Datasets:

ashraq

/

WikiTitles-500K

like 0

Geography_of_the_Central_African_Republic

the central african republic is a landlocked nation within the interior of the african continent. it is bordered by the countries of cameroon, chad, sudan, south sudan, the democratic republic of the congo and the republic of the congo. much of the country consists of flat, or rolling plateau savanna, about above sea level. in the northeast are the fertit hills, and there are scattered hills in the southwestern part of the country. to the northwest is the yade massif, a granite plateau with an altitude of . at , the central african republic is the world's 43rd-largest country (after somalia). it is comparable in size to ukraine. much of the southern border is formed by tributaries of the congo river, with the mbomou river in the east merging with the uele river to form the ubangi river. in the west, the sangha river flows through part of the country. the eastern border lies along the edge of the congo-nile watershed. estimates of the amount of the country covered by forest ranges up to 8%, with the densest parts in the south. the forest is highly diverse, and includes commercially important species of ayous, sapelli and sipo. the deforestation rate is 0.4% per annum, and lumber poaching is commonplace. == climate == the climate of the c.a.r. is generally tropical. the northern areas are subject to harmattan winds, which are hot, dry, and carry dust. the northern regions have been subject to desertification, and the northeast is desert. the remainder of the country is prone to flooding from nearby rivers. == notes == thumb|450px|a satellite map of the central african republic. thumb|450px|topography of central african republic. location:' central africa, north of democratic republic of the congo area - comparative: *canada: slightly smaller than manitoba *us: slightly smaller than texas land boundaries: total: 5,203 km border countries: cameroon 797 km, chad 1,197 km, democratic republic of the congo 1,577 km, republic of the congo 467 km, sudan 483 km and south sudan 682 km coastline: 0 km (landlocked) maritime claims: none (landlocked) terrain: vast, flat to rolling, monotonous plateau; scattered hills in northeast and southwest elevation extremes: lowest point: oubangui river 335 m highest point: mont ngaoui 1,420 m natural resources:

Central_African_Armed_Forces

the central african armed forces () are the armed forces of the central african republic, established after independence in 1960. today they are a rather weak institution, dependent on international support to hold back the enemies in the current civil war. its disloyalty to the president came to the fore during the mutinies in 1996–1997, but ever since then it has faced internal problems. it has been strongly criticised by human rights organisations due to its terror, including killings, torture and sexual violence. it proved to be incompetent in 2013 when militants of the séléka rebel coalition seized power and overthrew president bozizé, committing executions of many faca troops.understanding the 2013 car coup ==history== ===role of military in domestic politics=== the military has played an important role in the history of central african republic. the immediate former president, general françois bozizé is a former army chief-of-staff and his government includes several high-level military officers. among the country’s five presidents since independence in 1960, three have been former army chiefs-of-staff, who have taken power through coups d'état. no president with military background has however been succeeded by a new military president. the country’s first president, david dacko was overthrown by his army chief-of-staff, jean-bédel bokassa in 1966. following bokassa, david dacko was restored in 1981, only to be overthrown once again by his new army chief of staff, general [[andré kolingb

Military_of_Chile

the armed forces of chile (fuerzas armadas de chile) are subject to civilian control exercised by the president through the minister of defense. this conscription service can be postponed for educational or religious reasons. in recent years and after several major reequipment programs, the chilean armed forces have become one of the most technologically advanced and professional armed forces of south america . ==structure== ===army=== the current commander-in-chief of the chilean army is general de ejército sr. humberto oviedo arriagada. the 80,000-person army is organized in seven divisions and one air brigade. the army operates german leopard 1 and 2 tanks as its main battle tanks. the recent purchase of 200 second-hand leopard 2a4chl from the german army is now being delivered. ===navy=== admiral edmundo gonzález robles directs the 25,000-person chilean navy, including 4,800 marines. of the fleet of 66 surface vessels, eight are major combatant ships and they are based in valparaíso. the navy operates its own aircraft for transport and patrol; there are no fighters or bomber aircraft but they have attack helicopters. the navy also operates four submarines based in talcahuano. ===air force=== gen. j

Cocos_(Keeling)_Islands

the territory of the cocos (keeling) islands, also called cocos islands and keeling islands, is a territory of australia, located in the indian ocean, southwest of christmas island and approximately midway between australia and sri lanka. the territory consists of two atolls and 27 coral islands, of which two, west island and home island, are inhabited with a total population of approximately 600.

Demographics_of_Costa_Rica

this article is about the demographic features of the population of costa rica, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. according to the united nations, in 2009 costa rica has an estimated population of 4,579,000 people. together, whites and mestizos make up a 94% of the population, 3% are black people, 1% amerindians, 1% asians, and 1% other. just under 3% of the population is of black african descent who are called afro-costa ricans or west indians and are english-speaking descendants of 19th century black jamaican immigrant workers. another 1% is composed of ethnic chinese, and less than 1% are middle easterners, mainly of lebanese descent but also palestinians. there is also a community of north american retirees from the united states and canada, followed by fairly large numbers of european union expatriates (esp. scandinavians and from germany) come to retire as well, and australians. the indigenous population today numbers about 60,000 (1% of the population) with some miskito and garifuna (a population of mixed black african and carib indian descent) living in the coastal regions. descendants of 19th century west indian and jamaican immigrant workers constitute an english-speaking minority and at 3% of the population—number about 96,000 to 100,000. an estimated 10% of the costa rican population is made up of nicaraguans.www.state.gov background note: costa rica - people there is also a number of colombian refugees. moreover, costa rica took in lots of refugees from a range of other latin american countries fleeing civil wars and dictatorships during the 1970s and 80s - notably from chile and argentina. almost 100,000 costa ricans (2% of the country's population) live abroad, mostly in the united states, mexico and spain. ==population and ancestry== in 2009, costa rica has a population of 4,579,000 and

Demographics_of_Ivory_Coast

this article is about the demographic features of the population of ivory coast, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. ==population== according to the 2010 revison of the world population prospects the total population was 19 738 000 in 2010, compared to only 2 630 000 in 1950. the proportion of children below the age of 15 in 2010 was 40.9%, 55.3% was between 15 and 65 years of age, while 3.8% was 65 years or older .population division of the department of economic and social affairs of the united nations secretariat, world population prospects: the 2010 revision {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: right;" |- ! ! width="80pt"|total population (x 1000) ! width="80pt"|population aged 0–14 (%) ! width="80pt"|population aged 15–64 (%) ! width="80pt"|population aged 65+ (%) |- | 1950 |2 630||43.1||54.6||2.3 |- | 1955 |3 072||43.0||54.6||2.4 |- | 1960 |3 638||43.8||53.8||2.4 |- | 1965 |4 424||44.6||52.9||2.4 |- | 1970 |5 416||45.0||52.6||2.4 |- | 1975 |6 768||45.4||52.2||2.4 |- | 1980 |8 501||45.9||51.7||2.5 |- | 1985 |10 495||45.9||51.5||2.5 |- | 1990 |12 518||45.1||52.2||2.6 |- | 1995 |14 677||43.2||54.0||2.8 |- | 2000 |16 582||41.8||55.1||3.1 |- | 2005 |18 021||41.8||54.8||3.5 |- | 2010 |19 738||40.9||55.3||3.8 |} ==vital statistics== registration of vital events is in ivory coast not complete. the population departement of the united nations prepared the following estimates. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: right;" |- ! width="70pt"|period ! width="70pt"|live births per year ! width="70pt"|deaths per year ! width="70pt"|natural change per year ! width="70pt"|cbr* ! width="70pt"|cdr* ! width="70pt"|nc* ! width="70pt"|tfr* ! width="70pt"|imr* |- | 1950-1955 || 145 000|| 70 000|| 74 000||50.8||24.6||26.1||6.77||167 |- | 1955-1960 || 174 000|| 81 000|| 93 000||51.9||24.1||27.8||7.15||160 |- | 1960-1965 || 211 000|| 94 000|| 117 000||52.3||23.3||29.0||7.53||155 |- | 1965-1970 || 258 000|| 109 000|| 149 000||52.4||22.2||30.2||7.83||147 |- | 1970-1975 || 317 000|| 116 000|| 200 000||52.0||19.1||32.9||7.93||127 |- | 1975-1980 || 386 000|| 123 000|| 263 000||50.5||16.1||34.4||7.81||109 |- | 1980-1985 || 446 000|| 133 000|| 313 000||46.9||14.0||32.9||7.31||96 |- | 1985-1990 || 494 000|| 154 000|| 340 000||42.9||13.4||29.5||6.61||93 |- | 1990-1995 || 542 000|| 186 000|| 357 000||39.9||13.6||26.2||5.92||95 |- | 1995-2000 || 587 000|| 224 000|| 363 000||37.6||14.3||23.

Politics_of_Croatia

the politics of croatia are defined by a parliamentary, representative democratic republic framework, where the prime minister of croatia is the head of government in a multi-party system. executive power is exercised by the government and the president of croatia. legislative power is vested in the croatian parliament (). the judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. the parliament adopted the current constitution of croatia on 22 december 1990 and decided to declare independence from yugoslavia. the declaration of independence came into effect on 8 october 1991. the constitution has since been amended several times. the first modern parties in the country developed in the middle of the 19th century, and their agenda and appeal changed, reflecting major social changes, such as the breakup of austria-hungary, the kingdom of serbs, croats and slovenes, dictatorship and social upheavals in the kingdom, world war ii, the establishment of communist rule and the breakup of the sfr yugoslavia. the president of the republic () is the head of state and the commander in chief of the croatian armed forces and is directly elected to serve a five-year term. the government (), the main executive power of croatia, is headed by the prime minister, who has four deputy prime ministers, three of whom also serve as government ministers. seventeen ministers are in charge of particular activities. the executive branch is responsible for proposing legislation and a budget, executing the laws, and guiding the foreign and internal policies. the parliament is a unicameral legislative body. the number of sabor representatives ranges from 100 to 160; they are elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms. the powers of the legislature include enactment and amendment of the constitution and laws; adoption of the government budget, declarations of war and peace, defining national boundaries, calling referenda and elections, appointments and relief of officers, supervising the government of croatia and other holders of public powers responsible to the sabor, and granting of amnesties. the croatian constitution and legislation provides for regular presidential and parliamentary elections, and the election of county prefects and assemblies, and city and municipal mayors and councils. croatia has a three-tiered, independent judicial system governed by the constitution of croatia and national legislation enacted by the sabor. the supreme court () is the highest court of appeal in croatia. there are other specialised courts in cr

Foreign_relations_of_Cuba

cuba's once-ambitious foreign policy has been downsized as a result of economic hardship after the collapse of the soviet bloc. without massive soviet subsidies and its primary trading partner, cuba was comparatively isolated in the 1990s, but has since entered bilateral co-operation with several south american countries, most notably venezuela and bolivia. the united states of america continues an embargo "so long as it continues to refuse to move toward democratization and greater respect for human rights", while the european union accuses cuba of "continuing flagrant violation of human rights and fundamental freedoms". cuba has developed a growing relationship with the people's republic of china and russia. in all, cuba continues to have formal relations with 160 nations, and provided civilian assistance workers – principally medical – in more than 20 nations.cuba (09/01) us department of state report more than two million exiles have escaped to foreign countries. cuba's present foreign minister is bruno rodríguez parrilla. cuba is currently a lead country on the united nations human rights council, and is a founding member of the organization known as the bolivarian alternative for the americas, a member of the latin american integration association and the united nations. cuba is a member of the non-aligned movement and hosted its september 2006 summit. in addition as a member of the association of caribbean states (acs), cuba was re-appointed as the chair- of the special committee on transportation issues for the caribbean region.cuba takes over chair of acs transport committee caribbean investor following a meeting in november 2004, several leaders of south america have attempted to make cuba either a full or associate member of the south american trade-bloc known as mercosur.how cuba fits into brazil's plans brazzilmagcuba asks to join mercosur the trumpet ==history== ===spanish colonial period.=== prior to achieving its independence, cuba was a colony of spain. ===1898–1959=== prior to the triumph of the cuban revolution, cuba maintained strong economic and political ties to the united states. from 1902 until its abrogation in 1934, the platt amendment authorized the us to use military force to preserve cuba's independence. in 1917, cuba enter

Economy_of_Cyprus

{{infobox economy |country = cyprus |image = magnificent nicosia skylines by night republic of cyprus.jpg |width = |caption = nicosia is the island's financial hub |currency = euro since 1 january 2008 |year = calendar year |organs = european union, commonwealth, wto |gdp rank = 101st (nominal)108th (ppp) |gdp = $21.827 billion (nominal, 2013 est.)$22.271 billion (ppp, 2013 est.) |growth = −2.0% (q3 2014 est., year-on-year) |per capita = $24,761 (nominal, 2013 est.)$25,265 (ppp, 2013 est.) |sectors = agriculture 2.3%, industry 16.4%, services 81.2% (2011 est.) |inflation = −0.2% (november 2014) |poverty = 27.8% at risk of poverty or social exclusion (2013) |gini = 32.4 (2013) |edbr = 64 |labor = 416,900 (2012 est.) |occupations = agriculture 8.5%, industry 20.5%, services 71

Cognitive_science

cognitive science is the interdisciplinary scientific study of the mind and its processes.cognitive science is an interdisciplinary field of researchers from psychology, neuroscience, linguistics, philosophy, computer science, and anthropology that seek to understand the mind. how we learn: ask the cognitive scientist it examines what cognition is, what it does and how it works. it includes research on intelligence and behavior, especially focusing on how information is represented, processed, and transformed (in faculties such as perception, language, memory, reasoning, and emotion) within nervous systems (humans or other animals) and machines (e.g. computers). cognitive science consists of multiple research disciplines, including psychology, artificial intelligence, philosophy, neuroscience, linguistics, and anthropology.thagard, paul, cognitive science, the stanford encyclopedia of philosophy (fall 2008 edition), edward n. zalta (ed.). it spans many levels of analysis, from low-level learning and decision mechanisms to high-level logic and planning; from neural circuitry to modular brain organization. the fundamental concept of cognitive science is that "thinking can best be understood in terms of representational structures in the mind and computational procedures that operate on those structures." ==principles== ===levels of analysis=== a central tenet of cognitive science is that a complete understanding of the mind/brain cannot be attained by studying only a single level. an example would be the problem of remembering a phone number and recalling it later. one approach to understanding this process would be to study behavior through direct observation. a person could be presented with a phone number, asked to recall it after some delay. then the accuracy of the response could be measured. another approach would be to study the firings of individual neurons while a person is trying to remember the phone number. neither of these experiments on its own would fully explain how the process of remembering a phone number works. even if the technology to map out every neuron in the brain in real-time were available, and it were known when each neuron was firing, it would

Cyrillic_script

the cyrillic script is an alphabetic writing system employed across eastern europe, north and central asian countries. it is based on the early cyrillic, which was developed in the first bulgarian empire during the 9th century ad at the preslav literary school.southeastern europe in the middle ages, 500–1250, cambridge medieval textbooks, florin curta, cambridge university press, 2006, isbn 0521815398, pp. 221–222.the orthodox church in the byzantine empire, oxford history of the christian church, j. m. hussey, andrew louth, oxford university press, 2010, isbn 0191614882, p. 100. it is the basis of alphabets used in various languages, past and present, in parts of southeastern europe and northern eurasia, especially those of slavic origin,

Constantinople

thumb|300px|map of byzantine constantinople thumb|300px|constantinople in the byzantine era constantinople (; ; ; modern ) was the capital city of the roman, byzantine, latin, and ottoman empires. it was reinaugurated in 324 ad"constantinople" in the oxford dictionary of byzantium, oxford university press, oxford, 1991, p. 508. isbn 0-19-504652-8 at ancient byzantium, as the new capital of the roman empire by constantine the great, after whom it was named, and dedicated on 11 may 330. in the 12th century,rosenberg, matt. "largest cities through history." about.com. the city was the largest and wealthiest european city.pounds, norman john greville. an historical geography of europe, 1500–1840, p. 124. cup archive, 1979. isbn 0-521-22379-2. eventually, the byzantine empire in the east was reduced to just its capital and its environs, falling to the ottoman empire in 1453. following the muslim conquest, the city prospered as the islamic capital of the ottoman period. after the founding of the modern republic of turkey—the successor state of the ottoman empire—the city was renamed İstanbul in 1923. constantinople was famed for its massive defenses. although besieged on numerous occasions by various peoples, it was taken only in 1204 by the army of the fourth crusade, in 1261 by michael viii palaiologos, and in 1453 by the ottoman sultan mehmed ii. a first wall was erected by constantine i, and the city was surrounded by a double wall lying about to the west of the first wall, begun during the 5th century by theodosius ii. the city was built on seven hills as well as on the golden horn and the sea of marmara and thus presented an impregnable fortress enclosing magnificent palaces, domes, and towers. it was also famed for architectural masterpieces such as the church of hagia sophia, the sacred palace of the emperors, the hippodrome, and the golden gate, lining the arcaded avenues and squares. constantinople contained numerous artistic and literary treasures before it was sacked in 1204 and 1453.janin (1964), passim it was virtually depopulated when it fell to the ottoman turks,müller-wiener (1977), p. 28 but the

