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electromagnetic energy is absorbed or emitted in discrete packets | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum | 2022-10-12 01:47:58.485120 |
speeches | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cicero | 2022-10-12 01:48:09.186213 |
cerebrovascular disease | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease | 2022-10-12 01:48:18.661961 |
antidepressant medications | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peripheral_neuropathy | 2022-10-12 01:48:25.728941 |
Scalp cooling | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemotherapy | 2022-10-12 01:48:37.233833 |
pro-aging trance | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death | 2022-10-12 01:48:45.158220 |
Radioastronomia di Bologna (Institute for Radio Astronomy | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicina | 2022-10-12 01:48:48.752157 |
by | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Securitization | 2022-10-12 01:48:56.000813 |
New York City is the largest | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_services | 2022-10-12 01:49:00.637205 |
the collective nature of the text | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthology | 2022-10-12 01:49:04.268440 |
description, identification, nomenclature, and classification of organisms | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomy | 2022-10-12 01:49:09.484656 |
provides the prescription drug | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharmacy | 2022-10-12 01:49:17.023443 |
Born ([ˈbɔr(ə)n]; Limburgish: Bor [ˈbɔʀ]) is a village in the Dutch municipality of Sittard-Geleen. It has a port on the Julianakanaal (Juliana canal). Born is also the site of the car factory VDL Nedcar and the headquarters and European Distribution Center of Mitsubishi Motors Europe. It has a zoo.Until 2001, Born was a separate municipality (population about 15,000), that included the villages Born, Buchten, Holtum, Grevenbicht, Papenhoven and Obbicht.
== See also ==
82nd Armored Reconnaissance Battalion helped with liberation of Born on 19 September 1944.
Obbicht en Papenhoven
== Gallery ==
== References == | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Born,_Netherlands | 2022-10-12 01:54:00.166868 |
a zoo | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Born,_Netherlands | 2022-10-12 01:54:02.549049 |
Yakshagana | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_and_culture_of_Karnataka | 2022-10-12 01:57:12.078166 |
Purandara Dasa | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_and_culture_of_Karnataka | 2022-10-12 01:57:56.665132 |
International Sports Science Association (ISSA) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_fitness | 2022-10-12 02:11:01.738676 |
== | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_science | 2022-10-12 02:11:06.256086 |
Film | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Commission_for_Culture_and_the_Arts | 2022-10-12 02:11:11.890470 |
anxiety and depression | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_fitness | 2022-10-12 02:11:19.485917 |
cortisol, adrenaline | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_fitness | 2022-10-12 02:11:28.124963 |
International Sports Science Association (ISSA) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_fitness | 2022-10-12 02:11:35.104502 |
NK | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_fitness | 2022-10-12 02:11:43.446956 |
at any age and not just during or after menopause | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_fitness | 2022-10-12 02:11:50.968073 |
speeches | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cicero | 2022-10-12 02:12:06.381220 |
cerebrovascular disease | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease | 2022-10-12 02:12:21.267779 |
antidepressant medications | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peripheral_neuropathy | 2022-10-12 02:12:32.160920 |
Scalp cooling | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemotherapy | 2022-10-12 02:12:52.696951 |
pro-aging trance | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death | 2022-10-12 02:13:06.674525 |
Radioastronomia di Bologna (Institute for Radio Astronomy | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicina | 2022-10-12 02:13:10.665737 |
by | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Securitization | 2022-10-12 02:13:22.392400 |
New York City is the largest | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_services | 2022-10-12 02:13:28.236523 |
the collective nature of the text | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthology | 2022-10-12 02:13:32.975245 |
description, identification, nomenclature, and classification of organisms | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomy | 2022-10-12 02:13:41.241461 |
provides the prescription drug | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharmacy | 2022-10-12 02:13:52.564141 |
International Sports Science Association (ISSA) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_fitness | 2022-10-12 02:17:56.704657 |
== | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_science | 2022-10-12 02:18:00.650238 |
Film | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Commission_for_Culture_and_the_Arts | 2022-10-12 02:18:06.318066 |
anxiety and depression | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_fitness | 2022-10-12 02:18:11.518810 |
cortisol, adrenaline | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_fitness | 2022-10-12 02:18:16.804728 |
International Sports Science Association (ISSA) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_fitness | 2022-10-12 02:18:21.998550 |
