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Features and overview	Consider use of adjuvant medications during the taper to reduce withdrawal symptoms. The first-line treatment option for autonomic symptoms such as sweating, tachycardia, myoclonus is clonidine 0.1 to 0.2 mg oral every 6 to 8 hours; hold dose if blood pressure <90/60 mmHg (0.1 to 0.2 mg 2 to 4 times daily is commonly used in the outpatient setting); recommend test dose (0.1 mg oral) with blood pressure check 1 hour post dose; obtain daily blood pressure checks; increasing dose requires additional blood pressure checks; re-evaluate in 3 to 7 days; taper to stop; average duration 15 days. The three alternative treatment options for autonomic symptoms are Baclofen, Gabapentin, Tizanidine. The alternative treatment option for autonomic symptoms using Baclofen is as follows: 5 mg 3 times daily; may increase to 40 mg total daily dose; re-evaluate in 3 to 7 days; average duration 15 days; may continue after acute withdrawal to help decrease cravings; should be tapered when it is discontinued. The alternative treatment option for autonomic symptoms using Gabapentin is as follows: start at 100 to 300 mg and titrate to 1800 to 2100 mg divided in 2 to 3 daily doses; adjust dose if renal impairment. Gabapentin can help reduce withdrawal symptoms and help with pain, anxiety, and sleep. The alternative treatment option for autonomic symptoms using Tizanidine is as follows: 4 mg three times daily, can increase to 8 mg three times daily.	What is the recommended dose if blood pressure <90/60 mmHg while administering clonidine for autonomic symptoms?	0.1 mg oral
Recommendations	Recognizing the lack of evidence of long-term benefit associated with LOT used alone and the risks of harms with use of opioids without risk mitigation, dosing determinations should be individualized based upon patient characteristics and preferences, with the goal of using the lowest dose of opioids for the shortest period of time to achieve well-defined functional treatment goals. Understandably, there will be greater mortality, co-occurring medical conditions, and other adverse events in patients who require higher doses of opioids, even in those who benefit from such therapy. When closer follow-up is needed, healthcare resources and patient adherence should be considered.	Who will have greater mortality, co-occurring medical conditions, and other adverse events?	patients who require higher doses of opioids, even in those who benefit from such therapy
Recommendations	We recommend interdisciplinary care that addresses pain, substance use disorders, and/or mental health problems for patients presenting with high risk and/or aberrant behavior. We recommend offering medication assisted treatment for opioid use disorder to patients with chronic pain and opioid use disorder. Note: See the VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline for the Management of Substance Use Disorders.	What treatment is recommended to offer for opioid use disorder to patients with chronic pain and opioid use disorder?	medication assisted treatment
Recommendations	Patient access to physical, psychological, and pain rehabilitation modalities should be considered. In some cases access to care may be limited; all VA and DoD clinics may not have access to multidisciplinary pain services. Still, all avenues for obtaining these treatments (e.g. Internet based CBT) and all appropriate non opioid medications should be exhausted before consideration of LOT.[82]	What should be exhausted before consideration of LOT?	all avenues for obtaining these treatments (e.g. Internet based CBT) and all appropriate non opioid medications
Background information	A paradigm shift in the use of OT for chronic non-terminal pain has paralleled this transformation in pain care. Prior to the 1980s, OT was rarely used outside of severe acute injury or post-surgical pain, primarily due to concern for tolerance, physical dependence, and addiction. As the hospice and palliative care movement began defining end-of-life care in the U.S. during the 1980s and emphasizing the importance of pain relief, OT increasingly became a mainstay for cancer and end-of-life pain. Efforts to destigmatize the use of prescription opioids for chronic non-terminal pain encompassed primary care providers and the public. The efforts led to an unprecedented increase in opioid prescribing for chronic non-terminal pain. Chronic pain management became synonymous with LOT in the 1990s and the first decade of the 2000s with significant numbers of patients in pain clinics receiving LOT. Despite the absence of long-term safety or efficacy data, OT for chronic non-terminal pain became a mainstay of therapy. However, as observational and epidemiologic data of harm from LOT accumulated, a much more cautious approach to OT for chronic non-terminal pain has emerged in the decade of the 2010s.	When did chronic pain management became synonymous with LOT?	in the 1990s and the first decade of the 2000s
Features and overview	Offer risk mitigation strategies, including naloxone for patients at risk for overdose. Review PDMP (Prescription Drug Monitoring Program) data at least every 3 months and perform UDT (Urine Drug Testing) at least annually. Avoid prescribing opioid and benzodiazepines concurrently when possible. Clinicians should offer or arrange MAT (Medication-Assisted Treatment) for patients with OUD (Opioid Use Disorder).	Who should be offered medication-assisted treatment?	patients with OUD (Opioid Use Disorder)
Recommendations	As opioid dosage and risk increase, we recommend more frequent monitoring for adverse events including opioid use disorder and overdose. Note: Risks for opioid use disorder start at any dose and increase in a dose dependent manner. Risks for overdose and death significantly increase at a range of 20- 50 mg morphine equivalent daily dose.	When do the risks for opioid use disorder start?	at any dose