Cannibalism

cannibalism (from caníbales, the spanish name for the caribs, a west indies tribe that formerly practiced cannibalism) is the act or practice of humans eating the flesh or internal organs of other human beings. it is also called anthropophagy. a person who practices cannibalism is called a cannibal. the expression "cannibalism" has been extended into zoology to mean one individual of a species consuming all or part of another individual of the same species as food, including sexual cannibalism. the island carib people of the lesser antilles, from whom the word cannibalism derives, acquired a long-standing reputation as cannibals following the recording of their legends in the 17th century. some controversy exists over the accuracy of these legends and the prevalence of actual cannibalism in the culture. cannibalism was widespread in the past among humans in many parts of the world, continuing into the 19th century in some isolated south pacific cultures, and to the present day in parts of tropical africa. cannibalism was practiced in new guinea and in parts of the soloman islands, and flesh markets existed in some parts of melenesia.from primitive to post-colonial in melanesia and anthropology. bruce m. knauft (1999). university of michigan press. p. 104. isbn 0-472-06687-0 fiji was once known as the 'cannibal isles'.peggy reeves sanday. "divine hunger: cannibalism as a cultural system". cannibalism has been well documented around the world, from fiji to the amazon basin to the congo to māori new zealand. neanderthals are believed to have practiced cannibalism,{

Currency

a currency (from , "in circulation", from ) in the most specific use of the word refers to money in any form when in actual use or circulation as a medium of exchange, especially circulating banknotes and coins. a much more general use of the word currency is anything that is used in any circumstances, as a medium of exchange. in this use, "currency" is a synonym for the concept of money.. definition as medium of exchange. a definition of intermediate generality is that a currency is a system of money (monetary units) in common use, especially in a nation. under this definition, british pounds, u.s. dollars, and european euros are different types of currency, or currencies. currencies in this definition need not be physical objects, but as stores of value are subject to trading between nations in foreign exchange markets, which determine the relative values of the different currencies. currencies in the sense used by foreign exchange markets, are defined by governments, and each type has limited boundaries of acceptance. the former definitions of the term "currency" are discussed in their respective synonymous articles banknote, coin, and money. the latter definition, pertaining to the currency systems of nations, is the topic of this article. currencies can be classified into two monetary systems: fiat money and commodity money, depending on what guarantees the value (the economy at large vs. the government's physical metal reserves). some currencies are legal tender in certain jurisdictions, which means they cannot be refused as payment for debt. others are simply traded for their economic value. digital currency arose with the popularity of computers and the internet. == history == ===early currency=== {{unreferenced section|date=

Cymbal

thumb|characteristic rock hi-hat pattern. cymbals are a common percussion instrument. cymbals consist of thin, normally round plates of various alloys; see cymbal making for a discussion of their manufacture. the majority of cymbals are of indefinite pitch, although small disc-shaped cymbals based on ancient designs sound a definite note (see: crotales). cymbals are used in many ensembles ranging from the orchestra, percussion ensembles, jazz bands, heavy metal bands, and marching groups. drum kits usually incorporate at least a crash, ride or crash/ride, and a pair of hi-hat cymbals. == etymology == the word cymbal is derived from the latin cymbalum, which is the latinisation of the greek word κύμβαλον (kumbalon), "cymbal",κύμβαλον, henry george liddell, robert scott, a greek-english lexicon, 1940, on perseus digital library which in turn derives from κύμβος (kumbos), "cup".κύμβος, henry george liddell, robert scott, a greek-english lexicon, 1940, on perseus digital library == anatomy == the anatomy of the cymbal plays a large part in the sound it creates.sabian.com education, anatomy page http://sabian.com/en/education/cymbal_anatomy.cfm a hole is drilled in the center of the cymbal and it is used to either mount the cymbal on a stand or straps (for hand playing). the bell, dome, or cup is the raised section immediately surrounding the hole. the bell produces a higher "pinging" pitch than the rest of the cymbal. the bow is the rest of the surface surrounding the bell. the bow is sometimes described in two areas: the ride and crash area. the ride area is the thicker section closer to the bell while the crash area is the thinner tapering section near the edge. the edge or rim i

Colin_Dexter

norman colin dexter, obe, (born 29 september 1930) is an english crime writer known for his inspector morse novels, which were written between 1975 and 1999 and adapted as a television series from 1987 to 2000. ==early life and career== dexter was born in stamford, lincolnshire, and was educated at stamford school, a boys' public school. after completing his national service with the royal corps of signals, he read classics at christ's college, cambridge, graduating in 1953 and receiving an honorary master's degree in 1958. in 1954, he started his teaching career in the east midlands, becoming assistant classics master at wyggeston school, leicester. a post at loughborough grammar school followed before he took up the position of senior classics teacher at corby grammar school, northamptonshire, in 1959. in 1956 he married dorothy cooper, and they had a son and a daughter. in 1966, he was forced by the onset of deafness to retire from teaching and took up the post of senior assistant secretary at the university of oxford delegacy of local examinations (uodle) in oxford, a job he held until his retirement in 1988. dexter featured prominently in the bbc programme how to solve a cryptic crossword as part of the time shift series broadcast in november 2008, in which he recounted some of the crossword clues solved by morse. ==writing career== the first books he wrote were general studies text books.http://sandrafraser.wordpress.com/2010/03/25/character-interview-colin-dexter/ he started writing mysteries in 1972 during a family holiday. "we were in a little guest house halfway between caernarfon and pwllheli. it was a saturday and it was raining—it's not unknown for it to rain in north wales. the children were moaning... i was sitting at the kitchen table with nothing else to do, and i wrote the first few paragraphs of a potential detective novel."[http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2245822/handwritten-papers-introduced-inspector-morse-world-hammer.html "

Community_college

a community college is a type of educational institution. the term can have different meanings in different countries. ==australia== in australia, the term community college is not used. analogous to community colleges are colleges or institutes of technical and further education (tafes) sometimes technical and continuing education tace; public institutions mostly regulated at state and territory level. there are also an increasing number of private providers of varying social esteem; often these are colloquially called 'colleges'. tafes and other providers carry on the tradition of adult education, which was established in australia around mid 19th century when evening classes were held to help adults enhance their numeracy and literacy skills.ace.nsw.gov.au the majority of australian universities can also be traced back to such forerunners, although obtaining a university charter has always changed their nature. in tafes and colleges today, courses are designed for personal development of an individual and/or for employment outcomes. educational programs cover a variety of topics such as arts, languages, business and lifestyle; and are usually timetabled to be conducted in the evenings or weekends to accommodate people working full-time. funding for colleges may come from government grants and course fees; and many are not-for-profit organisations. there are located in metropolitan, regional and rural locations of australia. learning offered by tafes and colleges has changed over the years. by the 1980s many colleges had recognised a community need for computer training and since then thousands of people have been up-skilled through it courses. the majority of colleges by the late 20th century had also become registered training organisations; recognising the need to offer individuals a nurturing, non-traditional education venue to gain skills that would better prepare them for the workplace and potential job openings.cca.edu.au tafes and colleges have not traditionally offered bachelor's degrees, instead providing pathway arrangements with universities to continue towards degrees. the american innovation of the associate degree is emerging at some institutions. certificate courses i to iv, diplomas and advanced diplomas are typically offered, the latter deemed equivalent to an undergraduate qualification, albeit typically in more vocational areas. recently, some tafe institutes (and private providers) have also become higher education providers in their own

Continuum_hypothesis

in mathematics, the continuum hypothesis is a hypothesis about the possible sizes of infinite sets. it states: :there is no set whose cardinality is strictly between that of the integers and the real numbers. the continuum hypothesis was advanced by georg cantor in 1878, and establishing its truth or falsehood is the first of hilbert's 23 problems presented in the year 1900. Τhe answer to this problem is independent of zfc set theory, so that either the continuum hypothesis or its negation can be added as an axiom to zfc set theory, with the resulting theory being consistent if and only if zfc is consistent. this was proved in 1963 by paul cohen, complementing earlier work by kurt gödel in 1940. the name of the hypothesis comes from the term the continuum for the real numbers. it is abbreviated ch. ==cardinality of infinite sets== two sets are said to have the same cardinality or cardinal number if there exists a bijection (a one-to-one correspondence) between them. intuitively, for two sets s and t to have the same cardinality means that it is possible to "pair off" elements of s with elements of t in such a fashion that every element of s is paired off with exactly one element of t and vice versa. hence, the set \{\text{banana}, \text{apple}, \text{pear}\} has the same cardinality as \{\text{yellow}, \text{red}, \text{green}\}. with infinite sets such as the set of integers or rational numbers, this becomes more complicated to demonstrate. the rational numbers seemingly form a counterexample to the continuum hypothesis: the integers form a proper subset of the rationals, which themselves form a proper subset of the reals, so intuitively, there are more rational numbers than integers, and more real numbers than rational numbers. however, this intuitive analysis does not take account of the fact that all three sets are infinite. it turns out the rational numbers can actually be placed in one-to-one correspondence with the integers, and therefore the set of rational numbers is the same size (cardinality) as the set of integers: they are both countable sets. cantor gave two proofs that the cardinality of the set of integers is strictly smaller than that of the set of real numbers (see cantor's first uncountability proof and cantor's diagonal argument). his proofs, however, give no indication of the extent to which the cardinality of the integers is less than that of the real numbers. cantor proposed the continuum hypothesis as a possible solution to this question. the hypothesis states that the set of real numbers has minimal possible cardinality which is great

Chicano

chicano or chicana (also spelled xicano or xicana) is a chosen identity of some mexican-americans in the united states. the term "chicano" is sometimes used interchangeably with mexican-american. both names are chosen identities within the mexican-american community in the united states. however, these terms have a wide range of meanings in various parts of the southwest. the term became widely used during the chicano movement, mainly among mexican-americans within the city of chicago who wanted to express an identity, of cultural, ethnic and community pride. the term "chicano" had negative connotations before the chicano movement, and still is viewed negatively by more conservative members of this community, but it is gaining more acceptance as an identity of pride within the mexican-american community in the united states. as people from mexico could be of any ethnic origin or race, including european (mostly spanish), the pro indigenous/mestizo chicano identity, movement or ideology is not necessarily supported by and/or representative in many cases, the interest of all people who consider themselves as being of "mexican" descent. ==etymology== the origin of the word "chicano" is disputed. some critics claim it is a shorterned form of "mexicano" (the nahuatl name for a member of the mexica pueblo). the word "mexico" as spoken in its original nahuatl, and by the spaniards at the time of the conquest, was pronounced originally with a "sh" sound ("meh-shee-co") and was transcribed with an "x" during this time period. the difference between the pronunciation and spelling of "chicano" and "mexicano" stems from the fact that the modern-day spanish language experienced a change in pronunciation regarding a majority of words containing the "x" (for example: méxico, ximenez, xavier, xarabe). in most cases the "sh" sound has been replaced with the "he" sound ("meh-he-co") and a change of spelling ("x" to "j"). the word "chicano" was also affected by this change. many chicanos replace the "ch" with the letter "x" as xicanos, due to the original spelling of the mexica empire (pronounced: meshica). in mexico's indigenous regions, ladinos (mestizos)not to be confused with the language "ladino" of spain and portugal, a spanish language spoke

Cape_Breton_Island

200px|thumb|right|nasa landsat photo of cape breton island cape breton island ( - formerly Île royale, scottish gaelic: ceap breatainn or eilean cheap bhreatainn, míkmaq: Únamakika, simply: cape breton) is an island on the atlantic coast of north america. the name most likely corresponds to the name breton, the anglicized version of the french historical region, bretagne. cape breton island is part of the province of nova scotia, canada. the island accounts for 18.7% of the total area of nova scotia. although physically separated from the nova scotia peninsula by the strait of canso, it is artificially connected to mainland nova scotia by the long rock-fill canso causeway. the island is located east-northeast of the mainland with i

Catherine_Coleman

catherine grace "cady" coleman (born december 14, 1960) is an american chemist, a former united states air force officer, and a current nasa astronaut.nasa biography she is a veteran of two space shuttle missions, and departed the international space station on may 23, 2011, as a crew member of expedition 27 after logging 159 days in space. ==education== coleman graduated from wilbert tucker woodson high school, fairfax, virginia, in 1978; in 1978–1979 she was an exchange student at røyken upper secondary school in norway with the afs intercultural programs. she received a bachelor of science degree in chemistry from the massachusetts institute of technology in 1983, and a doctorate in polymer science and engineering from the university of massachusetts amherst in 1991 as a member of the air force rotc. she was a member of the intercollegiate crew and was a resident of baker house."4,300 students heard alumna cady coleman offer congratulations from 200 miles above earth in the international space station." ==military career== after completing her regular education, coleman joined the u.s. air force as a second lieutenant while continuing her graduate work for a phd at the university of massachusetts amherst. in 1988 she entered active duty at wright-patterson air force base as a research chemist. during her work she participated as a surface analysis consultant on the nasa long duration exposure facility experiment. in 1991 she received her doctorate in polymer science and engineering. she retired from the air force in november 2009. ==nasa career== [[file:aaa iss026e015923 2.j

Chinese_language

:unless otherwise specified, chinese texts in this article are written in (simplified chinese/traditional chinese; pinyin) format. in cases where simplified and traditional chinese scripts are identical, the chinese term is written once. {{infobox language |name=chinese |image= hanyu trad simp.svg |imagecaption= hànyǔ (chinese) written in traditional (left) and simplified (right) characters |imagesize= |nativename= or hànyǔ or zhōngwén |states=china, taiwan, singapore, hong kong, macau, malaysia, the united states, canada, indonesia, and other places with significant overseas chinese communities |region = |ethnicity=han chinese |speakers= billion |date=1984–2001 |ref= |familycolor=sino-tibetan |fam2=sinitic |stand1=putonghua (standard mandarin) |dia1=mandarin |dia2=jin |dia3=wu (incl. shanghainese) |dia4=huizhou |dia5=gan |dia6=xiang |dia7=min (incl. amoy, teochew, hoochew) |dia8=hakka |dia9=yue (incl. cantonese, taishanese) |dia10=ping |script=chinese characters, zhuyin fuhao, latin, arabic, cyrillic, braille. ancient use of 'phags-pa script. |nation= wa state, burma |minority = |agency= national commission on language and script workchina-language.gov.cn national languages committee promote mandarin council chinese language standardisation council |iso1=zh |iso2b=chi |iso2t=zho |iso3=zho |lingua=79-aaa |lc1=cdo|ld1=min dong |lc2=cjy|ld2=jinyu |lc3=cmn|ld3=mandarin |lc4=cpx|ld4=pu xian |lc5=czh|ld5=huizhou |lc6=czo|ld6=min zhong |lc7=gan|ld7=gan |lc8=hak|ld8=hakka |lc9=hsn|ld9=xiang |lc10=mnp|ld10=min bei |lc11=nan|ld11=min nan |lc12=wuu|ld12=wu |lc13=yue|ld13=yue |lc14=och|ld14=old chinese |lc15=ltc|ld15=[[middle chinese|late middle chine

List_of_country_calling_codes

this is a list of country calling codes or dial in code defined by itu-t recommendations e.123 and e.164, also called idd (international direct dialling) or isd (international subscriber dialling) codes. the dial plan of a telephone network usually designates a special trunk access prefix code, the international dialing prefix, which must be dialed before the country calling code to select access to the international circuits of the network. the prefix is specific to the country from which the caller is dialing, but often it is 00 or 011. generally, a user must consult local directories for the access code if a number is listed beginning with a plus sign, which means the digits following it are a country calling code. thumb|500px|international calling codes colored by first digit ==tree list== country calling codes are prefix codes; hence, they can be organized as a tree. in each row of the table below, the country codes given in the left-most column share the same first digit; then subsequent columns give the second digit in ascending order. {| class="wikitable" cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 |- ! width="2%" align="center" | ! width="8%" align="center" | 0 ! width="8%" align="center" | 1 ! width="8%" align="center" | 2 ! width="8%" align="center" | 3 ! width="8%" align="center" | 4 ! width="8%" align="center" | 5 ! width="8%" align="center" | 6 ! width="8%" align="center" | 7 ! width="8%" align="center" | 8 ! width="8%" align="center" | 9 |- ! align="center" rowspan="2" | 1 | width="100%" align="center" colspan="10" | +1: north american numbering plan countries and territories ca, us, ag, ai, as, bb, bm, bs, dm, do, gd, gu, jm, kn, ky, lc, mp, ms, pr, sx, tc, tt, vc, vg, vi |- | align="center" | | align="center" | | align="center" | +1 242: bs +1 246: bb +1 264: ai +1 268: ag +1 284: [[british v

