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The conversion to energy units is usually done using the gross calorific value of the respective products. Each of the products may have a different gross calorific value, and for each product, the different flows (e.g. production, imports, use in public electricity) may have different values.

Moreover, calorific values can change over time owing to changes of processes and/or technology. It is important to consult with the reporting entities and other experts on the respective country's manufactured gas products when deriving calorific values.

As regards the manufactured gases, the most common method of metering and accounting for these gases is by volume (e.g. m3). However, it is often the energy content, not the volume, of the gases that is of interest for the user.

Ideally, these calorific values are reported by the data provider. As an alternative, they can be derived by the statistician in consultation with the data provider and solid fuel and manufactured gas experts familiar with the respective country's energy portfolio.

A flow chart from production to consumption is shown on Figure 5.1. This flow chart is voluntarily simplified in order to give an overall view of the supply chain. Production, trade, stocks, energy sector, transformation and final consumption are the main elements to be known in order to have a comprehensive view on the flow of solid fossil fuels and manufactured gases in a country.

Report both the gross and the net calorific values of the solid fossil fuels. Report the manufactured gases in gross calorific values, using specific calorific values when available.

It is essential that the figures reported in each table are correctly totalled and that the totals in different tables are consistent wherever a logical relationship exists.

As defined in Section 9 of Chapter 1, Fundamentals , supply includes production, trade and stock changes. Each of these three components will be detailed in the next paragraphs.

Imports should cover coal entering a country for domestic consumption, and reported under the country where coal was produced.

Exports should be domestically produced coal leaving a country, and reported under the country where coal will be consumed. Transit trade and re-exports are therefore not to be included.

Because of the significant levels of coal trade, it is important for a country not only to know how much coal is imported and exported, but also to know the origins and destinations of the imports and exports. This level of detail should be available for the products that are significantly traded, i.e. coking coal, other bituminous and anthracite, sub-bituminous coal, lignite/brown coal, coke-oven coke and BKB.

Amounts are considered imported or exported when they have crossed national boundaries of the country, whether customs clearance has taken place or not.

For imports it is important to know (therefore to report) the ultimate origin of the coal (the country in which the coal is produced), while for exports it is essential to show the ultimate destination (the country in which the coal will be consumed) of domestically produced coal. The companies responsible for the commercial arrangements leading to the trade should be able to provide the data.

Primary coal products, because of their solid state and relatively inert character, are often held in stock to cover periods when demand is higher than production or,more generally, than supply. To some extent, primary coal production – and consumption in some sectors (heating, for instance) is seasonal in nature, and stocks must be used to balance periods of high and low availability against periods of high and low demand.

As in the case of oil, timely, detailed and accurate data on the changes in coal stocks are essential for policy-makers and market analysts.

The consumption of solid fossil fuels and manufactured gases occurs in several sectors: In the transformation sector. By the energy industry within the energy sector.

There is a wide variety of transformation plants which are used to derive energy products from solid fossil fuels (mainly coal). These energy plants include patent-fuel plants, coke ovens, gas-works plants, blast furnaces as well as electricity plants, heat plants and combined heat and power plants (CHP). They also include liquefaction plants to produce synthetic oil.

Taking into account the large share of coal that is transformed, it is therefore essential to keep track of the quantities of fuels transformed as well as of the derived energy products.

Report In the transformation sector inputs of energy which are transformed into other forms of energy. Some transformation processes include input energy that is reported on other fuel questionnaires.In the absence of exact information from the iron and steel enterprises, the statistician should assume that all blast-furnace gas and coke-oven gas used at blast furnaces are for blast-air heating and should be considered as energy sector consumption. All cokes, coals or oils should be treated as transformation use in the blast furnace. Occasionally, natural gas use may be reported but the nature of its use is less clear as it can be consumed for either purpose (transformation or energy use). If natural gas reporting occurs, the statistician should consult with the data provider in order to ascertain whether it should be reported in the transformation or the energy sector.

Besides the transformation plants listed above, solid fossil fuels and manufactured gases can be used by the energy industry to support energy production.

The quantities are to be reported in thousand tonnes for solid fossil fuels and in terajoules for manufactured gases.

