. These are presented to the entire project team for comment and for testing by parents and children during the "validation" process. Designs may then be altered in accordance with the results from the focus groups. Virtual models of completed Lego products are built concurrently with the writing of the user instructions. Completed CAD models are also used in the wider organization, such as for marketing and packaging. source : wikipedia How lego used to do it do you know? How people do it themselves Lego provide software that does just that. Check for "Lego digital designer" which allows to create a model, save a building manuals and buy the lego parts online. Also check up this related question :"Do any programs exist that allow you to build own LEGO plans?" For more information on how to create high quality computer images of lego models, check this question : "How can I create synthetic imagery (rendering) of lego models?"

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http://bricks.stackexchange.com/questions/239/how-are-the-lego-instruction-manuals-made

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The continuing Texas drought has taken an enormous and growing toll on trees, killing as many as half a billion – 10 percent of the state’s 4.9 billion trees – this year alone, the Texas Forest Service estimates. That calculation did not include trees claimed by this year’s deadly and extensive wildfires, even if they were drought-related, Burl Carraway, who heads the agency’s Sustainable Forestry Department, told Texas Climate News. (Previously, the Forest Service estimated that about 1.5 million trees were lost on 34,000 charred acres in the Bastrop County fire, most destructive in Texas history. In another damage assessment, the agency said more than 2,000 fires in East Texas had charred more than 200,000 acres. Texas has about 63 million acres of forestlands.) The estimate that up to half a billion trees have been lost to drought in 2011 was issued Monday by the Forest Service. It was based on statistics tabulated by agency foresters after they canvassed local forestry professionals in their regions, developed estimated percentages of drought-killed trees, and applied them to regional tree inventories. The resulting estimate was that 100 million to 500 million trees with a diameter of at least five inches had perished because of the drought – two to 10 percent of the nearly five billion trees of that size in the state. In 2011, Texas experienced an exceptional drought, prolonged high winds and record-setting temperatures. Together, those conditions took a severe toll on trees across the state. Large numbers of trees in both urban communities and rural forests have died or are struggling to survive. The impacts are numerous and widespread. The agency found that trees in three areas appeared to be hurt the most by the drought: - An area in West Texas including Sutton, Crockett, western Kimble and eastern Pecos counties, with extensive death of Ashe junipers. - An area in Southeast Texas including Harris, Montgomery, Grimes, Madison and Leon counties, where many loblolly pines succumbed. - An area southeast of Austin, including western Bastrop and eastern Caldwell counties as well as neighboring areas, which had widespread mortality among cedars and post oaks. Also, the agency said, “localized pockets of heavy mortality were reported for many other areas. The Forest Service plans to use aerial imagery in a more detailed analysis next spring, when trees that entered early dormancy because of the drought may start to recover. In addition, the agency said, “a more scientific, long-term study” of tree losses will be carried out through its Forest Inventory and Analysis program’s census of the state’s trees. Carraway said Forest Service officials “fully expect mortality percentages to increase if the drought continues.” Texas state climatologist John Nielsen-Gammon has said that a second year of drought in 2012 is “likely,” perhaps with more dry conditions following that. Nielsen-Gammon has estimated that about a tenth of the excess heat this past summer was attributable to manmade climate change. He and other climate experts have said hotter, drier conditions are expected to increase in Texas in decades ahead as concentrations of human-created greenhouse gases accumulate in the atmosphere. What the warming average temperature of the planet could mean for forests and other ecosystems was the focus of research findings announced last week by NASA. The study, carried out by researchers from NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory and the California Institute of Technology, used a computer model that projected massive changes in plant communities across nearly half of the earth’s land surface, with “the conversion of nearly 40 percent of land-based ecosystems from one major ecological community type – such as forest, grassland or tundra – toward another.” The NASA announcement added: The model projections paint a portrait of increasing ecological change and stress in Earth’s biosphere, with many plant and animal species facing increasing competition for survival, as well as significant species turnover, as some species invade areas occupied by other species. Most of Earth’s land that is not covered by ice or desert is projected to undergo at least a 30 percent change in plant cover – changes that will require humans and animals to adapt and often relocate. In addition to altering plant communities, the study predicts climate change will disrupt the ecological balance between interdependent and often endangered plant and animal species, reduce biodiversity and adversely affect Earth’s water, energy, carbon and other element cycles. “For more than 25 years, scientists have warned of the dangers of human-induced climate change,” said Jon Bergengren, a scientist who led the study while a postdoctoral scholar at Caltech. “Our study introduces a new view of climate change, exploring the ecological implications of a few degrees of global warming. While warnings of melting glaciers, rising sea levels and other environmental changes are illustrative and important, ultimately, it’s the ecological consequences that matter most.” When faced with climate change, plant species often must “migrate” over multiple generations, as they can only survive, compete and reproduce within the range of climates to which they are evolutionarily and physiologically adapted. While Earth’s plants and animals have evolved to migrate in response to seasonal environmental changes and to even larger transitions, such as the end of the last ice age, they often are not equipped to keep up with the rapidity of modern climate changes that are currently taking place. Human activities, such as agriculture and urbanization, are increasingly destroying Earth’s natural habitats, and frequently block plants and animals from successfully migrating. – Bill Dawson Image credits: Photos – Texas Forest Service; Map – NASA

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http://texasclimatenews.org/wp/?p=3779

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Girl Scout Preserves Florida's Wildlife March 23, 2012 – Miami, Fla. – Senior Girl Scout Caitlin Kaloostian earned the Gold Award, the highest award a Girl Scout can receive, by completing a new butterfly garden and wildlife themed mural for The Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission (FWC). The FWC works with community and youth organizations to demonstrate the importance of safeguarding Florida’s Natural resources and to encourage the next generation of conservationists. To further this mission, Kaloostian held fundraisers such as garage sales and solicited help from fellow high school students to raise funds necessary to complete the project. With the help of her troop, Girl Scout Troop 305, Kaloostian painted a mural at the FWC’s Division of Law Enforcement Office which featured native fish and wildlife including a Florida panther, a manatee, an alligator, fish and many other animals. The butterfly garden uses native plants to attract butterflies and birds. Both the mural and the butterfly garden will help to preserve Florida’s future.

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http://www.girlscoutsfl.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=100:girl-scout-preserves-floridas-wildlife&catid=2:news&Itemid=29

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CMS Web Guide (University of Michigan-Flint) What is a CMS and how can it be used? A CMS (content management system) is a piece of software used to effectively organize and manage large amounts of digital content. Content, in reference to the university's CMS, includes all web pages, documents, and other files made available via the university web site. The CMS makes it possible for almost anyone to easily manage web content, without needing to know how to write HTML (hyper-text mark-up language, the typical method for creating web pages). By using a CMS the university will also have an easy way to implement version control. Once in place and properly utilized, the CMS will improve the overall quality of content (by reducing broken links, content redundancy, human error, and providing a more uniform appearance for ease of navigation).

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http://www.umflint.edu/webguide/

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Commercially-pressed CD's and CD-R or CD-RW disks are fundamentally different technologies, which is why a commercial CD will continue to be readable long after a CD-R has become unusable. A CD drive uses a focused laser beam that is reflected from the media surface in the CD disc. The beam is reflected onto a sensor that detects changes in the amount of energy that is reflected. The original (commercial) process used perforated aluminum as the media surface. When you use the term "pressed" you are using an old vinyl record term, but the production process is pretty much the same. There is a "master" disk that is put into a press which is filled with polycarbonate. The master disk has little pins sticking up everywhere there is to be a hole in the aluminum. The disk is cooled, and liquid aluminum is spun onto it. This results in an aluminum layer with holes in it. When the disc is played, the laser reflects strongly from the shiny aluminum or less strongly (or not at all) from the holes. The reflection/non-reflection is translated into the ones and zeros of the binary data stored on the disk. Over time the aluminum can oxidize or there can be other changes in the plastic and other materials that make the disc unusable. These are long term effects and the ultimate statistical life of a commercial CD is often debated, without conclusion, by the experts. The CD-R and CD-RW do not use an aluminum media surface. Instead, they use a dye. When the disc is written, a high-powered laser causes spots on the disk to turn dark (hence the term "burning"). When played back, the sensor in the player sees the difference in reflectivity of the dark and not-so-dark spots as the binary data. Unfortunately, because the dye is a light-sensitive chemical, over time it will fade. This can happen from the heat of the reading laser, from ambient light, and from chemical degradation in the dye and support media. CD-R/RW media is safe for backup, and for creating alternate media (copying music files to play in your car so that if they are damaged from heat or wear out you can make another one, and preserve your originals elsewhere), and similar purposes. However, they are not safe for archival storage because they are not stable enough for that purpose. Side note: when burning CD's for use in a car, for best results get "music CD's" which are designed for that application, or slow your burning speed down to 12x or 16x to get a darker spot from your high speed burner. The car will read the disc more reliably. Insofar as tape storage is concerned, tape is also not a good archival choice of media. It's generally better than CD-R, although I haven't seen any comparative studies. Major data centers who use tape storage refresh the storage periodically. Their Tape Management System (TMS) remembers the date the tape was recorded, and will call it up to be copied periodically. The old tape is then erased and reused until it reaches end of life (sometimes a fixed usage or time interval, sometimes when the number of recoverable errors reaches a threshold) at which time it is scrapped. The whole issue of long term archive is complex, and goes beyond media. For media, if a data center stored its files on a 9 track magnetic tape twenty years ago, how would it retrieve that data today (you cannot find working 9 track drives). What if it had used an early Magneto-Optical (MO) drive? Small businesses have trouble when their tape drive fails, and they can't buy another drive in that old format. File formats are another problem. I have word processing documents that deceased family members created years ago. I no longer have word processing software that will import some of those formats. I can (sometimes) extract the raw text and then try to reformat it in a current program, but if I don't have a printed original I don't know how it was intended to be formatted. The only archival format that has stood the test of time is paper. Submitted by: Kevin G. of Dallas, TX Well, Carl, that so-called expert sure has stirred the waters and a LOT of people are wondering about the same question. However, your friendly Federal Government has studied the problem even longer. To be specific, the National Archives and Records Administration, in charge of all of the record archiving of the government, has no standard on media storage, and requested NIST, that's National Institute of Standards and Technology, to write a new standard on media durability. If you never heard of NIST, you're not alone, as NIST is more of a background organization, but suffice to say, they're the ones who creates the standards, references, and accuracy tests for all industries, from DNA to Time accuracy (in fact, if NIST operates one of the Internet "clocks" you can calibrate your PC to). NIST DNA reference material improves forensic DNA test accuracy. NIST also invented closed captioning and many other technology, but enough about NIST. A gentleman by the name of Fred Byers spent a whole year testing various media, and wrote a guide for NIST to librarians who need to archive information on how to care for optical media such as CD-R and DVD-R's and such. In the guide, he basically stated that with proper handling (store in low humidity, no scratching, stored vertically, etc.) a DVD-R should last 30 years with no fear of losing any information. However, that is NOT an absolute number as it is dependent on a LARGE NUMBER OF FACTORS, some of which in your control, and some not: Factors that affect disc life expectancy include the following: type -- as recordable media is more durable than rewritable media manufacturing quality -- you get what you pay for condition of the disc before recording -- obvious quality of the disc recording -- garbage in, garbage out handling and maintenance -- scratches are bad for any discs environmental conditions -- humidity and temperature can warp disc, ruining the reflective layer in the media. light, esp. UV light can destroy the dye used in recordable media, etc. Let us discuss each factor in a bit more detail All types of media can be damaged through warpage (disc bending), scratches, and reflective layer breakdown due to oxygen leakage. Recordable media, in addition, is susceptible to UV rays, which affects the dye used in the process. Rewritable media, with phase-change recording, is even more susceptible to UV ray and temperature. It is generally acknowledged that certain brands of media are better than others, and often the stuff on sale is not the stuff you may want to buy and keep around. What you may not know is that there are only like 16 media manufacturers in the world. They make the media for all the brands that you see in the market, and some brands / factories are known to make high grade media (i.e. they tested best for maintaining data integrity, even when the media was subject to aging tests). While few independent labs did comprehensives tests, a test in Europe a while back for CD-R's revealed that Taiyo Yuden (Verbatim), Kodak (Kodak), and TDK (TDK) kept the most data intact. Condition of the disc before recording A disc should be brand new when used. While shelf live of a media is up to 5 years, why take chances? Buy them as you need tem. Handling and maintenance Scratches are bad for any discs, as it breaks open the substrate layer and allows air to tarnish the inside silver reflective layer inside. Scratches also can make information on the media unreadable by interrupting the laser's path. Environmental conditions -- humidity and temperature can warp the media, and exposure to UV light can destroy the dye used in CD-R's and DVD-R's. Hope that answers your questions. Submitted by: Kasey C. of San Francisco, CA In the '80's, the CD was introduced in the market and portrayed as "THE" solution to the vinyl records. The CD could be thrown in a mud pool, step on it, scratch it, nothing would harm he CD. Now we all know that CD's has a lower lifetime as their vinyl counterparts and are more susceptible to errors than them. This is also true for the CD as a media to record software. The early CD's, were recorded at maximum 640 MB. Mostly not even 640 MB but something like 528 MB. This made them less susceptible to scratches. But as the CD technology was in a constant evolution, overburning a CD to 800 MB and more became common use. Also the DVD was introduced, offering 4/9GB on a wafer of the size of a CD. It is obvious the the tracks are becoming so small that the finest scratch, the smallest fault, can ruin the CD/DVD forever. Answering your question, there is no miracle solution to keep CD/DVD from deterioration trough age. But with a little bit of care, you can have many years of pleasure of your recordings. 1. Buy only CD/DVD from a good brand. Buying low priced CD/DVD will mostly result in very disappointing experiences. 2. Dont overburn a CD/DVD. While the overburn technique is now widely accepted by most software, it is still not fully reliable and mostly dont approved by the CD manufacturers. 3. Put every CD back in the jewel case after use, clean them as prescribed by the manufacturer, and avoid as much as possible touching the reading surface of the CD. As a final remark, CD/DVD are nowadays not expensive and if you can make a backup of them, make a backup and store it in a safe place. I use an external harddisk of 250GB (<300 CD's) to store a backup of the CD's/DVD's I have. Price of the harddisk is about 100$. I have been able many times to rescue recordings which were otherwise lost forever by this harddisk. Hope this helps, Submitted by: Carlos You have just discovered what most people don't discover until they actually lose data: commercial CDs and home-burned CDs are not the same. While a commercial premade CD will last a very long time if it is cared for properly, a home-burned CD will begin to deteriorate. The reason is that the home-burned version uses dyes to accomplish what the premade CD does by having it built into the disk. This is, of course, an oversimplified explanation, but it will suffice. There are a few ways to maximize the amount of time a CD will last. First of all, buy good quality CDs to begin with. Stick with brand names that you are familiar with and have used successfully in the past. Do not assume that just because a blank CD is made by a well-known company that it will be high quality. Test them out by actually using them. One of the best ways to do this is to use them for your regular system backups. Be sure to actually restore from those backups periodically (easier if you have another computer handy that you can wipe out data on) or else use a backup program that allows you to mount the backup as a "virtual drive" and retrieve data from it. This lets you know if there is a problem with a brand deteriorating unusually fast. Second, never use labels on CDs. I found this out the hard way. Labels cause the CD to deteriorate much more rapidly than it otherwise would. Certain inks used in pens have been reported to do the same, but I have never encountered this problem, so it shouldn't be too severe. Do be certain, however, that you are gentle when marking CDs. Use a felt tip and do not press hard. Third, put a note somewhere on the CD that tells you when you made it. This lets you monitor how long it has been since the CD was burned. If the data is irreplaceable, burn it to a new CD every 2 years. As for the recommendation to use magnetic tapes, that has its own set of problems. Magnetic tapes also deteriorate, and they are subject to some damage that CDs are immune to, notably damage from electrical or magnetic fields. In short, CDs are good for long term storage-- but don't assume that "long term" means forever. Check them regularly and burn them to new media when problems develop or even before if you can't replace what's on them. As for storage, that is pretty much common sense. Keep the CDs in a case or an envelope if they are not actually being used. Avoid temperature extremes and handle gently. I also recommend making two copies of every important CD. This practice just saved my data when I discovered that the labels on my CDs had wiped out some irreplaceable family photos. It costs twice as much, but if the data is important to you then it isn't really very expensive, is it? Submitted by: Denise R. of Lebanon, Missouri Hi Carl N, Your question has been set by a lot of people over the last 10 years. I've burned CD in 100s over the years and only found 2 discs with missing information. Lifetime of CDs is not limited due to one parameters only, more issues are setting the limit of lifetime. One is related conditions of storage and how you handle the discs. In other word, how careless or careful you are as the user. Then the material used in the CDs - how cheap a blank CD did you buy. And lastly your burning equipment, that is the laser diode. When pressed CDs were introduced in beginning of the 80s lovers of vinyl records claimed, that CDs would last for 2 years only. But as you have experienced CDs from this period can still be played. I remember one report from about 1990, which claimed a lifetime of only 3-4 years. Looking into the report, it turned out that the condition of storage was -30C (some -25F) and reading/playing equipment had a worn laser diode. Most of us can only say: I don't store my CDs in the freezer and todays laser diodes doesn't wear out as they used to. Turning towards recordable CDs, the whole issue is a matter of having a whole bunch of clear holes placed in circles in a foil. Readability of these holes are depending on a number of issues. How clear are the holes? Is edge of the hole clear? Is the reflectivity of the materials sufficient? Is the laser still as effective as it was? or has the surface become matte? For the early CD-burners this was jeopardized by increasing burning speed and some blank CD had doubtful foil material. Adding, to this some CD-burners were even sold with writing speeds beyond its capability. Many blank CDs were rejected in this period due to bad burners rather than bad discs. It is my conclusion, that this interim period has given us some doubtful discs. You have to be careful with your CDs and also a little bit extra careful with your own. They don't like heat, bright light, bending, and writing with aggressive writing pens is also nasty. Especially pens with unknown chemicals may etch the CDs, it is just like burning, but this time controlled by the chemicals. In case you wanna increase the lifetime of your recordings, you may buy CDs which is claimed to 300+ years lifetime. These CDs are referred to as GOLD-CD. These CDs has a special layer which include some 24ct gold. The advantages of these CDs are the ability to create clear holes into it with reduced oxidation or corrosion over time. Amazing almost also unbelievable 300 year. Just 100 years could be great for me. In 10-20 years everything would be transferred to new media type anyway. I saw a report on the 300 years at Price of these GOLD CDs is 10-20x times the usual ones. You have been suggested to use magnetic tape. Nor tapes does not last forever. As matter of fact the sound quality decays over time; frequency range is decreased by each use. This loss you can not be restored as with a digital media. Only digital storage keeps its audio frequency range over time and use. Like R&R;DIGITAL media is here to stay. You may call it CD, DVD, MPx, Blu-ray or whatever, but it's digital. I believe that todays discs and equipment can provide a disc with sufficient lifetime for most of us and may even restore your more doubtful discs from the early burning time with success. Even discs which are registered as 'No disc' may be restored by copying it today. In case you wanna assure yourselves; let the PC verify the burned disc, this option is normally disabled by default. What shall I do with my precious discs from the early days? My best recommendation would be to make a new copy, while the old is still readable. This is easy and cheap to most of us today as having two drives in your PC is not uncommon. Lastly, the quality and lifetime of recorded discs is today likely to most depended on your own care. Submitted by: Leif M. of Helsingor, Denmark Regarding problems developing over time with recordable CD-R media, I've run into some of this myself, but I also have quite a few discs that were made back when the very first 1x CD burners were made available to the public, and they still read just fine for me. I suspect that there are several factors involved here. 1. I'm certain there's a difference in quality between brands of CD-R media. A number of my really old CD-Rs that still read flawlessly today were Kodak branded, and were considered expensive "premium quality" discs at the time. They're even physically a little bit thicker than most other media I've handled. By contrast, some of the generic media I purchased because of the low price on 100-pack spindles has actually developed "bubbles" where you can see the dye that's sandwiched between the layers of plastic is disintegrating. (Of course it won't read if small spots are completely gone!) There were/are several different types of dye used for CD-R media, as well, and I wouldn't be surprised if it's turning out that some types have better longevity than others. For example, Verbatim was known for using their trademark blue-tinted dye, while others were shades of green or gold. 2. From what I've read and observed, handling makes a big difference too. Leaving your CD-R's exposed to sunlight (as folks tend to do with music CDs used in their cars or trucks) probably shaves years off of their lifespan. Putting them in some type of jewel-case or sleeve when not in use is a very good idea. Boxes of empty jewel-cases can be purchased fairly inexpensively at most office supply and electronics chain stores. 3. A CD-R holding computer data is inherently more "fragile" and subject to data loss than a CD-R recorded as an audio disc. The standard used for recording audio CDs incorporates quite a bit of error correction information to handle small scuffs and scratches on the media, but besides that, audio data is spread out over a much larger portion of the CD-R. If you have a .ZIP file stored on a CD-R, for example, a pinhole-sized mark someplace on the disc where that .ZIP file is stored can easily be enough to prevent the whole archive from extracting properly. By contrast, the same sized mark might only cause a very brief "stutter" at one point of a song on a music disc (or not pose a discernable problem at all, due to the error correction). If your audio discs are already deteriorating to the point where players are rejecting them as "unreadable" or they're skipping badly, it sounds to me like things have gotten pretty bad. The only recommendation I'd have is to re-record your music to fresh, good-quality CD-R media and throw out the old ones - and in the future, make a habit of transferring your music to fresh discs every few years or so. Luckily, in the case of computer software backups, they tend to become so outdated, you no longer really need to keep them by the time the media they're recorded on starts failing. But for those trying to preserve digital photos and the like, I'd recommend this same procedure. Make a fresh set of backups every so often and discard the old media - before it fails on you and you lose something priceless! Submitted by: Tom W. CD burned media fails after time. I am a practicing technician and this is not a new complaint. It is my firm belief that most consumers burn their media at the fastest speed possible for both their software and the media they use. This is fine but there may well be a trade-off in doing this. What most consumers do not perhaps understand is that commercially produced CD's have actual pits pressed into them that represent the digital data of the original sound data. A burned CD on the other hand is made by fabricating a photo sensitive layer to mimic the pits found in pressed media. I have found three major causes for this consumers problem they are as 1. A slower burn makes a stronger image representation in the photo sensitive layer of a burned CD. A faster burn while successful may not impress the photo sensitive layer as effectively as a slow burn. Over time the burn fails as the photo sensitive layer deteriorates. 2. Sunlight and other forms of intense light can effect a burned CD because it can cause a distortion in the burned media's photo sensitive layer. 3. Scratches by far are more evident on burned media and more easily caused than on pressed media. Most consumers seem to ignore the manufactures warning and suggestions. Handling of the disc in a careful manner as advised by the manufacturer is the best policy here. I use a camera lens cloth to clean surface of all my media. A camera lens cloth will not scratch the disc surface. Paper and regular household cloths will cause scratches. Observe the above and I do believe you will have better results. One more thing always use the media recommended by the burner manufacturer. It is endorsed and guaranteed to work, many of the cheap non name discs out there are just not up to par. Its just like the old cassette tape days. Most audiophiles went for tapes like Maxell, JVC, Sony etc. but as everyone knows there were a lot of bogus brands out there for the un-informed to purchase. Submitted by: Peter K. > I recently read an article by a data storage expert who claimed that > burned CD-Rs and CD-RWs can be expected to last only two to five years > and not a whole lot more. I personally have commercially pressed CDs > from the 1980s that still play fine, but I have begun to notice that > some of my burned CD-Rs are beginning to skip you mention that there are basically two types of CDs: Those that are created with all information in place and those you can buy and write on. The first type is quite robust as the information has been "engraved" into the surface just below the reflector. The most critical part of such a CD is the reflector, most often a very thin layer of aluminum. The second type of CD works a bit differently: There is a dye layer below the reflector and the information is written onto the CD-R(W) by "burning" and thereby locally changing the optical properties of the dye. The most critical part is the dye, besides the reflector as above. If the dye degrades the CD easily gets unreadable. The dye of CD-RW is even more critical as it must be "resetable" - another constraint. > The expert suggests that for secure long-term storage, high -quality > magnetic tape is the way to go. This solution is quite expensive as you need a tape drive and enough tape cartridges, but has the advantage of a much larger storage capacity. If the manufacturers say their tape cartridges are reliable for a very long time they have one advantage above CD-R: This type of storage device has been around long enough to prove it. CD-R has been on the market for no more than 10 years. The best strategy for the private user is: Have a good archive strategy, save often and store the media carefully in a dry, dark, cool place. If you store every file more than once you have a better chance to retrieve it. There is no real alternatives to CD-R. Use high-quality ones. Do not use any DVD variety as their reliability is much less. DVD may be used for an image backup of your boot drive so you can restore your present configuration for the months to come. Submitted by: Alexander V. Unlike pressed original CDs, burned CDs have a relatively short life span of between two to five years, depending on the quality of the CD. There are a few things you can do to extend the life of a burned CD, like keeping the disc in a cool, dark space, but not a whole lot more. The problem is material degradation. Optical discs commonly used for burning, such as CD-R and CD-RW, have a recording surface consisting of a layer of dye that can be modified by heat to store data. The degradation process can result in the data "shifting" on the surface and thus becoming unreadable to the laser beam. Many of the cheap burnable CDs available at discount stores have a life span of around two years, In fact, there are some of the better-quality discs offer a longer life span, of a maximum of five years. Distinguishing high-quality burnable CDs from low-quality discs is difficult, I think because few vendors use life span as a selling point. I've had good luck with Verbatim media, and bad results with TDK. Playback with the TDK discs I used degraded steadily over time, in spite of very little use, and not much in the way of scratches or other blemishes on the disc. On the other hand, the Verbatim discs I've used have held up well over time, and under more use than the TDK ones I used. Opinions vary on how to preserve data on digital storage media, such as optical CDs and DVDs. I have my own view: To overcome the preservation limitations of burnable CDs, Im suggesting using magnetic tapes, which, as I read, can have a life span of 30 years to 100 years, depending on their quality. Even if magnetic tapes are also subject to degradation, they're still the superior storage media. But I want to point out that no storage medium lasts forever and, consequently, consumers and business alike need to have a migration plan to new storage technologies. A Good Question to get in this subject is Does Burning Speed makes difference in quality of CDs? Someone told me that the burning speed makes a difference in the quality of the records. The lower it is, the deeper it burns and therefore the better the quality is. I heard that there are some audio technicians decide to burn masters at 2x and copies at 4x due to getting digital noise from higher burn rates. Might just depend on the burner quality and the burning program... Hoping you get the Point of my explanation. Submitted by: Sameer T. Everyone who owns a business is always trying to be enticed by the security and the longevity of magnetic tape. And although I'm apt to agree with them on its durability, I don't use it to back up important data in my business. I have two problems with magnetic tape vs. CD or DVD. The first problem is hardware. Data backed up on a CD or DVD can be loaded into any computer with a drive capable of handling the media. The same can be said about tape backup, however you are more likely to find a computer off the shelf with a compatible CD or DVD drive vs a magnetic tape drive. The other problem is the need for long term storage. As a business owner, I'm backing up my important data every one to three days. I've been using CD-RW media to do this for years. If a disk gets corrupt, you can reformat it using your burning software, then use it again. If you are concerned about your CD becoming corrupt, simply burn two or three. The cost of three CD or even DVD media is much more reasonable than the cost of one of those tapes. And if my server dies, I can buy any computer at any store, and load the data onto the new computer right away and I'm back in the game. I have several people trying to convince me of the benefit of a paper backup system. I find it easier (and cheaper) to have multiple electronic backups. My business server has a RAID 1 card and two hard drives which mirror each other. I have the CD backup, and I then take this data and save it to a secure partition on another machine in a separate location. The likelihood of all of these systems failing at one time is highly unlikely. And if it does, I'm taking the day off, because that's just real bad luck. As far as long term storage (like music), I've noticed that CD-RW can lose the data in the long haul, but haven't had any problems with CD-R media. I have some that skip, but not for a reason I didn't know about. I buy the large spools of CD-R which don't come with jewel cases. So these disks get abused. If you know you are going to keep something for a really long time, I would make sure the disks you buy have jewel cases. And you can apply the multiple disk system with this as well. The media is easy on the wallet, and the more backups you have, the lower the risk you will actually lose the data. I don't think I answered all the questions, but that's my take. Submitted by: Dave K.

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Nature Magazine reports that the European Commission has awarded up to €1 billion in research funding for the Human Brain Project led by neuroscientist Henry Markram. And while the official announcement is not expected until January 28, part of the project will be dedicated to the development of a exaflop supercomputer that will be used for the simulation of the brain model. Brain researchers are generating 60,000 papers per year,” said Markram as he explained the concept in Bern. “They’re all beautiful, fantastic studies — but all focused on their one little corner: this molecule, this brain region, this function, this map.” The HBP would integrate these discoveries, he said, and create models to explore how neural circuits are organized, and how they give rise to behaviour and cognition — among the deepest mysteries in neuroscience. Ultimately, said Markram, the HBP would even help researchers to grapple with disorders such as Alzheimer’s disease. “If we don’t have an integrated view, we won’t understand these diseases,” he declared. The Human Brain Project is one of the two winner projects of the Future and Emerging Technologies Flagship competition launched by the European Commission, the other one being the “Graphene” project led by Swedish theoretical physicist Jari Kinaret.

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Gramsci and education Antonio Gramsci is one of the major social and political theorists of the 20th century whose work has had an enormous influence on several fields, including educational theory and practice. Gramsci and Education demonstrates the relevance of Antonio Gramsci’s thought for contemporary educational debates. The essays are written by scholars located in different parts of the world, a number of whom are well known internationally for their contributions to Gramscian scholarship and/or educational research. The collection deals with a broad range of topics, including schooling, adult education in general, popular education, workers’ education, cultural studies, critical pedagogy, multicultural education, and the role of intellectuals in contemporary society.

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Charlotte Planners: John Nolen Excerpted from Neighborhoods: Charlotte's Neighborhood Planning Tradition by Dr. Thomas W. Hanchett Photo from Mary Norton Kratt and Thomas W. Hanchett, Legacy: The Myers Park Story (Myers Park Foundation, 1986). Three of the most important city planning firms in the United States helped shape Charlotte. They were the Olmsted Brothers, John Nolen, and Earle Draper. All worked in the city during the boom years of the 1910s and 1920s. They gave the city new ideals in urban design which are still followed today. In addition, Nolen and Draper took lessons learned in Charlotte's neighborhoods and applied them in hundreds of cities throughout the nation, giving Charlotte's early planning efforts special importance. When Charlotte's original hundred acre tract was laid off in house lots in the 1770s the city fathers chose a gridiron street pattern. A surveyor, either hired by the village or supplied by the colonial government, laid out the streets at right angles to each other. Many cities of the era were not planned at all, with streets growing up from trails and cowpaths running in every direction. The grid was the most popular alternative because it was orderly and easy to understand, and its straight lines meant that it could be created quickly and broken up into lots easily. Charlotte's reliance on the grid continued throughout the nineteenth century. In the 1910s Charlotte's New South leaders, as part of their drive to make Charlotte a modern city, hired John Nolen, the Olmsted Brothers, and Earle Sumner Draper who turned the city forever from the grid pattern. The very idea of having a landscape architect/city planner design streets was unusual. In progressive Dilworth, Latta had hired Joseph Forsyth Johnston, a landscape architect from New York City, to create Latta Park and evidently also asked him for suggestions on the surrounding street pattern. Most areas, though, were laid out methodically by surveyors or civil engineers. Nolen, the Olmsteds, and Draper were part of a generation with a strong appreciation for nature. America's first National Parks were established in the era and the conservation movement blossomed, extending even to President Theodore Roosevelt (1901-09). Landscape architects sought to bring this consciousness to city planning. John Nolen's first job in Charlotte was the design of Independence Park in June of 1905. 7 Independence was the city's first public park, and it was also Nolen's first public commission after his graduation from Harvard University's School of Landscape Architecture. Nolen went on to become one of the nation's top city planners, designing more than 400 projects across the nation and helping to found the first city planning professional organization. 1 Nolen was part of a movement in the decades around the turn of the century that sought social reform in America's cities, a movement that included such well-known figures as social worker Jane Addams and muckraker Lincoln Steffens. Born in lower-middle-class circumstances in Philadelphia in 1869, Nolen graduated from the University of Pennsylvania's prestigious Wharton School majoring in economics and public administration. 2 He spent ten years as executive secretary of the American Society for the Extension of University Teaching, a "people's university" which brought college-level night classes to the urban working class. By 1903, after visits to Europe's "Garden City" experiments, he became convinced that the new profession of city planning was more effective way for him to improve urban conditions. 3 The Garden City idea, begun in England in the 1890s, proposed medium-sized new towns surrounded by greenbelts. The new communities were to be carefully planned by professional designers to include the best features of both city and country, and to be self-sustaining with commercial and industrial areas as well as residences. No university in the United States yet offered a city planning degree, so Nolen enrolled in Harvard's School of Landscape Architecture and graduated in 1905 at age thirty-six. 4 It is not known how Nolen came to be engaged by the Charlotte Park and Tree Commission to design Independence Park. The job proved quite fortuitous to Nolen's career. While he was in town a young real estate developer named George Stephens commissioned him to design the grounds of Stephens' own residence. 5 Evidently the result greatly impressed Stephens, and he became Nolen's patron for a substantial number of projects all over North Carolina. 6 In 1909 Nolen drew plans for Stephens' Kanuga Lake resort colony Hendersonville, North Carolina, now a religious retreat for the Episcopal Church. 7 In the early teens, possibly as a result of Stephens' influence, he planned Greensboro's country-club suburb of Irving Park in Guilford County near where Stephens had been born. 8 Nolen did the 1918 plan for the expansion of the campus of Stephens' alma mater, UNC Chapel Hill. 9 In the 1920s he prepared a city plan for Stephens' adoptive home town of Asheville, North Carolina, a document that received national attention as one of the first thorough small city plans in the Southeast. 10 Later projects included a new town development called Penderlea in Pender County, North Carolina, for the U. S. Farm Service Administration, and a western North Carolina regional plan undertaken in connection with Stephens' advocacy of the proposed Blue Ridge Parkway. 11 At the same time, John Nolen continued his activities in Charlotte. Between 1905 and 1907 he designed grounds for private residences of Stephens' partner F. C. Abbott, Chamber of Commerce leader Wade Harris, E. R. Russell, P. M. Brown, A. J. Crowell, W.B. Rodman. L.A. Dodsworth, R.A.Dunn, F.O. Hawley, and O. A. Robbins. 12 In April 1907 Nolen visited the city and gave a slide lecture on "Parks and Playgrounds" illustrated with stereoptican slides. 13 That June, the Park and Tree Commission hired him once again, to provide designs for the area around the city Post Office, known as Vance Square, and for the old cemetery behind First Presbyterian Church, then known as Cemetery Square and now called Settlers Cemetery. 14 In 1911 John Nolen returned to Charlotte at George Stephens' behest, to work on his greatest project in the city, the suburb of Myers Park. 15 Stephens spared little expense, and gave Nolen free rein to plan a state-of-the-art "unified suburban design." Myers Park gave the city curving tree-lined avenues, grand boulevards with landscaped medians, and the beginnings of a system of greenway parks along creek banks. The results will be discussed in a later section of this report, but suffice it to say here that Myers Park has proved to be Charlotte's most lastingly successful suburb, and a model for similar developments across the South. Nolen's final job in Charlotte was preparation of preliminary studies for what would have been the city's first master plan. The Charlotte Chamber of Commerce hired him in 1917 to gather and map data on existing land use, population densities, racial patterns, industrial location, transportation corridors, land values, water and sewer lines, and parks. 16 The resulting Civic Survey is an extremely comprehensive and meticulous picture of this Southern city at the beginning of the twentieth century. The Civic Survey was intended to lead to preparation of a full scale plan. Such a plan was vital to Charlotte's orderly growth; Charlotteans had given up the old grid city with its easy understandability and it was necessary now that some other form or organization be developed to tie together all the new suburbs. At the end of the Civic Survey field supervisor Earle Draper sketched an indication of what the plan might look like. He extended Nolen's Independence Park and Edgehill Road Park into a city-wide network of greenways along stream beds. Boulevards radiated from the center of the city to carry commuters, and a belt road ringed the old urban core to provide easy cross-town travel. The Chamber never appropriated the money to allow Nolen to turn his data into a master plan. Nolen watched sadly as potential greenways were cut up into residential backyards, and as expanding development made the possibility of new radial and belt roads more and more expensive. He wrote Chamber official Clarence Quester in 1924, "I think Charlotte is slipping so far as city planning goes. There are examples in the city of errors that are costly and more or less irremediable. Other errors will follow without a city plan." 16 Charlotte remained without a coherent development scheme throughout its early twentieth century boom years. No comprehensive plan was adopted until 1960. 18 Ironically, its proposals were very similar to Nolen and Draper's in concept. During the 1970s the city finally completed a belt road, dubbed "Charlotte 4", and in the 1980s is struggling to buy up floodplain greenways. John Nolen's work in Charlotte and North Carolina in the 1900s through 1920s was only part of his growing national practice. From his start in Independence Park, Nolen went on to be one of the nation's busiest planners, with projects ranging from private estates to some of America's first regional plans. By the time he began Myers Park he had already had private commissions all over the East Coast from Bar Harbor, Maine, to Havana, Cuba. 19 In the teens and twenties he became sought after by municipalities. He delighted in drawing city plans to guide small Charlotte-sized places with great growth potential. His designs for such places as Wisconsin's capital city of Madison, and California's capital of Sacramento and port of San Diego, among many others, are important factors in the shape those cities retain to this day. In addition to his planning work, Nolen was a major leader in the creation of a network of professional planning organizations. In 1917, just as he was completing Charlotte's Civic Survey, he helped found the American Institute of City Planners (later the American Institute of Planners). 20 He also participated in creation of the American Society of Planning Officials and the National Housing Association, and was the first American president of the International Federation of Housing and Town Planning. 21 The honors underscored the fact that Nolen was considered a leader of his profession. When he died in 1937 the New York Times praised him as an "internationally known architect and pioneer in modern city and regional planning." 22 Along with the Olmsted Brothers and a handful of other early twentieth century practitioners, John Nolen helped transform American city planning. 23 Frederick Law Olmsted, Sr., had developed the principles of sensitive urban design in the nineteenth century, but it was Nolen's generation that created "city planning" as a full-fledged profession to carry out those principles, with its own educational background and professional organizations. John Nolen helped set up planning schools at major universities including Harvard and M.I.T. and his six books, dozens of articles, and thousands of speeches aided in "spreading the gospel" of city planning. By the end of his life, cities no longer saw planning as a rich man's luxury, but as an integral part of municipal growth, and many large places had their own planning departments. John Nolen's far-ranging impact as a city planning pioneer makes his early Charlotte work of special interest to students of urban development. 1 John L. Hancock, John Nolen: a Bibliographical Record of Achievement (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University, Program in Urban and Regional Studies, 1976), pp. 13-17. See also Scott, p. 738. 2 Hancock, John Nolen: a Bibliographical Record. . ., pp. 15-16. John L. Hancock, "John Nolen and the American City Planning Movement: A History of Cultural Change and Community Response, 1900-1940" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Pennsylvania, 1964), pp. 1-20. 3. Hancock, John Nolen: a Bibliographical Record. . ., p. 16. Hancock, "John Nolen and the American City Planning Movement. . .", pp. 21-37. 4 Hancock, John Nolen: a Bibliographical Record..., p. 16. 5 "Draft of Preliminary Finding Guide: Papers of John Nolen, Sr., 1869-1937," collection 2903, Cornell University Department of Manuscripts and Archives, Ithaca, New York. The "Finding Guide" includes a copy of Nolen's "job book" listing all his projects chronologically. 6 Hancock, "John Nolen and the American City Planning Movement. . .," p. 42. 7Charlotte Observer, December 15, 1943. 8 Stephens' connection with the Greensboro project needs to be explored. Plans for the street layout and gates are in the Nolen collection at Cornell. It has not been possible to determine exactly when Nolen created the streetplan. A draft essay by Ray Manieri of Greensboro, "From City Beautiful to City Useful: the Development of Civic Improvement Activities in Greensboro, North Carolina, 1900-1923," April, 1982, places the design in 1911, based on an undated promotional booklet. One large scale street plan in the Nolen papers is undated, but the rest of the documents were produced in 1915 and 1916. 9 Hancock, John Nolen: a Bibliographical Record. . ., p. 20. 10 Ibid., pp. 26, 30, 64. 11 Ibid., pp. 14, 66. 12 "Draft of Preliminary Finding Guide. . .," job list. 13 Charlotte Daily Observer, April 20, 1907. 14 "Draft of Preliminary Finding Guide. . .," job list. According to Kathleen Jacklin at the Cornell archives, Nolen's office discarded all material from these earliest designs. 16 John Nolen, "Civic Survey, Charlotte, North Carolina: Report to the Chamber of Commerce" (Cambridge, Massachusetts: typescript, 1917). The only known surviving copy of this document is in John Nolen's papers at Cornell. 17 John Nolen, letter to Clarence Kuester, March, 1924, in Nolen collection at Cornell. 18 Charlotte Mecklenburg Planning Commission, "The Charlotte Mecklenburg Comprehensive Plan (draft)" (Charlotte: Charlotte Mecklenburg Planning Commission, 1973), p. 4. 19 "Draft of Preliminary Finding Guide. . ," job list. 20 Scott, p. 164. 21 Hancock, John Nolen: a Bibliographical Record. . ., p. 16. 22 New York Times, February 19, 1937. For more information... Neighborhoods: Charlotte's Neighborhood Planning Tradition

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Wednesday, March 11, 2009 rothbard on the utility of quantitative easing Economist Murray Rothbard ("America‟s Great Depression", Ludwig von Mises Institute 2000) made extensive analysis of why the inflationary policies of the US Federal Reserve failed during the Great Depression. Those policies proved to be counterproductive:“American citizens lost confidence in the banks and demanded cash.. for their deposits.. while foreigners lost confidence in the dollar and demanded gold.. The more that.. the Fed tried to inflate, the more worried the.. public became about the dollar, the more gold flowed out of the banks, and the more deposits were redeemed for cash.. The Fed purchase of government securities was a purely artificial attempt to dope the inflation horse..” this has to be a core concern of every briton at the moment, with the bank of england having entered the gilt market to monetize government debt. the grand experiment intends to goose economic activity at the expense of the real value of the already-slashed pound, with some sincerely icelandic tail risk. in normal conditions, a devalued currency could be expected to assist exporters as well. as mentioned by the financial times, there is considerable doubt as to the efficacy of that pathway amid a global demand collapse. so the primary intention is to increase the currency in circulation in the hopes that more on hand will mean more spending and (critically) more borrowing. this clearly did not work well in the 1930s to the extent it was undertaken as banks chose to hoard cash (much as today). of course, the united states also experienced a series of devastating bank runs which reinforced that tendency. today, with the FDIC, bank runs are a much smaller problem. aren't they? the hard answer is that "it depends". much of the catastrophe of 2008 can be seen as a run on the shadow banking system -- that is, the uninsured and off-balance-sheet extensions of the financial system. the contraction of that massive credit generator is analogous in its effect to a systemic bank run that has resulted in failed "banks", boggling capital losses and widespread (and justifiable) paranoia. that run has at times extended to more visible elements of the banking system, forcing insurance to be put into place on an ad hoc basis -- such as the commercial paper and money market fund backstops put in place following the collapse of lehman brothers, which were hoped to be able to forstall a systemic run on those markets which was actually underway. beyond that there is the question of the fate of crossborder deposits -- international depositors in american banks have heretofore been well treated by the FDIC, but their accounts are not legally protected. these accounts are a massive part of the deposits in money-center banks such as C or JPM. crossborder runs have already become a reality in some parts of the world during this crisis. and there is finally the question of the FDIC itself. michael panzner forecast in his sometimes-eerily-prescient "financial armageddon" (and has repeated elsewhere) that eventually deposit insurance (along with many overpromised government-backed obligations) will likely have to be diluted or perhaps even eliminated in the crisis now underway as the fiscal position of government may not allow it to backstop all failed banks as the debt unwind progresses and the losses being assumed by the government through the FDIC and other pathways become overwhelming. the mere anticipation of that development could reintroduce the bank run to american society after a long absence, which is probably why sheila bair recently approached congress for a $500bn line to the treasury, a move many see as preparatory of the resolution of a money-center bank. this comes on top of a draconian assessment levied across all banks, leaving many smaller community bankers incensed at what some term "confiscating the capital of the industry" on the part of the government in service of the majors. and this is not to mention hoarding in anticipation of runs on other elements of the financial system -- most notably of late the insurance sector, which rolfe winkler delves into today. beyond simply engendering some healthy skepticism of the value of government insurance in a real crisis, the two-pronged point here is - that quantitative easing may not work to promote economic activity through increased lending in part because the value of assurances against losses are, even and perpahs particularly where comprehensive, questionable; - that quantitative easing, or rather monetization, may be the only resort to which government could really appeal in the case of multiple large-scale bank resolutions. it is impossible to know how this would work out in detail -- but should we witness a real spate of dollar weakness in forex markets as things go along, government may be faced with some very stark choices about what it can really afford to backstop.