Recommendations	Similar to other risk factors, age <30 years should be weighed heavily in the risk-benefit determination for initiating LOT. Age <30 years is not an absolute contraindication to LOT. There may be some situations where the benefits of LOT clearly outweigh the risks of OUD and overdose. Hospitalized patients recovering from battlefield injuries, for example, are known to have less chronic pain, depression, and PTSD when their pain is aggressively managed starting soon after injury.[93] In those cases, LOT may be appropriate only if risk mitigation strategies are employed and patients are titrated off LOT as soon as it is appropriate (see Recommendations 14 and 15).	What is not an absolute contraindication to LOT?	Age <30 years
Recommendations	Prior to initiating OT, an individualized assessment of potential opioid-related harms relative to realistic treatment goals must be completed. After initiating OT, frequent visits contribute to the appropriate use and adjustment of the planned therapy. The Work Group recommends follow-up at least every three months or more frequently (see Recommendation 7 and Recommendation 11) due to the balance of benefits and harms associated with this recommendation. Although the 2010 OT CPG recommended follow-up every six months, this recommended interval for follow-up and reassessment has not been sufficient to reduce the potential harm associated with LOT or adequately implement comprehensive biopsychosocial pain care. More frequent follow-up is needed in order to increase the impact of risk mitigation strategies and enhance the delivery of comprehensive, biopsychosocial pain care. Frequency of visits should thereafter be based on risk stratification. Similarly, the CDC guideline for OT recommends re-evaluating harms versus benefits within one to four weeks of starting OT or at any dose change, and at least every three months or more frequently if needed.[132]	How frequently should the harms versus benefits be re-evaluated according to the CDC guideline?	within one to four weeks of starting OT or at any dose change, and at least every three months or more frequently if needed
Recommendations	Synthetic opioids such as fentanyl analogs, potent opioid receptor agonists, are responsible for a recent rise in death rates. Fentanyl analogs that may be used to create counterfeit opioid analgesic pills can cause a toxidrome characterized by significant CNS and profound respiratory depression requiring multiple naloxone doses for reversal.[113]	Which opioids are responsible for a recent rise in death rates?	Synthetic opioids such as fentanyl analogs, potent opioid receptor agonists
Recommendations	As substance misuse in patients on LOT is more than 30% in some series,[107] UDT and confirmatory testing is used as an additional method of examining for patient substance misuse and adherence to the prescribed regimen. UDTs, used in the appropriate way, help to address safety, fairness, and trust with OT. Availability of accurate and timely confirmatory testing (e.g., gas chromatography-mass spectrometry [GCMS]) is critical due to the false positive and negative rates associated with UDTs.[53] Interpretation of a UDT and confirmatory results requires education and knowledge of the local procedures and clinical scenario. Local education and access to expert interpretation is necessary. UDT results are helpful and can help identify active SUD or possible diversion. Accordingly, clinicians should obtain UDT prior to initiating or continuing LOT and periodically thereafter. When a patient is referred for SUD treatment or is engaged in on-going treatment there should be close communication between the SUD and pain management providers. The ideal approach is an interdisciplinary format (see Recommendation 16). For more information, see Appendix B on UDT and confirmatory testing.	What do UDTs do when used appropriately?	help to address safety, fairness, and trust with OT
Recommendations	If prescribing opioids, we recommend prescribing the lowest dose of opioids as indicated by patient-specific risks and benefits. (Strong for \| Reviewed, New-replaced) Note: There is no absolutely safe dose of opioids. As opioid dosage and risk increase, we recommend more frequent monitoring for adverse events including opioid use disorder and overdose. Risks for opioid use disorder start at any dose and increase in a dose-dependent manner. • Risks for overdose and death significantly increase at a range of 20-50 mg morphine equivalent daily dose. (Strong for \| Reviewed, New- replaced) We recommend against opioid doses over 90 mg morphine equivalent daily dose for treating chronic pain. (Strong against \| Reviewed, New-replaced) Note: For patients who are currently prescribed doses over 90 mg morphine equivalent daily dose, evaluate for tapering to reduced dose or to discontinuation (see Recommendations 14 and 15).	What to do with the increment of opioid dosage and risk?	more frequent monitoring for adverse events including opioid use disorder and overdose
Algorithm	Module D is for patients currently on opioid therapy. For patients currently on OT, look for factors that would require immediate attention and possible discontinuation of OT due to unacceptable risk. If there are factors that would require immediate attention, then admit/provide treatment to stabilize, including opioid tapering or SUD treatment as indicated. If there are no factors that would require immediate attention, then obtain a biopsychosocial assessment. If prior medical records including current prescriber, prior and current UDT, PDMP are available for review, then review data and re-assess risks and benefits of continuing OT and consider strength and number of risk factors. If unavailable, then address factors related to incomplete data prior to prescribing. Then review data and re-assess risks and benefits of continuing OT and consider strength and number of risk factors. If risks outweigh benefits of continuing OT, then proceed to module C. If risks do not outweigh benefits of continuing OT, then educate/re-educate on the following: non-opioid management, self-management to improve function and quality of life, realistic expectations and limitations of medical treatment options, preferred treatment methods being non-pharmacotherapy and non-opioid pharmacotherapy, new