NK | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_fitness | 2022-10-12 02:18:27.397365 |
at any age and not just during or after menopause | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_fitness | 2022-10-12 02:18:32.673799 |
speeches | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cicero | 2022-10-12 02:18:42.524612 |
cerebrovascular disease | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease | 2022-10-12 02:18:52.028536 |
antidepressant medications | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peripheral_neuropathy | 2022-10-12 02:18:59.062986 |
Scalp cooling | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemotherapy | 2022-10-12 02:19:11.329294 |
pro-aging trance | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death | 2022-10-12 02:19:19.407727 |
Radioastronomia di Bologna (Institute for Radio Astronomy | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicina | 2022-10-12 02:19:22.982906 |
by | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Securitization | 2022-10-12 02:19:30.672849 |
New York City is the largest | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_services | 2022-10-12 02:19:35.339583 |
the collective nature of the text | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthology | 2022-10-12 02:19:39.182208 |
description, identification, nomenclature, and classification of organisms | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomy | 2022-10-12 02:19:44.408359 |
provides the prescription drug | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharmacy | 2022-10-12 02:19:51.732121 |
In computer science and computer programming, system time represents a computer system's notion of the passage of time. In this sense, time also includes the passing of days on the calendar.
System time is measured by a system clock, which is typically implemented as a simple count of the number of ticks that have transpired since some arbitrary starting date, called the epoch. For example, Unix and POSIX-compliant systems encode system time ("Unix time") as the number of seconds elapsed since the start of the Unix epoch at 1 January 1970 00:00:00 UT, with exceptions for leap seconds. Systems that implement the 32-bit and 64-bit versions of the Windows API, such as Windows 9x and Windows NT, provide the system time as both SYSTEMTIME, represented as a year/month/day/hour/minute/second/milliseconds value, and FILETIME, represented as a count of the number of 100-nanosecond ticks since 1 January 1601 00:00:00 UT as reckoned in the proleptic Gregorian calendar.
System time can be converted into calendar time, which is a form more suitable for human comprehension. For example, the Unix system time 1000000000 seconds since the beginning of the epoch translates into the calendar time 9 September 2001 01:46:40 UT. Library subroutines that handle such conversions may also deal with adjustments for time zones, daylight saving time (DST), leap seconds, and the user's locale settings. Library routines are also generally provided that convert calendar times into system times.
== Other time measurements ==
Closely related to system time is process time, which is a count of the total CPU time consumed by an executing process. It may be split into user and system CPU time, representing the time spent executing user code and system kernel code, respectively. Process times are a tally of CPU instructions or clock cycles and generally have no direct correlation to wall time.
File systems keep track of the times that files are created, modified, and/or accessed by storing timestamps in the file control block (or inode) of each file and directory.
== History ==
Most first-generation personal computers did not keep track of dates and times. These included systems that ran the CP/M operating system, as well as early models of the Apple II, the BBC Micro, and the Commodore PET, among others. Add-on peripheral boards that included real-time clock chips with on-board battery back-up were available for the IBM PC and XT, but the IBM AT was the first widely available PC that came equipped with date/time hardware built into the motherboard. Prior to the widespread availability of computer networks, most personal computer systems that did track system time did so only with respect to local time and did not make allowances for different time zones.
With current technology, most modern computers keep track of local civil time, as do many other household and personal devices such as VCRs, DVRs, cable TV receivers, PDAs, pagers, cell phones, fax machines, telephone answering machines, cameras, camcorders, central air conditioners, and microwave ovens.
Microcontrollers operating within embedded systems (such as the Raspberry Pi, Arduino, and other similar systems) do not always have internal hardware to keep track of time. Many such controller systems operate without knowledge of the external time. Those that require such information typically initialize their base time upon rebooting by obtaining the current time from an external source, such as from a time server or external clock, or by prompting the user to manually enter the current time.
== Implementation ==
The system clock is typically implemented as a programmable interval timer that periodically interrupts the CPU, which then starts executing a timer interrupt service routine. This routine typically adds one tick to the system clock (a simple counter) and handles other periodic housekeeping tasks (preemption, etc.) before returning to the task the CPU was executing before the interruption.