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Autoimmune hemolytic anemia, or immune-mediated hemolytic anemia (IMHA), is a complex disease in which hemolysis occurs because of antierythrocyte antibody production. This article explores the pathophysiology of primary and secondary IMHA and diagnostic and treatment options, as well as prognosis in dogs and cats. Our review of the recent literature regarding IMHA in veterinary patients reveals a focus on individual cases and a lack of controlled clinical studies, which makes a detailed review of IMHA triggers and treatment options difficult. HEMOLYTIC ANEMIA VS. IMHA Many causes of anemia exist in dogs and cats, so a clear distinction should be drawn between hemolytic anemia and IMHA. Hemolytic anemias are conditions in which red blood cells (RBCs) are destroyed at an accelerated rate and a normal regenerative response is seen in the bone marrow. In these non-immune-mediated conditions, RBCs can be destroyed as a result of inherited membrane and enzyme defects, increased fragility from oxidative damage, or metabolic causes such as hypophosphatemia or water intoxication.1 Traditional immune-mediated mechanisms (immunoglobulins, complement) do not mediate lysis in hemolytic anemia. Instead, destruction occurs because of factors such as increased osmotic fragility, decreased RBC function in an alkalemic environment, or increased clearance from oxidative damage.1 Unlike the treatment of immune-mediated anemia, immunosuppression is generally not used to treat hemolytic anemias. Thus, it is imperative to investigate whether an anemia has an underlying cause before assuming it is immune-mediated. Below we discuss some of the common causes of hemolytic anemia. A more exhaustive list can be found in Table 1. Table 1: Selected Causes of Canine and Feline Non-immune-mediated Hemolytic Anemia Zinc and copper toxicosis. One of the most common causes of hemolytic anemia in dogs is zinc toxicosis from the ingestion of zinc-containing objects. High zinc concentrations can be found in pennies minted since 1983, board game pieces, zippers, zinc oxide ointment, and various other sources. Zinc toxicosis can cause a severe intravascular hemolysis that is associated with small amounts of Heinz body and spherocyte formation. Hemolysis from zinc toxicosis can be easily mistaken for IMHA if a survey abdominal radiographic examination is not performed. Treatment consists of removing the foreign object and providing supportive care. Copper toxicosis can also result in a marked intravascular hemolysis and methemoglobinemia.1 Heinz body anemia. Heinz bodies are dark-staining refractile material that indicate irreversibly denatured and precipitated hemoglobin in RBCs and can occur from oxidative damage in animals that have ingested onions or received drugs such as methylene blue, dl-methionine, or vitamin K3.1 In some cases of hemolytic anemia, eccentrocytes—cells in which the damaged hemoglobin is clustered together and shifted to one side of the RBC membrane, leaving a clear crescent-shaped region—are also present. Eccentrocytes and cells containing Heinz bodies have less deformability and more rigidity, making them more likely to be lysed or removed from the circulation by the spleen. Feline RBCs are especially sensitive to oxidative damage because of a high number of sulfhydryl groups in their hemogloblin. In addition, feline spleens, because of their nonsinusal conformation, are less effective at removing Heinz bodies than are canine sinusal spleens. Thus, Heinz body anemia is more commonly seen in cats and can be present during toxicosis as well as in a variety of other diseases such as hyperthyroidism, diabetes mellitus, and lymphoma.1 Hypophosphatemia. Hypophosphatemia can also cause hemolytic anemia in patients being treated for diabetes mellitus, hepatic lipidosis, starvation, and other conditions.1 In these cases, it is thought that an abrupt drop in plasma phosphate concentrations can cause a concurrent depletion of RBC adenosine triphosphate, diphosphoglycerate, and reduced glutathione. These depletions lead to less deformability, more osmotic fragility, and more susceptibility to oxidative injury in erythrocytes. A rapid drop in packed cell volume and a mild Heinz body anemia can be seen in animals with hypophosphatemia. Treatment consists of phosphate supplementation (intravenous in cases of severe depletion, oral in mild cases).1

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'Old Earth Scientists'... I've never heard that before ... You aren't suggesting that there are 'new earth scientists' are you ? Well sort of, there are commonly two types of scientists - old earth (who believe that the earth is billions of years old) and then young earth who believe that the earth is around 6,000 years old.As far as Science is concerned the big bang occured between approx 14 - 18 billion years ago As stated above, there are both old earth scientists and young earth scientists. Old earth scientists believe in the big bang theory and that the age of the earth is in the order of billions of years. Having said that perhaps the above statement should read "As far as old earth scientists believe, the big bang occurred between approx 14 - 18 billion years ago." Furthermore, when you say "concerned" it makes the assumption that the big bang actually did happen. The big bang is a theory and unless scientists can replicate it, it will forever remain a theory.thats not a theory formed by 'old earth scientists' that is calculated using every method we have at our disposal Unfortunately your statement falls short from the beginning - remember, the big bang theory is just that, a theory.measuring the expansion rate of the universe, measuring light from distant stars etc..there are too many to mention. The Bible also confirms that the universe is expanding. Isaiah 40:22 teaches that God “stretches out the heavens like a curtain, and spreads them out like a tent to dwell in.” This verse was written thousands of years before secular scientists accepted an expanding universe. It was until more recently that scientists changed their mind from the universe being constant to actually expanding. There are a few theories floating around with respect to the apparent red shift of stellar objects. old earth scientists believe it to be a result of bodies moving away from earth. As such, they have suggested that there should be no fully formed stellar bodies further away than about 8 billion light years. Astronomers have pointed telescopes into supposed redshift deserts (I.E. locations in space where there should be no fully formed bodies) and they found a sky full of fully formed galaxies. Measuring light from distant stars relies on the assumption that light has always moved at a constant rate, which unfortunately has not been proven.1. The moon moves away from the earth at around 4cm per year. If the earth was billions of years old, the moon could not be as close to the earth as it is. That suggests that the moon has always been in orbit around the earth for the 4.5 billion years...it hasn't Unfortunately this is not what old earth scientists believe. They believe that the earth and moon have been around for over 4 billion years.2. Oil deposits in the earth are under extreme pressure. If the earth was billions of years old this pressure would have caused the oil to have seeped through the rock layers and eventually the pressure would all be gone - I.E. there would be no oil under pressure today The oil deposits aren't 4.5 billion years old either... they are from rotting animal/vegetable sources from much later .. millions of years not billions I should have written this statement differently I.E. millions of years. The problem still stands however that if oil has was around millions of years ago, then it could not be under pressure today.3. The sun is shrinking at a rate of five feet per hour. this means that the sun would have been touching the earth a mere 11million years ago (let alone billions of years ago) No, that asssumes a constant state universe...the universe is very far from constant...its expanding and has been since the beginning. Nobody has ever suggested that the earth - moon - sun position has been in existance let alone constant since the big bang. Don't old earth scientists make assumptions also? If you look above, old earth scientists make the assumption that the speed of light is constant. Furthermore they still hold to the assumption that the earth, moon and sun have been around for over 4 billion years.4. Helium is added to the atmosphere everyday. Basically there is not enough helium in the atmosphere to support billions of years. Helium hasn't been added for 4.5 billion years ... again the earth wouldn't have had an atmosphere until recently ( recent related to its 4.5 billion age ) According to old earth scientists. The oxygen enriched atmosphere (basically as we know it today) was formed around 2.7 billion years ago. The amount of helium contained within our atmosphere today is only enough to support thousands of years, certainly not billions.5. Comets lose mass over time, there would be no comets left if the universe was billions of years old. (because comets were apparently a by product of the big bang) Thats misleading. The origin and time of origin of comets is not claimed to be the big bang. Thats a straw man. (I am guessing that a straw is another way of saying clutching at straws?) Again with this one I should not have just skimmed over it but should have elaborated. Comets have long been a good evidence due to their fragile nature and life expectancy. Comets are commonly huge chunks of ice traveling at tremendous speeds through space, when they come close to a star, they begin to melt and so form a trail of moisture. This can't last forever and it will eventually disintegrate. Here in-lies a problem for old earth scientists because there should be no comets left - they should all have been disintegrated by now (giving the billions of years). And if we are talking about clutching at straws - here's a good one for you. Old earth scientists have come up with another theory to try and explain why we still have comets today. So in comes the Oort Cloud. The Oort Cloud is a hypothetical spherical cloud of comets which may lie roughly 1 light year away from our sun. Apparently, these comets become dislodged from the Oort Cloud by the gravitational pull of passing stars and the milky way itself (due to it apparently being at the outer edges of our milky way) These comets are then free to move about and disintegrate (which is how we see comets today) Now this Oort Cloud has not been detected or seen it is another theory - it is just a hypothetical cloud to try and fit in with the mold of an old universe.6. The earths magnetic field decays by approximately 5% every century, this means that a mere 10,000 years ago, the earths magnetic field would have been so strong that the heat it would have produced would have made life on earth impossible. No doubt taken from Barnes's magnetic field argument 1973. The decay rate he stated has been debunked and stated as flawed. How has it been debunked?7. fossilized dinosaur bones - these bones have been found and it is impossible for them to have lasted for millions of years. Why not ? They have The evidence available suggests an asteroid hit the earth approx 65 million years ago leading to a catastrpohic global event. There is a layer of iridium in the earths stratography that supports this theory. Speaking of clutching at straws - "Why not? they have" This goes against what old earth scientists have been telling us for years! Blood cells decay at a much faster rate than the rate at which bones can fossilize. How then can you have a fossilized dinosaur bone which contain blood cells? If we are talking about debunking theories or practices - radio carbon dating techniques have terrible flaws and rely on many assumptions. Therefor how can you be sure that your 65 million years is accurate?8. Salt is added everyday to the dead sea by inflows. Since it has no outlet - the salt content continues to grow. The amount of salt contained within it is not enough to support billions of years. The dead Sea didn't spring into existance billions of years ago. Its a result of millions of years of constant change on the earth by volcanic, tectonic, atmospheric activity. The dead sea is a baby compared the age of the earth I would have thought that you would line up the forming of the seas as we know them now with the catastrophic global event that wiped out the dinosaurs. If not that, then what are you basing your idea that the dead sea is a baby compared to the age of the earth? are we talking thousands of years, hundreds of thousands, millions or perhaps billions?9. The earths population doubles every 50 years (approx) it would take around about 4,000 years to reach the number of people that are on earth today (Lines up nicely with the world wide flood of Noah's day) if we use this figure for millions of years - the earth could not contain the amount of people. Also that matches for the evolution model. The expansion in the earths population is also linked to the expansion of civilisation .. .not just the existance of humans and their descendants. Could you expand on which evolution model you're referring to?10. Spiral galaxies appear this way due to their 'rotation' this rotation would eventually cause them to straighten out I.E. lose their spiral. There should be no spiral galaxies if the universe was actually billions of years old. That again is a straw man. The big bang theory doesn't suggest spiral galaxies popping into existance at the moment of the big bang. They are formed over many millions of years Why not? The big bang suggests that everything else popped into existence at the moment of the big bang. If this is not the case - then how did they form?The earth, the universe and everything in it was brought about in creation week. It was a divine event brought about by a supernatural creator. No it wasn't ( that which can be asserted without evidence can also be dismissed without evidence ) We have just been discussing a page full of evidences!And faith ..... Would you build an electronic project based on faith ? would you cross the road by faith ? But you yourself are obviously a man of great faith. You believe that the universe and all it contains was brought about by a supposed big bang. To put it lightly - 'Nothing became something and the something exploded' Where did this matter come from in the first place? doesn't the big bang go against the law of conservation of mass and energy? If you are dismissing faith, then you must have proof of the big bang. You obviously weren't there when the supposed big bang took place so therefor it would stand to reason that you can replicate the big bang - after all, we are dismissing faith here.If I am sick I see a Doctor, If I have trouble seeing I go to an optician etc etc. Faith would not heal me or make me see. Rather countless selfless individuals who over thousands of years have devoted their lives to bettering mankind. Yes indeed! Isn't it interesting how even though we apparently all stemmed from a common singularity we are all unique and have our own special gifts and talents? If we look to God's word though, we find that we all have been given these unique gifts and talents - some to be doctors, some to be opticians, some to make super pong tables and some to be astronauts! But back on topic, isn't there an underlying reason that you go to a doctor? You go specifically to a doctor because you have faith in him. If you didn't have faith in him and all his years of training then you would just go to anyone wouldn't you?Its just not the case at all. For a start evolution doesn't need a set of ready to be assembled parts lying around. Its a process beginning with the smallest building blocks at chemical level and taking millions and millions of years to progress. Fair enough, Let's walk though this one step at a time starting from the beginning - how did the very first building block get here? Also a 747 ( or an LED pong table ) isn't carrying about obselete parts of earlier less successful aircraft in its frame like we are. Could you list these supposed obsolete parts and explain why they are not required (I think you'll find that every part of our body plays it's own important role) You say that you have faith in fellow humans. Why is that? If we are just a result of random chemical reactions then why do you trust in them? On that note, why does anyone have morals? why do we have laws and rules? if we are the by product of natural selection in that it is survival of the fittest, who is to say that I can't go out and kill someone - after all this is how we supposedly came to be! Do you feel sorrow when a family member or close friend dies? I am guessing that you would, but hold on a second - why on earth would you get sad if this is simply what you are arguing for in motion? To expand, If we are brought about by the strongest cells living on and the weaker ones dying off, isn't it good that your family member or friend has died because it means that the strong have survived and the weak are now dead? you should be sitting there giving hi five's to everyone shouting "Way to go natural selection!" And finally, Why on earth would scientists use evidence from the past to predict the future? If the universe came about by disorder and random chemical reactions then how on earth could we use this information to reliably predict the future. Uniformity does not make any sense in a universe created by random chance and disorder. Of course this is not the case, we find that the universes history is very much ordered because God designed it that way.

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Problem: Tall buildings risky in high seismic zones; Status: Hill-stations are getting concretised and growing vertically; Challenge: Use local construction material; regulate traffic Evam Piljain, an 80-year-old Toda who's spent all her life in Ooty, feels distraught at the sight of her hometown. "I cannot sit in the verandah anymore," she says. She moves to her drawing room and gazes wistfully at a photograph of Ooty taken in the early part of the twentieth century -- green, picturesque. But outside, hill after hill is chock-a-bloc with concrete buildings. Other Indian hill-stations are no different. Roller-compacted concrete (RCC) has taken over from wood and mud and is now synonymous with construction. Reminisces B P Rai, secretary, Federation of Societies for Environmental Protection, a Darjeeling-based NGO, "Earlier, there were only small wooden houses. But with increased population, the need was felt to construct RCC multi-storey buildings, which can take a load of 7-8 storeys. This has spelt disaster." Centre for Science and Environment’s Sustainable Buildings Programme is organizing 5 day training on Green buildings. The programme aims to enable participants to adopt a common sense approach to green buildings, one that blends traditional wisdom with modern science.

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The marriage of artificial and bio-materials to create cyborg insects and rats is still a bleeding-edge field with fascinating possibilities for human applications. That sometimes controversial vision of the future just took a dramatic turn towards blurring the man-versus-machine lines with the debut of a 3D-printed robot that uses heart cells to walk. Scientists at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign created the tiny biological robots, or biobots, using a 3D printer to fabricate a flexible gel scaffold, and then injected the structures with heart cells from rats. Once powered by a form of liquid food, the heart cells beat and worked to give the biobot movement, traveling at roughly 236 micrometers per second. According to the scientists, future versions of the biobot will use more controllable skeletal muscle cells for movement, neurons that will give the devices the ability to sense toxins, and a two-legged structure that will offer more freedom of movement. Extrapolate this development forward about 50-80 years and you have the makings of what could turn out to be real-life Replicants. You can see the slow, creepy, but nonetheless groundbreaking crawl of the biobot in the video below.

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This archived Web page remains online for reference, research or recordkeeping purposes. This page will not be altered or updated. Web pages that are archived on the Internet are not subject to the Government of Canada Web Standards. As per the Communications Policy of the Government of Canada, you can request alternate formats of this page on the Contact Us page. To help you get a clearer picture of British North America's territorial evolution, this section provides a series of maps that recount important moments in Canada's history. These maps cover the period from the French colonial era of the seventeenth century to the creation of Nunavut in 1999. The map descriptions provided below have been reproduced from the original maps. First successful French settlements in North America: Port Royal (1606), and Québec (1609). English settlements in Virginia begins (1606-07). French and English territorial claims overlap Acadia. Acadia is recognized as French possession by the Treaty of Breda (1667). A Royal Charter (1670) grants sole trading rights in Hudson Bay drainage basin to the Hudson's Bay Co. By the Treaty of Paris (1763), eastern North America becomes British territory except St-Pierre and Miquelon Islands (France). British colonial governments for Quebec, Newfoundland (with Île d'Anticosti and Îles de la Madeleine), Nova Scotia (including present-day N.B. and P.E.I.). Hudson's Bay Co. still administers Rupert's Land. Louisiana is ceded to Spain by France. Following the Constitutional Act, Quebec is divided into Upper and Lower Canada (1791). Spain cedes Louisiana back to France (1800). U.S.A. purchases Louisiana (1803). The Province of Canada is formed by uniting Upper and Lower Canada (1840). The international boundary from the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific is described by the Oregon Treaty (1846). The northern portion of the Oregon Territory is called New Caledonia, a name used by Simon Fraser in 1806. The Hudson's Bay Co. is granted Vancouver's Island to develop a colony (1849). New Brunswick, Nova Scotia and Canada are united in a federal state, the Dominion of Canada, by the British North America Act (July 1, 1867). The province of Canada is divided into Ontario and Quebec. The United States of America proclaims the purchase of Alaska from Russia (June 20). The North-West Territories (Rupert's Land and the North-Western Territory) are acquired by Canada by the Hudson's Bay Company. From part of them Manitoba is created as the fifth province. British Columbia joins the Dominion of Canada as the sixth province. Prince Edward Island enters Confederation as the seventh province. Boundaries are changed in the Districts of Mackenzie, Keewatin, Ungava, Franklin and Yukon (1897). The District of Yukon becomes a Territory separate from the North-West Territories (1898). Quebec boundaries are extended north. Alberta and Saskatchewan are created as provinces to make a total of nine provinces in the Dominion of Canada (1905). The district of Keewatin is transferred back to the Northwest Territories. Due to changes in adjoining areas the boundaries of the Northwest Territories are redefined (1906). At its own request, after a plebiscite, Newfoundland enters the Confederation as the tenth and most recent province of the Dominion of Canada. Nunavut became Canada's third territory April 1, 1999. For the first time since the entry of Newfoundland into Confederation fifty years ago, the internal boundaries of Canada have changed.

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Weevils are actually defined as any beetle from the Curculionoidea super-family. With that said, there are over 60,000 species of weevils, however, keep in mind that although there are some types of beetles that include “weevil” in their common name, they may not actually be a part of the weevil super-family. Weevils, also commonly known as snout beetles, are usually best characterized by the shape of their heads because they elongate out into a snout. This characteristic is usually common amongst all weevil species. Weevils are actually so broad in the variety of species that they can infest a variety of areas. Some species are considered pantry pests while others are wood-attacking insects. Furthermore, some may just be an occasional invader and a nuisance inside the home with they enter to overwinter. Weevils are found all throughout the United States and even in Canada.>> Read More Depending on the species, the size of weevils varies from about 3 to 11 mm long. Their bodies have an elongated shape or can be almost oval in shape. Their heads protrude out into a snout shape with mandibles for feeding at the end. The color will also vary widely depending on the species of weevil. They can range from almost all colors. Some species will have a uniform color whereas others will have a significant design or pattern on their shells. There are several common weevil species that will invade your home. In the United States, there are several different representative species. By identifying the species, a homeowner can better adjust the control method according to where they are infesting and how they are invading your home. Since weevil larvae burrow underground and remain they reach maturity, they are rarely seen. Also, adult weevils are nocturnal and since most of their activity is done during the night, they are also not often spotted. They will remain hidden on the plant that they are infesting or in leaf litter and soil during the daytime. If the plant is disturbed, they can be noticed dropping to the soil and scurrying off into the litter or debris around the plant. Most gardeners will notice the presence of adult weevils by the plant aesthetics. The tips of the leaves will seem chewed off and the surface looks spotted. All species of weevils will enter structures when outdoor conditions have been too adverse or unfavorable. Usually, it will be towards the end of the season when plants die off. The key to proper removal is identification. Because different species will attack or infest different plants or locations around your home, it is the most important to identify the weevil before control methods are applied. Also, exclusion is an important method to get rid of weevils in your house. Exclusion will involve sealing cracks and crevices around the structure. Screens to windows and doors should be tight fitted and in good condition. Exclusion methods should be applied either before or after they enter the home. Treatment to outdoor ornamental gardens with an appropriately labeled pesticide will also discourage infestation. Use appropriately labeled insecticides when notching of plant leaves first begin to appear. This is usually going to be in late June to early July. For indoor control, apply an appropriately labeled insecticide in areas like the attic, wall void, near the baseboard area, window sills, door frames, and etc. Keep in mind that all product labels must be thoroughly reviewed before any applications and treated areas must be left alone to dry before you can come in contact with those areas again. Do You Have a Question about this Product? Ask Our Experts! For us to ship it to you, it will cost $32.77 for the pint size:Talstar pro 1 pintWe do have larger sizes available and all orders include shipping

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Insomnia Might Boost Heart Failure Risk WEDNESDAY, March 6 (HealthDay News) -- Insomnia may triple the risk of developing heart failure, a large new study from Norway suggests. Heart problems definitely lead to sleep problems, said lead researcher Dr. Lars Laugsand, but his team tried to determine whether the reverse might also be true. "Insomnia is a frequent and easily recognized, potentially manageable and treatable condition," said Laugsand, a postdoctoral fellow in the department of public health at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology, in Trondheim. Laugsand added that the researchers found an association between insomnia and heart failure, not that insomnia actually causes heart failure. "We still do not know whether heart failure is really caused by insomnia, and it is still unclear why insomnia is linked to higher heart failure risk," he said. Heart failure is a chronic condition in which the heart does not pump blood efficiently enough to meet the body's needs. There are some indications that a biological cause might explain an insomnia-heart failure connection, Laugsand said. "One possible mechanism could be that insomnia activates stress responses in the body that might negatively affect heart function," he explained. "If our results are confirmed by others and there is a real causal association, evaluation of insomnia symptoms might have consequences for cardiovascular prevention," Laugsand added. The report was published March 6 in the online edition of the European Heart Journal. To measure the effect of insomnia on the risk of heart failure, Laugsand's team collected data on more than 54,000 men and women who took part in a Norwegian study on public health factors between 1995 and 1997. None of the participants had heart failure at the start of the study. As part of the study, researchers asked about the quality of the participants' sleep and if they had difficulty going to sleep and staying asleep. After 11 years of follow-up, more than 1,400 participants had developed heart failure, Laugsand's group found. People who had multiple insomnia symptoms had a threefold increased risk of developing heart failure, compared to people who slept well. When depression and anxiety were accounted for, the risk was slightly more than fourfold. Specifically, having difficulties going to sleep and staying asleep almost every night, and feeling tired in the morning more than once a week, were associated with an increased risk of heart failure, compared to people who never or rarely suffered from these symptoms. These findings remained even after the researchers took age, sex, marital status, education, shift work, blood pressure, cholesterol, diabetes, weight, physical activity, smoking, alcohol use and previous heart attacks into account. Dr. Gregg Fonarow, professor of cardiology at the University of California, Los Angeles, said,"Heart failure results in substantial [illness], mortality and health care expenditures." Insomnia has been associated with an increased risk for cardiovascular events and death, and two earlier studies have suggested that insomnia may also be associated with the risk of heart failure, he noted. Insomnia can increase the body's inflammatory and stress responses, said Fonarow, who's also a spokesman for the American Heart Association. "Activation of these systems, as well as other mechanisms, may link insomnia to an increased risk of developing heart failure and other cardiovascular disease," he said. "However, whether preventing or treating insomnia would lower the risk of developing heart failure requires further study." To learn more about insomnia, visit the National Sleep Foundation. SOURCES: Lars Laugsand, M.D., postdoctoral fellow, department of public health, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim; Gregg Fonarow, M.D., spokesman, American Heart Association, and professor, cardiology, University of California, Los Angeles; March 6, 2013, European Heart Journal, onlineRelated Articles - Underactive Thyroid and Heart Failure a Bad Combination: Study May 22, 2013 - Having Both Migraines, Depression May Mean Smaller Brain May 22, 2013 Learn More About Sharp Sharp HealthCare is San Diego's health care leader with seven hospitals, two medical groups and a health plan. Learn more about our San Diego hospitals, choose a Sharp-affiliated San Diego doctor or browse our comprehensive medical services. Copyright ©2012 HealthDay. All rights reserved.

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Object-oriented editing means the ability to edit and/or process individual objects, such as a MIDI or audio clip — whether they last the entire length of a song or only a few milliseconds. This is a different way of thinking than linear-style track editing, where you (for example) insert a plug-in into a virtual mixer that processes a track, or apply an automation curve to control a parameter for the duration of a track. The word 'object' is essentially interchangeable with 'clip', but for clarity when working with Sonar, we'll define an object as a 'sub-set' of a clip with its own characteristics. Amongst other advantages, object-oriented editing can simplify the automation process compared to drawing track envelopes, and make it easier to do 'microsurgery'-type editing. At first glance it might seem that this adds another level of tedium to the editing process, as working with little pieces of audio seems more involved than working with tracks. But that's not always the case; for some applications, object-oriented editing can be far more efficient. As one example, consider plug-ins. If you load a plug-in into a track insert, it's active for the entire length of the song — and drawing CPU power. But if the effect is needed in only a few places, you can create individual objects that are processed with that effect. The effect only draws power from the CPU when these particular objects are being processed. Of all current DAW programs, I feel that Samplitude has taken object-oriented editing the furthest, as the program allows you to open up a clip and access a huge number of clip-related parameters. Sonar, on the other hand, was not designed with object-oriented editing in mind, and takes a bit more of an ad hoc approach, so you'll find different object-editing options in different places. This is a bit less convenient, but you can still get the benefits of object-oriented editing. This is perhaps the most important use of object-oriented editing. Sonar can apply MIDI effects (MFX) to MIDI objects, and audio processing plug-ins to audio objects. For example, suppose you want to add delay to the last word of a vocal, so that the word trails off into silence. Here's how you'd do it: 1. Do a track split at the beginning and end of the word, to isolate it as a separate object. The easiest way to do this is to click at the beginning of the word and type 'S', then click at the end of the word and type 'S'. 2. Right-click on this object and select Open Clip Effects Bin (keyboard shortcut: Ctrl+B). 3. An effects bin opens up that's a miniature version of the track effects bin you'll see in the Track view of the Console window. 4. Right-click on a blank part of the effects bin and select the desired audio effect from the pop-up menu. 5. The effect will now appear in the bin. As in the standard effects bin, there's a small tick-box to the left of the effect name; when this is green, the effect is enabled. When it's grey, the effect is disabled. 6. You can insert more effects, if desired. As soon as you click anywhere other than the effects bin, the object's effects bin shrinks to a small box marked 'FX'. This lets you know that there's an effects bin in the object. To open an effects bin again, just click on that box. One very significant aspect of inserting an effect into an object is that any effect comes to a complete halt at the end of the object. In other words, if there's a reverb tail or delay decay caused by feedback, it will not extend past the object. Fortunately, there's a workaround. 1. Place the Now time just past the end of the object. 2. Put the track containing the object into record mode, but turn down the level of any signal feeding into the track, so you can record silence. 3. Click on the transport Record button. 4. To make sure this clip is truly silent, click on it and go Process / Audio / Gain. Set all Gain levels to minimum, then click on OK. 5. Click on the object you're processing, then Control-click on the clip containing silence, so that they're both selected. 6. Go Edit / Bounce to Clip(s). 7. The object will now be extended by the amount of silence you added, and any delay or reverb can spill over into it. Note that the process of bouncing clips removes any effects bins inserted in those clips. So in this example you would need to re-insert delay, reverb or whatever into the new, longer clip. Now that we know how to add effects to objects, here are some ideas on how to use this editing option. Emphasise a guitar solo. In a guitar track, split the guitar solo into a separate object, and add slight EQ boost around 2-3.5kHz. This will make the guitar more prominent. Avoid 'stepping on' vocals with a background instrument part. Suppose you have piano as a prominent track behind a singer. Split the piano track wherever the vocal occurs and scoop out some of the mid-range (whatever falls in the same range as the vocalist). If used subtly, this can give a better effect than simply lowering the volume. What's more, you could automate just that section, as we'll describe shortly. Compress particular sections of a track. Bearing in mind the growing backlash against excessive use of compression, one good application of object-oriented editing is to compress the lead vocalist when singing solo, but if background vocalists are present, remove compression from the lead to allow more dynamics and interplay with the background singers. Distort individual drum hits. Do you ever find you want the snare drum to really crack when it hits on the fourth beat of a measure just before the transition to a new chorus or verse? Raising level might not be enough, so separate that hit into a separate object and add a hint of distortion! If you've been using Sonar for a while, you probably know that you can right-click on a clip, select Envelopes, choose Create Clip Envelope and add either a Gain or Pan envelope to the clip. However, if there's an effect inserted in the object effects bin, you can also create envelopes within the object itself for the effects. To do this, proceed as you normally would to select a Gain or Pan envelope and you'll see automatable effect(s) listed below the Pan Envelope option. This allows an exceptional amount of control within very short audio events, if desired. Furthermore, you can insert track effects that kind of act as 'master' effects. One example would be to add a fairly standard delay (such as a quarter-note or half-note) to a track, then add delay with a dotted value (for example, a dotted half-note) within individual objects. You can't drag the effects bin itself from one object to another. However, you can drag an effect, whether from another object's effects bin or from the track effects bin, into an object's effects bin. Here are the rules for dragging effects: Control-drag an effect from a standard track effects bin or an open object effects bin into an object: this creates an object effects bin and inserts a copy of the effect you dragged. The effect that was copied remains in its original location as well. Drag an effect from a standard track effects bin or an open object effects bin into an object: this creates an effects bin, inserts the effect you dragged, and removes the effect from the track effects bin. Control-Drag an effect from a standard track effects bin or an open object effects bin into a closed object effects bin: this inserts a copy of the effect you dragged. If there's already an effect in the bin, the effect you dragged in will be added at the end of the list of effects. The effect you copied remains in its original location. Drag an effect from a standard track effects bin or an open object effects bin into a closed object effects bin. The effect you dragged is removed from its original location and placed in the object effects bin. Note that the same rules apply when going in the other direction — ie. dragging from an object effects bin into a track effects bin or another object effects bin. Here's a shortcut you can use if you need the same effect (or a variation on a particular effect) in several small, sequential objects. For example, suppose you want to apply a rhythmic 'sample and hold' filter effect to a sustained guitar power chord, where the filter's cutoff frequency changes every eighth note: 1. Split the power chord off as a separate object. 2. Open an object effects bin in this object, then insert a filter. 3. Adjust the filter as desired for the first step. Typically, you'd set a relatively high resonance. 4. Split the power chord at every eighth note. The filter will appear in each split of the object. 5. Set the filter in each split to the desired cutoff frequency. You can open an object's effects bin when it's just a small square marked 'FX' by right-clicking on it and choosing Open Clip Effects Bin (for which the keyboard shortcut is Control + B). Once it's open, you can bypass the bin and all its effects by clicking anywhere within the bin and selecting Bypass Bin; rearrange the order of effects within the bin by clicking and dragging, just as you would with the standard tracks effects bin; and delete an effect by either clicking on it and hitting the Delete key, or right-clicking on the effect or its enable box and selecting Delete from the pop-up menu. MIDI Effects & Groove Clips The instructions regarding applying effects to audio objects also apply to MIDI effects and MIDI tracks: they're inserted in the same way, and they follow the same rules when copying and moving. Groove clips follow the same rules as well. If you roll out a groove clip (MIDI or audio), the effects bin will remain in the original part of the object. If you then split the object, the effects bin will be copied to the split(s). One other object-oriented editing window continues to evolve (if Cakewalk ever decide to consolidate everything in Sonar that's related to clips/objects in one window, this would be the one): the window that appears when you right-click on an object and select Clip Properties. The General tab shows the name of the clip, its start time and its length (in Measures:Beats:Ticks; Samples; Hours:Minutes:Seconds:Frames; and Seconds). You can edit all of these parameters. Time base lets you select musical or absolute time for the clip, which affects where the clip starts if you change tempo. With a musical time base, the Measures:Beats:Ticks position remains the same, but the absolute (SMPTE) time changes. With SMPTE as a time base, the reverse occurs. However, you can also mute the clip, and 'lock' it from this window (both options are also available if you right-click on the object). Lock is crucial for audio-for-video work, as it lets you tie samples to a specific SMPTE time. For example, suppose you build a sound effect that coincides with a particular visual cue into a soundtrack, but the producer decides you need to speed up the music just a bit. Locking the clip to SMPTE ensures it will always hit on the visual cue that happens at a specific SMPTE time, regardless of how the tempo changes. Note that locking can involve the position only, the data only, or both; when locked, a small padlock appears on the clip (yellow for position only, blue for data only, and white for both). While it may seem that the option to set a 'snap offset' (in samples) for audio clips is useful, the function can only shift the clip late compared to a snap point. So if you have something like a pad sound with a long attack time that needs to start early in order to build over the right amount of time, using snap offset can't help you. However, if you find just the right amount of delay for a snare-drum hit, for example, you can copy or change the object's position while being sure that the amount of offset will be preserved. Finally, there's also a Clip Effects display. Although you can't drag effects into or out of this display, you can delete effects, change their order, instantiate new effects and bypass the clip's effects bin. We'll ignore the Audio Stretching tab for now, as that opens up a whole other world of options. Object-based editing may not be a particularly sexy topic, but anything that saves time or makes your life easier is worth investigating. Although I still use track processors a lot, being able to create effects in different bits of audio can simplify the process of making complex edits, as well as opening up a lot of creative possibilities.

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Biology 107 Lab Exam Review Science B01 with Magor at University of Alberta About this deck Size: 132 flashcards Sign up (free) to study this. When is a plant cell plasmolyzed? What is a hypertonic solution? A hypertonic solution is a solution that has a higher concentration of solutes than found inside the cell What are some of the functions of cell membranes? Separation of cell contents from external environment Organization of chemicals and reactions into specific organelles within the cell Regulation of the transport of certain molecules into and out of the cell and its organelles Beet cells red pigment, located in the cell's large central vacuole and surrounded by the tonoplast membrane Molecule or part of a molecule that absorbs radiant energy (light) Graph that shows the amount of light absorbed at a number of wavelengths Four parts of a spectrophotometer Device that isolates a photoelectric tube Standard curve limitations Standard curve is specific to the pigment and its buffer Standard curve cannot be used for absorbances beyond the range of the standard curve Cu = Cd/D Deposits single bacterial cells from a liquid culture over the surface of an agar medium Prevents bacteria in the environment from contaminating work, and prevents bacteria in work from contaminating the environment Aspetic techniques that can be used Sterilize surfaces and working surfaces Washing hand before and after Flaming inoculating loop and lip of culture tubes Reduce time sterile medium, cultures, or bacteria are exposed to air Work in area with low resident population of bacteria What does the blank used with a spectrophotometer consist of? How is a spectrophotometer zeroed? Define each term in the "fluid mosaic model" Fluid: membranes are able to move, things may pass through them (selective permeability) Mosaic: membranes are composed of a variety of different things - phospholipid bilayer, enzymes, proteins that act as channels Explain phospholipid bilayers Fatty acid bilayers, where the hydrophobic ends of the fatty acids attract each other to the inside of the layer and the hydrophilic ends are on the outside of the membrane in the water, creating a double layer of fatty acids How are bacterial species identified? Cell and colony morphology, chemical composition of cell walls, biochemical activities, and nutritional requirements What is the best way to isolate individual cells? Streaking them onto an agar plate, so that each individual cell will produce a colony Cell wall is composed of a thick layer of peptidoglycan surrounding the cell membrane Differential stain to divide bacteria into Gram-positive and Gram-negatie Steps of a gram stain A basic dye (crystal violet) is used to stain the peptidoglycan in both cells, then iodine is used to increase affinity of the dye to peptidoglycan. Ethanol is then used to dissolve lipids in outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria, allowing iodine dye complex to leave cells (peptidoglycan layer too thin to retain dye), while Gram-positive cells retain the dyed due to the thick layer of peptidoglycan - a counterstain is then applied that dies the Gram-negative cells pink Commonly reocognized cell morphologies Cocci: spherical shape Bacilli: shaped like rods or cylinders (long and slender, or so short they resemble cocci) Spirilla: resemble a corkscrew What are three other ways to identify bacteria besides morphology? Presence of flagella (motility) Formation of endospores How is motility in bacteria tested? Bacteria are injected into a tube containing a dye that turns red when oxidized by growing bacteria- distribution of red dye indicates swimming ability How is formation of endospores determined in bacteria? Sample can withstand extreme conditions (high temperatures) and will grow at optimal conditions What are the different enzymatic activities in bacteria that can be tested? How can resolution be decreased (improved)? Using an illumination source with a smaller wavelength Increasing the numerical aperture of the objective lens, as well as using immersion oil with the 100x objective lens How is the resolution value calculated? Why do Gram-positive bacteria stain purple? They contain a thick layer of peptidoglycan which retains the iodine-crystal violet complex CV-I, causing cells to hold the dye and thus retain the purple colour even after the ethanol wash Why do Gram-negative bacteria stain pink? Gram negative cells have only a thin layer of peptidoglycan, so the CV-I complex easily washes out, and thus the cells are able to be counterstained pink because they no longer contain any crystal violet dye What is the effect of high temperatures on bacteria that do not form endospores? High temperatures will kill cells that do not produce endospores as it can damage cell membranes and denature proteins, resulting in cells that are unable to function Microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments which function in cell structure, cell motility (flagella and cilia - microtubules as part of their ultrastructure), and various biological processes Mitochondria, chloroplasts, Golgi apparatus, endoplasmic reticulum, nucleus, and vacuoles/vesicles Function in cell motility (flagella and cilia) and one organism also uses cilia to propel food towards its oral groove Used in amoeboid movement and organelle movement (intermediate filaments give nucleus its shape - nuclear lamina) How do microfilaments act in amoeboid movement? Phase contrast microscope Phase contrast microscope Cells and medium have different refractive index, and therefore light traveling through a material with different refractive indexes show a change in phase of light waves, which the microscope then translates to a change in light intensity (areas of higher refractive index appear darker) Some cell structures contain autofluoresce, some require staining - by exposing cells to several stains at once, different structures will fluoresce different colours How can contrast be improved? Staining compounds (vital stain - living cells/tissue, or dead cells and tissues), using special types of microscopes to manipulate light, and by reducing the amount of light What effect would cytochalasin (inhibits microtubules) and cholchicine (inhibits microfilaments) have on Pelomyxa? Cytochalasin would cause amoeba to become sessile, as the microfilaments are responsible for the movement of amoebas - cholchicine would have no effect What effect would cytochalasin (inhibits microtubules) and cholchicine (inhibits microfilaments) have on Euglena? What effect would cytochalasin (inhibits microtubules) and cholchicine (inhibits microfilaments) have on motile prokaryotes? What is phagocytosis, and how does it differ from receptor-mediated endocytosis? Phagocytosis is the process that Paramecium use to take in food. It differs from receptor-mediated endocytosis in that receptor-mediated endocytosis is very specific and allows the cell to acquire bulk quantities of specific substances, whereas phagocytosis is more general and can take in different substances Organelles (enzymes) that digest or break down waste materials and cellular debris, such as worn out organelles, food particles, and engulfed bacteria and viruses Contains cell's genetic information, and is surrounded by the nuclear lamina (made up of intermediate filaments) to protect the DNA Engulfs food via phagocytosis and uses lysosomes to break the food down Organelles found in plant cells that are used in photosynthesis - they capture light and convert it to usable energy Proteins that catalyze metabolic reactions without being consumed or destroyed by the molecule - lower a reaction's activation energy (substrate specific) Molecule to be reacted, that fits into a uniquely shaped pocket of the enzyme called the active site and binds with the enzyme as it is converted into the end product Allows plants to use starch it has stored after photosynthesis - takes amylose and breaks it down into smaller molecules by hydrolysis (glucose molecules, maltose, and shorter chains of amylose) Polymeric macromolecule composed of glucose monomers that is too large to pass through a cell membrane What are enzymes made up of? Enzymes are proteins, which are made up of amino acids What is an active site? An active site is a site that uniquely fits the substrate specific to the enzyme, and will activate the enzyme once the substrate binds to the site Energy transfer from light to chemical bonds through series of light reactions What series of reactions occurs in photosynthesis? Light energy from sun strikes pigments in thylakoid membrane of chloroplast, which is transformed into excited electrons (electrical energy), then into chemical energy in the form of bonds in ATP and NADPH molecules, and the ATP and NADH molecules are then used to power the fixation of carbon dioxide into sugar molecules (Calvin cycle, occurring in stroma) Determines which wavelengths of light the chloroplasts maximally absorb (these wavelengths also produce the highest rates of photosynthetic activity) Chloroplast suspension is mixed with indicator dye DCPIP - as DCPIP accepts electrons from the electron transport chain of Photosystem II it becomes reduced and therefore colourless, allowing absorptions to be measured to determine concentrations What were the controls in the photosynthesis in spinach chloroplasts experiment? Controls must show that DCPIP is stable and there is no other source of electrons to reduce DCPIP (colour does not change spontaneously) and that the colour of chloroplast suspension is stable and does not change colour spontaneously What are the independent and dependent variables for the absorbance spectrum of photosynthesis in spinach chloroplasts? The independent variable is the wavelength of light, and the dependent variable is the absorbance of the chloroplast suspension at varying wavelengths of light What are the independent and dependent variables for the action spectrum of photosynthesis in spinach chloroplasts? The independent variable is the colour of light, and the dependent variable is the absorbance of the solution Why are spinach leaves green? Spinach leaves are green because they maximally absorb blue and red wavelengths, and green wavelengths are absorbed the least and are therefore reflected back the most, resulting in the green colour At what wavelength is the action spectrum measured at? The wavelength that photosynthesis occurs at maximally Where do light reactions take place in the chloroplast? Reactions of the Calvin cycle? Light reactions take place in the stroma of the chloroplast, and reactions of the Calvin cycle take place in the stroma Measuring oxygen levels, sugar produced, or carbon dioxide levels How is ATP produced? Through the catabolism of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats Glycolysis in eukaryotes Cytosolic reactions to convert glucose to pyruvate (one molecule of glucose results in the net production of 2 molecules of ATP via substrate level phosphorylation After glycolysis, what occurs in the presence of oxygen? Eukaryotes convert pyruvate into acetyl CoA, which is transported to Kreb's cycle in mitochondria (produces 2 more molecules of ATP) and then oxidative phosphorylation (the transfer of electrons from food to oxygen) produces the rest of the ATP molecules (carbon dioxide is also formed as a by-product) After glycolysis, what occurs in the absence of oxygen? Pyruvate is degraded via a series of cytostolic pathways - lactic acid fermentation and alcohol fermentation (produces ethanol and carbon dioxide, regenerates NAD+ - required for glycolytic pathway) What sort of feedback system occurs in alcohol fermentation? Fermentation of glucose produces ethanol, but high concentrations of ethanol are toxic to yeast Physiological response curve Why is fermentation necessary? Why was the yeast flask swirled prior to adding yeast to each tube? To re-suspend the yeast and therefore the ensure that similar concentrations of yeast were present in each tube (constant) What would happen if the metabolism in yeast experiment were done without the 10 minute pre-incubation period? The lag phase of the physiological response curve would be significantly longer as the pre-incubation period brings the tube to a temperature at which yeast metabolizes glucose most effectively, and therefore without the incubation period the yeast would not metabolize glucose as well What process are the yeast in the Durham tube undergoing? The yeast are undergoing fermentation - other eukaryotes undergo aerobic respiration, and only prokaryotes undergo anaerobic respiration What metabolic processes occur in the cytoplasm? Alcohol fermentation, ATP production, glycolysis, and NADH production What metabolic processes occur in the mitochondria? ATP production, Krebs cycle, electron transport chain, and NADH production Bacterial genomic DNA Consists of a double stranded DNA helix arranged in a circle that is anchored to the bacterial plasma membrane - 4000 genes that encode all the functions of the bacterial cell Bacterial plasmid DNA Floats freely in cytoplasm of bacterial cell Circular and can assume supercoiled conformation in which circular double helix molecule twists on itself Much smaller than genomic DNA (2- 25 genes) Can sometimes conform extra properties to the cell that allow the cell to survive in conditions that it could not survive without the plasmid DNA (only when there is selective pressure) Arranged in linear strands (chromosomes - 23 pairs) in nucleus of cell (30 000 - 35 000 genes - high molecular weight DNA) Can be used to analyze small amount of plasmid DNA - DNA is not very pure and maxi prep must be used for further analysis as it is a larger quantity of very pure DNA - separates plasmid DNA from bacterial genomic DNA based on size and conformation How can high molecular weight (HMW) DNA be extracted? High affinity for glass - buffer solution must contain Tris and EDTA as it binds magnesium ions which are required for DNAse, preventing DNAse from functioning and degrading the DNA into nucleotides What does centrifuging do? Creates a centrifugal force that causes bacterial cells to collect in a pellet at the bottom of the tube - liquid above is referred to as the supernatant What does vortexing do? Vortexing disrupts the pellet of cells so that they may be re-suspended Why is STE added to the DNA treatment? Washes the medium away from the cells What is Solution I in the DNA treatment? A buffered, isotonic solution that is used to re-suspend bacterial cells What is Solution II in the DNA treatment? Contains sodium dodecylsulfate (SDS) and sodium hydroxide (an alkali) - SDS denatures proteins and disrupts the plasma membrane, causing the cell to lyse and releasing cell components into the solution, and NaOH raises the pH of the lysate to denature the hydrogen bonds between the base pairs of DNA, separating the helix What is Solution III in the DNA treatment? Acidic potassium acetate solution that neutralizes the pH in the lysate so that some hydrogen bonds in the DNA will re-form in random base pairs, resulting in a tangled, insoluble mass of DNA - hydrogen bonds in the plasmid DNA reform between the original complementary base pairs (when solution is placed on ice potassium forms white, insoluble mass with SDS that precipitates out along with many of the proteins, cell wall, debris, and genomic DNA) What does centrifuging do to the genomic DNA-potassium-SDS-protein-cell wall complex? Causes the complex to pellet in the bottom of the tube and the plasmid to remain in the supernatant solution What does the 95% ethanol wash do in the DNA treatment? Removes water molecules from macromolecules by decreasing hydrogen bonding between water molecules and macromolecules (plasmid DNA and RNA come out of solution and precipitate, so that they may be centrifuged into a pellet) What does the 70% ethanol wash do in the DNA treatment? Removes the salts which were not removed with the 95% ethanol, and hydrates the pellets slightly so that it may dissolve in the aqueous solution Why is the 30 minute incubation period necessary in the DNA extraction? Why is sodium acetate used to precipitate HMW DNA? The salt ions compete with macromolecules (DNA) for the water molecules What are the 2 properties of DNA that allow you to separate genomic DNA from plasmid DNA Size - big genomic DNA precipitates faster with centrifugation Conformation (shape of molecule) - supercoiled plasmid DNA maintains its shape even when hydrogen bonds in backbone are broken How can HMW DNA be extracted from solution? Its affinity for glass and the fact that it forms very long "threads" of DNA What would happen if the tube were vortexed after the addition of Solution II? Genomic DNA would break and would not all be centrifuged out, therefore contaminating plasmid DNA What is the difference between genomic DNA, plasmid DNA, and eukaryotic DNA? Genomic DNA contains the majority of genes needed for the bacterial cell to function Plasmid DNA is a small, circular structure of DNA in the cell cytoplasm that contains genes that can allow the bacteria to survive in conditions where it could otherwise not survive Eukaryotic DNA is much larger and is contained within the nucleus, in 23 pairs of chromosomes, encoding all the genes necessary for the survival of the eukaryote What is the purpose of the 95% ethanol and 70% ethanol wash? 95% ethanol dehydrates the cell 70% ethanol treatment removes the salts and rehydrates the plasmid DNA, allowing it to dissolve faster Why must plasmid DNA be kept on ice following incubation? DNAse will break down DNA at room temperature - T solution has EDTA to inactivate DNAse What was the experiment performed by Avery, MacLeod, and McCarty? Tested various cellular macromolecules for their ability to transform non-virulent Streptococcus pneumoniae into virulent bacteria - discovered DNA was the only macromolecule capable of transforming non-virulent bacteria into virulent bacteria How did the experiment performed in Biol 107 differ from Avery et al? Escherichia coli was used E. coli was examined for transformation by a gene on the plasmid DNA instead of the genomic DNA E. coli cells needed to be made competent to uptake DNA using a calcium chloride solution Mice were not used (medium containing kanamycin was used instead) Only DNA was focused on (as opposed to various parts of the cell) How were kanamycin sensitive E. coli cells made proficient to take up DNA? A calcium chloride solution was made, which created holes in the cellular membranes (competent cells) How is a competent cell transformed? If plasmid DNA entering competent cells is capable of replicating, the competent cells will be genetically altered or transformed (kanamycin resistant) - all descendants of transformed cells should be genetically altered What is kanamycin? Antibiotic belonging to the family of antibiotics characterized by their ability to inhibit protein synthesis in prokaryotic cells - they are transported into the cell by oxygen dependent active transport system and irreversibly inhibit protein synthesis by binding to a small subunit of ribosomes in bacterial cell, so cells are unable to synthesize proteins - cell death What occurs in kanamycin resistant cells? Phosphotransferase enzyme is encoded and expressed in the presence of kanamycin, which phosphorylates (adds a phosphorous group) to kanamycin and renders the antibiotic inactve Use of a DNA template to synthesize RNA Reading of mRNA to produce protein Plate Count Method Viable cell count (living cells only) in which original cell suspension is diluted into suspensions of decreasing cell concentration, which are spread onto the surface of an agar medium and allowed to incubate so that single cells may grow into a colony - following incubation colonies may be counted, and each is representative of a single cell originally deposited on the plate Petroff-Hausser Counting Chamber Total cell count (living and dead) using a specially designed microscope slide with a depressed surface and etched grid, where a thin layer of cell suspension of known volume is spread and the number of cells in the volume is directly counted with the aid of a microscope Optical Density (OD) Indirect method of total cell count, measuring turbidity (cloudiness of a solution due to the presence of particles such as cells), measured using a spectrophotometer, and developing a standard curve Why is Solution T (Tris) buffer used in the Transformation of Bacterial Cells lab? Maintains the pH at 8.0 and is the solvent for plasmid DNA Solution B is the solution used to dissolve DNAse but does not contain DNAse What occurs during the first incubation period of the Transfomation of Bacterial Cells lab? What occurs during the heat shock incubation period in the Transformation of Bacterial Cells lab? Helps the plasmid DNA enter the competent cells and induces the expression of survival genes necessary to repair damage to the plasma membrane What does the third incubation period in the Transformation of Bacterial Cells lab do? Allows time for kanamycin resistance gene to be expressed - must be transcribed into mRNA, then mRNA must translate it into a polypeptide chain (phosphotransferase) The plate which does not contain plasmid DNA, and instead contains solution B, Tris buffer, and competent cells The plate that contains plasmid DNA that has been broken down into nucleotides by DNAse, as well as solution B and competent cells There would be colony growth on plate 5+K, as the DNAse cannot enter the competent cells and the plasmid DNA would not have been broken down - the kanamycin resistant gene would have been expressed in the competent cells What would occur if the environment in which the E. coli was grown was anaerobic? The kanamycin would not affect the growth of the cells, as kanamycin enters the cell in an oxygen dependent manner About this deck Size: 132 flashcards