information on risks and lack of benefits of long-term OT. After educating/re-educating the patient, identify if there is presence of prescribed opioid dose>90 mg MEDD or combined sedating medication that increases risk of adverse events (e.g., benzodiazepine) or patient non-participation in a comprehensive pain care plan or other indications for tapering. If any of these are present, then proceed to module C. Otherwise, reassess and optimize preferred non-opioid treatments for chronic pain (e.g., physical and psychological treatments) recognizing that the patient is willing to continue to engage in a comprehensive treatment plan including non-opioid treatments. If the patient is experiencing clear functional improvement with minimal risk, then continue OT using the following approach: shortest duration, using lowest effective dose (recognizing that no dose is completely safe and overdose risk increases at doses > 20-50 mg MEDD), continual assessment of improvement in pain and functional status and adverse effects. Then proceed to follow-up frequently based on patient risk factors. Otherwise, proceed to module C.	What to do if there is presence of combined sedating medication that increases risk of adverse events (e.g., benzodiazepine)?	proceed to module C
Algorithm	This CPG follows an algorithm that is designed to facilitate understanding of the clinical pathway and decision making process used in management of LOT. The use of the algorithm format as a way to represent patient management was chosen based on the understanding that such a format may promote more efficient diagnostic and therapeutic decision making and has the potential to change patterns of resource use. Although the Work Group recognizes that not all clinical practices are linear, the simplified linear approach depicted through the algorithm and its format allows the provider to assess the critical information needed at the major decision points in the clinical process. It includes an ordered sequence of steps of care, recommended observations and examinations, decisions to be considered, actions to be taken.	The CPG follows an algorithm that is designed to do what?	facilitate understanding of the clinical pathway and decision making process used in management of LOT
Algorithm	Necessary risk mitigation strategies are OEND, UDT, PDMP, face-to-face follow-up with frequency determined by risk. Indications for tapering and discontinuation are as follows: risks of OT outweigh benefits, patient preference, diversion. Risks of opioid therapy outweigh benefits under the following circumstances: lack of clinically meaningful improvement in function, concomitant use of medications that increase risk of overdose, co-occurring medical or mental health conditions that increase risk, concerns about OUD or other SUD, patient non-compliance with opioid safety measures and opioid risk mitigation strategies, patient non-participation in a comprehensive pain care plan, prescribed dose higher than the maximal recommended dose, pain condition not effectively treated with opioids (e.g., back pain with normal MRI; fibromyalgia), medical or mental health comorbidities that increase risk, improvement in the underlying pain condition being treated, unmanageable side effects. Factors that may indicate need for more frequent follow-up are non-adherence to comprehensive pain care plan (e.g., attendance at appointment), unexpected UDT and PDMP results, non-adherence to opioid prescription (e.g., using more than prescribed and/or running out early), higher risk medication characteristics (e.g., high-dose opioids, combination of opioids and benzodiazepines), patients with mental health, medical, or SUD comorbidities that increase risk for adverse outcomes. MEDD refers to morphine equivalent daily dose; MRI refers to magnetic resonance imaging; OEND refers to Overdose Education and Naloxone Distribution.	Which factor can help identify non-adherence to a comprehensive pain care plan?	attendance at appointment
Features and overview	While these guidelines are broadly recommended, their implementation is intended to be patient centered. Thus, treatment and care should take into account a patient’s needs and preferences. Good communication between healthcare professionals and the patient about the patient’s pain experience, treatment goals, and challenges is essential and should be guided by evidence-based information tailored to the patient’s needs. An empathetic and non-judgmental (versus a confrontational or adversarial) approach to communication with a patient is highly recommended in order to build trust and facilitate frank discussions relating to the social, economic, emotional, and cultural factors that influence patients’ perceptions, behaviors, and decision making.	What kind of approach is highly recommended for communication with a patient?	An empathetic and non-judgmental (versus a confrontational or adversarial)
Recommendations	We recommend alternatives to opioids for mild-to-moderate acute pain. We suggest use of multimodal pain care including non-opioid medications as indicated when opioids are used for acute pain. If take-home opioids are prescribed, we recommend that immediate-release opioids are used at the lowest effective dose with opioid therapy reassessment no later than 3-5 days to determine if adjustments or continuing opioid therapy is indicated. Note: Patient education about opioid risks and alternatives to opioid therapy should be offered.	If take-home opioids are prescribed, what is the recommended dose of immediate-release opioids?	lowest effective