== Retrieving system time ==
The following tables illustrate methods for retrieving the system time in various operating systems, programming languages, and applications. Values marked by (*) are system-dependent and may differ across implementations. All dates are given as Gregorian or proleptic Gregorian calendar dates.
Note that the resolution of an implementation's measurement of time does not imply the same precision of such measurements. For example, a system might return the current time as a value measured in microseconds, but actually be capable of discerning individual clock ticks with a frequency of only 100 Hz (10 ms).
=== Operating systems ===
=== Programming languages and applications ===
== See also ==
== Notes ==
== References ==
== External links ==
Critical and Significant Dates, J. R. Stockton (retrieved 3 December 2015)
The Boost Date/Time Library (C++)
The Boost Chrono Library (C++)
The Chronos Date/Time Library (Smalltalk)
Joda Time, The Joda Date/Time Library (Java)
The Perl DateTime Project (Perl)
date: Ruby Standard Library Documentation (Ruby) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_time | 2022-10-12 02:20:18.376626 |
Unix system time 1000000000 seconds since the beginning of the epoch | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_time | 2022-10-12 02:20:21.350588 |
Britain's withdrawal into so-called splendid isolation | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I | 2022-10-12 02:34:39.319214 |
International Sports Science Association (ISSA) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_fitness | 2022-10-12 02:42:01.765408 |
== | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_science | 2022-10-12 02:42:05.675270 |
Film | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Commission_for_Culture_and_the_Arts | 2022-10-12 02:42:11.480184 |
anxiety and depression | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_fitness | 2022-10-12 02:42:17.400169 |
cortisol, adrenaline | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_fitness | 2022-10-12 02:42:22.874569 |
International Sports Science Association (ISSA) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_fitness | 2022-10-12 02:42:28.030169 |
NK | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_fitness | 2022-10-12 02:42:33.620596 |
at any age and not just during or after menopause | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_fitness | 2022-10-12 02:42:38.877997 |
speeches | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cicero | 2022-10-12 02:42:49.080367 |
cerebrovascular disease | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease | 2022-10-12 02:42:58.815490 |
antidepressant medications | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peripheral_neuropathy | 2022-10-12 02:43:07.107545 |
Scalp cooling | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemotherapy | 2022-10-12 02:43:19.284149 |
pro-aging trance | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death | 2022-10-12 02:43:27.258005 |
Radioastronomia di Bologna (Institute for Radio Astronomy | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicina | 2022-10-12 02:43:30.847390 |
by | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Securitization | 2022-10-12 02:43:37.964528 |
New York City is the largest | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_services | 2022-10-12 02:43:42.727553 |
the collective nature of the text | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthology | 2022-10-12 02:43:47.510930 |
description, identification, nomenclature, and classification of organisms | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomy | 2022-10-12 02:43:52.739598 |
provides the prescription drug | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharmacy | 2022-10-12 02:44:00.017511 |
COBOL | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_programming | 2022-10-12 03:51:31.186510 |
cerebrovascular disease | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease | 2022-10-12 03:52:12.039126 |
International Sports Science Association (ISSA) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_fitness | 2022-10-13 11:21:45.177031 |
The more commonly spoken languages dominate the less commonly spoken languages | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language | 2022-10-14 01:10:22.944213 |
International Sports Science Association (ISSA) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_fitness | 2022-10-14 15:55:00.193127 |
International Sports Science Association (ISSA) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_fitness | 2022-10-14 15:55:25.551011 |
at any age and not just during or after menopause | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_fitness | 2022-10-14 15:55:51.367999 |
metadata | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scalable_Vector_Graphics | 2022-10-17 15:42:07.764264 |
Organized efforts to search for extraterrestrial intelligence | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology | 2022-10-17 15:42:25.557130 |
== Function ===
Calcium is an essential element | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcium | 2022-10-18 15:55:02.907650 |
A star trail is a type of photograph that uses long exposure times to capture diurnal circles, the apparent motion of stars in the night sky due to Earth's rotation. A star-trail photograph shows individual stars as streaks across the image, with longer exposures yielding longer arcs. The term is used for similar photos captured elsewhere, such as on board the International Space Station and on Mars.Typical shutter speeds for a star trail range from 15 minutes to several hours, requiring a "Bulb" setting on the camera to open the shutter for a period longer than usual. However, a more practiced technique is to blend a number of frames together to create the final star trail image.Star trails have been used by professional astronomers to measure the quality of observing locations for major telescopes.