Manufactured gases are lost during distribution within the facilities that produce and use them. These losses are due to leaks, and sometimes to accidental or deliberate venting that occurs in the normal course of operations. Because of the short distances over which manufactured gases are distributed, these losses seldom reach the magnitude experienced for natural gas, which is often transported over long distances.

Because of the large share of coal in total solid fossil fuels and manufactured gases, and the use of ships for transporting coals, transport and distribution losses are much more limited than in the case of oil, gas and electricity, for which major losses occur in pipelines, gas lines and electric lines. For sake of comparison, losses worldwide account for less than 0.04% of coal supply compared, for instance, to 8.7% for electricity, and 1% for natural gas.

As a consequence, transport and distribution losses are likely to be minimal for solid fuels, and apply mainly to manufactured gases. They should be independently estimated by the reporting enterprises and not be calculated to balance the account.

Final consumption is all coals and coal products delivered to final consumers in the industry, transport, other sectors as well as non-energy. It excludes solid fossil fuels and manufactured gases used for transformation and/or own use of energy-producing industries.

Final energy consumption of coals and coal products outside the transformation sector is primarily in the industry sector. Around 15% of total coal supply is reported as energy input into the industrial sector. The largest use of coal in the industry sector is for manufacture of cement, where coal is used as an energy source for cement kilns.

Other large industry sub-sectors that consume coal are the chemical and petrochemical sector, the iron and steel sector, the food and tobacco sector and the paper and pulp sector. In the past, a large quantity of coal was consumed in the transport sector (by ships and rail locomotives); this consumption has declined to an insignificant level in most countries.

The share of transport only accounts for 0.2% in global coal demand. Other sectors, mainly services and residential, where coal is used for heating purposes, as well as for cooking in some countries, account for 0.5% of total coal demand.

Solid fossil fuels and manufactured gases are also used as non-energy (feedstock). The former can be used, for instance, to make methanol or ammonia.

However, the use of coals and coal-based products for non-energy purposes is very small – representing less than 0.1% of coal consumption.

Quantities of coals and coal products used for energy purposes should be reported in the appropriate sector of Table 1. Energy products used as non-energy raw materials should also be reported in Table 1 under Non-energy Use. These are products consumed as feedstocks rather than as fuel or transformed into another fuel.

The figures reported in the Industry Sector for the consumption of fuels by enterprises should include heat generated for self-use, fuels for process steam, furnaces, ovens and similar facilities.

As a consequence, it is essential to make available calorific values not only for the fuels produced, but also for the fuels traded and used for several major purposes. Calorific values are also used in the process of estimating CO2 emissions, and for checking the thermal efficiencies of transformation processes.

If it is impossible to collect the calorific values from each mine, fuel-burning facility or from each import origin and/or export destination. Representative averages (based, for instance, upon the largest producing mines or the total imports and/or exports of a category of coal) can be considered as appropriate for reporting.

The coal sector has experienced a substantial restructuring in many countries during the last decades. This has been accompanied by a shift from underground to surface mining, from labour-intensive to more mechanised mining in both underground and surface mines, and by a rapid increase of productivity.

While the data on employment and productivity are not necessary to construct a traditional commodity or energy balance, they are essential to fully understanding the coal sector.

Mine: The activities included within the "mine" used for calculating mines' consumption, employment and productivity embody all operations connected with getting, raising, handling, preparing and transporting coal from the face or the production pits to the point of despatch to third parties. This includes activities necessary for maintaining the environment of the mine; activities necessary for on-site maintenance and repair of equipment connected with operations; and activities connected with the disposal of waste products from mining operations.

Workers at mines (men on colliery books): All personnel who are engaged in mines' activities as defined above, but excluding those persons performing solely clerical or administrative duties. Workers are those employees engaged in the implementation of the production processes or who provide auxiliary services to the production processes, such as maintenance work or craft tradesmen.

average annual number of workers this average is generally calculated from the numbers at the end of 13 months or 53 weeks starting with the number at the end of the last month or the last week of the year preceding the year under review persons who have not reported for work for more than six months as a result of protracted illness military service or other reasons are not included

average annual number of shifts worked per worker this average is the total number of shifts worked by workers on the books during the year divided by the average annual number of workers average duration of a shift the duration of a shift is not the effective working time spent at the workplace but the total time during which it is necessary for the worker to be at the mine

Any subsequent driving of gate roads, making cross cuts, equipping newly established face, or drivage of roadway for an advancing face are normal production operations. The productivity calculation relates to all workers of the mine, whether employed directly by the colliery or by an outside contractor. It also includes the work of supervisory staff, and trainees if their efforts contribute to the regular mining operations.