Features and overview	Slowest taper is done over years. In the slowest taper, reduce opioid by 2 to 10% every 4 to 8 weeks with pauses in taper as needed. Consider the slowest taper for patients taking high doses of long-acting opioids for many years. An example of the slowest taper is given below. During the first month in the slowest taper, 5% reduction of morphine SR 90 mg Q8h = 270 MEDD consists of 90 mg SR qam, 75 mg for noon, 90 mg qpm. Continue the taper based on Veteran response. Pauses in the taper may allow the patient time to acquire new skills for management of pain and emotional distress while allowing for neurobiological equilibration. The subsequent monthly dosage for the slowest taper is 75 mg SR qam, 75 mg noon, 90 mg qpm for month 2; 75 mg SR (60 mg+15 mg) Q8h for month 3; 75 mg SR qam, 60 mg noon, 75 mg qpm for month 4; 60 mg SR qam, 60 mg noon, 75 mg qpm for month 5; 60 mg SR Q8h for month 6; 60 mg SR qam, 45 mg noon, 60 mg qpm for month 7; 45 mg SR qam, 45 mg noon, 60 mg qpm for month 8; 45 mg SR Q8h for month 9. Continue following this rate of taper until off the morphine or the desired dose of opioid is reached.	When reducing 5% of morphine SR 90 mg Q8h = 270 MEDD, what dose should be taken on month two of the slowest opioid tapering?	75 mg SR qam, 75 mg noon, 90 mg qpm
Recommendations	Community-based Needle Exchange Programs or Syringe Service Programs: Nearly 80% of new users of injectable opioids had previously used prescription oral opioid pain medication.[118,119] Illicit use of injectable opioids is accompanied by an increased rate of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and hepatitis infection. Community-based needle exchange programs have been shown to be an effective risk mitigation strategy for reducing high-risk behaviors (e.g., sharing needles) and infectious disease transmission among injection drug users.[120] For those patients who develop OUD and progress to intravenous drug use, the first recommendation should be for medication assisted treatment (MAT) for OUD (see Recommendation 17). For patients who decline MAT for OUD, clinicians should consider educating the patient regarding sterile injection techniques and community based needle exchange programs, if programs are available. The 2015 outbreak of HIV/hepatitis in rural Indiana and subsequent successful implementation of a needle exchange program is an example of the threat to rural communities from non-prescription opioid use and the potential benefits of needle exchange programs for use as a risk mitigation strategy.[121,122]	What is the ratio of new users of injectable opioids who had previously used prescription oral opioid pain medication?	80%
Algorithm	Module A is about determination of appropriateness for opioid therapy. Note: Non-pharmacologic and non-opioid pharmacologic therapies are preferred for chronic pain. If a patient is with chronic pain and has been on daily OT for pain for more than 3 months, then proceed to module D. If a patient is with chronic pain and has not been on daily OT for pain for more than 3 months, then obtain biopsychosocial assessment. Then educate or re-educate on non-opioid management, self-management to improve function and quality of life, realistic expectations and limitations of medical treatment. Then implement and optimize non-opioid treatments for chronic pain (e.g., physical, psychological, and complementary and integrative treatments). If the treatments are effective in managing pain and optimizing function, then exit algorithm; manage with non-opioid modalities. If the treatments are not effective in managing pain and optimizing function, then complete opioid risk assessment and see if patient risks outweigh benefits by considering strength and number of risk factors and patient preference. If patient risk outweighs benefits, then see whether referral/consultation for evaluation and treatment is indicated (e.g., mental health, SUD, more intensive interdisciplinary care). If referral/consultation for evaluation and treatment is indicated, then refer/consult with appropriate interdisciplinary treatments. Then after referral/consultation with appropriate interdisciplinary treatments, see if the patient is willing to engage in a comprehensive pain care plan. If referral/consultation for evaluation and treatment is not indicated, then see if the patient is willing to engage in a comprehensive pain care plan. If the patient is not willing to engage in a comprehensive pain care plan, then exit algorithm; manage with non-opioid modalities. If the patient is willing to engage in a comprehensive pain care plan, then educate the patient and family about treatment options, including education on known risks and unknown long-term benefits of OT, risks of SUD and overdose, need for risk mitigation strategies, naloxone rescue. Then see if adding OT to comprehensive pain therapy is indicated at this time. If adding OT to comprehensive pain therapy is indicated at this time, then see if the patient is prepared to accept responsibilities and the provider is prepared to implement risk mitigation strategies. If adding OT to comprehensive pain therapy is not indicated at this time, then exit algorithm; manage with non-opioid modalities. If the patient is prepared to accept responsibilities and the provider is prepared to implement risk mitigation strategies, then discuss and complete written informed consent with patient and family, determine and document treatment plan, and proceed to module B. If the patient is not prepared to accept responsibilities or the provider is not prepared to implement risk mitigation strategies, then exit algorithm; manage with non-opioid modalities.	What is Module A about?	determination of appropriateness for opioid therapy
Features and overview	The 2017 version of the VA/DoD OT CPG is the second update to the original CPG. It provides practice recommendations for the care of populations with chronic pain already on or being considered for LOT. Although there are many other approaches to the treatment of chronic pain, the scope of this CPG is to focus on the use of opioids for chronic pain rather than being comprehensive about all treatment options. A particular strength of this CPG is the multidisciplinary stakeholder involvement from its inception, ensuring representation from the broad spectrum of clinicians engaged in the treatment and management of patients with chronic pain on or being considered for LOT.	What is the scope of this CPG?	to focus on the use of opioids for chronic pain rather than being comprehensive about all treatment options