Computer_program

thumb|a computer program written in an object-oriented style. a computer program, or just a program, is a sequence of instructions, written to perform a specified task with a computer. a computer requires programs to function, typically executing the program's instructions in a central processor. the program has an executable form that the computer can use directly to execute the instructions. the same program in its human-readable source code form, from which executable programs are derived (e.g., compiled), enables a programmer to study and develop its algorithms. a collection of computer programs and related data is referred to as the software. computer source code is typically written by computer programmers. source code is written in a programming language that usually follows one of two main paradigms: imperative or declarative programming. source code may be converted into an executable file (sometimes called an executable program or a binary) by a compiler and later executed by a central processing unit. alternatively, computer programs may be executed with the aid of an interpreter, or may be embedded directly into hardware. computer programs may be ranked along functional lines: system software and application software. two or more computer programs may run simultaneously on one computer from the perspective of the user, this process being known as multitasking. ==programming== {| class="infobox" style="width:30em" |- |#include int main(void) { printf("hello world!\n"); return 0; } |- | source code of a hello world program written in the c programming language |} {| class="infobox" style="width:30em" |- | public class helloworld { public static void main(string[] args){ system.out.printl

Cluster_sampling

cluster sampling is a sampling technique used when "natural" but relatively homogeneous groupings are evident in a statistical population. it is often used in marketing research. in this technique, the total population is divided into these groups (or clusters) and a simple random sample of the groups is selected. then the required information is collected from a simple random sample of the elements within each selected group. this may be done for every element in these groups or a subsample of elements may be selected within each of these groups. a common motivation for cluster sampling is to reduce the total number of interviews and costs given the desired accuracy. assuming a fixed sample size, the technique gives more accurate results when most of the variation in the population is within the groups, not between them. ==cluster elements== the population within a cluster should ideally be as heterogeneous as possible, but there should be homogeneity between cluster means. each cluster should be a small-scale representation of the total population. the clusters should be mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive. a random sampling technique is then used on any relevant clusters to choose which clusters to include in the study. in single-stage cluster sampling, all the elements from each of the selected clusters are used. in two-stage cluster sampling, a random sampling technique is applied to the elements from each of the selected clusters... the main difference between cluster sampling and stratified sampling is that in cluster sampling the cluster is treated as the sampling unit so analysis is done on a population of clusters (at least in the first stage). in stratified sampling, the analysis is done on elements within strata. in stratified sampling, a random sample is drawn from each of the strata, whereas in cluster sampling only the selected clusters are studied. the main objective of cluster sampling is to reduce costs by increasing sampling efficiency. this contrasts with stratified sampling where the main objective is to increase precision. there also exists multistage sampling, here more than two steps are taken in selecting clusters from clusters. ==aspects of cluster sampling== one version of cluster sampling is area sampling or geographical cluster sampling. clusters consist of geographical areas. because a geographically dispersed population can be expensive to survey, greater economy than simple random sampling can be achieved by treating several respondents within a local area as a cluster. it is usually necessary to increase the total sample size to achieve equivalent precision in the estimators, but cost savings may make that feasible. in some situations, cluster analysis is only appropriate when the clusters are approximately the same size. this can be achieved by combining clusters. if this is not possible, [[sampling (statistics)#pr

Complex_number

a complex number is a number that can be expressed in the form , where and are real numbers and is the imaginary unit, which satisfies the equation . in this expression, is the real part and is the imaginary part of the complex number. complex numbers extend the concept of the one-dimensional number line to the two-dimensional complex plane (also called argand plane) by using the horizontal axis for the real part and the vertical axis for the imaginary part. the complex number can be identified with the point in the complex plane. a complex number whose real part is zero is said to be purely imaginary, whereas a complex number whose imaginary part is zero is a real number. in this way, the complex numbers contain the ordinary real numbers while extending them in order to solve problems that cannot be solved with real numbers alone. as well as their use within mathematics, complex numbers have practical applications in many fields, including physics, chemistry, biology, economics, electrical engineering, and statistics. the italian mathematician gerolamo cardano is the first known to have introduced complex numbers. he called them "fictitious" during his attempts to find solutions to cubic equations in the 16th century. ==overview== complex numbers allow for solutions to certain equations that have no solutions in real numbers. for example, the equation :(x+1)^2 = -9 \, has no real solution, since the square of a real number cannot be negative. complex numbers provide a solution to this problem. the idea is to extend the real numbers with the imaginary unit where , so that solutions to equations like the preceding one can be found. in this case the solutions are and , as can be verified using the fact that : :((-1+3i)+1)^2 = (3i)^2 = (3^2)(i^2) = 9(-1) = -9, :((-1-3i)+1)^2 = (-3i)^2 = (-3)^2(i^2) = 9(-1) = -9. in fact not only [[qua

Politics_of_Colombia

the politics of colombia take place in a framework of a presidential representative democratic republic, whereby the president of colombia is both head of state and head of government, and of a multi-party system. executive power is exercised by the government. legislative power is vested in both the government and the two chambers of congress, the senate and the house of representatives of colombia. the judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. ==constitutional reforms== colombia's present constitution, enacted on july 5, 1991, strengthened the administration of justice with the provision for introduction of an adversarial system which ultimately is to entirely replace the existing napoleonic code. other significant reforms under the new constitution provide for civil divorce, dual nationality, the election of a vice president, and the election of departmental governors. the constitution expanded citizens' basic rights, including that of "tutela," under which an immediate court action can be requested by an individual if he or she feels that their constitutional rights are being violated and if there is no other legal recourse. the national government has separate executive, legislative, and judicial branches. ==executive branch== the president is elected for a four-year term and, since 2005, can be re-elected for one consecutive term. the 1991 constitution reestablished the position of vice president, who is elected on the same ticket as the president. by law, the vice president will succeed in the event of the president's resignation, illness, or death. ==legislative branch== colombia's bicameral congress consists of a 102-member senate of colombia and a 161-member chamber of representatives of colombia. senators are elected on the basis of a nationwide ballot, while representatives are elected in multi member districts co-located within the 32 national departments. the country's capital is a separate capital district and elects its own representatives. members may be re-elected indefinitely, and, in contrast to the previous system, there are no alternate congressmen. congress meets twice a year, and the president has the

Geography_of_the_Czech_Republic

the czech landscape is quite varied. bohemia, to the west, consists of a river basin, drained by the elbe (czech: labe) and vltava rivers. it is surrounded by mostly low mountains such as the sudetes with its part krkonoÅ¡e, containing the highest point in the country, the sněžka at . moravia, the eastern part, is also quite hilly and is drained predominantly by the morava river, but also contains the source of the oder (czech: odra) river. water from the landlocked czech republic flows to three different seas: the north sea, baltic sea and black sea. the czech republic also possesses moldauhafen, a enclave in the middle of hamburg docks, which was awarded to czechoslovakia by article 363 of the treaty of versailles to allow the landlocked country a place where goods transported downriver could be transferred to seagoing ships; this territory reverts to germany in 2028. location: central europe, southeast of germany thumb|right|400px|map of the czech republic thumb|satellite image of the czech republic geographic coordinates: map references: europe area: * total: * land: * water: area - comparative: slightly smaller than south carolina; slightly larger than scotland land boundaries: * total: * border countries: austria , germany , poland 658 km, slovakia panhandles: aÅ¡ hook, Å luknov hook, frýdlant hook, broumov hook, javorník hook, osoblaha hook, břeclav hook (march-thaya triangle). coastline: 0 km (landlocked) maritime claims: none (landlocked) climate: temperate; hot summers; cold, cloudy, white winters terrain: bohemia in the west consists of rolling plains, hills, and plateaus surrounded by low mountains; moravia in the east consists of very hilly country elevation extremes: * lowest point: elbe river - * highest point: sněžka - natural resources: hard coal, soft coal, kaolin, clay, graphite, timber, [[uranium

Climbing

climbing is the activity of using one's hands, feet, or any other part of the body to ascend a steep object. it is done recreationally, competitively, in trades that rely on it, and in emergency rescue and military operations. it is done indoors and out, on natural and manmade structures. ==types== climbing activities include: * bouldering: ascending boulders or small outcrops, often with climbing shoes and a chalk bag or bucket. usually, instead of using a safety rope from above, injury is avoided using a crash pad and a human spotter (to direct a falling climber on to the pad. they can also give beta, or advice) * buildering: ascending the exterior skeletons of buildings, typically without protective equipment. * canyoning: climbing along canyons for sport or recreation. * chalk climbing: ascending chalk cliffs uses some of the same techniques as ice climbing . * competition climbing: a formal, competitive sport of recent origins, normally practiced on artificial walls that resemble natural rock formations. the international federation of sport climbing (ifsc) is the official organization governing competition climbing worldwide and is recognized by the ioc and gaisf and is a member of the international world games association (iwga). competition climbing has three major disciplines: lead, bouldering and speed. * ice climbing: ascending ice or hard snow formations using special equipment, usually ice axes and crampons. techniques of protecting the climber are similar to those of rock climbing, with protective devices (such as ice screws and snow wedges) adapted to frozen conditions. * indoor climbing: top roping, lead climbing, and bouldering artificial walls with bolted holds in a climbing gym. *mountaineering: ascending mountains for sport or recreation. it often involves rock and/or ice climbing. * net climbing: climbing net structures. the climbing structures consist of multiple interconnected steel reinforced ropes attached to the ground and steel poles. climbing nets are usually installed on playgrounds to assist children in developing their balancing and climbing skills. * pole climbing (gymnastic): climbing poles and masts without equipment. * lumberjack tree-trimming and competitive tree-trunk or pole climbing for speed using spike

Category_theory

right|thumb|200px|a category with objects x, y, z and morphisms f, g, g ∘ f, and three identity morphisms (not shown) 1x, 1y and 1z. category theory is used to formalize mathematics and its concepts as a collection of objects and arrows (also called morphisms). category theory can be used to formalize concepts of other high-level abstractions such as set theory, ring theory, and group theory. several terms used in category theory, including the term "morphism", differ from their uses within mathematics itself. in category theory, a "morphism" obeys a set of conditions specific to category theory itself. thus, care must be taken to understand the context in which statements are made. == an abstraction of other mathematical concepts == many significant areas of mathematics can be formalised by category theory as categories. category theory is an abstraction of mathematics itself that allows many intricate and subtle mathematical results in these fields to be stated, and proved, in a much simpler way than without the use of categories. the most accessible example of a category is the category of sets, where the objects are sets and the arrows are functions from one set to another. however, the objects of a category need not be sets, and the arrows need not be functions; any way of formalising a mathematical concept such that it meets the basic conditions on the behaviour of objects and arrows is a valid category, and all the results of category theory will apply to it. the "arrows" of category theory are often said to represent a process connecting two objects, or in many cases a "structure-preserving" transformation connecting two objects. there are however many applications where much more abstract concepts are represented by objects and morphisms. the most important property of the arrows is that they can be "composed", in other words, arranged in a sequence to form a new arrow. categories now appear in most branches of mathematics, some areas of theoretical computer science where they can correspond to types, and mathematical physics where they can be used to describe vector spaces. categories were first introduced by samuel eilenberg and saunders mac lane in 1942–45, in connection with algebraic topology. category theory has several

Cardiff

{{infobox settlement | official_name = cardiff,united kingdom | other_name = city and county of cardiff | native_name = dinas a sir caerdydd | flag-type = flag of cardiff | image_skyline = cardiffmontage3.jpg | skyline_size = 250 | image_caption = clockwise from top left: the senedd, millennium stadium, norman keep of cardiff castle, cardiff bay, cardiff city centre, clock tower of city hall and the welsh national war memorial | website = http://www.cardiff.gov.uk/ | image_flag = flag of cardiff.svg | flag_size = 120px | image_shield = | shield_link = | shield_size = 85px | image_blank_emblem = cardiffcoatofarms.jpg | blank_emblem_type = the coat of arms of cardiff | blank_emblem_size = 115px | motto = "y ddraig goch ddyry cychwyn"("the red dragon will lead the way") | image_map = cardiff uk location map.svg | mapsize = 220px | map_caption = city and county of cardiffand (inset) within wales | coordinates_region = gb | settlement_type = city & county | subdivision_type = sovereign state | subdivision_name = | subdivision_type1 = country | subdivision_name1 = | subdivision_type2 = region | subdivision_name2 = south wales | subdivision_type3 = ceremonial county | subdivision_name3 = south glamorgan | subdivision_type4 = local government | subdivision_name4 = cardiff council | subdivision_type5 = city status | subdivision_name5 = 1905 | leader_title = | leader_name = phil bale | leader_title1 = welsh assembly | leader_name1 = | leader_title2 = uk parliament | leader_name2 = | leader_title3 = | leader_name3 = wales | area_total_km2 = 140.3 | area_magnitude = 1 e7 | area_urban_km2 = 75.72 | area_metro_km2 = | population_as_of = 2011 census | population_total = 346,100 | population_urban = 447,287 | population_metro = 1,097,000 (cardiff-newport) | population_density_km2 = auto | population_density_urban_km2 = auto | pop

Carbon_dioxide

{{chembox | verifiedfields = changed | watchedfields = changed | verifiedrevid = 477004235 | imagefile1 = carbon-dioxide-2d-dimensions.svg | imagefile1_ref = | imagesize1 = 170 | imagename1 = structural formula of carbon dioxide with bond length | imagefilel1 = carbon dioxide 3d ball.png | imagefilel1_ref = | imagenamel1 = ball-and-stick model of carbon dioxide | imagefiler1 = carbon dioxide 3d spacefill.png | imagefiler1_ref = | imagenamer1 = space-filling model of carbon dioxide | othernames = carbonic acid gascarbonic anhydridecarbonic oxidecarbon oxidecarbon(iv) oxidedry ice (solid phase) |section1= |section2= |section3= |section4= |section7= |section8={{chembox related | otheranions = carbon disulfidecarbon diselenide | othercations = silicon dioxidegermanium dioxidetin dioxide[[

Constitutional_law

constitutional law is the body of law which defines the relationship of different entities within a state, namely, the executive, the legislature, and the judiciary. not all nation states have codified constitutions, though all such states have a jus commune, or law of the land, that may consist of a variety of imperative and consensual rules. these may include customary law, conventions, statutory law, judge-made law, or international rules and norms. ==state and legal structure== constitutional laws may often be considered second order rulemaking or rules about making rules to exercise power. it governs the relationships between the judiciary, the legislature and the executive with the bodies under its authority. one of the key tasks of constitutions within this context is to indicate hierarchies and relationships of power. for example, in a unitary state, the constitution will vest ultimate authority in one central administration and legislature, and judiciary, though there is often a delegation of power or authority to local or municipal authorities. when a constitution establishes a federal state, it will identify the several levels of government coexisting with exclusive or shared areas of jurisdiction over lawmaking, application and enforcement. ==human rights== human rights or civil liberties form a crucial part of a country's constitution and govern the rights of the individual against the state. most jurisdictions, like the united states and france, have a codified constitution, with a bill of rights. a recent example is the charter of fundamental rights of the european union which was intended to be included in the treaty establishing a constitution for europe, that failed to be ratified. perhaps the most important example is the universal declaration of human rights under the un charter. these are intended to ensure basic political, social and economic standards that a nation state, or intergovernmental body is obliged to provide to its citizens but many do include its governments. some countries like the united kingdom have no entrenched document setting out fundamental rights; in those jurisdictions the constitution is composed of statute, case law and convention. a case named entick v. carrington'entick v. carrington (1765) 19 howell's state trials 1030 is a constitutional principle deriving from the common law. john entick's house was searched and ransacked by sherriff carrington. carrington argued that a warrant fr

Standard_works

right|thumb|150 px|quadruple combination format of the standard works the standard works of the church of jesus christ of latter-day saints (lds church) are the four books that currently constitute its open scriptural canon. (the scriptural canon is "open" due to the lds belief in continuous revelation. additions can be made to the scriptural canon with the "common consent" of the church's membership.the only one authorized to bring forth new doctrine is the president of the church, who, when he does, will declare it as revelation from god, and it will be accepted the church's first presidency and quorum of the twelve apostles, and then sustained by the body of the church. (harold b. lee, the first area general conference for germany, austria, holland, italy, switzerland, france, belgium, and spain of the church of jesus christ of latter-day saints, held in munich germany, august 24–26, 1973, with reports and discourses, 69. .)) the four books of the standard works are: * the holy bible (king james version) (the lds church uses the king james version (kjv) in english-speaking countries; other versions are used in non-english speaking countries) * the book of mormon, subtitled since 1981"another testament of jesus christ" * the doctrine and covenants of the church of jesus christ of latter-day saints * the pearl of great price (containing the book of moses, the book of abraham, joseph smith—matthew, joseph smith—history, and the articles of faith) the standard works are printed and distributed by the lds church in a single binding called a quadruple combination and as a set of two books, with the bible in one binding, and the other three books in a second binding called a triple combination. current editions of the standard works include a number of non-canonical study aids, including a bible dictionary, photographs, maps and gazetteer, topical guide, index, footnotes, cross references, and excerpts from the joseph smith translation of the bible (jst). ==continuing revelation== under the lds church's doctrine of continuing revelation,see the ninth article of faith. latter-day saints believe literally in the principle of revelation from god to his children. individual members are entitled to divine revelati