With the growing importance of the environmental debate, it has become essential to identify total consumption of fuels in each respective industry and consuming sector, so that for each sector appropriate measures can be developed to conserve energy and reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

This table provides information on the fuel used by autoproducers of electricity and heat for sale according to their principal economic activity. The table is separated into three parts corresponding to three recognised types of generating plant; Electricity-only, CHP, and Heat-only. The data are used for tracking fuel inputs and electricity and heat outputs by autoproducers as part of the United Nations efforts to understand CO2 emissions.

One can find numerous definitions of renewables in technical literature, including the following one: renewable energy is energy that is derived from natural processes that are replenished constantly. Although this definition leads to some issues, dealing for instance with the time horizon for the replenishment, it will be used as the reference in this chapter.

There are various forms of renewable energy, deriving directly or indirectly from the sun, or from heat generated deep within the earth. They include energy generated from solar, wind, biomass, geothermal, hydropower and ocean resources, solid biomass, biogas and liquid biofuels.

Waste is a fuel consisting of many materials coming from combustible industrial, institutional, hospital and household wastes such as rubber, plastics, waste fossil oils and other similar commodities. It is either solid or liquid in form, renewable or non-renewable, biodegradable or non-biodegradable.

Solid biomass (mainly fuelwood used for cooking in developing countries) is by far the largest renewable energy source, representing more than 10% of world total primary energy supply (TPES), or three-quarters of global renewables supply.

Since 1990, renewable energy sources in the world have grown at an average annual rate of 1.7%, which is slightly higher than the growth rate of world TPES. Growth has been especially high for "new" renewables (wind, solar), which grew at an average annual rate of 19%, and the bulk of the increase happened in OECD countries, with large wind energy programmes in countries such as Denmark and Germany.

The discussions on climate change have undoubtedly stimulated the development of renewable energy in order to reduce the emissions of greenhouse gases from Annex 1 Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC); therefore, there is a strong need for better monitoring this development and consequently to strengthen the reporting and dissemination of timely and reliable information on renewables and waste.

The Renewables and Waste Questionnaire classifies the renewable and waste products into three main groups.

IGroup I includes products which need to be transformed into electricity in order to be captured (such as hydro or solar photovoltaic).

IGroup II includes products which are produced and then can be input for multiple uses in the transformation and final consumption sectors (such as geothermal or solar thermal); because of their nature, these products cannot be stored in a conventional sense, and therefore are products for which no stock change data can be reported.

IGroup III includes products which are produced and used for multiple purposes in the transformation and final consumption sectors (such as wastes, fuelwood, biogas and liquid biofuels); because of their nature, they can be stored in a conventional sense, and are products for which stock change data can be reported.

Another point is that industrial waste and non-renewable municipal solid waste should be reported on the annual Renewables and Waste Questionnaire despite the fact that the IEA and the European Union methodologies exclude these types of waste from the definition of renewable energy.

Some controversy is present in the definition of municipal solid waste. This stems from the fact that waste collected from households, commercial establishments, hospitals and other institutions contains components that are both biodegradable and non-biodegradable.

Municipal solid waste (MSW): Some controversy is present in the definition of municipal solid waste. This stems from the fact that waste collected from households, commercial establishments, hospitals and other institutions contains components that are both biodegradable and non-biodegradable. Both IEA and European Union definitions of renewables exclude non-biodegradable municipal solid waste; however, some member countries count all MSW as renewable. In other member countries, surveys are under way to determine what fraction of MSW is renewables. Finally, ongoing implementation of recycling programmes, separation at the point of combustion and other techniques are expected to reduce the fraction of non-biodegradable MSW.

Passive solar energy is encouraged in many countries, and its applications have become widespread. However, since many member countries do not collect data on passive solar design and facilities, and since it is often impossible to collect or estimate flows, passive solar energy is not included as a product for the questionnaire.

One objective of the Renewables and Waste Questionnaire is to set standardised units for measurement of renewables and waste products in order to facilitate the processing and the comparison of the data.

Specific information related to the joint questionnaire is that Production is expressed in gigawatt-hours (GWh) and generating capacity in megawatts (MW e).