Background information	Individuals with conditions that result in or co-occur with chronic pain may have different needs or respond to treatment differently than individuals with chronic pain alone. Many different physical and psychological conditions have a pain component that can be difficult to distinguish from the underlying mechanism of illness. Furthermore, the treatment of co-occurring pain and other conditions may vary or require special considerations during their management. Readers are encouraged to consult other VA/DoD CPGs for further information (see VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guidelines website: www.healthquality.va.gov).	Who may have different needs or respond to treatment differently than individuals with chronic pain alone?	Individuals with conditions that result in or co-occur with chronic pain
Recommendations	Achieving an improved understanding of the factors contributing to prescription opioid-related overdose is an essential step toward addressing this epidemic problem. Although it is widely accepted that progressively higher doses of prescribed opioids result in correspondingly higher risks of opioid overdose, patients using any dose of opioids can still experience life-threatening respiratory or CNS depression, especially when opioid-naïve. This risk begins to increase with MEDD as low as 20-50 mg. Risk is further increased when certain concomitant demographic factors, co-occurring medical or psychiatric conditions, or interacting medications or substances exist.	Which step should be taken to address the problem of opioid-related overdose epidemic?	Achieving an improved understanding of the factors contributing to prescription opioid-related overdose
Recommendations	Younger patients are also at a higher risk of opioid misuse (as suggested by a UDT indicating high-risk medication-related behavior). Turner et al. (2014) showed that patients in the 45-64 year age group were significantly less likely to have an aberrant UDT (detection of a non-prescribed opioid, non-prescribed benzodiazepine, illicit drug, or tetrahydrocannabinol [THC]) in comparison to patients in the 20-44 age group.[94] Patients in the 45-64 and ≥65 age groups were significantly less likely than 20-44 year olds to have non-detection of a prescribed opioid as well (indicating possible diversion).[94]	Patients in the 45-64 year age group were significantly less likely to have an aberrant UDT (detection of a non-prescribed opioid, non-prescribed benzodiazepine, illicit drug, or tetrahydrocannabinol [THC]) in comparison to whom?	patients in the 20-44 age group
Recommendations	Take Back Programs: Returning unused opioid medications has been explored as a strategy to reduce the amount of opioids in the community, as it has been estimated that 70% of opioid prescriptions are left unused.[115] Accordingly, the National Drug Control Strategy advocates take back programs as an effective tool.[24] For example, in a 2013 medication take back event in a Michigan community, 3,633 containers containing 345 different prescription medications were collected in four hours. The top five most common medications collected were pain relievers.[116] System-wide efficacy of a nationwide program is unknown.[117]	Who does advocate take back programs as an effective tool?	the National Drug Control Strategy
Features and overview	Ensure screening and treatment is offered for conditions that can complicate pain management before initiating an opioid taper. Conditions that can complicate pain management are mental health disorders, OUD and other SUD, moral injury, central sensitization, medical complications, sleep disorders. Mental health disorders include PTSD, anxiety disorders, depressive disorders. If suicidal, then activate suicide prevention plan. If high suicide risk or actively suicidal, consult with mental health provider before beginning taper. The lifetime prevalence for OUD among patients receiving long-term opioid therapy is estimated to be about 41%: approximately 28% for mild symptoms, 10% for moderate symptoms and 3.5% for severe symptoms of OUD. Patients with chronic pain who develop OUD from opioid analgesic therapy need to have BOTH pain and OUD addressed. Either tapering the opioid analgesic or continuing to prescribe the opioid without providing OUD treatment may increase the risk of overdose and other adverse events.	What is the estimation of the lifetime prevalence for mild symptoms of OUD among patients receiving long-term opioid therapy?	approximately 28%
Introductory information	These guidelines are not intended to represent TRICARE policy. Further, inclusion of recommendations for specific testing and/or therapeutic interventions within these guidelines does not guarantee coverage of civilian sector care. Additional information on current TRICARE benefits may be found at www.tricare.mil or by contacting your regional TRICARE Managed Care Support Contractor.	What does not guarantee coverage of civilian sector care?	inclusion of recommendations for specific testing and/or therapeutic interventions within these guidelines
Recommendations	In 2011, in response to the recognition of pain and its management as a public health problem, the National Academy of Medicine investigated and reported on the state of pain research, treatment, and education in the U.S. The report called for a cultural transformation in the way pain is viewed and treated.[3] Accordingly, the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) National Pain Strategy (March 2016) recommends a biopsychosocial approach to pain care that is multimodal and interdisciplinary.[26] The underlying concepts of the biopsychosocial model of pain include the idea that pain perception and its effects on the patient’s function is mediated by multiple factors (e.g., mood, social support, prior experience, biomechanical factors), not just biology alone. With this overall change in construct, a biopsychosocial assessment and treatment plan should be tailored accordingly.	In response to the recognition of pain and its management as a public health problem in 2011, what was investigated and reported by the National Academy of Medicine?	the state of pain research, treatment, and education in the U.S.