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Racism uber alles 0 Auschwitz looms as a testament to the rabid quest for 'racial purity' undertaken by Hitler and the Nazis. But rather than a product of the Left or the Right, writes Queen's professor Timothy Smith, Nazism was 'tyranny with an unabashedly brutal face.' Was Hitler a socialist? Certainly he had nothing in common with the strain of Social Democracy that emerged during the 1930s in Scandinavia and survives there and in Germany. This variant of socialism respects the rule of law and private property; it is not under examination in this article. But was Nazism related to Soviet-style socialism? Hitler’s party was, after all, named the National Socialist German Worker’s Party (NSDAP). Early on, the party’s message was peppered with anti-big-business and anti-labor-union rhetoric alike. Some of the early leaders of the party (Hitler did not take full control for several years after joining it) were anti-capitalist, and Hitler’s early speeches can indeed be mined for denunciations of high finance and monopoly capitalism, which Hitler equated with the Jews. These criticisms are largely rooted in Hitler’s anti-Semitism and his contempt for the profiteering of large firms during the war—they don’t stem from a sympathetic reading of Marx. In power, the Nazi party expanded the welfare state, just as Mussolini had done in Italy, and just as conservative governments did in France. Hitler subsidized leisure programs and he increased the value of family allowances (for those deemed racially “fit”). But this does not make him a socialist. The Nazis were obsessed with the class conflict in general, and they strove to “solve” it—on their authoritarian terms. But the pursuit of racial “purity” was Hitler’s revolutionary principle. His social policy was always subordinated to his racial policy. Hitler’s world-view revolved around biological determinism; the Soviets’ world-view centred on the inevitability of the class conflict. Under Hitler, rampant individualism would be replaced by a martial devotion to the racially pure Nation. The Nazis were suspicious of many traditional institutions. Hitler was no conservative, even if he needed, and got in 1933, the reluctant support of conservative leaders naive in the belief that they could control him. Hitler displayed no ideological commitment to curtailing the rights of private property. He mobilized a war economy, and like the democracies during both World Wars, he requisitioned factories, but he accepted the basic contours of capitalism. There was no plan to collectivize German farms, nor were businesses and bank accounts taken over for the sake of taking them over. Jews and political enemies were robbed of their property and eventually their lives. The Nazis’ willingness to violate property rights stemmed entirely from their racism and militarism; the state did not direct the production of basic consumer goods, as it did in the USSR. One cannot understand Hitler’s 1941 invasion of the USSR without reference to his ideology of “Jewish Bolshevism.” Describing his own political awakening in Vienna, Hitler wrote in Mein Kampf, “in this period my eyes were opened to two menaces of which I had previously scarcely known the names ... Marxism and Jewry.” Addressing the judge at the trial of the Beer Hall Putsch conspirators, a failed coup d’état Hitler launched in 1923, he said: “I wanted to become the destroyer of Marxism.” Shortly after becoming Chancellor, Hitler imprisoned Socialist and Communist leaders on trumped-up charges. Next he murdered several of them and demolished their unions and political parties. Like Lenin and Stalin, Hitler had contempt for individual political rights, that quaint bourgeois notion. Like the Soviets, Hitler crushed civil society, politicizing everyday life, from the composition of city councils to the boards of directors of charities and athletic clubs. Soviet-style Socialism was tyranny with a supposedly humane goal—the abolition of poverty, the dawning of equality, and the liberation of the individual from the alienation of modern industrial life and the backwardness of quasi-serfdom in the countryside. Hitler had no such concerns. Nazism was tyranny with an unabashedly brutal face. The end goal was certainly European domination (some historians believe world domination), the elimination of the Jews and the Marxists, and the enslavement of Eastern Europeans. Communism and fascism treated individuals as mere abstractions, to be murdered or imprisoned if need be. But the end goals were profoundly different. Hitler did not seek to overthrow capitalism. If he threw “socialistic” crumbs of comfort to the workers who toiled in his war machine it was not out of ideological commitment. His concern was to prop up his regime and to ensure “racial fitness.” Like the men who ruled the USSR, Hitler was, in politics, a collectivist - but he was no socialist. The difference is more than semantic. Hitler was first and foremost a racist whose associated military goals required a form of intervention in the economy that should not be confused with socialism. Timothy Smith is a history professor at Queen's University and an expert in modern European history.

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Health care employment has been the bright spot in the otherwise lackluster recent jobs reports. As overall employment decreased by 2 percent from 2000 to 2010, employment in the health care sector actually increased by 25 percent. But that’s not necessarily a good thing, according to an opinion piece published in the most recent edition of the New England Journal of Medicine. “Treating the health care system like a (wildly inefficient) jobs program conflicts directly with the goal of ensuring that all Americans have access to care at an affordable price,” write Katherine Baicker and Amitabh Chandra, two researchers from Harvard. By 2020, almost one out of nine American jobs will be in health care, an April study from the Center for Health Workforce Studies projects. As the country wrestles to reduce health care spending, which already consumes about 18 percent of GDP, those extra jobs could be a step in the wrong direction. “Salaries for health care jobs are not manufactured out of thin air—they are produced by someone paying higher taxes, a patient paying more money for health care, or an employee taking home lower wages because higher health insurance premiums are deducted from his or her paycheck,” write the authors of the NEJM column. Yet hospitals and politicians alike often tout the jobs that the health care industry creates in local communities. “The health care sector is an economic mainstay, providing stability and even growth during times of recession,” the American Hospital Association wrote in a fact sheet entitled “Economic Contribution of Hospitals Often Overlooked.” The authors argue that the focus should instead be on improving health outcomes and efficiency, rather than simply more people working in the field, pointing to “mounting evidence that out health care system could deliver better care without spending more and that there are tremendous opportunities for improvements in productivity.” Several provisions of the 2010 health care law aim to reduce inefficiencies by rewarding higher-value care and reducing some of the incentives for doctors to deliver more testing and care with unproven benefits. Such policies may serve to reduce health care employment, the authors argue, by “allowing us to get the same health outcomes with fewer health care workers.” Some jobs in health care could be lost; however, taxpayers and workers in other fields would likely pay less in premiums. “The bottom line is that employment in the health care sector should be neither a policy goal nor a metric of success,” they conclude.

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“Writing is a way of talking without being interrupted.” — Jules Renard “ideas to get your student’s pencils moving” Writing is and isn’t an easy thing to do in the classroom. Especially nowadays when students don’t have long attention spans and are more and more “digital” and visual learners. However, it is a vital skill that opens up a world of possibilities for any student. Written communication in whatever language, even with the advent of the internet, is still a necessity. Writing allows communication, controlled and deliberate – POWERFUL, communication. So we have to get our students writing more and better. How? Below, find a rundown of what I consider the “standard” writing activities for any age group. Just change the topic/theme. Most are for any classroom, EFL / ESL or the regular classroom. My belief is that writing in English is writing in English. Whether it be a second language or first makes no difference because the “eating” is all the same. I’ve divided the activities into different categories. These are just for the sake of having some kind of organization. I’ve also labeled them WUP – for a warm up writing activity and something to do quickly. CP – Controlled practice. Writing activities that help the beginning writer and offer support, repetition and guidance. F – Free writing activities which activate student learning and allow them to practice what they already know and “test the waters” so to speak. Where appropriate, I’ve linked to some resources that compliment the writing activity as described. Listen — Write There are many ways to “spice” up the standard dictation. The simplest is to have the students fold a blank piece of paper “hamburger” style (Up/down) 4 times. Unfold and they have a nice 8 line piece of paper. Speak 8 sentences , repeating each several times as the students write. Get the students to record their answers on the board and correct. Collect and keep in a portfolio! There are many online sites where students can do the same but in a computer lab or at home. Or the teacher can even try in the classroom. http://www.listen-and-write.com/audio – for older students http://www.learner.org/interactives/spelling/ – for young learners 2. Story Rewriting The teacher reads a story or the class listens to an audio story. After, students make a story board (just fold a blank page so you have 8 squares) and draw pictures. Then, they write the story based on those pictures. Very simple and powerful! – F The students close their eyes and the teacher describes a scene. Play some nice background music. The students then write and describe the scene they imagined, sharing their scene afterwards with the class or a classmate. 4. Pop Song Rewrite Play a familiar pop song. One with a “catchy” chorus. Afterwards, write out the chorus on the board with some of the words missing. Students can then rewrite the chorus and sing their own version. Higher level students can simply write their own version without help. Here’s a very simple example – He’s got the whole world in his hands He’s got ___________ and ___________ In his hands. (3x) He’s got the whole world in his hands Watch —– Write Students watch a TV Commercial. Then, they write their own script based on that commercial but focused on a different product. Afterwards, they can perform. F 2. Short videos. Just like a story but this time students watch. Then, they can rewrite / respond / reflect. Students can choose to reflect on one standard Reading Response question or as part of a daily journal. Ex. The best part was ….. / If I had made the video, I would have …… Short videos are powerful and if well chosen can really get students writing in a reflective manner. CP / F How to Videos Students can watch a short “How to” video that describes a process. There are some excellent sites with User Generated Content. Expert Village and eHow are recommended. After the students watch the video several times, they can write out the steps using transitions which the teacher lists on the board. [First, first off, To begin, then, after that, next, most importantly, finally, last but not least, to finish ] CP / F 3. Newscasts / Weather reports Watch the daily news or weather report. Students write in groups or individually, their own version of the news for that week/day. Then perform for the class like a real news report! F 4. Travel Videos Watch a few travel videos (there are many nice, short travel “postcard” videos online). Groups of students select a place and write up a report or a poster outlining why others should visit their city/country. Alternately, give students a postcard and have them write to another student in the classroom as if they were in that city/country. For lower leveled students, provide them with a template and they just fill in the details. Ex. I’m sitting in a ………… drinking a …………… I’ve been in ……. for ………. days now. The weather has been ……………. Yesterday I visited the ………….. and I saw …………….. Today, I’m going to ………………. I highly recommend ……………….. See you when I get home ………………… CP / F Look —– Write 1. Pictures / Slideshows Visuals are a powerful way to provide context and background for any writing. Make sure to use attractive, stimulating and if possible “real” photos to prompt student writing. Students can describe a scene or they can describe a series of pictures from a slideshow. An excellent activity is to show a nice photo and get students to “guess” and write their guess in the form of the 5Ws. They answer all the 5w questions and then share their thoughts with the class. Show a picture and get students to write a story or use it as background for a writing prompt. For example, Show a picture of a happy lottery winner. Ask students to write in their journal – If I won a million dollars I would …… This is a much better way to “prompt” writing than simple script! – CP Show students a selection of fairly similar pictures. The students describe in writing one of the pictures (faces work really well). They read and the other students listen and “guess” which picture is being described. Similar to this listening activity. CP Provide students with a series of pictures which describe a story. I often use Action Pictures. Students write about each picture, numbering each piece of writing for each picture. The teacher can guide lower level students like this Mr. X’s Amazing Day example. After editing, the students cut up the pictures and make a storybook. Gluing in the pictures, coloring, decorating and adding their own story text. Afterwards read to the whole class or share among the class. CP / F Provide students with a sequence of pictures which are scrambled. The students must order the pictures and then write out the process. Ex. Making scrambled eggs. F Read —- Write 1. Reading Journal / Reading Response The students read a story and then respond by making a reflective journal entry. Alternatively, the students can respond to a reading response question like, “Which character did you like best? Why?” F Read a short story and then give students a copy of the story with some text missing. The students can fill it in with the correct version OR fill it in and make the story their own. These are stories where words are replaced with icons/pictures. Students can read the story and then write out the whole story, replacing the pictures with the correct text. Here are some nice examples. – CP 3. Opinion / Essay Select an article or OP Ed piece that students would find interesting or controversial. After reading and discussing, students can respond with a formal essay or piece of writing reflecting their opinion. Read them anonymously afterwards and get the class to guess who wrote it! F 4. Giving Advice Students read a problem provided by the teacher (even better, get students to provide the problem by having them write down what they need advice on). This can often be an Ann Landers style request for advice from a newspaper. Students write their own response, giving advice. F 5. Running dictation This is a lot of fun but quite noisy. Put students into groups of 3 or 4. For each group, post on the wall around the classroom, a piece of writing (maybe a selection of text you will be reading in your lesson). One student is appointed as the secretary. The other students must “run” to where their piece of writing is on the wall and read it. Then run back and dictate it to the secretary who records it. Continue until one group is finished (but check that they got it right!). CP Think —- Write 1. Graphic Organizers These you can make on your own by having students draw and fold blank sheets of paper or by giving them a pre-designed one. Students write out their thoughts on a topic using the organizer. An alphabet organizer is also an excellent activity in writing for lower level students. Graphic organizers and mind maps are an excellent way “first step” to a longer writing piece and are an important pre-writing activity. WUP 2. Prompts / Sentence Starters Students are prompted to finish sentences that are half started. They can write X number of sentences using the sentence starter. Many starters can be found online. Prompts are also an excellent way to get students thinking and writing. Every day, students can “free write” a passage using the daily prompt (ex. What I did this morning etc… ) Creative writing of this sort really motivates students to write. There are many lists online you can use. 3. Thinking Games Using a worksheet, students play the game while writing down their responses in grammatical sentences. What the Wordle / Not Like the Other and Top 5 are some games I’ve made and which help students begin to write. Each has a worksheet which students fill out. CP 4. Decoding / Translating Translating a passage into English can be a good writing activity for higher level students. Students love their cell phones and Transl8it.com is a handy way to get students interested in writing. Simply put in English text and Transl8it.com will output “text messaging”. Give this to students to decode into standard English and then check against the original. Lots of fun! See the games I’ve designed (Pop Song / Dialogues ) using this principle of decoding text messaging. CP 5. Forms / Applications Students need to practice writing that will be of use to them directly in the wider world. Forms and filling in applications are a valuable way to do this. Fill in one together as a class and then get students to do this same for themselves individually. – CP 6. Journals / Reflection / Diaries This type of free writing activity should be done on a regular basis if used in class. Use a timer and for X minutes, students can write upon a topic that is important to them, that day. Alternatively, students can write at the end of the day and record their thoughts about the lesson or their own learning. These are all excellent ways for the teacher to get to know their students. One caution – don’t correct student writing here! Comment positively on the student’s writing – the goal is to get them feeling good about writing and “into” it. – F 7. Tag Stories / Writing Students love this creative exercise. Fold a blank piece of paper vertically (Hamburger style) 4 times. You’ll have 8 lines. On the first line, students all write the same sentence starter. Ex. A man walked into a bank and …….. Next, students finish the sentence and then pass their paper to the student on their left/right. That student reads the sentence and continues the story on the next line. Continue until all 8 lines are completed. Read the stories as a class – many will be hilarious! I often do this with a “gossip” variation. I write some gossip “chunks” on the board like; “I heard that..” , “I was told…” “The word on the street is…” “Don’t pass it around but…”. Students choose one and write some juicy gossip about the student to their right. They then pass their paper to the left with everyone adding onto the gossip. Students really get into this! CP / F 8. Describe and guess Students think of a person / a place or a thing. They write a description of them / it and they are read out and others students guess. Jokes and riddles are also effective for this. Students write out a joke or riddle they know and then they are read and other students try to guess the punchline. – F TEXT —– Write 1. Sentence Chains The teacher writes a word on the board and then students shout out words that follow using the last letter(s). The more last letters they use, the more points they get. The teacher keeps writing as quick as possible as the students offer up more correct words. Ex. Smilengthosentencementality….. Give students a blank piece of paper and in pairs with one student being the secretary, they play! This is a great game for simple spelling practice and also to get students noticing language and how words end/begin. They can also play for points. Compound words and phrases are acceptable! – WUP 2. Guided Writing This is a mainstay of the writing teacher’s toolkit. Students are either given a “bank” of words or can write/guess on their own. They fill in the missing words of a text to complete the text. Take up together and let students read their variations. A nice adaptation to guided writing for lower level students is for them to personalize the writing by getting them to draw a picture for the writing passage to illustrate and fortify the meaning. Here’s a nice example. CP Use a time line to describe any event. Brainstorm as a class. Then students use the key words written on the board, to write out the time line as a narrative. Really effective and you can teach history like this too! Biographies of individuals or even the students themselves are a powerful writing activity and timelines are a great way to get them started. – F Students are given notes (the classic example is a shopping list but it might be a list of zoo animals / household items etc…) and then asked to write something using all the noted words. This usually focuses on sequence (transitions) or location (prepositions). F 5. Grammar Poems Grammar poems are short poems about a topic that students complete using various grammar prompts. This form of guided writing is very effective and helps students notice various syntactical elements of the language. Put the grammar poem on the board with blanks. Here are some examples but it could be on any topic (country, famous person, my home, this school, etc..). Fill out as a class with one student filling it in. Then, students copy the poem and complete with their own ideas. Change as needed to stress different grammatical elements. And of course, afterwards SHARE. Present some to the class and display on a bulletin board. Your students will be proud of them! SPEAK — Write 1. Surveys / Reports Students have a survey question or a questionnaire. They walk around the class recording information. After, instead of reporting to the class orally, they can write up the report about their findings. This can also be used with FSW (Find Someone Who) games. Students use a picture bingo card to walk around the classroom and ask students yes/no questions. They write the answers with a check or X and the student’s name in the box with the picture. After, they write up a report about which student ……. / didn’t …… certain things. CP 2. Reported Speech Do any speaking activity or set of conversation questions. Afterwards, students report back by writing using reported speech, “ Susan told me that she ………..” and “ Brad said that ………..” etc….. CP 3. Introducing each other Students can interview another classmate using a series of questions / key words given by the teacher. After the interview of each other is over, students can write out a biography of their partner and others can read them in a class booklet. – F 4. In class letter writing Writing for a purpose is so important and nothing makes this happen better than in class letter writing. Appoint a postman and have each student make a post office box (it could just be a small bag hanging from their desk). The students can write each other (best to assign certain students first) and then respond to their letter. Once it gets started, it just keeps going and going… – F 4. Email / messaging / chat / social networking This is an excellent way to get students speaking by writing. Set up a social networking system or a messaging / emailing system for the students. They can communicate and chat there using an “English only” policy. Use videos / pictures like in class – to promote student discussion and communication. Projects online foster this kind of written communication and using an CMS (Content Management System) like moodle or atutor or ning can really help students write more. – F 5. Class / School English newspaper or magazine Students can gain valuable skills by meeting and designing a school English newsletter. Give each student a role (photographer, gossip / news / sports / editor in chief / copy editor etc…) and see what they can do. You’ll be surprised! – F WRITE —— Do Students can write dialogues for many every day situations and then act them out for the class. The teacher can model the language on the board and then erase words so students can complete by themselves and in their own words. Here’s a neat example using a commercial as a dialogue. – CP Students draw a picture and then write a description of the picture. They hand their description to another student who must read it and then draw the picture as they see it. Finally, both students compare pictures! – F 3. Tableaus / Drama Students write texts of any sort. Then the texts are read and other students must make a tableau of the description or act out the text in some manner. For example – students can write about their weekend. After writing, the student reads their text and other students act it out or perform a tableau. F 4. Don’t speak / Write! I once experimented with a class that wouldn’t speak much by putting a gag on myself and only writing out my instructions. It worked and this technique could be used in a writing class. Students can’t speak and are “gagged”. Give them post it notes by which to communicate with others. Instruct using the board. There are many creative ways to use this technique! – F RECOMMENDED BOOKS 4 TEACHERS I highly recommend the following two books for ideas and some general theory on how to teach writing. Purchase them for reference. 1. HOW TO TEACH WRITING – Jeremy Harmer Very insightful and cleanly, simply written. The author explores through example and description, all the facets and theory behind that “looking glass” which we call teaching. I use this as a course text for my methodology class for in-service teachers. 2. Oxford Basics: Simple Writing Activites - Jill and Charles Hadfield This book (and series) is a gem! Jill Hadfield knows what working EFL / ESL teachers need and in this book there are 30 simple writing activities which teachers can use with a wide variety of levels and with only a chalkboard and a piece of chalk / paper. See my Blog post and download the list of my TOP 10 WRITING WEBSITES FOR TEACHERS AND STUDENTS

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A long time ago I wrote the article The Dull Case of Emissivity and Average Temperatures and expected that would be the end of the interest in emissivity. But it is a gift that keeps on giving, with various people concerned that no one has really been interested in measuring surface emissivity properly. All solid and liquid surfaces emit thermal radiation according to the Stefan-Boltzmann formula: E = εσT4 where ε=emissivity, a material property; σ = 5.67×10-8 ; T = temperature in Kelvin (absolute temperature) and E is the flux in W/m² More about this formula and background on the material properties in Planck, Stefan-Boltzmann, Kirchhoff and LTE. The parameter called emissivity is the focus of this article. It is of special interest because to calculate the radiation from the earth’s surface we need to know only temperature and emissivity. Emissivity is a value between 0 and 1. And is also depends on the wavelength of radiation (and in some surfaces like metals, also the direction). Because the wavelengths of radiation depend on temperature, emissivity also depends on temperature. When emissivity = 1, the body is called a “blackbody”. It’s just the theoretical maximum that can be radiated. Some surfaces are very close to a blackbody and others are a long way off. Note: I have seen many articles by keen budding science writers who have some strange ideas about “blackbodies”. The only difference between a blackbody and a non-blackbody is that the emissivity of a blackbody = 1, and the emissivity of a non-blackbody is less than 1. That’s it. Nothing else. The wavelength dependence of emissivity is very important. If we take snow for example, it is highly reflective to solar (shortwave) radiation with as much as 80% of solar radiation being reflected. Solar radiation is centered around a wavelength of 0.5μm. Yet snow is highly absorbing to terrestrial (longwave) radiation, which is centered around a wavelength of 10μm. The absorptivity and emissivity around freezing point is 0.99 – meaning that only 1% of incident longwave radiation would be reflected. Let’s take a look at the Planck curve – the blackbody radiation curve – for surfaces at a few slightly different temperatures: The emissivity (as a function of wavelength) simply modifies these curves. Suppose, for example, that the emissivity of a surface was 0.99 across this entire wavelength range. In that case, a surface at 30°C would radiate like the light blue curve but at 99% of the values shown. If the emissivity varies across the wavelength range then you simply multiply the emissivity by the intensity at each wavelength to get the expected radiation. Sometimes emissivity is quoted as an average for a given temperature – this takes into account the shape of the Planck curve shown in the graphs above. Often, when emissivity is quoted as an overall value, the total flux has been measured for a given temperature and the emissivity is simply: ε = actual radiation measured / blackbody theoretical radiation at that temperature [Fixed, thanks to DeWitt Payne for pointing out the mistake] In practice the calculation is slightly more involved, see note 1. It turns out that the emissivity of water and of the ocean surface is an involved subject. And because of the importance of calculating the sea surface temperature from satellite measurements, the emissivity of the ocean in the “atmospheric window” (8-14 μm) has been the subject of many 100′s of papers (perhaps 1000′s). These somewhat overwhelm the papers on the less important subject of “general ocean emissivity”. Aside from climate, water itself is an obvious subject of study for spectroscopy. For example, 29 years ago Miriam Sidran writing Broadband reflectance and emissivity of specular and rough water surfaces, begins: The optical constants of water have been extensively studied because of their importance in science and technology. Applications include a) remote sensing of natural water surfaces, b) radiant energy transfer by atmospheric water droplets, and c) optical properties of diverse materials containing water, such as soils, leaves and aqueous solutions. In this study, values of the complex index of refraction from six recent articles were averaged by visual inspection of the graphs, and the most representative values in the wavelength range of 0.200 μm to 5 cm were determined. These were used to find the directional polarized reflectance and emissivity of a specular surface and the Brewster or pseudo-Brewster angle as functions of wavelength. The directional polarized reflectance and emissivity of wind-generated water waves were studied using the facet slope distribution function for a rough sea due to Cox and Munk . Applications to remote sensing of sea surface temperature and wave state are discussed, including effects of salinity. Emphasis added. She also comments in her paper: For any wavelength, the total emissivity, ε, is constant for all θ [angles] < 45° [from vertical]; this follows from Fig. 8 and Eq. (6a). It is important in remote sensing of thermal radiation from space, as discussed later.. The polarized emissivities are independent of surface roughness for θ < 25°, while for θ > 25°, the thermal radiation is partly depolarized by the roughness. This means that when you look at the emission radiation from directly above (and close to directly above) the sea surface roughness doesn’t have an effect. I thought some other comments might also be interesting: The 8-14-μm spectral band is chosen for discussion here because (a) it is used in remote sensing and (b) the atmospheric transmittance, τ, in this band is a fairly well-known function of atmospheric moisture content. Water vapor is the chief radiation absorber in this band. In Eqs. (2)-(4), n and k (and therefore A and B) are functions of salinity. However, the emissivity value, ε, computed for pure water differs from that of seawater by <0.5%. When used in Eqs. (10), it causes an error of <0.20°C in retrieved Ts [surface temperature]. Since ε in this band lies between 0.96 and 0.995, approximation ε= 1 is routinely used in sea surface temperature retrieval. However, this has been shown to cause an error of -0.5 to -1.0°C for very dry atmospheres. For very moist atmospheres, the error is only ≈0.2°C. One of the important graphs from her paper: Click to view a larger image Emissivity = 1 – Reflectance. The graph shows Reflectance vs Wavelength vs Angle of measurement. I took the graph (coarse as it is) and extracted the emissivity vs wavelength function (using numerical techniques). I then calculated the blackbody radiation for a 15°C surface and the radiation from a water surface using the emissivity from the graph above for the same 15°C surface. Both were calculated from 1 μm to 100 μm: The “unofficial” result, calculating the average emissivity from the ratio: ε = 0.96. This result is valid for 0-30°C. But I suspect the actual value will be modified slightly by the solid angle calculations. That is, the total flux from the surface (the Stefan-Boltzmann equation) is the spectral intensity integrated over all wavelengths, and integrated over all solid angles. So the reduced emissivity closer to the horizon will affect this measurement. Niclòs et al – 2005 One of the most interesting recent papers is In situ angular measurements of thermal infrared sea surface emissivity—validation of models, Niclòs et al (2005). Here is the abstract: In this paper, sea surface emissivity (SSE) measurements obtained from thermal infrared radiance data are presented. These measurements were carried out from a fixed oilrig under open sea conditions in the Mediterranean Sea during the WInd and Salinity Experiment 2000 (WISE 2000). The SSE retrieval methodology uses quasi-simultaneous measurements of the radiance coming from the sea surface and the downwelling sky radiance, in addition to the sea surface temperature (SST). The radiometric data were acquired by a CIMEL ELECTRONIQUE CE 312 radiometer, with four channels placed in the 8–14 μm region. The sea temperature was measured with high-precision thermal probes located on oceanographic buoys, which is not exactly equal to the required SST. A study of the skin effect during the radiometric measurements used in this work showed that a constant bulk–skin temperature difference of 0.05±0.06 K was present for wind speeds larger than 5 m/s. Our study is limited to these conditions. Thus, SST used as a reference for SSE retrieval was obtained as the temperature measured by the contact thermometers placed on the buoys at 20-cm depth minus this bulk–skin temperature difference. SSE was obtained under several observation angles and surface wind speed conditions, allowing us to study both the angular and the sea surface roughness dependence. Our results were compared with SSE models.. The introduction explains why specifically they are studying the dependence of emissivity on the angle of measurement – for reasons of accurate calculation of sea surface temperature: The requirement of a maximum uncertainty of ±0.3 K in sea surface temperature (SST) as input to climate models and the use of high observation angles in the current space missions, such as the 55° for the forward view of the Advanced Along Track Scanning Radiometer (AATSR) (Llewellyn-Jones et al., 2001) on board ENVISAT, need a precise and reliable determination of sea surface emissivity (SSE) in the thermal infrared region (TIR), as well as analyses of its angular and spectral dependences. The emission of a rough sea surface has been studied over the last years due to the importance of the SSE for accurate SST retrieval. A reference work for many subsequent studies has been the paper written by Cox and Munk (1954).. The experimental setup: From Niclos (2004) The results (compared with one important model from Masuda et al 1988): From Niclos (2004) Click on the image for a larger graphic This paper also goes on to compare the results with the model of Wu & Smith (1997) and indicates the Wu & Smith’s model is a little better. The tabulated results, note that you can avoid the “eye chart effect” by clicking on the table: Click on the image for a larger view Note that the emissivities are in the 8-14μm range. You can see that the emissivity when measured from close to vertical is 0.98 – 0.99 at two different wind speeds. Konda et al – 1994 A slightly older paper which is not concerned with angular dependence of sea surface emissivity is by Konda, Imasato, Nishi and Toda (1994). They comment on a few older papers: Buettner and Kern (1965) estimated the sea surface emissivity to be 0.993 from an experiment using an emissivity box, but they disregarded the temperature difference across the cool skin. Saunders (1967b, 1968) observed the plane sea surface irradiance from an airplane and determined the reflectance. By determining the reflectance as the ratio of the differences in energy between the clear and the cloudy sky at different places, he calculated the emissivity to be 0.986. The process of separating the reflection from the surface irradiance, however, is not precise. Mikhaylov and Zolotarev (1970) calculated the emissivity from the optical constant of the water and found the average in the infrared region was 0.9875. The observation of Davies et al. (1971) was performed on Lake Ontario with a wave height less than 25 cm. They measured the surface emission isolated from sky radiation by an aluminum cone, and estimated the emissivity to be 0.972. The aluminum was assumed to act as a mirror in infrared region. In fact,aluminum does not work as a perfect mirror. Masuda et al. (1988) computed the surface emissivity as a function of the zenith angle of observed radiation and wind speed. They computed the emissivity from the reflectance of a model sea surface consisting of many facets, and changed their slopes according to Gaussian distribution with respect to surface wind. The computed emissivity in 11 μm was 0.992 under no wind. Each of these studies in trying to determine the value of emissivity, failed to distinguish surface emission from reflection and to evaluate the temperature difference across the cool skin. The summary of these studies are tabulated in Table 1. The table summarizing some earlier work: Konda and his co-workers took measurements over a one year period from a tower in Tanabe Bay, Japan. They calculated from their results that the ocean emissivity was 0.984±0.004. One of the challenges for Konda’s research and for Niclòs is the issue of sea surface temperature measurement itself. Here is a temperature profile which was shown in the comments of Does Back Radiation “Heat” the Ocean? – Part Three: Kawai & Wada (2007) The point is the actual surface from which the radiation is emitted will usually be at a slightly different temperature from the bulk temperature (note the logarithmic scale of depth). This is the “cool skin” effect. This surface temperature effect is also moderated by winds and is very difficult to measure accurately in field conditions. Smith et al – 1996 Another excellent paper which measured the emissivity of the ocean is by Smith et al (1996): An important objective in satellite remote sensing is the global determination of sea surface temperature (SST). For such measurements to be useful to global climate research, an accuracy of ±0.3K or better over a length of 100km and a timescale of days to weeks must be attained. This criterion is determined by the size of the SST anomalies (≈1K) that can cause significant disturbance to the global atmospheric circulation patterns and the anticipated size of SST perturbations resulting from global climate change. This level of uncertainty is close to the theoretical limits of the atmospheric corrections.. It is also a challenge to demonstrate that such accuracies are being achieved, and conventional approaches, which compare the SST derived from drifting or moored buoys, generally produce results with a scatter of ±0.5 to 0.7K. This scatter cannot be explained solely by uncertainties in the buoy thermometers or the noise equivalent temperature difference of the AVHRR, as these are both on the order of 0.2K or less but are likely to be surface emissivity/reflectivity uncertainties, residual atmospheric effects, or result from the methods of comparison Note that the primary focus of this research was to have accurate SST measurements from satellites. From Smith et al (1996) The experimental work on the research vessel Pelican included a high spectral resolution Atmospheric Emitted Radiance Interferometer (AERI) which was configured to make spectral observations of the sea surface radiance at several view angles. Any measurement from the surface of course, is the sum of the emitted radiance from the surface as well as the reflected sky radiance. - ocean salinity - intake water temperature - surface air temperature - wind velocity - SST within the top 15cm of depth There was also independent measurement of the radiative temperature of the sea surface at 10μm with a Heimann broadband radiation thermometer “window” radiometer. And radiosondes were launched from the ship roughly every 3 hours. Additionally, various other instruments took measurements from a flight altitude of 20km. Satellite readings were also compared. The AERI measured the spectral distribution of radiance from 3.3μm to 20μm at 4 angles. Upwards at 11.5° from zenith, and downwards at 36.5°, 56.5° and 73.5°. There’s a lot of interesting discussion of the calculations in their paper. Remember that the primary aim is to enable satellite measurements to have the most accurate measurements of SST and satellites can only really “see” the surface through the “atmospheric window” from 8-12μm. Here are the wavelength dependent emissivity results shown for the 3 viewing angles. You can see that at the lowest viewing angle of 36.5° the emissivity is 0.98 – 0.99 in the 8-12μm range. From Smith et al (1996) Note that the wind speed doesn’t have any effect on emissivity at the more direct angle, but as the viewing angle moves to 73.5° the emissivity has dropped and high wind speeds change the emissivity considerably. Henderson et al – 2003 Henderson et al (2003) is one of the many papers which consider the theoretical basis of how viewing angles change the emissivity and derive a model. Just as an introduction, here is the theoretical variation in emissivity with measurement angle, versus “refractive index” as computed by the Fresnel equations: The legend is refractive index from 1.20 to 1.35. Water, at visible wavelengths, has a refractive index of 1.33. This shows how the emissivity reduces once the viewing angle increases above 50° from the vertical. The essence of the problem of sea surface roughness for large viewing angles is shown in the diagram below, where multiple reflections take place: Henderson and his co-workers compare their results with the measured results of Smith et al (1996) and also comment that at zenith viewing angles the emissivity does not depend on the wind speed, but at larger angles from vertical it does. A quick summary of their model: We have developed a Monte Carlo ray-tracing model to compute the emissivity of computer-rendered, wind-roughened sea surfaces. The use of a ray-tracing method allows us to include both the reflected emission and shadowing and, furthermore, permits us to examine more closely how these processes control the radiative properties of the surface. The intensity of the radiation along a given ray path is quantified using Stokes vectors, and thus, polarization is explicitly included in the calculations as well. Their model results compare well with the experimental results. Note that the approach of generating a mathematical model to calculate how emissivity changes with wind speed and, therefore, wave shape is not at all new. Water retains its inherent properties of emissivity regardless of how it is moving or what shape it is. The theoretical challenge is handling the multiple reflections, absorptions, re-emissions that take place when the radiance from the water is measured at some angle from the vertical. The best up to date measurements of ocean emissivity in the 8-14 μm range are 0.98 – 0.99. The 8-14 μm range is well-known because of the intense focus on sea surface temperature measurements from satellite. From quite ancient data, the average emissivity of water across a very wide broadband range (1-100 μm) is 0.96 for water temperatures from 0-30°C. The values from the ocean when measured close to the vertical are independent of wind speed and sea surface roughness. As the angle of measurement moves from the vertical around to the horizon the measured emissivity drops and the wind speed affects the measurement significantly. These values have been extensively researched because the calculation of sea surface temperature from satellite measurements in the 8-14μm “atmospheric window” relies on the accurate knowledge of emissivity and any factors which affect it. For climate models – I haven’t checked what values they use. I assume they use the best experimental values from the field. That’s an assumption. I’ve already read enough on ocean emissivity. For energy balance models, like the Trenberth and Kiehl update, an emissivity of 1 doesn’t really affect their calculations. The reason, stated simply, is that the upwards surface radiation and the downward atmospheric radiation are quite close in magnitude. For example, the globally annually averaged values of both are 396 W/m² (upward surface) vs 340 W/m² (downward atmospheric). Suppose the emissivity drops from 0.98 to 0.97 – what is the effect on upwards radiation through the atmosphere? The upwards radiation has dropped by 4W/m², but the reflected atmospheric radiation has increased by 3.4W/m². The net upwards radiation through the atmosphere has reduced by only 0.6 W/m². One of our commenters asked what value the IPCC uses. The answer is they don’t use a value at all because they summarize research from papers in the field. Whether they do it well or badly is a subject of much controversy, but what is most important to understand is that the IPCC does not write papers, or perform GCM model runs, or do experiments – and that is why you see almost no equations in their many 1000′s of pages of discussion on climate science. For those who don’t believe the “greenhouse” effect exists, take a look at Understanding Atmospheric Radiation and the “Greenhouse” Effect – Part One in the light of all the measured results for ocean emissivity. On Another Note It’s common to find claims on various blogs and in comments on blogs that climate science doesn’t do much actual research. I haven’t found that to be true. I have found the opposite. Whenever I have gone digging for a particular subject, whether it is the diurnal temperature variation in the sea surface, diapycnal & isopycnal eddy diffusivity, ocean emissivity, or the possible direction and magnitude of water vapor feedback, I have found a huge swathe of original research, of research building on other research, of research challenging other research, and detailed accounts of experimental methods, results and comparison with theory and models. Just as an example, in the case of emissivity of sea surface, at the end of the article you can see the first 30 or so results pulled up from one journal – Remote Sensing of the Environment for the search phrase “emissivity sea surface”. The journal search engine found 348 articles (of course, not every one of them is actually about ocean emissivity measurements). Perhaps it might turn out to be the best journal for this subject, but it’s still just one journal. Broadband reflectance and emissivity of specular and rough water surfaces, Sidran, Applied Optics (1981) In situ angular measurements of thermal infrared sea surface emissivity—validation of models, Niclòs, Valor, Caselles, Coll & Sànchez, Remote Sensing of Environment (2005) Measurement of the Sea Surface Emissivity, Konda, Imasato, Nishi and Toda, Journal of Oceanography (1994) Observations of the Infrared Radiative Properties of the Ocean—Implications for the Measurement of Sea Surface Temperature via Satellite Remote Sensing, Smith, Knuteson, Revercomb, Feltz, Nalli, Howell, Menzel, Brown, Brown, Minnett & McKeown, Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society (1996) The polarized emissivity of a wind-roughened sea surface: A Monte Carlo model, Henderson, Theiler & Villeneuve, Remote Sensing of Environment (2003) Note 1: The upward radiation from the surface is the sum of three contributions: (i) direct emission of the sea surface, which is attenuated by the absorption of the atmospheric layer between the sea surface and the instrument; (ii) reflection of the downwelling sky radiance on the sea, attenuated by the atmosphere; and (iii) the upwelling atmospheric radiance emitted in the observing direction. So the measured radiance can be expressed as: where the three terms on the right are each of the three contributions noted in the same order. Note 2: 1/10th of the search results returned from one journal for the search term “emissivity sea surface”: Remote Sensing of Environment - search results Read Full Post »