== Capture ==
Star trail photographs are captured by placing a camera on a tripod, pointing the lens toward the night sky, and allowing the shutter to stay open for a long period of time. Star trails are considered relatively easy for amateur astrophotographers to create. Photographers generally make these images by using a DSLR or Mirrorless camera with its lens focus set to infinity. A cable release or intervalometer allows the photographer to hold the shutter open for the desired amount of time. Typical exposure times range from 15 minutes to many hours long, depending on the desired length of the star trail arcs for the image. Even though star trail pictures are created under low-light conditions, long exposure times allow fast films, such as ISO 200 and ISO 400. Wide-apertures, such as f/5.6 and f/4, are recommended for star trails.
Because exposure times for star trail photographs can be several hours long, camera batteries can be easily depleted. Mechanical cameras that do not require a battery to open and close the shutter have an advantage over more modern film and digital cameras that rely on battery power. On these cameras, the Bulb, or B, exposure setting keeps the shutter open. Another problem that digital cameras encounter is an increase in electronic noise with increasing exposure time. However, this can be avoided through the use of shorter exposure times that are then stacked in post production software. This avoids possible heat build up or digital noise caused from a single long exposure.
American astronaut Don Pettit recorded star trails with a digital camera from the International Space Station in Earth orbit between April and June, 2012. Pettit described his technique as follows: "My star trail images are made by taking a time exposure of about 10 to 15 minutes. However, with modern digital cameras, 30 seconds is about the longest exposure possible, due to electronic detector noise effectively snowing out the image. To achieve the longer exposures I do what many amateur astronomers do. I take multiple 30-second exposures, then 'stack' them using imaging software, thus producing the longer exposure."Star trail images have also been taken on Mars. The Spirit rover produced them while looking for meteors. Since the camera was limited to 60 second exposures the trails appear as dashed lines.
== Earth's rotation ==
Star trail photographs are possible because of the rotation of Earth about its axis. The apparent motion of the stars is recorded as mostly curved streaks on the film or detector. For observers in the Northern Hemisphere, aiming the camera northward creates an image with concentric circular arcs centered on the north celestial pole (very near Polaris). For those in the Southern Hemisphere, this same effect is achieved by aiming the camera southward. In this case, the arc streaks are centered on the south celestial pole (near Sigma Octantis). Aiming the camera eastward or westward shows straight streaks on the celestial equator, which is tilted at angle with respect to the horizon. The angular measure of this tilt depends on the photographer's latitude (L), and is equal to 90° − L.
== Astronomical site testing ==
Star trail photographs can be used by astronomers to determine the quality of a location for telescope observations. Star trail observations of Polaris have been used to measure the quality of seeing in the atmosphere, and the vibrations in telescope mounting systems. The first recorded suggestion of this technique is from E.S. Skinner's 1931 book A Manual of Celestial Photography.
== Gallery ==
== References ==
== External links ==
4 Steps To Creating Star Trails Photos Using Stacking Software
Star trail photography
StarStaX free multi-platform star trail software | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star_trail | 2022-10-19 00:58:13.680029 |
E.S. Skinner | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star_trail | 2022-10-19 00:58:16.667325 |
A star tracker is an optical device that measures the positions of stars using photocells or a camera.
As the positions of many stars have been measured by astronomers to a high degree of accuracy, a star tracker on a satellite or spacecraft may be used to determine the orientation (or attitude) of the spacecraft with respect to the stars. In order to do this, the star tracker must obtain an image of the stars, measure their apparent position in the reference frame of the spacecraft, and identify the stars so their position can be compared with their known absolute position from a star catalog. A star tracker may include a processor to identify stars by comparing the pattern of observed stars with the known pattern of stars in the sky.