Church_of_England

the church of england is the officially established christian church in england and the mother church of the worldwide anglican communion. the church considers itself within the tradition of western christianity and dates its [[history of the

Charles_Tupper

sir charles tupper, 1st baronet, gcmg, cb, pc (july 2, 1821 – october 30, 1915) was a canadian father of confederation: as the premier of nova scotia from 1864 to 1867, he led nova scotia into confederation. he went on to serve as the sixth prime minister of canada, sworn into office on may 1, 1896, seven days after parliament had been dissolved. he lost the june 23 election and resigned on july 8, 1896. his 69-day term as prime minister is currently the shortest in canadian history. tupper was born in amherst, nova scotia to the rev. charles tupper and miriam lockhart. he was educated at horton academy, wolfville, nova scotia, and studied medicine at the university of edinburgh medical school, graduating md in 1843. by the age of 22 he had handled 116 obstetric cases.comrie, john d. (1932) history of scottish medicine. volume 2. wellcome historical medical museum, london. p. 737. he practiced medicine periodically throughout his political career (and served

Foreign_relations_of_the_Comoros

in november 1975, comoros became the 143rd member of the united nations. the new nation was defined as consisting of the entire archipelago, despite the fact that france maintains control over mayotte. == overview == comoros also is a member of the african union, the arab league, the european development fund, the world bank, the international monetary fund, the indian ocean commission, and the african development bank. the government fostered close relationships with the more conservative (and oil-rich) arab states, such as saudi arabia and kuwait. it frequently received aid from those countries and the regional financial institutions they influenced, such as the arab bank for economic development in africa and the arab fund for economic and social development. in october 1993, comoros joined the league of arab states, after having been rejected when it applied for membership initially in 1977. regional relations generally were good. in 1985 madagascar, mauritius, and seychelles agreed to admit comoros as the fourth member of the indian ocean commission (ioc), an organization established in 1982 to encourage regional cooperation. in 1993 mauritius and seychelles had two of the five embassies in moroni, and mauritius and madagascar were connected to the republic by regularly scheduled commercial flights. in november 1975, comoros became the 143d member of the un. in the 1990s, the republic continued to represent mahoré in the un. comoros was also a member of the oau, the edf, the world bank, the imf, the ioc, and the african development bank. comoros thus cultivated relations with various nations, both east and west, seeking to increase trade and obtain financial assistance. in 1994, however, it was increasingly facing the need to control its expenditures and reorganize its economy so that it would be viewed as a sounder recipient of investment. comoros also confronted domestically the problem of the degree of democracy the government was prepared to grant to its citizens, a consideration that related to its standing in the world community. ==bilateral relations== ===people's republic of china=== comoros also hosted an embassy of china, which established relations during the soilih regime. the chinese had long been a source of aid and apparently wished to maintain contact with comoros to counterbalance indian and soviet (later russian) influence in the indian ocean. in august 2008, a comorian delegation visited china on a good-will visit. together with the chinese defense minister liang guanglie, and chief of staff of the comoros armed forces salimou mohamed amiri, pledged to increase cooperation between the military of the two nations. ami

Cytosine

cytosine (c) is one of the four main bases found in dna and rna, along with adenine, guanine, and thymine (uracil in rna). it is a pyrimidine derivative, with a heterocyclic aromatic ring and two substituents attached (an amine group at position 4 and a keto group at position 2). the nucleoside of cytosine is cytidine. in watson-crick base pairing, it forms three hydrogen bonds with guanine. ==history== cytosine was discovered and named by albrecht kossel and albert neumann in 1894 when it was hydrolyzed from calf thymus tissues.a. kossel and albert neumann (1894) "darstellung und spaltunsprodukte der nucleïnsäure (adenylsäure)" (preparation and cleavage products of nucleic acids (adenic acid)), berichte der deutschen chemischen gesellschaft zu berlin, 27 : 2215-2222. the name "cytosine" is coined on page 2219: " … ein produkt von basischen eigenschaften, für welches wir den namen "cytosin" vorschlagen." ( … a product with basic properties, for which we suggest the name "cytosine".){{cite journal | author = kossel, a.; steudel, h. z. | journal = physiol. chem. | year = 1903 | volum

Calvinism

calvinism (also called the reformed tradition, reformed christianity or the reformed faith) is a major branch of protestantism that follows the theological tradition and forms of christian practice of john calvin and other reformation-era theologians. calvinists broke with the roman catholic church but differed with lutherans on the real presence of christ in the eucharist, theories of worship, and the use of god's law for believers, among other things. calvinism can be a misleading term because the religious tradition it denotes is and has always been diverse, with a wide range of influences rather than a single founder. the movement was first called "calvinism" by lutherans who opposed it, and many within the tradition would prefer to use the word reformed. since the arminian controversy, the reformed (as a branch of protestantism distinguished from lutheranism) are divided into arminians and calvinists; however it is now rare to call arminians reformed, as many see these two schools of thought as opposed, making the terms calvinist and reformed synonymous.gonzalez, justo l. the story of christianity, vol. two: the reformation to the present day (new york: harpercollins, 1985; reprint – peabody: prince press, 2008) 180 reformed churches may exercise several forms of ecclesiastical polity. most are presbyterian or congregationalist, but some are episcopalian. while the reformed theological tradition addresses all of the tradition

Compact_space

[[file:compact.svg|thumb|upright=1.6|the interval a=(-\infty, -2] is not compact because it is not bounded. the interval c=(2,4) is not compact because it is not closed. the interval b=[0,1] is compact because it is both closed and bounded.]] in mathematics, and more specifically in general topology, compactness is a property that generalizes the notion of a subset of euclidean space being closed (that is, containing all its limit points) and bounded (that is, having all its points lie within some fixed distance of each other). examples include a closed interval, a rectangle, or even a finite set of points. this notion is extended to more general topological spaces in various ways. one such generalization is that a space is sequentially compact if any infinite sequence of points sampled from the space must frequently (infinitely often) get arbitrarily close to some point of the space. an equivalent definition is that every sequence of points must have an infinite subsequence that converges to some point of the space. the heine-borel theorem states that a subset of euclidean space is compact in this sequential sense if and only if it is closed and bounded. thus, if one chooses an infinite number of points in the closed unit interval [0,1], some of those points must get arbitrarily close to some real number in that space. for instance, some of the numbers accumulate to 0 (indeed, others accumulate to 1). the same set of points would not accumulate to any point of the open unit interval (0,1); so the open unit interval is not compact. euclidean space itself is not compact since it is not bounded. in particular, the sequence of points has no subsequence that converges to any given real number. apart from closed and bounded subsets of euclidean space, typical examples of compact spaces include spaces consisting not of geometrical points but of functions. the term compact was introduced into mathematics by maurice fréchet in 1904 as a distillation of this concept. compactness in this more general situation plays an extremely important role in mathematical analysis, because many classical and important theorems of 19th century analysis, such as the extreme value theorem, are easily generalized to this situation. a typical application is furnished by the arzelà–ascoli theorem or the peano existence theorem, in which one is able to conclude the existence of a function with some required properties as a limiting case of some more elementary construction. various equivalent notions of compactness, including sequential compactness and limit point compactness, can be developed in general [[metric

Continental_drift

thumb|300px|antonio snider-pellegrini's illustration of the closed and opened atlantic ocean (1858). continental drift is the movement of the earth's continents relative to each other, thus appearing to drift across the ocean bed.usgs: historical perspective on plate tectonics, last updated 19 september 2011 the speculation that continents might have 'drifted' was first put forward by abraham ortelius in 1596. the concept was independently and more fully developed by alfred wegener in 1912, but his theory was rejected by some for lack of a mechanism (though this was supplied later by holmes) and others because of prior theoretical commitments. the idea of continental drift has been subsumed by the theory of plate tectonics, which explains how the continents move.. in 1858 antonio snider-pellegrini created two maps demonstrating how america and africa continents may have once fit together, then seperated. ==history== ===early history=== abraham ortelius , theodor christoph lilienthal (1756), alexander von humboldt (1801 and 1845), antonio snider-pellegrini , and others had noted earlier that the shapes of continents on opposite sides of the atlantic ocean (most notably, africa and south america) seem to fit together. w. j. kious described ortelius' thoughts in this way: {{quote|abraham ortelius in his work thesaurus geographicus ... suggested that the americas were "torn away from europe and africa .

Craps

thumb|right|300px|example of playing dice used in craps craps is a dice game in which the players make wagers on the outcome of the roll, or a series of rolls, of a pair of dice. players may wager money against each other (playing "street craps", also known as "shooting dice" or "rolling dice") or a bank (playing "casino craps", also known as "table craps", or often just "craps"). because it requires little equipment, "street craps" can be played in informal settings. ==history== craps developed from a simplification of the early english game of "hazard". its origins are complex and may date to the crusades, later being influenced by french gamblers. what was to become the modern american version of the game was brought to new orleans by bernard xavier philippe de marigny de mandeville, a gambler and politician descended from wealthy louisiana landowners.bridges, tyler, bad bet in the bayou farrar, straus & giroux (2001) there was a flaw in bernard's version of the game in which players could exploit the casino using fixed dice and taking advantage of the way players can bet with or against the dice thrower. a man named john h. winn introduced the "don't pass" betting option in order to fix this problem and it is this version of craps that still exists today. the game, first known as crapaud (a french word meaning "toad" in reference to the original style of play by people crouched over a floor or sidewalk), reportedly owes its modern popularity to street craps.suckers progress; an informal history of gambling in america from the colonies to canfield. new york: dodd, mead & co. (1938) street craps may be played by rolling the dice against a back-stop, such as a curb or stair-stoop, or without a back-stop, at the choice of the players. during world war ii, street-style craps became popular among soldiers, who often played it using an army blanket as a shooting surface. with no backboard or sidewalk curb to hit against, this gave rise to presumed methods of dice control, of which the best was known as the "army blanket roll". ==casino craps== "casino craps" or "bank craps" is a game played by multiple or a single player betting against a casino. the players and casino employees stand or sit around a large oval "craps table." in most houses sitting at a craps table is discouraged unless the player is handicapped. ===the craps table=== in a casino, players make bets with chips on a specially made craps table with a "layout" â€“ a table cloth made of felt that displays the various betting possibilities, which vary somewhat in bet presence, position, and payout among casinos.{{cite web | url=http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=950&dat=19810425&id=p9faaaaaib

Charles_Robert_Malden

charles robert malden (9 august 1797 – 23 may 1855), was a nineteenth-century british naval officer, surveyor and educator. he is the discoverer of malden island in the central pacific, which is named in his honour. he also founded windlesham house school at brighton, england. ==biography== malden was born in putney, surrey, son of jonas malden, a surgeon. he entered british naval service at the age of 11 on 22 june 1809. he served nine years as a volunteer 1st class, midshipman, and shipmate, including one year in the english channel and bay of biscay (1809), four years at the cape of good hope and in the east indies (1809–14), two and a half years on the north american and west indian stations (1814–16), and a year and a half in the mediterranean (1817–18). he was present at the capture of mauritius and java, and at the battles of baltimore and new orleans. he passed the examination in the elements of mathematics and the theory of navigation at the royal naval academy on 2–4 september 1816, and became a 1st lieutenant on 1 september 1818. in eight years of active service as an officer, he served two and a half years in a surveying ship in the mediterranean (1818–21), one and a half years in a surveying sloop in the english channel and off the coast of ireland (1823–24), and one and a half years as surveyor of the frigate during a voyage (1824–26) to and from the hawaiian islands (then known as the "sandwich islands"). in hawaii he surveyed harbours which, he noted, were "said not to exist by captains cook and vancouver." on the return voyage he discovered and explored uninhabited malden island in the central p

Cyan

cyan ( or ) is a greenish-blue color and is one of the three primary colors of the subtractive cmyk color model.shorter oxford english dictionary, 5th edition, oxford university press, 2002. on the color wheels of the rgb (additive) and cmyk (subtractive) color models, it is located midway between blue and green, making it the complementary color of red. its name is derived from the ancient greek , transliterated kýanos, meaning "dark blue". it was formerly known as "cyan blue" or cyan-blueshorter oxford english dictionary, 5th edition. and its first recorded use of as a color name in english was in 1879.maerz and paul a dictionary of color new york:1930 mcgraw-hill page 194 further origins of the color name can be traced back to a dye produced from the cornflower (centaurea cyanus).the pigment compendium:

Charles_Sanders_Peirce

charles sanders peirce (,"peirce", in the case of c.s. peirce, always rhymes with the english-language word "terse" and so, in most dialects, is pronounced exactly like the english-language word "". see "note on the pronunciation of 'peirce'", peirce projec

Cornish_language

cornish (kernowek or kernewek) is a southwestern brittonic celtic language historically spoken by the cornish people. the language has undergone a revival in recent decades and is widely considered to be an important part of cornish identity, culture and heritage. it is a recognised minority language of the united kingdom, protected under the european charter for regional or minority languages, and has a growing number of speakers. along with welsh and breton, cornish is descended directly from the [[common

Cantor_set

in mathematics, the cantor set is a set of points lying on a single line segment that has a number of remarkable and deep properties. it was discovered in 1874 by henry john stephen smithhenry j.s. smith (1874) “on the integration of discontinuous functions.” proceedings of the london mathematical society, series 1, vol. 6, pages 140–153.the “cantor set” was also discovered by paul du bois-reymond (1831–1889). see footnote on page 128 of: paul du bois-reymond (1880) “der beweis des fundamentalsatzes der integralrechnung,” mathematische annalen, vol. 16, pages 115–128. the “cantor set” was also discovered in 1881 by vito volterra (1860–1940). see: vito volterra (1881) “alcune osservazioni sulle funzioni punteggiate discontinue” [some observations on point-wise discontinuous functions], giornale di matematiche, vol. 19, pages 76–86.josé ferreirós, labyrinth of thought: a history of set theory and its role in modern mathematics (basel, switzerland: birkhäuser verlag, 1999), pages 162–165.ian stewart, does god play dice?: the new mathematics of chaos and introduced by german mathematician georg cantor in 1883.georg cantor (1883) "Über unendliche, lineare punktmannigfaltigkeiten v" [on infinite, linear point-manifolds (sets)], mathematische annalen, vol. 21, pages 545–591.h.-o. peitgen, h. jürgens, and d. saupe, chaos and fractals: new frontiers of science 2nd ed. (n.y., n.y.: springer verlag, 2004), page 65. through consideration of this set, cantor and others helped lay the foundations of modern point-set topology. although cantor himself defined the set in a general, abstract way, the most common modern construction is the cantor ternary set, built by removing the middle thirds of a line segment. cantor himself only mentioned the ternary construction in passing, as an example of a more general idea, that of a perfect set that is nowhere dense. ==construction and formula of the ternary set== the cantor ternary set is created by repeatedly deleting the open middle third of a set of line segments. one starts by deleting the open middle third (, ) from the interval [0, 1], leaving two line segments: [0, ] ∪ [, 1]. next, the open middle third of each of these remaining segments is deleted, leaving four line segments: [0, ] ∪ [, ] ∪ [, ] ∪ [, 1]. this process is continued ad infinitum, where the nth set is : c_{n} = \frac{c_{n-1}}{3} \cup \left(\frac{2}{3}+\frac{c_{n-1}}{3}\right) and

Co-NP

in computational complexity theory, co-np is a complexity class. a decision problem {\mathcal{x}} is a member of co-np if and only if its complement \overline{\mathcal{x}} is in the complexity class np. in simple terms, co-np is the class of problems for which efficiently verifiable proofs of no instances, sometimes called counterexamples, exist. equivalently, co-np is the set of decision problems where the "no" instances can be accepted in polynomial time by a non-deterministic turing machine. an example of an np-complete problem is the subset sum problem: given a finite set of integers, is there a non-empty subset that sums to zero? to give a proof of a "yes" instance, one must specify a non-empty subset that does sum to zero. the complementary problem is in co-np and asks: "given a finite set of integers, does every non-empty subset have a non-zero sum?" this problem is not obviously seen to be in np. ==relationship to other classes== p, the class of polynomial time solvable problems, is a subset of both np and co-np. p is thought to be a strict subset in both cases (and demonstrably cannot be strict in one case and not strict in the other). np and co-np are also thought to be unequal. chap. 11. if so, then no np-complete problem can be in co-np and no co-np-complete problem can be in np. this can be shown as follows. suppose there exists an np-complete problem {\mathcal{x}} that is in co-np. since all problems in np can be reduced to {\mathcal{x}}, it follows that for every problem in np we can construct a non-deterministic turing machine that decides its complement in polynomial time, i.e., np ⊆ co-np. from this it follows that the set of complements of the problems in np is a subset of the set of complements of the problems in co-np, i.e., co-np ⊆ np. thus co-np = np. the proof that no co-np-complete problem can be in np, if np ≠ co-np is symmetrical. if a problem can be shown to be in both np and co-np, that is generally accepted as strong evidence that the problem is probably not np-complete (since otherwise np = co-np). an example of a problem that is known to belong to both np and in co-np is integer factorization: given positive integers m and n determine if m has a factor less than n and greater than