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The Bruce-Benedicks Saga and the Birth of the AGH While living in Paris in the 1880's, the budding young Canadian artist, William Blair Bruce , met the aristocratic Swedish sculptress, Caroline Benedicks . They fell in love, married, and eventually established themselves in a permanent year-round residence, Brucebo , on the western seashore of Gotland Island in Sweden. From their artistic union two significant institutions in the world of fine art were to evolve – the birth of the Art Gallery of Hamilton in Canada and the creation of the Brucebo Fine Art Scholarship Foundation in Sweden. The saga of William and Caroline’s life-story spans one of the most exciting phases in European contemporary history, including its fine art development. It comprises the last quarter of the 19th century and the decades leading up to World War II. The era is characterized by dramatic transformations in not just technological and industrial developments, but also in social and cultural institutions, including the world of art in its various forms. was born in 1856 into a wealthy industrialist family in Stockholm. Caroline had finished her studies in Sweden in the early 1880's, before moving South, to Paris, and settling in the village of Grez-sur-Long in 1884, where she stood out from the majority of artists living there. First, she was a single young female in a society that basically frowned upon such status. Second, she was financially independent, and third, she had received a typical "proper" education as behooved a young woman of wealthy family circumstances. Finally, she was a family girl whose keen interest in the fine arts had landed her in a sea of male artists. Another factor that made her quite atypical was her chosen field of art specialization in sculpture rather than the standard popular domain of painting. William Blair Bruce’s formative years could not have been more different from Caroline’s. William was born in 1859 into a comfortable middle-class here a continent away in Canada, on Hamilton’s “mountain”. He received his early training from his father who was also an amateur painter. In 1877, William studied at the local Mechanics Institute (Hamilton Art School), and from 1878 until 1880 was employed as a draftsman for a local architectural firm. In the autumn of 1881, at age 22, William sailed to France, settling in Paris and enrolling in classes at the Académie Julien. William wanted to soak up the Parisian atmosphere, discover new inspirational approaches in painting by rubbing shoulders with contemporaries, and to meet the new generation of avant-guard painters. Above all, he wanted to pit his artistic skills and talent in the open competition at the annual Grand Salon, and at various exhibition galleries, against other talented painters who tried to achieve fame in the art world “mecca”, Paris. William’s behavior in this world was typical. He first rented a studio apartment on Rive Gauche with all the other aspiring artists. However, in 1882, he leased a cottage in the village of Barbizon, on the outskirts of the Forest of Fontainebleau. This became his permanent pied-a-terre during his years in Paris.Meanwhile, Caroline was mixing with the Swedish crowd that tended to center upon the village of Grez-sur-Long, where the young, up-and-coming generation of Swedish painters were developing their talents. The 1880's were an exciting time for any young artist to reside in France. Toward the latter part of the 19th century, the art world in general had broken with the previous romantic/realism styles that had typified the (landscape) painting schools, both on the Continent and in England during earlier decades. New fine art waves were washing away the traditional studio-based approach to painting, and the innovations in France at the time fostered the first generation of impressionistic painters. This powerful wave of avant-garde art as represented by the impressionists had a major impact throughout European and international art communities. The standard bearers, such as Corot, Monet, Pissaro, and Sisley, were all well-established, and frequently organized private exhibitions outside the annual Paris Salon. They, and others in a widening flock, served as beacons for the younger generation of artists that came to France. William and Caroline included. The first couple of meetings of Caroline and William must have occurred in this context - accidental and informal encounters in popular places of residence typical of the artistic community at large. By this time, Caroline was an active and respected member of the Swedish art circles, first at Grez and later Paris. Indeed, before she came to Paris, she had been admitted into the Royal Swedish Academy of Art, a measure of her professional calibre. How a " colonial nobody " such as William, straight out of the British North America Dominion of Canada, could fit into her busy social and professional calendar is hard to imagine. Perhaps it can be best explained through the "Parisian way of life " - the great ease by which people in the art community socialized. Also, both William and Caroline belonged to the younger "talent pool" of the foreign art colony, which also raised their public profile. Hence, given the artist's small world, it was only matter of time before they bumped into each other sometime in the spring of 1885. William’s letters home suggested that he possessed both a strong personal determination and a great belief in his own artistic talent. William’s talents were not generally being recognized in France at the time, but what surely must have added a certain personal fame was his ill-fated trip home to Canada in the Fall of 1885, during which the steamship, Brooklyn , sank in the Gulf of St. Lawrence with his whole portfolio of five years hard work in Paris – some 200 paintings. Such an event must have been much talked about, and seen as a catastrophic, almost monumental personal tragedy - a drama literally handmade for the bistro and cafe gossip-mills. Shortly thereafter, a surprise transatlantic voyage brought Caroline and her chaperone uncle to New York and to Canada. After considerable discussion the young couple decided to return to Paris, where William would start resurrecting his shattered career and Caroline continue hers. Caroline and her understanding uncle must have been quite persuasive in the discussions, but more important was the fact that the pair wanted more than anything else to be together, preferably in Paris, where their love affair had begun. So, they crossed the Atlantic again in 1887, she getting closer to her twin "home-bases" of Paris and Stockholm, he subconsciously casting loose his moorings from his Canadian home-base. Although Caroline and William were engaged in the fall of 1886, their subsequent marriage did not materialize until 1888. One can only conclude that there existed a certain amount of concern, even resistance, to the young couple's marriage on the part of the Benedicks family. The fact that the newly-weds almost immediately after the wedding returned to Paris is perhaps indicative of their preference of having the Benedicks clan at some distance rather than just round the corner in Stockholm. After the wedding, which saw an impressive gathering of Stockholm high society and cultural elite, Caroline and William literally fled southward to Paris, where they remained for another couple of years practicing a typical bohemian, but fashionable, vagabond lifestyle. They freely traveled to places that caught their fancy and inspired their creativity. They also took up the habit of spending summers in the North, where at an early stage they became enamored with the Island of Gotland. The Gotland connection is something of an enigma in the Bruce - Benedicks saga. There were no family links with Gotland among the Benedicks, nor any business. The couple seemed to have fallen in love with the island, its serene landscape and leisurely summer ambiance. Gotland Island possessed an open, expansive, almost prairie-flat, pastoral landscape dotted with Viking rune stones, burial sites, rich archeological digs, and 14th century churches in classical "Gotland Gothic style". Gotland was romantic, historical, aesthetically pleasing, and highly inspirational - well worth the young artists’ gaze. William quickly succumbed. As an aspiring impressionist, he was fascinated by the “Gotland light” and shoreline/seascape interface, both of which figured prominently in his painting from that time on. And, in winter, the island atmosphere was hauntingly dark, with the afternoon's magical l'heure bleue reflected across the frozen beaches and snow-covered meadowlands. In 1899, the Bruces' settled at Brucebo . The site of their home was located a few kilometers up the coast from Visby, at Skalso - a fishing village on a limestone terrace offering a beautiful westward view toward the low-lying shore, with the light blue sea and sky serving as an immense backdrop. The air was clear, salubrious, and healthy, combining its tonic quality with a scent of fresh pine and the sound of the wind through the forest. At Brucebo they experienced spectacular and ever-changing scenery and the rhythmic sounds of wave and wind mixed with the cries of terns and seagulls. The summer climate was dry, sunny and warm – the very best Sweden could offer, especially for William who was sensitive to damp and raw weather. The Bruces loved their Brucebo homestead. Caroline did sculpture, etchings, and watercolors, while William captured seascapes on canvas. They had only seven years on Gotland before William’s untimely death on November 17, 1906 at the age of 47. Caroline was then 50 years old, and would survive her husband by 29 more years. She settled for good at Brucebo and continued to work as a painter and sculptress. She also took an active interest in a number of contemporary political causes - especially the women's emancipation movement in the years prior to World War I. Strangely perhaps, she also became active in Gotland's voluntary military organization, and over the years established herself as a great nationalist-patriot with strong sympathies for the British- French Grande Entente. Indeed, Caroline's life remained full to the very end. When Caroline passed away, World War II was only four years away, the famous impressionists were all long-gone, 20th century modernistic fine art styles were in full bloom, and social democracy was about to become the political standard in Sweden. After the death of Caroline in 1935 at the age of 70, a grant endowment was established. However, it was only in 1972 that the formula and institutional arrangement for her wish that a stipend be made available to a promising Canadian painter to spend some summer weeks at Brucebo on the island of Gotland, became reality. Thus, through the Gotland Fine Art Museum, and the Brucebo Fine Art Scholarship Foundation, the Brucebo Fine Arts Summer Scholarship and in recent years, the William Blair Bruce Fine Arts European Travel Scholarship have been offered in a tangible and lasting manner to talented Canadian artists, in commemoration of William Blair Bruce of Hamilton Ontario, and Caroline Benedicks of Stockholm Sweden, and of their transatlantic saga of love and art. But there was also another more immediate legacy of this saga. Upon the death of William, his father in Hamilton and his widow in Gotland offered the City of Hamilton twenty-nine of William’s works, on the understanding that a permanent municipal gallery would be established to house them. However, Hamilton lacked a municipal art gallery at the time, and six years were to pass before the City acquired a space to house the Blair Bruce Collection In 1913 the first Hamilton Public Library vacated their building, built on Main Street West near James in 1890, and moved across the street into the new Carnegie Library. Finally, on November 27, 1913 the City finally designated the second floor and attic of the old Public Library Building as space for the first municipal art gallery, named the Hamilton Municipal Gallery Without the Blair Bruce bequest, it would likely have been many years before Hamilton could ever boast a municipal art gallery – perhaps never. Today, that modest gallery with its Blair Bruce Collection has grown and matured to become the Art Gallery of Hamilton For AGH's chronology from 1886 to 2005, click here.

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Tamoxifen use 'should double' to stop breast cancer returning A decade's treatment with tamoxifen could stop the return of breast cancer for many more women than the current recommendation for five years, say researchers. University of Oxford scientists say the doubling cuts both the risk of the cancer returning and deaths from the disease. Writing in The Lancet, they say this outweighs the risk of side effects. Cancer Research UK said the study added important clarity. Tamoxifen tablets have long been part of the daily routine for women in the years after remission from 'ER-positive' breast cancer. ER-positive tumour growth is accelerated by the female sex hormone oestrogen, and tamoxifen blocks the hormone. An international group of scientists, led by Dr Christina Davies from the University of Oxford, looked at the effect of sustained tamoxifen on the likelihood that cancer would return. They looked at 6,847 women with the ER-positive version of the disease, half of whom were given tamoxifen for the standard five year period, and half who continued with the drug until the 10 year mark. The results found that cancer returned in a quarter of the women given five years of tamoxifen. That fell to 21.4% in those given ten years of the drug. Deaths from breast cancer was also significantly reduced, from 15% of those on the five-year programme, to just over 12% of those given 10 years. End Quote Dr Caitlin Palframan Breakthrough Breast Cancer This trial is great news for women with this type of breast cancer as it suggests that taking the commonly used drug, tamoxifen, for longer could save more lives with minimal additional side effects” While the changes are only a few percent, with more than 40,000 women diagnosed with breast cancer in the UK alone every year, a large proportion of whom have 'ER-positive' cancer, it could mean a significant decrease in the number whose cancer returns. The report authors said: "Good evidence now exists that 10 years of tamoxifen in ER-positive breast cancer produces substantial reductions in rates of recurrence and in breast cancer mortality not only during the first decade, while treatment continues, but also during the second decade, long after it has ended." The drug does cause side-effects in some patients, including, rarely, cancer of the lining of the womb, but the scientists said that the increased chance of preventing breast cancer returning far outweighed the risk. Dr Caitlin Palframan, head of policy at Breakthrough Breast Cancer, said: "ER-positive breast cancer is the most common type of breast cancer and so improving treatment and getting the most out of the effective treatments we already have is key. "This trial is great news for women with this type of breast cancer as it suggests that taking the commonly used drug, tamoxifen, for longer could save more lives with minimal additional side effects." Other scientists say that 10 years could now become the standard for treatment. Prof Trevor Powles, from Cancer Centre London, said that this, and other studies due to report next year, "should herald a change in practice". The National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence said: "We do not generally make recommendations relating to how long a patient should receive tamoxifen; that decision should be made by a doctor according to their professional judgement and in discussion with their patient, not least because there are continuing trials in this area. "We review our guidance regularly to ensure it remains based on the best, most up-to-date evidence available and, when we come to update our guidelines on the diagnosis and management of breast cancer, we will take all new evidence into consideration." Martin Ledwick, from Cancer Research UK which funded the study, said: "This important study adds further clarity to the question about the length of time women should take tamoxifen. "Although treatment for hormone receptor positive breast cancer has become more complex in recent years with some women receiving aromatese inhibitors, these results will help in deciding the length of treatment for women who are prescribed tamoxifen alone."

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Nov. 30, 2006 -- Do the sounds of our native languages affect how we hear music and other non-language sounds" A team of American and Japanese researchers has found evidence that native languages influence the way people group non-language sounds into rhythms. People in different cultures perceive different rhythms in identical sequences of sound, according to Drs. John R. Iversen and Aniruddh D. Patel of The Neuroscience Institute in San Diego and Dr. Kengo Ohgushi of the Kyoto City University of Arts in Kyoto, Japan. This provides evidence that exposure to certain patterns of speech can influence one's perceptions of musical rhythms. In future work, they believe they may even be able to predict how people will hear rhythms based on the structures of their own languages. The researchers will present their findings Nov. 30 at the Fourth Joint Meeting of the Acoustical Society of America (ASA) and the Acoustical Society of Japan (ASJ), which will be held at the Sheraton Waikiki and Royal Hawaiian Hotels in Honolulu, Hawaii. The meeting will run from Nov. 28 through Dec. 2, and more than 1600 papers will be presented. Researchers have traditionally tested how individuals group rhythms by playing simple sequences of tones. For example, listeners are presented with tones that alternate in loudness (...loud-soft-loud-soft...) or duration (...long-short-long-short...) and are asked to indicate their perceived grouping. Two principles established a century ago, and confirmed in numerous studies since, are widely accepted: a louder sound tends to mark the beginning of a group, and a lengthened sound tends to mark the end of a group. These principles have come to be viewed as universal laws of perception, underlying the rhythms of both speech and music. However, the cross-cultural data have come from a limited range of cultures, such as American, Dutch and French. This new study suggests one of those so-called "universal" principles, perceiving a longer sound at the end of a group, may be merely a byproduct of English and other Western languages. In the experiments Iversen, Patel and Ohgushi performed, native speakers of Japanese and native speakers of American English agreed with the principle that they heard repeating "loud-soft" groups. However, the listeners showed a sharp difference when it came to the duration principle. English-speaking listeners most often grouped perceived alternating short and long tones as "short-long." Japanese-speaking listeners, albeit with more variability, were more likely to perceive the tones as "long-short." Since this finding was surprising and contradicted a common belief of perception, the researchers replicated and confirmed it with listeners from different parts of Japan. To uncover why these differences exist, one clue may come from understanding how musical rhythms begin in the two cultures. For example, if most phrases in American music start with a short-long pattern, and most phrases in Japanese music start with a long-short pattern, then listeners might learn to use these patterns as cues for how to group them. To test this idea, the researchers examined phrases in American and Japanese children's songs. They examined 50 songs per culture, and for each beginning phrase they computed the duration ratio of the first note to the second note and counted how often phrases started with a short-long pattern versus other possible patterns such as long-short, or equal duration. They found American songs show no bias to start phrases with a short-long pattern. But Japanese songs show a bias to start phrases with a long-short pattern, consistent with their perceptual findings. One basic difference between English and Japanese is word order. In English, short grammatical, or "function," words such as "the," "a," and "to," come at the beginning of phrases and combine with longer meaningful, or "content," words such as a nouns or verbs. Function words are typically reduced in speech, having short duration and low stress. This creates frequent linguistic chunks that start with a short element and end with a long one, such as "to eat," and "a big desk." This fact about English has long been exploited by poets in creating the English language's most common verse form, iambic pentameter. Japanese, in contrast, places function words at the ends of phrases. Common function words in Japanese include "case markers," or short sounds which can indicate whether a noun is a subject, direct object, indirect object, etc. For example, in the sentence "John-san-ga Mari-san-ni hon-wo agemashita," ("John gave a book to Mari") the suffixes "ga," "ni" and "wo" are case markers indicating that John is the subject, Mari is the indirect object and "hon" (book) is the direct object. Placing function words at the ends of phrases creates frequent chunks that start with a long element and end with a short one, which is just the opposite of the rhythm of short phrases in English. In addition to potentially uncovering a new link between language and music, the researchers' work demonstrates there is a need for cross-cultural research when it comes to testing general principles of auditory perception. AAAS and EurekAlert! are not responsible for the accuracy of news releases posted to EurekAlert! by contributing institutions or for the use of any information through the EurekAlert! system.

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How do you get your heart rate on target? When you work out, are you doing too much or not enough? There’s a simple way to know: Your target heart rate helps you hit the bull’s eye. “We don’t want people to over-exercise, and the other extreme is not getting enough exercise,” says Gerald Fletcher, M.D., a cardiologist and professor in the Mayo Clinic College of Medicine in Jacksonville, Fla. First Thing’s First Before you learn how to calculate and monitor your target training heart rate, you have to know your resting heart rate. Your resting heart rate is the number of times your heart beats per minute while it’s at rest. It’s best to check it in the morning after you’ve had a good night’s sleep and before you get out of bed. The average resting heart rate is 60-80 beats per minute, but it’s usually lower for physically fit people. It also rises with age. Hitttin’ the Target Now you’re ready to determine your target training heart rate. As you exercise, periodically: • Take your pulse on the inside of your wrist, on the thumb side. • Use the tips of your first two fingers (not your thumb) to press lightly over the blood vessels on your wrist. • Count your pulse for 10 seconds and multiply by 6 to find your beats per minute. You want to stay between 50 percent to 85 percent of your maximum heart rate. This range is your target heart rate. Know Your Numbers The table below shows estimated target heart rates for different ages. In the age category closest to yours, read across to find your target heart rate. Your maximum heart rate is about 220 minus your age. The figures are averages, so use them as general guidelines. |Age||Target HR Zone 50-85%||Average Maximum Heart Rate, 100%| |20 years||100-170 beats per minute||200 beats per minute| |30 years||95-162 beats per minute||190 beats per minute| |35 years||93-157 beats per minute||185 beats per minute| |40 years||90-153 beats per minute||180 beats per minute| |45 years||88-149 beats per minute||175 beats per minute| |50 years||85-145 beats per minute||170 beats per minute| |55 years||83-140 beats per minute||165 beats per minute| |60 years||80-136 beats per minute||160 beats per minute| |65 years||78-132 beats per minute||155 beats per minute| |70 years||75-128 beats per minute||150 beats per minute| Important Note: A few high blood pressure medications lower the maximum heart rate and thus the target zone rate. If you're taking such medicine, call your physician to find out if you need to use a lower target heart rate. So what’s in a number? If your target heart rate is too high, you’re straining. So slow down. If it’s too low, and the intensity feels “light” or “moderate/brisk,” push yourself to exercise a little harder. During the first few weeks of working out, aim for the lowest part of your target zone (50 percent). Then, gradually build up to the higher part (85 percent). After six months or more, you may be able to exercise comfortably at up to 85 percent of your maximum heart rate. But you don't have to exercise that hard to stay in shape. “It’s not an absolute, but it’s a good tool to have,” says Fletcher, who is also an American Heart Association volunteer. “And if you don’t know it, remember, if you’re not able to carry on a conversation (while exercising), that may be a bit too much.” If you have a heart condition or you’re in cardiac rehab, talk to a healthcare professional about what exercises you can engage in, what your target heart rate should be and whether you need to be monitored during physical activity. This will also help you to choose the types of physical activity that are appropriate for your current fitness level and health goals, because some activities are safer than others.

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Today is Sunday, Feb. 3, the 34th day of 2013. There are 331 days left in the year. Today's Highlight in History: On Feb. 3, 1913, the 16th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, providing for a federal income tax, was ratified. On this date: In 1783, Spain formally recognized American independence. In 1865, President Abraham Lincoln and Confederate Vice President Alexander H. Stephens held a shipboard peace conference off the Virginia coast; the talks deadlocked over the issue of Southern autonomy. In 1924, the 28th president of the United States, Woodrow Wilson, died in Washington, D.C., at age 67. In 1930, the chief justice of the United States, William Howard Taft, resigned for health reasons. (He died just over a month later.) In 1943, during World War II, the U.S. transport ship Dorchester, which was carrying troops to Greenland, sank after being hit by a German torpedo; of the more than 900 men aboard, only some 230 survived. In 1953, the Batepa Massacre took place in Sao Tome as Portuguese troops killed some 1,000 striking plantation workers. In 1959, rock-and-roll stars Buddy Holly, Ritchie Valens and J.P. "The Big Bopper" Richardson died in a small plane crash near Clear Lake, Iowa. An American Airlines Lockheed Electra crashed into New York's East River, killing 65 of the 73 people on board. In 1966, the Soviet probe Luna 9 became the first manmade object to make a soft landing on the moon. In 1971, New York City police officer Frank Serpico, who had charged there was widespread corruption in the NYPD, was shot and seriously wounded during a drug bust in Brooklyn. In 1972, the XI Olympic Winter Games opened in Sapporo, Japan. In 1991, the rate for a first-class postage stamp rose to 29 cents. In 1998, Texas executed Karla Faye Tucker, 38, for the pickax killings of two people in 1983; she was the first woman executed in the United States since 1984. A U.S. Marine plane sliced through the cable of a ski gondola in Italy, sending the car plunging hundreds of feet, killing all 20 people inside. Ten years ago: President George W. Bush sent lawmakers a $2.23 trillion budget for 2004. Abandoning a two-month-long general strike that failed to oust President Hugo Chavez, Venezuela's workers returned to work in all sectors but the vital oil industry. Legendary record producer Phil Spector was arrested in the shooting death of actress Lana Clarkson at his mansion in Alhambra, Calif. (Spector's first trial ended in a jury deadlock; he was convicted of second-degree murder in a retrial and sentenced to 19 years to life in prison.) Five years ago: The New York Giants scored a late touchdown to win Super Bowl XLII, 17-14, ending the New England Patriots' run at a perfect season. One year ago: Susan G. Komen for the Cure abandoned plans to eliminate funding for Planned Parenthood, following a three-day furor that resounded across the Internet, in Congress and among Komen affiliates. Federal prosecutors dropped their investigation of Lance Armstrong, ending a nearly two-year effort aimed at determining whether the seven-time Tour de France winner and his teammates had participated in a doping program. (In January 2013, Armstrong publicly admitted taking performance-enhancing drugs.) Actor Ben Gazzara, 81, died in New York. Actor-filmmaker Zalman King, 70, died in Santa, Monica, Calif. Today's Birthdays: Comedian Shelley Berman is 88. Former Sen. Paul Sarbanes, D-Md., is 80. Football Hall-of-Famer Fran Tarkenton is 73. Actress Bridget Hanley is 72. Actress Blythe Danner is 70. Singer Dennis Edwards is 70. Football Hall-of-Famer Bob Griese is 68. Singer-guitarist Dave Davies (The Kinks) is 66. Singer Melanie is 66. Actress Morgan Fairchild is 63. Actress Pamela Franklin is 63. Actor Nathan Lane is 57. Rock musician Lee Ranaldo (Sonic Youth) is 57. Actor Thomas Calabro is 54. Actor-director Keith Gordon is 52. Actress Michele Greene is 51. Country singer Matraca Berg is 49. Actress Maura Tierney is 48. Actor Warwick Davis is 43. Actress Elisa Donovan is 42. Reggaeton singer Daddy Yankee is 37. Musician Grant Barry is 36. Singer-songwriter Jessica Harp is 31. Actor Matthew Moy is 29. Rapper Sean Kingston is 23. Thought for Today: "When there is an income tax, the just man will pay more and the unjust less on the same amount of income." — Plato, Greek philosopher.

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Growing Political Turmoil After the conservatives came to power in Spain in November 1933, the CNT planned a national uprising for December 8. Despite a spectacular Barcelona jail break by CNT prisoners, the insurrection was a failure; indeed, it was used to legitimate government censorship, union repression, and the arrest of labor leaders. When, in October 1934, the Catholic conservative party won three cabinet positions, Socialists and anarcho-syndicalists were galvanized to take action against what they feared would be a right-wing coup, whether in fact or in name. Within a few days, the CNT and the Socialist General Confederation of Workers (UGT), which since December 1933 had been discussing some kind of working-class alliance, planned a national general strike. It began on October 4, with coal miners in Asturias in northern Spain leading the struggle. If there had been any doubts about the ruthlessness of the new republican government, they were laid to rest by its treatment of the workers. Utterly unsympathetic to the gruesome conditions under which the coal miners worked and without concern for their fears, it called in Colonel Francisco Franco. As commander of the crack Moroccan troops and Foreign Legion mercenaries, Franco showed no mercy as his soldiers quashed the miners and their supporters. From October 10 to October 18, Moroccan troops and Legionnaires were permitted to rape and pillage in the mining towns of Asturias. The maneuver resulted in about one thousand dead and thirty to forty thousand jailed throughout Spain. The day after the nationwide general strike was called on October 4, 1934, Lluís Companys, now president of the Generalitat, proclaimed the "Republic of Catalunya within the Federal Republic of Spain"—an act that was regarded as treason, since there was no federalist state at the time. Companys was arrested and held for sixteen months, and the Statute of Autonomy was abrogated. After the strike, forces from among Spain's landowners, its army, and its fascist Falange political party had begun to negotiate with Mussolini and Hitler, from whom they obtained financial commitments and promises of military support for a rebellion to overthrow the legally elected Second Republic. The republicans and the left, increasingly aware of the growing fascist menace throughout Europe and mindful that in 1933 divisions among republicans, Socialists, and leftists had permitted conservatives to come to power in Spain, decided to run a unified slate for the parliamentary elections of February 16, 1936. Their coalition, like other such slates elsewhere in Europe, was known as the Popular Front. Meanwhile, during the summer of 1935, Jaume Sabartés, a poet turned journalist who had been a close friend of Picasso's some three decades earlier in Barcelona, received a summons from the painter. Now that Picasso had left his wife Olga Koklova, with whom he had been fighting for years, he needed a secretary. He hoped that Sabartés, who had recently returned to the city after twenty years as a journalist in Latin America, would accept this position. Although Sabartés had been the butt of Picasso's jokes in their youth, he was happy to serve. Persuading his own wife to join him, Sabartés headed for Paris, where, from November 1935 to the winter of 1937, he practically lived with Picasso as his secretary and companion. Presumably, he filled Picasso in on recent events in Barcelona. In the midst of the Popular Front election campaign, Picasso was contacted by the Catalan Friends of the New Arts (Amics de l'Art Nou, or ADLAN), who wanted to open an exhibit of his work on February 18, 1936, two days after the election was scheduled to take place. Even though Picasso was a celebrity, few in Barcelona were familiar with his art, which had not been seen since he and Ramón Casas exhibited jointly in Barcelona in 1932. Picasso agreed to the retrospective but refused to attend. His mother, María Picasso, Joan Miró, and Salvador Dalí talked on the radio in his place to publicize the show. Picasso's friend, the surrealist poet Paul Éluard, traveled down to Barcelona from Paris for the exhibit and delivered a lecture at the opening. Éluard, standing in for Picasso, received the hearty support of students who chanted, "Picasso, the Marxist," confirming that they saw Picasso as a radical. (In fact, although Picasso did later, in 1944, join the Communist party of France, Éluard, like most of the other surrealists, had become a member in 1926.) When the Popular Front won the elections in February, the left was jubilant, and the right intensified their plotting. With the support of Catholic landowners and fascists, five generals, including Francisco Franco, organized a barracks uprising for July 18, 1936, that was designed to overthrow the freely elected government and impose one more congenial to themselves. The plotters, however, had not counted on the loyalty of certain officers who supported the Popular Front. Nor did they count on the quick action of the people in cities like Barcelona, Madrid, and Seville, where civilians—many of them acting through their unions—rose up to defend the Republic. Only about half of Spain went over to the rebels. And thus the Spanish Civil War of 1936 to 1939 began. On the day of the attempted coup in Barcelona, the CNT marched on the army barracks, disarmed the soldiers, and seized their weapons to arm themselves. Having chafed at the bit under nearly five years of republican rule, the CNT now attempted to carry out a social revolution by collectivizing all local economic and social resources. George Orwell, who was in Barcelona shortly afterward, talked about how it felt to be in a city in which the people ruled: It was the first time I had ever been in a town where the working class was in the saddle. Practically every building of any size had been seized by the workers and was draped with red flags or with the red and black flag of the Anarchists; . . . almost every church had been gutted and its images burnt. Every shop and café had an inscription saying that it had been collectivized; even the bootblacks had been collectivized and their boxes painted red and black. Waiters and shop-workers looked you in the face and treated you as an equal. Servile and even ceremonial forms of speech had temporarily disappeared. Nobody said "Señor" or "Don" or even "Usted"; everyone called everyone else "Comrade" and "Thou. " . . . The revolutionary posters were everywhere, flaming the walls in clean reds and blues that made the few remaining advertisements look like daubs of mud. . . . Practically everyone wore rough working-class clothes, or blue overalls, or some variant of the militia uniform. All this was queer and moving. There was much in it that I did not understand, in some ways I did not even like it, but I recognized it immediately as a state of affairs worth fighting for. The Spanish Republican government continued to carry on its work while it attempted to defend itself against its enemies. The right-wing rebels, among whom General Francisco Franco had become preeminent by November 1936, were willing to empower Hitler and Mussolini to test new military strategies on Spain in their behalf. On October 23, 1936, three months after the Civil War had begun, the Luftwaffe began to bomb Madrid. Over five thousand people were killed in a single night, in the first time systematic bombing was used specifically to terrorize and crush the will of a civilian population. Like later similar attempts, however, this first instance only enhanced the resolve of the people, both in Madrid and in the Spanish nation as a whole. It was at this time that Dolores Ibarruri, a Communist leader known as "La Pasionaria," coined the slogan "No pasarán" (They shall not pass), which became a watchword for democratic forces throughout the world.

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MONTPELIER — Vermont students’ vocabulary comprehension in the fourth and eighth grades are above national averages, according to data released by the National Assessment of Educational Progress. Challis Breithaupt, NAEP state coordinator at Vermont Department of Education, said it was the first-ever national vocabulary report. “There was a new framework for reading in 2009 and the feeling was there needed to be a criteria developed for vocabulary,” Breithaupt said. The measure would assess more of students’ ability to understand vocabulary and their ability to acquire meaning from passages they were reading. “Helping students to increase their vocabulary and to feel comfortable using words in various contexts is paramount,” state Education Commissioner Armando Vilaseca said in a statement. “There is significant research in the field supporting a link between vocabulary and comprehension.” On a scale of 0-500, fourth-graders scored 224 and eighth-graders scored 274. The national average for fourth- and eighth-graders was 217 and 263, respectively. Only Connecticut, Massachusetts, Montana and North Dakota scored higher than Vermont’s eighth-grade vocabulary. “Students use their knowledge of words in order to understand what they are reading, to identify ideas and themes,” said Vilaseca. “Summer reading programs continue to support the good work that is done throughout the school year; keeping our children’s minds active supports strong reading and comprehension skills.” The NAEP addressed the method of the vocabulary test in its results: “Unlike traditional tests of vocabulary that ask students to write definitions of words in isolation, NAEP always assesses word meaning within the context of particular passages. Students are asked to demonstrate their understanding of words by recognizing what meaning the word contributes to the passage in which it appears.” For more information, The report card can be found online: www.nationsreportcard.gov.MORE IN Vermont News - Most Popular - Most Emailed - MEDIA GALLERY

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This is an old revision of ArchaeologicalFindsandtheClassroom from 2008-03-13 15:48:05. West Yorkshire Archaeology Advisory Service Archaeological Finds and the Classroom As its name suggests this web-based presentation is intended primarily for use with schools. However, the ideas it contains will also be useful for those of you working with young people in a less formal setting, perhaps through a youth group or a Young Archaeologists Club. Archaeological Finds and the Classroom outlines activities which you can use to get children thinking and talking about archaeological artefacts. It also offers guidance on carrying out fieldwork (fieldwalking, garden pottery surveys and molehill surveys) and offers advice on how to make the best use of the results. To find out more, visit the website (www.arch.wyjs.org.uk/AdvSrv/Classroom/introduction.htm∞). | CBA, St Mary's House, 66 Bootham, York YO30 7BZ. tel: +(44) (0)1904 671417 | fax: +(44) (0)1904 671384 | email:

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Don't miss our great houseplant growing section with self watering planters, high quality potting soil, organic houseplant fertilizers, sprouting bags and more. In the late 1980s, a study by NASA and the Associated Landscape Contractors of America (ALCA) resulted in excellent news for homeowners and office workers everywhere. The study concluded that common houseplants such as bamboo palms and spider plants not only make indoor spaces more attractive, they also help to purify the air! The study was conducted by Dr. B.C. Wolverton, Anne Johnson, and Keith Bounds in 1989. While it was originally intended to find ways to purify the air for extended stays in orbiting space stations, the study proved to have implications on Earth as well. Newer homes and buildings, designed for energy efficiency, are often tightly sealed to avoid energy loss from heating and air conditioning systems. Moreover, synthetic building materials used in modern construction have been found to produce potential pollutants that remain trapped in these unventilated buildings. The trapped pollutants result in what is often called the Sick Building Syndrome. With our ultra modern homes and offices that are virtually sealed off from the outside environment, this study is just as important now as when it was first published. While itís a well known fact that plants convert carbon dioxide into oxygen through photosynthesis, the NASA/ALCA study showed that many houseplants also remove harmful elements such as trichloroethylene, benzene, and formaldehyde from the air. NASA and ALCA spent two years testing 19 different common houseplants for their ability to remove these common pollutants from the air. Of the 19 plants they studied, 17 are considered true houseplants, and two, gerbera daisies and chrysanthemums, are more commonly used indoors as seasonal decorations. The advantage that houseplants have over other plants is that they are adapted to tropical areas where they grow beneath dense tropical canopies and must survive in areas of low light. These plants are thus ultra-efficient at capturing light, which also means that they must be very efficient in processing the gasses necessary for photosynthesis. Because of this fact, they have greater potential to absorb other gases, including potentially harmful ones. In the study NASA and ALCA tested primarily for three chemicals: Formaldehyde, Benzene, and Trichloroethylene. Formaldehyde is used in many building materials including particle board and foam insulations. Additionally, many cleaning products contain this chemical. Benzene is a common solvent found in oils and paints. Trichloroethylene is used in paints, adhesives, inks, and varnishes. While NASA found that some of the plants were better than others for absorbing these common pollutants, all of the plants had properties that were useful in improving overall indoor air quality. NASA also noted that some plants are better than others in treating certain chemicals. For example, English ivy, gerbera daisies, pot mums, peace lily, bamboo palm, and Mother-in-law's Tongue were found to be the best plants for treating air contaminated with Benzene. The peace lily, gerbera daisy, and bamboo palm were very effective in treating Trichloroethylene. Additionally, NASA found that the bamboo palm, Mother-in-law's tongue, dracaena warneckei, peace lily, dracaena marginata, golden pathos, and green spider plant worked well for filtering Formaldehyde. After conducting the study, NASA and ALCA came up with a list of the most effective plants for treating indoor air pollution. The recommended plants can be found below. Note that all the plants in the list are easily available from your local nursery. For an average home of under 2,000 square feet, the study recommends using at least fifteen samples of a good variety of these common houseplants to help improve air quality. They also recommend that the plants be grown in six inch containers or larger. Here is a list of resources for more information on this important study: PDF files of the NASA studies related to plants and air quality:

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U.S. Presidents: Everything You Need Who was the first president to live in the White House? Learn about this and other presidential "firsts." Read more > History of the White House and Washington, D.C. from 1792 to today. Who was the first U.S. president to be photographed? Grades: 3–5, 6–8 A few fun facts about America's first President of the United States, from this height and weight to his favorite foods. Grades: PreK–K, 1–2 In this lesson, students read about George Washington and discuss the monument built in his honor. Then they create their own monument to honor a... Birthplace: Shadwell, Albemarle County, VirginiaReligion: Christian (no specific denomination)College Attended: College of William and Mary,... Spend a day in the life of the multi-talented man, President Thomas Jefferson, with these informative biographical websites. The President of the United States has seven roles in his job, from being the Commander-In-Chief to the Guardian of the Economy. Brief biography of Gerald R. Ford, the 38th president of the United States of America. Timeline of the life of former U.S. President Gerald R. Ford. Transcript from the February 10, 1995 online interview with former President Gerald R. Ford. Grades: PreK–K, 1–2, 3–5, 6–8, 9–12 Important events during the presidency of Jimmy Carter. President Jimmy Carter agreed to answer seven questions selected from several hundred posted by Scholastic students. A time line showing the events in Ronald Reagan's life Read about the vital statistics and important events that happened during the time Ronald Reagan was President of the United States. President George H.W. Bush answers questions from students. Get the vital statistics and learn about important events that occurred during Bill Clinton's presidency. Lesson Plans, Book Resources Even United States Presidents started out as regular kids! So You Want to Be President? is chock-full of interesting tidbits about our Presidents;... Activities and Games, Extension Activities, Book Resources Extension activity for Arthur Meets the President by Marc Brown. Biography of former United States President George Herbert Walker Bush. Sign up today for free teaching ideas, lesson plans, online activities, tips for your classroom, and much more. Choose your grade range: See a sample >

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King of clocks King bong visited As the UK Parliament prepares to celebrate the 150th anniversary of its world-famous clock, E&T examines the history of Big Ben. With a few seconds to go to midday, I am told to put my fingers firmly in my ears. Even then, when the four quarters are struck, the noise is phenomenal, but nothing compared to the striking of the hour bell, Big Ben. The belfry reverberates with the sound which they say could be heard all over London when the 300kg clapper was first triggered on 11 July 1859. Nowadays, of course, amid the roar of London's traffic, it is not so noticeable away from the immediate vicinity of the Palace of Westminster, but for many people all around the world its instantly recognisable sound is familiar from the radio and television, especially on New Year's Eve. Though over time the clock tower has become known as Big Ben, it is in fact only the hour bell that has that nickname. The mechanism for powering the hands on the four dials and operating the quarter bells and the hour bell is correctly known as the Great Clock of Westminster. Showing me around the tower are Paul Roberson and Ian Westworth, who are responsible (together with Huw Smith) for the maintenance of the Great Clock and the other 2,000 clocks in the Palace of Westminster, of which 450 are mechanical or antique. Roberson has been an horologist all his life, taking an apprenticeship in watch and clockmaking straight from school. An obvious clock enthusiast, he says: "It gets under your skin. I am interested in anything mechanical." Westworth worked as a turret clock restorer before becoming a Place of Westminster clockmaker four years ago. Both are proud of the Great Clock as, Westworth says, "it still does exactly what it was designed to do 150 years ago". After the destruction of both houses of parliament by fire in 1834, it was decided that the new buildings should have a grand tower housing "a noble clock, indeed a king of clocks, the biggest the world has ever seen within sight and sound of the throbbing heart of London". In his specification, the Astronomer Royal, George Airy, wrote: "The striking machinery is to be so arranged that the first blow for each hour shall be accurate to the second of time." No clockmaker thought it remotely possible to construct a mechanism of the required size that, in addition to sounding five bells and powering hands of four dials, would keep such accurate time. But an appeal by the Worshipful Company of Clock-makers for a less onerous specification was turned down and three horologists were invited to tender. Edmund Becket Denison If Edmund Becket Denison had not been invited to join George Airy as a second referee, it is unlikely that such an accurate clock would have been built. Though a barrister by profession, Denison was a gifted amateur horologist, the author of articles and the designer of some fine clocks. He favoured the submission of EJ Dent & Company, to whom he suggested many improvements that amounted to a redesign, and it was to that firm that the contract was awarded in 1852. Within three years the clock was complete, but neither the bells nor the tower in which it would be installed had been finished. However, the delay was fortuitous as it gave Denison the time to design a mechanism that would ensure the clock's accuracy. The problem with turret clocks had always been how to prevent the external forces on the hands being reflected back to the pendulum thus affecting the clock's accuracy. This is achieved with an escapement, a device that transfers the power of the descending weight to the hands by hitting (impulsing) the pendulum. It was Denison who came up with the double three-legged gravity escapement, an ingenious yet simple device, which, as Roberson says, was "a massive advancement, without which the clock would not be here now". It was successfully tried out in the harshest of conditions in a clock built by Dent for Fredericton Cathedral in New Brunswick, Canada and thereafter became widely used in turret clocks. While Denison carried out further trials, the great bell had been completed at a foundry in Stockton-on-Tees in northern England and was transported by water arriving in London on 21 October 1856. Trial and error With the clocktower still incomplete, it was set up on a specially built gallows near the foot of the tower, where for almost a year it was struck regularly until, on 17 October 1857, a 1.2m crack appeared. The only solution was to break it up and, in April 1858, a new, lighter, bell, which would become Big Ben, was cast at the Whitechapel Foundry in London's East End. In the meantime, the tower designed by Charles Barry, with the decoration and beautiful dials by Augustus Pugin, was completed. In the summer of 1858, the bells were hand-winched up the shaft, the hoisting of Big Ben taking teams of men working in relays some days to complete. With the installation of the operating mechanism below the Belfry, all was ready by spring 1859. However, each time the minute hands approached the hour, they stopped. The construction of lighter minute hands of hollow copper and hour hands of copper-backed hollow gunmetal allowed it to operate successfully. As far as is known, the clock started officially on 31 May 1859, with Big Ben first sounding the hour on 11 July and the quarter bells chiming from 7 September. The public appreciated the sound but, perhaps predictably, the Members of Parliament complained that it was too loud. The trouble with the clock hands had brought Denison to near despair, so it is not difficult to imagine how he felt when told, less than a month later, that a 30cm-long crack had appeared in Big Ben. There were recriminations all round: Denison accused the Whitechapel Foundry of poor workmanship while the foundry put the damage down to Denison's continued use of a 300kg hammer. Two ensuing libel actions both found in favour of the foundry over Denison. To dismantle the clock, lower the bell and recast it was not considered possible. So, as the crack was neither as deep nor as long as that in the first bell, a slot was cut out to prevent it spreading, a 200kg hammer installed, and the bell turned through about 90°, where it has remained ever since without further problems. Of course, there have inevitably been a few problems with the clock mechanism, but normally these are discovered and put right before they become severe. Though it has been given a thorough overhaul for its 150th anniversary, Roberson says: "There isn't a servicing schedule like a car. We are up here three times a week and can see any fault developing." With the last chime of Big Ben, we remove our fingers from our ears, but the resonance seems to go on and on - "for 30 seconds", I am told by Roberson. From the belfry we make our way down to see the dials. Now each illuminated by 28 long-life bulbs of 85W, they were originally lit by gas jets and looked after by a gas man who was required to stay in the tower all night. As we make our way down the remainder of the 334 steps, it is clear that this is more than just a job for those who work with Big Ben. As Westworth says: "Working on the Great Clock of Westminster is one of the things most horologists want to do because it is probably the most prestigious clock in the world." Roberson adds: "I have been involved in clocks all my life but this is the most famous clock in the world and we are the ones responsible for looking after it." Behind the scenes The clock is divided into three sections or trains. In the centre is the going train, which has three functions. First, it is connected to a single shaft that transfers the motion of the pendulum through a nest of bevel gears to the hands on the four clock faces. Its second function is to trigger the chiming train to the right that, via a series of shafts rising up to a linkage room and from there to the belfry, operates the five hammers on the four quarter bells every 15 minutes. Finally, the going train also triggers the strike of the hour train situated on the left which, via a steel wire, raises the hammer on the hour bell (Big Ben). The whole mechanism is powered by gravity, with the descending weight unwinding the wire wrapped round a large barrel on each train thus rotating it, so that it can operate the train via a series of gears. The escapement controls the rate of descent of the weight in the going train, while on the other two it is controlled by a fly fan or air break. While the weight on the going train is wound up regularly by hand, those on the other two, which are much heavier, are wound up by an electric motor, though this is not automatic and has to be switched on. To ensure that the pendulum is protected from vibration and other external forces, a large part of it swings in a 3m-deep pit, made of cast iron. The pendulum is made of a zinc rod in an iron tube to compensate for temperature changes. The clock's accuracy is maintained by altering its mass. This is done extremely simply by adding or removing an old imperial penny or halfpenny from a shelf, specially constructed near the top of the pendulum. Adding one penny speeds up the clock by two-fifths of a second over 24 hours. Bells still ringing in Whitechapel It's a short walk from the City of London's glittering palaces of financial innovation to the Whitechapel Bell Foundry, where tradition, rather than innovation, holds sway. It's here, in listed premises just along from the site of St Mary's, the original 'white chapel', that skilled craftspeople still make bells in much the same way as they have for more than half a millennium. Officially Britain's oldest manufacturing company, the foundry has been in business since 1570 producing some of the world's best-known bells. If you visit the foundry shop, you'll pass under a profile of Big Ben. The foundry also made the Liberty Bell for the Philadelphia State House in 1752, produced a Bicentennial Bell to go with it in 1976, and a replica of the Liberty Bell in 2001. It has also made bells for Westminster Abbey, for Washington DC's National Cathedral in 1964 and for a host of more modest churches scattered across the furthest reaches of what was the Empire. In a nod to old-fashioned customer service, passers-by can sometimes see crates arriving from far-flung churches, bringing back bells that have been in use for decades to be repaired, retuned or even recast. It's not all about the past though. Last year the foundry cast a new peal of 12 bells for the church of St Magnus the Martyr at London Bridge. It does a steady trade in sets of hand bells, tuned for change ringing. And, in a nod to the modern age, it has a website listing its products with prices and delivery. If you want a standard bell tuned to C, with a diameter at its lip of 60in and a weight of 2,032kg, it will cost £39,481 plus delivery. Since they're not in stock at the moment, you might even be able to watch it being cast... |To start a discussion topic about this article, please log in or register.| "Is augmented reality the next big thing or a marketing gimmick? Is it fundamental to the future or a fashion faux pas?" - The Energy Bill and What is an Investment Contract [05:54 pm 21/05/13] - The Energy Bill and What is a Contract for Difference? [05:15 pm 21/05/13] - Advanced data communications and networking [03:47 pm 21/05/13] - Define Energy. [11:36 am 21/05/13] - Tap Off Unit for riser cabling system [11:27 am 21/05/13] Tune into our latest podcast

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Forget the batteries for a second, thats just one of a thousand analogies you could use to describe voltage/current and the reason that no current flows has nothing to do with the electro-chemical properties of batteries, its far simpler. The easiest way to think of it is this: Current will only ever flow in a loop, even in very complex circuits you can always break it down into loops of current, if there is no path for current to return to its source, there will be no current flow. In your battery example, there is no return current path so no current will flow. There is obviously a more deep physics reason for why this works but as the question asked for a simple answer I'll skip the math, google Maxwell's Equations and how they are used in the derivation of Kirchhoff's voltage law. Batteries do make a good example for this simply because they are current sources with completely isolated grounds. This example would be equally true of any other power source with a completely isolated "ground". However, this is not an easy thing to find, for instance doing this with 2 bench supplies would likely make one of the bench supplies very unhappy, but thats not because the effect is different, the difference is that the bench supplies are likely both grounded to the electrical wiring in the building and as such there is a return path for current to flow through. The water analogy for this also effective. Think of your battery example this way: You have a water pump (battery A) connected to a pipe (the wire), and you have another water pump (battery B) connected to the same pipe (the wire) . Now in your example the there is no return path in the system so imagine that the pipe is full of water but capped off on both ends. You hit the power switch on the pumps, what happens? The answer is nothing, there is no where to move the water to, the pumps don't even spin. (ignore water turbulence like effects for this analogy). Now if you were to connect the pipe in a loop and hit the switch the pumps would spin up (voltage) and water would flow (current). If you used 2 difference speed pumps (different voltage batteries) and faced them toward each other one will over power and cause the other to spin in the wrong direction (burn out just like connecting a 9V and 6V battery in parallel). If you connected both pumps pointing in the same direction you would get more water pressure (voltage) because the pumps are helping each other out (2 batteries in series).