== History ==
In the 1950s and early 1960s, star trackers were an important part of early long-range ballistic missiles and cruise missiles, in the era when inertial navigation systems (INS) were not sufficiently accurate for intercontinental ranges.Consider a Cold War missile flying towards its target; it initially starts by flying northward, passes over the arctic, and then begins flying southward again. From the missile's perspective, stars behind it appear to move closer to the southern horizon while those in front are rising. Before flight, one can calculate the relative angle of a star based on where the missile should be at that instant if it is in the correct location. That can then be compared to the measured location to produce an "error off" signal that can be used to bring the missile back onto its correct trajectory.Due to the Earth's rotation, stars that are in a usable location change over the course of a day and the location of the target. Generally, a selection of several bright stars would be used and one would be selected at launch time. For guidance systems based solely on star tracking, some sort of recording mechanism, typically a magnetic tape, was pre-recorded with a signal that represented the angle of the star over the period of a day. At launch, the tape was forwarded to the appropriate time. During the flight, the signal on the tape was used to roughly position a telescope so it would point at the expected position of the star. At the telescope's focus was a photocell and some sort of signal-generator, typically a spinning disk known as a chopper. The chopper causes the image of the star to repeatedly appear and disappear on the photocell, producing a signal that was then smoothed to produce an alternating current output. The phase of that signal was compared to the one on the tape to produce a guidance signal.Star trackers were often combined with an INS. INS systems measure accelerations and integrate those over time to determine a velocity and, optionally, double-integrate to produce a location relative to its launch location. Even tiny measurement errors, when integrated, adds up to an appreciable error known as "drift". For instance, the N-1 navigation system developed for the SM-64 Navaho cruise missile drifted at a rate of 1 nautical mile per hour, meaning that after a two-hour flight the INS would be indicating a position 2 nautical miles (3.7 km; 2.3 mi) away from its actual location. This was outside the desired accuracy of about half a mile.
In the case of an INS, the magnetic tape can be removed and those signals instead provided by the INS. The rest of the system works as before; the signal from the INS roughly positions the star tracker, which then measures the actual location of the star and produces an error signal. This signal is then used to correct the position being generated from the INS, reducing the accumulated drift back to the limit of the accuracy of the tracker. These "stellar inertial" systems were especially common from the 1950s through the 1980s, although some systems use it to this day.
== Current technology ==
Many models are currently available. There also exist open projects designed to be used for the global CubeSat researchers and developers community.
Star trackers, which require high sensitivity, may become confused by sunlight reflected from the spacecraft, or by exhaust gas plumes from the spacecraft thrusters (either sunlight reflection or contamination of the star tracker window). Star trackers are also susceptible to a variety of errors (low spatial frequency, high spatial frequency, temporal, ...) in addition to a variety of optical sources of error (spherical aberration, chromatic aberration, etc.). There are also many potential sources of confusion for the star identification algorithm (planets, comets, supernovae, the bimodal character of the point spread function for adjacent stars, other nearby satellites, point-source light pollution from large cities on Earth, ...). There are roughly 57 bright navigational stars in common use. However, for more complex missions, entire star field databases are used to determine spacecraft orientation. A typical star catalog for high-fidelity attitude determination is originated from a standard base catalog (for example from the United States Naval Observatory) and then filtered to remove problematic stars, for example due to apparent magnitude variability, color index uncertainty, or a location within the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram implying unreliability. These types of star catalogs can have thousands of stars stored in memory on board the spacecraft, or else processed using tools at the ground station and then uploaded.
== See also ==
Celestial navigation
GoTo (telescopes)
Sun sensor
== References == | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star_tracker | 2022-10-19 00:58:42.472490 |
Celestial navigation
GoTo (telescopes)
Sun sensor | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star_tracker | 2022-10-19 00:58:45.548139 |
A star tracker is an optical device that measures the positions of stars using photocells or a camera.
As the positions of many stars have been measured by astronomers to a high degree of accuracy, a star tracker on a satellite or spacecraft may be used to determine the orientation (or attitude) of the spacecraft with respect to the stars. In order to do this, the star tracker must obtain an image of the stars, measure their apparent position in the reference frame of the spacecraft, and identify the stars so their position can be compared with their known absolute position from a star catalog. A star tracker may include a processor to identify stars by comparing the pattern of observed stars with the known pattern of stars in the sky.