Algorithm	Module C is on tapering or discontinuation of opioid therapy. If there is indication to taper to reduced dose or taper to discontinuation, repeat comprehensive biopsychosocial assessment. Then see if the patient demonstrates signs or symptoms of SUD. If the patient demonstrates signs or symptoms of SUD, then see whether the patient is willing to engage in SUD therapy. If the patient is willing to engage in SUD therapy, then access specialized SUD care with monitoring and follow-up appropriate for the patient’s needs (e.g., MAT, treatment for comorbidities), see VA/DoD SUD CPG, exit algorithms and manage with non-opioid modalities. If the patient does not demonstrate signs or symptoms of SUD, then look for evidence of diversion. If there is evidence of diversion, then immediately discontinue opioid therapy. If there is no evidence of diversion, then look for high-risk or dangerous behavior (e.g., overdose event, accidents, and threatening provider). If there is high risk or dangerous behavior or the patient is not willing to engage in SUD therapy or immediately after discontinuing OT, then address safety and misuse, assess for withdrawal symptoms and offer expedited taper, immediate discontinuation or detox as indicated, continue to monitor for SUD and mental health comorbidities and offer treatment as indicated (see VA/DoD SUD CPG and Academic Detailing Tapering Document), exit algorithm and manage with non-opioid modalities. If there is no high risk or dangerous behavior, then develop an individualized tapering treatment plan (including pace of tapering, setting of care) based on patient and treatment characteristics. Follow-up 1 week to 1 month after each change in dosage and after discontinuation considering patient and treatment characteristics. At each interaction with patient, consider the followings: educate on self-management and risks of OT, optimize whole person approach to pain care, optimize treatment of co-occurring mental health conditions, optimize non-opioid pain treatment modalities, reassess for OUD and readiness for OUD treatment as indicated. If the patient is resistant to taper or there is high risk or dangerous behaviors or there is an increase in patient distress, then repeat comprehensive biopsychosocial assessment and see if an SUD is identified. If an SUD is identified, then find out if the patient is willing to engage in SUD therapy. If an SUD is not identified, then identify the followings: use of opioids to modulate emotions (i.e., “chemical coping”), untreated or undertreated psychiatric disorder. If an SUD is not identified and there is use of opioids to modulate emotions or an untreated or undertreated psychiatric disorder, then engage the patient in appropriate behavioral and/or psychiatric treatment, ideally in an interdisciplinary setting, consider reduced rate of taper or pause in taper for patients actively engaged in skills training. If the patient is fearful and/or anxious about taper and ability to function on lower dose or without opioids, then provide additional education about whole person pain care and LOT and reassurance that the patient will not be abandoned, consider more frequent follow-up using the expanded care team (registered nurse, clinical pharmacist, health coach, mental health provider), consider reduced rate of taper or pause in taper for patients actively engaged in skills training, reassess for OUD throughout the taper. If there is concern for diversion, then immediately discontinue opioid therapy. If there is no concern for diversion, then follow-up 1 week to 1 month after each change in dosage and after discontinuation considering patient and treatment characteristics.	What to use for more frequent follow-up?	the expanded care team
Features and overview	Slowest taper is done over years. In the slowest taper, reduce opioid by 2 to 10% every 4 to 8 weeks with pauses in taper as needed. Consider the slowest taper for patients taking high doses of long-acting opioids for many years. An example of the slowest taper is given below. During the first month in the slowest taper, 5% reduction of morphine SR 90 mg Q8h = 270 MEDD consists of 90 mg SR qam, 75 mg for noon, 90 mg qpm. Continue the taper based on Veteran response. Pauses in the taper may allow the patient time to acquire new skills for management of pain and emotional distress while allowing for neurobiological equilibration. The subsequent monthly dosage for the slowest taper is 75 mg SR qam, 75 mg noon, 90 mg qpm for month 2; 75 mg SR (60 mg+15 mg) Q8h for month 3; 75 mg SR qam, 60 mg noon, 75 mg qpm for month 4; 60 mg SR qam, 60 mg noon, 75 mg qpm for month 5; 60 mg SR Q8h for month 6; 60 mg SR qam, 45 mg noon, 60 mg qpm for month 7; 45 mg SR qam, 45 mg noon, 60 mg qpm for month 8; 45 mg SR Q8h for month 9. Continue following this rate of taper until off the morphine or the desired dose of opioid is reached.	Clinicians should continue the slowest taper based on what?	Veteran response
