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Assuming that all data are available, this is a simple and pragmatic way to distinguish between transformation and energy sector use of the fuels.

The basic oxygen steel (BOS) furnace is of interest to the energy statistician because the process releases a gas similar in composition to blast-furnace gas and is usually collected with the latter and reported as part of blast-furnace gas production.

The carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide produced are carried away by the gas and dust collection system.

Liquefying natural gas reduces the costs of gas transport over long distances and, following recent reductions in costs in the liquefaction, storage and later regasification of LNG, liquefaction has made increasingly economic the exploitation of gas sources remote from centres of demand.

Liquefaction is an energy-intensive process requiring electricity and heat. Both forms of energy are usually produced on site from the natural gas received by the liquefaction plant.

The baseload demand or for rapid delivery in “peak shaving” when demand on the gas network is high. Its relatively simple storage is particularly useful where thenatural geological formations in a region of high gas demand do not permit storage of natural gas underground.

Compressed natural gas (CNG) is used increasingly as a clean fuel for road transport vehicles. Natural gas is compressed to a high pressure (typically 220 atmospheres) and stored in specially designed containers for use in the vehicles. The design and inspection of the containers are rigorous as they must withstand not only the high pressure but accident damage and fire.

There are plans for the transport of CNG by ship. Despite the difficult design problems the high-pressure storage presents, such transport would permit the exploitation of “stranded” sources of natural gas which are too small to be economically exploited through liquefaction of the gas.

A CNG vessel also has the advantage that it can discharge its cargo almost directly into the natural gas network at the destination. Unlike LNG, no storage tanks are necessary.

Stocks of natural gas play an essential part in satisfying demand when demand or supply changes rapidly. The demand for gas increases dramatically during cold weather and it is far more economic to meet some of the demand from storage sites than to build production and transmission systems to meet peak demand.

Gas storage facilities fall into two basic categories which define their characteristics: seasonal or peak. Seasonal storage sites, which may also serve a strategic purpose, must be able to store huge volumes of gas built up during low demand times for slow release during periods of high demand. Peak facilities store smaller quantities but must allow to inject gas quickly into the transmission network to meet surges in demand.

Storage of natural gas in its gaseous state requires large volume enclosures and the obvious choice is in underground geological formations which have suitable characteristics. Clearly, the underground cavity must retain the natural gas stored in it but it must also make it possible to release it for use at the desired rates. There are three main types of storage in use.

These may be used as storage reservoirs provided that they have suitable geological characteristics.

They are generally smaller than the reservoirs provided by depleted oil and gas fields or aquifers but offer very good withdrawal rates and are well suited for peak-shaving requirements.

It is not possible to state the calorific value of natural gas without either measuring it directly or calculating it from a gas analysis.

The calorific value of natural gas is usually expressed in MJ per cubic metre measured at specific temperature and pressure conditions set as a standard by the national gas industry or as specified in the sales contract.

There are many types of coals. They can be distinguished by their physical and chemical characteristics which determine their suitability for various uses.

Fixed carbon content generally influences the energy content of the coal. The higher the fixed carbon content, the higher the energy content of the coal.

I Volatile matter is the proportion of the air-dried coal sample that is released in the form of gas during a standardised heating test. Volatile matter is a positive feature for thermal coal but can be a negative feature for coking coal.

Ash is the residue remaining after complete combustion of all organic coal matter and decomposition of the mineral matter present in the coal. The higher the ash content, the lower the quality of the coal.

Moisture content refers to the amount of water present in the coal. Transport costs increase directly with moisture content. Excess moisture can be removed after beneficiation in preparation plants but this also increases handling costs.

Sulphur content increases operating and maintenance costs of end-users. High amounts of sulphur cause corrosion and the emission of sulphur dioxide for both steel producers and power plants. Low-sulphur coal makes installation of desulphurisation equipment to meet emission regulations unnecessary. Southern hemisphere coals generally have a low sulphur content relative to Northern hemisphere coals.

Classification of coals As coal resources are widely distributed and traded, many national systems have been proposed for the classification of coals. The various national classifications systems have proved useful for categorising each country’s coal resources and comparing imported coals of similar geological age and rank.

The chemical composition of crude oil consists mainly of compounds of hydrogen and carbon, called hydrocarbons.

There are many varieties of crude oil, because crude oil contains a wide range of hydrocarbons, depending on the location where it is found. The hydrocarbons in crude oil vary from the lightest to the heaviest, and these characteristics of the individual crude oils may determine the price.