Convention_on_Biological_Diversity

the convention on biological diversity (cbd), known informally as the biodiversity convention, is a multilateral treaty. the convention has three main goals: #conservation of biological diversity (or biodiversity); #sustainable use of its components; and #fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from genetic resources in other words, its objective is to develop national strategies for the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity. it is often seen as the key document regarding sustainable development. the convention was opened for signature at the earth summit in rio de janeiro on 5 june 1992 and entered into force on 29 december 1993. 2010 was the international year of biodiversity. the secretariat of the convention on biological diversity is the focal point for the international year of biodiversity. at the 2010 10th conference of parties (cop) to the convention on biological diversity in october in nagoya, japan, the nagoya protocol was adopted.http://www.cbd.int/cop10/ on 22 december 2010, the un declared the period from 2011 to 2020 as the un-decade on biodiversity. they, hence, followed a recommendation of the cbd signatories during cop10 at nagoya in october 2010. ==about the convention== the convention recognized for the first time in international law that the conservation of biological diversity is "a common concern of humankind" and is an integral part of the development process. the agreement covers all ecosystems, species, and genetic resources. it links traditional conservation efforts to the economic goal of using biological resources sustainably. it sets principles for the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising from the use of genetic resources, notably those destined for commercial use. it also covers the rapidly expanding field of biotechnology through its cartagena protocol on biosafety, addressing technology development and transfer, benefit-sharing and biosafety issues. importantly, the convention is legally binding; countries that join it ('parties') are obliged to implement its provisions. the convention reminds decision-makers that natural resources are not infinite and sets out a

Context-sensitive_grammar

a context-sensitive grammar (csg) is a formal grammar in which the left-hand sides and right-hand sides of any production rules may be surrounded by a context of terminal and nonterminal symbols. context-sensitive grammars are more general than context-free grammars, in the sense that there are some languages that cannot be described by context-free grammars, but can be described by csg. context-sensitive grammars are however less general (in the same sense of the term) than unrestricted grammars, i.e. csg occupy the intermediate position between context-free and unrestricted grammars in the chomsky hierarchy. a formal language that can be described by a context-sensitive grammar, or, equivalently, by a noncontracting grammar or a linear bounded automaton, is called a context-sensitive language. some textbooks actually define csg as non-contracting, although this is not how noam chomsky defined it in 1959. this choice of definition makes no difference in terms of the languages generated (i.e. the two definitions are weakly equivalent), but it does make a difference in terms of what grammars are structurally considered context-sensitive; the later issue was analyzed by chomsky in 1963.chomsky, n. 1963. formal properties of grammar. handbook of mathematical psychology. r.d. luce, r.r.

Claudio_Monteverdi

thumb|220px|claudio monteverdi tombstone in the church santa maria gloriosa dei frari in venice claudio giovanni antonio monteverdi (; 15 may 1567 (baptized) – 29 november 1643) was an italian composer, gambist, singer and roman catholic priest. monteverdi's work, often regarded as revolutionary, marked the transition from the renaissance style of music to that of the baroque period.halsey, william d., ed. collier's encyclopedia. vol. 16. new york: macmillan educational company, 1991. he developed two individual styles of composition – the heritage of renaissance polyphony and the new basso continuo technique of the baroque.ringer, mark. opera's first master: the musical dramas of claudio monteverdi. canada: amadeus press, 2006. monteverdi wrote one of the earliest operas, l'orfeo, an innovative work that is the earliest surviving opera that is still regularly performed. he was recognized as an innovative composer and enjoyed considerable fame in his lifetime. == life == claudio monteverdi was born in 1567 in cremona, lombardy. his father was baldassare monteverdi, a doctor, apothecary and amateur surgeon.halsey, william d., ed. collier's encyclopedia. vol. 16 new york: macmillan educational company, 1991. he was the oldest of five children.redlich, h. f. claudio monteverdi: life and work. london: oxford university press, 1952, . during his childhood, he was taught by marc'antonio ingegneri,redlich, h. f. claudio monteverdi: life and work. london: oxford university press, 1952. the maestro di cappella at the cathedral of cremona.schrade, leo. monteverdi: creator of modern music. new york: w. w. norton & company, 1950, . the maestro’s job was to conduct important worship services in accordance with the liturgy of the catholic church.whenham, john, ed. the cambridge companion to monteverdi. cambridge: cambridge university press, 2007, . monteverdi learned about music as a member of the cathedral choir.schrade, leo. monteverdi: creator of modern music. new york: w. w. norton & company, 1950, . he also studied at the university of cremona. his first music was written for pu

Christmas

christmas or christmas day (, meaning "christ's mass") is an annual festival commemorating the birth of jesus christ,christmas, merriam-webster. retrieved 2008-10-06.archived 2009-10-31.martindale, cyril charles.[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03724b.htm "chr

Carl_Menger

carl menger (; february 23, 1840 – february 26, 1921) was the founder of the austrian school of economics. menger contributed to the development of the theory of marginalism, (marginal utility), which rejected the cost-of-production theories of value, such as were developed by the classical economists such as adam smith and david ricardo. == biography == menger was born in nowy sącz in austrian galicia, now in poland. he was the son of a wealthy family of minor nobility; his father, anton, was a lawyer. his mother, caroline, was the daughter of a wealthy bohemian merchant. he had two brothers, anton and max, both prominent as lawyers. his son, karl menger, was a mathematician who taught for many years at illinois institute of technology. after attending gymnasium he studied law at the universities of prague and vienna and later received a doctorate in jurisprudence from the jagiellonian university in kraków. in the 1860s menger left school and enjoyed a stint as a journalist reporting and analyzing market news, first at the lemberger zeitung in lwów, ukraine and later at the wiener zeitung in vienna. during the course of his newspaper work he noticed a discrepancy between what the classical economics he was taught in school said about price determination and what real world market participants believed. in 1867 menger began a study of political economy which culminated in 1871 with the publication of his principles of economics (grundsätze der volkswirtschaftslehre), thus becoming the father of the austrian school of economic thought. it was in this work that he challenged classical cost-based theories o

Chemical_reaction

a chemical reaction is a process that leads to the transformation of one set of chemical substances to another. classically, chemical reactions encompass changes that only involve the positions of electrons in the forming and breaking of chemical bonds between atoms, with no change to the nuclei (no change to the elements present), and can often be described by a chemical equation. nuclear chemistry is a sub-discipline of chemistry that involves the chemical reactions of unstable and radioactive elements where both electronic and nuclear changes may occur. the substance (or substances) initially involved in a chemical reaction are called reactants or reagents. chemical reactions are usually characterized by a chemical change, and they yield one or more products, which usually have properties different from the reactants. reactions often consist of a sequence of individual sub-steps, the so-called elementary reactions, and the information on the precise course of action is part of the reaction mechanism. chemical reactions are described with chemical equations, which graphically present the starting materials, end products, and sometimes intermediate products and reaction conditions. chemical reactions happen at a characteristic reaction rate at a given temperature and chemical concentration, and rapid reactions are often described as spontaneous, requiring no input of extra energy other than thermal energy. non-spontaneous reactions run so slowly that they are considered to require the input of some type of additional energy (such as extra heat, light or electricity) in order to proceed to completion (chemical equilibrium) at human time scales. different chemical reactions are used in combinations during chemical synthesis in order to obtain a desired product. in biochemistry, a similar series of chemical reactions form metabolic pathways. these reactions are often catalyzed by protein enzymes. these enzymes increase the rates of biochemical reactions, so that metabolic syntheses and decompositions impossible under ordinary conditions may be performed at the temperatures and concentrations present within a cell. the general concept of a chemical reaction has been extended to reactions between entities smaller than atoms, including nuclear reactions, radioactive decays, and reactions between elementary particles as described by quantum field theory. ==history== chemical reactions such as combustion in the fir

Cambridgeshire

cambridgeshire ( or ; also known, archaically, as the county of cambridge; abbreviated cambs.) is a county in england, bordering lincolnshire to the north, norfolk to the north-east, suffolk to the east, essex and hertfordshire to the south, and bedfordshire and northamptonshire to the west. the city of cambridge is the county town. modern cambridgeshire was formed on 1 april 1974 as an amalgamation of the counties of cambridgeshire and isle of ely and huntingdon and peterborough, which had been created on 1 april 1965 from the historic counties of cambridgeshire, huntingdonshire, the isle of ely and the soke of peterborough. it contains most of the region known as silicon fen. cambridgeshire is twinned with [[viersen (district)|k

Cayuga_Lake

cayuga lake ( or )  is the longest of central new york's glacial finger lakes, and is the second largest in surface area (marginally smaller than seneca lake) and second largest in volume. it is just under 40 miles (64 km) long. its average width is 1.7 miles (2.7 km), and it is at its widest point near aurora. it is approximately at its deepest point. ==location== the city of ithaca, new york, site of ithaca college and cornell university, is located at the southern end of cayuga lake. villages and settlements along the east shore of cayuga lake include myers, king ferry, aurora, levanna, union springs, and cayuga. settlements along the west shore of the lake include sheldrake, poplar beach, and canoga. the lake has one small island near union springs, frontenac island. it is one of only two islands in the finger lakes, the other being squaw island in canandaigua lake. ===geographical characteristics=== cayuga lake is located at ; above sea level. its depth, steep east and west sides with shallow north and south ends is typical of the finger lakes, as they were carved by glaciers during the last ice age. *length: *average width: *maximum depth: *surface area: *mean depth: *catchment area: 2,033 km² (37.1% natural forest, 58% active agricultural) *main islands: 1, frontena

Water_(classical_element)

water is one of the elements in ancient greek philosophy, in the asian indian system panchamahabhuta, and in the chinese cosmological and physiological system wu xing. in contemporary esoteric traditions, it is commonly associated with the qualities of emotion and intuition. ==greek and roman tradition== water was one of many archai proposed by the pre-socratics, most of whom tried to reduce all things to a single substance. however, empedocles of acragas (c. 495-c. 435 bc) selected four archai for his four roots: air, fire, water and earth. empedocles roots became the four classical elements of greek philosophy. plato (427-347 bc) took over the four elements of empedocles. in the timaeus, his major cosmological dialogue, the platonic solid associated with water is the icosahedron which is formed from twenty equilateral triangles. this makes water the element with the greatest number of sides, which plato regarded as appropriate because water flows out of one's hand when picked up, as if it is made of tiny little balls.plato, timaeus, chap. 22-23; gregory vlastos, plato’s universe, pp. 66-82. plato’s student aristotle (384-322 bc) developed a different explanation for the elements based on pairs of qualities. the four elements were arranged concentrically around the center of the universe to form the sublunary sphere. according to aristotle, water is both cold and wet and occupies a place between air and earth among the elemental spheres.g. e. r. lloyd, aristotle, chapters 7-8. in ancient greek medicine, each of the four humours became associated with an element. phlegm was the humor identified with water, since both were cold and wet. other things associated with water and phlegm in ancient and medieval medicine included the season of winter, since it increased the qualities of cold and moisture; the phlegmatic temperament, the feminine, the brain and the western point of the compass. in alchemy, the chemical element of mercury was often associated with water and its alchemical symbol was a downward-pointing triangle. ==indian tradition== ap () is the vedic sanskrit term for water, in classical sanskrit occurring only in the plural is not an element.v, (sometimes r

Church_(building)

a church building, often simply called a church, is a building used for religious activities, particularly worship services. the term in its architectural sense is most often used by christians to refer to their religious buildings but can be used by other religions.use of the term "the manichaean church", encyclopedia britannica in traditional christian architecture, the church is often arranged in the shape of a christian cross. when viewed from plan view the longest part of a cross is represented by the aisle and the junction of the cross is located at the altar area. towers or domes are often added with the intention of directing the eye of the viewer towards the heavens and inspiring church visitors. modern church buildings have a variety of architectural styles and layouts; many buildings that were designed for other purposes have now been converted for church use; and, similarly, many original church buildings have been put to other uses. the earliest identified christian church was founded between 233 and 256. during the 11th through 14th centuries, a wave of building of cathedrals and smaller parish churches occurred across western europe. a cathedral is a church, usually roman catholic, anglican, oriental orthodox or eastern orthodox, housing the seat of a bishop. ==etymology==

Carolyn_Beug

carolyn ann mayer-beug (december 11, 1952 – september 11, 2001) was a filmmaker and video producer from santa monica, california. she died in the september 11 attacks. ==career== in addition to her work as video producer, beug also directed three music videos for country singer dwight yoakam: "ain't that lonely yet", "a thousand miles from nowhere" and "fast as you." beug co-directed the former two videos with yoakam and was the sole director of the latter video. she won an award for the van halen music video of the song "right now", which she produced. ==personal life== beug lived in a tudor-style home in the north 25th street neighborhood. she hosted an annual backyard barbecue for the santa monica high school cross country and track team, which her daughters captained. beug was a latter day saint. ==death and legacy== beug was killed at the age of 48 in the crash of american airlines flight 11 in the september 11, 2001 attacks. at the time of her death, carolyn beug was working on a children's book about noah's ark which was to be told from noah's wife's point of view. on the plane with her was her mother, mary alice wahlstrom. beug was survived by her twin eighteen-year-old daughters lauren and lindsey mayer-beug, her 13-year-old son, nick, and her husband, john beug, a senior vice president in charge of filmed production for warner brothers' record division. she was returning home from taking her daughters to college at the rhode island school of design. at the national 9/11 memorial, beug is memorialized at the north pool, on panel n-1.carolyn mayer beug. memorial guide: national 9/11 memorial. retrieved december 11, 2011. ==references== ==external links== *internet movie database profile *van halen news desk article {{persondata | name = beug, carolyn | alter

Chloramphenicol

chloramphenicol (inn) is an antibiotic useful for the treatment of a number of bacterial infections. it is a bacteriostatic; it became available in 1949. it is considered a prototypical broad-spectrum antibiotic, alongside the tetracyclines, and as it is both cheap and easy to manufacture, it is frequently an antibiotic of choice in the developing world. chloramphenicol, also known as chlornitromycin, is effective against a wide variety of gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria, including most anaerobic organisms. due to resistance and safety concerns, it is no longer a first-line agent for any infection in developed nations, with the notable exception of topical treatment of bacterial conjunctivitis. nevertheless, the global problem of advancing bacterial resistance to newer drugs has led to renewed interest in its use.{{cite journal | author = falagas, m. e.; grammatik

Convention_of_Kanagawa

on march 31, 1854, the or was concluded between commodore matthew c. perry of the united states navy and the tokugawa shogunate. ==treaty of peace and amity (1854)== the treaty opened the japanese ports of shimoda and hakodate to united states trade and guaranteed the safety of shipwrecked us sailors; however, the treaty did not create a basis for establishing a permanent residence in these locations."from washington; the japanese treaty-its advantages and disadvantages-the president and col. rinney, &c.," new york times. october 18, 1855. the treaty did establish a foundation for the americans to maintain a permanent consul in shimoda. the arrival of the fleet would trigger the end of japan's 200 year policy of seclusion (sakoku).*perry, matthew calbraith. (1856). narrative of the expedition of an american squadron to the china seas and japan, 1856. thumb|english text of the kanagawa treaty perry initially refused to deal with local japanese officials and demanded to speak only with representatives of the japanese head of state. at the time, shogun tokugawa ieyoshi was the de facto ruler of japan; for the emperor to interact in any way with foreigners was out of the question. perry concluded the treaty with representatives of the shogun, led by plenipotentiary and the text was reluctantly endorsed subsequently by emperor komei.cullen, louis m. (2003). a history of japan, 1582-1941: internal and external worlds, p. 173-185. the treaty was ratified on 21 february 1855.diplomatic record office of the ministry of foreign affairs (japan) exhibit. ==later treaties== the kanagawa treaty was followed by the united states-japan treaty of kanagawa, the "harris

Cygnus_(constellation)

cygnus is a northern constellation lying on the plane of the milky way, deriving its name from the latinized greek word for swan. the swan is one of the most recognizable constellations of the northern summer and autumn, it features a prominent asterism known as the northern cross (in contrast to the southern cross). cygnus was among the 48 constellations listed by the 2nd century astronomer ptolemy, and it remains one of the 88 modern constellations. cygnus contains deneb, one of the brightest stars in the night sky and one corner of the summer triangle, as well as some notable x-ray sources and the giant stellar association of cygnus ob2. one of the stars of this association, nml cygni, is one of the largest stars currently known. the constellation is also home to cygnus x-1, an distant x-ray binary containing a supergiant and unseen massive companion that was the first object widely held to be a black hole. many star systems in cygnus have known planets as a result of the kepler mission observing one patch of the sky, the patch is the area around cygnus. in addition, most of the eastern part of cygnus is dominated by the hercules–corona borealis great wall, a giant galaxy filament that is the largest known structure in the observable universe; covering most of the northern sky. == history and mythology == in greek mythology, cygnus has been identified with several different legendary swans. zeus disguised himself as a swan to seduce leda, spartan king tyndareus's wife, who gave birth to the gemini, helen of troy and clytemnestra;{{sf