Background information	From fiscal years 2004 to 2012, the prevalence of opioid prescriptions among Veterans increased from 18.9% to 33.4%, an increase of 76.7%. The groups with the highest prevalence of opioid use were women and young adults (i.e., 18-34 years old). In a sample of non-treatment-seeking members of the military who were interviewed within three months of returning from Afghanistan, 44% reported chronic pain and 15% reported using opioids—percentages much higher than in the general population. Chronic pain was also associated with poorer physical function, independent of comorbid mental health concerns in Operation Enduring Freedom/Operation Iraqi Freedom (OEF/OIF) Veterans. In a study of Veterans with chronic pain who had been on opioids for at least 90 days, over 90% continued to use opioids one year later and nearly 80% continued to use opioids after completion of the 3.5 year follow-up period; while, in a study of civilian patients who had been on opioids for at least 90 days, approximately 65% remained on opioids through the 4.8 year follow-up period. Rates of continuation in Veterans, based on this study, appeared to be related to age, marital status, race, geography, mental health comorbidity, and dosage. Compared to others, those who were aged 50-65 years, were married, were of a race other than African American, and who lived in a rural setting were more likely to continue using opioids. Veterans on higher doses of opioids were more likely to continue their use. Notably, those with mental health diagnoses were less likely to continue opioids, including those with schizophrenia and bipolar diagnoses.	What was the increment of the prevalence of opioid prescriptions among Veterans from fiscal years 2004 to 2012?	from 18.9% to 33.4%, an increase of 76.7%
Recommendations	There is a large variation in patient preference regarding the concurrent use of benzodiazepines and LOT. This is especially true for patients who are already accustomed to receiving both medications (see Patient Focus Group Methods and Findings). Concurrent benzodiazepine and LOT use is a serious risk factor for unintentional overdose death and should be weighed heavily in the risk-benefit evaluation for tapering versus continuing one or both agents. Once initiated, benzodiazepines can be challenging to discontinue due to symptoms related to benzodiazepine dependence, exacerbations of PTSD, and/or anxiety.[91] Moreover, abrupt discontinuation of benzodiazepines should be avoided, as it can lead to serious adverse effects including seizures and death. Tapering benzodiazepines should be performed with caution and within a team environment when possible (see Recommendation 26 in the VA/DoD SUD CPG).7 Due to the difficulty of tapering or discontinuing benzodiazepines, particular caution should be used when considering initiating benzodiazepines for Veterans with PTSD who have co-occurring chronic pain. The VA/DoD PTSD CPG recommends against benzodiazepines for the prevention of PTSD and cautions against their use in treatment of PTSD. Benzodiazepines to treat acute anxiety symptoms after trauma are associated with a higher incidence of PTSD symptoms. For treatment of PTSD, there is evidence of lack of efficacy from small clinical trials and evidence of harm from observational studies of benzodiazepines for PTSD. Although anxiety may initially improve with benzodiazepines, the improvement is short-lived and may result in tolerance to increasing doses and eventual failure of the treatment. Even gradual benzodiazepine taper may result in exacerbation of severe PTSD symptoms. Concomitant use of benzodiazepines is considered a contraindication to initiation of OT.	What can be challenging to discontinue due to symptoms related to benzodiazepine dependence, exacerbations of PTSD, and/or anxiety?	benzodiazepines
Recommendations	Younger patients are also at a higher risk of opioid misuse (as suggested by a UDT indicating high-risk medication-related behavior). Turner et al. (2014) showed that patients in the 45-64 year age group were significantly less likely to have an aberrant UDT (detection of a non-prescribed opioid, non-prescribed benzodiazepine, illicit drug, or tetrahydrocannabinol [THC]) in comparison to patients in the 20-44 age group.[94] Patients in the 45-64 and ≥65 age groups were significantly less likely than 20-44 year olds to have non-detection of a prescribed opioid as well (indicating possible diversion).[94]	Who are at a higher risk of opioid misuse?	Younger patients
Recommendations	There was insufficient evidence to recommend for or against any specific opioid or opioid formulation, specifically the following: Short-acting versus long-acting opioids (for LOT for chronic pain), Route of administration/delivery among alternatives such as transdermal, buccal, sublingual, or pumps, Abuse deterrent formulations of opioids compared to non-abuse deterrent formulations, Tramadol and other dual-mechanism opioids. Buprenorphine for pain (compared to other opioids), Methadone (with QT monitoring).	Which opioid/opioid formulation did not have enough evidence to be recommended for or against?	any specific opioid or opioid formulation, specifically the following: Short-acting versus long-acting opioids (for LOT for chronic pain), Route of administration/delivery among alternatives such as transdermal, buccal, sublingual, or pumps, Abuse deterrent formulations of opioids compared to non-abuse deterrent formulations, Tramadol and other dual-mechanism opioids. Buprenorphine for pain (compared to other opioids), Methadone (with QT monitoring).