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|• Total||10.56 km2 (4.08 sq mi)| |Elevation||396.4 m (1,300.5 ft)| Lipica (Italian: Lipizza) is a village in the Municipality of Sežana in the Littoral region of Slovenia, close to the border with Italy. Lipica is one of the main tourist centers of Slovenia's Karst region and it is known for the Lipica Stud Farm. The name of the settlement is derived from the Slovenian word lipa 'linden tree'. The species is common in the area and is a national symbol of Slovenia. The staff at the Lipica Stud Farm plant a new linden tree for every foal born. From the 14th century until 1947, Lipica was part of the municipality of Trieste. When Charles II, Archduke of Inner Austria (son of Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor) decided to establish a new stud farm in the 16th century, the Spanish horse was considered the ideal horse breed. Because the soil and climate in the Karst region is similar to that of Spain, Lipica was chosen as the perfect spot for the new farm. The Lipica stud farm was established in 1580 and the first horses were bought from Spain in 1581 (24 broodmares and 6 stallions). The farmers living in the area at the time were evicted and resettled in Laže. A coal mine operated east of the settlement from 1778 to 1817. Coal mining was attempted at the site again in 1857 and at sporadic later dates, but was deemed uneconomical because it is deposited only in lenses. Coal from the mine was once used at the sugar refinery in Rijeka. In 1947, Lipica was annexed to Yugoslavia and incorporated into Slovenia as a constituent republic. Mass grave Lipica is the site of a mass grave associated with the Second World War. The Lipica Shaft Mass Grave (Slovene: Grobišče Lipiško brezno) is located about 500 m southwest of the tree-lined boulevard by the stud farm. It contains an undetermined number of human remains. Lipica Stud Farm Lipica is the origin of the Lipizzan horse. The Lipizzan breed as known today was fully developed in the time of Maria Theresa of Austria, whose husband was greatly interested in horse-breeding. During the Napoleonic wars, the stud farm was relocated to Székesfehérvár. In 1802, an earthquake struck Lipica, killing large numbers of horses. The stud farm was relocated to Đakovo in 1805, to Pecica (near Mezőhegyes) in 1809, to Laxenburg during the First World War, and then to Kladruby nad Labem. After the First World War, when Lipica was awarded to Italy, most of the horses were returned to Lipica. On 16 October 1943, the stud farm and 178 horses were relocated to Hostouň. After the Second World War, the farm had only 11 horses; all of the others had been confiscated by the Germans during the war. In the 1960s, Lipica was opened to tourists and new development began. In 1996, Lipica became a public institution that is owned by the Republic of Slovenia and has made significant progress since then. Queen Elizabeth II visited Lipica and its stud farm on 22 October 2008 and was presented with a Lipizzan horse as a gift from the Slovenian people. Today the Lipica Stud Farm is fully functional and breeds the finest horses for haute-école riding. The stud farm now also includes a hotel and leisure complex, a modern adjunct to a historical setting. The Lipica Open The Lipica Open is an international orienteering competition that is held every year at the beginning of March. It is the biggest orienteering competition in Slovenia and was held for the first time in 1992. Other places of interest Other places of interest in and near Lipica include: - The Avgust Černigoj gallery - The Škocjan Caves system (Škocjanske jame/Grotte di San Canziano), a UNESCO World Heritage Site. - Vilenica Cave, the oldest show cave in Europe (with guided tours since 1633) - The Valley of Our Lady of Lourdes (Slovene: Dolina Lurške Matere Božje): an outdoor church and a local pilgrimage destination Notable people Notable people that were born or lived in Lipica include: - Ivan Slavec (1859–1940), co-founder of the newspaper Primorski list and the last Slovene-speaking priest at the Trieste cathedral - Statistical Office of the Republic of Slovenia - Sežana Municipality site - Snoj, Marko. 2009. Etimološki slovar slovenskih zemljepisnih imen. Ljubljana: Modrijan and Založba ZRC, pp. 234–235. - Savnik, Roman, ed. 1968. Krajevni leksikon Slovenije, vol. 1. Ljubljana: Državna založba Slovenije, pp. 319–320. - Lipica Shaft Mass Grave on Geopedia (Slovene) - BBC News 22 October 2008 - Lipica Stud Farm site

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|ARM Technical Support Knowledge Articles| Applies to: ARM7TDMI MAS[1:0] is used to indicate whether a word/half-word or byte access is to be performed, and is described in the ARM7TDMI Technical Reference Manual (1.8MB PDF). The signal has the following states: |Bit 1||Bit 0||Data Size| The memory system must be able to handle word, half word and byte writes. Memory systems supporting only word writes will have severe difficulties supporting C code because the compilers assume that the underlying access types of the ARM architecture are always available. Furthermore, it will not be possible to set software breakpoints in Thumb code using the EmbeddedICE Interface. When in Thumb state, A is not driven, and will be held at whatever level it was last driven to, by a 'sticky latch'. Usually, this will be set following a BX instruction (with bit 0 of the register set), or a data transfer to/from an odd address. It would normally be cleared again following a data transfer to/from an even address. The memory controller should ignore A for Thumb instruction fetches (nOPC=0 and MAS[1:0]=01), and A[1:0] for ARM instruction fetches (nOPC=0 and MAS[1:0]=10). Article last edited on: 2008-09-09 15:47:35 Did you find this article helpful? Yes No How can we improve this article?

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Cancer of the cervix (sir-vix) is one of the most common cancers in women. There seems to be a connection between cervical cancer and sexual activity at an early age, especially when multiple partners are involved. Cervical cancer grows without symptoms, that's why a yearly pap smear is so important. A pap smear can detect the presence of cancer cells at an early stage. When precancerous cells are found, usually called dysplasia (dis-PLAY-zha), they can be removed in the doctor's office using various procedures that burn or freeze the cells off the cervix. If the cancer has advanced, the recommended treatment usually includes a combination of chemotherapy, radiation and surgery, which will prevent a woman from bearing children. For more information about cervical cancer, contact your healthcare provider.

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ARCHIVED: Expanding Role for Genetics Counselors The completion of the human genome sequencing launches a new era in genetic medicine. With the decoding of the letters that make up the recipe of human life an opportunity now exists for scientists to discover new cures for cancer, heart disease, drug addiction, neurological disorders and mental illness. In this brave new world of medicine, the human genetics counselor will play an increasingly important role as patients and doctors struggle with the impact of these exciting new breakthroughs. The Human Genetics Program at Sarah Lawrence College the oldest and largest training program for genetic counselors in the United States, is well positioned to take on this challenge. Many ethical dilemmas have surfaced. For example, should people be tested to determine whether they might later develop a disease if there is no cure for that disease? Should fetal genetic testing extend beyond the health of a baby to screen for desirable physical and mental traits? A recent study conducted by the Georgetown University Medical Center in Washington published in Genetics in Medicine, found that 70 percent of health care practitioners surveyed had discussed genetics with their clients. Yet fewer than 10 percent of those people surveyed - including physical therapists, speech and hearing therapists and social workers - were confident in their training in these issues. According to Dr. E. Virginia Lapham, the lead author of the study, a need exists to expand genetic education programs for health professionals. "As the field broadens, the need for more counselors and more thorough training will also increase," says Lauren Scheuer, a genetic counselor at Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center in New York and a graduate of the Sarah Lawrence Program. "At the present time there are a finite number of genetic counselors in the field. As more and more complex medical information becomes available to patients and their families, there will be an increasing need for trained professionals to help sort out the all the issues and ramifications." The two-year master's program at Sarah Lawrence began in 1969 and trains 25 counselors per class. Half of the nation's genetic counselors, including the directors of many other human genetics programs in the U.S. and Canada and in other parts of the world, are graduates of the SLC Program. Genetic counselors work as members of a health-care team, providing information and support to families that have members who have birth defects or genetic disorders, or who may be at risk for a variety of inherited conditions, says Caroline Lieber, program director. "We identify families at risk, interpret information about the disorder, analyze inheritance patterns and risks of recurrence, discuss the risks, benefits, and limitations of genetic testing, review available options with families and provide supportive counseling," she added. Human genetics counselors also serve as patient advocates, educators, administrators, researchers and resources for health-care professionals and the public. The importance of training in the field of human genetics counseling is demonstrated by the success of the Sarah Lawrence graduates. Genetics programs at major teaching hospitals, other colleges and universities, government agencies and corporations are staffed by Sarah Lawrence College graduates. These include the Albert Einstein College of Medicine, New York Presbyterian Hospital, Center for Disease Control, Glaxo Wellcome and Applied Genetics. "This is a field with definite career opportunities and is well suited to individuals interested in being on the leading edge of medical research, and with an interest and commitment to helping others and making a difference." says Lieber.

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Moore's Law Is Alive And Well, And Intel Will Prove It Today Intel, the world’s biggest manufacturer of computer chips, and by far the one with the most advanced manufacturing capabilities, is holding a big event in San Francisco which it described in an invitation to reporters as its “most significant technology announcement of the year.” It provided no further details. This appears to be the announcement that CEO Paul Otellini alluded to during Intel’s quarterly earnings conference call last month. Intel has kept a pretty tight lid on the details, but I’ve talked to enough people who say this is one of those times when Intel will “open the kimono” on what will be going on inside its chip factories–or fabs–later this year. The big news will revolve around Intel’s disclosure of its 22-nanometer manufacturing process. It’s the sort of thing that gets people who know chips kind of excited and leaves others kind of cold. But in fact, everyone should be kind of excited about this. Perhaps you’ve heard of Moore’s Law. This was the observation in 1965 by the Intel co-founder Gordon Moore (pictured at the Intel Museum in 2005) that the number of transistors that could be crammed onto a chip doubles–and the size of those chips tended to shrink–as manufacturing technology improved on a fairly regular basis: About every 18 to 24 months. That shrinking meant two things. Chipmakers could make a chip with the same computing power as the previous generation more cheaply, or they could make a more powerful one with more transistors for about the same cost. It all comes down to how many transistors you can cram onto a chip, and how many useful chips you can get from a single silicon wafer. In both cases, more is better. Moore’s observation–which was first published 46 years ago this month–has held up remarkably well and has proven one of the most important engines of growth in the technology industry. All the computing oomph you take for granted in your notebook, your smart phone, in the cloud, and all around you happens in part because the chips inside the hardware have gotten smaller and yet ever more powerful every two years or so. So back to today’s announcement. As I mentioned, it’s going to revolve around its 22-nanometer manufacturing process. A nanometer is a billionth of a meter, and its current factory processors turn out chips with transistors that are somewhat bigger–32 nanometers. Intel executives often refer to a process they call “tick-tock.” Today constitutes a tick, when in odd-numbered years, a new manufacturing process comes online and the previous generation chips are shifted to being built with the smaller transistors. A “tock” occurs in even-numbered years when Intel engineers come up with new chip designs that really show what the new factory processes are capable of. The implication is that it’s so regular you can almost set your watch by it. Intel’s long-term strategy can be summed up like so: Tick, tock, repeat. On top of that there are likely to be disclosures about some of the advances in physics that Intel has had to make in order to get chips with transistors so small to work properly. When you’re dealing with things that small, the individual electrons flowing on the chip sometimes don’t behave as they should. For example, in 2007 Intel had to add the element Hafnium to its chip-making process in order to stop individual transistors from wasting electricity. (It was more complicated than that, but that in a nutshell was the problem.) Billions upon billions of transistors in billions of computers around the world wasting electricity is a bad thing, both financially–power is expensive–and environmentally. What’s funny is that for years people have been saying that Intel–and indeed the entire chip industry–can’t continue on the Moore’s Law trajectory. At some point things get so small that you’re dealing with individual atoms and you can’t get any smaller than that. However, every time people have predicted its end, something happens to keep it going. A lot of companies have come up with some important advances that have kept it going. In the 1990s and early 2000s, IBM came up with some important advances that kept Moore’s Law on track. But more often that not it has been Intel that has kicked down the door when the experts said it was locked. Today it will probably kick down another. This older video was created around the time that Intel unveiled its 45-nanometer process with Hafnium–kicking down one of those earlier doors. Perhaps there will be another today. Check in later as I cover the announcement.

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NEW YORK — Children of older fathers are known to be more at risk for diseases including schizophrenia and autism. Now, a new scientific look at the genes passed down within families may have pinpointed a reason why. The study, reported Wednesday in the journal Nature, found that older fathers transmit more new DNA variations to their children than younger dads, with each added year of age resulting in an average of 2 extra new mutations. The genetic changes occur in men as they age because of environmental factors, such as radiation, or through mistakes that occur in cell division. The research led by scientists at Reykjavik, Iceland-based deCode Genetics Inc., is the first to quantify the number of new, or de novo, mutations that fathers hand along by age to their children. The findings may suggest that dads-to-be should consider collecting their sperm at a young age and storing it for later use, according to Alexey Kondrashov, a professor of evolutionary biology at the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor. “If the paternal-age effect on the de novo mutation rate does lead to substantially impaired health in the children of older fathers, then collecting the sperm of young adult men and cold-storing it for later use could be a wise individual decision,” Kondrashov wrote in an accompanying editorial that called for further study on the issue. Mental processes may be most affected, leading to illnesses such as schizophrenia, because more genes express themselves in the human brain than elsewhere. The de novo findings suggest it may be “reasonable to assume that the ongoing increase in the incidence and prevalence of autism in many human populations could be due, at least in part, to the accumulation of mutations resulting from relaxed selection and a higher average paternal age — and not only to better recognition of cases,” Kondrashov said. The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in March reported that one in 88 children in the U.S. had autism or a related disorder in 2008, the latest period for which data was available. That was a 23 percent rise from 2006, the agency’s researchers reported, saying it was unclear how much of the increase was due to increased awareness of the disease. Genes are the blueprints for making all the proteins needed by the human body to grow, develop and work properly. DeCode Genetics’ group looked at the DNA shared by 78 groups of Icelandic mothers, fathers, and children. A 20-year-old father transmits on average 25 new mutations to his child while a 40-year-old transmits 65, the study found. Mothers always transmit about 15 new mutations, regardless of their age, according to the accompanying editorial. Men probably contribute more mutations because sperm have to divide many more times than eggs, which don’t actively split when women are of reproductive age, according to Kondashov. “The only important thing when it came to explaining the mutations was the age of the father,” said study author Kari Stefansson, who is also the chief executive officer of deCode Genetics. “There’s very little else to be accounted for. That’s a stunning observation.” Most de novo mutations are neutral, and all mutations in the genome were once de novo, Stefansson said by telephone. Once scientists determine the importance of de novo mutations relative to heredity mutations in autism, it will be easy to see how much contribution a father’s age has to the child’s health. That work hasn’t yet been done, he said.

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Make your own D-net. The net is named for the "D" shape of its frame. It is used to collect stream insects from the bottom of a stream. You can make one at home (but make sure an adult is around to help!). Materials you will need x 14" piece of screen • 42" x 2" piece of canvas or heavy cloth Thread and needle • Wire coat hanger • Drill with 1/8" and 1/4" bits Wooden broom handle Building a D-net 1. Fold the screen in half (21" x 14") and cut screen (as shown). 2. Sew the two pieces of screen together along the cut edge. 3. Fold the canvas in half along the open edge of the net. 4. Untwist the wire hanger and cut off the top (as shown). 5. Bend the smaller cut piece into a U-shape. 6. Drill a 1/4" hole in the flat end of the broom stick. 7. Drill two shallow 1/8" holes on the sides of the broomstick, positioned so you can fit U-shaped wire over the flat end and into the holes. 8. Slip large wire into the folded canvas slot of the net and twist the 9. Cut the twisted wire to no longer than 2" in length and insert into hole at flat end of the broomstick. 10. Secure the net to the pole using the U-shaped wire and duct tape (as Volunteer Water Quality Monitoring Non-profit Stream Monitoring County Stream Monitoring Groups Maryland DNR's Teaching Environmental Awareness in Maryland (TEAM) program offers students a two-part stream investigation in a local freshwater stream of their choice. At this streamside setting, trained volunteers guide them as they learn about water quality, stream habitats and the community of organisms that inhabit the stream. Using the information they collect, the students will then formulate conclusions about the health of the stream they have investigated. If you are interested in becoming a TEAM volunteer and helping educate Marylanders about our natural resources, visit our website at www.dnr.maryland.gov/education/teamdnr and fill out an application. It's a known fact kids are drawn to streams and waterways. Some visit them to fish, hike, canoe and kayak or just enjoy nature; others want to learn more about them and how people affect their overall health. Streams offer students a unique outdoor field experience and a window to understanding their local environment and the Chesapeake Bay. Maryland's 8,800 miles of streams form the life support system for the Chesapeake Bay watershed by providing important habitats for many aquatic and terrestrial organisms. Each stream plays a vital role in linking the Chesapeake Bay to its surrounding Many kids think of a stream in terms of the trout they caught while fishing or the crayfish they found while exploring its banks. These are some of the more visible examples but they are only a fraction of the diversity contained within Maryland's streams. Upon closer examination you can find fish, amphibians and insects that are invisible to the casual observer. More important, many of these organisms are biological indicators of stream health, especially the insects or macroinvertebrates. An Outdoor Classroom Realized year thousands of students experience Maryland's streams through programs offered by the Department of Natural Resources (DNR) outdoor education centers, and summer camps. However, students, parents or teachers can organize their own stream investigations. Using a stream as an outdoor classroom offers kids an incomparable hands-on learning experience that leads them to a greater understanding and appreciation of their natural environment. Getting to Know Macroinvertebrates Prior to going out and doing an actual field investigation, students should learn how to identify some of the basic types of stream insects and stream habitats they might encounter, either through classroom exercises or home study. Stream insects are one of the most important indicators of the long-term health of a stream. Many are long-lived and spend most of their lives within the stream. Some, like stoneflies, are highly sensitive to pollution while others such as blackfly larvae are very tolerant. During a field investigation, many of these insects may be seen; however without some initial preparation, students will not have the proper knowledge and skills to conduct a meaningful investigation of a stream. In the Field After completing the classroom or home study of stream insects and their habitats, it's time to consider a field investigation. The best time to conduct one is typically in spring or late fall when weather conditions are most favorable for being outside. First and foremost, the stream must be accessible to the students. Those on the school grounds are ideal but streams on other public lands are also Prior to going out to the stream, students will also need to have some sampling equipment. A net, preferably a D-net, is used to sample for macroinvertebrates. However you can also just use your hands and look under rocks to get a sample. It's also helpful to have a bucket to put your sample in, a magnifier, tweezers and a tray with a white background. The white background provides good contrast for seeing the darker macroinvertebrates. Once at the stream, look for riffles or woody debris to sample. A stream riffle is a shallow area where rocks break up the flow of water. This area is highly enriched in oxygen and has lots of small spaces for macroinvertebrates to hide in. Woody debris found in the water -- leaves, sticks and tree roots -- is another important habitat as these materials provide an important food source for stream In addition to looking at the macroinvertebrate community within the stream, you may also decide to sample for dissolved oxygen levels, pH, depth, water flow and turbidity. All provide important information on the physical and biological conditions of the stream. You should end the investigation by making some basic conclusions about the health of the stream. By using streams as outdoor classrooms, students are making an important and meaningful connection to the Chesapeake Bay watershed; they learn monitoring techniques and problem- solving skills that will benefit them for a lifetime. Maryland DNR currently offers opportunities for middle school students to conduct a stream investigation. Those interested in learning more about DNR's student streams investigations should visit or contact Matthew Chasse at 410-260-8828, or our website for more information at is an Education Specialist for DNR's Conservation Education Division, the TEAM Program Coordinator, and serves on the Education Matrix Team.

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- THE MAGAZINE - INFO FOR... - ASI Store - ASI Top 25 - Product & Literature Showcases - Services Marketplace - List Rental - Market Research - Custom Content & Marketing Services You may already know something about the benefits of plasma treatment, such as higher treatment (dyne) levels, extended life of treatment over time, the lack of surface morphology degradation, and the elimination of pinholing and backside treatment. Until recently, low-pressure vacuum plasmas have been used to treat two- and three-dimensional plastic objects and polymer films. The recent introduction of high-density atmospheric plasma for film, foil, paper, foam, nonwoven and woven substrate applications has had a significant impact on the surfaces of these materials at considerably lower capitalization costs. High-density atmospheric plasma represents a new generation of surface-treatment technology. It allows plasmas to be sustained at atmospheric pressure in a way that permits the surface treatment of polymers and other substrates. It can be configured to work with a variety of feeding systems, including continuous web. How does Plasma Compare to Corona?Corona treatment is an electrical process that uses ionized air to increase the surface tension of non-porous substrates. Normally, corona-treating systems operate at an electrical voltage of approximately 10 kV. Like corona, plasma is the electrical ionization of a gas. The plasma (glow) discharge creates a smooth, undifferentiated cloud of ionized gas with no visible electrical filaments. However, unlike corona, plasma is created at much lower voltage levels and temperatures. Plasma Effects on Substrate SurfacesCorona converts the substrate surface from a non-polar state to a polar state. Oxygen molecules from the corona discharge area are then free to bond to the ends of the molecules in the substrate being treated, resulting in an increase in surface tension. The same description holds true for atmospheric plasma, with a few exceptions. The rate at which electron bombardment occurs within a high-density atmospheric plasma is up to 100 times greater. This increased electron activity forces greater ion bombardment to the substrate surface. This results in increased etching, chain scission and crosslinking on the substrate's surface, which influences stronger bonding attributes across the surface of the web. Specifically, mechanical interlocking is enhanced, bonding materials together by allowing the adhesive or sealant to take advantage of the microscopic roughness etched to the surface by atmospheric plasma, locking them together. In addition, covalent chemical bonding is promoted, using mutually reactive chemical groups newly resident at the substrate surface (delivered by atmospheric plasma treatment) and the adhesive to form the strongest, most durable bond. Summarizing the treatment process, high-density atmospheric plasma employs chemical gases that produce controlled chemical reactions on the surface. Chemistry molecules that are introduced are propelled to the material surface. Low-molecular-weight material is cleaned from the surface and specific gas molecules covalently bond to the surface. This is how adhesion can be boosted between the adhesive and the material surface. Atmospheric plasma technology also eliminates the possibility of backside treatment. The high-speed photos capture the optical differences between corona and atmospheric plasma treatment. The corona image shows the expected "filaments," while the plasma treatment generates a smooth treat pattern. Benefits of Atmospheric Plasma for Adhesive AdhesionPlasma treatment offers three key benefits that adhesive manufacturers can use to their advantage. 1. Longer life treatments. Substrates that have been atmospheric plasma-treated hold their treatment levels longer than corona-treated surfaces. Longer treatment life allows product converters to take advantage of economies of scale during production, increase inventory life and provide enhanced manufacturing flexibility. 2. Higher treat levels allow for treatment of difficult-to-treat surfaces. Atmospheric plasma treatment is a viable alternative for substrates for which corona treating is ineffective. For example, difficult-to-treat fluoropolymer-based materials like Teflon® do not respond to the corona process but do respond to atmospheric plasma treatment. 3. Treatment of thicker substrates. While substrates that are thicker than 0.125" usually do not respond well to the corona process, they can be treated by atmospheric plasma. Films, metallized films, foils, foams, wovens and nonwovens are all candidates for atmospheric plasma surface treatment. An atmospheric plasma treatment system called Plasma3™ that can operate at low temperature to provide the advantages plasma technology has over existing surface-treatment technologies has been developed by Enercon Industries. The surface energies of materials treated by this system have been shown to increase substantially, thereby significantly enhancing the wettability, printability and adhesive/ink/coating adhesion properties of these materials. Web-Based Atmospheric Plasma Market ApplicationsWater- and solventborne, alcohol-based, and cold-seal adhesives are used for a variety of laminating applications. They are used by contract laminators and consumer products companies to bond multiple combinations of film, fiberglass, foam, fabric, paper, nonwovens, and rubber. The laminates are used to produce a range of products, including the following. - Packaging applications - sealing tapes, weather-strip, labels - Automotive applications - seals, gaskets, headliners, trim - Textile applications - protective apparel, outerwear - Medical applications - medical drapes and garments, bandages, electrodes, labeling, lidding, covers - Electronic applications - Bonding/assembly and thermal management tapes The system also has the flexibility to be operated with variable chemistries and without the generation of ozone, pin-holing, and backside treatment. For more information, contact Rory Wolf at email@example.com .

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A Box of Universe Watch the cosmos evolve in a cube one billion light-years wide Isaac Newton’s universe was a cozy, tidy place. Gathered around the sun were six planets, a handful of moons and the occasional comet, all moving against a backdrop of stationary stars. Newton provided us with the mathematical tools needed to compute the motions of these bodies. Given initial positions and velocities, we can calculate the forces acting on each object, using Newton’s law of universal gravitation. From the forces we can determine accelerations, and then update the positions and velocities for the next round of calculations. This scheme of computation is known as the n-body method. Perhaps Newton himself could have put it to work if he had had suitable computing machinery. Today we have the computers. On the other hand, our universe is far larger and more intricate than Newton’s. Now the solar system is merely a speck in a spiral galaxy of several hundred billion stars. Our galaxy drifts among billions of others, which form clusters and superclusters and a whole hierarchy of structures extending as far as the eye (and the telescope) can see. Those objects are getting farther away all the time because the universe is expanding, and moreover the expansion is accelerating. Strangest of all, the luminous matter of the galaxies—everything we see shining in the night sky—makes up less than one-half of 1 percent of what’s out there. Most of the universe is unseen and unidentified stuff known only as “dark matter” and “dark energy.” Given this profound change in the nature and the scale of the known universe, I find it remarkable that computer simulations of cosmic evolution can still rely on n-body algorithms rooted in the principles of Newtonian mechanics. The same techniques that predict planetary motions here at home in the solar system also describe the gravitational process that assembles thousands of galaxies into filaments a hundred million light-years long. A major new series of cosmological simulations is now beginning to release its findings. The project, known as Bolshoi, is led by Anatoly Klypin of New Mexico State University and Joel Primack of the University of California, Santa Cruz. “Bolshoi” is Russian for “big” or “grand,” and the name is apt: This is a large-scale computational project, consuming six million CPU hours and producing a hundred terabytes of data. And yet, when you ponder the vast sweep of space and time being modeled, it seems a marvel that so much universe can be squeezed into such a small box. » Post Comment

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Register New Player Welcome to our world of fun trivia quizzes and quiz games: The Battle of Badr "The Battle of Badr was a key battle in Islam's struggle for independence. Outnumbered greatly, the victory at Badr gave the army great hope and is mentioned in detail in the Quran." 15 Points Per Correct Answer - No time limit Let's start out with the setting of Badr: The Muslims were fighting, but against who were they fighting? There were only 300 Muslims fighting in the Battle of Badr. How many men did the Meccans have fighting? During the heat of the Battle of Badr, the Prophet Muhammad was said to have done what? Thrown sand into the air in the direction of the enemy Killed those who fled The Battle of Badr is a battle in Islamic history in which it is said that angels participated. One angel who revealed the Quran to the Prophet also commanded the thousands of angels at Badr. Who was this angel? At the beginning of the Battle of Badr, three of the Meccans challenged three of the Muslims for a small skirmish between them. One of the future Caliphs (He was also one of the key issues of contreversy which resulted in the first major schism in Islam) was in the skirmish, along with two other soldiers. Who was this Caliph? What else is God said to have done to the Meccan's the night before the Battle of Badr? Heavy winds blew away their arrows Comets raced through the night sky scaring the camels, making them useless for battle Lightning killed the commanders Heavy rain fell on the hill where they were camped What key resource at Badr were the Muslims able to cut off from the enemy? How many Muslims died in the Battle of Badr? Two hundred and fifty How many Meccans did the Muslims capture in the Battle of Badr? What happened to the majority of the captured Meccans at the Battle of Badr? They were let go They were tortured They were executed They were sold into slavery Copyright, FunTrivia.com. All Rights Reserved. Legal / Conditions of Use Compiled Jun 28 12

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There's No Such Thing as Ethical Oil (or Nuclear Power) Canada is digging itself a dirty energy destiny in the Athabasca oil sands. By Evan O'Neil | March 22, 2011 After the BP oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico and now the nuclear meltdown at the Fukushima reactors in Japan, it should be clear that oil and nuclear power are not benign forces in our world. Both are toxic, dirty, and insecure forms of energy. It is thus astonishing that the Canadian energy industry proposes combining the two. The boreal forest of northern Alberta sits atop one of the largest fossil fuel deposits in the world: the Athabasca bituminous sands. Energy insiders call it oil sands, while environmentalists prefer tar sands—each side seeing what it wants. At room temperature, raw bitumen has the consistency of asphalt and won't flow through a pipeline without being diluted or upgraded into synthetic crude oil. Underground, the bitumen exists in a mixture with sand and clay, and there are two techniques for extracting it. Surface mines have been the predominant method since commercial production began in the 1960s. At the Suncor Energy mine, for example, the native forests, topsoil, and muskeg bog were cleared, and 50 meters of "overburden" earth was removed to expose a tar sand deposit itself about 50 meters thick. The bitumen is mined 24 hours per day with massive electric shovels that fill dump trucks three stories tall. The dump trucks haul the tar sands out of the mine to a separation unit where it is mixed with hot water. The bitumen floats to the top and is skimmed off, while the wastewater slurry—containing sand, clay, salts, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, arsenic, naphthenic acid, and other substances—is pumped into large, open-air tailings ponds where it is left to evaporate. The problem with tailings ponds has been that the finest clay particles take decades to settle into sediment. To accelerate reclamation of the land, some companies are now experimenting with adding polyacrylamide flocculant, in a process similar to municipal waste treatment, to help separate the solids from the water. Mining for deeper deposits is uneconomical, so the industry also employs in situ drilling. In a typical setup, two horizontal wells are drilled, one above the other. The top well injects steam into the sands, melting out the bitumen, which is then pumped out through the lower well in a process called Steam-Assisted Gravity Drainage, or SAGD. The well pads of these SAGD installations dot the remote boreal landscape in a network of roads, pipelines, and seismic cutlines. Mining and in situ operations both consume a lot of energy. The advantage of in situ is that the land is much less disturbed, making it easier to return it to a natural state. SAGD also separates the sand and bitumen below the surface, requiring significantly less infrastructure. Of the total Athabasca deposit, 80 percent is thought to be recoverable through in situ and 20 percent through mining. SAGD requires a lot of natural gas to make steam. The ratio of steam injected to oil extracted is what determines a project's carbon emissions as well as its profitability. Mining and SAGD together consume hundreds of billions of cubic feet of natural gas per year, a substantial fraction of Canada's entire demand. That's where nuclear power enters the picture. As bitumen production in Alberta is slated to expand over the next several decades, gas production will be in decline. This means that eventually producers will have to either burn part of their bitumen, thus eating into their profits, or find new power sources to generate heat and electricity. Nuclear power has been mooted to fill this gap. Japan, of course, turned to nuclear power during the 1970s oil shocks to offset its dependence on foreign oil. Now, in an ironic twist, Canada is considering nuclear power so that it can expand its oil exports. Most of the tar sands oil is sold south of the border through a pipeline network to meet American demand, while Canada still imports foreign oil to its eastern provinces. One has to wonder why Canada would burn so much of its natural gas, a relatively clean fossil fuel, to extract an even dirtier energy. The answer is, of course, to make money. Most of the world's oil is controlled by national oil companies, making Canada one of the only remaining patches where the energy industry can really play in the sandbox. And the Athabasca deposit is a big sandbox. The area is roughly the size of New York State. It contains an estimated 1.7 trillion barrels of bitumen, of which about 170 billion barrels are extractable with current technologies. Multiply by $100 per barrel and pretty soon we're talking real money. But it is capital intensive to slurp these heavy, unconventional dregs of the global oil barrel. Hundreds of billions of dollars have already been invested in the Alberta tar sands, where it takes an oil price of $65 to 85 per barrel to recuperate costs. As recently as 2009, oil was back down in the $40 range, slowing or canceling many projects. So is tar sands oil dirty oil? Of course it is. All oil is dirty. But is it dirtier than other sources? On average, yes. According to Cambridge Energy Research Associates, oil from Alberta tends to be about 5 to 15 percent more polluting than the average oil consumed in the United States when compared on a well-to-wheels basis. Twenty-five percent of oil's emissions occur during the production phase, while 75 percent comes from combustion in a vehicle. Industry insiders often repeat the following argument: It's the consumer's fault, whether they mean car owners or America in general. "If you would stop driving so much, we would stop digging up all this oil and pumping it in your direction," goes the typical line. Then whenever the United States wavers in its affection for Canadian energy, the argument becomes a threat: "We'll just sell it to the Chinese instead." This argument is nonsense on the individual level. American consumers aren't presented with a significant choice at the pump. They get to decide between three octane ratings with maybe a dash of dubiously efficient ethanol in the blend. The only real power a person has to reduce oil consumption is in deciding where to live. Ditching the car and moving to a dense, pedestrian- and bicycle-friendly community with access to mass transit is the most effective solution. For those who cannot or do not wish to move, the alternative is to work through the local political process to redesign your community. Most families haven't made the carless choice yet. Instead the typical response is to buy a bigger car when gasoline is cheap and a more efficient one when the price goes back up. Without a price floor of some sort, America will never break its addiction to oil, foreign or domestic. A strong gasoline tax could serve as a de facto price floor if it were set high enough. Unfortunately the United States has chosen to set the bar very low: Gas tax is a pittance relative to the price of gasoline, and it isn't indexed to inflation, meaning the value has actually declined over the last several decades. It is an abdication of political responsibility to argue that an unorganized and reactionary collective such as consumers is at fault for oil consumption. The essence of ethics is whether our political institutions can make choices that are in the interest of all affected stakeholders, local and global, regardless of the political cost. Seen in this light, can the Canadian and Albertan governments be trusted not to morph into petrostates? It is an abdication of political responsibility to argue that an unorganized and reactionary collective such as consumers is at fault for oil consumption.Sadly the outlook is bleak. The federal environment minister recently declared that Canadian oil is "ethical oil." This concept is drawn straight from the title of a book by conservative political activist Ezra Levant, in which he argues that Canada's oil is morally superior to oil from countries with poor human rights records. Even if Canada and the United States were to boycott imports from all countries they consider problematic, an option neither is willing to consider, oil would still remain a globally priced and traded commodity and the benefits of its consumption would continue to flow to unsavory dictators. On the provincial level, the Alberta government is of the opinion that the tar sands "should" be developed further, despite the fact that a panel recently found that water and environmental monitoring program has been inadequate. Alberta's Energy Resources Conservation Board, its regulatory agency for energy development, has one of the more Orwellian names one can imagine. Bullish development of the oil sands has also contributed to Canada's violation of its Kyoto Protocol commitments. The goal was to decrease emissions 6 percent below 1990 levels. Instead, Canadian emissions have increased by a whopping 24 percent, in great measure due to tar sands expansion. Tar sands emissions now account for about 5 percent of Canada's total. Alberta did manage to enact one innovative policy that few other jurisdictions will even consider: a carbon tax of $15 per ton. This move should be applauded, but it is unfortunately accompanied by billion-dollar investments in the unproven technologies of carbon capture and sequestration—an expensive crutch to help the fossil fuel industry limp into the future—with minimal focus on renewable energy research, development, and deployment. Another concern for Canada's energy future is that the royalty regime [PDF] for tar sands leases is too weak. The rate is set at 1 percent until a project becomes profitable, and then it jumps to 25 percent, which is still low compared to some countries. Alberta risks squandering an opportunity to build its Heritage sovereign wealth fund while the people's resources disappear into private pockets, leaving the province without financial means to transition to a cleaner economy. Is America being a good neighbor in this transaction, or merely abetting a fellow oil junkie? The proposed Keystone XL extension of the pipeline network that carries Albertan oil to the United States is currently under consideration, and final approval falls to the U.S. Department of State because of the international border crossing. It was announced on March 15 that a supplemental environmental impact statement will be issued, followed by a new public comment period, to determine whether the project is "in the U.S. national interest." Buying more energy from a friendly neighbor appears like a good idea on the surface. But while energy security has the ring of a robust and consistent concept, it is actually a relative one. It wears a false halo of military necessity even during peacetime. Supplier countries want security of demand, and consumer countries want security of supply. What the oil industry really worries about is running out of business. "Producers who seek to maximize long-term revenue will want to maintain oil prices stable at the highest price that does not induce substantial investment in substitutes," writes technology and innovation expert Philip Auerswald. Should we be worried about today's high prices? Auerswald doesn't think so. High prices merely hasten the inevitable transition to a post-oil economy. Estimations vary on the timing of peak oil, but the finitude of the resource is undisputed and so is its eventual depletion to a level where the cost of extraction will equal the value of the product. Saying that America should be open to more tar sands oil is basically just another version of the "drill here, drill now" argument for tapping the Arctic National Wildlife Reserve in Alaska. The Obama administration, it should be noted, has been a booster of domestic production, and production has gone up in the last five years. Canadian production has also increased significantly in the last decade, mostly from growth in the tar sands. But after two major oil price spikes during the same period, in 2008 and again now, it should be crystal clear that domestic and Canadian production growth doesn't control the global price, and that a much better strategy lies in finding replacement technologies and actively reducing demand. But this is a tough sell when you think of things like how many Caterpillar 797B dump trucks are needed to mine the tar sands, and how the parts are manufactured all over the United States, by quite a few workers in quite a few Congressional districts. Add to that the public's resistance to raising gasoline taxes, and it becomes quite easy to see why it's politically difficult to enact bold and necessary energy policy. The hundreds of millions of lobbying dollars the oil industry spends certainly don't help our Senators see things clearly. American politicians have been saying we need to get off foreign oil for half a century. Canadian energy executives and politicians bristle when they hear things like that. They feel that somehow Canadian oil shouldn't be considered foreign because it comes from North America. But the ethical thing is for both countries to pursue energy independence based on clean, renewable sources that don't pollute the environment, harm human health, and risk massive destabilization of the global climate. As it stands, Canada has become a climate change ostrich with its head in the oil sands. A version of this article first appeared in the Carnegie Ethics Online column. Read More: Business, Conservation, Democracy, Development, Diplomacy, Economy, Energy, Environment, Ethics, Jobs, Security, Sustainability, Technology, Trade, Transportation, Canada, United States, Americas, Global, Middle Eastblog comments powered by Disqus

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Oct. 6, 2010 Doppler weather radar will significantly improve forecasting models used to track monsoon systems influencing the monsoon in and around India, according to a research collaboration including Purdue University, the National Center for Atmospheric Research and the Indian Institute of Technology Delhi. Dev Niyogi, a Purdue associate professor of agronomy and earth and atmospheric sciences, said modeling of a monsoon depression track can have a margin of error of about 200 kilometers for landfall, which can be significant for storms that produce as much as 20-25 inches of rain as well as inland floods and fatalities. "When you run a forecast model, how you represent the initial state of the atmosphere is critical. Even if Doppler radar information may seem highly localized, we find that it enhances the regional atmospheric conditions, which, in turn, can significantly improve the dynamic prediction of how the monsoon depression will move as the storm makes landfall," Niyogi said. "It certainly looks like a wise investment made in Doppler radars can help in monsoon forecasting, particularly the heavy rain from monsoon processes." Niyogi, U.C. Mohanty, a professor in the Centre for Atmospheric Sciences at the Indian Institute of Technology, and Mohanty's doctoral student, Ashish Routray, collaborated with scientists at the National Center for Atmospheric Research and gathered information such as radial velocity and reflectivity from six Doppler weather radars that were in place during storms. Using the Weather Research and Forecasting Model, they found that incorporating the Doppler radar-based information decreased the error of the monsoon depression's landfall path from 200 kilometers to 75 kilometers. Monsoons account for 80 percent of the rain India receives each year. Mohanty said more accurate predictions could better prepare people for heavy rains that account for a number of deaths in a monsoon season. "Once a monsoon depression passes through, it can cause catastrophic floods in the coastal areas of India," Mohanty said. "Doppler radar is a very useful tool to help assess these things." The researchers modeled monsoon depressions and published their findings in the Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society. Future studies will incorporate more simulations and more advanced models to test the ability of Doppler radar to track monsoon processes. Niyogi said the techniques and tools being developed also could help predict landfall of tropical storm systems that affect the Caribbean and the United States. The National Science Foundation CAREER program, U.S. Agency for International Development and the Ministry of Earth Sciences in India funded the study. Other social bookmarking and sharing tools: - A. Routray, U. C. Mohanty, S. R. H. Rizvi, Dev Niyogi, Krishna K. Osuri, D. Pradhan. Impact of Doppler weather radar data on numerical forecast of Indian monsoon depressions. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, 2010; DOI: 10.1002/qj.678 Note: If no author is given, the source is cited instead.