Clarinet

the clarinet is a family of woodwind instruments that have a single-reed mouthpiece, a straight cylindrical tube with an approximately cylindrical bore, and a flaring bell. a person who plays any type of clarinet is called a clarinetist or clarinettist. the word clarinet may have entered the english language via the french clarinette (the feminine diminutive of old french clarin or clarion), or from provençal clarin, "oboe". it "is plainly a diminutive of clarino, the italian for trumpet", and the italian clarinetto is the source of the name in many other languages. according to johann gottfried walther, writing in 1732, the reason for the name is that "it sounded from far off not unlike a trumpet". the english form clarinet is found as early as 1733, and the now-archaic clarionet appears from 1784 until the early years of the 20th century.rendall 1971, p. 1–2, 69. there are some different types of clarinets of differing sizes and pitches. the unmodified word clarinet usually refers to the b soprano clarinet, by far the most common type, which has a large range of nearly four octaves. the clarinet family is the largest woodwind family, with more than a dozen types, ranging from the (extremely rare) bbb octo-contrabass to the a piccolo clarinet. of these, many are rare or obsolete (there is only one bbb octo-contrabass clarinet in existence, for example), and music written for them is usually played on more common versions of the instrument. johann christoph denner invented the clarinet in germany around the turn of the 18th century by adding a register key to the earlier chalumeau. over time, additional keywork and airtight pads were added to improve tone and playability. today, the clarinet is commonly used

Colonna_family

right|thumb|arms of the colonna family. the colonna family is an italian noble family; it was powerful in medieval and renaissance rome, supplying one pope and many other church and political leaders. their family is notable for their bitter feud with the orsini family over influence in rome until it was stopped by papal bull in 1511; in 1571 the chiefs of both families married nieces of pope sixtus v. thereafter, historians recorded that, "no peace had been concluded between the princes of christendom, in which they had not been included by name". history of the popes; their church and state (volume iii) by leopold von ranke (wellesley college library, reprint; 2009) ==family history== === early history === according to tradition, the colonna are a branch of the counts of tusculum — by peter (1099–1151) son of gregory iii, called peter "de columna" from his property, the columna castle, in colonna, alban hills. the first cardinal from the family was appointed in 1206 when giovanni colonna di carbognano was made cardinal deacon of ss. cosma e damiano.werner maleczek, papst und kardinalskolleg von 1191 bis 1216, vienna 1984, p. 154-155 for many years, cardinal giovanni di san paolo (elevated in 1193) was identified as member of the colonna family and therefore its first representative in the college of cardinals, but modern scholars have established that this was based on the false information from the beginning of 16th century.helene tillmann, "ricerche sull'origine dei membri del collegio cardinalizio nel xii secolo. ii/2. identificazione dei cardinali del secolo xii di provenienza romana", rivista di storia della chiesa in italia, 1975, p. 401-402 giovanni colonna (1206 c.http://books.google.com/books?id=aifcn2smn9cc&pg=pa17#v=onepage&q&f=false accessed 2-24-2013- ), nephew of cardinal giovanni colonna di carbognano, made his solemn vows as a dominican c. 1228 and received his theological and philosophical training at the roman studium of santa sabina, the forerunner of the pontifical university of saint thomas aquinas, angelicum. he served as the provincial of the roman province of the dominican order and led the provincial chapter of 1248 at anagni.http://books.google.com/books?id=bm6wwpzorcac&pg=pa267#v=onepage&q&f=false accessed 2-25-2013 colonna was appointed as archbishop of messina in 1255.fra giovanni colonna by antonio n. di stefano, 1995, 30-31, http://books.google.com/books?id=aifcn2smn9cc&pg=pa31#v=onepage&q&f=false accessed 2-24-2013 at this time a rivalry began with the pro-pap

Charles_Proteus_Steinmetz

charles proteus steinmetz (april 9, 1865 – october 26, 1923) was a german-born american mathematician and electrical engineer. he fostered the development of alternating current that made possible the expansion of the electric power industry in the united states, formulating mathematical theories for engineers. he made ground-breaking discoveries in the understanding of hysteresis that enabled engineers to design better electromagnetic apparatus equipment including especially electric motors for use in industry. ==biography== steinmetz was born on april 9, 1865 as karl august rudolph steinmetz into a jewish family in breslau, province of silesia. steinmetz suffered from dwarfism, hunchback, and hip dysplasia, as did his father and grandfather. steinmetz attended johannes gymnasium and astonished his teachers with his proficiency in mathematics and physics. [[file:steinmetz cabin.jpg|thumb|steinme

Country_Liberal_Party

the northern territory country liberal party (clp) is a northern territory political partynt country liberal party, current register of political parties australian electoral commission, 29 may 2009. retrieved 17 august 2009. affiliated with both the national (formerly "country") and liberal parties of australia. the clp contests seats for the coalition in the northern territory rather than the liberal or national parties. the clp dominated the northern territory legislative assembly from its establishment in 1974 until 2001. however, it lost government in 2001 and was reduced to four parliamentary members in 2005. at 9 august 2008 legislative assembly general election it gained a significant swing, gaining 11 out of the 25 seats. the country liberals returned to office following the 2012 legislative assembly general election, with 16 out of the 25 seats, and leader terry mills became chief minister of the northern territory. mills was replaced as clp leader in march 2013 and adam giles became leader of the party and territory chief minister. giles was the first indigenous australian to lead a state or territory government in australia.http://www.abc.net.au/news/2013-03-13/terry-mills-dumped-as-nt-leader/4570820 the country liberal party competed in their first federal election in 1975. senator nigel scullion and solomon mp natasha griggs are the clp's only two representatives in federal parliament. scullion is the senate leader of the national party, while griggs sits

County_Dublin

county dublin ( or contae Átha cliath) is a county in ireland. it is sometimes officially referred to as the dublin region and is in the province of leinster. it is named after the city of dublin, which is the regional capital and the capital city of ireland. county dublin was one of the first parts of ireland to be shired by king john of england following the norman invasion of ireland. prior to 1994 county dublin was an administrative county run by a county council with functional area covering the whole county excluding the functional area of dublin city council. in 1994 dublin county council was abolished and replaced with three separate administrative county councils: dún laoghaire–rathdown, fingal and south dublin. the population of the county was 1,270,603 according to the census of 2011.census of population 2011: preliminary results, central statistics office. retrieved 30 october 20

Cessna

the cessna aircraft company is an american general aviation aircraft manufacturing corporation headquartered in wichita, kansas. best known for small, piston-powered aircraft, cessna also produces business jets. the company is a subsidiary of the u.s. conglomerate textron. in march 2014 cessna became a brand of textron aviation. ==history== * june 1911: clyde cessna, a farmer in rago, kansas, built and flew his own aircraft, the first person to do so between the mississippi river and the rocky mountains. cessna started his wood-and-fabric aircraft ventures in enid, oklahoma, testing many of his early planes on the salt flats. when bankers in enid refused to lend him more money to build his planes, he moved to wichita.article in "enid news" * 1927: cessna aircraft was formed when clyde cessna and victor roos became partners in the cessna-roos aircraft company. roos resigned just one month into the partnership selling back his interest to cessna. in the same year, the kansas secretary of state approved dropping roos's name from the company name.history of cessna 1927 * 29 october 192

Carthage

thumb|258px|downfall of the carthaginian empire the city of carthage () is a city in tunisia and was the cen

Cleveland_Browns

{{infobox nfl team | name=cleveland browns | current=2014 cleveland browns season | logo=cleveland browns logo, 2006 to present.svg | helmet= | founded= | nickname=browns | city=firstenergy stadiumcleveland, ohio | misc=headquartered in the cleveland brownstraining and administrative complexberea, ohio | uniform=250px | colors= seal brown, burnt orange, white | mascot=chomps, swagger | coach=mike pettine | owner=jimmy haslam | president=alec scheiner | general manager=ray farmer | hist_yr=1999 | hist_misc= * cleveland browns (1946–95) * suspended operations (1996–98) | affiliate_old= all-america football conference (1946–49) * western division (1946–48) | nfl_start_yr=1950 | division_hist= * american conference (1950–52) * eastern conference (1953–69) ** century division (1967–69) * american football conference (1970–95; 1999–present) ** afc central (1970–95; 1999–2001) ** afc north (2002–present) | no_league_champs=8 | no_conf_champs=11 | no_div_champs=13 | league_champs= * aafc championships (4)1946, 1947, 1948, 1949 * nfl championships (4)1950, 1954, 1955, 1964 | conf_champs= * nfl american: , , * nfl eastern: 1953, 1954, 1955, 1957, 1964, 1965, 1968, 1969 | div_champs= * aafc western: 1946, 1947, 1948, 1949 * nfl century: 1967, 1968, 1969 * afc central: 1971, 1980, 1985, 1986, 1987, 1989. | stadium_years= * cleveland municipal stadium (1946–95) * firstenergy stadium (formerly cleveland browns stadium) (1999–present) | playoff_appearances= * aafc: 1946, 1947, 1948, 1949 * nfl: 1950, 1951, 1952, 1953, 1954

Cruise_missile

a cruise missile is a guided missile, the major portion of whose flight path to its target (a land-based or sea-based target) is conducted at approximately constant velocity; that relies on the dynamic reaction of air for lift, and upon propulsion forces to balance drag. cruise missiles are designed to deliver a large warhead over long distances with high accuracy. modern cruise missiles can travel at supersonic or high subsonic speeds, are self-navigating, and can fly on a non-ballistic, extremely low altitude trajectory. they are distinct from unmanned aerial vehicles (uav) in that they are used only as weapons and not for reconnaissance. in a cruise missile, the warhead is integrated into the vehicle and the vehicle is always sacrificed in the mission. cruise missile designs fundamentally derive from the german v-1 of world war ii. advances in transistor and computer technology have contributed to self-correcting avionic and aeronautical designs that allow missiles to be guided in flight, as opposed to only at launch. these advances developed into guided missiles and guided bombs, and later into the modern cruise missile. in 2011, it was estimated that a single tomahawk cruise missile costs us$1,410,000.http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/03/25/cruise-missiles-missile_n_840365.html cruise missiles: the million-dollar weapon == history == the idea of an "aerial torpedo" was shown in the british 1909 film the airship destroyer, where flying torpedoes controlled wirelessly are used to bring down airships bombing london. in 1916, lawrence sperry patented and built an "aerial torpedo", a small biplane carrying a tnt charge, a sperry autopilot and a barometric altitude control. inspired by these experiments, the us army developed a similar flying bomb called the kettering bug. germany had also flown trials with remote-controlled aerial gliders (torpedogleiter) build by siemens-schuckert beginning in 1915. in the period between the world wars the united kingdom developed the larynx (long range gun with lynx engine) which underwent a few flight tests in the 1920s.[http://www.vect

Chaosium

chaosium is one of the longer lived publishers of role-playing games still in existence. founded by greg stafford, its first game was a wargame, white bear and red moon, which was later reworked to become dragon pass and its sequel, nomad gods. white bear and red moon is notable for containing the first published material about glorantha, later used as the primary setting for the role-playing games runequest, hero wars and heroquest. chaosium is the publisher of call of cthulhu, based on the stories of h.p. lovecraft. == background == the rules of runequest, chaosium's first role-playing game, were distilled down into a generic, genre-neutral format known as basic role-playing (brp). these generic rules formed the basis of many of chaosium's later rpgs, such as call of cthulhu, stormbringer, nephilim, and ringworld. chaosium and greg stafford are also responsible for pendragon, an arthurian rpg now published by white wolf, inc.'s arthaus imprint after a spell with green knight publishing. other games of note include thieves' world, mythos, elfquest, worlds of wonder, superworld, hawkmoon, stormbringer, and prince valiant: the story-telling game. several notable rpg authors have written material for chaosium, including steve perrin, sandy petersen, lynn willis, keith herber, david conyers, ken st. andre, and arduin creator david a. hargrave. == magazines == three magazines, until recently all of them defunct, had been published by chaosium to promote its products: * wyrm's footnotes ran for fourteen issues from 1976 to 1995. initially it was a supporting material publication for white bear and red moon but for its 11th issue, in 1981, it had become the official runequest magazine.wyrm's footnotes review, by shannon appelclinethe magazine was revived in 2012

Yangtze

{{geobox|river | name = yangtze river |native_name = | other_name = chang jiang, yangzi | category = | category_hide = 1 | etymology = | nickname = | image = dusk on the yangtze river.jpg | image_caption = dusk on the yangtze river | image_size = 300 | country = china | province = qinghai | province1 = tibet | province2 = yunnan | province3 = sichuan | province4 = chongqing | province5 = hubei | province6 = hunan | province7 = jiangxi | province8 = anhui | province9 = jiangsu | province10 = shanghai | region = | district = | municipality = | parent = | tributary_left = yalong | tributary_left1 = min | tributary_left2 = tuo | tributary_left3 = jialing | tributary_left4 = han | tributary_right = wu | tributary_right1 = yuan | tributary_right2 = zi | tributary_right3 = xiang | tributary_right4 = gan | tributary_right5 = huangpu | city = yibin | city1 = luzhou | city2 = chongqing | city3 = wanzhou | city4 = yichang | city5 = jingzhou | city6 = yueyang | city7 = wuhan | city8 = jiujiang | city9 = anqing | city10 = tongling | city11 = wuhu | city12 = nanjing | city13 = zhenjiang | city14 = nantong | city15 = shanghai | landmark = | source = geladaindong peak | source_location = tanggula mountains | source_region = qinghai | source_country = | source_elevation = 5042 | source_lat_d = 33| source_lat_m = 25| source_lat_s = 44| source_lat_ns =n | source_long_d = 91| source_long_m =10 | source_long_s = 57| source_long_ew =e | mouth = east china sea | mouth_location = shanghai| mouth_region = and jiangsu | mouth_country = | mouth_lat_d = 31| mouth_lat_m = 23| mouth_lat_s = 37| mouth_lat_ns =n | mouth_long_d = 121| mouth_long_m =58 | mouth_long_s =59 | mouth_long_ew =e | length = 6300 | length_note = encyclopaedia britannica: yangtze river http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9110538/yangtze-river | width = | depth = | volume = | watershed = 1808500 | watershed_note = | discharge = 30166 | discharge_note = | discharge_max = 110000 | discharge_max_note = https://probeinternat

Children_of_Dune

children of dune is a 1976 science fiction novel by frank herbert, third in a series of six novels set in his dune universe. initially selling over 75,000 copies, it became the first hardcover best-seller ever in the science fiction field. the novel was critically well-received for its gripping plot, action, and atmosphere,{{cite news|url=http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=fb0b15fb3454157a93c3a91783d85f428785f9&scp=52&sq=gerald+jonas&st=p|title=of things to come| first=gerald |last=jonas|work=the new york times|date=august 1, 1976|page=176|quote=to appreciate frank herbert's achievement in the dune trilogy, which concludes with children of dune you have to be a devotee of obsession ... herbert's vision of a people forced by circumstance into total ecological awareness is worked out in convincing details ... what sets these books apart from their competitors is the obsessive quality of herbert's imagination ... to read the dune trilogy is to plunge into someone else's obsession ... virtually every page in the trilogy contains a sentence that hints at the momentousness of the events being described. this is where the religiosity comes in. herbert keeps interrupting the action with quotes from made-up sources that reinforce the atmosphere of millennial conflict and resolution. taken out of context, these passages sound silly, like the words of wisdom spoken by oriental sages on a tv sound stage ... but the whole point of an obsession is that it cannot be criticized from the outside; what distinguishes a successful obsessional tale from a failure that the reader is held, like coleridge's wedding guest, so that 'he cannot choose but hear', no matter

Croquet

thumb|modern croquet equipment croquet is a sportthe croquet association (ca), the national governing body for the sport of croquet in england, wales, northern ireland, the channel islands and the isle of manoxford croquet.com, "croquet is a satisfying sport utilising tactics and touch in equal measure" that involves hitting plastic or wooden balls with a mallet through hoops (often called "wickets" in the united states) embedded in a grass playing court. ==history== the oldest document to bear the word croquet with a description of the modern game is the set of rules registered by isaac spratt in november 1856 with the stationers' company in london. this record is now in the english public records office. in 1868 the first croquet all-comers' meeting was held at moreton-in-marsh, gloucestershire and in the same year the all england croquet club was formed at wimbledon, london. in the book queen of games: the history of croquet, nicky smith presents two theories of the origin of the modern game that took england by storm in the 1860s and then spread overseas. the first explanation is that the ancestral game was introduced to britain from france during the reign of charles ii of england, and was played under the name of paille-maille or pall mall, derived ultimately from latin words for "ball and mallet". this was the explanation given in the ninth edition of encyclopaedia britannica, dated 1877. in his 1810 book the sports and pastimes of the people of england, joseph strutt describes the way pall mall was played in england in the early 17th century: "pale-maille is a game wherein a round box ball is struck with a mallet through a high arch of iron, which he that can do at the fewest blows, or at the number agreed upon, wins. it is to be observed, that there are two of these arches, that is one at either end of the alley. the game of mall was a fashionable amusement in the reign of charles the second, and the walk in saint james's park, now called the mall, received its name from having been appropriated to the purpose of play