Total energy content of the fuels reported in terajoules should be calculated using the net calorific value of the respective fuels.

Fuelwood and other solid fuels derived from vegetal matter can be reported in many different ways depending on the fuel, the use and the country.

A deliberately simplified flow chart for the three groups of renewables and waste products, from production to consumption, is shown in Figure 6.2. The differences in the supply flow among the three groups of renewables and waste will be discussed in Section 5 below.

However, in order for one to be able to use these data in a comparable way with other fuels, there is a need to convert the data to energy units. This is not always an easy process since several factors such as density and humidity ( e.g. for fuelwood) have a major impact on the conversion factor used.

The same applies to gaseous fuels which are often reported in volume terms like cubic metres or cubic feet. In these cases, the volume value should be multiplied by an energy-per-unit-of-volume factor to derive the total energy content.

It is also possible that liquid biofuels would be reported in litres, kilogrammes or barrels. In such cases, the volume of biofuel should be multiplied by a mass-per-unit-of-volume factor to derive the total mass of the product.

Whatever conversions must take place before completing the questionnaire tables, values for electricity generation are reported in gigawatt-hours (GWh); and values for heat generation and most fuels are reported in terajoules (TJ).

Total energy content of the fuels reported in terajoules should be calculated using the net calorific value of the respective fuels.

The exceptions to this general rule are for Charcoal and Liquid Biofuels that are reported in 1000 tonnes. However, for these two fuels there is a need to report average net calorific values in Table 4. The calorific values dramatically vary from biofuel to biofuel, as well as in function of the type of charcoal, the density and the humidity. Since it is not possible to have specific calorific values for each flow and product, statisticians must average the value based on a representative breakdown of biofuels and charcoal.

Each of the above tables will be presented in the next paragraphs. However, there are a number of key data and totals which must be preserved across the various variables. These are illustrated in Figure 6.3 . It is essential that the figures reported in each table are correctly totalled and that the totals in different tables are consistent wherever a logical relationship exists. Namely, the following totals have to be consistent between the various tables: Production of Wood/Wood Wastes/Other Solid Wastes in Table 2 can be detailed further in Table 6. When Table 6 is completed, total production must equal production in Table 2.

IInputs reported in the Transformation Sector for electricity and heat production must be consistent with inputs reported on Table 6 of the Electricity and Heat Questionnaire. Electricity and heat inputs reported on Table 2 should also be consistent with those reported for autoproducers in Table 5a to 5c of the Renewables and Waste Questionnaire.

IThe electrical capacities reported in Table 4 must be consistent with the capacities reported for each technology on Table 7 of the Electricity and Heat Questionnaire.

As defined in Section 9 of Chapter 1, Fundamentals, supply includes production, trade and stock changes. Each of these three components will be detailed in the next paragraphs.

Owing to various natures of renewables and waste products, the flows from production to consumption are slightly different since, for example, wind and solar photovoltaic energies are used exclusively for electricity production, geothermal and solar thermal energies are not subject to stock changes whereas solid, liquid and biogas materials are.

Because of product diversity, renewables and waste production is quite diverse. Other renewables and waste technologies, listed as Group II and Group III above, are produced separately, and can be used for electricity and heat generation or directly consumed for other energy purposes.

The production of Group II products is based upon capture of thermal energy from the earth's crust or from the radiation of the sun. Geothermal production utilises steam or hot water recovery technology. Thermal solar production utilises solar collectors to warm a transfer medium, and that heat is then used for other energy purposes.

Group III products involve diversion of biodegradable or non-biodegradable materials from the industrial or municipal waste stream, production of primary biomass materials or conversion of primary biodegradable materials (like wood pulp, sewage sludge, landfill waste) into secondary energy products. For instance, fuelwood can be burnt in a steam power plant to produce electricity and heat, transformed into charcoal, or consumed in a three-stone stove for cooking.

Statistics are collected on gross electricity and heat production to enable capturing Group I production statistics, as well as to separate this activity for Group II and Group III products.

The imports and exports of renewables and waste are still very limited. There are several reasons for the low development of trade in renewables and waste between countries and worldwide.