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Tag writer: Michele Wick, Psychology Imagine the texture of skirt fabric rubbing against tiny feet, the sweet smell of grass, or the delight of looking at a resplendent blue shirt. Sensory experiences are a vital part of who we are; they are building blocks of a growing brain. Countless occurrences, like the intimate play we see in Cassatt’s print, help shape the contours of pliant neural networks. The child may not remember this exact moment, the feel of the woman’s secure grasp, the pleasure of gazing in her eyes, or the sound of her breath. Nevertheless, they have left their imprint on a blossoming mind. Image Information: Mary Cassatt, American (1844–1926). Under the Horse Chestnut Tree , 1895. Drypoint and aquatint printed in blue, green, yellow, brown and flesh on paper. Sheet: 18 13/16 x 14 3/8 in.; 47.7838 x 36.5125 cm; plate: 16 1/8 x 11 3/8 in.; 40.9575 x 28.8925 cm. Bequest of Helen Haase

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Photo used with kind permission of Borneo Orangutan Survival Foundation Baby clings to dead mother For millions of years, orangutans thrived in the once-vast forestlands of South East Asia, possibly even existing as far North as Southern China. Today, less than 1% of the species remains, and can now only be found in small, secluded pockets of orangutan habitat on the islands of Borneo and Sumatra. There are two sub-species of orangutan remaining, the endangered Bornean, with approximately 30,000 individuals, and the critically endangered Sumatran, with less than 6,000. Orangutans are the most intelligent species on earth after humans. They have the ability to undo bolts, knocks, pick locks and even communicate with humans via sign language. They share many of the same emotions as us, have their own culture and share 97% of our DNA! Orangutans reproduce more slowly than any other primate, with the female producing a baby on average once every 7-8 years. Infants are dependent on their mothers for 5-8 years, learning about survival in the forest. Orangutans live for around 45 years in the wild, and a female will usually have no more than 3 offspring in her lifetime. This means that orangutan populations grow very slowly, and take a long time to recover from habitat disturbance and Poaching and the illegal animal trade are contributing factors to the genocide of this species; however, the number one threat to the survival of the orangutan in the wild is deforestation for the development of palm oil. Every hour, rainforest land equivalent to 300 football fields in size is destroyed, burnt and replaced with palm oil plantations. To put it into perspective - in Sumatra alone there is now more than 4 times as much land cultivated with oil palms as there is orangutan habitat remaining. This results in the death of an orangutan every 2 hours. These gentle apes are often killed in the most inhumane ways; run over, set on fire, hacked with machetes, shot and decapitated. The “lucky” ones, often babies, have their mothers shot and they are then taken to be kept as pets, sold, used in the entertainment industry or even used as prostitutes in Indonesian brothels. In some cases, palm oil farming provides employment to locals in South East Asia, however it often involves gross human rights violations and involves dangerous labour under risky conditions. But in many cases, palm oil does the opposite to providing money. It often robs indigenous communities who still depend on the natural landscape of their livelihood, when they are displaced from their land to make way for palm oil development. This one vegetable oil is found in over 50% of all supermarket products in Australia. Palm oil can be found in everything from baked goods, confectionery and ice-cream, to body products, cosmetics and cleaning agents. It can even be used in toothpaste, paint, printer ink and car fuel! Why is palm oil so popular and widely used? - High yielding vegetable oil crop - Large economic benefit to Indonesia & Malaysia - Cheap cost - Diverse in its uses - Acts as a preservative in some foods Palm oil is not only having devastating impacts on wildlife, the environment and indigenous communities, but also your health. Palm oil is comprised of 50% saturated fat, meaning it has the ability to increase cholesterol levels and promote heart disease. To conclude, there is currently a massive amount of degraded land available for planting oil palms in Sumatra and Borneo, but palm oil companies can make a quick profit when they cut down rainforests and sell the timber, so the relentless deforestation continues. We do not advocate a boycott of products containing palm oil, or companies using palm oil in their products. However, the international community must demand that oil palm concessions are not granted in forested areas, and that our local retailers and consumer goods manufacturers either source their palm oil from non-destructive plantations, or switch to an alternative ingredient that isn’t abusing wildlife, the environment and indigenous communities. WANT TO KNOW MORE? You can visit our Anti-Palm Oil Ambassador’s educational website on palm oil, to learn about it’s impacts, what products do/don’t contain palm oil, how to detect palm oil on labels and much more!

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The unmanned Jules Verne ATV cargo ship breaks up in a spectacular display during re-entry, as seen on Monday over the Pacific from an observation plane. The European Space Agency's first cargo mission to the international space station ended in a spectacular fireworks show today, with the fiery re-entry of the unmanned Jules Verne ATV spaceship over the South Pacific. "Jules Verne has now successfully completed its mission," ESA Director-General Jean-Jacques Dordain declared at the International Astronautical Congress in Glasgow, Scotland. The end came at around 9:30 a.m. ET, when controllers back at Europe's mission control in Toulouse, France, directed the 17-ton craft into its final plunge. Jules Verne, the first of Europe's Automated Transfer Vehicles, was launched from the ESA spaceport in French Guiana early March 9. It linked up with the space station almost a month later, delivering tons of food, water and equipment. During its stay, Jules Verne periodically boosted the space station's orbit, and in fact helped the station dodge a passing piece of Russian space junk last month. But all good things must come to an end: Unlike the Italian-built space cargo modules that are carried back and forth inside NASA's space shuttle, the Euroean-built ATVs are not designed for return or reuse. Instead, each spent craft has to be disposed of safely, by directing it remotely on a plunge through the atmosphere. The wide-open South Pacific is the favorite dumping ground for such space junk, as we saw back in 2001 when Russia's Mir space station fell to its doom. Jules Verne's re-entry was witnessed by an international team of scientists flying aboard a NASA DC-8 observation plane. Studying the spacecraft's controlled fall could lead to fresh insights about the chemical and radiation effects of falling meteors - as well as better computer models for predicting how objects fragment as the blast through the atmosphere. The Jules Verne ATV cargo craft glows during its atmospheric re-entry, in a view captured Monday from a DC-8 observation plane flying over the Pacific. A lens diffraction flare can be seen in rainbow colors at lower right. Today's first pictures from the DC-8, posted to ESA's ATV blog, revealed a spray of fireworks similar to those seen during Mir's fall. More tragically, they also recalled what witnesses saw during the shuttle Columbia's breakup five years ago. Although experts still have to track all the bits of debris, it looks as if Jules Verne's plunge through the atmosphere provided a great light show, but no big impact. There were far more damaging plunges elsewhere on the planet today.

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Story posted January 16, 2008 Brads, nails, and spikes take on the characteristics of line, mass and color in sculptures by artist and Lecturer in Art John Bisbee. Covering his more than 20-year career, Bright Common Spikes: The Sculpture of John Bisbee, features 20 large-scale abstract sculptures of nails that are welded and forged into various organic configurations. The exhibition will be on view at the Portland Museum of Art January 24, 2008, through March 23, 2008. The January 20, 2008, edition of The Boston Globe features an in-depth profile of Bisbee and his art. Click here to read the article and watch a video slideshow. Bisbee welds, cuts, hammers, forges, and bends his nails and spikes into a variety of forms for his sculptures. Since 1988, when he overturned a five gallon bucket of nails that had rusted and fused together, he has been creating small- to large-scale sculptures comprising mainly brads, nails and spikes. Over the years, as Bisbee has gradually increased the size of his nails from brads to 10- and 12-inch spikes, the overall scale of his work has become more expansive. Bisbee began to explore the implications of monumentality in more serious ways with a series he calls "Tons." Each piece is made up of one ton of nails, and to date he has completed 11 "Tons." They vary in type of fabrication and assembly — groups of nails are welded together and piled in various configurations into corners, spread across the floor, or affixed to the wall. Some "Tons" pieces vary with each new installation, and Bisbee does not determine the exact configuration until the moment a piece is installed. He arrives at the gallery with barrels filled with the component pieces and lets the spirit of the day and the idiosyncrasies of the site suggest the rest. Bisbee's intuitive working method comes closest to the surrealist process of automatic drawing, allowing the subconscious mind to direct the hand. In addition to the "Tons" series, Bisbee has recently produced more intricately patterned pieces. These works share the decorative flair that characterizes a great deal of contemporary painting and sculpture. For his most recent sculptures, Bisbee uses a forge, press, and hand tools to flatten and bend his nails into even more elaborate shapes that resemble calligraphic lines. Some of these flattened nails are then welded together to form larger mandala-like shapes; others are piled freely on the floor. Bisbee's solo museum exhibitions include the Albright-Knox Art Gallery in Buffalo, N.Y., and the Kemper Museum of Contemporary Art in Kansas City, Mo. A recent recipient of a 2006 Joan Mitchell Foundation Grant, Bisbee has also received a Maine State Individual Artist Grant (2000) and The Rappaport Prize (2003), administered by the DeCordova Museum and Sculpture Park. He has also been awarded the Purchase Prize and the William E. Thon Jurors' Prize from the Portland Museum of Art's Biennial exhibition (1998, 2001). His work has been reviewed in Art in America, ARTnews, Sculpture Magazine, The New Yorker, The New York Times and The Boston Globe. John Bisbee and his art were the focus of a Spring 2005 Bowdoin magazine feature. Read it here.

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Joint Base Pearl Harbor-Hickam (JBPHH) Joint Base Pearl Harbor-Hickam on the left, and HNL on the right share the Reef Runway. Honolulu International Airport and Joint Base Pearl Harbor-Hickam (JBPHH) have been neighbors and partners for many years. In 1956 the Air Force and the Hawaii Aeronautics Commission (predecessor to the State of Hawaii Department of Transportation) agreed to a single airport complex that would be operated under a Joint Use Agreement. Today, JBPHH and HNL share runways, safety networks, and a partnership that is more than 50 years old. Hickam Field, as it was then known, was completed and officially activated on September 15, 1938. It was the principal army airfield in Hawaii and the only one large enough to accommodate the B-17 bomber. During World War II the base played a major role in pilot training and aircraft assembly work, in addition to service as a supply center for both air and ground troops. Hickam served as the hub of the Pacific aerial network, supporting transient aircraft ferrying troops and supplies to, and evacuating wounded from, the forward areas, not only during World War II but also during the Korean conflict and the Vietnam War. During the Korean Conflict, 19 percent of HNL operations were military. During the Vietnam War that increased to 20-50%. Today, military operations are five to six percent of total operations.

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Kanthapura is the story of a village in South India named `Kanthapura` written by Raja Rao. He was an excellent writer and the simple story of a village life is depicted in an extra-ordinary way in this creation of his. The title of the story is kept by the name of the village only. So the title truly signifies the story. Born on November 8 in the year of 1908 Raja Rao was a famous writer. The place was Hassan, in the state of Mysore in south India, into a well-known Brahman family. He post-graduated in France, and all his publications were in English. Rao was very much concerned with his language and consciousness. He studied in a Muslim school. After taking a degree from Madras University, he left India for Europe, where he remained for a decade. He studied at the universities of Montpellier and the Sorbonne, doing research in Christian theology and history. In 1931 he married Camille Mouly. She was a French academic. His first stories were published in French and English. His Kannada articles were also published in an influential journal `Jaya Karnataka`. He marriage with Camille Mouly didn`t work out and he got divorced in 1939. Rao returned to India and began his first period of residence in an ashram. In search of his spiritual heritage, he traveled widely in India. This happened during WW II. In 1942 he was active in an underground movement against colonial rule. He also edited the literary magazine `Tomorrow` for some days. `Kanthapura` is the first major Indian novel in English by Raja Rao. The novel deals with the Civil disobedience movement of 1030`s. Mahatma Gandhi on the participation of a small village of South India in the National struggle calls for the story`s central concern. The villagers sacrifice all their material possessions in a triumph of the spirit. It shows how the people of country united at the time of movement and joined at the non-violence movement to bring independence from the British. `Kanthapura` was first published in English and then in France. Achakka narrates the whole story. She is an old village woman and the story revolves around in a village Kanthapura in South India. In this village there are clear discrimination between Brahman, Sudra and Pariah quarters still the mutual bonding between the villagers are very strong and they live happily with equal social and economical bonding. To maintain social harmony they live like one single family. Kanthapura may be isolated and deprived of modern civilization but it is compensated by an ever-enriching cycle of ceremonies, rituals and festivals. Rao depicts beautifully the partication of the villagers in different festivals like Dussera, Sankara-jayanti, Kartik Purnima, Ganesh Jayanti, Styanarayana Puja, etc. the common picture of village has always come up in many of Rao`s story and that can be called as Raja Rao`s speciality. `Kanthapura` by Raja Rao is a marvelous creation. He depicts very simple happenings of a village in a lively manner. In his writing a clear picture of villagers become prominent. In his village religion imparted through discourses and pujas keeps alive in the natives a sense of presence of God. In the whole story a serenity flows in a simple harmonic motion which makes the story worth reading.

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Ancient galaxies newly discovered in southern sky A concentrated effort by Australian telescopes and the Hubble Space Telescope on a tiny, dark patch of the southern sky has led to the discovery of thousands of previously unknown galaxies. Preliminary resuts will be released today from the ten-day period of observation in October, when the Hubble and ground-based telescopes were focused simultaneously on a patch of sky called the Hubble Deep Field South. The tiny piece of sky was carefully chosen for astronomers to learn more about distant galaxies. Like the Hubble Deep Field, another small patch in the northern sky which was observed in late 1995, it contains no bright stars to drown out the light from objects much further away. Unlike its northern counterpart, however, the Hubble Deep Field South was picked because it had a quasar -- the bright centre thought to be the central 'engine' of a distant galaxy. Astronomers at the Anglo-Australian Observatory sifted through their photographic records of the whole southern sky until they found a likely quasar, 10 billion light-years away. "The quasar acts like a lighthouse in the distance," said the Observatory's Dr Chris Tinney. "It helps you see anything in its path." While the high-resolution Hubble detected and photographed the galaxies in the path of the quasar's beam, the Anglo-Australian Observatory could analyse their spectra for more information about their shape and size. From the results, astronomers hope to learn about the life cycles galaxies go through, from creation to old age. "What you're seeing are the embryonic stages of very old galaxies," said Dr Tinney. "When you're looking at distant galaxies you're looking back in time -- right back to the first ten percent of the age of the Universe."

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Discover the words hidden in the grid, written through one another in eight horizontal, vertical and diagonal directions. Select words by clicking on the first and last letters, in any order. If the selected letters match an item in the list, the letters are highlighted and the item is crossed out. Spaces, capitalization and diàçritîcš are ignored. Once the list is cleared you win. The letters remaining at the end, if any, may or may not spell a little Aesopean or other proverbial gem of wisdom. Recognizing those words in the gaps left between the stroked terms can help spot that last few stubborn hidden letters. The grid can be resized, flipped and rotated in all directions. This may help to make some furtive words more readable. Also the spacing, boldness and capital case can be switched to make the letters stand out from their context. Optionally a handy hover-cross is shown, highlighting those letters that are in line with the letter that is currently under the mouse pointer. Especially the longer and diagonal words may benefit from this. Click a word in the list for some hints about its whereabouts in the grid. Doubleclicking an item in the list will reveal its location in the soup of letters. This is known as cheating. The available word search grids cover subjects ranging from animals and timbers via countries and capitals to Shakespeare and mythology. All that is needed for your own word search game is a list of words, or short word groups as spaces and other non-alphabetic features are ignored. A mixture of a few longer items and some terms of 3 to 6 characters usually gives good results. Avoid words that overlap each other, with one being contained in the other, like ‘raw’ in ‘straw’ or ‘if’ in ‘life’, as they are bound to appear double in the playing field. The same applies to reverse contained words, like ‘art’ in ‘straw’ or ‘raw’ and ‘war’. Use the update function to automatically scan for overlaps, the numbers should update every time you click outside the word list.

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||On this site, kids can enter their spelling words and the site will create word search puzzles. They can select varying levels of difficulty. The students can complete these puzzles online or on paper. ||Once the customized spelling list is entered, students can play numerous spelling games to reinforce their vocabulary. Games are available for different ages and ||This website is a great way for kids to practice their spelling words. They can be taught the words, be tested on the words or play games to reinforce the word || Kids can play math games to practice their skills. They also can review lessons on specific mathematical concepts to supplement their learning. ||This site was created by the Oswego City School District. It gives the students timed tests on their chosen math facts. If desired, the kids can choose to be tested on a mix of ||This site provides lessons to help children better their math concepts. It also offers math games and puzzles. ||An overview of different animals is provided. can select specific animals to review general facts. Printable worksheets also are available for additional learning. ||Run by the BBC, this site allows children to study topics related to living things. They can play games, read and then be quizzed on the material. |Yahoo! Kids||This site contains facts on animals. Kids can specific animals to see photos and statistics. They can play games and get homework help in the study zone.

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Study Questions Antibiotics' Safety in Preterm Labor There's important new information out today for pregnant women and their doctors: Giving antibiotics to some pregnant women who have gone into labor too early could be dangerous for the long-term development of their children, according to a major new study. Now, it's important to make it clear right away that if a pregnant woman definitely has an infection she should take an antibiotic--an infection can be very dangerous to the mom and baby. But the new study says doctors should be very careful about giving a pregnant woman antibiotics if there is no clear evidence that she has an infection and her water hasn't broken. This comes from a big international study involving more than 11,000 women known as the ORACLE study. British researchers started it to find out if antibiotics might help women who go into labor too soon. Infections can trigger premature labor without causing any other symptoms. So the idea was that antibiotics could help. In 2001, the researchers reported that giving erythromycin to pregnant women whose water had broken prematurely reduced the risk their babies would develop infections, breathing problems and other short-term complications. But erythromycin didn't seem to help women in premature labor whose water had not broken. The researchers then followed more than 6,000 of the children in the study who were born in England to see how they fared. In a pair of papers released yesterday by the journal The Lancet, the researchers reported that those whose mothers took erythromycin before their water broke were 18 percent more likely to have mild developmental problems. And, perhaps most disturbing, they were about three times as likely to have cerebral palsy. The researchers do not know why antibiotics would cause those problems, but they speculate that perhaps keeping a fetus in the womb of a mother who has an infection may not be good for the child. Now, it's important to note that current guidelines only recommend antibiotics for pregnant women whose water has broken or have clear signs of an infection, and the study shows that is the right thing to do. But experts say it's important to get the word out in case some doctors are giving pregnant women who go into premature labor antibiotics even though their water has not broken and they have no obvious signs of infection. The research also is a good reminder that just because something seems like a good idea you never know for sure until you do the research to find out. You could end up doing more harm than good. September 18, 2008; 7:00 AM ET Categories: Cancer , Motherhood Save & Share: Previous: LIfe's Big Questions: How Can I Face This Financial Stress? Next: Colon Screening: Ready to Go Virtual? The comments to this entry are closed.

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Multiple sclerosis is a progressive disease for which no cure has yet been found. Researchers are working to identify new and better strategies to stop that progression. People with primary-progressive MS (read more about courses of MS) experience a slow but nearly continuous worsening of their disease from the onset, with no distinct relapses or remissions. A more common type of progressive MS is secondary-progressive MS, which starts as relapsing-remitting MS and then transitions into a progressive course, with or without occasional relapses. Some of the burning questions that are being addressed through research include: - What factors influence the transition from a largely relapsing-remitting course with distinct immune attacks to a largely progressive (steadily worsening) course (secondary-progressive MS)? - Can the disease-modifying therapies prevent, delay, or slow long-term MS progression? - What causes primary-progressive MS, and is it the same (currently unknown) thing that causes more common forms of MS? - What new therapies will help people with progressive MS? - What causes degeneration of nerve fibers—thought to be the cause of long-term disability experienced by many with MS—and how can that be stopped or reversed? Although many of the National MS Society’s research studies explore virtually every aspect of MS and more basic aspects of how the nervous system and immune system works, some studies focus specifically on progressive forms of MS. As part of its Strategic Response for 2011-2015, the National MS Society is increasing its focus on understanding mechanisms that drive MS progression and finding new therapies to treat it. Current projects involving people with progressive MS include: - Four different teams at Harvard and State University of New York, Buffalo using different methods and approaches to identify possible risk factors that drive progression, some of which may be preventable. Ideally, they will find ways to more quickly identify progressive disease based on biological markers, rather than waiting for symptoms to worsen. - A genetics study at Vanderbilt University looking at how variants in a person’s DNA may lead to progressive MS. - An imaging study of people with primary-progressive MS at Massachusetts General Hospital aimed at revealing spinal cord damage that is difficult to detect. - New York University researchers developing and applying a new way to assess cumulative disability over many functions to provide a tool to improve care and research. - MS Tissue Banks that provide shared resources to empower investigations into disease mechanisms. - Clinical trials at the University of Alabama at Birmingham and University of Illinois, Urbana Champaign, of novel rehabilitation strategies aimed at restoring mobility in people with progressive and advanced MS. A Cleveland Clinic study evaluating a new "hip flexion assist device" designed to improve walking ability. - A Fast Forward alliance to accelerate the clinical application of adult stem cells for MS including progressive MS. - Drexel University researchers examining driving ability at various stages of MS progression to improve safety and independence. - A clinical trial at the University of California, Los Angeles testing the ability of aerobic exercise to improve cognitive function. - A study at Buffalo General Hospital investigating changes in the brain (atrophy) that may lead to personality and behavior disorders in MS and the impact of those disorders on disease course and quality of life. - Oregon Health & Science University pilot study evaluating the sensitivity of an electronic instrument to detect and measure gait and mobility changes in people with MS. - In collaboration with the MS Society of Canada, the Society has funded seven research projects focusing on whether CCSVI (vein blockages) plays a role in the MS disease process. - Shared DNA bank at the University of California, San Francisco, propelling studies aimed at identifying genes that make people susceptible to developing MS, and genes that may influence course and severity.

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Oct 08 2008 The Nobel Prize in Medicine was awarded this week to two French virologists, Françoise Barré-Sinoussi and Luc A. Montagnier, for discovering the AIDS causing virus, the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV). They will share half the prize of 1.4 million dollars, the other half going to three Dr. Harald zur Hausen for discovering the human papilloma virus and its relation to cervical cancer. The prize comes 25 years after Barré-Sinoussi and Montagnier, working at the Pasteur Institute in Paris, published their paper identifying what was later called HIV. The last quarter of a century has proven their discovery to be a triumph of science-based medicine. The Nobel committee is correct, in my opinion, in waiting such long periods of time before granting such recognition. It reflects that fact that, even in a fast-paced arena of science such as medicine, it takes time for the meticulous process of science to work itself out. It takes decades to garner the perspective necessary to tell the difference between a crucial breakthrough and a false lead.

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Science Fair Project Encyclopedia The World Factbook The World Factbook is an annual publication by the Central Intelligence Agency of the United States with basic almanac-style information about the various countries of the world. The factbook gives a two- to three-page summary of the demographics, location, telecommunications capacity, government, industry, military capability, etc, of all US-recognized countries and territories in the world. As The World Factbook is prepared by the CIA for the use of U.S. Government officials, the style, format, coverage, and content are designed to meet their specific requirements. Information is provided by: - Antarctic Information Program (National Science Foundation), - Bureau of the Census (Department of Commerce), - Bureau of Labor Statistics (Department of Labor), - Central Intelligence Agency, - Council of Managers of National Antarctic Programs , - Defense Intelligence Agency (Department of Defense), - US Department of State, - US Fish and Wildlife Service (Department of the Interior), - US Maritime Administration (Department of Transportation), - National Imagery and Mapping Agency (Department of Defense), - Naval Facilities Engineering Command (Department of Defense), - Office of Insular Affairs (Department of the Interior), - Office of Naval Intelligence (Department of Defense), - United States Board on Geographic Names (Department of the Interior), and - other public and private sources. The official seal of the CIA, however, may NOT be copied without permission as required by the CIA Act of 1949 (50 U.S.C. section 403m). Misuse of the official seal of the CIA could result in civil and criminal penalties. Also, "Federal law prohibits use of the words "Central Intelligence Agency," the initials "CIA," the seal of the Central Intelligence Agency, or any colorable imitation of such words, initials, or seal in connection with any merchandise, impersonation, solicitation, or commercial activity in a manner reasonably calculated to convey the impression that such use is approved, endorsed, or authorized by the Central Intelligence Agency. " Many sites have used information and images from the CIA World Factbook, because of its public domain status, including this encyclopedia. Besides the World Factbook, the CIA puts out a directory of Chiefs of State and Cabinet Members of Foreign Governments each week. Oddities and controversies The maps of countries in the Factbook also appear to have strange anomalies. For example, the map of the United Kingdom lists the town of Grangemouth in Scotland, although it is only a small town and in no way a major city (this is perhaps due to its status as a major centre of the oil industry in Scotland). The U.S. does not recognize the renaming of Burma by its ruling military junta to Myanmar and thus keeps its entry for the country under "Burma." Specific regions within a country or areas in dispute among countries, such as Kashmir and Kosovo, are not covered, but other areas of the world whose status is disputed, such as the Spratly Islands, have entries. Maps depicting Kashmir have the India-Pakistan border drawn at the Line of Control, but the region of Kashmir occupied by China drawn in hashmarks. Northern Cyprus is not given a separate entry or listed as part of Turkey because "territorial occupations/annexations not recognized by the United States Government are not shown on U.S. Government maps." Taiwan has a separate entry not listed under "T", but at the bottom of the list. The name "Republic of China" is not listed as Taiwan's "official name" under the "Government" section, perhaps due to U.S. recognition of Beijing's One-China Policy according to which the Republic of China is a defunct entity having been replaced by the People's Republic of China. The name "Republic of China" was briefly added on January 27, 2005 but changed back to "none" on February 10, 2005. On December 16, 2004, the CIA added an entry for the European Union. According to the CIA, the European Union was added because the EU "continues to accrue more nation-like characteristics for itself". - World Factbook Website - 2004 CIA World Factbook for Pocket PC and Palm OS devices - Nationmaster.com: statistics with bars, based on the Factbook - Authorama CIA World Factbook: The complete Factbook as XHTML1.0 (easily readable, no images, device-independent) The contents of this article is licensed from www.wikipedia.org under the GNU Free Documentation License. Click here to see the transparent copy and copyright details

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Although often used interchangeably, the words "fate" and "destiny" have distinct connotations. - Traditional usage defines fate as a power or agency that predetermines and orders the course of events. Fate defines events as ordered or "inevitable" and unavoidable. Classical and European mythology features three goddesses dispensing fate, known as Moirai in Greek mythology, as Parcae in Roman mythology, and as Norns in Norse mythology. They determine the events of the world through the mystic spinning of threads that represent individual human fates. - Destiny is used with regard to the finality of events as they have worked themselves out; and to that same sense of "destination", projected into the future to become the flow of events as they will work themselves out. In other words, "fate" relates to events of the future and present of an individual and in cases in literature unalterable, whereas "destiny" relates to the probable future. Fate implies no choice, but with destiny the entity participates in achieving an outcome that is directly related to itself. Participation happens willfully. In Hellenistic civilization, the chaotic and unforeseeable turns of chance gave increasing prominence to a previously less notable goddess, Tyche, who embodied the good fortune of a city and all whose lives depended on its security and prosperity, two good qualities of life that appeared to be out of human reach. The Roman image of Fortuna, with the wheel she blindly turned, was retained by Christian writers, revived strongly in the Renaissance and survives in some forms today. In daily language, "destiny" and "fate" are synonymous, but with regard to 19th century philosophy, the words gained inherently different meanings. For Arthur Schopenhauer, destiny was just a manifestation of the Will to Live, which can be at the same time living fate and choice of overrunning the fate same, by means of the Art, of the Morality and of the Ascesis. For Nietzsche, destiny keeps the form of Amor fati (Love of Fate) through the important element of Nietzsche's philosophy, the "will to power" (der Wille zur Macht), the basis of human behavior, influenced by the Will to Live of Schopenhauer. But this concept may have even other senses, although he, in various places, saw the will to power as a strong element for adaptation or survival in a better way. Nietzsche eventually transformed the idea of matter as centers of force into matter as centers of will to power as mankind’s destiny to face with amor fati. The expression Amor fati is used repeatedly by Nietzsche as acceptation-choice of the fate, but in such way it becomes even another thing, precisely a "choice" destiny. Many Greek legends and tales teach the futility of trying to outmaneuver an inexorable fate that has been correctly predicted. This form of irony is important in Greek tragedy, as it is in Oedipus Rex and in the Duque de Rivas' play that Verdi transformed into La Forza del Destino ("The Force of Destiny") or Thornton Wilder's The Bridge of San Luis Rey, or in Macbeth's uncannily-derived knowledge of his own destiny, which in spite of all his actions does not preclude a horrible fate. Other notable examples include Thomas Hardy's Tess of the d'Urbervilles, in which Tess is destined to the miserable death that she is confronted with at the end of the novel; Samuel Beckett's Endgame; the popular short story "The Monkey's Paw" by W.W. Jacobs. Destiny is a recurring theme in the literature of Hermann Hesse (1877–1962), including Siddharta (1922) and his magnum opus, Das Glasperlenspiel, also published as The Glass Bead Game (1943). The common theme of these works involves a protagonist who cannot escape a destiny if their fate has been sealed, however hard they try. Destiny is also an important plot point in the hit TV shows Lost, Heroes and Supernatural, as well a common theme in the Roswell TV series. Destiny is a recurring theme in the video-game franchise Kingdom Hearts, with Kingdom Hearts: Birth By Sleep having its story based around the concept of Destiny, and the tagline for the game stating "Destiny is never left to chance." Destiny is also a prominent theme in the anime Mawaru Penguindrum, which focuses on the concept that humans cannot escape from their own fate. See also |Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Destiny| - Divine Providence - Lazy argument - Qadr, destiny in Islam - Russian avos' - Psychology of human destiny - "The Wheel of Fortune" remains an emblem of the chance element in fate(destiny). - Beyond Good & Evil 13, Gay Science 349 & Genealogy of Morality II:12 - Cornelius, Geoffrey, C. (1994). "The Moment of Astrology: Origins in Divination", Penguin Group, part of Arkana Contemporary Astrology series.

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Outer doublet heterogeneity reveals structural polarity related to beat direction in Chlamydomonas flagella Department of Cell Biology Chlamydomonas; Dynein ATPase; Flagella; Microscopy, Electron; Microtubules Analysis of serial cross-sections of the Chlamydomonas flagellum reveals several structural asymmetries in the axoneme. One doublet lacks the outer dynein arm, has a beak-like projection in its B-tubule, and bears a two-part bridge that extends from the A-tubule of this doublet to the B-tubule of the adjacent doublet. The two doublets directly opposite the doublet lacking the arm have beak-like projections in their B-tubules. These asymmetries always occur in the same doublets from section to section, indicating that certain doublets have consistent morphological specializations. These unique doublets give the axoneme an inherent structural polarity. All three specializations are present in the proximal portion of the axoneme; based on their frequency in random cross-sections of isolated axonemes, the two-part bridge and the beak-like projections are present in the proximal one quarter and one half of the axoneme, respectively, and the outer arm is absent from the one doublet greater than 90% of the axoneme's length. The outer arm-less doublet of each flagellum faces the other flagellum, indicating that each axoneme has the same rotational orientation relative to the direction of its effective stroke. This strongly suggests that the direction of the effective stroke is controlled by a structural component within the axoneme. The striated fibers are associated with specific triplets in a manner suggesting that they play a role in setting up or maintaining the 180 degrees rotational symmetry of the two flagella. Rights and Permissions Citation: J Cell Biol. 1983 Sep;97(3):902-8. The Journal of cell biology

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To create a true net-zero building, one that literally generates as much or more energy than it consumes, is no easy task. Still, it’s a task that makes good business sense. After all, buildings consume a huge amount of energy, which cuts into profit margins. This simple equation finally hit home with Hines, the international real estate firm, and equity partner J.P. Morgan Asset Management. The two are partnering to build a new 13-story, 415,000-square-foot building at La Jolla Commons in San Diego that will become the nation’s largest carbon-neutral office building to date. In order to achieve this rare feat, the building will utilize combination of high-performance building design, directed biogas and on-site fuel cells that annually will generate more electricity than tenants will use. The fuel cells, made by Bloom Energy, will generate approximately 5.0 million KWh of electricity annually, which is roughly equivalent to the electricity required to power 1,000 San Diego homes. Methane needed to power the fuel cells will be acquired from carbon-neutral sources, such as landfills and wastewater plants, and placed into the national natural gas pipeline system. The building’s exterior is predominately a glass curtainwall system incorporating highly efficient, insulated, double-paned glass with a clear, low-emissive coating. Hines views its newest building, which will also contain a highly efficient under-floor air system, as a sort of ongoing R&D project. “Our net-zero project at La Jolla Commons gives us a great foundation for furthering the use of carbon-neutral technologies and fuels,” said Gary Holtzer, Hines’ global sustainability officer. ”Our next step is to adapt what we have learned and apply it to an existing urban property in a less temperate environment.” Construction on the carbon neutral building began in April 2012 and completion is scheduled for mid-2014.

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Philosophy East and West 46 (2):143-164 (1996) |Abstract||The origin, content, argumentative basis, practical implication, and influence of Mencius' views of mind-heart and human nature are discussed. While the differences between Confucius and Mencius are acknowledged, it is argued that Mencius' view that human nature is good is consistent with and is a further development of basic ideas in Confucius' thinking. The basis of Mencius' view is not empirical generalization but inner reflection and personal experience, which reveal a shared natural endowment in human beings with a transcendental source. In addition to a discussion of Mencius' views, the development of his ideas in the Sung and Ming and by contemporary Neo-Confucians is also considered| |Keywords||No keywords specified (fix it)| |Through your library||Configure| Similar books and articles James Behuniak Jr (2011). Naturalizing Mencius. Philosophy East and West 61 (3):492-515. David E. Soles (1999). The Nature and Grounds of Xunzi's Disagreement with Mencius. Asian Philosophy 9 (2):123 – 133. Qingping Liu (2001). Is Mencius' Doctrine of 'Commiseration' Tenable? Asian Philosophy 11 (2):73 – 84. James Behuniak (2002). Mencius on Becoming Human. Dissertation, University of Hawaii at Manoa Liang Tao & Andrew Lambert (2009). Mencius and the Tradition of Articulating Human Nature in Terms of Growth. Frontiers of Philosophy in China 4 (2):180 - 197. Kwong-loi Shun (1997). Mencius and Early Chinese Thought. Stanford University Press. Zhang Pengwei, Guo Qiyong & Wang Bei (2008). New Insight Into Mencius' Theory of the Original Goodness in Human Nature. Frontiers of Philosophy in China 3 (1):27 - 38. Katrin Froese (2008). Organic Virtue: Reading Mencius with Rousseau. Asian Philosophy 18 (1):83 – 104. Tao Liang (2009). Mencius and the Tradition of Articulating Human Nature in Terms of Growth. Frontiers of Philosophy in China 4 (2):180-197. Added to index2009-01-28 Total downloads13 ( #88,007 of 549,196 ) Recent downloads (6 months)1 ( #63,397 of 549,196 ) How can I increase my downloads?

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1. Yodhājīva Sutta. On five kinds of warriors: those who are frightened by a cloud of dust, by the sight of a flag, by tumult, by conflict, and those who fight victoriously; and on five similar kinds of monks. A.iii.87f. 2. Yodhājīva Sutta. On five kinds of warriors: those who go down into the thick of the fight where they are overpowered, those who are wounded and die on the way to their home, those who survive for some time but die of their wounds, those who are cured of their wounds, those that are victorious in battle and continue to fight. There are five corresponding kinds of monks. A.iii.94ff. 3. Yodhājīva Sutta. Records the visit of the headman Yodhājīva to the Buddha. S.iv.308.

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Galactorrhea is a discharge of milk-like substance from the breast that is not associated with breastfeeding after pregnancy. This condition mainly occurs in women. It does occur in men, but much less commonly. The milky white discharge can come from one or both breasts, and the breast may leak fluid with or without stimulation. Galactorrhea has many causes, though sometimes the cause is unknown. Tumors of the pituitary gland, called pituitary adenomas or prolactinomas, can cause galactorrhea. The pituitary is a small gland attached to the brain. Pituitary tumors are usually not cancerous. They can cause galactorrhea when they produce excess prolactin, a hormone that stimulates milk production. Other causes of galactorrhea include: - Hormonal imbalance Some medications, such as: - Stopping or starting to take birth control pills or other hormones - Certain blood pressure drugs - Certain psychiatric medications - Anti-nausea drugs - Some antigastroesophageal reflux medications - Some pain killers - Certain herbs, such as : - Illicit drugs, such as marijuana and opioids - Sexual stimulation of the breast - Certain diseases, such as underactive or overactive thyroid, and chronic kidney failure, or liver disease - Chronic emotional stress - Hypothalamic tumors or disease Chest wall conditions, such as: - Surgical scars - Tumors of chest wall - In newborns, high levels of circulating estrogen may result in enlarged breast tissue and secretion of milk Galactorrhea is more common in women. Other factors that may increase your chance of galactorrhea include: - Wearing clothing that irritates the nipple - Frequent breast self-exam or frequent breast stimulation The primary symptom is a milky discharge from the nipple that is not associated with breast-feeding. The discharge can come from one or both breasts. Other symptoms that can occur along with the discharge include: - Abnormal or absent menstruation - Heat or cold intolerance - Disordered appetite, increase or decrease in weight - Increased thirst or urination - Loss of sex drive - Bloody or foul-smelling discharge - Acne or abnormal hair growth - Visual difficulties - Impotence in men The doctor will ask about your symptoms and medical history. A physical exam will be done. Tests may include: - A sample of the breast discharge to look at under a microscope - Blood tests to check hormone levels - Pregnancy test - Imaging tests to check for a pituitary gland tumor in the brain: If the discharge is not milky or contains blood, then this is not galactorrhea. Other tests must be done to check for breast cancer or other disorders. Treatment depends on the cause. In some mild cases, no medical treatment is necessary, and the condition will go away on its own. In these cases, breast binders that prevent stimulation of the nipples may be effective. If medications are identified as the potential cause, safe alternatives should be sought. If an underlying cause for galactorrhea, such as a pituitary tumor, is found, this condition may be treated. Tumors of the pituitary gland that cause galactorrhea are usually benign. Small tumors may be treated with a medication, such as a dopamine agonist. Larger tumors that do not respond to medication may be treated with the following: - Surgery to remove the tumor and nearby tissues - Radiation therapy to shrink tumors Despite treatment, pituitary gland tumors often recur. To reduce your risk of galactorrhea, take these steps: - Avoid wearing clothing that irritates the breast. - Avoid frequent breast self-exam; usually once a month is enough. - Avoid excessive sexual stimulation of the breasts. - Do not use illicit drugs. - Reviewer: Andrea Chisholm; Brian Randall, MD - Review Date: 06/2013 - - Update Date: 06/11/2013 -

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Date: April 2003 Why does DNA decompose when heated to too high a temperature? The most of the hydrogen bonds that join the two DNE stands break from the heat. With more heat the actual bonds between the nucleotides can break -fragmenting a strand. Very few organic molecules can with stand high temperatures for very long. Heat provides the activation energy to break covalent bonds and denature/destroy molecular structure. Proteins are particularly sensitive. There are exceptions, as in the case of thermophillic bacteria. There are cases or heat shock-proteins or "chaperone" proteins that can protect regular proteins from breakdown - to a point. DNA doesn't actually decompose when heated. It just melts. DNA comes in two mirror image strands that you could visualize as a zipper. The chemical bonds that make up each strand of the zipper are permanent joins, but the teeth that connect the two strands are much weaker and sensitive to heat. So when you expose DNA to heat (for instance, by boiling it), the two strands of the zipper separate. By very slowly cooling that denatured DNA, you could actually get the strands to reanneal or zip up again. Christine Ticknor, Ph.D. Ireland Cancer Center Case Western Reserve University DNA in its native form is composed of two molecules that have the characteristic of being complementary such that one strand associates with the other in a particular fashion, forming a "double helix." The two molecules are stabilized in this structure due to noncovalent bonds, mostly hydrogen bonds and vanderWaals forces. These bonds are not strong; accordingly, when the temperature rises sufficiently, the double helix is said to "melt" into its two component molecules, and will reassociate upon slow cooling under appropriate salt conditions. So, the issue is not decomposition so much as disassociation upon exposure to too high a temperature; and the reason for the disassociation is that the energy input of the heat overcomes the ability of the noncovalent bonds to keep the molecules together. Heat "cooks" organic material, DNA or others, especially in the presence of oxyge. So DNA can "burn" in the usual sense of the word forming CO2, N2 and other compounds. Even in the absence of O2, heat can cause DNA, or other molecules, to change its structure either by losing some degradation product, or just changing structure so that it cannot replicate. The "technical" term for proteins is "denaturing", which is a catch-all phrase for "losing its Chemical bonds have a certain stability based on the type of bonding. Some bonds are quite strong The following are covalent bond strengths. Bond Bond Strength(kJ/mole); Bond Bond Strength (kJ/mole) Cl-Cl 239 H-Cl 427 H-H 432 C-H 413 N N 941 N-H 391 Bond strength can be overcome by adding heat...The GC and AT bonds in DNA are hydrogen bonds (non-covalent) and can also be overcome with heat. these hydrogen bonds are about 71 kilojoules per mole...relatively weak (but strong in large numbers) and can be broken and reformed by heating and cooling. This is the secret behind the polymerase chain reaction. Click here to return to the Molecular Biology Archives Update: June 2012

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BURKE TEACHERS STUDY, PREPARE FOR NEW CURRICULUM Burke County schools are preparing for a curriculum change coming in August as North Carolina joins more than 40 other states in adopting the Common Core State Standards. A pamphlet Burke schools will send to parents next month explains the new way of teaching, testing and holding principals accountable.“These standards describe what students are supposed to know from kindergarten through 12th grade,” the pamphlet reads. “They define the reading, writing and math knowledge and skills needed at each grade level. Each year builds on the next so that by high school graduation, young people are prepared to go to college or to enter the workplace.”Burke school officials attended a crash course in Common Core last month as North Carolina Superintendent of Public Instruction June Atkinson toured the state to talk about the upcoming changes.