Codec

a codec is a device or computer program capable of encoding or decoding a digital data stream or signal. the word codec is a portmanteau of "coder-decoder" or, less commonly, "compressor-decompressor". a codec (the program) should not be confused with a coding or compression format or standard – a format is a document (the standard), a way of storing data, while a codec is a program (an implementation) which can read or write such files. in practice, however, "codec" is sometimes used loosely to refer to formats. a codec encodes a data stream or signal for transmission, storage or encryption, or decodes it for playback or editing. codecs are used in videoconferencing, streaming media and video editing applications. a video camera's analog-to-digital converter (adc) converts its analog signals into digital signals, which are then passed through a video compressor for digital transmission or storage. a receiving device then runs the signal through a video decompressor, then a digital-to-analog converter (dac) for analog display. the term codec is also used as a generic name for a videoconferencing unit. == related concepts == an endec (encoder/decoder) is a similar yet different concept mainly used for hardware. in the mid 20th century, a "codec" was hardware that coded analog signals into pulse-code modulation (pcm) and decoded them back. late in the century the name came to be applied to a class of software for converting among digital signal formats, and including compander functions. a modem is a contraction of modulator/demodulator (although they were referred to as "datasets" by telcos) and converts digital data from computers to analog for phone line transmission. on the receiving end the analog is converted back to digital. codecs do the opposite (convert audio analog to digital and then computer digital sound back to audio). an audio codec converts analog audio signals into digital signals for transmission or storage. a receiving device then converts the digital signa

Caribbean_cuisine

caribbean cuisine is a fusion of african,"cuisine." (caribbean.) bahamabreeze.com. accessed july 2011. amerindian, european, east indian, arab and chinese cuisine. these traditions were brought from many different countries when they came to the caribbean. in addition, the population has created styles that are unique to the region. ingredients which are common in most islands' dishes are rice, plantains, beans, cassava, cilantro (coriander), bell peppers, chickpeas, tomatoes, sweet potatoes, coconut, and any of various meats that are locally available like beef, poultry, pork or fish. a characteristic seasoning for the region is a green herb and oil based marinade which imparts a flavor profile which is quintessentially caribbean in character. ingredients may include garlic, onions, scotch bonnet peppers, celery, green onions, and herbs like cilantro, marjoram, rosemary, tarragon and thyme. this green seasoning is used for a variety of dishes like curries, stews and roasted meats.caribbean green seasoning recipe traditional dishes are so important to regional culture that, for example, the local version of caribbean goat stew has been chosen as the official national dish of montserrat and is also one of the signature dishes of st. kitts and nevis. another popular dish in the anglophone caribbean is called "cook-up", or pelau. ackee and salt fish is another popular dish that is unique to jamaica. callaloo is a dish containing leafy vegetables and sometimes okra amongst others, widely distributed in the caribbean, with a distinctively mixed african and indigenous character. the variety of dessert dishes in the area also reflects the mixed origins of the recipes. in some areas, black cake, a derivative of english christmas pudding may be served, especially on special occasions. ==by location== * anguillan cuisine * antigua and barbuda cuisine * aruban cuisine * haitian cuisine * barbadian cuisine * bahamian cuisine * belizean cuisine * [[culture of the cayman isl

Communications_in_Afghanistan

communications in afghanistan is under the control of the ministry of communications and information technology (mcit). it has rapidly expanded after the karzai administration took over in late 2001, and has embarked on wireless companies, internet, radio stations and television channels. the afghan government signed a $64.5 agreement in 2006 with china's zte on the establishment of a countrywide optical fiber cable network. the project began to improve telephone, internet, television and radio broadcast services throughout afghanistan. as of 2014, about 90% of the country's population has access to communication services. there are about 18 million mobile phone users in the country. etisalat, roshan, afghan wireless and mtn are the leading telecom companies. etisalat became the first company to launch 4g services in 2014. it is predicted that over 50% of the population will have access to the internet by 2015. in 2014, afghanistan leased a space satellite from eutelsat, called afghansat 1. ==telephone== there are about 18 million gsm mobile phone subscribers in afghanistan as of 2009, with over 75,000 fixed-telephone-lines and little over 190,000 cdma subscribers.whitepages.af, phone system in afghanistan mobile communications have improved because of the introduction of wireless carriers into this developing country. the first was afghan wireless, which is us based that was founded by ehsan bayat. the second w

CamelCase

camelcase (camel case, camel caps or medial capitals) is the practice of writing compound words or phrases such that each next word or abbreviation begins with a capital letter. camel case may start with a capital or, especially in programming languages, with a lowercase letter. common examples are powerpoint or iphone. in microsoft documentation, camel case always starts with a lower case letter (e.g. backcolor), and it is contrasted with pascal case which always begins with a capital letter (e.g. backcolor). == variations and synonyms == although the first letter of a camel case compound word may or may not be capitalized, the term camel case generally implies lowercase first letter. for clarity, this article calls the two alternatives upper camel case and lower camel case. some people and organizations use the term camel case only for lower camel case. other synonyms include: * bumpycaps or bumpycase * camelback (or camel-back) notationc# coding standards and guidelines at purdue university college of technology * camelcaps * capitalizedwords or capwords for upper camel case in pythonstyle guide for python code at www.python.org * compoundnames * embedded caps (or embedded capitals){{cite web|url=http://issues.appfuse.org/browse/apf-1088 |title=[#apf-1088] if class name h

Chris_Marker

chris marker (; 29 july 1921 – 29 july 2012) was a french writer, photographer, documentary film director, multimedia artist and film essayist. his best known films are la jetée (1962), a grin without a cat (1977), sans soleil (1983) and ak (1985), an essay film on the japanese filmmaker akira kurosawa. marker is often associated with the left bank cinema movement that occurred in the late 1950s and included such other filmmakers as alain resnais, agnès varda, henri colpi and armand gatti. his friend and sometime collaborator alain resnais has called him "the prototype of the twenty-first-century man."wakeman, john. world film directors, volume 2. the h. w. wilson company. 1988. 649–654. film theorist roy armes has said of him: "marker is unclassifiable because he is unique...the french cinema has its dramatists and its poets, its technicians, and its autobiographers, but only has one true essayist: chris marker." ==early life== marker was born christian françois bouche-villeneuve. always elusive about his past and known to refuse interviews and not allow photographs to be taken of him, his place of birth is highly disputed. some sources and marker himself claim that he was born in ulan bator, mongolia.thomson, david, the new biographical dictionary of film fourth edition, little, brown (2003). other sources say he was born in belleville, paris, and others, in neuilly-sur-seine. the 1949 edition of le cœur net specifies his birthday as 22 july. film critic david thomson has stated: "marker told me himself that mongolia is correct. i have since concluded that belleville is correct – but that does not spoil the spiritual truth of ulan bator."thomson, david, the new biographical dictionary of film fifth edition, little, brown (2010). when asked about his secretive nature, marker has said "my films are enough for them [the audience]." marker was a philosophy

Garbage_collection_(computer_science)

in computer science, garbage collection (gc) is a form of automatic memory management. the garbage collector, or just collector, attempts to reclaim garbage, or memory occupied by objects that are no longer in use by the program. garbage collection was invented by john mccarthy around 1959 to solve problems in lisp. garbage collection is often portrayed as the opposite of manual memory management, which requires the programmer to specify which objects to deallocate and return to the memory system. however, many systems use a combination of approaches, including other techniques such as stack allocation and region inference. like other memory management techniques, garbage collection may take a significant proportion of total processing time in a program and can thus have significant influence on performance. resources other than memory, such as network sockets, database handles, user interaction windows, and file and device descriptors, are not typically handled by garbage collection. methods used to manage such resources, particularly destructors, may suffice to manage memory as well, leaving no need for gc. some gc systems allow such other resources to be associated with a region of memory that, when collected, causes the other resource to be reclaimed; this is called finalization. finalization may introduce complications limiting its usability, such as intolerable latency between disuse and reclaim of especially limited resources, or a lack of control over which thread performs the work of reclaiming. == principles == the basic principles of garbage collection are: * find data objects in a program that cannot be accessed in the future. * reclaim the resources used by those objects. many programming languages require garbage collection, either as part of the language specification (for example, java, c#, d language,{{cite web |url=http://dlang.org/overview.html |title=overview - d programming language |website=dlang.org |publisher=digital mars |accessdate=2014-07-29 |quote="[[d (programming lang

Constantius_II

constantius ii (;in classical latin, constantius' name would be inscribed as flavivs ivlivs constantivs avgvstvs.cil 06, 40776 = ae 1934, 00158 = ae 1950, 00174 = ae 1951, 00102 = ae 1982, 00011 7 august 317 – 3 november 361) was roman emperor from 337 to 361. the second son of constantine i and fausta, he ascended to the throne with his brothers constantine ii and constans upon their father's death. in 340, constantius' brothers clashed over the western provinces of the empire. the resulting conflict left constantine ii dead and constans as ruler of the west until he was overthrown and assassinated in 350 by the usurper magnentius. unwilling to accept magnentius as co-ruler, constantius defeated him at the battles of mursa major and mons seleucus. magnentius committed suicide after the latter, leaving constantius as sole ruler of the empire. his subsequent military campaigns against germanic tribes were successful: he defeated the alamanni in 354 and campaigned across the danube against the quadi and sarmatians in 357. in contrast, the war in the east against the sassanids continued with mixed results. in 351, due to the difficulty of managing the empire alone, constantius elevated his cousin constantius gallus to the subordin

Context-free_grammar

in formal language theory, a context-free grammar (cfg) is a formal grammar in which every production rule is of the form :v → w where v is a single nonterminal symbol, and w is a string of terminals and/or nonterminals (w can be empty). a formal grammar is considered "context free" when its production rules can be applied regardless of the context of a nonterminal. no matter which symbols surround it, the single nonterminal on the left hand side can always be replaced by the right hand side. languages generated by context-free grammars are known as context-free languages (cfl). different context-free grammars can generate the same context-free language. it is important to distinguish properties of the language (intrinsic properties) from properties of a particular grammar (extrinsic properties). given two context-free grammars, the language equality question (do they generate the same language?) is undecidable. context-free grammars arise in linguistics where they are used to describe the structure of sentences and words in natural language, and they were in fact invented by the linguist noam chomsky for this purpose, but have not really lived up to their original expectation. by contrast, in computer science, as the use of recursively defined concepts increased, they were used more and more. in an early application, grammars are used to describe the structure of programming languages. in a newer application, they are used in an essential part of the extensible markup language (xml) called the document type definition.introduction to automata theory, languages, and computation, john e. hopcroft, rajeen motwani, jeffrey d. ullman, addison wesley, 2001, p.191 in linguistics, some authors use the term phrase structure grammar to refer to context-free grammars, whereby phrase structure grammars are distinct from dependency grammars. in computer science, a popular notation for context-free grammars is backus–naur form, or bnf. == background == since the time of pāṇini, at least, linguists have described the grammars of languages in terms of their block structure, and described how sentences are recursively built up from smaller phrases, and eventually individual words or word elements. an essential property of these block structures is that logical units never overlap. for example, the sentence: : john, whose blue car was in the garage, walked to the grocery store. can be logically parenthesized as follows: : (john, ((whose blue car) (was (in the garage))), (walked (to (the grocery store)))). a context-free grammar provides a simple and mathematically precise mechanism for describing the methods by which phrases in

Commodore_1541

thumb|front view of the second-most common version of the commodore 1541 disk drive, with open disk slot: this version uses a newtronics drive mechanism, and the rotating lever is used to engage the drive mechanism with the disk (i.e. to engage the hub clamp and load the disk heads) and to prevent removal of the disk while the mechanism is mechanically engaged. thumb|back panel view of the commodore 1541 disk drive the commodore 1541 (also known as the cbm 1541 and vic-1541) is a floppy disk drive (fdd) which was made by commodore international for the commodore 64 (c64), commodore's most popular home computer. the best-known fdd for the c64, the 1541 is a single-sided 170-kilobyte drive for 5¼" disks. the 1541 directly followed the commodore 1540 (meant for the vic-20). the disk drive uses group code recording (gcr) and contains a mos technology 6502 microprocessor, doubling as a disk controller and on-board disk operating system processor. the number of sectors per track varies from 17 to 21 (an early implementation of zone bit recording). the drive's built-in disk operating system is cbm dos 2.6. == history == === introduction === the 1541 was priced at under at its introduction. a c64 plus a 1541 cost about $900, while an apple ii with no disk drive cost $1395; the 1541 became widely popular. the demand caught commodore by surprise, and the company struggled to produce the drive in adequate quantities. the first 1541 drives produced in 1982 have a label on the front reading vic-1541 and have an off-white case to match the vic-20. failure rates on the 1541 initially were very high, and the drives were somewhat difficult to find. the lead editorial in the december 1983 issue of compute!'s gazette lamented that four of the seven drives the magazine had in its editorial offices had failed. eventually the problems subsided and the drive became nearly as widely available as the c64 itself. in 1983, the 1541 was switched to having the familiar beige case and a front label reading simply "1541" along with rainbow stripes to match the commodore 64. the early (1982–83) 1541s have a spring-eject mechanism (alps drive), and the disks often fail to release. this style of drive has the popular nickname "toaster drive", because it requires the use of a knife or other hard thin object to pry out the stuck media just like a piece of toast stuck in an actual toaster (though this is inadvisable with actual toasters). this was fixed later when commodore changed the vendor of the drive mechanism (mitsumi) and adopted the flip-lever newtronics mechanism, greatly improving r

Ceawlin_of_Wessex

ceawlin (also spelled ceaulin and caelin, died ca. 593) was a king of wessex. he may have been the son of cynric of wessex and the grandson of cerdic of wessex, whom the anglo-saxon chronicle represents as the leader of the first group of saxons to come to the land which later became wessex. ceawlin was active during the last years of the anglo-saxon invasion, with little of southern england remaining in the control of the native britons by the time of his death. the chronology of ceawlin's life is highly uncertain. the historical accuracy and dating of many of the events in the later anglo-saxon chronicle have been called into question, and his reign is variously listed as lasting seven, seventeen, or thirty-two years.stenton, p. 29, accepts the date given for ceawlin's accession in the anglo-saxon chronicle of 560, but barbara yorke in her online dnb article on ceawlin states that his reign seems to have been deliberately lengthened. the chronicle records several battles of ceawlin's between the years 556 and 592, including the first record of a battle between different groups of anglo-saxons, and indicates that under ceawlin wessex acquired significant territory, some of which was later to be lost to other anglo-saxon kingdoms. ceawlin is also named as one of the eight "bretwaldas", a title given in the chronicle to eight rulers who had overlordship over southern britain, although the extent of ceawlin's control is not known. ceawlin died in 593, having been deposed the year before, possibly by his successor, ceol. he is recorded in various sources as having two sons, cutha and cuthwine, but the genealogies in which this information is found are known to be unreliable. ==historical context== the history of the sub-roman period in britain is poorly sourced and the subject of a number of important disagreements among historians. it appears, however, that in the fifth century raids on britain by continental peoples developed into migrations. the newcomers included angles, saxons, jutes, and frisians. these peoples captured territory in the east and south of england, but at about the end of the fifth century, a british victory at the battle of mons badonicus halted the anglo-saxon advance for fifty years.hunter blair, an introduction to anglo-saxon england,

Chrysler_Building

the chrysler building is an art deco style skyscraper in new york city, located on the east side of manhattan in the turtle bay area at the intersection of 42nd street and lexington avenue. at ,"map." turtle bay association. retrieved on january 25, 2009. the structure was the world's tallest building for 11 months before it

Computer_memory

in computing, memory refers to the physical devices used to store programs (sequences of instructions) or data (e.g. program state information) on a temporary or permanent basis for use in a computer or other digital electronic device. the term primary memory is used for the information in physical systems which function at high-speed (i.e. ram), as a distinction from secondary memory, which are physical devices for program and data storage which are slow to access but offer higher memory capacity. if needed, primary memory can be stored in secondary memory, through a memory management technique called "virtual memory". an archaic synonym for memory is store.a.m. turing and r.a. brooker (1952). programmer's handbook for manchester electronic computer mark ii. university of manchester. the term "memory", meaning primary memory is often associated with addressable semiconductor memory, i.e. integrated circuits consisting of silicon-based transistors, used for example as primary memory but also other purposes in computers and other digital electronic devices. there are two main types of semiconductor memory: volatile and non-volatile. examples of non-volatile memory are flash memory (sometimes used as secondary, sometimes primary computer memory) and rom/prom/eprom/eeprom memory (used for firmware such as boot programs). examples of volatile memory are primary memory (typically dynamic ram, dram), and fast cpu cache memory (typically static ram, sram, which is fast but energy-consuming and offer lower memory capacity per area unit than dram). most semiconductor memory is organized into memory cells or bistable flip-flops, each storing one bit (0 or 1). flash memory organization includes both one bit per memory cell and multiple bits per cell (called mlc, multiple level cell). the memory cells are grouped into words of fixed word length, for example 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64 or 128 bit. each word can be accessed by a binary address of n bit, making it possible to store 2 raised by n words in the memory. this implies that [[processo