A crude oil containing many heavier hydrocarbons and fewer lighter ones is considered a heavy crude oil, while in the reverse case, one calls it a light oil. An example of a heavy crude oil is the Mexican Maya oil, whereas the Nigerian Bonny Light is considered as light.

to evaluate a crude oil several properties are analysed relative density provides for an indication of light versus heavy fractions in the crude viscosity or the oil's resistance to flowing pour point or the lowest temperature at which a liquid remains pourable meaning it still behaves as a fluid water content sulphur content see above paraffin and asphaltene content wax as percentage of mass presence of contaminants and heavy metals

the pricing of the oil depends largely on the above properties as they will influence the processing and product output it is thus not only the yield which will affect the crude oil price but also the complexity of processing that the crude needs to undergo for refining

natural gas liquids can be classified according to their vapour pressure this is the pressure exerted by a vapour escaping from a liquid – it quantifies the tendency of molecules to enter the gaseous phase a natural gas liquid with a low vapour pressure is a condensate with an intermediate pressure it is a natural gasoline and with a high vapour pressure it is a liquid petroleum gas

The most important function of a refinery is to produce as economically as possible the petroleum products required in the market.

The distillation process is the first refinery process that crude oil goes through, with the objective to split the crude oil into several fractions.

The various fractions of the output of a distillation unit usually need further refining, not only because the products do not have the required properties, but also because further refining will economically improve the output. The market is increasingly demanding for higher-value lighter products, and several refining processes aim at producing a higher yield of lighter products, e.g. conversion processes such as catalytic cracking.

ILiquefied petroleum gases (LPG) are used for both energy and non-energy purposes. In terms of their use as a fuel for energy, they are often used in domestic or residential heating and cooking, for agricultural purposes and increasingly in the road transport sector for use in internal combustion engines. In terms of non-energy use, they serve as feedstock for petrochemical processes, such as steam cracking.

IMotor gasoline is primarily used to fuel cars and light trucks. Demand for motor gasoline has increased very rapidly over the last few decades, in line with the demand for cars. However, environmental concerns have necessitated improvements to be made to the composition of the gasoline. For example, lead which was used to boost the octane number of the gasoline has been largely eliminated in many countries, and other additives and oxygenates which improve fuel combustion are now added.

IFuel oil is used by the power generation utilities to produce electricity and heat, by industrial users for process heat and by the commercial sector to provide heating fuel for their buildings. Demand for fuel oil for power generation has dropped quite rapidly over the last thirty years, as environmental concerns and the necessity to move away from oil became important.

Petroleum products are not exclusively used for fuel (energy) purposes, but also many products can be used as a raw material in different sectors. A few examples of petroleum products used for non-fuel purposes are: LPG, motor gasoline for the petrochemical industry. White spirit used as a solvent for paints and varnishes. Lubricants for engines and machinery.

Before natural gas can be used commercially, it needs to undergo a process in order to remove undesirable components. However, this removal process may not eliminate all impurities, as the quantities of these included in the gas are sometimes too small.

Natural gas is considered a clean fuel, because pure methane is highly flammable, it burns easily and almost completely, and it emits very little air pollutants. Moreover it is sulphur-free; there is therefore no sulphur dioxide (SO2) produced. With respect to nitrogen oxides (NOx) and CO2 emissions, they are lower than with other fossil fuels.

All wood has about 50% carbon, 44% oxygen and 6% hydrogen when measured on an ash-free and moisture-free basis. There is usually about one per cent ash in wood and this does not vary greatly from species to species. So, as it is the carbon and hydrogen content of the wood which determine the intrinsic heating value, one kilogramme of any type of wood without moisture provides approximately the same amount of heat.

The presence of moisture in a kilogramme of wood has two effects on the heating value. Increasing the amount of moisture, while keeping the mass constant at one kilogramme, reduces the amount of wood fibre available and therefore the source of heat. Also, the water absorbs and carries off the heat from the fire, thus reducing the amount of heat for useful purposes.

Above about 15% moisture content, the difference between the two bases of measurement becomes significant. It is therefore important, when selecting a calorific value for wood, to know both the moisture content and the basis on which it has been expressed.

Wood chips and pelleted wood fuel are becoming increasingly widely used in larger boiler installations as they provide more uniform and more easily controlled combustion conditions. Wood chipping machinery may also be used to prepare wood for gasification and distribution of the gasified fuel. Pelleted fuel is manufactured from sawdust with the addition of lignin binders. It has a low moisture content at the time of manufacture (≈10%). The moisture content and heating values for chips and pellets are usually specified by the suppliers.

Wood waste may arise in many industrial and commercial conditions and is rarely traded but used on site. The reporting enterprise may be able to state or estimate the quantity used or to state the heat obtained from it. A special case of wood waste is the production and use of black liquor.

The most common units employed to express quantities of fuels and energy are those relating to volume, mass and energy. The actual units employed vary according to country and local conditions and reflect historical practice in the country, sometimes adapted to changing fuel supply conditions.

This annex will first describe the various units in use and their interrelationships. It will then provide reference ranges for calorific values of fuels in common use.

The internationally recognised units which cover almost all of the measurements of fuel and energy quantities are the cubic metre, tonne (metric ton) and joule. They are derived from the metre, kilogramme and second included in the Système International d'Unités (SI) and serve as an international basis for science, technology and commerce.