== History ==
In the 1950s and early 1960s, star trackers were an important part of early long-range ballistic missiles and cruise missiles, in the era when inertial navigation systems (INS) were not sufficiently accurate for intercontinental ranges.Consider a Cold War missile flying towards its target; it initially starts by flying northward, passes over the arctic, and then begins flying southward again. From the missile's perspective, stars behind it appear to move closer to the southern horizon while those in front are rising. Before flight, one can calculate the relative angle of a star based on where the missile should be at that instant if it is in the correct location. That can then be compared to the measured location to produce an "error off" signal that can be used to bring the missile back onto its correct trajectory.Due to the Earth's rotation, stars that are in a usable location change over the course of a day and the location of the target. Generally, a selection of several bright stars would be used and one would be selected at launch time. For guidance systems based solely on star tracking, some sort of recording mechanism, typically a magnetic tape, was pre-recorded with a signal that represented the angle of the star over the period of a day. At launch, the tape was forwarded to the appropriate time. During the flight, the signal on the tape was used to roughly position a telescope so it would point at the expected position of the star. At the telescope's focus was a photocell and some sort of signal-generator, typically a spinning disk known as a chopper. The chopper causes the image of the star to repeatedly appear and disappear on the photocell, producing a signal that was then smoothed to produce an alternating current output. The phase of that signal was compared to the one on the tape to produce a guidance signal.Star trackers were often combined with an INS. INS systems measure accelerations and integrate those over time to determine a velocity and, optionally, double-integrate to produce a location relative to its launch location. Even tiny measurement errors, when integrated, adds up to an appreciable error known as "drift". For instance, the N-1 navigation system developed for the SM-64 Navaho cruise missile drifted at a rate of 1 nautical mile per hour, meaning that after a two-hour flight the INS would be indicating a position 2 nautical miles (3.7 km; 2.3 mi) away from its actual location. This was outside the desired accuracy of about half a mile.
In the case of an INS, the magnetic tape can be removed and those signals instead provided by the INS. The rest of the system works as before; the signal from the INS roughly positions the star tracker, which then measures the actual location of the star and produces an error signal. This signal is then used to correct the position being generated from the INS, reducing the accumulated drift back to the limit of the accuracy of the tracker. These "stellar inertial" systems were especially common from the 1950s through the 1980s, although some systems use it to this day.
== Current technology ==
Many models are currently available. There also exist open projects designed to be used for the global CubeSat researchers and developers community.
Star trackers, which require high sensitivity, may become confused by sunlight reflected from the spacecraft, or by exhaust gas plumes from the spacecraft thrusters (either sunlight reflection or contamination of the star tracker window). Star trackers are also susceptible to a variety of errors (low spatial frequency, high spatial frequency, temporal, ...) in addition to a variety of optical sources of error (spherical aberration, chromatic aberration, etc.). There are also many potential sources of confusion for the star identification algorithm (planets, comets, supernovae, the bimodal character of the point spread function for adjacent stars, other nearby satellites, point-source light pollution from large cities on Earth, ...). There are roughly 57 bright navigational stars in common use. However, for more complex missions, entire star field databases are used to determine spacecraft orientation. A typical star catalog for high-fidelity attitude determination is originated from a standard base catalog (for example from the United States Naval Observatory) and then filtered to remove problematic stars, for example due to apparent magnitude variability, color index uncertainty, or a location within the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram implying unreliability. These types of star catalogs can have thousands of stars stored in memory on board the spacecraft, or else processed using tools at the ground station and then uploaded.
== See also ==
Celestial navigation
GoTo (telescopes)
Sun sensor
== References == | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star_tracker | 2022-10-19 03:03:35.059016 |
Celestial navigation
GoTo (telescopes)
Sun sensor | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star_tracker | 2022-10-19 03:03:39.599730 |
Film | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Commission_for_Culture_and_the_Arts | 2022-10-19 03:05:22.704793 |
International Sports Science Association (ISSA) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_fitness | 2022-10-20 14:17:24.214356 |
== | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_science | 2022-10-20 14:17:30.120576 |
Film | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Commission_for_Culture_and_the_Arts | 2022-10-20 14:17:42.901275 |
anxiety and depression | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_fitness | 2022-10-20 14:17:51.577391 |
cortisol, adrenaline | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_fitness | 2022-10-20 14:18:00.302983 |
International Sports Science Association (ISSA) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_fitness | 2022-10-20 14:18:08.539526 |
NK | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_fitness | 2022-10-20 14:18:16.410944 |