Catalonia

{{infobox settlement | name = catalonia | native_name = | official_name = | settlement_type = autonomous community of spain | image_flag = flag of catalonia.svg | flag_size = 160x150px | flag_alt = flag of catalonia | image_shield = coat of arms of catalonia.svg | shield_size = 150x110px | shield_alt = coat-of-arms of catalonia | motto = | anthem = els segadors (the reapers)file:national anthem of catalonia.ogg | image_map = localización de cataluña.svg | mapsize = | map_alt = | map_caption = location of catalonia in spain. | latd=41 |latm=49 |lats= |latns=n |longd=1 |longm=28 |longs= |longew=e | coor_pinpoint = | coordinates_type = region:es-ct_type:adm1st | coordinates_display = inline,title | subdivision_type = country | subdivision_name = | seat_type = capital | seat = barcelona | parts_type = provinces | parts_style = para | parts = | p1 = barcelona | p2 = girona | p3 = lleida | p4 = tarragona | government_type = devolved government under constitutional monarchy | governing_body = generalitat de catalunya | government_footnotes = | leader_title = president | leader_name = artur mas | leader_party = ciu | area_total_km2 = 32114 | area_land_km2 = | area_water_km2 = | area_water_percent = | population_as_of = 2012 | population_total = 7565603 | population_note = | population_blank1_title = rank | population_blank1 = 2nd (16% of spain) | population_density_km2 = auto | population_demonym = catalancatalà, catalana (ca)catalán, catalana (es)catalan, catalana (oc) | population_footnotes = | timezone = cet | utc_offset = +1 | timezone1_dst = cest | utc_offset1_dst = +2 | blank_name_sec1 = official languages | blank_info_sec1 = catalan,spanish,aranese (occitan)catalan sign language also recognised | blank1_name_sec1 = statute of autonomy | blank1_info_sec1 = 9 august 2006 | blank2_name_sec1 = patron saint | blank2_info_sec1 = saint george (sant jordi) | blank_name_sec2 = legislature | blank_info_sec2 = | blank1_name_sec2 = parliament | blank1_info_sec2 = 135 deputies | blank2_name_sec2 = congress | blank2_info_sec2 = 47 deputies (of 350) | blan

Columbus,_Indiana

thumb|columbus city hall columbus is a city in and the county seat of bartholomew county, indiana, united states.{{cite web|url=http://www.naco.org/counties/pages/findacounty.aspx|

Corinth

corinth (; greek: Κόρινθος, kórinthos, ) is a city and former municipality in corinthia, peloponnese, greece. since the 2011 local government reform it is part of the municipality corinth, of which it is the seat and a municipal unit.kallikratis law greece ministry of interior it is the capital of corinthia. it was founded as nea korinthos or new corinth in 1858 after an earthquake destroyed the existing settlement of corinth, which had developed in and around the site of ancient corinth. ==geography== located about southwest of athens, corinth is surrounded by the coastal townlets of (clockwise) lechaio, isthmia, kechries, and the inland townlets of examilia and the archaeological site and village of ancient corinth. natural features around the city include the narrow coastal plain of vocha, the corinthian gulf, the isthmus of corinth cut by its canal, the saronic gulf, the oneia mountains, and the monolithic rock of acrocorinth, where the medieval acropolis was built. ==history== thumb|left|corinthian incised shard corinth derives its name from ancient corinth, a city-state of antiquity. in 1858, the old city, now known as archaia korinthos (Αρχαία Κόρινθος), located sw of the modern city, was totally destroyed by an earthquake. nea korinthos or new corinth was then built on the coast of the gulf of corinth, repaired after a further earthquake in 1928, and rebuilt again after a great fire in 1933. ==demographics== left|thumb|a street in corinth corinth is the second largest city in the region of the pelopo

Computer_multitasking

in computing, multitasking is a method where multiple tasks (also known as processes) are performed during the same period of time they are executed concurrently (in overlapping time periods, new tasks starting before others have ended) instead of sequentially (one completing before the next starts). the tasks share common processing resources, such as a cpu and main memory. multitasking does not necessarily mean that multiple tasks are executing at exactly the same instant. in other words, multitasking does not imply parallelism, but it does mean that more than one task can be part-way through execution at the same time, and more than one task is advancing over a given period of time. in the case of a computer with a single cpu, only one task is said to be running at any point in time, meaning that the cpu is actively executing instructions for that task. multitasking solves the problem by scheduling which task may be the one running at any given time, and when another waiting task gets a turn. the act of reassigning a cpu from one task to another one is called a context switch. when context switches occur frequently enough, the illusion of parallelism is achieved. even on computers with more than one cpu (called multiprocessor machines) or more than one core in a given cpu (called multicore machines), where more than one task can be executed at a given instant (one per cpu or core), multitasking allows many more tasks to be run than there are cpus. the term "multitasking" has become an international term, as the same word is used in many other languages such as german, italian, dutch, danish and norwegian. operating systems may adopt one of many different scheduling strategies, which generally fall into the following categories: * in multiprogramming systems, the running task keeps running until it performs an operation that requires waiting for an external event (e.g. reading from a tape) or until the computer's scheduler forcibly swaps the running task out of the cpu. multiprogramming systems are designed to maximize cpu usage. * in [

Carlos_Valderrama

carlos alberto valderrama palacio (;colombian spanish pronunciation. born september 2, 1961 in santa marta, colombia), also known as el pibe ("the kid") is a former colombian football player. his distinctive blond hair, coupled with his flamboyant technique on the ball, made him one of colombia's most recognizable footballers, and arguably, one of the most recognizable footballers around the globe historically. valderrama was a member of the colombia national football team in the 1990s. between 1985 and 1998 he represented colombia in 111 full internationals and scored 11 times, making him the most capped player in the country's history. valderrama was known for the accuracy of his passing and assisting, his tactical brain which allowed him to have a strong presence without the necessity of running as much as it would be expected, his precise technique on the ball, and his clean assists.http://www.fifa.com/worldfootball/news/newsid=1451394.htmlhttp://www.fifa.com/newscentre/features/news/newsid=1619243/index.html?intcmp=newsreader_news_b

City_of_London

{{infobox settlement |official_name = city of london |settlement_type = city and ceremonial county |motto = domine dirige nos("o lord direct us", motto of city of london corporation) |image_skyline = the_city_london.jpg |imagesize = 300px |image_caption = the city of london skyline |image_flag = flag of the city of london.svg |flag_size = 100px |image_shield = coat of arms of the city of london.svg |shield_size = 100px |image_map = city of london in greater london.svg |mapsize = 200px |map_caption = shown within the london region |nickname = the square mile, the city |coordinates_region = gb |subdivision_type = sovereign state |subdivision_name = united kingdom |subdivision_type1 = constituent country |subdivision_name1 = england |subdivision_type2 = region |subdivision_name2 = london |subdivision_type3 = administrative area |subdivision_name3 = greater london |subdivision_type4 = status |subdivision_name4 = sui generis; city and ceremonial county |subdivision_type5 = administrative headquarters |subdivision_name5 = guildhall |leader_title = local authority |leader_name = city of london corporation |leader_title1 = lord mayor |leader_name1 = alan yarrow |leader_title2 = member of parliament |leader_name2 = mark field (cities of london and westminster) |leader_title3 = london assembly |leader_name3 = john biggs (city and east) |leader_title4 = town clerk |leader_name4 = john barradell |established_title = roman settlement |established_date = c. 47 ad(londinium) |established_title2 = wessex resettlement |established_date2 = 886 ad(lundenburh) |parts_type = subdivisions |parts_style = coll |parts = |p1 = aldersgate |p2 = aldgate |p3 = bassishaw |p4 = billingsgate |p5 = [[bishopsg

Outline_of_chemistry

the following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to chemistry: chemistry – science of atomic matter (matter that is composed of chemical elements), especially its chemical reactions, but also including its properties, structure, composition, behavior, and changes as they relate the chemical reactions.chemistry. (n.d.). merriam-webster's medical dictionary. retrieved august 19, 2007. chemistry is centrally concerned with atoms and their interactions with other atoms, and particularly with the properties of chemical bonds. == what type of thing is chemistry? == chemistry can be described as all of the following: * an academic discipline: one with academic departments, curricula and degrees; national and international societies; and specialized journals. * a scientific field (a branch of science) – widely-recognized category of specialized expertise within science, and typically embodies its own terminology and nomenclature. such a field will usually be represented by one or more scientific journals, where peer reviewed research is published. there are several geophysics-related scientific journals. ** a natural science – one that seeks to elucidate the rules that govern the natural world using empirical and scientific method. *** a physical science – one that studies non-living systems. *** a biological science – one that studies the role of chemicals and chemical processes in living organisms. see outline of biochemistry. ==branches of chemistry== * physical chemistry – study of the physical and fundamental basis of chemical systems and processes. in particular, the energetics and dynamics of such systems and processes are of interest to physical chemists. important areas of study include chemical thermodynamics, chemical kinetics, electrochemistry, statistical mechanics, spectroscopy, and more recently, astrochemistry. physical chemistry has large overlap with molecular physics. physical chemistry involves the use of infinitesimal calculus in deriving equations. it is usually associated with quantum chemistry and theoretical chemistry. physical chemistry is a distinct discipline from chemical physics, but again, there is very strong overlap. ** chemical kinetics – study of rates of chemical processes. ** [[chemical

Colony

thumb|400px|chart of non-self-governing territories (). [[file:sts034-76-88.jpg|right|thumb|puerto rico, considered by some to be "the world's oldest colony"constitutional rights foundation.sharon ann navarro, and armando xavier mejia, latino americans and political participation (santa barbara, california: abc-clio) 2004. p. 106. isbn 1-85109-523-3.puerto rico:the trials of the oldest colony in the world. by jose trias monge. yale university press. 1997.]]225px|thumb|united nations list of trust and non-self-governing territories (official document) in politics and history, a colony is a territory under the immediate political control of a state, distinct from the home territory of the sovereign. for colonies in antiquity, city-states would often found their own colonies. some colonies were historically countries, while others were territories without definite statehood from their inception. the metropolitan state is the state that owns the colony. in ancient greece, the city that founded a colony was called the metropolis. "mother country" is a reference to the metropolitan state from the point of view of citizens who live in its colony. there is a united nations list of non-self-governing territories. unlike a puppet state or satellite state, a colony has no independent international representation, and its top-level administration is under direct control of the metropolitan state. the term informal colony is used by some historians to refer to a country under the de facto control of another state, although this term is often contentious. ==definitions== the word "colony" comes from the latin word colōnia. this in turn derives from the word colōnus, which means colonist but also implies a farmer. cologne is an example of a settlement preserving this etymology. other, less obvious settlements that began as roman colonia include cities from belgrade to york. a tell-tale sign of a settlement once being a roman colony is a city centre with a grid pattern. the terminology is taken from architectural analogy, where a column pillar is beneath the (often stylized) head capital, which i

Colette

colette () was the surname of the french novelist and performer sidonie-gabrielle colette (28 january 1873 – 3 august 1954). she is best known for her novel gigi, the basis for the film and lerner and loewe stage production of the same title. ==early life and marriage== colette was born to retired military officer jules-joseph colette and his wife adèle eugénie sidonie "sido" colette (nėe landoy) in saint-sauveur-en-puisaye, yonne, in the burgundy region of france. she studied piano as a child and received her primary school diploma with high marks in mathematics and dictation. in 1893, at age 20, she married henry gauthier-villars, a famous wit known as "willy", who was 15 years her senior. he was a writer, music critic, and described as a "literary charlatan and degenerate". her first books, the claudine series, were published under her husband's pen name "willy". claudine still has the power to charm; in belle Époque france it was considered shocking, much to willy's satisfaction and profit. according to one writer, "colette had a poor relationship with her own daughter, bel-gazou." ==music hall career, affairs with women== in 1906, she left the unfaithful gauthier-villars, living for a time at the home of the american writer and salonist natalie clifford barney. the two had a short affair, and remained friends until colette's death. colette went to work in the music halls of paris, under the wing of mathilde de morny, marquise de belbeuf, known

Campus

a campus is traditionally the land on which a college or university and related institutional buildings are situated. a modern campus is a collection of buildings that belong to a given institution, either academic or non-academic. usually a campus includes libraries, lecture halls, residence halls, student centers or dining halls, and park-like settings. ==etymology== the word derives from a latin word for "field" and was first used to describe the grounds of a college at the college of new jersey (now princeton university) during the 18th century. some other american colleges later adopted the word to describe individual fields at their own institutions, but "campus" did not yet describe the whole university property. a school might have one space called a campus, one called a field, and another called a yard. ==history== the tradition of a campus did not start in america, but with the medieval european universities where the students and teachers lived and worked together in a cloistered environment. it was the notion of the importance of the setting to academic life that migrated to america, and early colonial educational institutions were based on the scottish and english collegiate system. ==uses== the meaning expanded to include the whole institutional property during the 20th century, with the old meaning persisting into the 1950s in some places. ===office buildings=== sometimes the lands on which company office buildings sit, along with the buildings, are called campuses. the microsoft campus in redmond, washington is a good example. hospitals, and even airports sometimes use the term to describe the territory of their facilities. ===universities=== the word "campus" has also been applied to european universities, although most such institutions are characterized by ownership of individual buildings in urban settings rather than park-like lawns in which buildings are placed. ==references== ==see also== * campus novel * [[

Canadian_football

thumb|right|300px|diagram of a canadian football field canadian football () is a form of gridiron football played in canada in which two teams of 12 players each compete for territorial control of a field of play long and widetable of exact conversions {|class=wikitable |- ! style="height:30pt;"|yards |align=right|1 |align=right|5 |align=right| |align=right|10 |align=right| |align=right|15 |align=right|20 |align=right|24 |align=right|25 |align=right|30 |align=right|35 |align=right|40 |align=right|45 |align=right|65 |align=right|110 |- ! style="height:30pt;"|feet |align=right|3 |align=right|15 |align=right| |align=right|30 |align=right|40 |align=right|45 |align=right|60 |align=right|72 |align=right|75 |align=right|90 |align=right|105 |align=right|120 |align=right|135 |align=right|195 |align=right|330 |- ! style="height:30pt;"|metres |align=right| |align=right| |align=right| |align=right| |align=right| |align=right| |align=right| |align=right| |align=right| |align=right| |align=right| |align=right| |align=right| |align=right| |align=right| |} attempting to advance a pointed prolate spheroid ball into the opposing team's scoring area (end zone). in canada, the term football may refer to canadian football and american football collectively, or either sport specifically, depending on context. the two sports have shared origins and are closely related but have significant differences. in particular, canadian football has 12 players on the field per team rather than 11; the field is roughly 10 yards wider, and 10 yards longer between end zones that are themselves 10 yards deeper; and a team has only three downs to gain 10 yards, which results in less [[rush (american foo

Concept

a concept is an abstraction or generalization from experience or the result of a transformation of existing concepts. the concept reifies all of its actual or potential instances whether these are things in the real world or other ideas. concepts are treated in many if not most disciplines both explicitly, such as in psychology, philosophy, etc., and implicitly, such as in mathematics, physics, etc. in metaphysics, and especially ontology, a concept is a fundamental category of existence. in contemporary philosophy, there are at least three prevailing ways to understand what a concept is: * concepts as mental representations, where concepts are entities that exist in the brain, * concepts as abilities, where concepts are abilities peculiar to cognitive agents, and * concepts as abstract objects, where objects are the constituents of propositions that mediate between thought, language, and referents. ==etymology== the term "concept" is traced back to 1554–60 (latin conceptum - "something conceived"),http://www.bartleby.com/61/49/c0544900.html|the american heritage dictionary of the english language: fourth edition. but what is today termed "the classical theory of concepts" is the theory of aristotle on the definition of terms. the meaning of "concept" is explored in mainstream information science,stock, w.g. (2010). concepts and semantic relations in information science. journal of the american society for information science and technology, 61(10), 1951-1969.hjørland, b. (2009). concept theory. journal of the american society for information science and technology, 60(8), 1519–1536 cognitive science, metaphysics, and philosophy of mind. in computer and information science contexts, especially, the term 'concept' is often used in unclear or inconsistent ways.smith, b. (2004). beyond concepts, or: ontology as reality representation, formal ontology and information systems. proceedings of the third international conference (fois 2004), amsterdam: ios press, 2004, 73–84. == abstract objects == in a platonist theory of mind, concepts are const

Corporatocracy

corporatocracy , is a term used as an economic and political system controlled by corporations or corporate interests. it is a generally pejorative term often used by critics of the current economic situation in a particular country, especially the united states. this is different from corporatism, which is the organisation of society into groups with common interests. corporatocracy as a term tends to be used by liberal and left-leaning critics, but also some economic libertarian critics and other political observers across the political spectrum.{{cite news |author= will oremus |title= ows protesters may demand "robin hood" tax: the ma