First, because production under Group I is based entirely on electricity and heat generation. As a consequence, any trade related to this production is not a trade of renewables and waste as such but as an electricity and heat trade. It is still very difficult (or impossible) to identify the source of traded electricity. However, the opening of green markets for the electricity might force statisticians to be in a position to break down imports and exports of electricity by source of production.

Imports and exports of Group III products could therefore constitute the only real possibility for trade for renewables and waste. For instance, fuelwood and agro-...

The low calorific value of most of these products does not make the transport of these products economic over long distances.

For renewables and waste products, since trade is limited, there is no need to collect and report imports by origin and exports by destination.

A product is considered imported or exported, whether or not customs clearance has taken place, if it crosses a national political boundary.

The imports and exports of renewables are extremely limited; they mainly concern Group III products.

What has been mentioned on trade also applies to stocks. Indeed, the stocks (and stock changes) of renewables and waste are still very limited, for several reasons.

Group II includes products that can be input for multiple uses in the transformation and final consumption sectors (such as geothermal or solar thermal); however, because of their nature, these products cannot be “stored” in a conventional sense, and therefore are products for which no stock change data can be reported.

Group III includes products that are produced and used for multiple purposes in the transformation and final consumption sectors (such as wastes, fuelwood, biogas and liquid biofuels); because of their nature, they can be “stored” in a conventional sense. As a consequence, they are the only products for which stock change data can be reported.

Moreover, stocks of fuelwood and agro-residues are not stable over time because of several phenomena, such as production of methane, and consequently are often seasonal and depend on the culture (sugar cane, palm oil, etc.).

The stock changes of renewables and waste are extremely limited; they mainly concern Group III products.

Quantities of liquid biofuels that are passed to refineries, or other types of oil product facilities and used for blending with or as additives to other oil products,are transferred. These are fuels that are not delivered for final consumption, but are blended or added before final consumption of the oil product. They include for instance biofuels which are used for the preparation of biodiesel.

Report quantities of liquid biofuels that are not delivered to the final consumption but are used with other petroleum products reported in the Oil Questionnaire . Since transfers only apply to liquid biofuels, amounts are to be reported in 1000 tonnes. All values have to be rounded to zero decimal places and negative values are not allowed.

Only stock changes are to be reported in Table 2. A stock change is equal to opening stock levels minus closing stock levels, i.e.a negative number indicates a stock build, a positive number indicates a stock draw. Opening stocks are the stock levels as of the first day of the time period requested; closing stocks are the stock levels at the end of the time period. For example for a calendar year, opening stocks are the stock levels on 1 January, closing stocks are measured on 31 December.

As a consequence, the consumption of these products does not fall under the analysis of renewables and waste consumption but under the analysis of the overall electricity and heat consumption.

As regards the consumption of Group II and Group III renewables and waste products, it occurs in several sectors: In the transformation sector. By the energy industry within the energy sector. In the various sectors and branches of final consumption (industry, transport, residential, services, agricultural, etc.).

Transformation involves the use of a primary fuel product to create or generate a secondary energy product. The most obvious example is the generation of electricity or heat with renewables and waste fuels. Renewable fuels, mainly wood but not exclusively (coconut shells, etc.), are also used to manufacture charcoal; charcoal is produced either in proper plants or in situ nearby available wood in a forest.

The consumption of the energy sector includes “own use”. This includes renewables and waste fuels that are used by the energy industry to support energy production. Some examples of this are use of charcoal to heat charcoal manufacture facilities and use of biogases to heat sewage sludge or other biogas fermentation vessels.

Report own consumption of biogas necessary to support temperatures needed for anaerobic fermentation at biogas facilities; and own consumption of renewables and waste fuels to support operation of charcoal plants, as well, when relevant, of electricity, CHP and heat plants.

Renewables and Waste efficiency can vary in a ratio of 1 to 3. The efficiency can either measure in terms of ratio of mass (tonnes of charcoal over tonnes of wood) or in terms of energy (energy content of charcoal over energy content of wood).

The Transformation Sector also includes wood and vegetal matter inputs used in the manufacture of charcoal. When the inputs are not known, the statistician should estimate these inputs on the basis of reasonable input/output efficiency according to the technology used for the production.

Amounts reported for oil refineries should not include amounts transferred to refineries for use in blending or as additives. Biogases which are flared (burned rather than consumed in other sectors) should be reported in the Energy Sector, under “Not elsewhere specified.”