For most countries, the national commodity balances will use the kilotonne (1 000 tonnes) as the unit for presentation of commodities expressed in mass terms.

The SI unit of energy is the joule (J). Many other units for energy are in use for the practical expression of energy quantities partly for historical reasons and partly because the small size of the joule demands the use of unfamiliar (for non-scientists) decimal prefixes.

As a result, the international organisations have used units for energy of a size appropriate for expressing national fuel supplies and related to the commodities in use. Historically the ton of coal equivalent was used but, with the ascendance of oil, this has been largely replaced by the tonne of oil equivalent (toe) defined as 41.868 gigajoules.

A gas composed principally of methane and carbon dioxide produced by anaerobic digestion of biomass, comprising landfill gas, sewage sludge gas, and other biogas.

Bitumen is a solid, semi-solid or viscous hydrocarbon with a colloidal structure, being brown to black in colour, obtained as a residue in the distillation of crude oil, by vacuum distillation of oil residues from atmospheric distillation.

Coke-oven gas is obtained as a by-product of solid fuel carbonisation and gasification operations carried out by coke producers and iron and steel plants which are not connected with gas works and municipal gas plants. The quantity of fuel should be reported on a gross calorific value.

Compressed natural gas (CNG) is natural gas for use in special CNG vehicles, where it is stored in high-pressure fuel cylinders. CNG's use stems in part from its clean burning properties, as it produces fewer exhaust and greenhouse gas emissions than motor gasoline or diesel oil. It is used most frequently in light-duty passenger vehicles and pickup trucks, medium-duty delivery trucks, and in transit and school buses.

Crude oil is a mineral oil of natural origin comprising a mixture of hydrocarbons and associated impurities, such as sulphur. It exists in the liquid phase under normal surface temperature and pressure and its physical characteristics (density, viscosity, etc.) are highly variable. This category includes field or lease condensate recovered from associated and non-associated gas where it is commingled with the commercial crude oil stream.

Gas-works gas: Covers all types of gases including substitute natural gas produced in public utility or private plants, whose main purpose is manufacture, transport and distribution of gas. It includes gas produced by carbonisation (including gas produced by coke ovens and transferred to gas-works gas) reported under the “Production” row, by total gasification with or without enrichment with oil products (LPG, residual fuel oil, etc.), by cracking of natural gas, and by reforming and simple mixing of gases and/or air, reported under the “From other sources” row.

Hydropower: Potential and kinetic energy of water converted into electricity in hydroelectric plants. Pumped storage should be included. Detailed plant sizes should be reported net of pumped storage.

This is a distillate used for aviation turbine power units. It has the same distillation characteristics between 150°C and 300°C (generally not above 250°C) and flash point as kerosene. In addition, it has particular specifications (such as freezing point) which are established by the International Air Transport Association (IATA). This category includes kerosene blending components.

Hydrocarbons produced from distillate by-products; they are mainly used to reduce friction between bearing surfaces. This category includes all finished grades of lubricating oil, from spindle oil to cylinder oil, and those used in greases, including motor oils and all grades of lubricating oil base stocks.

Refinery feedstocks: A refinery feedstock is a processed oil destined for further processing (e.g. straight run fuel oil or vacuum gas oil) excluding blending. With further processing, it will be transformed into one or more components and/or finished products. This definition also covers returns from the petrochemical industry to the refining industry (e.g. pyrolysis gasoline, C4 fractions, gasoil and fuel oil fractions).

Refinery gas (not liquefied): Refinery gas includes a mixture of non-condensable gases mainly consisting of hydrogen, methane, ethane and olefins obtained during distillation of crude oil or treatment of oil products (e.g. cracking) in refineries. This also includes gases which are returned from the petrochemical industry.

Solid biomass: Covers organic, non-fossil material of biological origin which may be used as fuel for heat production or electricity generation. It comprises: Charcoal: Covers the solid residue of the destructive distillation and pyrolysis of wood and other vegetal material.

Combustion is the preferred technology for these solid wastes. The quantity of fuel used should be reported on a net calorific value basis.

The main raw materials for manufacture of substitute natural gas are: coal, oil and oil shales. Substitute natural gas produced by synthesis from fuels other than coal-based should also come under From other sources . The quantity of fuel should be reported on a gross calorific value.

Mechanical energy derived from tidal movement or wave motion and exploited for electricity generation.

Waste produced by households, industry, hospitals and the tertiary sector which contains biodegradable materials that are incinerated at specific installations. The quantity of fuel used should be reported on a net calorific value basis.

IIndustrial Spirit (SBP): Light oils distilling between 30°C and 200°C. There are 7 or 8 grades of industrial spirit, depending on the position of the cut in the distillation range. The grades are defined according to the temperature difference between the 5% volume and 90% volume distillation points (which is not more than 60°C).