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Race for survival On the brink of extinction, Honu'ea struggle to the sea October 23, 2008A full moon floods the wide swath of sand that conceals Orion's nest. Big Beach is lit up so bright we can see where the first ones emerged, the football-sized divot on a small mound of sand cordoned of with yellow caution tape. This is the third and final full moon to hit the still-gravid mound. Sheryl King, a biologist with the Hawaii Wildlife Fund, sits at the head of a circle consisting of a dozen or so of us. She explains what we are to do should more baby honu'ea—hawksbill turtles—dig their way out on one of our shifts: make sure they head in the right direction—toward the sea. Keep cats, mongooses, and crabs away. If one flips over in a footprint, push up sand beneath it so it can right itself, but don't ever touch a hatchling. We determine who stakes out when, then hit the hay, or rather the sand. Hawksbill nests typically gestate for around 60 days, King said, but she adjusts a nest's "due date" according to various factors, among them temperature and shade. King spotted Orion, the mother, depositing this particular clutch around 64 days prior to the first hatchlings' emergence. She was watching for nesting hawksbills as part of the dawn patrol, a U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service effort to spot nesting females as part of the Honu'ea Recovery Project. She estimated the nest would begin to hatch on October 11. She was only 2 days off. The project takes place with help from several entities, including FWS, the Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. The aim is to get the honu'ea population up to more stable number. Orion herself likely hatched very close to the spot where she dropped off her most recent batch. "They tend to return to their natal beach," said HWF co-founder Hannah Bernard. "We don't really understand how they find their way." Yet Orion doesn't stick around for very long after nesting. According to King, she spends most of her days off the coast of Oahu and comes to the vicinity of Big Beach every three to four years just to nest. "I first tracked her, and named her, in 2001," King said. "We've tracked her with satellite transmitters so we have a good handle on her movements." This is Orion's third or fourth nest this season. Two other nests were laid on island this year by an as yet unidentified female, which Bernard says is a good thing—one more nesting female adding to the species' extremely small gene pool. This is one of only ten or so nesting areas archipelago-wide. There are three on Maui. Other sites include Kameahame Beach on the Big Island and a black sand beach at the mouth of Moloka'i's Halawa River. Ninety percent of honu'ea nesting occurs on the Ka'u Coast of the Big Island. Nests contain an average of 140 eggs. But while a single hawksbill may lay nearly a thousand eggs in a given year, Hawaii's honu'ea aren't exactly thriving. King said that they have a one in 10,000 chance of making it to adulthood. Volunteers stake out the nest for 24 hours a day as the due date approaches to help ensure the hatchlings' instinctual seaward striving goes without predatory incident. HWF volunteer coordinator Angie Hofmann compares the hatching of a sea turtle nest to childbirth. Everyone was antsy in the days leading up to the hatching. A handful of volunteers parked nest-side in beach chairs day and night, eyes locked on the mound for even the tiniest movement. One volunteer called it a "watched pot." Only this one boils. The first batch emerged at around 5am on Monday, October 13. Forty-eight hatchlings made their way to the water that morning, but Orion's nest was still far from empty. Glimpsing these tiny hatchlings, bellies full of yolk, as they march toward the sea is an extraordinary sight on its own, but there is a particular sense of urgency for the little ones whose prolific mama chose to deposit them in the shade of a keawe tree at Big Beach. Honu'ea are not the enormous green guys that bob up beside you when you're snorkeling at Black Rock or Molokini. Honu'ea are smaller—they grow to be up to 270 pounds, whereas the greens round out at 400. Honu'ea have a beak rather than a rounded snout—hence the Anglo name, hawksbill. Most importantly, honu'ea are endangered under the U.S. Endangered Species Act and most people you ask will say they're critically endangered; greens are not. Though their plight is severe and stemming from the same source, green sea turtles are listed as threatened, which means that their numbers are much higher than those of the honu'ea. Statewide, according to King and Bernard, there are fewer than 100 nesting female honu'ea. Fewer than ten of these will nest throughout the isles in any given year. Only five or six total dig their nests on Maui's coastline. "That's critically low," Bernard said, adding that the entire Hawaii hawksbill population is extremely vulnerable. "The greater your numbers, the greater your resilience." They cite anthropogenic—human—causes for the species' alarmingly low numbers: runoff, traffic, lights that disorient nesting turtles, introduced predators, habitat loss and more. Hawksbills across the globe were once plundered for their shells, which were made into combs, jewelry and even guitar picks. In Japan, according to the 1999 Jay April documentary Red Turtle Rising, they were seen as a sign of longevity, and thus stuffed and hung on the walls in many homes. In Hawaii their shells were used to make dinnerware, jewelry and medicine, though a kapu (taboo) barred honu'ea meat from being consumed (they dine primarily on poisonous sponges, which makes their meat toxic). The tortoiseshell pattern that may or may not constitute your sunglass frames was inspired by the hawksbill. In 1973 real tortoiseshell was banned worldwide under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES). |Researchers have tracked Orion's (the mama turtle) route and found she likes to hang out on Oahu, but comes to Maui to nest.| It may be illegal to mess with them these days, but they're not exactly bouncing back. That's why the 140 or so hatchlings here at Big Beach, barely larger than your big toe, need to make it the ocean. So far the turnout has been outstanding. The first night saw 48 turtles scamper into the tide. The next night more than 100 came out. Tonight we'll see the stragglers to the shore, if there are any. The next day King will excavate the nest carefully with her hands for any that didn't make it out, dead or alive. Live hatchlings will be placed in the water after dusk. Eggshells will be counted and unhatched eggs will be sent to a NOAA lab in Honolulu for DNA testing. My one to 2am shift comes and goes without a peep. I've been instructed to shine a red flashlight on the nest every few minutes, but the mound is frozen. I fall asleep after my shift with few expectations. At some bleary hour a voice startles me awake. "There's a turtle!" King says as she passes my tent. "A turtle just hatched!" It's barely a quarter past five in the morning. Volunteers climb out of sleeping bags and tents and flood the area around the nest. One hatchling moves slowly toward the sea in the moonlight, almost a silhouette at this dark hour. Its tracks look like tire tread from a mountain bike. We inch along behind it, awestruck. After 20 minutes the turtle is at the edge of the sea. Although its flippers have just had a killer workout, the hatchling takes to the waves effortlessly after the lapping water swallows it whole. Any number of things could have thrown off the hatchling and its siblings. Had this been a beach up the road they may have gone toward bright lights. They may have gone toward South Kihei Road and gotten smashed, which has happened before with nesting mothers; once in 1993 and once in 1996, thanks to speeding motorists. A feral cat (of which there are many) could have gotten to them. King says that even ghost crabs prey on sea-bound hatchlings, gouging out their eyes in a horrific display King herself has witnessed in the northwest Hawaiian Isles. Hofmann said her major concern is the long-term impact of development on nesting. While Big Beach is a state park and thus can't be built upon, two proposed developments—Wailea 670 and the expansion of Makena Resort—could increase the volume of beachgoers that may, inadvertently or otherwise, disturb the nests. "If they both get their way there'd be another city down here," she said. The proposed development sites may be pretty far mauka of where the turtles nest, but storm runoff has an obvious impact on their ability to successfully hatch and make it to the sea, as does lighting. Hofmann said that, given how close honu'ea are to extinction, developers should reconsider how they determine appropriateness when choosing a building site. "The turtles have chosen this as their nesting place," she said. While there are several well-documented hawksbill nesting sites statewide, there is no bureaucratic mechanism that can designate them as a critical habitat. Bernard said that the only defense for sites with impending developments so far has been a lighting ordinance that the county adopted in 2007, which she said was watered-down. "It's not the bill that we hoped for," she said, "but it's a start." Just after six in the morning the camp gets jostled awake once again. Three more babies have come out, a volunteer says. I hop to my feet. The last ones to emerge on their own are making it to sea in the new daylight, each on a separate trajectory, seemingly unaware of one another but probably very aware of us. We scare away the looming ghost crabs. We clear the path of debris, as the turtles' tiny flippers hoist them along the final stretch of sand. It takes one honu'ea a few tries to take to the water; the oncoming surf pushes it off course. The other two swim off almost instantly. Nobody knows where they're headed. They return to near shore areas after about five to 10 years, but the time in between is known as the lost years. One theory is that they attach themselves to little clumps of seaweed, floating wherever the current takes them. Those ready to nest, of course, eventually make it back to the beach of their birth using some mysterious sense that we don't yet understand. The hope is they'll stick around long enough for us to find out. MTW For more information on how you can help hawksbills visit wildhawaii.org. To find out more about the role of honu'ea in Hawaiian history and culture check out the award-winning 1999 documentary Red Turtle Rising, directed by Jay April. The film is available for free on the Web at filmmaui.com and through the World Turtle Trust. |Entertainment and lifestyle news for Maui, Hawaii and the surrounding Islands. Maui Time Weekly is Mauis only independent and locally owned newspaper. Mail this link to a friend|

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| Quote #1 Richard's first mention of his relation to his family prepares us for the way family will function in the play. Richard speaks of deceiving one brother to imprison the other. He even explicitly compares himself to his brother Edward, saying that he is all the evil that Edward is not. Thus we get the hint that family will not be about the ties and the love that bind people. Instead, it's just one more instrument Richard will use to manipulate and spread his hate. | Quote #2 Richard implicitly draws a comparison between himself and Anne's dead husband, the murdered Prince Edward, by pointing out their old family connection. By invoking the Plantagenet name, Richard goes far back to the original family from which the two warring houses, Lancaster and York, sprang. Amidst all the animosity in the play, it's easy to forget that the warring Lancasters and Yorks are actually related by blood (hence the dispute). Remembering the family connection between the Lancasters and Yorks also makes all the quarreling within the York family a bit more understandable. Being family doesn't guarantee allegiance. Fighting within the family is common, hence the Wars of the Roses. | Quote #3 Margaret represents the old guard that the Yorks defeated to come to power. As they turn from their in-fighting to attack her, we get a rare glimpse of family loyalty and unity amongst those related to King Edward.

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MIDDLE SCHOOL STUDENTS LEARN ABOUT THE JUSTICE SYSTEM Middle school students from several New Castle County schools are having an opportunity to spend a morning in the New Castle County Courthouse to learn more about how the court system works and to speak informally with prosecutors and public defenders. Starting with a tour of the courthouse, the students learn about the “nuts and bolts” of the justice system, including new technologies used in the courtroom, as well as court facilities and security, and watch a demonstration by Pocket, the dog whose well-trained nose aids Capitol Police in protecting the courthouse. Thereafter, they get an opportunity to learn about the legal aspects of the court system from a judge who explains how trials work. And, then, when they least expect it, they get to experience a trial themselves – albeit a mock one. As they are listening to the judge explain the various aspects of a trial, a “theft” occurs and the alleged perpetrator is put on trial. Students act as prosecutors, public defenders, judges, bailiffs, and jurors, with their real-life counterparts coaching them on their roles. After the trial is completed and the jury reaches a verdict, the group discusses what occurred at the trial and why the jury reached its verdict. The visit concludes with lunch and an opportunity to speak informally with the real life prosecutors, public defenders, and others involved in the trial. All of those attending expressed a great deal of enthusiasm about the experience. “I loved everything!” exclaimed one student on his evaluation. “My favorite part of the day was the mock trial. It was fun to act like it was a real case,” said another. A third student appreciated the one-on-one contact with those who work in the field, saying “My favorite part of the day was talking to Mr. Andy [Public Defender Andrew Rosen]. He told me some important things.” And the professionals involved enjoyed working with the students, as well, according to “Mr. Andy” of the Public Defender’s Office. In November and December, the project hosted approximately 25 students from Bayard Middle School in Wilmington, as well as about 180 students over three days from Newark Charter School. In the upcoming months, the project is slated to host students from East Side Charter, Springer Middle School, and H.B. duPont Middle School. The project, which is spearheaded by the Administrative Office of the Courts, is a cooperative effort with the Attorney General’s Office and the Office of the Public Defender. It originated last year as part of the Delaware Supreme Court’s racial and ethnic fairness initiative, which is co-chaired by Justice Henry duPont Ridgely of the Supreme Court and Chief Judge Alex J. Smalls of the Court of Common Pleas. For further information contact Kirsten Morris by e-mail at Kirsten.firstname.lastname@example.org or by phone at 302-255-0094.

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Member Comment Sought on Draft National Science and Mathematics Curriculum In 2008 all Australian governments agreed that a quality education for all young Australians is critical to maintaining Australia’s productivity and quality of life. They agreed that a national curriculum would play a key role in delivering quality education and committed to the development of a K–12 national curriculum, initially in the areas of English, mathematics, science and history. The Australian Curriculum Assessment and Reporting Authority (ACARA) was formed to develop a national curriculum from Kindergarten to Year 12 in specified learning areas. ACARA released discussion papers on the development of the new curriculum. Following member consultation Engineers Australia compiled a submission making comments on the proposed structure of the science and mathematics curriculum. ACARA then released the Shape of the Australian Curriculum documents in the second half of 2009. Engineers Australia in partnership with APESMA and ACEA provided further comments to ACARA outlining concerns that a clear understanding of engineering was not being successfully built into the science school curriculum. Now, Engineers Australia has been given the opportunity to provide further comments on the draft Mathematics and Science curriculum. To view the submission and curriculum documents or to make a comment, please click here (note: you must be logged in to view this page)

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At Tebtunis public bathhouses have been excavated, the oldest dating to the third century BCE. They had showers, stone basins and a stove to heat the bathwater. While a few bathrooms and tubs have been discovered most Egyptians seem to have been content with cleaning themselves by aspersion or by a dip in a canal or the river. They had wash basins and probably filled them with a natron solution from jugs with spouts and used sand as a scouring agent. They washed after rising and both before and after the main meals. As mouth wash they used another salt solution

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Cortex Off, Consciousness Off This dramatic reduction in brain activity after loss of consciousness is scarcely surprising. The link between consciousness and this organ is tight, as expressed in the adage “No brain: never mind!” Yet neuroscientists are trying to track the footprints of consciousness to its actual lair. Which region in the cortex, the thalamus or elsewhere is essential to be conscious at all? Consider the following two experiments. Twenty-five patients with Parkinson's disease were anesthetized with propofol or sevoflurane while the electrical activity of both the cortex and thalamus was monitored by a group under François Gouin of the Timone University Hospital Center at the University of the Mediterranean in Marseille, France. Their neocortex was monitored by a conventional electroencephalographic (EEG) electrode placed on the scalp on top of the head, whereas thalamic activity was recorded by an electrode implanted deep inside the brain in the subthalamic nucleus. This electrode stimulates the brain to alleviate the shaking that is the hallmark of Parkinson's. Experimenters assessed consciousness by tapping patients on the shoulder and asking them every 20 seconds to open their eyes. When consciousness was lost after anesthesia was initiated—that is, when the patients no longer opened their eyes following the command—the cortical EEG changed dramatically, switching from low amplitude and irregular activity into readings dominated by large and slow brain waves that occur about once every second. Such so-called delta band activity is characteristic of deep sleep. Furthermore, the complexity of the cortical EEG signal decreased significantly when patients stopped responding. None of these changes occurs in the thalamic electrode at the time that consciousness is lost. Indeed, it is only several minutes later that the thalamic voltage signal matches that of the cortex. The data—consistent for two quite different anesthetic agents, one injected and the other one inhaled—argue that the drivers for the loss of consciousness are parts (or all) of the neocortex and that the thalamus follows.