Background information	With the passage of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (PPACA) in March 2010, the Interagency Pain Research Coordinating Committee was created to coordinate pain research efforts throughout federal government agencies. The Committee was tasked with summarizing advances in pain care research, identifying gaps in research, and developing recommendations regarding ways to minimize duplicative efforts, disseminate pain care information, and expand public/private research partnerships and collaborations. The Committee published the National Pain Strategy in March 2016 in response to the call from the National Academy of Medicine to increase awareness of pain as a significant public health issue in the U.S. The strategy made recommendations in a number of areas including prevention and care, professional education and training, and population research. The plan is aimed at decreasing the prevalence of all types of pain (acute and chronic) in the U.S., as well as the disability and morbidity associated with pain.	How was the Interagency Pain Research Coordinating Committee created?	With the passage of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (PPACA) in March 2010
Background information	Concurrent with the increase in prescription opioid use, the rate of heroin overdose deaths increased nearly four-fold between 2000 and 2013. According to a survey of patients entering SUD treatment for heroin use, the prescription opioid epidemic has resulted in a marked shift in how and which opioids are abused. In the 1960s, 80% of people entering treatment for heroin use started using heroin as their first opioid, while in the 2000s, 75% of people entering treatment for heroin use started using prescription opioids as their first opioid. This increase in the use of opioids, as well as associated morbidity, mortality, and other adverse outcomes, has called attention to the need for a paradigm shift in pain and in the way it is treated. Consult the VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline for the Management of Substance Use Disorders (VA/DoD SUD CPG) for further information.	What is VA/DoD SUD CPG?	VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline for the Management of Substance Use Disorders
Features and overview	Offer risk mitigation strategies, including naloxone for patients at risk for overdose. Review PDMP (Prescription Drug Monitoring Program) data at least every 3 months and perform UDT (Urine Drug Testing) at least annually. Avoid prescribing opioid and benzodiazepines concurrently when possible. Clinicians should offer or arrange MAT (Medication-Assisted Treatment) for patients with OUD (Opioid Use Disorder).	How often the prescription drug monitoring program data need to be reviewed?	at least every 3 months
Features and overview	There are electronic tools to facilitate clinical risk assessment and adherence to risk mitigation. Two tools currently used in the VA are the Opioid Therapy Risk Report (OTRR) and the Stratification Tool for Opioid Risk Mitigation (STORM). The OTRR allows VA providers to review clinical data related to opioid pain treatment within the electronic medical record (EMR), providing an efficient way of monitoring the data. The STORM tool incorporates co-occurring medical and mental health conditions, SUD, opioid dose, co-prescribed sedatives, and information about prior adverse events and generates estimates of patients’ risk or hypothetical risk when considering initiation of opioid therapy. It quantifies risk for poisoning or suicide-related events and for drug-related events, accidents, falls, and drug-induced conditions over a three-year window. Further, it provides suggestions as to what alternative treatments have not been tried and what risk mitigation strategies need to be applied. Evidence supporting their use is poor but they facilitate providers’ determination of current, past and potential therapies and strategies.	What does the STORM tool do?	incorporates co-occurring medical and mental health conditions, SUD, opioid dose, co-prescribed sedatives, and information about prior adverse events and generates estimates of patients’ risk or hypothetical risk when considering initiation of opioid therapy. It quantifies risk for poisoning or suicide-related events and for drug-related events, accidents, falls, and drug-induced conditions over a three-year window. Further, it provides suggestions as to what alternative treatments have not been tried and what risk mitigation strategies need to be applied.
Recommendations	If prescribing opioid therapy for patients with chronic pain, we recommend a short duration. (Strong for\| Reviewed, New-replaced) Note: Consideration of opioid therapy beyond 90 days requires re-evaluation and discussion with patient of risks and benefits. For patients currently on long-term opioid therapy, we recommend ongoing risk mitigation strategies (see Recommendations 7-9), assessment for opioid use disorder, and consideration for tapering when risks exceed benefits (see Recommendation 14). (Strong for\| Reviewed, New-replaced)	For whom ongoing risk mitigation strategies, assessment for opioid use disorder, and consideration for tapering when risks exceed benefits are recommended?	patients currently on long-term opioid therapy
Background information	Current or history of SUD: For patients with untreated SUD, see Recommendation 4. For patients with diagnosed OUD, see Recommendation 17. Frequent requests for early refills or atypically large quantities required to control pain can signal an emerging SUD as well as diversion (see Evidence for or history of diversion of controlled substances). See the VA/DoD SUD CPG.4 Depression or history of depression: Zedler et al. (2014) reported that among patients being treated by the VHA system that received opioids, a history of depression was significantly associated with opioid-related toxicity/overdose compared to no history of depression.[58] LOT has been associated with worsening depressive symptoms.[63] See the VA/DoD MDD CPG.5 PTSD: Seal et al. (2012) (n=15,676) noted that among patients on OT, a prevalence of self inflicted injuries was significantly higher among patients with a history of PTSD (with or without other mental health diagnoses) as compared to patients with other (or no) mental health diagnoses.[65] For more information, see the VA/DoD PTSD CPG.6 History of drug overdose: A history of overdose is a red flag and providers should proceed with utmost caution when considering LOT for these patients. Under 30 years of age: See Recommendation 6.	Among patients on OT, what was significantly higher among patients with a history of PTSD as compared to patients with other (or no) mental health diagnoses?	a prevalence of self inflicted injuries