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The government's human rights record remained poor. Although there were no reports that the government or its agents committed politically motivated killings, security forces committed extrajudicial killings and acted with impunity. There was little political will to address the failure by government authorities to adhere to the rule of law. Detainees were abused, often to extract confessions, and prison conditions were harsh. Human rights monitors reported arbitrary arrests and prolonged pretrial detention, underscoring a weak judiciary and denial of the right to a fair trial. Land disputes and forced evictions, often accompanied by violence, were a continuing problem. The government restricted freedom of speech and the press through the use of defamation and disinformation suits, controlled or influenced the content of television and radio broadcasts, and at times interfered with freedom of assembly. Corruption was endemic and extended throughout all segments of society, including the executive, legislative, and judicial branches of government. Domestic violence and child abuse occurred, education of children was inadequate, and trafficking in women and children persisted. The government offered little assistance to persons with disabilities. Antiunion activity by employers and weak enforcement of labor laws continued, and child labor remained a problem. In a positive turn, on June 12, the Extraordinary Chambers of the Courts in Cambodia for the Prosecution of Crimes Committed during the Period of Democratic Kampuchea adopted its internal rules to begin prosecuting senior leaders of the Khmer Rouge regime and those most responsible for committing serious crimes. On July 31, the ECCC charged Kaing Guek Eav, alias Duch, with crimes against humanity and subsequently charged four other senior officials; at year's end all were in detention awaiting trial. In addition, on December 10, the government permitted a Human Rights Day march of 500 human rights activists, monks, and other persons and rally of an estimated 2,500 persons in Phnom Penh. RESPECT FOR HUMAN RIGHTS Section 1 Respect for the Integrity of the Person, Including Freedom From: a. Arbitrary or Unlawful Deprivation of Life There were no reports that the government or its agents committed politically motivated killings. However, human rights nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) reported that extrajudicial killings continued to occur. The Cambodian Human Rights and Development Association (ADHOC) recorded 53 cases of extrajudicial killings, 14 of which were committed by police, nine by soldiers, six by fishery officials, and the remaining 24 by unidentified government forces. Police arrested perpetrators in four cases. Political activists continued to be the victims of killings. On February 27, Eang Sok Thoeurn, a Khmer Kampuchea Krom monk, was found dead with his throat cut in the Tronum Chhroeung Monastery in Kandal Province. The deceased monk was discovered the morning after he participated in a demonstration in front of the Vietnamese embassy in Phnom Penh for the rights of Khmer Kampuchea Krom persons living in Vietnam. Police quickly declared the death a suicide and disposed of the body without further investigation. NGOs and Khmer Kampuchea Krom groups suspected the killing was politically motivated. Active members of political parties were killed during the year, but NGOs and police could not confirm their deaths were politically motivated. On February 14, three unidentified persons killed Sam Rainsy Party (SRP) activist Chea Sovin, spouse of an SRP candidate for the April commune council elections in Battambang Province. On July 27, three unidentified persons shot and killed Kleb Un, SRP commune‑level vice party chairperson in Banteay Meanchey Province. A local police chief reported that the perpetrators fled without robbing the victim or taking anything from the scene. Police arrested one suspect in the case but released him after questioning. In both killings, police stated that investigations continued. On April 4, police officer Siv Soeun allegedly shot and killed a person he claimed was illegally fishing on private property in the Kompong Siem District of Kampong Cham Province. The victim's family filed a complaint against the police officer but later withdrew the complaint after Siv Soeun allegedly paid the family $3,000 (12 million riel) in compensation. At year's end Siv Soeun had not been charged or arrested. On November 15, during the eviction of squatters from state land in Choam Ksan commune, Preah Vihear Province, unidentified government forces killed two villagers who protested the eviction. Approximately 150 police, military police, and soldiers evicted 317 families. There was no official investigation into the killings. Police arrested 18 of the squatters, including a deputy governor, on charges of encroachment on state land. The 18 villagers were imprisoned and awaited trial at year's end. In June the Prey Veng Provincial Court sentenced one suspect in the November 2006 killing of SRP activist Man Meth to 10 years in prison and two others to six months in prison for conspiring in the killing. On July 18, the Phnom Penh Municipal Court sentenced Heng Pov, former Phnom Penh police commissioner and under secretary of state of the Ministry of Interior (MOI), to an additional 22.5 years in prison for the 2005 illegal detention of a person, use of illegal weapons, and possession of counterfeit currency. Heng Pov was already serving an 18‑year sentence for the 2003 murder of Judge Sok Sethamony, multiple counts of premeditated killings, and involvement in illegal arrests and detentions. During his July trial, Heng Pov stated that Born Samnang and Sok Sam Oeun, the two suspects he ordered arrested in 2005 and who later were convicted for the killing of union activist Chea Vichea, were innocent of the crime. On April 12, the appeals court had upheld 20‑year sentences each for Born Samnang and Sok Sam Oeun. Their lawyers submitted grievances to the Supreme Court, and at year's end they awaited Supreme Court action. There were no developments in the 2006 cases of SRP activists Koent Chhuon and Thoeung Thear, killed in Preah Vihear and Kampong Cham provinces, respectively. Likewise, there were no developments in the cases of Pao Rum and Khat Thoeun, who died in police custody in Kandal Province in 2006, or the 2006 cases of attempted prison breaks in Kampong Thom and Battambang that left 10 inmates dead. In the case of Nong Sam, who reportedly died June 2006 in a Siem Reap hospital from head injuries received during a beating by police officers, a provincial court prosecutor closed the case, declaring Nong Sam's death a suicide. There were no developments in the 2005 killings of five SRP activists or in the 2005 case of an attempted escape from Trapoeung Phlong Prison in which 19 prisoners and the prison director were killed. The appeals court took no action in the 2005 deaths of five villagers and injuries to others by government security forces during a mass eviction from disputed land in the village of Kbal Spean in Banteay Meanchey Province. On February 8, in Prey Veng Province, district‑ and commune‑level deputy police chiefs Bun Samphea, Suos Bunthat, and Hay Chivon, charged in a 2000 killing, failed to appear for their provincial court trial, reportedly stating they were too busy. The court rescheduled the trial to June but postponed it again after the officers said they were too busy to come to the June trial. A new trial date was not set. Mines dating from the Indochina conflict and Khmer Rouge period continued to cause casualties. According to the Cambodia Mine/UXO Victim Information System, during the year mines and unexploded ordnance caused 63 deaths, 56 amputations, and 222 other injuries. Vigilante justice and mob killings persisted. ADHOC reported that mobs killed five persons during the year. Few suspects were arrested. In some instances authorities could not protect suspects from angry mobs. NGOs noted that a majority of mob killings were related to thefts, robberies, or suspected witchcraft. On June 9, Yos Chor villagers in Kampong Speu Province killed a person for stealing a neighbor's chickens. On June 21, a mob killed a traditional healer in the Boribo District of Kampong Chhnang Province because they suspected him of witchcraft. Police made no arrests in either case. On June 27, the Kratie Provincial Court sentenced six persons to sentences ranging from seven to 10 months in prison for the 2006 vigilante justice killing of Sam Roeun. The court convicted them on charges of causing injury, reduced from investigation findings of murder. There were no developments in the February 2006 case of a person beaten and killed for allegedly practicing witchcraft. On June 30, Khmer Kampuchea Krom monk Tim Sakhorn, head of a pagoda in the Kirivong District of Takeo Province for more than 10 years, disappeared. Previously, on orders of the country's top Buddhist leader, Great Supreme Patriarch Tep Vong, monks from Phnom Penh had defrocked Tim Sakhorn, after which unidentified persons believed to be attached to the MOI pushed him into a vehicle and drove away. The defrocking order stated Tim Sakhorn "broke the solidarity" between Cambodia and Vietnam by using pagodas to spread propaganda that affects the dignity of Buddhism. The monk was known locally for providing food and shelter to Khmer Kampuchea Krom coming from Vietnam. The MOI stated that Tim Sakhorn volunteered to go to Vietnam after he was defrocked, and ministry officials produced a document stating this intent. While signed by Tim Sakhorn, the handwritten document appeared not to be in his writing. On August 2, Tim Sakhorn reappeared in court custody in Vietnam, held on charges of destroying political solidarity. In September the Information Ministry stated that the Cambodian consulate in Ho Chi Minh City was investigating Tim Sakhorn's condition in detention. On November 8, a Vietnamese newspaper reported that a court in Vietnam convicted Tim Sakhorn of undermining solidarity between Cambodia and Vietnam and sentenced him to one year in prison. On August 10, Land Border Protection Unit 504 soldier Im Bun Ny disappeared in Pailin. According to witnesses, that night four soldiers from his unit invited him to a rubber plantation owned by their unit commander, Brigadier General Pol Sinuon. After Im Bun Ny arrived, the four soldiers beat him and accused him of stealing a gun. Unconfirmed witness reports said Im Bun Ny died from the beating and the soldiers buried his body. At year's end Im Bun Ny was still missing. According to a human rights NGO, local police completed an investigation and submitted findings to the court. The court took no action, and the four soldiers remained at large. c. Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman, or Degrading Treatment or Punishment The constitution such practices; however, beatings and other forms of physical mistreatment of police detainees and prison inmates continued to be a serious problem. There were credible reports that military and civilian police officials used physical and psychological torture and severely beat criminal detainees, particularly during interrogation. Based on interviews with 1,293 detainees from 18 of the country's 26 prisons, the Cambodian League for the Prevention and Defense of Human Rights (LICADHO) reported that during the year authorities tortured 155 prisoners, of whom 125 were tortured in police custody and 30 in prisons. Kicking, punching, and pistol whipping were the most common methods of physical abuse, but techniques also included electric shocks, suffocation, caning, and whipping with wire. NGOs reported that it was not uncommon for police to torture detained suspects until they confessed to a crime. Courts used forced confessions as legal evidence during trial despite admissibility prohibitions under the law. NGOs noted that during the year there were 180 cases of physical assaults by local authorities, government agents, or private bodyguards, compared with 164 cases in 2006 and 154 cases in 2005. On May 27, military police officer Prak Vutha of Phnom Sruoch District, Kampong Speu Province, reportedly arrested Sok Soeun after a small scuffle at a restaurant, kept him in military detention overnight without a warrant, and beat him unconscious. According to ADHOC, Sok Soeun's family gave Prak Vutha two cases of beer in return for Sok Soeun's release. Sok Soeun later filed a complaint with local police that the police did not accept. There was no investigation into the case or legal action against Prak Vutha. No legal action was taken against two policemen from Border Protection Unit 701 implicated in a February 2006 beating of a 13‑year‑old boy. Likewise, there was no action against officials and no progress in the police investigation of an April 2006 case involving Police Commissioner Team Sangkriem in Preah Vihear Province and three other police agents who detained Kong Salath without a warrant and beat him. No disciplinary or legal action was taken against abusive officers in the April 2006 beating of a motorist by Battambang military police. Regarding the December 2006 case of Tous Sdoeung, whom two military police officers allegedly tortured to death while in detention, early in the year a provincial court prosecutor completed an investigation and forwarded it to an investigating judge. The court investigation continued. The two alleged perpetrators continued to work in their positions as military police officers. Prison and Detention Center Conditions Prison conditions did not meet international standards. Conditions remained harsh and at times were life threatening. Government efforts to improve them continued to be hampered by a lack of funds and weak enforcement. Human rights organizations cited a number of serious problems, including overcrowding, medical and sanitation problems, food and water shortages, malnutrition, and poor security. According to LICADHO, the 18 prisons they monitored had a designed capacity of approximately 6,440 inmates but held a total 9,582 inmates. There were reports at some prisons that cells of 40 by 20 feet held up to 110 prisoners. At CC1 prison, cells of 26 by 26 feet held an average of 50 prisoners. In some prisons authorities used shackles and held prisoners in small, dark cells as a form of harsher punishment. LICADHO reported that 56 prisoners in 18 of the country's prisons died during the year. Government ration allowances for purchasing prisoners' food routinely were misappropriated and remained inadequate, exacerbating malnutrition and disease. One NGO claimed that in some cases prison authorities sold the NGO's donations of supplemental food intended for prisoners. According to rights organizations, families had to bribe prison officials in order to visit prisoners or provide them food and other necessities. NGOs reported that prisoners whose families bribed prison authorities received preferential treatment including access to visitors, transfer to better cells, and the opportunity to leave cells during the day. There were reports that officials demanded bribes before allowing prisoners to attend trials or appeal hearings and before releasing inmates who had served full jail terms. In most prisons there was no separation of adult and juvenile prisoners, of male and female prisoners, or of persons convicted of serious crimes and persons detained for minor offenses. Pretrial detainees were routinely held together with convicted prisoners. LICADHO reported that there were 622 incarcerated minors ages 13 to 17, many of whom were held in prisons that did not have facilities to separate minors from adult prisoners. The government generally continued to allow international and domestic human rights groups, including the International Committee of the Red Cross, to visit prisons and provide human rights training to prison guards. However, NGOs reported that at times cooperation from local authorities was limited. Authorities curtailed access to pretrial detainees, in particular. The MOI continued to require that lawyers, human rights monitors, and other visitors obtain permission prior to visiting prisoners. The MOI withheld such permission in some politically sensitive cases. NGOs were not allowed to interview prisoners in private. d. Arbitrary Arrest or Detention The law prohibits arbitrary arrest and detention; however, at times the government did not respect these prohibitions. On June 7, the National Assembly passed a criminal procedures code, and in August the king signed the law into effect. The new code went allows for pretrial detention of up to six months for misdemeanors and 18 months for felonies. Prior to enactment of this code, the maximum length of pretrial detention for an adult person was six months under the UN Transitional Authority in Cambodia (UNTAC) code, although the government sometimes held pretrial detainees for longer periods. ADHOC reported that at least 100 persons were illegally arrested and detained during the year. ADHOC stated that 32 of those illegally detained were subsequently freed following detainee complaints, interventions by human rights NGOs, or payment of bribes. ADHOC believed that the actual number of arbitrary arrests and detentions was somewhat higher, because some victims in rural areas did not file complaints due to difficulty in traveling to the NGO's offices or out of fear for their family's security. According to ADHOC, no legal or disciplinary actions were taken against the persons responsible for the illegal actions. Role of the Police and Security Apparatus The General Commissariat of the National Police, which is under the supervision of the MOI, manages all civilian police units. The police forces are divided into those who have the authority to make arrests, those without such authority, and the judicial police. Military police are permitted to arrest civilians on military property or when authorized by local governments. Police officers acted with impunity, and in most cases the government took little or no action. There were reports that police, prosecutors, investigating judges, and presiding judges received bribes from owners of illegal businesses. The law requires police, prosecutors, and judges to investigate all complaints, including those of police abuses; however, in practice judges and prosecutors rarely conducted an independent investigation prior to a public trial. Presiding judges passed down verdicts based only on written reports from police and witness testimonies. In general police received little professional training. Police who failed to prevent or respond to societal violence were rarely disciplined. There were no developments in the April 2006 case of an antidrug department and military police officer who shot and injured a well‑known singer, Sovansocheata. No legal action was taken in the April 2006 case of two Brigade 70 military unit officers who shot and injured a person in Phnom Penh. There were no developments in the June 2006 case in which a military officer shot and injured a garment factory worker. In February an investigating judge in Siem Reap Province issued a warrant for the arrest of three police officers who allegedly raped a 12‑year‑old girl in November 2006; however, the suspects remained at large. There were no developments in the pending appeal of the April 2006 acquittal of three judges, two deputy prosecutors, and two court clerks originally convicted, then retried after appeal on finding of a mistrial, on charges of corruption and corruption‑related conspiracy. Arrest and Detention The law requires police to obtain a warrant from an investigating judge prior to making an arrest, but police may arrest without a warrant anyone caught in the act of committing a crime. The law allows police to take a person into custody and conduct an investigation for 48 hours, excluding weekends and government holidays, before charges must be filed. In felony cases of exceptional circumstances prescribed by law, police may detain a suspect for an additional 24 hours with the approval of a prosecutor. However, authorities routinely held persons for extended periods before charging them. Many prisoners, particularly those without legal representation, had no opportunity to seek release on bail. Under the new criminal procedures code, accused persons may be arrested and detained for up to 24 hours before meeting with a lawyer, but prisoners routinely were held for several days before gaining access to a lawyer or family members. According to government officials, such prolonged detention largely was a result of the limited capacity of the court system. LICADHO reported that as of midyear at least 101 pretrial detainees had been detained longer than the six‑month limit. Under the allowable pretrial detainee periods stipulated by the new code, at year's end there were at least 34 such prisoners. On May 19, two military police officers in Banteay Meanchey Province detained Kim Heang for three days after Kim Heang had a dispute with his neighbor, a regional military official. The two officers made the arrest without a warrant. After an NGO intervened, the officers' commander ordered Kim Heang released. No administrative or legal action was taken against the officers. On May 25, the Ratanakiri Provincial Court sentenced a 13‑year‑old Jarai ethnic minority youth to eight months and 10 days in prison for stealing brass gongs. The youth was 12 years old when arrested, under the minimum age for imprisonment, but spent more than eight months in pretrial detention. According to ADHOC, on May 25, a prosecutor filed a suit with the appeals court, but at year's end the youth remained in jail. On August 9, the Phnom Penh Municipal Court convicted six persons and acquitted two charged with planning bombings at the November 2006 Water Festival. Two of the convicted were sentenced in absentia to 12 years in prison. The remaining four received six‑year sentences. Lawyers and NGOs maintained the police did not serve arrest warrants or tell the suspects the charges against them. e. Denial of Fair Public Trial The constitution provides for an independent judiciary, but the government did not respect judicial independence. The courts were subject to influence and interference by the executive branch, and there was widespread corruption among judges, prosecutors, and court officials. The court system consists of lower courts, an appeals court, and the Supreme Court. The constitution also mandates a constitutional council, which is empowered to review the constitutionality of laws, and a supreme council of the magistracy, which appoints, oversees, and disciplines judges. The composition of both councils heavily favored the CPP. There is a separate military court system, which suffered from deficiencies similar to those of the civilian court system. While civilians may fall under military court jurisdiction in some cases, the legal distinction between the military and civil courts sometimes was ignored in practice. Civilians have been called for interrogation by military courts with no apparent jurisdiction in their cases. On June 12, the Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia (ECCC) adopted its internal rules to begin prosecuting egregious crimes of the 1975‑79 Khmer Rouge regime. On July 31, the ECCC coinvestigating judges charged Kaing Guek Eav (alias Duch), former Khmer Rouge director of the S‑21 torture prison, or Tuol Sleng, for crimes against humanity and placed him in an ECCC provisional detention center. The ECCC later arrested and detained four more Khmer Rouge leaders and charged them with crimes against humanity and war crimes: Nuon Chea (also known as "Brother Number 2"), Khieu Samphan, Ieng Sary, and Ieng Thirith, who was charged only with crimes against humanity. In August Duch's lawyers filed an appeal against his provisional detention. On December 3, the ECCC pretrial chamber decided unanimously to affirm the detention order and dismiss the appeal. Trials are public. Juries are not used; the presiding judge possesses the authority to pass a verdict. Defendants have the right to be present and consult with an attorney, confront and question witnesses against them, and present witnesses and evidence on their own behalf. If a defendant cannot afford an attorney, the court is required to provide the defendant with free legal representation; however, the judiciary lacked the resources to provide legal counsel, and most defendants sought assistance from NGOs or went without legal representation. Trials typically were perfunctory, and extensive cross‑examination usually did not take place. Defendants and their attorneys have the right to examine government‑held evidence relevant to their cases; however, at times it was difficult for them to obtain such access, especially if the case was political or involved a high‑ranking government official or well‑connected member of the elite. Defendants are entitled by law to the presumption of innocence and the right of appeal, but due to pervasive corruption, defendants often were expected to bribe judges to secure a verdict. A citizen's right to appeal sometimes was limited by difficulty in transferring prisoners from provincial prisons to the appeals court in Phnom Penh. Many appeals thus were heard in the absence of the defendant. A lack of resources, low salaries, and poor training contributed to a high level of corruption and inefficiency in the judicial branch, and the government did not ensure due process. From January through September, the Center for Social Development monitored 1,420 felony and misdemeanor hearings with 2,437 defendants and found trial procedure abuses in the Supreme Court, appeals court, and four lower courts. In a report of trials observed from January to March, the center stated that courts tried 34 percent of 740 defendants in absentia. At the appeals level, defendants were not present during trial in 69 percent of cases. Of defendants charged with felonies, 37 percent had legal representation, compared with 7 percent of those charged with misdemeanors. Officials reported many suits were pending due to a shortage of judges and courtrooms. NGOs blamed the slow process on court officials who focused on cases from which they could gain financial benefits. There remained a critical shortage of trained lawyers, particularly outside Phnom Penh. Persons without means to secure counsel often were effectively denied the right to a fair trial. According to the Bar Association, approximately 30 percent of the country's 573 lawyers provided legal counsel to poor persons, although this was inadequate to cover the basic legal rights of all of the country's poor. Sworn written statements from witnesses and the accused usually constituted the only evidence presented at trials. The accused person's statements sometimes were coerced through beatings or threats, and illiterate defendants often were not informed of the content of written confessions that they were forced to sign. In cases involving military personnel, military officers often exerted pressure on judges of civilian criminal courts to have the defendants released without trial. Court delays or corrupt practices often allowed accused persons to escape prosecution. Government officials or members of their families who committed crimes often enjoyed impunity. Although the courts prosecuted some members of the security forces for human rights abuses, impunity for most of those who committed abuses remained a problem. In many criminal cases, rich or powerful accused individuals usually paid money to victims and authorities to drop the criminal charges against them. Authorities were known to urge victims or their families to accept financial restitution in exchange for dropping criminal charges. Born Samnang and Sok Sam Oeun remained in prison for the murder of Chea Vichea. On April 12, an appeals court hearing upheld the Phnom Penh Municipal Court decision sentencing them to 20 years each in prison, despite new exculpatory evidence. On June 7, lawyers filed grievances with the Supreme Court and at year's end were awaiting action. On June 7, the National Assembly passed a criminal procedures code, and in August the king signed the law into effect. As a cornerstone of national law also to be employed at the Khmer Rouge Tribunal, the new code was based on wide international consultation and was viewed as meeting an international standard suitable for the tribunal's trial judges. Political Prisoners and Detainees There were no reports of political prisoners or detainees. Civil Judicial Procedures and Remedies The country has a judiciary in civil matters, and citizens are entitled to bring lawsuits seeking damages for human rights violations. Generally, there are both administrative and judicial remedies. However, the judiciary was generally viewed as corrupt, politically biased, and weak, and persons seldom filed complaints because they did not trust the judicial system. The public appeared especially distrusting of the judiciary to act in a transparent manner when a case was in conflict with the government. Enforcing a court order for a civil or criminal case was often problematic. Persons occasionally turned to vigilante justice. f. Arbitrary Interference with Privacy, Family, Home, or Correspondence The law provides for the privacy of residence and correspondence and prohibits illegal searches; however, police routinely conducted searches and seizures without warrants. There continued to be reports of authorities entering private properties without proper judicial authorization. Due to the forced collectivization during Khmer Rouge rule and the return of thousands of refugees, land ownership often was unclear, and most landowners lacked adequate formal documentation of ownership. The 2001 land law states that any person who peacefully possessed private property without contention for five years prior to the 2001 promulgation of the law has the right to a definitive title to that property. Widespread land speculation fueled disputes and increased tensions between poor rural communities and speculators. The Cadastral Commission, which settles disputes over land that was not registered or where an owner was not given a land certificate, continued to perform its functions slowly. The courts remained responsible for resolving disputes in cases where land was registered or disputants were given land titles. The National Authority for Resolving Land Disputes, established in 2006 to adjudicate land cases, was ineffective. Problems of inhabitants being forced to relocate continued to occur when officials or businesspersons colluded with local authorities. Some persons also used the court system to intimidate the poor and vulnerable into exchanging their land for compensation below market value. ADHOC reported receiving 382 land‑related cases affecting 19,329 families during the year. During the same period, LICADHO received 98 land‑related cases in Phnom Penh and 13 other provinces affecting a total of 6,048 persons. The poor often had no legal documents to support their land claims and lacked faith in the judicial system. Some of those expelled successfully contested these actions in court, but the majority lost their cases. On January 23, 200 ethnic Jarai villagers in Ratanakiri Province filed a complaint with the provincial court and a criminal complaint with the provincial prosecutor against Keat Kolney, a well‑connected individual, for confiscation of 1,112 acres of their land in 2004. Many villagers rejected Keat Kolney's settlement offers. On June 19, Keat Kolney sent a letter to the Cambodian Bar Association alleging the legal aid NGO lawyers who represented the villagers trained the villagers to say false things to the media and asked the association to investigate the lawyers. On June 21, Keat Kolney filed criminal complaints accusing the villagers of fraud and the lawyers of inciting villagers to commit fraud. In late July 42 of the 200 villagers retracted earlier statements and said they willingly sold the land to Keat Kolney. At year's end a provincial court investigation continued. On April 20, approximately 150 military police and police officers armed with guns, electric batons, and tear gas forcibly evicted 117 families from the Mittapheap District in Sihanoukville. Several villagers were injured, and their houses were demolished. On May 4, 30 L'vea Em District villagers of Kandal Province approached the National Assembly to intervene in an economic land concession. Community families had been farming and inhabiting the disputed 1,730 acres when, on April 25, a Chinese company began digging up the land, acting on a 2006 government concession for development. The company reportedly suspended operations due to villagers' protests. On May 29, 40 soldiers from ACO Tank Command Headquarters in Kampong Speu Province used an armored vehicle to destroy crops and fences on 60 acres of land occupied by 25 Phnom Srouch District families. Military officials stated the land was part of a shooting range and the villagers had illegally occupied the land. In 2002 the villagers had sought title to their land with the Cadastral Commission, and in 2006 they complained to the National Authority to Resolve Land Disputes, stating they had lived on the land since 1979. At year's end these requests had not resulted in any action. Eviction notices were served without proper judicial authorization. On July 31, Sihanoukville City Hall issued an eviction notice ordering more than 100 families out of the city's Mittapheap District. Responding to villagers' plea for intervention, the prime minister ordered the Sihanoukville governor to reexamine the case. On May 8, representatives of 146 families of the Phnom Penh Tonle Bassac Group 78 (G78) area made public their own neighborhood development plan. The plan was in response to a June 2006 municipality eviction notice stating the land would be developed for beautification purposes. Many of the families had lived on the land since the 1980s and claimed ownership under the 2001 land law. G78 community members stated that the municipality offered compensation that was approximately equal to 2 percent of the independently assessed market value, plus one plot in a Phnom Penh eviction resettlement site per family. At year's end there were no decisions on these evictions. On March 3, the CPP Central Committee granted the prime minister sole power to resolve land disputes involving CPP officials. The prime minister then announced a war against illegal land grabbers, warning CPP officials to surrender illegally obtained land or face removal from their positions. As a result, the government claimed that the director general of the military's technical and materials department, Chao Phirun, handed over 495 acres of land and an anonymous CPP official withdrew from a Kandal Province land dispute. Neither official faced reprimand. On March 10, authorities arrested CPP member and military Colonel Te Haing over a 2,500‑acre land dispute in Banteay Meanchey Province. At year's end Te Haing was awaiting trial. In November Tan Seng Hak, a former advisor to CPP Chairperson Chea Sim, was convicted for falsifying documents and giving false testimony in connection with his alleged efforts to take over 740 acres in Phnom Penh. He was sentenced to a total of five years and eight months in prison. There were no developments on the prime minister's May 2006 plan to redistribute 494,210 acres of land to 50,000 farmers in Sihanoukville. Living conditions worsened at two of the resettlement sites for former residents of the two Phnom Penh communities of Tonle Bassac Sambok Chab and Preah Monivong Hospital areas, whose 1,200 and 168 families, respectively, were evicted in 2006, reportedly through a nontransparent process that may not have included proper judicial authorization. Authorities offered evicted residents relocation site plots, but plots at two of the sites were widely considered to be inadequate compensation. The sites lacked sufficient sanitation facilities, electricity, clean water, health facilities, schools, and central markets and were far from Phnom Penh's commercial center, where residents could earn an adequate income. The appeals court took no action on a February 2006 complaint by SRP parliamentarian Son Chhay, who was directed by the Siem Reap Provincial Court to sell 7.8 acres of his land to a government agency for an amount below the market price. The appeals court took no action in the 2006 case of 12 persons convicted in connection with a Kampot Province confrontation between 2,000 squatters and local police over the squatters' rights to live on government land. In a 2006 eviction case in Peam Chor District, Prey Veng Province, that left one person dead and four others injured, police who were implicated in the killing accused some of the villagers of robbery, in what NGOs said was an attempt to intimidate the villagers. On November 1, the provincial court questioned seven of the villagers on the robbery charges, and the court investigation continued at year's end. However, there were no new developments in the investigation of the eviction killings and injuries. There were no new developments in the August 2006 Koh Kong Province land dispute in which the Ministry of Agriculture provided two adjacent land concessions to businessperson and CPP senator Ly Yong Phat in contravention of known legal standards. There were no developments in a 2005 land dispute involving indigenous Phnong hill tribe members and a Chinese company in Mondulkiri Province. Section 2 Respect for Civil Liberties, Including: a. Freedom of Speech and Press The constitution provides for freedom of speech and of the press; however, these rights were not always respected in practice. The constitution implicitly limits free speech by requiring that it not adversely affect public security. The constitution also declares that the king is "inviolable." In December the Ministry of Information issued a directive that reiterates these limits and prohibits publishers and editors from running stories that insult or defame government leaders and institutions. The 1995 press law prohibits prepublication censorship or imprisonment for expressing opinions. However, the government continued to use the older UNTAC law to prosecute journalists and others on defamation and disinformation charges. In 2006 the National Assembly amended the UNTAC law, eliminating imprisonment for defamation but not for spreading disinformation, which carries prison sentences of up to three years. In both types of cases, judges can order fines, which may lead to jail time if not paid. The government and influential individuals used the weak and often politically biased judiciary to file defamation and disinformation suits, both civil and criminal, in an effort to silence critics. In February the Phnom Penh Municipal Court charged Sralanh Khmer of disinformation and insulting the court's director, Chiv Keng. Also in February Sihanoukville Municipal Governor Say Hak filed a defamation suit against pro‑Norodom Ranariddh Party (NRP) newspaper Samleng Yuveachun Khmer (Voice of Khmer Youth) over an article linking him to land grabbing. In July NRP Vice Secretary General Sao Rany filed a defamation suit against Sralahn Khmer for printing a report claiming his daughter had an affair with Prince Ranariddh. In November General Un Den lodged a defamation and disinformation lawsuit against Thach Keth, the publisher of Sralanh Khmer, for printing an article that accused the general of smuggling vehicles across the border from Thailand. At year's end there were no formal decisions in these cases. In July Phnom Penh Municipality Governor Kep Chuktema filed a disinformation suit against the editor of Samleng Yuveachun Khmer for an article alleging the governor sold City Hall to a private developer. In November the editor paid bail of $500 (two million riel), and at year's end the case was pending with the court. The constitution states that the country shall not invade any country nor interfere in any other country's internal affairs, directly or indirectly. Making a statement in contravention of this constitutional provision is considered a crime. In the case of at least one Khmer Kampuchea Krom activist, an arrest warrant was outstanding due to his statements about what the government considers to be sovereign Vietnamese territory. Many interpreted a law passed in 2006 as limiting the right of members of Parliament (MPs) to speak freely. The law declares that MPs may not use their parliamentary immunity to abuse national security, social customs, or an individual's honor. In addition, the law allows an MP to be arrested, charged, and detained prior to the lifting of parliamentary immunity. At year's end no MP had been charged under this law. All major political parties had reasonable and regular access to the print media. Although the press law does not specifically permit newspapers to receive financial support from political parties, all major Khmer‑language newspapers received such support and were politically aligned. There were an estimated 20 Khmer‑language newspapers published regularly; more than half were considered pro‑CPP, and at least two newspapers were considered to support each of the other main political parties--FUNCINPEC, the SRP, and the NRP. Although the three largest circulation newspapers were considered pro‑CPP, most newspapers criticized the government, particularly on corruption and land grabbing. The prime minister, NRP president Prince Norodom Ranariddh, FUNCINPEC party leaders, and opposition party leader Sam Rainsy frequently came under attack. The government, military forces, and ruling political party continued to dominate the broadcast media and influence the content of broadcasts. There were approximately 50 radio stations and seven television stations. Most were controlled or strongly influenced by the CPP, although a few were independent or aligned with other parties. In August the Ministry of Information issued a broadcast license to a CPP government official to open a Phnom Penh radio station after denying similar requests since 2003 from the SRP and independent human rights advocacy organizations. In September the Cambodian Center for Human Rights (CCHR) Voice of Democracy (VOD) again requested a license, but the ministry denied the application, restating previous claims that the media market was saturated. In February the Information Ministry ordered all television and radio stations not to transfer or sell licenses if unable to continue operating and to return the license to the ministry. Despite being unable to obtain a broadcast license, the VOD radio program, which included independent and often antigovernment views, remained popular and continued broadcasting its program on several radio stations, including the SRP‑aligned radio station FM 93.5. In July CCHR announced that it had transferred management of VOD to the newly established Cambodian Center of Independent Media. Taped programming from Voice of America (VOA) and Radio Free Asia (RFA) Khmer‑language service was also regularly broadcast on Beehive/FM 105, the Women's Media Center FM 102, and Rota Angkor FM 95.5 (Siem Reap) radio stations. Four political parties were each broadcasting daily one‑hour shows on FM 105. Journalists, publishers, and distributors were also subject to other forms of harassment and intimidation, including death threats. In June the Ministry of Information ordered the confiscation of printed copies of a report by the international NGO Global Witness accusing the prime minister and close relatives and associates of involvement in illegal logging. The report was freely available via the Internet, and local media made references to the report. A June 8 letter signed by Information Minister Khieu Kanharith to Sralanh Khmer demanded the newspaper immediately stop publishing a serialized version of the report or face legal action; the newspaper complied. In the same period, French‑language newspaper Cambodge Soir closed down, reportedly due to bankruptcy. A few days prior, according to media reports, employees declared a strike because a reporter was dismissed for publishing a story about the Global Witness report. After a closure of several months, the newspaper resumed as a weekly publication. In October Radio Beehive Director Mam Sonando suspended the NRP's radio show "Royalist Voices" for several days after the program criticized the prime minister. An RFA journalist fled the country reportedly after receiving death threats for his coverage of illegal logging in Kampong Thom Province. The reporter returned several weeks later and resumed work unharmed. In February the Ministry of Information threatened to close pro‑NRP newspaper Khmer Amatak (Permanent Khmer) for printing an article alleged to have incited tension between the country's two main Buddhist sects, and in October the ministry suspended the newspaper for one month for failing to publish a "correction" the ministry requested regarding a September article involving two senior FUNCINPEC officials. In early November authorities seized copies of the premier issue of foreign‑funded Free Press Magazine for criticizing retired king Norodom Sihanouk, the prime minister, and other government officials. In May the prime minister publicly criticized an RFA reporter as "insolent" and "rude" for asking questions about the coalition between the CPP and FUNCINPEC. Purportedly fearing for his personal safety, the reporter went into hiding outside the country. He returned to work a few weeks later without incident. In June three reporters from the newspapers Sarpotamean Ekkereach Kampuchea (Cambodian Independence News) and Sarpotamean Tasanak Khmer (Khmer Vision News) in Pursat Province alleged that provincial court official bodyguards beat them at gunpoint for trying to take photographs of a truck carrying illegal timber. On August 4, Oeun Vannak, deputy commander of the Pursat Province military police, allegedly physically attacked journalist Heng Veasna over the journalist's investigation into claims of illegal use of firearms by two military police officers. Heng Veasna filed a complaint with the provincial prosecutor, but at year's end the court had not taken action in the case, and Oeun Vannak continued his military police duty. In August the home of a Chhbas Ka (Accurate News) newspaper reporter was set on fire twice. The journalist claimed the first fire was set the day after he received a threatening telephone call over his report on illegal logging in Pursat Province. A few days later, provincial authorities charged two suspects with arson. The cases were pending before the court at year's end. In November a man accused three journalists from the newspaper Samleng Santepheap (Voice of Peace) in Kampong Thom of stealing $1,050 (4.2 million riel) when the reporters visited his home to investigate allegations that he was illegally raising snakehead fish. Police arrested and questioned the reporters but eventually released them after the intervention of a senior official from the Ministry of Information. In December a VOD reporter investigating the removal of a statue from a pagoda claimed to have been detained by military and police officers, who deleted photographs from his camera before releasing him. Most reporters and editors privately admitted to some self‑censorship due to fear of government reprisals. In February two major daily Khmer newspapers refused to print advertisements demanding justice for the two men imprisoned for the killing of union leader Chea Vichea. Reporters for VOA, RFA, and some opposition newspapers worked from unmarked offices and reported stories using pseudonyms. The government‑controlled national television and radio stations broadcast live or taped sessions of National Assembly debates; however, in several instances these broadcasts were censored. National radio and television stations broadcast some human rights, social action, public health, education, and civil society programming produced by domestic NGOs. The government occasionally restricted media access to some government facilities. The constitution mandates media access to National Assembly sessions, and the National Assembly allowed reporters to enter its grounds upon clearance by its security office. In 2005 the Phnom Penh Municipal Court chief ordered that reporters must have written permission to bring recording devices into the courtroom and to interview court officials. Such permission rarely was sought, and there were no reports of the court denying permission. A July 2006 Council of Ministers directive prohibiting government officials and employees from speaking to the media or the public about government corruption remained in effect. In August government authorities confiscated digital video discs with images of bodies in an airplane crash in Kampot Province, stating that the images would create fear among tourists. The video discs remained readily available in Phnom Penh and other areas of the country. There were no government restrictions on access to the Internet or reports that the government monitored e‑mail or Internet chat rooms. Individuals and groups could engage in the peaceful expression of views via the Internet, including by e‑mail. Although the International Telecommunication Union estimated the country's Internet penetration was 0.3 percent in 2006, in urban areas Internet access was widely available through Internet cafes and home subscriptions. Academic Freedom and Cultural Events In general there were no legal impediments to academic freedom. However, scholars tended to be careful when teaching politically related subjects for fear of offending politicians. In February the Phnom Penh Municipal Court sentenced Tieng Narith, a former professor at the Buddhist University of the Royal Academy of Preah Sihanouk Reach, to two and a half years in prison for teaching from a self‑published text containing antigovernment material. The verdict also ordered a fine of $1,250 (5.25 million riels) or two additional years in prison. Tieng Narith's family claimed that he was mentally ill, and during the trial the court ordered a psychiatric examination, the results of which were kept confidential. It was unclear how the medical exam results affected the case, if at all. At year's end the case was under appeal. There were no government restrictions on cultural events. b. Freedom of Peaceful Assembly and Association Freedom of Assembly The constitution provides for freedom of peaceful assembly, but at times the government did not respect this right in practice. The government required that a permit be obtained in advance of a march or demonstration. The government routinely did not issue permits to groups critical of the ruling party or of nations with which the government had friendly relations. Authorities cited the need for stability and public security as reasons for denying permits. Police forcibly dispersed groups that assembled without a permit, often resulting in minor injuries to some demonstrators. ADHOC reported that out of 98 protests--55 of which were related to land and 26 to labor disputes--police and military police dispersed 17 protests, three of which were by labor protesters, 10 by land rights protesters, and four by Khmer Kampuchea Krom monks. However, the government permitted some human rights‑related marches and demonstrations. On December 10, the government permitted a Human Rights Day march of 500 human rights activists, monks, and other persons and a rally of an estimated 2,500 persons in Phnom Penh. In the previous two years, such rallies without marches occurred in an enclosed space. On February 27, police and military police dispersed 60 Khmer Kampuchea Krom Buddhist monks demonstrating at the Vietnamese embassy in Phnom Penh during a state visit by the Vietnamese president. Demonstrators assembled to support Khmer Kampuchea Krom monks in Vietnam who had been defrocked and arrested, urging their release and reinstatement as monks. The next morning one monk protester was found dead with his throat cut. On March 16, police and local authorities in Kandal Province prevented the deceased monk's Khmer Kampuchea Krom community members and monks from holding his funeral. On April 20, police and municipal authorities dispersed 80 Khmer Kampuchea Krom monks assembled at the Vietnamese embassy trying to deliver a petition in protest of alleged Vietnamese government rights abuses of Khmer Kampuchea Krom living in Vietnam. The protesters decided to go to another embassy to present the petition. On the way a group of unidentified, non‑Khmer Kampuchea Krom monks and laypersons aggressively intercepted the demonstrators and attempted to disperse them. In the ensuing scuffle, one of the Khmer Kampuchea Krom monks was injured. Authorities did not intervene in the confrontation and did not conduct an investigation. On December 17, 40 monks sought again to deliver a petition to Vietnamese embassy officials for the release of Tim Sakhorn and other Khmer Kampuchea Krom monks imprisoned in Vietnam, and also for the return of land that they claimed the Vietnamese government seized from Khmer Kampuchea Krom persons in southern Vietnam. Police attempted to disperse the crowd, but the monks refused to disband, and violence broke out on part of both the police and the monks. A local NGO reported that six monks were injured; police stated that some of the police sustained minor injuries. On November 26, Ratanakiri provincial police blocked the CCHR from holding a public forum in Kong Yu Village, where community members were embroiled in a land dispute with Keat Kolney. Police gave conflicting reasons for preventing the forum from taking place (see section 1.f.). On June 8, Supreme Patriarch Non Ngeth and Minister of Cults and Religious Affairs Khun Haing signed a directive prohibiting monks from participating in protests, strikes, riots, or marches. According to media reports, a constitutional council member stated the ban violated the constitution. Freedom of Association The constitution provides for freedom of association, and the government generally respected this right in practice; however, the government did not effectively enforce the freedom of association provisions of the labor law. Membership in the Khmer Rouge, which ruled the country from 1975 to 1979 and after its overthrow conducted an armed insurgency against the government, is illegal, as is membership in an armed group. c. Freedom of Religion The constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the government generally respected this right in practice. The constitution also prohibits discrimination based on religion, and minority religions experienced little or no official discrimination. Buddhism is the state religion, and more than 93 percent of the population is Buddhist. Ethnic Cham Muslims constitute most of the remaining population. The law requires all religious groups, including Buddhists, to submit applications to the Ministry of Cults and Religious Affairs to construct places of worship and conduct religious activities. However, there is no penalty for failing to register. In July the Ministry of Cults and Religious Affairs issued a directive restating a 2003 order prohibiting public proselytizing, which continued to be loosely enforced. On August 10, authorities in Phnom Penh dispersed a gathering of approximately 3,000 Christians, stating that organizers did not have proper permits. Prior to the gathering, organizers obtained a permit from the MOI but had not received a response on a request pending with the Ministry of Cults and Religious Affairs. Societal Abuses and Discrimination Minority religions experienced little or no societal discrimination. There was no known Jewish community in the country, and there were no reports of anti‑Semitic acts. For a more detailed discussion, see the 2007 International Religious Freedom Report. d. Freedom of Movement, Internally Displaced Persons, Protection of Refugees, and Stateless Persons The law provides for freedom of movement within the country, foreign travel, emigration, and repatriation, and the government generally respected these rights in practice. The constitution prohibits forced exile, and the government did not employ it. Protection of Refugees The laws provide for the granting of asylum or refugee status in accordance with the 1951 UN Convention relating to the Status of Refugees and its 1967 protocol, and the government has established a system for providing protection to refugees. The convention and its protocol have had the full force of the law in the country since accession in 1992. According to the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), the government abides by the convention and international customary law on refugees. The government allows the UNHCR to process asylum seekers and assist refugees while they are in the country. A memorandum of understanding that the government signed in 2005 with the UNHCR and the government of Vietnam to resolve the situation of Montagnards under UNHCR protection remained in effect. Asylum seekers who reached the UNHCR Phnom Penh office were processed with government cooperation. During the year there were 449 new arrivals seeking asylum with the UNHCR. According to the UNHCR, 97 Montagnard and 20 non‑Montagnard refugees departed for a third country, while authorities deported 30 rejected Montagnard asylum seekers to Vietnam, and 33 Montagnards voluntarily returned to their country of origin. At year's end there were 467 Montagnards in UNHCR protection sites in Phnom Penh, which included 101 Montagnards who arrived in previous years. According to the UNHCR, during the year no refugees requested local integration. In practice the government provided some protection against refoulement, the return of persons to a country where there is reason to believe they feared persecution. Through the assistance of the UNHCR, during the year the government provided temporary protection to individuals who may not qualify as refugees under the 1951 convention and the 1967 protocol, affording such protection to approximately 150 persons. However, an NGO based in Ratanakiri Province reported that local police unofficially returned 59 asylum-seeking Montagnards to Vietnam without UNHCR review. On April 20, Ratanakiri provincial police arrested two persons on charges of human trafficking for their roles assisting Montagnards. NGOs claimed the suspects provided asylum seekers food, shelter, and transportation to the UNHCR office in Phnom Penh once they had crossed the border from Vietnam. At year's end the suspects had been released with charges against them dropped. An NGO claimed that local authorities at the border with Vietnam continued searches for Montagnards when they received information about new arrivals of Montagnards. There were unconfirmed reports that Vietnamese authorities offered incentive awards to Cambodian border police who returned Vietnamese refugees to Vietnam and that Vietnamese secret police covertly conducted searches for Vietnamese refugees on the Cambodian side of the border. The country had habitual residents who were de facto stateless, and the government had not effectively implemented laws or policies to provide such persons the opportunity to gain nationality. Under the nationality law, citizenship is derived by birth from a foreign mother and father who were born and living legally in the country, or from a mother or father who has Cambodian citizenship. A study commissioned by the UNHCR estimated that several thousand potentially stateless persons lived in the country. However, the study's estimated number of such persons came from anecdotal evidence of NGOs that provided services to disenfranchised communities, including persons with no proof of nationality, and not from a survey of stateless persons; therefore, local UNHCR representatives did not consider the figure conclusive. The UNHCR stated that the country's potentially stateless population included mostly ethnic Vietnamese. According to an NGO that worked with ethnic Vietnamese, individuals without proof of nationality often did not have access to formal employment, education, marriage registration, the courts, and land ownership. The most common reason for statelessness was lack of proper documents from the country of origin. Section 3 Respect for Political Rights: The Right of Citizens to Change Their Government The constitution provides citizens the right to change their government peacefully, and citizens generally exercised this right in practice through periodic elections on the basis of universal suffrage. Suffrage is voluntary for all citizens age 18 years and older. Elections and Political Participation On April 1, the country held elections for 11,353 chiefs, first deputies, second deputies, and councilors for 1,621 commune councils. The CPP won 70.4 percent of the positions, the SRP 23.4 percent, NRP 3.7 percent, and FUNCINPEC 2.4 percent. Most observers agreed the commune council elections were the least violent and best organized elections ever held in the country. While there were problems at some polling stations, NGOs, opposition parties, monitors, and others disagreed as to how and whether the problems affected the overall outcome of the elections. Three NGOs reported that election officials did not allow some registered voters to vote because of voter registration list discrepancies such as mistyped and misspelled names or absence of names from the voter list, often due to names transferred to different polling stations without informing the voter. Additionally, NGOs and opposition parties complained that the CPP started advertising weeks or months in advance through the mostly CPP‑dominated media without reprisal. NGOs reported that on election day, some ruling party incumbents illegally issued voter registration documents, stood watch in some polling station areas where local authorities were prohibited, and provided assistance to voters in these prohibited areas. Parties and individuals were free to be candidates without restrictions. On March 13, the Phnom Penh Municipal Court sentenced NRP president Prince Norodom Ranariddh in absentia to 18 months in prison and a $150,000 (600 million riel) fine on charges of breach of trust. The prince chose self‑exile during the election campaign and on election day rather than face the charges. On October 3, the appeals court rejected his appeal of the Phnom Penh court's decision. Plans to appeal this decision had not been realized by year's end. Some NGOs and political parties alleged that membership in the dominant CPP party provided advantages, such as gifts or access to government emergency aid. Traditional culture limited the role of women in government; however, women took an active part in the 2003 national elections. The number of women increased in the National Assembly, Senate, and senior government positions. There were 22 women in the 123‑seat National Assembly, nine women in the 61‑seat Senate, and 24 women working as ministers, secretaries of state, undersecretaries of state, and National Election Commission officials. Women also served as advisors, and there were 13 female judges in the municipal and provincial courts, appeals court, and Supreme Court. In the April commune council elections, 14.6 percent of the elected councillors were women, of whom 67 were elected as chiefs. This was an increase from the 2002 commune council elections, when women won 9 percent of the total positions. There were four members of minorities--two Cham and two other ethnic minorities--in the National Assembly. There also were six members of minorities in the Senate. At least eight officials in senior positions in the government were from minority groups. Government Corruption and Transparency There is no anticorruption law, and only a few provisions of other laws provide criminal penalties for official corruption. Officials frequently engaged in corrupt practices with impunity. The World Bank's Worldwide Governance Indicators reflected that corruption was a severe problem. In 2005 the prime minister instructed the Ministry of National Assembly‑Senate Relations and Inspection to prepare a draft anticorruption law. As of year's end, observers had not seen a revised draft since September 2006, and the issue was pending with the Council of Ministers. Corruption was considered endemic and extended throughout all segments of society, including the executive, legislative, and judicial branches of government. Public perception of corruption was widespread. A 2006 Economic Institute of Cambodia assessment found that the private sector perceived the judiciary to be the most corrupt institution in the country, followed by the tax and customs services, public health care, and police. Meager salaries contributed to "survival corruption" among low‑level public servants, while a culture of impunity enabled corruption to flourish among senior officials. The Economic Institute's 2006 assessment of corruption in the private sector estimated that in 2005 private sector unofficial payments to public officials totaled $330 million riels. The assessment also found that the larger the private firm, the larger the payments required by government officials. The same study found that approximately 25 percent of potential taxes were collected from the private sector in 2005, representing a loss to the government of approximately $400 million riels. In June Global Witness published a report charging high‑level government officials with corruption related to illegal logging. Some observers and many government officials criticized the report as noncredible based on its heavy reliance on anonymous sources. The National Archives Law allows unlimited access to informational documents in the public archive. However, the law grants access to other unspecified government documents only after 20 years, and documents affecting national security and preservation of personal lives would be released after 40 and 120 years, respectively. In practice the government occasionally denied access to information, citing reasons of confidentiality or national security. Section 4 Governmental Attitude Regarding International and Nongovernmental Investigation of Alleged Violations of Human Rights A variety of domestic and international human rights groups generally operated without government restriction, investigating and publishing their findings on human rights cases. Government officials often cooperated with human rights workers in performing their investigations; however, there were numerous reports of lack of cooperation or even intimidation by local authorities throughout the country. There were approximately 40 human rights NGOs in the country, but only a small portion of them were actively involved in organizing training programs or investigating abuses. Domestic and international human rights organizations faced threats and harassment from local officials. These took the form of restrictions on and disruptions during gatherings sponsored by NGOs, verbal intimidation, threats of legal action, and bureaucratic obstruction. On May 15, a CCHR coordinator went into hiding claiming that Sihanoukville authorities threatened to arrest him on charges of forming an illegal armed force for his role organizing a resistance effort to a forced eviction in Sihanoukville's Mittapheap District. He returned to work a few weeks later without incident. There were no developments in the May 2006 case of an ADHOC activist temporarily detained in Koh Kong Province for photographing a confrontation between villagers and officials. In January the UN Special Representative of the Secretary‑General for human rights in Cambodia, Yash Ghai, submitted to the UN Human Rights Council a report on his March 2006 visit expressing concerns about land grabbing and government land concessions. Afterward the prime minister publicly called the special representative derogatory names, refusing to meet with him ever again. In December Yash Ghai made a 10‑day assessment visit to the country during which the prime minister reiterated his opinions and no government official granted him a meeting. The Cambodian National Human Rights Commission remained largely inactive. The committee did not have regular meetings or a transparent operating process. Section 5 Discrimination, Societal Abuses, and Trafficking in Persons The constitution prohibits discrimination based on race, sex, color, or language; however, the government did not generally protect these rights. The law prohibits rape and assault; nevertheless, local and international NGOs reported that violence against women, including domestic violence and rape, was common. Rape is a criminal offense and punishable by a prison sentence of between five and 10 years, according to the UNTAC law. Spousal rape and domestic abuse are not recognized as separate crimes. A case of spousal rape could be prosecuted as "rape," "causing injury," or "indecent assault," but such charges were rare. The domestic violence law criminalizes domestic violence but does not specifically set out penalties. However, the UNTAC law on battery and injury can be used to penalize domestic violence offenses, with penalties ranging from two months to five years' imprisonment. According to one NGO, there were 1,025 cases of domestic violence and 221 cases of rape reported in three provinces. Of these cases, courts tried 104 and 28, respectively, resulting in successful conviction in five cases of domestic violence and 20 cases of rape. LICADHO documented 209 cases of domestic violence affecting 213 victims in 12 provinces during the same time period. The MOI's antitrafficking department investigated 529 cases of violence against women and children, resulting in the arrest of 582 perpetrators and rescue of 771 victims. Of the 582 arrests, 458 were for rape and attempted rape. Twelve cases of rape resulted in the death of the victims. A legal advocacy NGO reported receiving 84 cases of domestic violence, 34 of which went to trial during the year. The number of cases likely underreported the scope of the problem, due to ineffective enforcement and the fact that women were afraid to make complaints against perpetrators. NGOs reported that enforcement of the domestic violence law was weak, authorities continued to avoid involvement in domestic disputes, and victims frequently were reluctant to pursue formal complaints. The government supported NGOs that provided training for poor women vulnerable to spousal abuse, prostitution, and trafficking. A local media center, an NGO, and the Ministry of Women's Affairs produced programming on women's issues. NGOs provided shelters for women in crisis. The constitution prohibits prostitution; however, there is no specific legislation against working as a prostitute. Trafficking in women for the purpose of prostitution was a serious problem, despite laws against procuring and kidnapping for purposes of sexual exploitation. There were reports that police abused prostitutes. Despite sporadic crackdowns on brothel operators in Phnom Penh, prostitution and related trafficking persisted. Estimates of the number of working prostitutes ranged from 14,725 to 18,250. Sex tourism was a problem, fueled by pervasive poverty and the perception of impunity. The labor law has provisions against sexual harassment in the workplace but does not specify penalties. The International Labor Organization (ILO) reported that sexual harassment in the industrial sector was rare. The constitution contains explicit language providing for equal rights for women, equal pay for equal work, and equal status in marriage. In practice women had equal property rights, the same legal status to bring divorce proceedings, and equal access to education and some jobs; however, cultural traditions continued to limit the ability of women to reach senior positions in business and other areas. Women often were concentrated in low‑paying jobs and largely were excluded from management positions. Men made up the vast majority of the military, police, and civil service. The Ministry of Women's Affairs, mandated to protect the rights of women and promote gender equality in society, continued its Neary Ratanak (Women as Precious Gems) program. The program aimed to improve the image of women through gender mainstreaming, enhanced participation of women in economic and political life, and protection of women's rights. The constitution provides for children's rights, and the government made the welfare of children a specific goal. The government relied on international aid to fund most child social welfare programs, resulting in only modest funds for problems that affect children. In 2002 the government instituted a modernized birth registration system administered by the MOI, which reported the program successfully registered 91 percent of births in 2006. The system did not include special outreach to minority communities. The government failed to register all births, resulting in discrimination, including the denial of public services. A study commissioned by the UNHCR on statelessness in the country stated that the birth registration process often excludes children of ethnic minorities and stateless persons. NGOs that provided services to disenfranchised communities reported that children without birth registration were often denied access to education and healthcare. They stated that later in life the same individuals may be unable to access employment, own property, vote, and use the legal system. Children were affected adversely by an inadequate educational system. Education was free, but not compulsory, through grade nine. Many children left school to help their families in subsistence agriculture, began school at a late age, or did not attend school at all. In 2005 the Ministry of Education reported that 91 percent of eligible children were enrolled in primary school, but this number did not reflect attendance. After primary school, 26 percent of eligible students attended junior high and 9 percent attended high school. Despite a school construction program, schools were overcrowded and lacked sufficient equipment. In rural areas schools often provided only a few years of education. According to ministry data, 46 percent of schools lacked drinking water and 37 percent had no toilets. Teacher salaries were irregularly paid and inadequate to support a decent standard of living, leading to demands for unofficial payments from parents, which poor families could not afford. The government did not deny girls equal access to education; however, families with limited resources often gave priority to boys. In many areas schools were remote and transportation was a problem. This especially affected girls due to safety concerns in traveling between their homes and schools. Boys and girls had equal access to state‑provided medical care. Child abuse was believed to be common, although statistics were not available. Child rape remained a serious problem; a local NGO reported 199 cases of rape and attempted rape committed on persons under age 18, two of which resulted in death. Twenty‑nine of the cases involved children below age five. Sexual intercourse with a person under age 15 is illegal; however, child prostitution and trafficking in children occurred. During the year raids on brothels rescued underage girls trafficked for prostitution. The MOI reported arrests of seven foreign pedophiles. Some children were engaged in prostitution for survival, without third‑party involvement. A domestic NGO estimated that more than 1,200 street children in Phnom Penh had no relationship with their families and more than 10,000 children worked on the streets but returned to families in the evenings. An estimated 500 to 1,500 children lived with their families on the streets in provincial towns. The Ministry of Social Affairs and Youth Rehabilitations provided lower statistics, reporting 3,084 street children nationwide in 2005. A study conducted by a local NGO stated that in September 2006 there were 37 children under the age of six living with their mothers in prison, and those children were subjected to mistreatment by prison guards and faced physical dangers from adult criminal cellmates. The children generally lacked proper nutrition and education. Child labor was a problem in the informal sector of the economy. Trafficking in Persons The law prohibits trafficking in persons; however, the country was a source, destination, and transit country for men, women, and children trafficked for sexual exploitation and labor. A 2003 study estimated the number of trafficking victims in the sex industry to be 2,000, approximately 80 percent of whom were ethnic Vietnamese women and girls. Children were trafficked domestically for sexual exploitation and labor. Some Vietnamese women and girls were trafficked through the country for exploitation in the commercial sex trade in other Asian countries. Children were trafficked to Thailand and Vietnam for begging, soliciting, street vending, and flower selling. The children frequently were placed into debt bondage to beg or sell, or they formed part of organized begging rings even when there was no debt or economic hardship involved. Women as well as children were trafficked to Malaysia and Thailand for sexual exploitation and forced labor in factories or as domestic servants, while men were trafficked for forced labor in the agriculture, fishing, and construction sectors. Trafficking victims, especially those trafficked for sexual exploitation, faced the risk of contracting sexually transmitted diseases, including HIV/AIDS. In some cases victims were detained and physically and mentally abused by traffickers, brothel owners, and clients. Local traffickers covered specific small geographic areas and acted as middlemen for larger trafficking networks. Organized crime groups, employment agencies, and marriage brokers were believed to have some degree of involvement. Traffickers used a variety of methods to acquire victims. In many cases victims were lured by promises of legitimate employment or travel documents. In other cases acquaintances, friends, and family members sold the victims or received payment for helping deceive them. Young children, the majority of them girls, were often "pledged" as collateral for loans by desperately poor parents; the children were responsible for repaying the loan and the accumulating interest. A September report by the International Organization for Migration (IOM) stated that child domestic workers, particularly those used as collateral or placed into debt bondage, were more likely to be trafficked and to enter commercial sexually exploitive activities. The law establishes a prison sentence of 15 to 20 years for a person convicted of trafficking in persons under 15 years of age; the penalty is 10 to 15 years for trafficking persons age 15 or older. According to the MOI, police investigated 529 cases of violence against women and children, including child sexual exploitation, rape, debauchery, and human trafficking. The investigations resulted in the arrest of 582 offenders, of whom 46 were arrested for cross border and domestic trafficking. However, NGOs continued to report the general failure of law enforcement and other government officials to act on tip‑offs. The Ministries of Interior, Women's Affairs, and Justice had primary responsibility to combat trafficking in persons. In April the government established a National Task Force to serve as an interministerial antitrafficking coordination body. The task force included an oversight body involving the top government officials. There was a Department of Anti‑Human Trafficking and Juvenile Protection, and the MOI operated specialized antitrafficking divisions in all provinces and municipalities. While the government arrested and prosecuted traffickers and continued its support for prevention and protection programs through collaboration with foreign and domestic NGOs and international organizations, its antitrafficking efforts continued to be hampered by corruption and a weak judicial system. It was widely believed that some law enforcement and other government officials received bribes that facilitated the sex trade and trafficking in persons. On March 16, the Sihanoukville Municipal Court acquitted the owner of O Pi Guesthouse and an employee of all charges and convicted another employee of a lesser charge of pimping, sentencing her to a two‑year imprisonment plus a three‑year suspended sentence. Erratic official behavior during the trial and the light penalty raised concerns that there was an exchange of bribes in return for light treatment of the case. On March 21, the Phnom Penh Municipal Court acquitted Meng Say, former chief of the Phnom Penh antitrafficking unit, who was suspended in 2006 for extorting money from South Korean nationals. One police officer remained in jail in connection with the 2006 Phnom Penh Municipal Court case of three police officers sentenced to five to seven years in prison for trafficking‑related corruption. Two of the officers appealed their cases; there was no court action on the appeal, and the two officers had not started serving their sentences. On August 1, the Sihanoukville Municipal Court tried a pimping case but acquitted the suspect, citing lack of evidence. Observers reported irregularities in the case hearing, and the case was under appeal at year's end. On August 9, a royal decree directed the Supreme Council of the Magistracy to dismiss Appeals Court President Ly Vouch Leng. The directive was issued for her alleged acceptance of bribes in exchange for the release of human traffickers who were running the Chhay Hour II brothel in Phnom Penh. Three Supreme Council of Magistracy officials were also removed in connection with the case, and three appeals court judges and one deputy prosecutor received official letters of reprimand. Ly Vouch Leng was transferred to an unknown position in the Ministry of Justice; no charges were brought against her. The Ministries of Interior and Justice reported their investigations continued. A legal advocacy NGO reported that five trafficking cases went to trial during the year, resulting in two convictions. For the same period, the MOI reported five convictions on human trafficking charges with sentences ranging from four to 15 years in prison. The Phnom Penh Municipal Court reported 49 convictions of human trafficking offenders from January to October. Police, court officials, and judges often did not separate victims from perpetrators during raids, arrests, and trials. In some cases officials spoke and acted as though victims were perpetrators. During a March 9 Sihanoukville trafficking trial, the presiding judge spoke harshly to underage trafficking victims in the courtroom and acquitted two of the alleged perpetrators. The Ministry of Social Affairs and Youth Rehabilitations (MOSAVY) referred trafficking victims to NGOs, which provided most assistance to victims. The government participated as a partner in a number of these efforts; however, its contributions were severely hampered by limited resources. NGOs provided intake screening services to identify trafficking victims. Some victims were encouraged by NGOs and the MOI to file complaints against perpetrators; however, in the general climate of impunity, victim protection was problematic, and victims were known to be intimidated into abandoning their cases. Social stigma against women who were prostitutes, victims of sexual assault, or victims of sex trafficking made it difficult for victims to reintegrate into families, communities, and society. The trafficking law contains no provisions to protect foreign victims from being charged under immigration laws, but during the year there were no reported cases of trafficking victims being treated as illegal immigrants. The MOSAVY worked with the IOM to repatriate trafficked victims from Thailand and Vietnam to Cambodia, and from Cambodia to Vietnam. However, repatriation to Vietnam continued to be a long and arduous process. The MOSAVY repatriated from Thailand, Vietnam, and Malaysia 845 child and adult victims, as well as others vulnerable to becoming victims, and reintegrated them with their families. With financial and technical support from the IOM, the MOSAVY repatriated eight trafficked Vietnamese girls to Vietnam. Both the government and international donors had programs to prevent child labor or remove children from labor. The country is a signatory to the Coordinated Mekong Ministerial Initiative against Trafficking, whose activities include ensuring the legal, social, and community protection of victims of trafficking; strengthening law enforcement capacity to combat trafficking; and building a comprehensive response involving all relevant ministries. Several ministries--including the Ministry of Women's Affairs and the Ministry of Tourism--had antitrafficking initiatives to reduce child labor. Donors supported programs to combat child labor implemented by the ILO and World Education, among others. The MOSAVY worked with the UN Children's Fund (UNICEF) and local NGOs to manage community‑based networks aimed at preventing trafficking. Persons with Disabilities There is no law explicitly prohibiting discrimination against persons with disabilities. The government does not require that buildings or government services be accessible to persons with disabilities. The government prohibits persons with disabilities from being teachers in public schools. On October 1, the government signed the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. Programs administered by various NGOs brought about substantial improvements in the treatment and rehabilitation of persons who had lost limbs, but they faced considerable societal discrimination, especially in obtaining skilled employment. There are no legal limitations on the rights of persons with disabilities to vote or participate in civic affairs, but the government did not make any concerted effort to assist them in becoming more civically engaged. The MOSAVY is responsible for making policy to protect the rights of persons with disabilities and for rehabilitation and vocational skill training for persons with disabilities. The rights of minorities under the 1996 nationality law are not explicit; constitutional protections are extended only to "Khmer people." Citizens of Chinese and Vietnamese ethnicity constituted the largest ethnic minorities. Ethnic Chinese citizens were accepted in society, but animosity continued toward ethnic Vietnamese, who were seen as a threat to the nation and culture. Some groups continued to make strong anti‑Vietnamese statements. They complained of political control of the CPP by the Vietnamese government, border encroachment, and other problems for which they held ethnic Vietnamese at least partially responsible. The government often ignored efforts by indigenous communities to protect their ancestral lands and natural resources. In spite of the 2001 land law, which calls for the registration of communal lands of indigenous people, little was done to implement communal land titling. NGOs called for a moratorium on land sales and land concessions affecting indigenous communities. International and local NGOs were active in educating the indigenous communities about their land rights and providing legal representation in disputes. On March 9, more than 200 indigenous villagers in Stung Treng Province protested the clearing of community forest land by four companies to which the government allegedly illegitimately granted timber concessions. The land had long been used by indigenous villagers for subsistence farming, hunting, and resin production. In May provincial authorities created a special committee to resolve the problem, but the committee did not take any action. On March 15, more than 500 Jarai indigenous families in Ratanakiri Province demanded the removal of local officials who they alleged were involved in the fraudulent sale of more than 3,000 acres of their communal land. In September 2006 the villagers learned their land had been sold when they saw workers demarcating it as private property. The villagers submitted a complaint to provincial authorities, but authorities did not respond to the complaint. In early August a Ratanakiri provincial official prevented Tampoun indigenous villagers from burying their dead on land that had served as their traditional burial ground since 1979. The provincial court stated it would arrest anyone who tried to bury bodies there, claiming the land belonged to the provincial finance department director. Authorities sanctioned a new burial ground approximately 500 yards from the traditional plot. The villagers enlisted the help of an NGO and planned to file a suit with the provincial court. During the August 9 commemoration of the International Day for Indigenous Peoples, the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights noted the government's failure to protect and implement the rights of indigenous people to their lands, territories, and natural resources. The UN commissioner called for swift action to halt land grabbing in tribal areas, particularly the growing number of economic land concessions and mining licenses granted without community consultation. Other Societal Abuses and Discrimination Societal discrimination against those infected with HIV/AIDS remained a problem in rural areas; however, discrimination was moderated by HIV/AIDS awareness programs. There was no official discrimination against those infected with HIV/AIDS. There were no reported cases of sexual orientation discrimination in employment, housing, statelessness, or access to education or health care. However, homosexuality was typically treated with fear and suspicion, and there were few support groups based on sexual orientation where such cases could have been reported. Section 6 Worker Rights a. The Right of Association The labor law provides private-sector workers in the formal economy the right to join the trade union of their choice without prior authorization. However, the government's enforcement of this right was selective. Membership in trade unions or employee associations is not compulsory, and workers are free to withdraw from such organizations, although a few unions attempted to intimidate workers who wanted to withdraw. Unions may affiliate freely, but the law does not address explicitly their right to affiliate internationally. While the law applies to foreign workers, it does not apply to civil servants, including teachers, judges, and military personnel, or to workers in the informal sector. Personnel in the air and maritime transportation industries are not entitled to the full protections of the law but are free to form unions. The vast majority of the country worked in the informal sector, primarily as subsistence rice farmers, vendors, or skilled or unskilled laborers. Only a small fraction, estimated at less than 1 percent, of the labor force was unionized. Unions were concentrated in the garment and footwear industries, where approximately 40 to 50 percent of the 350,000 workers were union members. The Cambodian Tourism and Service Workers Federation represented 4,000 hotel, casino, and airport workers. Of the 31 national labor federations and confederations, 26 were allied with the government, four were independent, and one had pro‑opposition leanings. The Cambodia Independent Teachers Association (CITA), registered as an "association" due to prohibitions on public sector unions, represented 8,150 of the country's 89,000 teachers. CITA marches and other protests were often forbidden, although the union reported no direct government interference in day‑to‑day activities. Some members feared that CITA affiliation could hamper their chance of career advancement, according to union officials. Another public sector association, the Cambodian Independent Civil Servants' Association (CICA), represented approximately 500 officials from ministries, provincial departments, and commune councils, out of approximately 100,000 civil servants nationwide. CICA leaders alleged that fears of harassment or demotion prevented other civil servants from joining. Some independent and pro‑opposition unions and federations complained of unnecessary delays and costs in registering with the government. Unions were generally seen as slowly gaining strength, but many were not able to adequately represent member interests due to insufficient resources, training, and experience. In addition, corruption plagued unions, employers, and government officials, hampering legitimate industrial relations. Violence, harassment, and intimidation between rival unions were common. On February 24, two unidentified men shot and killed local union leader Hy Vuthy as he left the Suntex garment factory after completing his night shift. Since 2005 Suntex and Bright Sky factories, which share a compound, have been the scene of fierce interunion rivalry and violence. Hy Vuthy was a member of the country's largest union, the Free Trade Union of Workers in the Kingdom of Cambodia (FTUWKC), which alleged that he might have been killed because of his labor work. No suspects were arrested. Two other FTUWKC leaders--national FTUWKC president Chea Vichea and local union leader Ros Sovannareth--were killed in 2004. In some factories persons employed in management appeared to have established their own unions, supported promanagement unions, or compromised union leaders. Union leaders from across the political spectrum complained that the Khmer Youth Federation of Trade Unions habitually threatened strikes to extort money from management and threatened and harassed workers from other unions. Independent union leaders complained that the progovernment Cambodian Coalition of Trade Unions frequently intervened in the affairs of other unions, extorted money from management in exchange for discouraging workers from conducting legal strikes and demonstrations, and threatened rival union leaders. Enforcement of the right of association and freedom from antiunion discrimination was poor. Government enforcement was hampered by a lack of political will and by confused financial and political relationships with employers and union leaders. The government also suffered from a lack of resources, including trained, experienced labor inspectors, in part because it did not pay staff adequate salaries. The Ministry of Labor and Vocational Training (MOLVT) often decided in favor of employees but rarely used its legal authority to penalize employers who defied its orders, instead referring many cases to an arbitration council. There were credible reports of antiunion harassment by employers, including the dismissal of union leaders, in garment factories and other enterprises. Employers sometimes used the courts to dismiss or punish union leaders. In two cases union leaders were charged with inciting workers to strike, destroying private property, and attempting to incite workers to commit assault. At year's end the cases were pending. On several occasions dismissed union leaders accepted cash settlements after unsuccessfully appealing to the government to enforce laws requiring their reinstatement. At other times the government upheld labor rights. For example, the MOLVT formally warned 1,032 companies of legal violations, fined 10 companies, and charged five companies with violation of the labor law and regulations. The MOLVT sent 83 cases of unresolved labor disputes to the Arbitration Council. b. The Right to Organize and Bargain Collectively The law provides for the right to organize and bargain collectively, but the government's enforcement of these rights was inconsistent. Wages were generally set by market forces, except in the case of civil servants, whose wages were set by the government. Garment-sector workers were guaranteed a minimum wage of $50 per month (210,000 riels). During the year there were 19 collective bargaining agreements registered with the MOLVT. Most were conciliation agreements that did not meet international collective bargaining standards. Only six genuine collective bargaining agreements existed within the garment industry, 10 at hotels, and one covering contract workers at the two international airports. A 2001 regulation establishes procedures to allow unions to demonstrate that they represent workers for purposes of collective bargaining. The regulation also establishes requirements for employers and unions regarding collective bargaining and provides union leaders with additional protection from dismissal. The Bureau of Labor Relations is responsible for facilitating the process of union registration and certification of "most representative status" for unions, which entitles a union representing an absolute majority of workers in a given enterprise to represent all of the workers in that establishment. However, the "most representative" registration process was considered cumbersome, and international observers reported that government lists of "most representative unions" included management‑controlled unions and unions whose "most representative" status should have expired years before. The government began reexamining its "most representative" certification process with support from international organizations and a diplomatic mission. The law provides for the right to strike and protects strikers from reprisal. The law stipulates that strikes can be held only after several requirements have been met, including the failure of other methods of dispute resolution (such as negotiation, conciliation, and arbitration), a secret-ballot vote of union membership, and a seven‑day advance notice to the employer and the MOLVT. The MOLVT reported that 82 strikes occurred during the year. International observers, employers, and many union leaders agreed that almost no strikes fulfilled all prestrike legal requirements. Other unions complained that a severe lack of MOLVT involvement led to industrial strikes. The government allowed most strikes held at factories but denied worker requests to hold protest marches outside of the factory district. Police intervention in strikes generally was minimal and restrained, even in those cases where property damage occurred. Police presence at the few marches that occurred tended to be excessive and often included a specialized police intervention unit. On May 4, four workers and five security guards were injured when security guards inside the L.A. garment factory tried to prevent workers from leaving the factory to strike. The strike, which involved 4,000 workers, began two days earlier when workers demanded that a manager be dismissed for insulting and mistreating them. On May 21, more than 100 provincial police officers violently dispersed approximately 200 striking workers at the River Rich garment factory in Kandal Province. Workers said police beat several protesters, but police denied causing any injuries. The strike began when management reneged on a promise to rehire 10 union activists whose contracts had not been renewed. Following the strike, management threatened to sue three union representatives for inciting workers to hold an illegal strike and for discrimination but later dropped the case. On November 29, approximately 200 police officers violently dispersed a strike by more than 2,000 Fortune garment factory workers who protested reductions in bonuses and short‑term contracts. Police accused the strikers of blocking a road, creating disorder, throwing stones, and injuring police officers. Workers said their strike was peaceful and that violent police repression--including firing guns into the air and using tear gas--resulted in three injured workers. Police detained four workers, releasing them later the same day. There were no developments in the August 2006 case of three factory‑level union leaders affiliated with the FTUWKC convicted of charges of illegal human confinement. After spending one month and four days in jail in 2006, the workers were released. In spite of legal provisions protecting strikers from reprisals, there were credible reports that workers were dismissed on spurious grounds after organizing or participating in strikes. While most strikes were illegal, participating in an illegal strike was not by itself a legally acceptable reason for dismissal. In some cases strikers were pressured by employers to accept compensation and leave their employment. There are potential remedies for such dismissals, although none was particularly effective. The MOLVT can issue reinstatement orders, but these often provoked management efforts to pressure workers into resigning in exchange for a settlement. Collective disputes, such as when multiple employees are dismissed, can be brought before the Arbitration Council for a nonbinding decision. Individual disputes can be bought before the courts, although the judicial system was neither impartial nor transparent. Some unions urged the government to expand the role of the Arbitration Council to include individual and collective interest disputes and to make its decisions binding. There continued to be confusion about the overlapping roles of labor unions and elected shop stewards. According to regulation, trade union leaders have roles comparable to those of shop stewards, and certain union officers have protection from dismissal within an enterprise. However, employers did not always respect these protections. There were no special laws or exemptions from regular labor laws in export processing zones (known as special economic zones). c. Prohibition of Forced or Compulsory Labor The law prohibits forced or compulsory labor, including by children, but there were reports that such practices occurred, almost exclusively in the informal sector. There were reports of isolated cases of forced labor by domestic servants. Forced child labor was a serious problem in the commercial sex industry. Involuntary overtime remained widespread. Under the law, legal overtime work cannot exceed two hours daily and must be voluntary; however, in practice overtime was often extended beyond the legal limit, and employers used coercion to force employees to work. Workers often faced fines, dismissal, or loss of premium pay if they refused to work overtime. d. Prohibition of Child Labor and Minimum Age for Employment The government has adopted laws to protect children from exploitation in the workplace; however, enforcement was often weak. The law establishes 15 years as the minimum age for employment and 18 years as the minimum age for hazardous work. The law permits children between 12 and 15 to engage in "light work" that is not hazardous to their health and does not affect school attendance. A 2006 study by the World Bank, the ILO, and UNICEF estimated that there were 1.5 million children engaged in illegal labor, including 750,000 children younger than 12 years, 500,000 children ages 12 to 14 engaged in "nonlight" economic activity, and more than 250,000 children ages 15 to 17 working in prohibited hazardous sectors or working more than 43 hours per week. No aspect of the law prohibiting child labor was adequately enforced in the formal employment sector. No employer was prosecuted for violating laws against child labor. The MOLVT has responsibility for child labor issues in both the formal and informal sectors of the economy, but its labor inspectors played no role in the informal sector or in enforcing the law in illegal industries. Within the formal sector, labor inspectors conducted routine inspections of some industries, such as garment manufacturing (where the incidence of child labor is negligible), but in some industries with the highest child labor risk, labor inspections were entirely complaint driven. The constitution prohibits forced or bonded child labor; however, forced child labor was a serious problem in the commercial sex industry. Law enforcement agencies failed to combat child prostitution in a sustained, consistent manner. Widespread corruption, lack of transparency, inadequate resources, and staffing shortages remained the most challenging obstacles. e. Acceptable Conditions of Work The law requires the MOLVT to establish a garment‑sector minimum wage based on recommendations from the Labor Advisory Committee. There was no minimum wage for any other industry. The minimum wage for the sector was $45 to $50 (189,000 to 210,000 riels) per month. Garment-sector employers almost universally paid regular workers at least the minimum wage, although casual workers were often paid less. Garment workers earned an average wage of $70 to $80 (294,000 to 336,000 riels) per month, including overtime and bonuses. Prevailing monthly wages in the garment sector and many other professions were insufficient to provide a worker and family with a decent standard of living, although garment-sector wages were generally higher than wages in the informal economy. Civil service salaries also were insufficient to provide a decent standard of living, requiring government officials to secure outside sources of income, in many cases by obtaining second jobs or accepting bribes. On June 8, despite strong protests from some unions, the National Assembly amended the labor law to establish a nightshift rate of 130 percent of daytime wages. Before this amendment, customary practice was to pay nightshift workers 200 percent of daytime wages, and few factories operated night shifts due to the high salary cost. The law provides for a standard legal workweek of 48 hours, not to exceed eight hours per day. The law stipulates time‑and‑a‑half for overtime and double time if overtime occurs at night, on Sunday, or on a holiday. Employees are allowed to work up to two hours of overtime each day. However, the government did not enforce these standards effectively. Workers reported that overtime was frequently excessive and sometimes mandatory. Similarly, outside the garment industry, regulations on working hours were rarely enforced. The law states that the workplace should have health and safety standards adequate to ensure workers' well‑being. The government enforced existing standards selectively, in part because it lacked trained staff and equipment. Work‑related injuries and health problems were common. Most large garment factories producing for markets in developed countries met relatively high health and safety standards as conditions of their contracts with buyers. Working conditions in some small‑scale factories and cottage industries were poor and often did not meet international standards. Penalties are specified in the law, but there are no specific provisions to protect workers who complain about unsafe or unhealthy conditions. Workers who removed themselves from unsafe working conditions risked loss of employment.

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